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Siege of Bastogne

The Siege of Bastogne was an engagement in December 1944 between American and German forces at the Belgian town of Bastogne, as part of the larger Battle of the Bulge. The goal of the German offensive was the harbor at Antwerp. In order to reach it before the Allies could regroup and bring their superior air power to bear, German mechanized forces had to seize the roadways through eastern Belgium. Because all seven main roads in the densely wooded Ardennes highlands converged on Bastogne, just a few miles away from the border with neighboring Luxembourg, control of its crossroads was vital to the German attack.

The German offensive began on 16 December. Although outnumbered, the regiments of the 28th Infantry Division delayed the German advance towards Bastogne, allowing American units, including the 101st Airborne Division, to reach Bastogne before the German forces surrounded the town and isolated it on 20 December. Until 23 December, the weather prevented Allied aircraft from attempting to resupply Bastogne or from performing ground attack missions against German forces. The siege was lifted on 26 December, when a spearhead of the 4th Armored Division and other elements of General George Patton's Third Army opened a corridor to Bastogne.

Background
After the successful invasion of Normandy and the subsequent eastward push through France, the Allied front lines extended from Nijmegen in the north down to neutral Switzerland in the south. The valuable port city of Antwerp had been captured during the push, and by the time winter arrived, the Allies even had control of German territory near the city of Aachen. Adolf Hitler soon laid out a plan to attack the Allied lines in Belgium and Luxembourg; 25 divisions would launch a surprise attack through the Ardennes, with the aim of crossing the river Meuse (called Maas in German and Dutch) and recapturing Antwerp. Despite major misgivings from his senior commanders, including Gerd von Rundstedt and Walther Model, the plan was not modified and the jump-off date was eventually set as 16 December 1944. Meanwhile, the Allied commanders considered the Ardennes area to be unsuitable for a large-scale German attack, mainly because of terrain issues. In addition, intelligence reports suggested that the only German divisions stationed in the area were weary, and in the weeks leading up to the assault, no Allied commander saw reason to believe that an attack was imminent. Bastogne, a hub city that commanded several important roads in the area, was defended mainly by the 28th Infantry Division, which had seen continuous fighting from 22 July to 19 November, most recently in the Battle of Hürtgen Forest, before being assigned to this relatively quiet area. The Allies believed only an infantry division was present opposite the 28th Infantry, and they believed any attack along this sector would be limited in scale. The seven roads in and out of Bastogne were critical to the movement of German armor, making Allied retention of the roads imperative.

Hasso von Manteuffel—commanding the 5th Panzer Army—gave Heinrich Freiherr von Lüttwitz′s XLVII Panzer Corps the responsibility of capturing Bastogne, before crossing the Meuse near Namur. Lüttwitz planned to attack a 7 mi front with three divisions: the 26th Volksgrenadier and the 2nd Panzer would lead the assault, with the Panzer-Lehr-Division behind them. Opposing this significant force were two battalions of the 110th Infantry Regiment (the third was held back as a division reserve), responsible for a 9 mi front along the river Our which forms the border between Germany and neighboring Luxembourg. The Allied forces were gathered into small groups at major Luxembourgish villages, with outposts along the river manned only during the daytime. The forces were too thin to maintain an even battle line, they focused their attention on the four roads that crossed the Our. Due to heavy rain preceding the German attack, only one of the roads was in good enough condition to be used as a crossing point—the northernmost road, which crossed the Our at Dasburg on its way to the Luxembourgish town of Clervaux (in German: Klerf, in Luxembourgish: Klierf) and Bastogne. The 2nd Panzer Division was assigned to cross the river along this road, while the 26th Volksgrenadier Division would construct a bridge near Gemünd for its crossing. Lüttwitz realized the importance of the road network of Bastogne—he knew that the town had to be captured before his corps could venture too far westward. Therefore, he ordered the Panzer-Lehr Division to push forward to Bastogne as soon as his other troops had crossed the river Clerve in Northern Luxembourg.

The attack
On the evening of 15 December, the 26th Volksgrenadier established an outpost line on the west bank of the Our, something they did routinely during the nighttime. At 03:00, engineers began ferrying men and equipment over the river where they began assembling at the departure point, quite close to the American garrisons. At 05:30, the German artillery began bombarding the American positions, knocking out telephone lines, as the infantry started to advance. The Germans attacked swiftly, their advances made possible by sheer weight of numbers. In the Luxembourgish village of Weiler, one American company, supported by some mortars and a platoon of anti-tank guns, lasted until nightfall against repeated attacks from multiple German battalions. German engineers completed bridges over the Our before dark, and armor began moving to the front, adding to the Germans' vast numerical superiority. But in the end, the Germans were significantly delayed by the American defenders—their plan to cross the Clerf River by nightfall on the first day was delayed by three days.

On 19 December, the 28th Division command post transferred to Bastogne from Wiltz, a large Luxembourgish town to the southeast. At Wiltz, the division put up its last stand; 3rd Battalion of the 110th—supported by armor and artillery—arrived at the town around noon of that day. The 44th Engineer Battalion was set up north of the town, but they were soon overwhelmed and retreated into the town, blowing up a bridge behind them. This small force—numbering no more than 500 in total—held out until the evening, when their position became completely untenable and they retreated to the west. With the 110th Infantry completely destroyed as an effective combat unit, it would be up to the rest of the Allied army to defend Bastogne.

Commitment of reserves
Despite several notable signs in the weeks preceding the attack, the Ardennes Offensive achieved virtually complete surprise. By the end of the second day of battle, it became apparent that the 28th Infantry was near collapse. To assist in the defense of Bastogne, Major General Troy H. Middleton, already commander of VIII Corps, was given Combat Command B of the 10th Armored Division. CCB consisted of the 3rd Tank Battalion, 20th Armored Infantry Battalion, C Company 21st Tank Battalion, B Company 54th Armored Infantry Battalion, C Company, 609th Tank Destroyer Battalion, 419th Armored Field Artillery Battalion, and three companies of support troops. General George S. Patton, commander of the U.S. Third Army was not happy about giving up the CCB unit right before he planned an offensive near Mainz but General Omar Bradley, commander of the 12th Army Group, ordered Patton to release the unit. Meanwhile, General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Supreme Allied Commander, ordered forward the SHAEF reserve, composed of the 82nd Airborne Division, commanded by Major General James Gavin, and the 101st Airborne Division, temporarily under command of Brigadier General Anthony McAuliffe, at Reims. These were veteran troops that had served with distinction since the parachute drops in Normandy and were resting and re-equipping after two months of combat in the Netherlands after Operation Market Garden. Both divisions were alerted on the evening of 17 December, and not having transport automatically assigned for their use, began arranging trucks for movement forward. The 82nd—longer in reserve and thus better re-equipped—moved out first. The 101st left Camp Mourmelon on the afternoon of 18 December, with the order of march of the division artillery, division trains, 501st Parachute Infantry Regiment (PIR), 506th PIR, 502nd PIR, and 327th Glider Infantry Regiment (GIR). Much of the convoy was conducted at night in drizzle and sleet, using headlights despite threat of air attack to speed the movement, and at one point the combined column stretched from Bouillon, Belgium, back to Reims, a distance of 120 km.

The 101st Airborne was originally supposed to go to Werbomont on the northern shoulder but was rerouted to Bastogne, located 107 mi away on a 1463 ft high plateau, while the 82nd Airborne, because it was able to leave sooner, went to Werbomont to block the critical advance of the Kampfgruppe Peiper ("Combat Group Peiper"). The 705th Tank Destroyer Battalion—in reserve 60 mi to the north—was ordered to Bastogne to provide anti-tank support to the armor-less 101st Airborne on 18 December and arrived late the next evening. The first elements of the 501st PIR entered the division assembly area 4 mi west of Bastogne shortly after midnight of 19 December, and by 09:00 the entire division had arrived.

McAuliffe sent the 501st PIR southeast through Bastogne at 06:00 to develop the situation. By 09:00, it had advanced and deployed on either side of the highway to Magéret and Longvilly, where the Panzer-Lehr-Division was engaged in an all-day action to destroy the armor-infantry combat teams assigned to slow the German advance. The 506th followed shortly thereafter, its 1st Battalion was sent to Noville to reinforce Major William R. Desobry's team from the 10th Armored CCB while the other two battalions were ordered to act as reserves north of Bastogne. The 502nd PIR marched north and northwest to establish a line from Champs east to Recogne, while the 327th GIR, newly arrived, protected the division service area southwest of Bastogne until German intentions could be deciphered.

Initial combat at Noville
On 19–20 December, the 1st Battalion of the 506th PIR was ordered to support Team Desobry, a battalion-sized tank-infantry task force of the 10th Armored Division assigned to defend Noville located north-northeast of both Foy and of Bastogne just 4.36 mi away. With just four M18 Hellcat tank destroyers of the 705th Tank Destroyer Battalion to assist, the paratroopers attacked units of the 2nd Panzer Division, whose mission was to proceed by secondary roads via Monaville (just northwest of Bastogne) to seize a key highway and capture, among other objectives, fuel dumps—for the lack of which the overall German counter-offensive faltered and failed. Worried about the threat to its left flank in Bastogne, it organized a major combined arms attack to seize Noville. Team Desobry's high speed highway journey to reach the blocking position is one of the few documented cases in which the top speed of the M18 Hellcat (55 mph) was actually used to get ahead of an enemy force as envisioned by its specifications.

The attack of 1st Battalion and the M18 Hellcat tank destroyers of the 705th TD Battalion together destroyed at least 30 German tanks and inflicted 500–1,000 casualties on the attacking forces in what amounted to a spoiling attack. The 3rd Battalion was ordered forward from a reserve position north of Bastogne to ease the pressure on 1st Battalion by occupying a supporting position in Foy to the south.

