text:
Saint Bruno

Saint Bruno or Saint-Bruno may refer to:

Roman Catholic saints

 * Bruno, Duke of Saxony (c. 880) one of the Martyrs of Ebsdorf
 * Bruno the Great (925–965), German Archbishop of Cologne and Duke of Lotharingia
 * Bruno of Querfurt (c. 974–1009), German missionary bishop and martyr
 * Bruno (bishop of Würzburg) (c. 1005–1045), Imperial Chancellor of Italy and later Prince-Bishop of Würzburg
 * Bruno of Cologne (c. 1030–1101), German founder of the Carthusian Order
 * Bruno (bishop of Segni) (c. 1047–1123), Italian Bishop of Segni and Abbot of Montecassino

Places:
 * Saint-Bruno, Quebec, Canada, a municipality
 * Mont Saint-Bruno, Quebec, a mountain
 * Saint-Bruno (AMT), a railway station in Saint-Bruno-de-Montarville, Quebec

title: Saint Bruno


text:
Dental braces

Dental braces (also known as braces, orthodontic cases, or cases) are devices used in orthodontics that align and straighten teeth and help position them with regard to a person's bite, while also aiming to improve dental health. They are often used to correct underbites, as well as malocclusions, overbites, open bites, gaps, deep bites, cross bites, crooked teeth, and various other flaws of the teeth and jaw. Braces can be either cosmetic or structural. Dental braces are often used in conjunction with other orthodontic appliances to help widen the palate or jaws and to otherwise assist in shaping the teeth and jaws.

Process
The application of braces moves the teeth as a result of force and pressure on the teeth. There are traditionally four basic elements used: brackets, bonding material, arch wire, and ligature elastic (also called an "O-ring"). The teeth move when the arch wire puts pressure on the brackets and teeth. Sometimes springs or rubber bands are used to put more force in a specific direction.

Braces apply constant pressure which, over time, moves teeth into the desired positions. The process loosens the tooth after which new bone grows to support the tooth in its new position. This is called bone remodelling. Bone remodelling is a biomechanical process responsible for making bones stronger in response to sustained load-bearing activity and weaker in the absence of carrying a load. Bones are made of cells called osteoclasts and osteoblasts. Two different kinds of bone resorption are possible: direct resorption, which starts from the lining cells of the alveolar bone, and indirect or retrograde resorption, which occurs when the periodontal ligament has been subjected to an excessive amount and duration of compressive stress. Another important factor associated with tooth movement is bone deposition. Bone deposition occurs in the distracted periodontal ligament. Without bone deposition, the tooth will loosen, and voids will occur distal to the direction of tooth movement.

Types

 * Traditional metal wired braces are stainless-steel and are sometimes used in combination with titanium. Traditional metal braces are the most common type of braces. These braces have a metal bracket with elastic (rubber band) ties holding the wire onto the metal brackets. The second-most common type of braces is self-ligating braces, which have a built-in system to secure the archwire to the brackets and do not require elastic ties. Instead, the wire goes through the bracket. Often with this type of braces, treatment time is reduced, there is less pain on the teeth, and fewer adjustments are required than with traditional braces.
 * Gold-plated stainless steel braces are often employed for patients allergic to nickel (a basic and important component of stainless steel), but may also be chosen for aesthetic reasons.
 * Lingual braces are a cosmetic alternative in which custom-made braces are bonded to the back of the teeth making them externally invisible.
 * Titanium braces resemble stainless-steel braces but are lighter and just as strong. People with allergies to nickel in steel often choose titanium braces, but they are more expensive than stainless steel braces.
 *  Customized orthodontic treatment systems combine high technology including 3-D imaging, treatment planning software and a robot to custom bend the wire. Customized systems such as this offer faster treatment times and more efficient results.
 * Progressive, clear removable aligners may be used to gradually move teeth into their final positions. Aligners are generally not used for complex orthodontic cases, such as when extractions, jaw surgery, or palate expansion are necessary.

Fitting procedure
Orthodontic services may be provided by any licensed dentist trained in orthodontics. In North America, most orthodontic treatment is done by orthodontists, who are dentists in the diagnosis and treatment of malocclusions—malalignments of the teeth, jaws, or both. A dentist must complete 2–3 years of additional post-doctoral training to earn a specialty certificate in orthodontics. There are many general practitioners who also provide orthodontic services.

The first step is to determine whether braces are suitable for the patient. The doctor consults with the patient and inspects the teeth visually. If braces are appropriate, a records appointment is set up where X-rays, moulds, and impressions are made. These records are analyzed to determine the problems and the proper course of action. The use of digital models is rapidly increasing in the orthodontic industry. Digital treatment starts with the creation of a three-dimensional digital model of the patient's arches. This model is produced by laser-scanning plaster models created using dental impressions. Computer-automated treatment simulation has the ability to automatically separate the gums and teeth from one another and can handle malocclusions well; this software enables clinicians to ensure, in a virtual setting, that the selected treatment will produce the optimal outcome, with minimal user input.

Typical treatment times vary from six months to two and a half years depending on the complexity and types of problems. Orthognathic surgery may be required in extreme cases. About 2 weeks before the braces are applied, orthodontic spacers may be required to spread apart back teeth in order to create enough space for the bands.

Teeth to be braced will have an adhesive applied to help the cement bond to the surface of the tooth. In most cases, the teeth will be banded and then brackets will be added. A bracket will be applied with dental cement, and then cured with light until hardened. This process usually takes a few seconds per tooth. If required, orthodontic spacers may be inserted between the molars to make room for molar bands to be placed at a later date. Molar bands are required to ensure brackets will stick. Bands are also utilized when dental fillings or other dental works make securing a bracket to a tooth infeasible. Orthodontic tubes (stainless steel tubes that allow wires to pass through them), also known as molar tubes, are directly bonded to molar teeth either by a chemical curing or a light curing adhesive. Usually, molar tubes are directly welded to bands, which is a metal ring that fits onto the molar tooth. Directly bonded molar tubes are associated with a higher failure rate when compared to molar bands cemented with glass ionomer cement. Failure of orthodontic brackets, bonded tubes or bands will increase the overall treatment time for the patient. There is evidence suggesting that there is less enamel decalcification associated with molar bands cemented with glass ionomer cement compared with orthodontic tubes directly cemented to molars using a light cured adhesive. Further evidence is needed to withdraw a more robust conclusion due to limited data.

An archwire will be threaded between the brackets and affixed with elastic or metal ligatures. Ligatures are available in a wide variety of colours, and the patient can choose which colour they like. Arch wires are bent, shaped, and tightened frequently to achieve the desired results.

Modern orthodontics makes frequent use of nickel-titanium archwires and temperature-sensitive materials. When cold, the archwire is limp and flexible, easily threaded between brackets of any configuration. Once heated to body temperature, the arch wire will stiffen and seek to retain its shape, creating constant light force on the teeth.

Brackets with hooks can be placed, or hooks can be created and affixed to the arch wire to affix rubber bands. The placement and configuration of the rubber bands will depend on the course of treatment and the individual patient. Rubber bands are made in different diameters, colours, sizes, and strengths. They are also typically available in two versions: Coloured or clear/opaque.

The fitting process can vary between different types of braces, though there are similarities such as the initial steps of moulding the teeth before application. For example, with clear braces, impressions of a patient's teeth are evaluated to create a series of trays, which fit to the patient's mouth almost like a protective mouthpiece. With some forms of braces, the brackets are placed in a special form that is customized to the patient's mouth, drastically reducing the application time.

In many cases, there is insufficient space in the mouth for all the teeth to fit properly. There are two main procedures to make room in these cases. One is extraction: teeth are removed to create more space. The second is expansion, in which the palate or arch is made larger by using a palatal expander. Expanders can be used with both children and adults. Since the bones of adults are already fused, expanding the palate is not possible without surgery to separate them. An expander can be used on an adult without surgery but would be used to expand the dental arch, and not the palate.

Sometimes children and teenage patients, and occasionally adults, are required to wear a headgear appliance as part of the primary treatment phase to keep certain teeth from moving (for more detail on headgear and facemask appliances see Orthodontic headgear). When braces put pressure on one's teeth, the periodontal membrane stretches on one side and is compressed on the other. This movement needs to be done slowly or otherwise, the patient risks losing their teeth. This is why braces are worn as long as they are and adjustments are only made every so often.

Braces are typically adjusted every three to six weeks. This helps shift the teeth into the correct position. When they get adjusted, the orthodontist removes the coloured or metal ligatures keeping the arch wire in place. The arch wire is then removed and may be replaced or modified. When the archwire has been placed back into the mouth, the patient may choose a colour for the new elastic ligatures, which are then affixed to the metal brackets. The adjusting process may cause some discomfort to the patient, which is normal.

Post-treatment
Patients may need post-orthodontic surgery, such as a fiberotomy or alternatively a gum lift, to prepare their teeth for retainer use and improve the gumline contours after the braces come off. After braces treatment, patients can use a transparent plate to keep the teeth out of alignment for a certain period of time. After treatment, patients usually use transparent plates for 6 months. In patients with long and difficult treatment, a fixative wire is attached to the back of the teeth to prevent the teeth from returning to their original state.

Retainers
In order to prevent the teeth from moving back to their original position, retainers are worn once the treatment is complete. Retainers help in maintaining and stabilizing the position of teeth long enough to permit the reorganization of the supporting structures after the active phase of orthodontic therapy. If the patient does not wear the retainer appropriately and/or for the right amount of time, the teeth may move towards their previous position. For regular braces, Hawley retainers are used. They are made of metal hooks that surround the teeth and are enclosed by an acrylic plate shaped to fit the patient's palate. For Clear Removable braces, an Essix retainer is used. This is similar to the original aligner; it is a clear plastic tray that is firmly fitted to the teeth and stays in place without a plate fitted to the palate. There is also a bonded retainer where a wire is permanently bonded to the lingual side of the teeth, usually the lower teeth only.