The heavy losses inflicted by the tank-destroyers deceived the German commander into believing the village was being held by a much stronger force and he recoiled from further attacks on the village, committing a strategic error while seeking tactical advantage—significantly delaying the German advance and setting the stage for the siege of Bastogne just to the south. This delay also gave the 101st Airborne Division enough time to organize defenses around Bastogne. After two days, the 2nd Panzer Division finally continued on its original mission to the Meuse River. As a consequence of its involvement at Bastogne, and its failure to dislodge the airborne forces, the column ultimately ran out of fuel at Celles, where it was destroyed by the U.S. 2nd Armored Division and the British 29th Armoured Brigade.

By the time the 1st Battalion pulled out of Noville on the 20th, the village of Foy half-way to Bastogne center had been captured from the 3rd Battalion by a separate attack, forcing the 1st Battalion to then fight its way through Foy. By the time 1st Battalion made it to the safety of American lines, it had lost 13 officers and 199 enlisted men, out of about 600 troops, and was assigned as the division reserve. Team Desobry lost a quarter of its troops and was reduced to just four medium tanks when it passed through the lines of 3rd Battalion.

Battle

The 101st Airborne formed an all-round perimeter using the 502nd PIR on the northwest shoulder to block the 26th Volksgrenadier, the 506th PIR to block entry from Noville, the 501st PIR defending the eastern approach, and the 327th Glider Infantry Regiment scattered from Marvie in the southeast to Champs in the west along the southern perimeter, augmented by engineer and artillery units plugging gaps in the line. The division service area to the west of Bastogne had been raided the first night, causing the loss of almost its entire medical company, and numerous service troops were used as infantry to reinforce the thin lines. CCB of the 10th Armored Division, severely weakened by losses to its Team Desobry, Team Cherry (Lt. Col. Henry T. Cherry), and Team O'Hara (Lt. Col. James O'Hara) in delaying the Germans, formed a mobile "fire brigade" of 40 light and medium tanks (including survivors of CCR 9th Armored Division and eight replacement tanks found unassigned in Bastogne).

Three artillery battalions were commandeered and formed a temporary artillery group. Each had twelve 155 mm howitzers, providing the division with heavy firepower in all directions restricted only by its limited ammunition supply. Col. Roberts, commanding CCB, also rounded up 600+ stragglers from the rout of VIII Corps and formed Team SNAFU as a further stopgap force.

Many of the artillery guns were used in a direct fire role against enemy armor, with over 2000 rounds used for this purpose on December 20. The division's anti-aircraft batteries were also moved into the front lines to fire against enemy armor to augment their 57mm anti-tank guns

As a result of the powerful American defense to the north and east, XLVII Panzer Corps commander Gen. von Lüttwitz decided to encircle Bastogne and strike from the south and southwest, beginning on the Winter Solstice, the night of 20/21 December. German Panzer reconnaissance units had initial success, nearly overrunning the American artillery positions southwest of Bastogne before being stopped by a makeshift force. All seven highways leading to Bastogne were cut by German forces by noon on 21 December, and by nightfall the conglomeration of airborne and armored infantry forces were recognized by both sides as being surrounded.

The American soldiers were outnumbered approximately 5 to 1 and were lacking in cold-weather gear, ammunition, food, medical supplies, and senior leadership (as many senior officers, including the 101st's commander—Major General Maxwell Taylor—were elsewhere). Due to the worst winter weather in memory, the surrounded U.S. forces could not be resupplied by air nor was tactical air support available due to cloudy weather.

However, the two Panzer divisions of the XLVII Panzer Corps—after using their mobility to isolate Bastogne, continued their mission towards the Meuse on 22 December, rather than attacking Bastogne with a single large force. They left just one regiment behind to assist the 26th Volksgrenadier Division in capturing the crossroads. The XLVII Panzer Corps probed different points of the southern and western defensive perimeter in echelon, where Bastogne was defended by just a single airborne regiment and support units doubling as infantry. This played into the American advantage of interior lines; the defenders were able to shift artillery fire and move their limited ad hoc armored forces to meet each successive assault.

It was on 22 December that von Lüttwitz submitted the following demand for surrender to his American counterpart commanding the American forces in Bastogne, McAuliffe:

"To the U.S.A. Commander of the encircled town of Bastogne.

The fortune of war is changing. This time the U.S.A. forces in and near Bastogne have been encircled by strong German armored units. More German armored units have crossed the river Our near Ortheuville, have taken Marche and reached St. Hubert by passing through Hompre-Sibret-Tillet. Libramont is in German hands.

There is only one possibility to save the encircled U.S.A. troops from total annihilation: that is the honorable surrender of the encircled town. In order to think it over a term of two hours will be granted beginning with the presentation of this note.

If this proposal should be rejected one German Artillery Corps and six heavy A. A. Battalions are ready to annihilate the U.S.A. troops in and near Bastogne. The order for firing will be given immediately after this two hours term.

All the serious civilian losses caused by this artillery fire would not correspond with the well-known American humanity.

The German Commander."

Shortly thereafter, McAuliffe sent the following communication to von Lüttwitz in response to the German demand:

To the German Commander.

NUTS!

The American Commander

The commander of the US 327th Glider Infantry Regiment interpreted it to the German truce party as "Go to hell!"

Despite the defiant American response to the surrender demand, the 26th VG received one Panzergrenadier regiment from the 15th Panzergrenadier Division on Christmas Eve for its main assault the next day. That night, at about 7:00 PM, Luftwaffe bombers attacked Bastogne, killing 21 in an aid station. Because it lacked sufficient troops and those of the 26th VG Division were near exhaustion, the XLVII Panzer Corps concentrated its assault on several individual locations on the west side of the perimeter in sequence rather than launching one simultaneous attack on all sides. The assault—led by 18 tanks carrying a battalion of infantry—pierced the lines of the 327th's 3rd Battalion (officially, the 1st Battalion, 401st Glider Infantry), and advanced as far as the battalion command post at Hemroulle.

However, the 327th held its original positions and repulsed infantry assaults that followed, capturing 92 Germans. The panzers that had achieved the penetration divided into two columns, one trying to reach Champs from the rear, and were destroyed in detail by two companies of the 1st Battalion 502nd PIR under Lt. Col. Patrick F. Cassidy and four tank destroyers of the 705th Tank Destroyer Battalion.

Allied control of Bastogne was a major obstacle to the German armored advance, and the morale of Allied forces elsewhere on the Western Front was boosted by news of the stubborn defense of the besieged town.

Breaking the encirclement
Elements of Patton's Third Army succeeded in reaching Bastogne from the southwest, arriving from the direction of Assenois. The spearhead reached the lines of the 326th Engineers on 26 December, Cobra King being the first tank to make contact at approximately 16:50. The 101st's ground communications with the American supply dumps were restored on 27 December, and the wounded were evacuated to the rear. Taylor reached Bastogne with the 4th Armored Division and resumed command.

Although Bastogne would be the scene of extreme fighting for several more weeks, with the break of the encirclement the siege period was over.

Aftermath
The 101st Airborne Division's casualties from 19 December 1944 to 6 January 1945 were 341 killed, 1,691 wounded, and 516 missing. Several regiments within the 101st were nicknamed "The Battered Bastards of Bastogne", due to their part in holding the important crossroads town during the Battle of the Bulge. For its defense of Bastogne, the headquarters of the 101st Airborne Division was awarded the Presidential Unit Citation (PUC), with a streamer, embroidered BASTOGNE, for the division's colors. Also, the division was awarded the Belgian Croix de Guerre 1940 with Palm, Streamer embroidered BASTOGNE, and cited in the Order of the Day of the Belgian Army for action at Bastogne.

The 10th Armored Division's Combat Command B incurred approximately 500 casualties. The 10th Armored Division's Combat Command B and 21st Tank Battalion were awarded the Presidential Unit Citation (PUC) for their actions at Bastogne. Years after the war, McAuliffe said "In my opinion, Combat Command B of the 10th Armored Division was never properly credited with their important role in the Bastogne battle."

Augusta Chiwy, a nurse who administered aid to the wounded during the siege, was honored with the Civilian Award for Humanitarian Service by the US Ambassador to Belgium Howard Gutman in December 2011.

title: Siege of Bastogne


text: Category:24th century BC

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Category:24th century BC


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title: Category:23rd century BC


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title: Category:21st century BC


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Wolfgang Paalen

Wolfgang Robert Paalen (July 22, 1905 in Vienna, Austria – September 24, 1959 in Taxco, Mexico) was an Austrian-Mexican painter, sculptor, and art philosopher. A member of the Abstraction-Création group from 1934 to 1935, he joined the influential Surrealist movement in 1935 and was one of its prominent exponents until 1942. Whilst in exile in Mexico, he founded his own counter-surrealist art-magazine DYN, in which he summarized his critical attitude towards radical subjectivism and Freudo-Marxism in Surrealism with his philosophy of contingency. He rejoined the group between 1951 and 1954, during his sojourn in Paris.

Family and childhood
Wolfgang Paalen was born in one of the famous Wienzeilenhäuser designed by Otto Wagner in Vienna (Köstlergasse 1 / Linke Wienzeile No. 40), Austria. He was the first of four sons of the Austrian-Jewish merchant and inventor Gustav Robert Paalen, and his German wife, the actress Clothilde Emilie Gunkel. Gustav Robert, who had Polish-Ashkenazi and Spanish-Sephardic origins, converted to Protestantism in 1900 and changed his name from Pollak to Paalen in the same year. His considerable wealth was based on modernist inventions and patents such as the vacuum cleaner, the vacuum flask, known under the name Thermos bottle, and the first flow-type heater (for Junkers), amongst others. In a relatively short period Gustav R. Paalen managed to ascend into the distinguished Viennese upper-class of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. He became also a well known collector of Old Master paintings with masterpieces, like Francisco Goya's Señora Sabasa Garcia, which he had acquired from the Berlin patron Henri James Simon and is today one of the highlights of the National Gallery, Washington. As a friend of Wilhelm von Bode and member of the Freundeskreis des Kaiser-Friedrich Museums, Berlin, he also financed the acquisition of the famous Titian painting Venus with the Organ-Player.