Headgear
Headgear needs to be worn between 12 and 22 hours each day to be effective in correcting the overbite, typically for 12 to 18 months depending on the severity of the overbite, how much it is worn and what growth stage the patient is in. Typically the prescribed daily wear time will be between 14 and 16 hours a day and is frequently used as a post-primary treatment phase to maintain the position of the jaw and arch. Headgear can be used during the night while the patient sleeps.

Orthodontic headgear usually consists of three major components: The headgear application is one of the most useful appliances available to the orthodontist when looking to correct a Class II malocclusion. See more details in the section Orthodontic headgear.
 * 1) Facebow: the facebow (or J-Hooks) is fitted with a metal arch onto headgear tubes attached to the rear upper and lower molars. This facebow then extends out of the mouth and around the patient's face. J-Hooks are different in that they hook into the patient's mouth and attach directly to the brace (see photo for an example of J-Hooks).
 * 2) Head cap: the head cap typically consists of one or a number of straps fitting around the patient's head. This is attached with elastic bands or springs to the facebow. Additional straps and attachments are used to ensure comfort and safety (see photo).
 * 3) Attachment: typically consisting of rubber bands, elastics, or springs—joins the facebow or J-Hooks and the head cap together, providing the force to move the upper teeth, jaw backwards.

Pre-finisher
The pre-finisher is moulded to the patient's teeth by use of extreme pressure on the appliance by the person's jaw. The product is then worn a certain amount of time with the user applying force to the appliance in their mouth for 10 to 15 seconds at a time. The goal of the process is to increase the exercise time in applying the force to the appliance. If a person's teeth are not ready for a proper retainer the orthodontist may prescribe the use of a preformed finishing appliance such as the pre-finisher. This appliance fixes gaps between the teeth, small spaces between the upper and lower jaw, and other minor problems.

Complications and risks
A group of dental researchers, Fatma Boke, Cagri Gazioglu, Selvi Akkaya, and Murat Akkaya, conducted a study titled "Relationship between orthodontic treatment and gingival health." The results indicated that some orthodontist treatments result in gingivitis, also known as gum disease. The researchers concluded that functional appliances used to harness natural forces (such as improving the alignment of bites) do not usually have major effects on the gum after treatment. However, fixed appliances such as braces, which most people get, can result in visible plaque, visible inflammation, and gum recession in a majority of the patients. The formation of plaques around the teeth of patients with braces is almost inevitable regardless of plaque control and can result in mild gingivitis. But if someone with braces does not clean their teeth carefully, plaques will form, leading to more severe gingivitis and gum recession.

Experiencing some pain following fitting and activation of fixed orthodontic braces is very common and several methods have been suggested to tackle this. Pain associated with orthodontic treatment increases in proportion to the amount of force that is applied to the teeth. When a force is applied to a tooth via a brace, there is a reduction in the blood supply to the fibres that attach the tooth to the surrounding bone. This reduction in blood supply results in inflammation and the release of several chemical factors, which stimulate the pain response. Orthodontic pain can be managed using pharmacological interventions, which involve the use of analgesics applied locally or systemically. These analgesics are divided into four main categories, including opioids, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol and local anesthesia. The first three of these analgesics are commonly taken systemically to reduce orthodontic pain.

A Cochrane Review in 2017 evaluated the pharmacological interventions for pain relief during orthodontic treatment. The study concluded that there was moderate-quality evidence that analgesics reduce the pain associated with orthodontic treatment. However, due to a lack of evidence, it was unclear whether systemic NSAIDs were more effective than paracetamol, and whether topical NSAIDs were more effective than local anaesthesia in the reduction of pain associated with orthodontic treatment. More high-quality research is required to investigate these particular comparisons.

The dental displacement obtained with the orthodontic appliance determines in most cases some degree of root resorption. Only in a few cases is this side effect large enough to be considered real clinical damage to the tooth. In rare cases, the teeth may fall out or have to be extracted due to root resorption.

Ancient

According to scholars and historians, braces date back to ancient times. Around 400–300 BC, Hippocrates and Aristotle contemplated ways to straighten teeth and fix various dental conditions. Archaeologists have discovered numerous mummified ancient individuals with what appear to be metal bands wrapped around their teeth. Catgut, a type of cord made from the natural fibres of an animal's intestines, performed a similar role to today's orthodontic wire in closing gaps in the teeth and mouth.

The Etruscans buried their dead with dental appliances in place to maintain space and prevent the collapse of the teeth during the afterlife. A Roman tomb was found with a number of teeth bound with gold wire documented as a ligature wire, a small elastic wire that is used to affix the arch wire to the bracket. Even Cleopatra wore a pair. Roman philosopher and physician Aulus Cornelius Celsus first recorded the treatment of teeth by finger pressure. Unfortunately, due to a lack of evidence, poor preservation of bodies, and primitive technology, little research was carried out on dental braces until around the 17th century, although dentistry was making great advancements as a profession by then.

18th century
Orthodontics truly began developing in the 18th and 19th centuries. In 1669, French dentist Pierre Fauchard, who is often credited with inventing modern orthodontics, published a book entitled "The Surgeon Dentist" on methods of straightening teeth. Fauchard, in his practice, used a device called a "Bandeau", a horseshoe-shaped piece of iron that helped expand the palate. In 1754, another French dentist, Louis Bourdet, dentist to the King of France, followed Fauchard's book with The Dentist's Art, which also dedicated a chapter to tooth alignment and application. He perfected the "Bandeau" and was the first dentist on record to recommend extraction of the premolar teeth to alleviate crowding and improve jaw growth.

19th century
Although teeth and palate straightening and/or pulling were used to improve the alignment of remaining teeth and had been practised since early times, orthodontics, as a science of its own, did not really exist until the mid-19th century. Several important dentists helped to advance dental braces with specific instruments and tools that allowed braces to be improved.

In 1819, Christophe François Delabarre introduced the wire crib, which marked the birth of contemporary orthodontics, and gum elastics were first employed by Maynard in 1843. Tucker was the first to cut rubber bands from rubber tubing in 1850. Dentist, writer, artist, and sculptor Norman William Kingsley in 1858 wrote the first article on orthodontics and in 1880, his book, Treatise on Oral Deformities, was published. A dentist named John Nutting Farrar is credited for writing two volumes entitled, A Treatise on the Irregularities of the Teeth and Their Corrections and was the first to suggest the use of mild force at timed intervals to move teeth.

20th century
In the early 20th century, Edward Angle devised the first simple classification system for malocclusions, such as Class I, Class II, and so on. His classification system is still used today as a way for dentists to describe how crooked teeth are, what way teeth are pointing, and how teeth fit together. Angle contributed greatly to the design of orthodontic and dental appliances, making many simplifications. He founded the first school and college of orthodontics, organized the American Society of Orthodontia in 1901 which became the American Association of Orthodontists (AAO) in the 1930s, and founded the first orthodontic journal in 1907. Other innovations in orthodontics in the late 19th and early 20th centuries included the first textbook on orthodontics for children, published by J.J. Guilford in 1889, and the use of rubber elastics, pioneered by Calvin S. Case, along with Henry Albert Baker.

Today, space age wires (also known as dental arch wires) are used to tighten braces. In 1959, the United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) made an alloy of nickel and titanium called Nitinol to be utilized for solar panels and antennas on their satellites. In 1979, Dr. George Andreasen developed a new method of fixing braces with the use of the Nitinol wires because they had super-elasticity. Andreasen used the wire on some patients and later found out that he could use it for the entire treatment. Andreasen then began using the nitinol wires for all his treatments and as a result, dental doctor visits were reduced, the cost of dental treatment was reduced, and patients reported less discomfort.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Dental braces


text:
Grubenmann

Several members of the Swiss family Grubenmann were famous as carpenters and civil engineers in the 18th century. The sons were innovators in bridge construction.

 (1668 – 27 June 1736) lived all his life in Gstalden, Appenzell Ausserrhoden where he fathered three sons:
 *  (10 January 1694 – 5 October 1758), died in Hombrechtikon, Zürich;
 * Johannes Grubenmann (15 June 1707 – 10 June 1771), died in Teufen; and
 *  (23 March 1709 – 22 January 1783), died in Teufen.

The brothers were village carpenters in Teufen. The principal structures are known to be:
 * Crossing of the Rhine at Schaffhausen in two spans of 52 m and 59 m respectively, (Hans Ulrich, 1757);
 * A single-span of 67 m at Reichenau, (Johannes, 1757);
 * Crossing of the Limmat at Wettingen, a 60 m span thought to be the first use of a true arch in a timber bridge, (Hans Ulrich and Johannes, 1778).

Very few of their bridges have survived, those at Schaffhausen and Wettingen being burnt by the French in the war of 1799, but their designs were influential, making use of novel combinations of arches and trusses. The surviving bridges include:
 * Rümlangbrücke, Oberglatt, 27.5 m span
 * Hundwilertobel, 30 m span
 * Kubelbrücke, Herisau, 30 m span

title: Grubenmann


text:
Minerva (disambiguation)

Minerva is the Roman goddess of crafts and wisdom. The name may also refer to:

People

 * Minerva (Daum Agora user), a South Korean netizen famous for his economic predictions
 * Minerva G. Carcaño (born 1954), Hispanic episcopacy of The United Methodist Church
 * Minerva J. Chapman (1858–1947), American painter
 * Minerva Parker Nichols (1863-1949), American architect
 * Minerva Teichert (1888-1976), American artist
 * Minerva Urecal (1894–1966), American film and television actress
 * Minerva, the stage name of Josephine Blatt (c. 1869 – 1923)
 * Minerva Goodman (1876–1967), American physician, suffragist
 * Minerva Hamilton Hoyt (1866–1945), an American activist famous for saving the deserts in California
 * Minerva Brace Norton (1837–1894), American educator and author
 * Minerva Dayton Bateham (1856–1885), American poet, hymn writer, temperance worker
 * Minerva Cuevas (born 1975), Mexican conceptual artist
 * Minerva Pious (1903-1979), American singer
 * Minerva Mena (1930-2004), Mexican actress
 * Minerva “Eva” Castillo (1969-2022), Filipino singer
 * Minerva Herrera (1929-2016), Cuban folk singer
 * Minerva Reid (1871-1957) Canadian teacher, medical doctor, and politician
 * Minerva Hernández Ramos (born 1969), Mexican politician
 * Minerva Koenig (born 1960), American author
 * Minerva Bloom, (born 1959), Mexican poet
 * Minerva Castillo Rodríguez (born 1955), Mexican politician
 * Minerva Bernardino (1907-1998), Dominican diplomat