The first years of his life Wolfgang Paalen spent between Vienna and Styria where his father had opened the fashionable health resort Tobelbad, in the presence of Franz Joseph I of Austria, to whom he dedicated a memorial still visible today. In Tobelbad Paalen senior received such prominent guests as Gustav Mahler, poet and artist Fritz von Herzmanovsky-Orlando, Julius Meier-Graefe, Ida Zweig (the mother of Stefan Zweig), among others. Some sources claim that it was Paalen who introduced Alma Mahler, during her visit in Tobelbad in 1910, to the German architect Walter Gropius, whom she married later. 1912 the Paalen family moved to Berlin and to the Silesian city of Sagan (today Żagań), where his father had bought and rebuilt the castle of St. Rochusburg. During World War I Gustav Robert served both empires, the Austrian and the German, with the organization of food supply and worked closely together with Walther Rathenau and Albert Ballin's Zentral-Einkaufsgesellschaft. Wolfgang attended different schools in Sagan, and during the war his parents also engaged a private tutor. The teacher was also an organist who specialized in Johann Sebastian Bach, who thus became Wolfgang's favourite composer.

Early teachers and decline of the family
In 1919 the family moved to Rome, where they kept a luxurious household in the Villa Caetani on the Gianicolo and received many guests, such as the German painter Leo von König (1871–1944) who became Wolfgang's first art teacher. It was in Rome, under the guidance of his father's friend, the archeologist Ludwig Pollak, that he became an expert in Greek and Roman archaeology. In 1923 he returned to Berlin alone to apply for the academy. Although unsuccessful, he met his lifelong friend, companion and patron, the Swiss violinist, collector, filmmaker and photographer Eva Sulzer (Winterthur 1902 – 1990 Mexico City). In 1925 he exhibited at the Berlin Secession and studied further in aesthetics, deeply influenced by Julius Meier-Graefe, Nietzsche, Schopenhauer and the Gestalt theory of Max Wertheimer. It is here and with hypnopompic hallucinations in the castle in Sagan that he found the base for his later ideas of a deep entanglement of vision and outer world. After another year of studies, in Paris and Cassis (1925–26), where he met Roland Penrose, Jean Varda (Janco) and Georges Braque, he visited the art school of Hans Hofmann in Munich and, in 1928, Saint-Tropez. He then decided to settle in Paris. The year 1928 marks also the beginning of the decline of the family's splendour, once founded on the patriarchal rules of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. After a homoerotic affair with a mental healer, his younger brother Hans-Peter died unexpectedly in a Berlin insane asylum, presumably of suicide; the parents consequently separated; their mother's bipolar disposition intensified as a result; the fortune of Gustav Paalen is quashed after the Black Tuesday, 1929. A later tragedy, crucial to Paalen's development, was his beloved brother Rainer's shooting himself in head with a pistol. Wolfgang witnessed the event, although Rainer survived, following treatment in a Berlin hospital and escaped from the city in 1933. He died in a mental hospital in Czechoslovakia in 1942.

Paris and surrealism
In Paris he studied for a short time with Fernand Léger and in 1933 became a member of the Abstraction-Création group. He left the group in 1935, together with Hans Arp and Jean Hélion. His work at this time was inspired by Paul Valéry's Eupalinos and tends to macerate and condensate the abstract hardliners with regard to the Surrealists. The pictorial results may be seen as language games: testing the point to which concrete forms may be reduced to latency and the point where they transmit multiple meanings. Paalen anticipated with this research, in a certain sense, the later attempts of such abstractionists as Mark Rothko (Multiforms) and Arshile Gorky and amplified his attempts to visualize his idea of human perception as deeply linked to a cosmic texture of latent or possible contents, with whom every organism is interweaved. In 1934 he married the French poet Alice Phillipot, later known as Alice Rahon and again met frequently with Roland Penrose and his wife Valentine Boué, who brought the Paalens into contact with Paul Éluard. In the summer of 1935 he spent some time at the castle home of Lise Deharme, where he met the Parisian Surrealists and André Breton. An intense friendship developed almost immediately, and Breton involved his new adept in surrealist activities such as the Exposition surréaliste d'objets, which opened at the Galerie Charles Ratton in 1936. Here, Paalen showed L´heure exacte (The Exact Time), a clock with glass eyes and feather hands, which was displayed next to Giacometti's Boule suspendue (Suspended Ball). A small glazed showcase with clay idols called Aux bons soins du navigateur (At the Mercy of the Navigator) was shown, as was Le passage à niveau (The Level Crossing), a wooden root elegantly leaning on a cork wall, along with two other objects made of roots: Le crâne de Voltaire (Voltaire's Skull) and Les cerveaux de Rembrandt (Rembrandt's Brains). That same year Paalen had a solo exhibition of paintings in Paris at the Galerie Pierre, owned by Breton's friend Pierre Loeb. Breton and Penrose included him in the organization of the International Surrealist Exhibition in London, where he presented twelve oils, gouaches and objects as well as his first fumage (Dictated by a Candle) representing a ghostly hand performing the act of painting. The contact with Breton deepened during that time and Paalen also participated in the design of Breton's Galerie Gradiva. There he met and worked with Marcel Duchamp and presented his object Chaise envahie de lierre, acquired in the gallery by Marie-Laure de Noailles, who installed it in her famous bathroom, mentioned and illustrated in Harper's Bazaar in April 1938.

Fumage and first masterpieces
In the course of his association with the Surrealists and their attempts to transform automatic writing into drawing and painting, he created fumage – a technique for generating evocative patterns with the smoke and soot of a lit candle. Between 1936 and 1937 Paalen developed with these visionary-ephemeral forms on canvas, which he then mostly painted over in oil, a number of mature paintings which soon made his international reputation.

The further development in the work of Paalen continues to follow up the idea of a biological-evolutionary-physical-cosmological continuum, in which the human organism can evolve and unfold. Prelude for a series of oil-Fumages within the Surrealist group gave the discreet affair of Pablo Picasso with Alice Rahon which had led to an abortion. The deep crisis of the couple and Paalen's first grave attack of depression led to his first important Surrealist masterpiece, Pays interdit ("Forbidden Land"), an apocalyptic landscape dominated by a female goddess and fallen, meteorite-like planets. Paalen had designed his personal model of the permeable poetic soul in the form of a cryptic, abyssal landscape, pervaded by a mixture of feminine mystique and romantic ‘shock’ imagery reminiscent of pre-Celtic faerie mysteries and their cosmic allusions, as these are known in the lyrical tradition of Brittany. This was also the first painting, into which he artfully integrated his fumage, in the extremely fine, crystalline execution of the lower section. In 1937 he realized many paintings in this style, including Fata Alaska.

International Exhibition of Surrealism 1938 and surrealist objects
Together with Marcel Duchamp, Man Ray and Salvador Dalí, Paalen was among those responsible for the design of the 1938 International Exhibition of Surrealism at the Palais des Beaux Arts in Paris, where he produced a floor, with dead leaves and mud from the Montparnasse Cemetery, and an installation named Avant La Mare, consisting of an artificial pond with water, real water-lilies and reeds, beneath Duchamp's ceiling of empty coal sacks. The doll Paalen decorated came with a silk scarf, a giant bat on her head and an eerie, mushroom-covered leaf-dress. It anticipated the barely visible, floating, gliding totemic fairy creatures from his oil paintings with fumage that Pierre Colle would show the following June in his surrealist gallery. He also participated in the editorial of the catalogue, published as Dictionnaire abrégé du Surrealisme to the show, in which his most famous object, Nuage articulé, was discreetly announced as a drawing. Recent research suggests that Paalen had a huge influence on the design of the exhibition's Great Hall. Other critics suggest that the entire installation was meant to imply the minatorial situation of the Surrealist group itself, reflected by the approaching war, as well as a huge mother's womb as vade mecum to fight the causes of the crisis, which were located in the paternalistic fixations of the whole epoch. Paalen's biographer Andreas Neufert, in particular, suggests the latter reading and sees the installation as a symptom of an ideological shift within Surrealism, away from Freud's rigid theory of the Oedipus complex to ideas centred on Otto Rank's theory The Trauma of Birth, with its recognition of the emotional nature of the child and its ties to the mother. This latter theory was represented and defended exclusively by Paalen and his wife Alice Rahon in this period.

The erotic connotations of Nuage articulé, with its umbrella covered with natural sponges, embodied a dynamic sense of contradiction: bloom with stalk; sponge as symbol of nature, as a feminine utensil, which touched and cleaned naked female skin; umbrella as a masculine symbol of order and protection from natural forces. It thus became widely recognized among the Surrealists and their growing public. Geo Dupin, Paalen's sister-in-law, remembered that Alfred H. Barr, Jr. had been extremely taken with Paalen's object and had chosen not to buy it, for the Museum of Modern Art in New York City, only because it was too fragile and difficult to transport. Nuage articulé was published later in a more political context in the Surrealist magazine London Bulletin, together with a text by André Breton translated by Samuel Beckett with a comment that the sponge-umbrella would bring to mind another, sadly prominent, umbrella – that of Neville Chamberlain at the 1938 Munich Conference and the failure of the British policy of appeasement. Besides Nuage articulé, of which two versions are known and preserved In addition to Nuage articulé, Paalen presented other objects in the 1938 surrealist exhibition, such as: Potence avec paratonnerre (Gallows with Lightning Rod), a larger-than-life wooden gibbet with lightning rods and a dedication plaque to the German philosopher and experimental physicist Georg Christoph Lichtenberg; Le moi et le soi (The Ego and the Id); and a version of Chaise envahie de lierre. Perhaps inspired by the revolving doors used as movable walls for paintings and metaphorically called portes ‘revolver’ in the surrealist exhibition, Paalen designed a pistol shape from different small animal bones, which he fastened to a box with a tray and glass lid lined with black velvet. As in museum displays of valuable paleontological discoveries, he included its title on a copper plate inscribed ‘Le génie de l'espèce’ (The Genius, or Engineering, of the Species).