Australia

 * Minerva, Queensland, a locality in the Central Highlands

Pacific Ocean

 * Minerva Reefs, two submerged atolls between Tonga and New Zealand
 * Republic of Minerva, a self-declared South Pacific republic on the Minerva Reefs

United States

 * Minerva, Kentucky, United States
 * Minerva, New York, United States
 * Minerva, Ohio, United States
 * Minerva, Oregon, United States
 * Minerva, West Virginia

Land development

 * Minerva plc, a London-based British developer and property firm
 * Minerva Building, a skyscraper once planned for the eastern edge of London's main financial district
 * Lokhandwala Minerva, a skyscraper under construction in Mumbai, Maharashtra, India

Games

 * MINERVA (mod), a modification for the video game Half-Life 2
 * Minerva, a character in the final cutscene of Assassin's Creed II
 * Minerva, a character in Fire Emblem: Shadow Dragon and the Blade of Light
 * Minerva, a class in the MMORPG Elsword
 * Ex Machina: Minerva, a character used by Celica A. Mercury in the fighting game series BlazBlue

Comics

 * Doctor Minerva, a Marvel Comics character who is a Kree scientist
 * Cheetah, a DC Comics character whose name is Barbara Ann Minerva
 * Minxy Minerva, a Wildstorm character who has appeared in Welcome to Tranquility
 * Minerva (Image Comics), a reincarnated goddess in The Wicked + The Divine

Film

 * Minerva Film, an Italian film distribution company operating between 1912 and 1956

Manga and anime

 * Minerva, a character from the Transformers franchise
 * Minerva class battleship, a fictional class of space vessels from the anime series Mobile Suit Gundam SEED Destiny
 * Fencer of Minerva, a hentai anime series
 * Minerva Orland, a character in Fairy Tail
 * Minene Uryuu, a character in Future Diary

Animation

 * Minerva Campbell, the mother of Finn from Adventure Time
 * Minerva Mink, a character from Animaniacs
 * Minerva Mouse, the full name of Minnie Mouse

Music

 * "Minerva" (song), a 2003 single by Deftones
 * "Minerva", a 2005 song by Ani DiFranco, from her album Knuckle Down

Novels

 * Minerva (Re:Zero), a character in the light novel series Re:Zero − Starting Life in Another World
 * Minerva Hadley, a character in the Noughts & Crosses book series by Malorie Blackman
 * Minerva McGonagall, a character in the Harry Potter book series by J. K. Rowling
 * Minerva Paradizo, a character in the book Artemis Fowl: The Lost Colony by Eoin Colfer
 * Minerva, a ship and supporting character in The Baroque Cycle book series by Neal Stephenson
 * Minerva, a setting in the book A World of Difference by Harry Turtledove
 * Minerva, a setting in the Giants series by James P. Hogan
 * Minerva, a computer which becomes a human female in Robert A. Heinlein's 1973 Time Enough for Love
 * In Harry Turtledove's novel A World of Difference, the orbit of Mars is occupied by an Earth-sized planet called Minerva
 * Minerva, a character in Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil by John Berendt, based on Valerie Bowles

Theatre

 * Minerva Theatre, Chichester, England, opened in 1989
 * Minerva Theatre, Kolkata, India, built in 1893
 * Minerva Theatre, Sydney, Australia 1939–1950
 * Minerva, a character in the 1929 West End musical Mr. Cinders

Publications

 * Minerva (German magazine), a nineteenth century journal published by Johann Wilhelm von Archenholz
 * Minerva (archaeology magazine), an international review of ancient art and archaeology
 * Minerva (Norwegian periodical), a Norwegian liberal conservative periodical first published in 1924
 * Minerva (Springer journal), a peer-reviewed sociology journal established in 1962
 * Minerva (Welsh periodical), earliest title of Swansea History Journal
 * Minerva Medica, a medical journal in Italian
 * Minerva, an intellectual magazine originally funded by the CIA via the Congress for Cultural Freedom

Astronomy and space

 * 93 Minerva, an asteroid discovered in 1867
 * MINERVA (spacecraft), a mini-lander on the uncrewed spacecraft Hayabusa
 * MINiature Exoplanet Radial Velocity Array (MINERVA), ground-based search for exoplanets
 * Minerva, a name originally proposed for the planet Pluto
 * Minerva, the name of the European Space Agency's segment of the SpaceX Crew-4 mission

Automotive

 * Minerva (automobile), a Belgian luxury automobile manufactured from 1902 until 1938
 * Minerva Armored Car, a World War I armoured car

Biology

 * Minerva (alga), a genus of red algae in the family Bangiaceae
 * Minerva (bird), a genus of prehistoric owls

Computing and telecommunication

 * MINERVA, a European Union organization concerned with the digitisation of cultural and scientific content
 * MINERVA (cable system), a submarine telecommunications cable system linking Italy and Cyprus
 * Minerva (QDOS reimplementation), a reimplementation of Sinclair QDOS
 * Minerva Initiative, a plan that looks to tap into the community of area specialists and other university researchers
 * Minerva Networks, a company that develops video compression technology and broadcast systems

Medicine

 * Minerva cast, a type of orthopedic cast enclosing the patient's trunk and head
 * A brand name of co-cyprindiol (cyproterone acetate/ethinylestradiol), an oral contraceptive

Physics

 * MINERνA, a neutrino scattering experiment

Ships

 * Minerva, several ships
 * HMS Minerva, several ships of the British Royal Navy
 * USS Minerva, several ships of the United States Navy
 * Minerva-class corvette, a class of ships of the Italian Marina Militare

Other uses

 * Editura Minerva, a Romanian publishing house
 * Minerva Bunkering, a marine fuel logistics company
 * Minerva Campbell, a character who is Finn Mertens' biological mother in the TV series Adventure Time
 * Minerva roundabout, famous landmark in Guadalajara, Jalisco
 * The Minerva Initiative is a U.S. Department of Defense program
 * Minerva F.C., a 19th-century amateur football club in England
 * Fuji Xerox Minerva AFC, an American football team in Ebina, Kanagawa, Japan, playing in the X-League X2 division
 * Minerva University, a private university based in San Francisco, California

title: Minerva (disambiguation)


text:
Johannes Grubenmann

Johannes Grubenmann (15 June 1707 – 10 June 1771) was a member of the Swiss family Grubenmann who were famous as carpenters and civil engineers in the eighteenth century.

 * See main article: Grubenmann.

title: Johannes Grubenmann


text:
U.S. Route 222

U.S. Route 222 (US 222) is a U.S. Highway that is a spur of US 22 in the states of Maryland and Pennsylvania. It runs for 95 mi from US 1 in Conowingo, Maryland, north to the junction of Interstate 78 (I-78) and Pennsylvania Route 309 (PA 309) in Dorneyville, Pennsylvania. US 222 is almost entirely in Pennsylvania, and serves as the state's principal artery between the Lancaster and Reading areas in the west and the Lehigh Valley in the east.

US 222 heads north from US 1 in Conowingo and soon crosses from Maryland into Pennsylvania, continuing north through rural areas and passing through Quarryville and Willow Street before reaching Lancaster. The route passes through Lancaster on a one-way pair of city streets before becoming a freeway at US 30 north of the city. The US 222 freeway heads northeast, crossing US 322 in Ephrata and coming to an interchange with the Pennsylvania Turnpike (I-76).

US 222 bypasses Reading to the west, where it forms a concurrency with US 422. The freeway section ends past Reading and the route continues northeast through rural areas, with a freeway bypass of Kutztown. US 222 bypasses Trexlertown on a multilane divided expressway before coming to its northern terminus at I-78/PA 309 in Dorneyville, where the road continues into Allentown as PA 222.

Conowingo to Lancaster
US 222 begins at an intersection with US 1 in Conowingo in Cecil County, Maryland. Following US 1 southwest to the Conowingo Dam across the Susquehanna River leads to the northern terminus of MD 222. From this intersection, the route heads northwest on two-lane undivided Rock Springs Road, passing through a mix of fields and woods with some homes. The road curves to the north through woodland and passes east of Oakwood. US 222 turns to the northeast and runs through fields and woods with some development, passing to the southeast of the Rock Springs Generation Facility in Rock Springs before it comes to the Mason–Dixon line, which marks the border between Maryland and Pennsylvania.

Upon crossing the Mason–Dixon line, US 222 enters Fulton Township in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, and heads north as Robert Fulton Highway, passing between woodland to the west and farm fields to the east. The route turns to the north-northwest and runs through agricultural areas with some trees and homes, passing through New Texas Lyles. The road continues through rural areas and curves to the north, heading into Wakefield and coming to an intersection with PA 272. At this point, PA 272 turns north for a concurrency with US 222 along Robert Fulton Highway, running through a mix of farms and homes. PA 272 splits from US 222 in Penn Hill by heading northwest, and US 222 continues northeast through wooded areas. The road heads into a mix of fields and woods and reaches Goshen, where it turns to the north. The route runs through farmland with some woods and homes, curving northeast before heading back to the north and passing to the east of the Robert Fulton Birthplace. US 222 continues north-northeast through rural land and passes through Bethel, where it crosses into Little Britain Township. The road heads north and enters East Drumore Township, continuing through farmland with some trees and residences and passing through the communities of Unicorn and Mechanics Grove. The route passes east of Solanco High School and bends to the north-northwest as it runs through more rural land.

US 222 enters the borough of Quarryville and becomes South Church Street, heading north past homes. The route comes to an intersection with PA 372, at which point it turns west-southwest to join that route on West State Street, running through more residential areas. US 222 splits from PA 372 by heading northwest onto West 4th Street, passing between businesses to the southwest and homes to the northeast before running through more residential areas, cutting through a corner of East Drumore Township before heading into Providence Township. At this point, the route enters the Pennsylvania Dutch Country of eastern Lancaster County, which is home to many Amish farms. In Providence Township, the route becomes Beaver Valley Pike and passes under the Enola Low Grade Trail before it runs through a mix of farmland, woodland, and residential and commercial development. The road crosses the Big Beaver Creek into Strasburg Township and heads northwest through more rural land with some development, with the creek parallel to the southwest. The creek bends away to the west and US 222 continues into agricultural areas with occasional homes, passing through Martinsville and turning to the west-northwest. The route passes to the northeast of Refton and curves northwest, crossing the Pequea Creek into West Lampeter Township. The road heads north through farmland and bends northwest to reach an intersection with PA 741. Here, PA 741 becomes concurrent with US 222 and the two routes curve to the west-southwest, passing between farm fields to the north and residential and commercial development to the south and heading into Willow Street, where the road comes to an intersection with PA 272, which is split into a one-way pair at this point.

At this point, US 222 splits from PA 741 by turning north to join PA 272 along Willow Street Pike, a one-way pair which carries two lanes in each direction. PA 272 becomes unsigned along the US 222 concurrency. Both directions of Willow Street Pike rejoin and it continues north as a two-lane undivided road past commercial development before it runs through wooded residential areas, passing through Hollinger. US 222/PA 272 crosses Mill Creek and heads through Lyndon. The road briefly gains a center left-turn lane as it continues through wooded areas of development and passes to the west of a golf course. US 222/PA 272 splits into a one-way pair, with two lanes in each direction, and crosses the Conestoga River into Lancaster Township.

Lancaster to Reading
After crossing the Conestoga River, northbound US 222/PA 272 becomes Highland Avenue and southbound US 222/PA 272 is called South Prince Street. The southbound direction intersects PA 324 in Engleside before the two routes continue into the city of Lancaster, heading into urban residential and commercial areas. A short distance after entering Lancaster, northbound US 222/PA 272 intersects the end of one-way northbound PA 324 and heads onto South Queen Street. The two routes continues past urban rowhouses along South Queen Street northbound and South Prince Street southbound, with South Queen Street passing to the west of Woodward Hill Cemetery. Northbound US 222/PA 272 splits from South Queen Street by heading northeast onto Church Street, which carries three lanes of one-way traffic, while northbound PA 72 starts along South Queen Street. Just south of downtown Lancaster, the northbound direction of the route turns north onto South Lime Street, which carries two lanes of one-way traffic. US 222/PA 272 heads into the commercial downtown of Lancaster and crosses eastbound PA 462 at King Street. Past this, the route becomes North Lime Street northbound and North Prince Street southbound, crossing eastbound PA 23 at Chestnut Street and westbound PA 23/PA 462 at Walnut Street. The two routes leave the downtown area and run through urban areas of homes and businesses. The northbound direction passes to the east of Lancaster General Hospital between East James and East Frederick streets while the southbound direction passes to the east of Clipper Magazine Stadium, home of the Lancaster Barnstormers baseball team, north of the Harrisburg Avenue/West James Street intersection. At the intersection with Liberty Street, northbound US 222/PA 272 shifts west a block onto four-lane undivided North Duke Street, a two-way road, while the one-way pair continues into Manheim Township. A block later, at McGovern Avenue, both directions of US 222/PA 272 rejoin along North Duke Street. Southbound US 222/PA 272 follows McGovern Avenue west between North Duke Street and North Prince Street, forming the border between a portion of the city of Lancaster that is home to the Lancaster station along Amtrak's Keystone Corridor railroad line to the north and Manheim Township to the south. The roadway is a three-lane road with two westbound lanes that carry southbound US 222/PA 272 and one eastbound lane. McGovern Avenue reaches an intersection with northbound PA 72 at North Queen Street, where northbound PA 72 turns west to join southbound US 222/PA 272 along the road. At North Prince Street, southbound US 222/PA 272 turn south while PA 72 becomes two-way heading north.

Both directions of US 222/PA 272 continue north along four-lane undivided North Duke Street and the road reaches the Thaddeus Stevens Bridge over Amtrak's Keystone Corridor, where it becomes the border between Manheim Township to the west and Lancaster to the east. At Keller Avenue, the road name changes to Lititz Pike and it fully enters Manheim Township, running through commercial areas as a five-lane road with a center left-turn lane. Northbound US 222 and PA 272 head northeast onto Oregon Pike, with PA 272 becoming signed again, while southbound US 222 and PA 501 continue north along Lititz Pike. The two routes continue northeast as a three-lane road with a center left-turn lane and runs past businesses and a few homes before it comes to an interchange with the US 30 freeway. Here, US 222 splits from PA 272, which becomes signed again, by heading east concurrent with US 30 on an eight-lane freeway, passing near developed areas. US 222 splits from US 30 at a trumpet interchange and heads north onto a four-lane freeway. The route curves northeast and runs through a mix of farmland and residential and commercial development. The freeway comes to a northbound exit and entrance with Butter Road, which provides access to PA 272 via Jake Landis Road, and a southbound exit and entrance with PA 272. Past this interchange, US 222 continues through a mix of farm fields and woodland, passing through a corner of Warwick Township before crossing the Cocalico Creek into West Earl Township.

The route passes near farmland before heading near homes and businesses, reaching a partial cloverleaf interchange with PA 772 north of Brownstown. Past here, the freeway runs northeast through agricultural areas. Farther along, US 222 curves to the north and comes to a diverging diamond interchange with US 322 southeast of the borough of Ephrata, at which point it crosses into Ephrata Township. The route passes near businesses at the interchange before it turns northeast and runs through wooded areas with some nearby residential development and farm fields. The freeway heads into East Cocalico Township and runs through more woodland before it passes to the southeast of Reamstown. US 222 passes through farmland and comes to a diamond interchange with Colonel Howard Boulevard, which heads west to provide access to PA 272 and east to provide access to the Pennsylvania Turnpike (I-76). Following this, the route passes over the Pennsylvania Turnpike and crosses into Brecknock Township, running through a mix of farm fields and woods with some nearby residential and commercial development as it passes to the southeast of the borough of Adamstown.

The US 222 freeway enters Brecknock Township in Berks County and continues north, passing a northbound weigh station before coming to a partial cloverleaf interchange serving the northern terminus of PA 272 and the western terminus of PA 568. Past this interchange, the route crosses into Spring Township and runs through wooded areas with some fields and homes, curving to the northeast and reaching a diamond interchange at Mohns Hill Road to the west of Gouglersville. Here, the freeway crosses into Cumru Township and runs north-northeast through more rural areas, coming to a diamond interchange that connects to Grings Hill Road west of the borough of Mohnton.

Reading to Allentown
A short distance later, US 222 comes to a northbound exit and southbound entrance with the southern terminus of US 222 Bus., a business route that passes through the city of Reading, which US 222 bypasses to the west. From here, the route curves to the north and crosses back into Spring Township, passing near suburban residential development and coming to a partial cloverleaf interchange with PA 724 in a business area. The freeway turns to the northeast and passes through residential areas and some woodland between West Wyomissing to the north and Lincoln Park to the south. US 222 briefly forms the border between Spring Township to the north and the borough of Wyomissing to the south before it bends to the north-northeast into Spring Township. The route crosses into Wyomissing and comes to an interchange with US 422 and the western terminus of US 422 Bus., at which point it also passes over Norfolk Southern's Harrisburg Line. At this interchange, US 422 becomes concurrent with US 222, and the two routes continue east-northeast along the six-lane Warren Street Bypass freeway, running between residential areas to the northwest and the Norfolk Southern tracks to the southeast. The freeway curves north into business areas and comes to a partial cloverleaf interchange with State Hill Road. Following this, US 222/US 422 passes between the Berkshire Mall to the west and commercial areas to the east before it reaches an interchange with Paper Mill Road and Crossing Drive, where it curves to the northeast and runs near more businesses. The freeway comes to an interchange where US 222 splits to the northwest, US 422 immediately afterward splits southeast along the West Shore Bypass, and, straight ahead, PA 12 begins northeast along the Warren Street Bypass.

Past this interchange, US 222 heads northwest as a four-lane freeway, crossing back into Spring Township and running between a farm field to the southwest and the Penn State Berks university campus to the northeast before reaching a diamond interchange with Broadcasting Road. The route between US 422 and the northern end of this expressway portion is known as the Outer Bypass, the POW/MIA Memorial Highway by an act of the Pennsylvania General Assembly, or the "Road to Nowhere" as it was known while incomplete and to this day. The route runs between a shopping center to the southwest and Tulpehocken Valley County Park to the northeast prior to reaching the Spring Ridge Drive exit. At this point, the freeway turns north and crosses the Tulpehocken Creek into Bern Township and runs north-northeast through wooded areas with some nearby homes and commercial development, coming to a partial cloverleaf interchange with PA 183. Following this, US 222 curves northeast, passing to the northwest of Reading Regional Airport and running through farm fields before crossing the Schuylkill River into Muhlenberg Township. The route passes near residential neighborhoods and some commercial development, passing over the Reading Blue Mountain and Northern Railroad's Reading Division line and reaching a partial cloverleaf interchange with PA 61. The freeway passes under another Reading Blue Mountain and Northern Railroad line and Norfolk Southern's Evansville Industrial Track railroad line, crossing into Ontelaunee Township. At this point, US 222 heads northeast through industrial areas, with Norfolk Southern's Reading Line parallel to the southeast. The freeway comes to an end at a trumpet interchange, where US 222 intersects the northern terminus of US 222 Bus. and merges onto that road.