The paintings of 1938–39 and plans for Mexico
1938 he showed his new fumage paintings, which made his reputation as painter, in a show in Renou et Colle Gallery in Paris, with a catalogue text by Breton, written in Bermuda on his trip to Mexico. He published also the Lichtenberg-text Göttinger Taschenalmanach in surrealist magazine Minotaure with illustrations by him. In 1938 the Paalens socialised with Frida Kahlo during her visit in Paris. She invited the couple to Mexico, where Paalen wanted to organize a Surrealist exhibition together with Breton. It was Marcel Duchamp who recommended Paalen to Peggy Guggenheim and the New York dealer Julien Levy. "Dear Julien, P. S. to my recent letter: Do you know Paalen's work? I suppose that you have seen some reproductions. Among the young Surr[ealists]'s he ought to come out – he paints scenes "for" a sorcerer (you never see the witches). All this to hope that you might show him in N.Y", Duchamp had already written to Levy in January 1939; in March he added a note about the invitation to the Guggenheim show: “In London with Mary [Reynolds] for a few days – Just came to see the last day of Paalen's show – His "sorcelleries" look real on the walls – Hope you try them in N.Y." After his one-man-show at the Guggenheim Jeune Gallery in Cork Street, London, as the first of the surrealists, he decided to leave Europe and travelled first to New York in May 1939 together with his wife Alice and friend Eva Sulzer. The same year he traveled through British Columbia where he collected a major totem house-screen with the representation of a bear-woman, accessible through a hole in the womb (now in the Denver Art Museum). His literary text Paysage totémique, later published in his magazine DYN, originates from the travel-notebooks, films and photographs of this voyage. In September he arrived in Mexico, where Diego Rivera and Frida Kahlo accompanied him to a house in Coyoacán, next to Kahlo's Casa Azul (The Blue House), which they had rented for him.

The first years of exile in Mexico
In autumn 1939 he organized the International Surrealist Exhibition in the Galería de Arte Mexicano together with the Peruvian poet César Moro, which opened in January 1940 in the new gallery rooms of Ines Amor. In April 1940 he showed his great Fumages and new experimental work, close to abstraction, in New York at Julien Levy gallery with great success. Reporters witness that Paalen at a certain point switched out the light and walked around with a burning candle during the opening, gathered by young American painters such as Jackson Pollock, Adolph Gottlieb, Robert Motherwell, William Baziotes and Gerome Kamrowski. Neither in Mexico, nor in New York he came in contact to Leon Trotsky or his assistant Jean van Heijenoort (who then was living in New York), albeit the commendatory letter, Breton had written already in Paris, hoping that Paalen would continue the contact, he had established during his trip to Mexico in 1938. Paalen justified his refusal in a letter to Breton with his general critique on the pseudo-religious paternal fixations of the Surrealists who, in his opinion, didn't dispose of the means to find other ways out of the spiritual hole, the crisis of Marxism has left in their minds, than to look for new political fathers. Back in Mexico he broke up with his former friends Diego Rivera and Frida Kahlo across political opinions concerning their hard line in communism after the assassination of Leon Trotsky and their return to an open adoration of Joseph Stalin. More and more isolated from the Mexican intellectual leftists, he held an open household for European and American visitors, such as Roberto Matta, Robert Motherwell, Gordon Onslow Ford, Benjamin Péret, Remedios Varo, Esteban Francés as well as refugees from the stalinist terror, like Gustav Regler and Victor Serge. He helped to organize immigration visas for the surrealists in Vichy-France through the Union Mexico-Francia and Julien Levy. During his first period of exile, Paalen concentrated on the verbalization of his ideas on art and, apart from occasional visits to New York, experimented secretly, in his studio in San Ángel, in a new style on pictorial space.

DYN
In the spring of 1942 the New York art world witnessed the result of Paalen's intense work in the first years of exile in Mexico – the art journal DYN (derived from the Greek κατὰ τὸ δυνατόν – "that which is possible"). In its first issue he publicly announced to his friend Breton his Farewell to Surrealism. In the second issue he scandalised his former advocate again by publishing a survey on Dialectical Materialism and an article with the provocative title The dialectical Gospel, which caused a scandal among the New York Surrealists. The art historian Meyer Schapiro then organized a symposium on dialectical materialism, with the Surrealists in Breton's apartment in New York, which revealed nothing but the inadequate knowledge of the artists on this field. In DYN Paalen theoretically hedged his concept of possibility on various levels, with quantum theory, with his own concept of totemism, gestalt theory, with his criticisms of dialectical materialism and western dualistic concepts, with his analysis of cave painting, and so on. By means of his journal, with a total of five issues published in Mexico between 1942 and 1944, he temporarily advanced to be one of the most influential art theorists in the wartime period. Even Breton admitted in 1944 that Paalen's criticism of Surrealism was justified and that "we (the Surrealists) have left the whole licence to Paalen, who could say whatever he liked, without having the means to say something against or at least put something at his level. Paalen is winning on the whole line."

In seven large essays and countless smaller articles and reviews he discussed in detail the topical concerns of the young New York artists and, in response, received their full attention. Also his long article Totem Art had considerable influence on such artists, as Martha Graham, Isamu Noguchi, Jackson Pollock, Mark Rothko and Barnett Newman, mainly because of the new conception of considering totemistic art as part of ecstatic action and ritual with its psychic links to generic memory and matrilinear ancestor-worship. With the exception of Totem Art, all essays are republished under the title Form and Sense by Robert Motherwell in New York as the first issue of the series of writings titled Problems of Contemporary Art in which also the first papers of the later Abstract Expressionists, like Possibilities, were published. Paalen's short sojourns in New York and the two solo exhibitions made him known as a painter in artist's circles, however his predominant absence from the New York art scene and the wide reception of DYN and Form and Sense fostered his image as a kind of intellectual secret agent primarily exerting indirect influence on the events through his intensely discussed ideas.

In a note with the title America has a new art movement (the first authentic art movement here) Barnett Newman listed Paalen together with Pollock, Rothko, Hoffman, Gorky, Baziotes and Motherwell as "The men in the new art movement"; Motherwell appears with a question mark, while Paalen is listed twice, once with the adding "New" (probably dividing Paalen's surrealist from his DYN-works).

The German art historian Andreas Neufert, who has extensively explored Paalen's life and work, suggested in his 2015 biography on the artist, that DYN and the New York surrealist journal VVV were widely inspired by each other and can be seen partly as a hidden correspondence between Breton and Paalen. This assumption has been already denoted (but not fully explored) by Yve-Alain Bois in 2004 in his contribution "1942a – The depoliticization of the American avant-garde..."

The new concept of space in painting
It was in the 1940s that Paalen's art particularly played a major role in changing the conception of abstract art. Due to his magazine DYN, his presence and exhibitions in New York City, 1940 Julien Levy, 1945 Peggy Guggenheim's The Art of This Century gallery and 1946 Galerie Nierendorf in Berlin, he influenced significantly the genesis of Abstract Expressionism. Paintings such as Les premiers spaciales of 1941 set entirely on the new pictorial space because they concentrate on pictorially immanent means: Rhythm, light and colour. Important is that they transform the rhythmical appearance of the fumage imprints into a neo-cubist rhythm, which Paalen then compares with the fugue and jazz, through a mosaic-like fracture and complementary contrasts. He wants to create the atmosphere of a deeply moving, gripping encounter with beings that themselves remain silent. There is no action, no metamorphosis in them and nothing happens with them in the space. The picture itself is the being, or a frozen resonance of it. Precisely because of this total silence, every topical expectation put to them is reflected as a question. In a cartoon published by Ad Reinhardt in the fifties, Paalen's suggestion from Form and Sense is repeated: "Paintings no longer represent; it is no longer the task of art to answer naive questions. Today it has become the role of the painting to look at the spectator and ask him: what do you represent?" Gustav Regler wrote 1946 about this groundbreaking idea: There is no greater fear of the numerous escapists of our time than that before the mirror. An amazing, breathtaking idea: to have a portrait asking the original what it is worth, how it lives up to what the painter saw. The old symbol of Dorian Gray. Paalen renewed it in his way. He doubts whether anybody today even knows what he represents. He dares to pretend that someone can grow by the painter. He has the same hope as Pygmalion, to fall in love with his creation and to be outgrown by it. He waits for the picture to renounce allegiance to its creator. He paints his portrait without human features. Paalen understood his picture beings as a kind of pictorial version of the ancient choros tragicos, the tragic chorus effect, conceived in Nietzsche's writing on The Birth of Tragedy. It is the deep existential foundation of reality, what he is interested in. Although it becomes common practice after 1947, until this time, nobody had placed so much responsibility on the viewer as Paalen did with his rhetoric and pictorial language.

Archeological passions
1946 he divorced Alice and married the Venezuelan designer and artist Luchita Hurtado, whom he had met in New York through his friend Isamu Noguchi. Hurtado moved to Mexico in 1947 to live with Paalen and together they explored the ancient culture of the Olmec, about which Paalen later published a widely respected article in the French art magazine Cahiers d'art. Paalen radicalizes the assumption of his friend and colleague Miguel Covarrubias, that the Olmecs were a culture succumbed and (after hundreds of war-years) finally wiped out by the aggressive Maya civilization, comparing the Olmecs to the ancient European matrilinear civilizations, which underlay invasive and more aggressive patriarchal civilizations some 3000 years ago. Paalen's thesis about the matrilinear social-structure of the ancient societies of Mesoamerica, which he documented with considerable support from his own research, was never substantially challenged and strongly influenced such artists as Alice Rahon, Remedios Varo and Leonora Carrington in their archaist and feminist themes. His ideas still live on in the archaeological and artistic discourses, the most prominent popular example of recent times being Mel Gibson's cinematic opus Apocalypto).

San Francisco, Paris
In 1948, one of the two children from Luchita's former marriage died in Mexico of Polio. Paalen decided to move to San Francisco with his new family, where he worked with Gordon Onslow Ford and Lee Mullican in a newly formed association, the Dynaton group. They settled in Mill Valley and had solo shows in the San Francisco Museum of Art as well as a group show at Stanford University Art Gallery, where he also lectured parts from the major essay on his new concept of space, he had worked on the last years. It was published in occasion of the DYNATON exhibition in San Francisco Museum of Art in 1951 as a catalogue. Paalen's ongoing desire to go back to Mexico and rebuilt the link to Breton in Paris led to a divorce from Luchita, who decided to live with Lee Mullican.

Back in Mexico Paalen organized 1951 a longer stay in Paris. Together with his new fiancée, the American painter Marie Wilson, Paalen lived for the next 3 years in Kurt Seligmann's atelier-building in the Impasse Villa Seurat in Paris, built by André Lurçat. He reconciled with Breton, spent most of the summers in Breton's house in Saint Cirq La Popie, participated at the invention of various surrealist games, like Ouvrez-Vous? and L’un dans l’autre and painted a considerable corpus of lyrical-abstract paintings, which were exhibited at Galerie Pierre (1953) and Galerie Galanis-Hentschel (1954). One of the four numbers of Breton's magazine Medium – Communication Surréaliste is dedicated to Paalen. After travelling through Germany in the summer of 1954 he went back again to Mexico.

Last years in Mexico and suicide
Paalen's last years in Mexico were characterized by increasing health problems, mainly originated in his bipolar (manic-depressive) disposition. With the help of his friends and patrons Eva Sulzer and Gordon Onslow Ford he acquired an old house with studio in the small town Tepoztlán in Morelos, where he mainly lived and worked during the last years of his life. Paradoxically Paalen produced a number of masterly works towards the end of this last period, as well as theatre plays and short stories, which reflect his ambivalent state of mind and growing depressions. His passion for Olmec sculpture and artefacts implicated him into adventurous expeditions into the wilderness of Yucatán, collecting and trading pre-Columbian art to an always growing US market. Rumours of Paalen having been involved in illegal looting of archaeological sites in Yucatán inspired the American author and theologian Arthur A. Cohen to his novel Acts of Theft (1980). As expert and inspirator Wolfgang Paalen assisted the American filmmaker Albert Lewin for his film The Living Idol. 1958 he received André Pieyre de Mandiargues and Octavio Paz in Tepoztlán, who both wrote texts on Paalen after his suicide. In the night of September 25, 1959 Paalen left his hotel room in the Hacienda San Francisco Cuadra in Taxco, where he sometimes stayed during his depressions, and walked up the hill. The following day he was found dead with a gunshot to his head.

Poet and writer
Although Paalen is known chiefly as a visual artist, he also wrote poetry in French and German, which he shared with Valentine Penrose, Alice Rahon, André Breton and Paul Éluard. 1941 Breton reacted euphorically to Paalen's poetical diary of his voyage to British Columbia in the summer of 1939: "I have read Paysage totémique, re-read, read in a loud voice, nothing is more adorable, indubitably genial". Paysage totémique was partly published in his magazine DYN. He also wrote three theatre plays and various unpublished stories, such as Der Axolotl, Paloma Palomita; his play The Beam of the Balance, a tragic-comedy, reflects the unbroken power of Stalin's totalitarian terror-regime, the release of the atomic bombs in Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945 and the danger of the unbalanced scientific human mind in general. It was first read publicly in the house of Robert Motherwell in East Hampton in 1946. His play Elorn, A Ballad from Brittany reflects his lifelong passion with pre-Celtic matrilinear cultures.

Legacy
The complete works of Paalen, canvases, objects and sculptures, were catalogued by art historian Andreas Neufert in his 1999 book Wolfgang Paalen: Im Inneren des Wals: Monography, and Catalogue Raisonné. Paalen's estate in Mexico, including papers and photographs, was donated by the heirs of Isabel Marin de Paalen to the Franz Mayer Museum in Mexico City. The estate which Paalen left in the care of his close friend, the surrealist painter Gordon Onslow Ford, is administrated by the Lucid Art Foundation in Inverness, California, which recently restituted Paalen's rich archive of papers, photographs and manuscripts to the heirs of Eva Sulzer, Paalen's only heir and executor.

Between May and July 2007 a collection of his work was exhibited at the Frey Norris gallery in San Francisco. In 2014 the Wendi Norris Gallery, also in San Francisco, exhibited major works in the solo-retrospective Wolfgang Paalen, Philosopher of the Possible.

Paalen's collected essays on art from DYN, Form and Sense, were re-published in 2013 by Deborah Rosenthal with a foreword by Martica Sawin.

2019 the Belvedere, Vienna honored Wolfgang Paalen with a retrospective exhibition, curated by Andreas Neufert and Franz Smola, which opened October 3 and ran through January 19th with remarkable success. An English edition of the catalogue is available through Koenig Books.

The biography of Wolfgang Paalen, published 2015 in German under the title Auf Liebe und Tod is currently published in two volumes in English. The first volume has been available since November 2022 under the title Paalen Life and Work, I. Forbidden Land: The Early and Crucial Years 1905- 1939.

Art market
Paalen's relatively small oeuvre of roughly 300 canvases, a few objects and some sculptures was mostly traded privately and through specialized galleries in the past. Only minor works appear from time to time in public auctions, as most of the major works are in museums or well-established private collections. In 2009 however, Christie's auctioned Paalen's important 1938 surrealist fumage painting Paysage (Pays) médusé (oil and smoke on canvas). Estimated at €30–40,000, the realised price was €373,000 (ca US$561,000), setting a new record for the highest price paid at auction for this artist. In November 2015 Wolfgang Paalen's painting Les Cosmogones sold for 382.000.- US$ in the Latin American Art auction at Sotheby's New York's. In July 2020 the German auction house Villa Grisebach in Berlin sold Wolfgang Paalen's early programmatic painting Avertissement I (Peinture), 1935 for €387.500.-, setting a new world record price for this artist. In February 2023, two paintings by Paalen from the Surrealist period set new world records for the artist in the traditional auction Art of the Surreal at Christies London: Taches solaires (1938) with a result of 756,000 pounds sterling and Pays interdit (1936–37) with a result of £504,000.

Artworks

 * Personnages dans une grotte, 1933
 * Hommes possibles 1934
 * Avertissement 1935
 * L´heure exacte object, 1936
 * Pays interdit 1936–37
 * Rencontre sur une plage, 1936
 * L'Homme possible, 1936
 * Toison d'or, 1937
 * La Balance, 1937
 * Le Débarcadère, 1937
 * Paysage totémique de mon enfance, 1937
 * Nuage articulé I, objet, 1937
 * Paysage totémique, 1937
 * Fata Alaska, 1937
 * Les Étrangers, 1937
 * La Housse Mannequin 1938
 * Autophage, 1938
 * Orages magnétiques, 1938
 * Combat des princes saturniens I and II, 1938
 * Vol de moustiques, 1938
 * Paysage médusé, 1938
 * Les Guetteurs, 1938
 * Ciel de pieuvre, 1938
 * Taches solaires, 1938
 * Plumages, 1938
 * Le genie de l´espèce (object, 1938)
 * Combats des princes saturniens, III, 1939
 * Nuage articulé II (object, 1940)
 * Polarités chromatiques, 1940
 * Espace sans limite, 1941
 * Les premieres spaciales triptych, 1941–44
 * Les Cosmogonies, 1943
 * La Tempête, 1945
 * Gyra, 1945
 * L'Or du temps, 1945
 * Selam Trilogy, 1947
 * Hamnur Trilogy, 1947
 * Nuit tropicale, 1947
 * Ancêtres à venir, 1949
 * Messagers, 1949
 * Fête mexicaine, 1949
 * Le Messager des trois Pôles, 1949
 * La Clé de Duchamp, Hommage à Marcel Duchamp, 1950
 * L'enclume, 1952
 * Sur les hauts plateaux, 1952
 * Lumière fossile, 1953
 * Le Scarabée d'or, 1953
 * Béatrice perdue, 1953
 * Banistas (1958)
 * Asi es la vida, 1958
 * Isla Mujeres, 1958
 * Matutine, 1959

In English

 * "The New Image", No. 1, April–May 1942
 * ''Suggestion for an Objective Morality, in: Dyn, n° 1, April–May 1942
 * ''Seeing and Showing, in: Dyn, n° 1, April–May 1942
 * ''Surprise and Inspiration', in: Dyn, n° 1, April–May 1942
 * ''About the Origins of the Doric Column and the Guitar-woman, in: Dyn, n° 2, July–August 1942
 * ''The Dialectical Gospel, in: Dyn, n° 2, July–August 1942
 * ''Art and Science, in: Dyn, n° 3, autumn 1942
 * Book-Reviews
 * ''Totem Art, in: Dyn, n° 4–5, 1943
 * ''Birth of Fire, in: Dyn, n° 4–5, 1943
 * ''On the Meaning of Cubism Today, in: Dyn, n° 6, November 1944