From here, US 222 heads north-northeast on four-lane divided Allentown Pike past a few businesses. The route enters Maidencreek Township and becomes a five-lane road with a center left-turn lane, running through a mix of fields and woods with some homes. The road curves northeast and passes commercial development, coming to an intersection with PA 73 in Maiden Creek. Past this intersection, US 222 runs past a mix of residential development and businesses with some farm fields, meeting Tamarack Boulevard/Genesis Drive and Schaeffer Road at a roundabout. At this point, the route narrows to three lanes with a center left-turn lane and heads into the agricultural East Penn Valley in northeastern Berks County, which is home to an Old Order Mennonite community. US 222 continues northeast through farmland with some trees, residences, and businesses, passing through Kirbyville and crossing into Richmond Township, where the name becomes Kutztown Road. Farther northeast, the road heads past businesses and comes to a roundabout with PA 662 in Moselem Springs. US 222 continues through farmland with some development, passing to the southeast of a golf course in Kempville.

The route becomes a four-lane freeway called the Kutztown Bypass, which bypasses the borough of Kutztown to the northwest, with a northbound exit and southbound entrance at Kutztown Road providing access to Kutztown. The freeway heads northeast through agricultural areas and crosses into Maxatawny Township, where it comes to a southbound exit and northbound entrance at Crystal Cave Road that provides access to Crystal Cave and Virginville. From here, the route heads through more rural land before it passes through a section of Kutztown and runs near residential areas and farmland north of the Kutztown University of Pennsylvania campus. US 222 crosses back into Maxatawny Township and curves east, passing over the Sacony Creek and coming to a partial cloverleaf interchange with the southern terminus of PA 737 that provides access to Kutztown. The freeway crosses back into Kutztown and passes near homes before it reenters Maxatawny Township and the Kutztown Bypass ends at a southbound exit and northbound entrance with Kutztown Road that serves the borough. From here, US 222 becomes two-lane undivided Kutztown Road and runs east-northeast through farmland before heading past businesses near the Long Lane intersection. The route gains a center left-turn lane and passes through Monterey before it continues through agricultural areas. Farther east, the road heads into Maxatawny, where it is lined with homes and a few businesses.

US 222 enters Upper Macungie Township in Lehigh County, which is in the Lehigh Valley, and becomes two-lane undivided Hamilton Boulevard, passing through farmland with some businesses and coming to a roundabout with the southern terminus of PA 863, Schantz Road, and Farmington Road. The route gains a center left-turn lane and continues east through farm fields with some homes and businesses, heading to the south of an office park. Residential and commercial development along the road increases as it passes to the north of Breinigsville. A bit further east, US 222 diverges from Hamilton Boulevard at a northbound exit and southbound entrance onto a four-lane divided expressway called the Frederick J. Jaindl Jr. Memorial Highway, immediately reaching a partial interchange with the PA 100 bypass of Trexlertown, where Hamilton Boulevard continues east into Trexlertown, northbound US 222 merges with northbound PA 100, and southbound US 222 splits from southbound PA 100. All other connections between PA 100 and US 222 are provided by Hamilton Boulevard and Weilers Road. US 222 and PA 100 continue north concurrent along the expressway, passing near homes and intersecting Grim Road/Cetronia Road at-grade. The road curves northeast and runs between warehouses to the northwest and housing developments to the southeast. PA 100 splits from US 222 at a diamond interchange, at which point PA 100 continues north and Trexlertown Road heads south. US 222 continues past industrial areas and farmland, coming to a bridge over Norfolk Southern's C&F Secondary. The route bends east and runs past more farmland before heading near residential neighborhoods, crossing over Cetronia Road on a bridge before intersecting Grange Road/Mill Creek Road at-grade.

US 222 crosses into Lower Macungie Township and curves to the east-northeast, passing north of a shopping center and intersecting North Krocks Road at an at-grade intersection with a northbound exit and entrance ramp for right turns and access to and from the shopping center. Past this, the route has a southbound exit to Brookside Road north of Wescosville. The road comes to a bridge over the Pennsylvania Turnpike Northeast Extension (I-476) and runs between industrial development to the north and businesses to the south, reaching an intersection with Hamilton Boulevard and Cedarbrook Road/Kressler Road. Here, US 222 widens to six lanes and becomes Hamilton Boulevard again, heading east-northeast to the north of a park and ride lot before it comes to its northern terminus at a partial cloverleaf interchange with I-78/PA 309 in Dorneyville. Past this interchange, Hamilton Boulevard continues as PA 222 towards the city of Allentown.

History
When US 222 was first designated in the 1920s, it only reached as far north as Reading, but at the time US 22 dipped down from Allentown to Reading, then west to Harrisburg. US 22 was rerouted to become a straight shot from Allentown to Harrisburg so the roadway between Reading and Allentown became part of US 222, explaining why the highway, designated as north/south, actually runs mostly east/west between the two cities. By the early 1930s the road then signed as US 22 became problematic for motorists in Lebanon along the current US 422; Reading via US 22 and US 222; and Allentown on Hamilton Street (US 22). PA 43 had been aligned as a bypass between Allentown and Harrisburg. On June 8, 1931, the American Association of State Highway Officials came to a resolution to the traffic problem, by replacing the PA 43 corridor with US 22 and the William Penn Highway name to match. The state truncated PA 43 to Susquehanna Street from Allentown to Bethlehem. US 222 replaced the former US 22 alignment from Reading to Allentown. Hamilton Street was numbered as US 222, west of Center City Allentown, where it turned north onto 15th Street. This portion of US 222 was seven blocks long, ending at Tilghman Street, which was then US Route 22. Signs were changed to reflect the new designations on May 31, 1932, with the new route designations officially in place on June 1, 1932.

The first stretch of highway between Perryville and Conowingo in Maryland that became part of US 222 to be improved was in Perryville, where Cecil County constructed with state aid a macadam road from the Aikin station on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad south toward the Post Road, which is present-day MD 7, by 1910. Cecil County extended the macadam road to the Post Road by 1919. The highway from the Aikin railroad crossing to Port Deposit was paved as a 15 ft concrete road in two sections: from the railroad to near Port Deposit by 1921 and through Port Deposit by 1923. MD 268, which was the original designation for the road between Perryville and Conowingo, was paved as a concrete road from Port Deposit to US 1 at Conowingo Dam between 1930 and 1933; the construction work included repurposing a railroad bridge across Octoraro Creek as a highway bridge. MD 268's bridge across the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad was constructed between 1931 and 1934. The old highway approaching the Aikin grade crossing became MD 449. MD 268 was proposed to be widened to 20 ft from US 40 to US 1 in 1934.

The section of Rock Springs Road between present-day US 1 and Old Conowingo Road/Ragan Road was constructed by the state of Maryland as a macadam road by 1921. The portion of Rock Springs Road between Old Conowingo Road/Ragan Road and the Pennsylvania border was built by the state as a concrete road by 1928. US 222 was designated in Maryland by 1930, with the southern terminus at US 1 in Conowingo.

MD 268 was replaced by a southern extension of US 222 from US 1 at Conowingo to US 40 (now MD 7) in Perryville in 1938. The portion of US 222 from US 40 to near Port Deposit was expanded to improve access between the U.S. Highway and United States Naval Training Center Bainbridge, east of Port Deposit in 1942 and 1944.

With the construction of the Lehigh Valley Thruway in the early 1950s and the relocation of US 22 to that route, US 222 was extended east along Tilghman Street to 7th Street, then north on 7th Street to the interchange with the new freeway.

In the late 1950s, US 222 was realigned to a newly constructed bypass carrying US 309 and PA 29, west of Allentown. From the south, US 222 left Hamilton Boulevard and turned north onto the freeway. US 222 terminated at an interchange with US 22, US 309, and PA 29 in South Whitehall Township. The freeway, originally signed as US 309/PA 29/US 222, dropped the PA 29 designation in 1966; in 1968, US 309 was replaced with to PA 309 and US 222 was truncated to end at the current northern termini. By the 1980s, I-78 became part of the freeway that occupied PA 309.

US 222 in Maryland was widened and resurfaced between what is now the MD 222–MD 275—MD 824 intersection and Port Deposit in 1959 and 1960. US 222 was relocated as part of the construction of its original diamond interchange with I-95 in 1962 and 1963. The old alignment of US 222 east of its I-95 interchange became MD 824. The highway was resurfaced with bituminous concrete from MD 7 to US 40 and reconstructed and widened from US 40 to the southern MD 824 intersection in 1968 and 1969. The widening work included widening US 222's bridge across the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, which was removed and replaced between 1987 and 1989. The I-95 interchange was converted from a standard diamond to a four-ramp partial cloverleaf with all four ramps east of US 222 between 1993 and 1994.

With increased development in the late 20th century the two-lane road became increasingly congested. To alleviate these problems a number of construction projects took place, most notably a four-lane Reading bypass, a four-lane expressway to connect Lancaster to Reading, and a four-lane expressway bypass around the borough of Kutztown, which is situated between Reading and Allentown.

Studies for a limited-access highway connecting Lancaster and Reading began in the early 1950s. In 1962, construction began on a four-lane highway between Spring Township and Bern Township that would eventually connect to US 222. After construction stopped, this stretch became known as "The Road to Nowhere." In 1970, construction began for a freeway bypass carrying US 222 around Kutztown. The US 222 bypass of Kutztown opened on May 25, 1973, with a ribbon-cutting ceremony held. In 1973, the federal government approved the relocation of homes and businesses along the path of the proposed US 222 freeway between Lancaster and Reading. In July 1977, the final section of the US 222 freeway between Lancaster and the Berks County border opened to traffic.

In 1949, plans were made to build a four-lane bridge across Tulpehocken Creek at Warren Street. As part of this plan, Warren Street was to be widened from the proposed bridge to Schuylkill Avenue. This widened Warren Street was envisioned to become part of a bypass route of Reading for US 222. The bridge and widening were approved with the provision that Warren Street only be widened as far as Schuylkill Avenue as not to build a bypass route through a residential area. Construction on the bridge and the Warren Street Bypass between US 422 (Harrisburg Pike, now Penn Avenue) and PA 83 (now PA 183, Schuylkill Avenue) began in 1950. In 1953, the Park Avenue Extension (which extended Park Avenue in Wyomissing to the bypass) and the Warren Street Bypass from US 422 in Wyomissing to Tulpehocken Creek, along with the Tulpehocken Creek bridge, was finished, with a continuation of the Warren Street Bypass northeast from PA 83 to US 222 (Allentown Pike, now 5th Street Highway) proposed. Construction on the extension of the Warren Street Bypass to US 222 began in 1956 with the process of widening of the existing Warren Street. The PA 83 bridge over the bypass was built in 1957. In 1959, the Warren Street Bypass extension to US 222 was opened to traffic with the portion of Warren Street between Tulpehocken Creek and PA 83 widened to four lanes. The Warren Street Bypass included an interchange with the under-construction Reading Bypass (now US 422, West Shore Bypass) southwest of Tulpehocken Creek when it opened in 1959. On November 15, 1975, the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) approved for US 222 to be routed to bypass Reading, with the route following US 422 along the West Shore Bypass between Lancaster Avenue and the Warren Street Bypass and the Warren Street Bypass between the West Shore Bypass and Allentown Pike. The former alignment of US 222 through Reading between the West Shore Bypass and the Warren Street Bypass received the US 222 Bus. designation.

In 1984, the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation (PennDOT) was planning to extend PA 145 and US 222 in Allentown. Traffic engineer Samuel D. Darrohh said that Allentown is one of few Pennsylvania cities without a traffic route going through it. After the plan was introduced, he said that motorists might be aided if US 222 were extended along Hamilton Boulevard to connect with the proposed PA 145 corridor. PennDOT originally planned the road as US 222 but AASHTO denied the extension, stating that the route "is not the shortest or best available route between major control points on the system, and therefore, does not adhere to the policies established under AASHTO's 'Purpose and Policy Statement for U.S. Numbered Highways'". In addition, the route did not meet the criteria for a business route. In 1991, it was commissioned as PA 222. PA 145 was extended south of the Lehigh Valley Thruway to the I-78/PA 309 overlap near Lanark.

US 222 in Maryland used to extend down to MD 7 in Perryville. In 1972, the south end of US 222 was cut back to US 40 in Perryville, with MD 222 replacing the route along Aiken Avenue between MD 7 and US 40. AASHTO approved rolling back the southern end of the US 222 designation from US 40 in Perryville to US 1 in Conowingo at their April 1995 spring meeting. The Maryland State Highway Administration proposed and AASHTO approved the redesignation of US 222 to MD 222 from US 40 in Perryville to US 1 in Conowingo in February 1996; however, the new designation had already been enacted officially and marked publicly in 1995.

In 1995, construction began on the Park Road Corridor to connect US 222/US 422 at the junction of the West Shore Bypass and Warren Street Bypass to the Road to Nowhere. Construction of the Park Road Corridor was completed in October 1998. As a result, US 222 was shifted to follow the Park Road Corridor and the Road to Nowhere to bypass the Reading area, replacing SR 3055 along the Road to Nowhere. The former alignment of US 222 that was bypassed became PA 12 along the Warren Street Bypass between US 222/US 422 and US 222 Bus. and a northern extension of US 222 Bus. along 5th Street Highway and Allentown Pike through Muhlenberg Township. In 1998, construction began on the US 222 freeway bypass of Reading between PA 724 and US 422; this section of road opened in 2000. Construction began in 2001 on the US 222 freeway between Grings Hill Road and PA 724 while construction of the section between the Lancaster County border and Grings Hill Road started in 2003. In 2004, construction was completed on the section of the US 222 freeway between Grings Hill Road and PA 724. As a result, US 222 was shifted to follow the new freeway between Grings Hill Road and US 422 and run concurrent with US 422 on the Warren Street Bypass north to the interchange with the West Shore Bypass and PA 12. The former alignment of US 222 along Lancaster Avenue became a southern extension of US 222 Bus. In June 2006, the US 222 freeway was completed between the Lancaster County border and Grings Hill Road; marking the completion of the US 222 freeway between Lancaster and Reading.

In 2002, construction began on a bypass route for US 222 and PA 100 around Trexlertown. On September 29, 2005, PA 100 was rerouted to bypass Trexlertown to the west along the four-lane divided Trexlertown Bypass. US 222 was moved onto the bypass on September 28, 2007 following the extension of the bypass east to allow US 222 to bypass Trexlertown. The bypass cost $144 million to build. The former alignment of US 222 through Trexlertown along Hamilton Boulevard was designated SR 6222.

In March 2013, construction began on a new bridge to carry US 222/PA 272 over the Amtrak tracks in Lancaster. The bridge project cost $26.6 million, with $12.7 million of that figure the actual construction costs of the bridge. The new bridge, which is four lanes wide and connects Lititz Pike directly with North Duke Street, opened to traffic on July 9, 2014, with the old bridge closed and later demolished. The bridge carrying US 222/PA 272 over the Amtrak line was named the Thaddeus Stevens Bridge in honor of Thaddeus Stevens, a 19th-century abolitionist and United States Representative who was from Lancaster. Concurrent with the construction of the new bridge, McGovern Avenue was converted to a two-way road between North Queen Street and North Duke Street to provide improved access to Lancaster station.

In 2010, officials in Berks County pushed for PennDOT to widen a portion of the two-lane road to four lanes due to traffic and safety issues. In June 2018, plans to widen a portion of US 222 in Maidencreek Township near the PA 73 intersection to five lanes with a center left-turn lane received approval from township supervisors. Bidding for the widening project was expected to begin in spring 2019, with the project lasting for two years. On September 9, 2019, construction began on a $26 million project to widen US 222 at the PA 73 intersection along with adding roundabouts at Genesis Drive and Schaeffer Road in Maidencreek Township. The roundabout at Schaeffer Road opened in December 2021. The construction project widening US 222 in Maidencreek Township and adding two roundabouts was completed in June 2022.

In addition to the proposed widening, a roundabout was planned at the intersection with PA 662 in Richmond Township in order to reduce traffic congestion. The project, which cost $6.6 million, replaced the signalized intersection between the two routes with a roundabout, with US 222 widened to four lanes at the roundabout. Construction of the roundabout began on September 6, 2016. The roundabout opened to traffic on May 22, 2018, with all lanes at the roundabout opened on July 20, 2018. There are plans to construct a roundabout at the intersection with Schantz Road in Upper Macungie Township. In 2021, preliminary design began on a project to widen US 222 between Maidencreek Township and the southern end of the Kutztown Bypass to a four-lane road with a median barrier preventing left turns and cross traffic. Along this stretch, roundabouts will be constructed at Pleasant Hill Road and Richmond Road. Construction contracts are planned to be awarded in 2024 with completion expected in 2026. In 2022, construction will begin on a roundabout at Long Lane in Maxatawny Township. Preliminary engineering to widen US 222 between the northern end of the Kutztown Bypass and the Lehigh County line is not expected to take place until the late 2020s.

In 2019, construction began to convert the interchange with US 322 near Ephrata into a diverging diamond interchange. The diverging diamond interchange, which cost $10.9 million and received federal funding, opened on May 17, 2021, one year ahead of schedule.

Former Maryland truck route
U.S. Route 222 Truck was a 12.49 mi truck bypass of US 222 from US 222 in Perryville to US 1 and US 222 in Conowingo. The signed route followed MD 275 from US 222 in Perryville north to MD 276 in Woodlawn. US 222 Truck continued north on MD 276 from Woodlawn north to US 1 west of Rising Sun. The truck route then headed west on US 1 to US 222 in Conowingo. US 222 Truck was downgraded to MD 222 Truck when US 222 became MD 222 between Perryville and Conowingo.

Reading business loop
U.S. Route 222 Business (US 222 Bus.) is a 12.17 mi business route of US 222 located in Reading, Pennsylvania. The southern terminus is at US 222 in Cumru Township. Its northern terminus is at US 222 in Ontelaunee Township. The route begins at the US 222 freeway and heads through the southwestern suburbs of Reading as Lancaster Avenue, intersecting PA 724 in Shillington. US 222 Bus. continues into Reading on Lancaster Avenue and intersects the northern termini of PA 625 and PA 10 before reaching an interchange with the US 422 freeway. The business route crosses the Schuylkill River and becomes Bingaman Street. US 222 Bus. turns north on 5th Street and intersects US 422 Bus. in downtown Reading and the southern terminus of PA 61 to the north of downtown. The route interchanges with the PA 12 freeway and continues north through suburban Muhlenberg Township as 5th Street Highway. US 222 Bus. reaches Temple and continues northeast to its northern terminus as Allentown Pike. US 222 Bus. is the only auxiliary route of US 222 in Pennsylvania.

With the creation of the U.S. Highway System in 1926, the road between Reading and Lancaster was designated US 222 while the road between Reading and Allentown was part of US 22, which ran along what was designated the William Penn Highway in 1916 and PA 3 in 1924. In the late 1920s, US 222 briefly ran concurrent with PA 41 and PA 240 at different times. PA 42 originally ran north–south through Reading starting in 1927. By 1930, the concurrent state route designations were removed from US 222 and US 22. US 222 entered Reading along with PA 73 along Lancaster Avenue and Bingaman Street before turning north on 9th Street along with PA 83 to end at US 22 and US 422 at Penn Street. US 22 continued north on 9th Street out of Reading and continued along Kutztown Road through Temple toward Allentown. US 120 began at US 222 at Bingaman Street and headed north on 4th Street and Center Street out of Reading. In 1931, US 22 was moved to a more direct alignment between Harrisburg and Allentown, and US 222 was extended north along the former alignment between Reading and Allentown. US 222 was shifted to use Lancaster Avenue, Bingaman Street, and 5th Street and 5th Street Highway through the Reading area in the 1930s, running concurrent with US 122 through downtown Reading. The US 122 and PA 73 concurrencies were removed by 1966. In 1975, US 222 was rerouted to bypass Reading on the West Shore Bypass and the Warren Street Bypass, with the former alignment through the city becoming US 222 Bus. In 1998, US 222 Bus. was extended north to its current terminus following the rerouting of US 222 to a new outer bypass of Reading. The business route was extended south to its current endpoint in 2004 with the completion of the US 222 freeway south of Reading to Mohnton.