In French

 * "Farewell au surréalisme", No. 1, April–May 1942
 * L'Image nouvelle, in: Dyn, n° 1, April–May 1942
 * Aperçu pour une morale objective, in: Dyn, n° 1, April–May 1942
 * Paysage totémique (3 articles), in: Dyn, n° 1, April–May 1942, n° 2, July–August 1942, n° 3, autumn 1942
 * Surprise et inspiration, in: Dyn, n° 2, July–August 1942
 * L'Évangile dialectique, in: DYN, n° 3, autumn 1942
 * Le Grand Malentendu (trad. of Art and Science), in: DYN, n° 3, autumn 1942
 * Rencontre totémique in: DYN, n° 4–5, 1943
 * Actualité du cubisme, in: Dyn, n° 6, November 1944
 * Pendant l'éclipse, interview of Paalen with Carter Stone, in: Dyn, n° 6, November 1944

Selected biographies

 * Andreas Neufert (2014), Auf Liebe und Tod, Das Leben des Surrealisten Wolfgang Paalen (Biography), Berlin: Parthas Verlag, ISBN 978-3869640839. (In German)
 * Gustav Regler (1946), Wolfgang Paalen, New York: Nierendorf.
 * Andreas Neufert (1999), Wolfgang Paalen, Im Inneren des Wals, Wien-New York: Springer, (Monography and Catalogue raisonné), ISBN 3-211-83304-8 (In German)
 * Amy Winter (2002), Wolfgang Paalen. Artist and Theorist of the Avantgarde, Westport, Connecticut: Praeger.
 * Andreas Neufert: PAALEN. Life and Work, I. Forbidden Land: The Early and Crucial Years 1905 - 1939. Hamburg/Berlin 2022, ISBN 978-3756858873 (hardcover, in English), ISBN 978-3756820061 (softcover, in English), ISBN 9783756826711 (e-book, in English)

Selected exhibitions and catalogues

 * Wolfgang Paalen, Paris (Galerie Renou et Colle) 1938 (Vorwort André Breton)
 * Wolfgang Paalen, London (Galerie Guggenheim Jeune) 1939
 * Surrealismo, Galería de Arte Mexicano, Mexico City 1940
 * Wolfgang Paalen, New York (Galerie Art of this Century) 1945
 * Dynaton A New Vision, San Francisco Museum of Art, San Francisco 1951
 * Domaine de Paalen, Paris (Galerie Galanis-Hentschel) 1954
 * Hommage à Wolfgang Paalen, Museo de Arte Moderno, Mexico-City 1967
 * Presencia Viva de Wolfgang Paalen, Museo de Arte Contemporaneo Carrillo Gil, Mexico-City 1979
 * Dynaton: Before and Beyond, Frederick R. Weisman Museum of Art, Malibu (Pepperdine University) 1992
 * Wolfgang Paalen, Zwischen Surrealismus und Abstraktion, Museum Moderner Kunst Wien (Ritter) 1993
 * Wolfgang Paalen, Retrospectiva, Museo de Arte Contemporaneo Carrillo Gil, Mexico-City (Imprenta Madero) 1994

Reprint of DYN

 * Kloyber, Christian, ed. Wolfgang Paalen's DYN: The Complete Reprint Editor's Note by Christian Kloyber; Introductory essays by Lourdes Andrade, Guy Buchholtzer, Gordon Onslow Ford, André Breton, Octavio Paz (Vienna and New York: Springer, 2000)

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User:Vvim

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At the present, I work as a consultant for a company in Brussels: parttime as a Solaris system administrator and parttime as a programmer.

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User talk:Señor NPOV

Hi. Though the People's Republic of Poland is well-grounded in facts, I agree that it does need some balance. It ignores progress in health, education, and industry and seems to overstate Soviet leverage over the Polish Communist Party (Gomulka, after all, was no Kremlin stooge). And although liberalization did not progress to the extend that it did in, say, Hungary and Yugoslavia, the People's Republic of Poland certainly wasn't the Stalinist USSR. Adam Carr is a prickly character, so I have reservations about editing the article; but I'll consider it. Thanks for the message. 172 21:21, 8 Aug 2004 (UTC)

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Gayal

The gayal (Bos frontalis), also known as the Drung ox or mithun, is a large domestic cattle distributed in Northeast India, Bangladesh, Myanmar and in Yunnan, China.

Taxonomy
In his first description of 1804, Aylmer Bourke Lambert applied the binomial Bos frontalis to a domestic specimen probably from Chittagong.

In 2003, the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature fixed the first available specific name based on a wild population that the name for this wild species is valid by virtue of its being antedated by a name based on a domestic form. Most authors have adopted the binomial Bos frontalis for the domestic species as valid for the taxon.

Phylogenetic analysis corroborates the taxonomic assessment that the gayal is an independent Bos species originating matrilineally from gaur, zebu and cattle.

Characteristics
The gayal differs in several important particulars from the gaur: Some domesticated gayals are parti-coloured, while others are completely white.
 * It is somewhat smaller, with proportionately shorter limbs, and stands much lower at the withers.
 * The ridge on the back is less developed, and bulls have a larger dewlap on the throat.
 * The head is shorter and broader, with a perfectly flat forehead and a straight line between the bases of the horns.
 * The thick and massive horns are less flattened and much less curved than in the gaur, extending almost directly outwards from the sides of the head, and curving somewhat upwards at the tips, but without any inward inclination. Their extremities are thus much farther apart than in the gaur.
 * The female gayal is much smaller than the bull, and has scarcely any dewlap on the throat.
 * The skin colour of the head and body is blackish-brown in both sexes, and the lower portion of the limbs are white or yellowish.
 * The horns are of uniform blackish tint from base to tip.

There are two major hypotheses on the origin of the gayal:
 * It was domesticated from wild gaur;
 * It is a hybrid descendant from crossing of wild gaur and domestic cattle, either Bos indicus or Bos taurus.

In 2020, Ranganathan Kamalakkannan et Al. found "phylogenetic analysis using complete mitochondrial genome sequences unambiguously suggested that gaur is the maternal ancestor of domestic mithun."

Analysis of the genome of the gayal was published in 2017.

Distribution and habitat
Gayals are essentially inhabitants of hill-forests. In India, semi-domesticated gayals are kept by several ethnic groups living in the hills of Tripura, Mizoram, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur and Nagaland. They also occur in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. In northern Burma, they occur in the Kachin State, and in adjacent Yunnan are found only in the Trung and Salween River basins.

The role of the mithun is central to the lives of many residents of these areas, including transhumant ones who pair mithun management with sago palm harvesting:"Although livestock is highly characteristic of the high Himalayan way of life in general, with yaks and sheep being predominant species until recently, the mithun, or gayal (Bos frontalis) is the most prominent animal exploited by Eastern Himalayan groups ... The mithun is a semi-domesticate, managed in fenced tracts of forests rather than being kept in or near villages. Outside North East India, mithun are primarily imported for the purpose of cross- breeding with other bovids, for example in Bhutan. It is very common among Eastern Himalayan languages to find lexical sets denoting fauna in which the mithun is lexicalized as a “prototypical” meat animal, with all other terms being derived ... Terms for ‘mithun’ in other languages of Arunachal Pradesh are typically cognate with Aka fu (e.g. Miji ʃu, Koro sù, Puroik ʧa and Proto-Tani *ɕo), suggesting that this is probably not a case of semantic shift from a wild species. The implication is that the semi-wild mithun was seen as the core species, and the true domesticates such as cattle, which arrived subsequently, as marginal to the system."

In Nagaland, the animals are kept semi-wild, and live in herds, being watched over by special caretakers assigned by the villages or the owner of the herd. They respond to a horn kept specially for the individual caretaker or actual owner to call them. From birth until the time of butchering or market, the Mithun remain in the herd, and roam mostly freely throughout the forests.

In culture

To the Idu Mishmi, Nyishi people or Adi people (Bangni-Booker Lhobas incl pasi, padam, minyong, Galong now Galo), the possession of gayal is the traditional measure of a family's wealth. Gayal are not milked or put to work but given supplementary care while grazing in the woods, until they are ritually slaughtered or killed for local consumption. Mithuns are wild and each family has a very indigenous marking as a cut on the ear.

The gayal is the state animal of Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland. Gayals play an important role in the social life of the people in Arunachal Pradesh. Marriages are not fixed until the bridegroom's family gives at least one gayal to the bride's household.

Gayals are left in the forest, where they usually stay within a small perimeter. Females are usually aggressive when with calves, and there are instances known when people have been severely injured after being gored by one. Males are usually more docile.

In Mizoram and Manipur, it is called Sial, Siel, Se/Sia amongst the tribes of the Chin-Kuki-Mizo. It is the most essential and valuable commodity; the wealth of a person is often counted by the number of gayals. It is the sole animal used for sacrificial purposes and feast of merit. The tribes regard a human to be honourable if and when he holds a community feast of one or more gayal on one or more occasions.

National Research Centre on Mithun
The National Research Centre on Mithun was established at Medziphema in the Chümoukedima District of Nagaland under the Indian Council of Agricultural Research.

The mandate of the institute was redefined in 1997 and 2006. Currently, the National Research Centre on Mithun is functioning for developing the scientific and sustainable mithun rearing system and for catering the needs of mithun farmers with the following mandates:
 * Identification, evaluation and characterization of mithun germplasm available in the country.
 * Conservation and improvement of mithun for meat and milk.
 * Act as a repository of germplasm and information centre on mithun.

title: Gayal


text:
Faris al-Zahrani

Faris bin Ahmed bin Jam'an bin Ali Aal Shuwayl al-Hassani al-Zahrani al-Azdi (1977 – January 2, 2016; فارس بن أحمد بن جمعان بن علي آل شويل الحسني الزهراني الأزدي) was a terrorist who was on Saudi Arabia's list of 26 'most-wanted' suspected terrorists.