title: U.S. Route 222


text: Category talk:South Korea

title: Category talk:South Korea


text:
Category talk:North Korea

Why is Primorsky Krai (a Russian subdivision) listed in this category? It has a border with North Korea, but that's about all Primorsky Krai and North Korea have in common.—Ëzhiki (erinaceus europeaus) 17:47, Oct 22, 2004 (UTC)
 * Thanks for taking care of this.—Ëzhiki (erinaceus europeaus) 17:34, Nov 9, 2004 (UTC)

title: Category talk:North Korea


text:
Talk:BLISS

Untitled
I've made some changes to this page and added some additional links. I really don't know what I'm doing so please feel free to fix anything I might have screwed up. Thanks. --Jeff

BLISS was perfectly fine and perfectly unambiguous at "BLISS", and linked to in that form from a bunch of places - unless someone gives me a compelling reason, I'm going to move it back. Stan 20:46, 15 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Stan, the idea would be to eventually be able to automatically produce dynamic lists of prog langs (in fact, if you take a look at the 'Category:Programming languages' page you will see that, for example, the article with the list of prog langs in alphabetical order becomes redundant, and with it go away the problems of keeping it synchronized (which are not trivial). Please detail how the change affects you and I will try to fix it. Thanks in advance for your response. danakil
 * Um, if all the languages are in the category, then it doesn't matter what the articles are named, just build the list. There is a whole subculture that thinks about this sort of thing (see Categorization). My personal trend has been to augment lists with piping and annotations that make them useful for readers in a way that categories can't be (for instance, abstracting away the "programming language" appendage that a category listing can't know to filter out), with the future expectation of using a category to check list content. But that's me; there are other WP people who've spent a lot more time thinking about this. Stan 22:13, 15 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Who uses BLISS
Apart from on vms systems, where would i find a bliss compiler or even applications?

 * Umm, nobody in their right minds? ;-)

 * Seriously, DEC used it extensively for both VMS systems components (e.g., the filesystem) and for the CUSPs (the utility programs). The VAX 8800 (Nautilus) and 88x0 (Polarstar) consoles were both mostly programmed in BLISS. It was available for PDP-10s and I believe was used by DEC there as well (although I have no direct knowledge of that area.) It was available for PDP-11s as well (as a VMS-based cross-compiler) but aside from the Nautilus Console, I don't know if it was used on PDP-11s.

 * Outside of DEC, it was used by some DEC customers. The language is presently available somewhere out there on the web.

 * BLISS's day has definitely come and gone, though. More recent VMS development has all been done in C.

 * Atlant 13:32, 17 July 2006 (UTC)

 * But we miss languages with an expression-oriented syntax. Wouldn't C be nice if you could say "a = {if (b>c) value(d); else value(e);}+f;" instead of getting just a couple of special purpose operators such as "a=(b>c?d:e)+f;" Trevor Hanson 05:27, 31 December 2006 (UTC)

 * Yes, BLISS was used for the PDP-10. The operating system (TOPS-10) and many (if not all) system utilities were written in BLISS. I used BLISS to write some user-level code because it offered capabilities not in other available languages. Zubdub 07:23, 17 January 2007 (UTC)

 * TOPS-10 which originates in the 1960's predates the availability of BLISS. Also, not "all" system utilities were written in BLISS.  There are several externally linked sites which offer data on what was implemented in MACRO-10 and what was implemented in BLISS. patsw (talk) 16:25, 8 June 2009 (UTC)

Functional or procedural?

 * Is this language better characterized as functional? According to the writeup;- "This means that every construct of the language that is not a declaration is an expression". Wouldn't that put it in a similar category to things like Lisp or Haskel? Not proposing original research here, more a query, since its categorization here doesnt track with my understanding of certain terms, and I've never encountered this language in the wild (But no doubt my [dearly departed, RIP] grandfather, who was a Vax coder, would have). Just a query really. Duckmonster (talk) 06:18, 12 September 2023 (UTC)

Requested move
BLISS → BLISS (programming language) — Disambiguation between Bliss and BLISS (album). PC78 20:17, 15 January 2007 (UTC)

Survey

 * Add  # Support   or   # Oppose   on a new line in the appropriate section followed by a brief explanation, then sign your opinion using ~ .

Survey - Support votes

 * 1) Support as nominator, unless anyone has a better suggestion. PC78 20:18, 15 January 2007 (UTC)
 * Changed to BLISS (programming language). PC78 16:53, 16 January 2007 (UTC)

 * Support -- With the change, I support the move. I think it's generally a bad idea if we have several topics that are distinguished only by their capitalization. Wiki, like good filesystems, ought to be case-preserving but case-insensitive ;-). Atlant 17:25, 16 January 2007 (UTC)
 * Support Zubdub 07:13, 17 January 2007 (UTC)
 * Support Trevor Hanson 08:24, 17 January 2007 (UTC)
 * Support -- See discussion below. --Wirbelwind ヴィルヴェルヴィント (talk) 05:25, 18 January 2007 (UTC)

Discussion

 * Add any additional comments:
 * I note that we have no consistent way of naming language articles. However, these forms seems the most common: C (programming language), Smalltalk programming language. I don't think we need a new category of names for the purpose of disambiguation. Why not call the new article either BLISS programming language (which already exists as a redirector) or BLISS (programming language)? I would support either; the former usage seems more common, though the latter seems more clear. Trevor Hanson 00:04, 16 January 2007 (UTC)
 * I agree with the above, but I prefer BLISS (programming language), unless "programming language" is part of the name. --Wirbelwind ヴィルヴェルヴィント (talk) 09:51, 16 January 2007 (UTC)
 * I'll change it to BLISS (programming language) if that's what is preferred. PC78 15:46, 16 January 2007 (UTC)
 * Actually, as I was putting in the support vote, I realized that it should probably be Bliss (programming language) instead. For example, Pascal (programming language) instead of PASCAL, because all-caps is usually made into normal text in article names. --Wirbelwind ヴィルヴェルヴィント (talk) 18:21, 16 January 2007 (UTC)
 * No, BLISS is an acronym (although there's debate about what it expands to) so uppercase is correct. Atlant 18:23, 16 January 2007 (UTC)

(Note: I moved my comment from here as it doesnt belong in this block....) Duckmonster (talk) 06:18, 12 September 2023 (UTC)

Dead link
The link for the large display quote appears dead: http://63.249.85.132/langs/bliss/bliss.pdf. Actually quite a few of the links from this article may be dead [RIP DEC]. Could someone check and see if alternate sources are available?Peter Flass (talk) 13:51, 23 January 2012 (UTC)

title: Talk:BLISS


text: Category talk:Korea

title: Category talk:Korea


text:
Category:Lists of national parks

nl:Categorie:Lijsten van natuurgebieden

title: Category:Lists of national parks


text:
U.S. Route 322

U.S. Route 322 (US 322) is a 494 mi, east–west United States Highway, traversing Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey. The road is a spur of US 22 and one of the original highways from 1926. A portion of it at one time was concurrent with the Lakes-to-Sea Highway.

Route description

 * OH
 * 62
 * 99
 * PA
 * 370
 * 595
 * NJ
 * 62
 * 99
 * }
 * 62
 * 99
 * }

Ohio
US 322 begins at the intersection of Superior Avenue and East Roadway at Public Square in Downtown Cleveland, just northeast of the junction of U.S. Routes US 6, US 42, and State Route 3 (Superior Avenue) with US 422 and State Route 8, State Route 14, State Route 43, and State Route 87 (Ontario Street). East of Public Square, the route runs eastward through midtown Cleveland conjoined with US 6 along Superior Avenue. Northwest of Cleveland State University, US 322 turns south onto 13th Street and runs eastward (as Chester Avenue) through Playhouse Square. Exiting the commercial district, US 322 interchanges Interstate 90, at exit 173. In University Circle, US 322 is briefly concurrent with U.S. Route 20 (Euclid Avenue), running through the campus of Case Western Reserve University. The overlap terminates at the eastern edge of University Circle, where US 322 splits off to the south by southwest, becoming Mayfield Road as it enters Little Italy, and through the eastern suburbs of Cleveland Heights, South Euclid, Lyndhurst, Mayfield Heights, and Gates Mills, continuing on as Mayfield until the Geauga County/Ashtabula County line.

In Geauga County, US 322 passes through suburban Chester Township and into Ohio's second largest Amish community, which includes the rural townships of Claridon, Huntsburg, Windsor Township and the west side of Orwell Township. In Ashtabula County, US 322 crosses through Windsor Township, Orwell Township, the village of Orwell, Colebrook Township, Wayne Township and Williamsfield Township before crossing the Ohio-Pennsylvania state line south of Pymatuning Reservoir.

Pennsylvania
US 322 enters Pennsylvania from Ohio in West Shenango Township. From this point, the road continues east, forming a concurrency with U.S. Route 6 between Conneaut Lake and Meadville, interchanging with Interstate 79 and intersecting U.S. Route 19 in Meadville. In Franklin, the route crosses U.S. Route 62. Continuing east, US 322 interchanges with Interstate 80 near Clarion before meeting U.S. Route 119 and U.S. Route 219 south of DuBois. US 322 heads southeast as a surface road before merging onto the Interstate 99/U.S. Route 220 freeway in Port Matilda, following that east to State College. The US 322 freeway continues past I-99 before ending to the east of State College. Near Potters Mills, US 322 becomes a freeway again and intersects U.S. Route 22 and U.S. Route 522 in Lewistown, forming a long concurrency with the former.

The US 22/US 322 freeway continues across the Appalachian Mountains, meeting U.S. Route 11/U.S. Route 15 prior to crossing the Susquehanna River by way of the Clarks Ferry Bridge. The road continues south along the east bank of the river to Harrisburg, where US 322 splits from US 22 by heading east onto Interstate 81 and then south onto Interstate 83. At the interchange between I-83 and the northern terminus of Interstate 283, US 322 turns east and heads to Hershey, intersecting U.S. Route 422. From this point, US 322 heads southeast through the Pennsylvania Dutch Country, intersecting U.S. Route 222 at a diverging diamond interchange near Ephrata. In Downingtown, the route crosses U.S. Route 30 before heading to West Chester. Here, US 322 bypasses the town and merges onto a freeway alignment along with U.S. Route 202 that ends to the south of West Chester. US 322 follows US 202 until Painters Crossing, where it turns east onto U.S. Route 1. In Concordville, US 322 splits from US 1 and heads southeast to Chester. In Chester, the route forms a brief concurrency with Interstate 95 before heading southeast and interchanging with U.S. Route 13 prior to the Commodore Barry Bridge over the Delaware River.