He was a part of Al-Qaeda. He was known for conducting research which showed Al-Qaeda in a positive light. His prominence rose especially after the killing of Abdel Aziz al-Muqrin the leader of Al-Qaeda in Saudi Arabia. He made a post denouncing his Saudi Arabian citizenship under the assumption of the state apostatizing from Islam.

He was arrested in early August 2004. On 2 January 2016, Sheikh Zahrani was executed by the Saudi state along with 46 others convicted of terrorism.

Life
Fares bin Ahmad al-Zahrani was born in 1977 in al-Jawfa’ village in Bilad Zahran in the Al-Baha region of Saudi Arabia. His family later moved to a nearby village known as al-Nu’us. Where Fares would attend and graduate elementary school. Later he would attend and graduate high school in the same village in 1996, receiving high grades. Information on where Fares went to college differs depending on the source.

He was said to have attended the Kulliyat ‘Ulum al-Quran in al-Madina, for one semester, and The University of King Khaled in Abha (From which he got a BA in 2000).

There is no clear date when Fares al-Zahrani became a terrorist wanted by the Saudi authorities. What is known is that he started writing under two identities online and after a series of deadly clashes between the Saudi government and Jihadis in 2003. In November a list of 26 suspected terrorists was released with al-Zahrani on it.

Fares al-Zahrani was active online under two names: al-Mutaharek and Abu Jandal al-Azadi (a pen name derived from his Azd tribal heritage that he digitally published some of his earlier books under). Among the message boards Fares was active in was Minbar al-Jihad wa-al-Tawhid, a popular message board dealing with Jihad-related issues. The same blog later interviewed him, in the only known interview he's ever given.

Al-Zahrani's first noteworthy book was al-Baheth ‘Ann Hikm Qatl Afrad wa-Dubat al-Mabaheth (English: For Those Who are Looking for the Rule to Kill Police Officers). It was released after a series of deadly confrontations with the Saudi police, and came as the product of many online arguments on Jihadi blogs. It contained an attempt to find religious approval for killing police officers. al-Zahrani was able to make the links between the Quran, Hadith, and various militant thinkers (namely Sayyid Qutb and Abu Qutadah) to justify the act of murder. al-Zahrani's second book on a similar topic, Tahrid al-Mujahidin al-Abtal Ala Ihya’ Sinat al-Ightiyal (English: Encouraging the Hero Mujahidin to Revive the Sanctioned Practice: Assassination) again provided religious Fatwa for killing others.

In addition to his writings, Fares al-Zahrani posted many audio recordings, the most known being Your citizenship is under my feet, a speech denouncing his Saudi citizenship because the Ummah did not recognize any modern borders or nationalities. It was quoted in 2014 by Saudi fighters in the ranks of the Islamic State when they tore up and burned their Saudi Passports in a famous video.

Arrest
He was arrested in Abha by Saudi police on 5 August 2004 on charges of terrorism. His capture was considered a serious blow to Al Qaeda in Saudi Arabia.

Four weeks prior to his arrest, al-Zahrani wrote an article in which he said he was evading the Saudi crackdown. Several weeks before the arrest in an interview with the online publication Voice of Jihad, al-Zahrani said: "I would like to reassure the people who love me...I am careful in my movements and contacts, and I take all necessary precautions." In the same statement, al-Zahrani rejected an amnesty that King Fahd had offered militants in June.

Al-Zahrani and another man were arrested without incident, even though both were armed.

title: Faris al-Zahrani


text:
Fixed cost

In accounting and economics, fixed costs, also known as indirect costs or overhead costs, are business expenses that are not dependent on the level of goods or services produced by the business. They tend to be recurring, such as interest or rents being paid per month. These costs also tend to be capital costs. This is in contrast to variable costs, which are volume-related (and are paid per quantity produced) and unknown at the beginning of the accounting year. Fixed costs have an effect on the nature of certain variable costs.

For example, a retailer must pay rent and utility bills irrespective of sales. As another example, for a bakery the monthly rent and phone line are fixed costs, irrespective of how much bread is produced and sold; on the other hand, the wages are variable costs, as more workers would need to be hired for the production to increase. For any factory, the fix cost should be all the money paid on capitals and land. Such fixed costs as buying machines and land cannot be not changed no matter how much they produce or even not produce. Raw materials are one of the variable costs, depending on the quantity produced.

Fixed costs are considered an entry barrier for new entrepreneurs. In marketing, it is necessary to know how costs divide between variable and fixed costs. This distinction is crucial in forecasting the earnings generated by various changes in unit sales and thus the financial impact of proposed marketing campaigns. In a survey of nearly 200 senior marketing managers, 60 percent responded that they found the "variable and fixed costs" metric very useful. These costs affect each other and are both extremely important to entrepreneurs.

In economics, there is a fixed cost for a factory in the short run, and the fixed cost is immutable. But in the long run, there are only variable costs, because they control all factors of production.

Description
Fixed costs are not permanently fixed; they will change over time, but are fixed, by contractual obligation, in relation to the quantity of production for the relevant period. In other words, there is a recurring cost, but the value of this cost is not permanently fixed. For example, a company may have unexpected and unpredictable expenses unrelated to production, such as warehouse costs and the like that are fixed only over the time period of the lease. By definition, there are no fixed costs in the long run, because the long run is a sufficient period of time for all short-run fixed inputs to become variable. Investments in facilities, equipment, and the basic organization that cannot be significantly reduced in a short period of time are referred to as committed fixed costs. Discretionary fixed costs usually arise from annual decisions by management to spend on certain fixed cost items. Examples of discretionary costs are advertising, insurance premia, machine maintenance, and research & development expenditures. Discretionary fixed costs can be expensive.

In economics, the most commonly spoken about fixed costs are those that have to do with capital. Capital can be the fixed price for buying a warehouse for production, machines (which can be paid once at the beginning and not depend on quantity or time of production), and it can be a certain total for the salaries of a certain quantity of unskilled labor. Many things are included in fixed costs depending on the product and market - some firms may decide to hold some resources at fixed rates that other companies may not - but these unexpected or predictable short term fixed costs can be the reason a firm doesn't enter the market (if the costs are too high). These costs and variable costs have to be taken into account when a firm wants to determine if they can enter a market.

In business planning and management accounting, usage of the terms fixed costs, variable costs and others will often differ from usage in economics, and may depend on the context. Some cost accounting practices such as activity-based costing will allocate fixed costs to business activities for profitability measures. This can simplify decision-making, but can be confusing and controversial. In accounting terminology, fixed costs will broadly include almost all costs (expenses) which are not included in cost of goods sold, and variable costs are those captured in costs of goods sold under the variable costing method. Under full (absorption) costing fixed costs will be included in both the cost of goods sold and in the operating expenses. The implicit assumption required to make the equivalence between the accounting and economics terminology is that the accounting period is equal to the period in which fixed costs do not vary in relation to production. In practice, this equivalence does not always hold, and depending on the period under consideration by management, some overhead expenses (e.g., sales, general and administrative expenses) can be adjusted by management, and the specific allocation of each expense to each category will be decided under cost accounting. In recent years, fixed costs gradually exceed variable costs for many companies. There are two reasons. Firstly, automatic production increases the cost of investment equipment, including the depreciation and maintenance of old equipment. Secondly, labor costs are often considered as long-term costs. It is difficult to adjust human resources according to the actual work needs in short term. As a result, direct labor costs are now regarded as fixed costs.

title: Fixed cost


text: Category:14th century

title: Category:14th century


text: Category:22nd century

title: Category:22nd century


text:
Podocyte

Podocytes are cells in Bowman's capsule in the kidneys that wrap around capillaries of the glomerulus. Podocytes make up the epithelial lining of Bowman's capsule, the third layer through which filtration of blood takes place. Bowman's capsule filters the blood, retaining large molecules such as proteins while smaller molecules such as water, salts, and sugars are filtered as the first step in the formation of urine. Although various viscera have epithelial layers, the name visceral epithelial cells usually refers specifically to podocytes, which are specialized epithelial cells that reside in the visceral layer of the capsule.

The podocytes have long foot processes called pedicels, for which the cells are named (podo- + -cyte). The pedicels wrap around the capillaries and leave slits between them. Blood is filtered through these slits, each known as a filtration slit, slit diaphragm, or slit pore. Several proteins are required for the pedicels to wrap around the capillaries and function. When infants are born with certain defects in these proteins, such as nephrin and CD2AP, their kidneys cannot function. People have variations in these proteins, and some variations may predispose them to kidney failure later in life. Nephrin is a zipper-like protein that forms the slit diaphragm, with spaces between the teeth of the zipper big enough to allow sugar and water through but too small to allow proteins through. Nephrin defects are responsible for congenital kidney failure. CD2AP regulates the podocyte cytoskeleton and stabilizes the slit diaphragm.

Structure
Podocytes are found lining the Bowman's capsules in the nephrons of the kidney. The foot processes known as pedicels that extend from the podocytes wrap themselves around the capillaries of the glomerulus to form the filtration slits. The pedicels increase the surface area of the cells enabling efficient ultrafiltration. Podocytes secrete and maintain the basement membrane.

There are numerous coated vesicles and coated pits along the basolateral domain of the podocytes which indicate a high rate of vesicular traffic.

Podocytes possess a well-developed endoplasmic reticulum and a large Golgi apparatus, indicative of a high capacity for protein synthesis and post-translational modifications.

There is also growing evidence of a large number of multivesicular bodies and other lysosomal components seen in these cells, indicating a high endocytic activity.