New Jersey
US 322 enters New Jersey via the Commodore Barry Bridge just north of Delaware and interchanges with Interstate 295 and the New Jersey Turnpike before entering historic Mullica Hill. In Glassboro, it bisects Rowan University. At Williamstown, US 322 goes onto the Black Horse Pike (picking up where Route 42 ends) and follows it the rest of the way to Atlantic City, being concurrent with U.S. Route 40 from Mays Landing on east. In the 1960s and 1970s, the New Jersey Department of Transportation (NJDOT) had planned for a freeway bypass of U.S. Route 322 around Glassboro. Later it was planned as a New Jersey Turnpike extension, but all plans were dropped due to budget cuts and mounting opposition.

Major intersections

 * Ohio
 * / Public Square in Cleveland. US 6/US 322 travels concurrently through Cleveland.
 * in Cleveland
 * in Cleveland. The highways travel concurrently through Cleveland.
 * in Mayfield Heights

 * Pennsylvania
 * in Conneaut Lake. The highways travel concurrently to Meadville.
 * south-southwest of Fredericksburg. The highways travel concurrently to Meadville.
 * in Fredericksburg
 * in Franklin. The highways travel concurrently through Franklin.
 * west of Corsica
 * south-southwest of Sandy
 * south-southeast of Sandy. The highways travel concurrently to Luthersburg.
 * north-northwest of Port Matilda. The highways travel concurrently to Pennsylvania State University west of Houserville.
 * in Highland Park. US 22/US 322 travels concurrently to Harrisburg. US 322/US 22 travels concurrently to Lewistown as well.
 * north-northeast of Duncannon
 * in Harrisburg. I-81/US 322 travels concurrently to the Progress–Colonial Park CDP line.
 * on the Progress–Colonial Park CDP line. I-83/US 322 travels concurrently to west of Lawnton.
 * on the Progress–Colonial Park CDP line
 * in Hershey
 * southeast of Ephrata
 * west-northwest of Downingtown
 * northeast of West Chester. The highways travel concurrently to west-southwest of Concordville.
 * west-southwest of Concordville. US 1/US 322 travels concurrently to Concordville.
 * in Chester. The highways travel concurrently through Chester.
 * in Chester

 * New Jersey
 * in Bridgeport
 * south-southeast of Bridgeport
 * in McKee City. The highways travel concurrently to Atlantic City.
 * in Pleasantville
 * Atlantic Avenue / Pacific Avenue in Atlantic City

title: U.S. Route 322


text:
User talk:E-worker

Guido Borelli

 * 1) I have been in contact with Guido, check my archived talk. Guido never claimed to have written the text himself, but that some Debra Nesta from the magazine CT did.
 * 2) You should have followed the instructions in the copyvio template and rewritten the article on the /Temp page. Now I either have to roll back to the copyvio version and make you copy/paste the text from the page history to the /Temp page in order to remove the copyvio, or it'll stay forever in the history. In this one case, I won't do anything except tone down the hype and trim the over-long list of exhibitions.
 * 3) Unless you provide a source and copyright and licensing info for the images used in the article, they'll have to go.

As it is now, this article is an advertisement and in violation of our NPOV policy. Lupo 20:51, 15 Aug 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:E-worker


text:
William Kirby (entomologist)

William Kirby (19 September 1759 – 4 July 1850) was an English entomologist, an original member of the Linnean Society and a Fellow of the Royal Society, as well as a country rector, so that he was an eminent example of the "parson-naturalist". The four-volume Introduction to Entomology, co-written with William Spence, was widely influential.

Family origins and early studies
Kirby was a grandson of the Suffolk topographer John Kirby (author of The Suffolk Traveller) and nephew of artist-topographer Joshua Kirby (a friend of Thomas Gainsborough's). He was also a cousin of the children's author Sarah Trimmer. His parents were William Kirby, a solicitor, and Lucy Meadows. He was born on 19 September 1759 at Witnesham, Suffolk, and studied at Ipswich School and Caius College, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1781. Taking holy orders in 1782, he spent his entire working life in the peaceful seclusion of an English country parsonage at Barham in Suffolk, working at the parish church of St Mary's for 68 years, first as curate, then as rector from 1797. He assisted in the publication of pamphlets against Thomas Paine during the 1790s.

Kirby was brought to the study of natural history by Nicholas Gwynn (a friend of Boerhaave's), who introduced him to Sir James Edward Smith in 1791. Soon afterwards, he corresponded with Smith, seeking advice on the foundation of a natural history museum at Ipswich. Among his early friends were the naturalists Charles Sutton and Thomas Marsham, with whom he made lengthy scientific excursions, as later with William Jackson Hooker and others, becoming a leading parson-naturalist. His name appears on the original list of Fellows of the Linnean Society. He delivered the first of his many papers on 7 May 1793, on Three New Species of Hirudo (Linn. Trans. II, 316).

Major publications
Kirby produced his first major work, the Monographia Apum Angliae (Monograph on the Bees of England), in 1802. His purpose was both scientific and religious: 'The author of Scripture is also the author of Nature: and this visible world, by types indeed, and by symbols, declares the same truths as the Bible does by words. To make the naturalist a religious man – to turn his attention to the glory of God, that he may declare his works, and in the study of his creatures may see the loving-kindness of the Lord – may this in some measure be the fruit of my work…' (Correspondence, 1800) This, the first scientific treatise on English bees, brought him to the notice of leading entomologists in Britain and abroad. Extensive correspondence followed with scientists including Alexander Macleay, Walkenaer, Johan Christian Fabricius and Adam Afzelius. 153 of the bee species, including Lasioglossum malachurum, came from Kirby's own parish.

Kirby began planning his Introduction to Entomology, a celebrated title, in 1808. This was the practical result of a friendship formed in 1805 with William Spence and appeared in four volumes between 1815 and 1826. Much of the work fell to Kirby owing to Spence's ill health. The book was illustrated by John Curtis. It reached its seventh edition in 1856. In 1830 he was invited to write one of the Bridgewater Treatises, his subject being The History, Habits, and Instincts of Animals (2 vols., 1835).

With Edward Sabine and J.E. Gray, Kirby prepared the natural history supplement for Captain William Parry's 1819–1820 polar expedition to seek the North-West Passage: his work formed the insect section of the Account of the Animals seen by the late Northern Expedition while within the Arctic Circle 1821. His friend W.J. Hooker established his contact with John Richardson to involve him in the publication of findings from Sir John Franklin's 1st and 2nd expeditions, the insect section in the Fauna Boreali-Americana in 1837.

Institution-founding activities
In 1815, Kirby took his MA with the intention of applying for the Professorship of Botany at the University of Cambridge when it should become vacant. A dispute arose as to whether this appointment lay in the grant of the Senate or the Crown. Kirby's Tory political complexion proved a stumbling-block, and in the event John Stevens Henslow was appointed.

In 1827, Kirby assisted Henry Denny in arranging the natural history specimens at Norwich Museum. In 1832, he helped to establish an early museum in Ipswich under the aegis of the town's Literary Institute, and presented a herbarium and a group of fossils. With Spence, he helped to found the Entomological Society of London in 1833, with John Westwood as Secretary, and became its Honorary President for life. On that occasion, he presented his own cabinet of insects, collected over more than 40 years, which contained many of the specimens figured in his papers.

Kirby was the original President of the Ipswich Museum, 1847–50, fulfilling a project which he had advocated since 1791, and appeared with William Buckland and others at the opening ceremony. The lithograph by T.H. Maguire was copied from the oil portrait by Friedrich Henry Bischoff commissioned for and still displayed in the Museum. Professor Henslow succeeded him in this office.

Works
Besides the books already mentioned he was the author of many papers in the Transactions of the Linnean Society, the Zoological Journal and other periodicals; Strictures on Sir James Smith's Hypothesis respecting the Lilies of the Field of our Saviour and the Acanthus of Virgil (1819) and Seven Sermons on our Lords Temptations (1829). His Life by the Rev. John Freeman contains an extensive list of his works.

 * Kirby, W. & Spence, W., Introduction to Entomology, 4 volumes, (1815–1826).
 * Kirby, W., Monographia Apum Angliae; 2 volumes, (1802).
 * Kirby, W., On the Power Wisdom and Goodness of God. As Manifested in the Creation of Animals and in Their History, Habits and Instincts; Bridgewater Treatises, W. Pickering, 1835 (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2009; ISBN 978-1-108-00073-4)
 * 'A Century of Insects. Including Several New Genera Described from His Cabinet'; Transactions Linnean Society London, 12:375–453 (1818).
 * 'A Description of Several New Species of Insects Collected in New Holland by Robert Brown, Esq.'; Transactions Linnean Society London, 12:454–482 (1818).
 * 'A description of some coleopterous insects in the collection of the Rev. F.W. Hope, F.L.S.', Zoological Journal, 3:520–525 (1828).
 * 'The Insects' in J. Richardson, Fauna Boreali-Americana; or the Zoology of the Northern Parts of British America: Containing Descriptions of the Objects of Natural History Collected on the Late NorthernLand Expeditions, under Command of Captain Sir John Franklin, R.N; Josiah Fletcher, Norwich, Vol. 4, 377 pp. (Norwich, Josiah Fletcher, 1837).

Images

 * Portraits of the Honorary Members of the Ipswich Museum (Portfolio of 60 lithographs by T. H. Maguire) (George Ransome, Ipswich, 1846–1852).
 * Original drawing by William Spence. Pasted into George Crawford Hyndman's copy of Volume 1 of the Transactions of the Entomological Society of London. Ulster Museum.

title: William Kirby (entomologist)