Function
Podocytes have primary processes called trabeculae, which wrap around the glomerular capillaries. The trabeculae in turn have secondary processes called pedicels. Pedicels interdigitate, thereby giving rise to thin gaps called filtration slits. The slits are covered by slit diaphragms which are composed of a number of cell-surface proteins including nephrin, podocalyxin, and P-cadherin, which restrict the passage of large macromolecules such as serum albumin and gamma globulin and ensure that they remain in the bloodstream. Proteins that are required for the correct function of the slit diaphragm include nephrin, NEPH1, NEPH2, podocin, CD2AP. and FAT1. Small molecules such as water, glucose, and ionic salts are able to pass through the filtration slits and form an ultrafiltrate in the tubular fluid, which is further processed by the nephron to produce urine.

Podocytes are also involved in regulation of glomerular filtration rate (GFR). When podocytes contract, they cause closure of filtration slits. This decreases the GFR by reducing the surface area available for filtration.

Clinical significance

A loss of the foot processes of the podocytes (i.e., podocyte effacement) is a hallmark of minimal change disease, which has therefore sometimes been called foot process disease.

Disruption of the filtration slits or destruction of the podocytes can lead to massive proteinuria, where large amounts of protein are lost from the blood.

An example of this occurs in the congenital disorder Finnish-type nephrosis, which is characterised by neonatal proteinuria leading to end-stage kidney failure. This disease has been found to be caused by a mutation in the nephrin gene.

In 2002 Professor Moin Saleem at the University of Bristol made the first conditionally immortalised human podocyte cell line. This meant that podocytes could be grown and studied in the lab. Since then many discoveries have been made. Nephrotic syndrome occurs when there is a breakdown of the glomerular filtration barrier. The podocytes form one layer of the filtration barrier. Genetic mutations can cause podocyte dysfunction leading to an inability of the filtration barrier to restrict urinary protein loss. There are currently 53 genes known to play a role in genetic nephrotic syndrome. In idiopathic nephrotic syndrome, there is no known genetic mutation. It is thought to be caused by a hitherto unknown circulating permeability factor. Recent evidence suggests that the factor could be released by T-cells or B-cells, podocyte cell lines can be treated with plasma from patients with nephrotic syndrome to understand the specific responses of the podocyte to the circulating factor. There is growing evidence that the circulating factor could be signalling to the podocyte via the PAR-1 receptor.

Presence of podocytes in urine has been proposed as an early diagnostic marker for preeclampsia.

title: Podocyte


text:
User:Antandrus/sources

Templates

 * Citation templates -- it's surprisingly hard to remember.

Online sources

 * Author: "Article", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (Accessed July 20, 2007), (subscription access)

Or using the template method:

 * Template:GroveOnline - Grove online
 * Template:NewGrove2001 - New Grove, 2nd ed., 2001
 * Template:NewGrove1980 - New Grove, 1st ed., 1980

Print sources
Here are the books I use, more often than not, for the articles I write or edit.

 * The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie. 20 vol.  London, Macmillan Publishers Ltd., 1980.  ISBN 1561591742
 * Gustave Reese, Music in the Renaissance. New York, W.W. Norton & Co., 1954.  ISBN 0393095304
 * Allan W. Atlas, Renaissance Music: Music in Western Europe, 1400–1600. New York, W.W. Norton & Co., 1998.  ISBN 0-393-97169-4
 * Howard Mayer Brown, Music in the Renaissance. Prentice Hall History of Music Series.  Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey; Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1976.  ISBN 0-13-608497-4
 * Richard H. Hoppin, Medieval Music. New York, W.W. Norton & Co., 1978.  ISBN 0393090906
 * Alfred Einstein, The Italian Madrigal. Three volumes.  Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton University Press, 1949.  ISBN 0-691-09112-9
 * Manfred Bukofzer, Music in the Baroque Era. New York, W.W. Norton & Co., 1947.  ISBN 0393097455
 * The New Harvard Dictionary of Music, ed. Don Randel. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1986.  ISBN 0674615255
 * Eric Guilder and June G. Port. The Dictionary of Composers and their Music.  New York, Ballantine Books, 1978.  ISBN 0345280415
 * The Concise Edition of Baker's Biographical Dictionary of Musicians, 8th ed. Revised by Nicolas Slonimsky.  New York, Schirmer Books, 1993.  ISBN 002872416X
 * Donald Jay Grout, A Short History of Opera. New York, Columbia University Press, 1965.  ISBN 0231024223
 * Donald Jay Grout, A History of Western Music. New York, W.W. Norton & Co., 1980.  ISBN 0393951367
 * Percy A. Scholes, The Oxford Companion to Music. London, Oxford University Press, 1970.  No ISBN.
 * Harold Gleason and Warren Becker, Music in the Middle Ages and Renaissance (Music Literature Outlines Series I). Bloomington, Indiana.  Frangipani Press, 1986.  ISBN 089917034X
 * Caution: I increasingly find this to be unreliable.  While it is incredibly useful as a series of outlines of important trends, people, and specifics of style, it seems that one time in four I find a disastrous error of name or date.

 * Theorist, treatise, tr. whoever and Oliver Strunk, in Source Readings in Music History. New York, W.W. Norton & Co., 1950.
 * Harvard Anthology of Music. Two volumes.  Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1949.  ISBN 0674393007
 * John Rahn, Basic Atonal Theory. New York, Longman, 1980.  ISBN 0582281172
 * Johann Joseph Fux, The Study of Counterpoint (Gradus ad Parnassum). Tr.  Alfred Mann.  New York, W.W. Norton & Co., 1965.  ISBN 0393002772
 * Nicolas Slonimsky, The Lexicon of Musical Invective. Seattle, University of Washington Press, 1965.  ISBN 0295785799
 * Denis Arnold, Monteverdi. London, J.M. Dent & Sons Ltd, 1975.  ISBN 0460031554
 * Denis Arnold, Giovanni Gabrieli and the Music of the Venetian High Renaissance. London, Oxford University Press, 1979. ISBN 0-19-315232-0
 * Knud Jeppesen, Counterpoint: The Polyphonic Vocal Style of the Sixteenth Century.  New York, Dover Publications, 1992 (Original 1931).  ISBN 048627036X
 * Historical Anthology of Music by Women. James R. Briscoe, ed.  Indiana University Press, Bloomington, Indiana, 1986. ISBN 0253212960
 * Eleanor Selfridge-Field, Venetian Instrumental Music, from Gabrieli to Vivaldi. New York, Dover Publications, 1994.  ISBN 0486281515
 * John Gillespie, Five Centuries of Keyboard Music. New York, Dover Publications, 1965/1972.  ISBN 048622855
 * Joseph Kerman, The Beethoven Quartets. New York, W.W. Norton & Co., 1966.  ISBN 0393009092
 * W. Thomas Marrocco and Harold Gleason, eds. Music in America. New York, W.W. Norton & Co., 1964.
 * Author, "Composer", in The Symphony, ed. Robert Simpson. Penguin Books Ltd., Middlesex, England, 1967.  ISBN 0140207732
 * Jeanice Brooks, Courtly Song in Late Sixteenth-Century France. Chicago, The University of Chicago Press, 2000.  ISBN 0226075877
 * Susan McClary, Modal Subjectivities: Self-Fashioning in the Italian Madrigal.  Berkeley, University of California Press.  2004.  ISBN 0520234936

 * Wasn't expecting to like it, but this is a wonderful, fascinating, well-written book, and though she often over-interprets the composer's intentions she has some very subtle psychological and sociological insights.

 * Walter H. Kemp, Burgundian Court Song in the Time of Binchois: The Anonymous Chansons of El Escorial, MS V.III.24.  Oxford, Clarendon Press.  1990.

 * Completely a book for a specialist. The reader is expected to be conversant with Latin and medieval French.  The writer considerately translates the handful of quotations in Occitan.

 * Glenn Watkins, Gesualdo: The Man and His Music.  Oxford, Clarendon Press.  1991.  ISBN 0-19-816196-2

 * Preface by Igor Stravinsky, and it's hilarious, a comic masterpiece. The book is itself delightful, containing all the lurid details one might want about this great composer and murderer.  Only Heseltine's book has more gratuitous details (and the copies in most music libraries are well-thumbed for the first quarter of each book, the biographical portions, as might be expected).

 * Patrick Macey, Bonfire Songs: Savonarola's Musical Legacy.  Oxford, Clarendon Press.  1998.  ISBN 0-19-816669-9
 * David Crook, Orlando di Lasso's Imitation Magnificats for Counter-Reformation Munich. Princeton, Princeton University Press.  1994.  ISBN 0-692-03614-4
 * Blanche Gangwere, Music History During the Renaissance Period, 1520–1550. Westport, Connecticut, Praeger Publishers.  2004.
 * Author, "Article", in Proceedings of the International Josquin Symposium. Utrecht, Vereniging voor Nederlandse Muziekgeschiedenis.  1986.  ISBN 90-6375-148-6
 * Author, "Article", in Robert Sherr, ed., The Josquin Companion. Oxford University Press, 1999.  ISBN 0-19-816335-5
 * Fabrice Fitch, Johannes Ockeghem: Masses and Models.  Paris, Honoré Champion Éditeur, 1997.  ISBN 0-2-85203-735-1
 * Jeffrey Dean: "Okeghem's valediction? the meaning of 'Intemerata Dei mater'", in Johannes Ockeghem:  Actes du XLe Colloque international d'études humanistes.  Éditions Klincksieck, 1998.  ISBN 2-252-03214-6
 * Honey Meconi, Pierre de la Rue and Musical Life at the Habsburg-Burgundian Court. Oxford, Oxford University Press.  2003.  ISBN 0-19-816554-4
 * F. Alberto Gallo, tr. Karen Eales, Music of the Middle Ages (II). Cambridge:  Cambridge University Press.  1977 (original Italian edition) and 1985 (English).  ISBN 0-521-28483-X
 * Sydney Robinson Charles, A Handbook of Music and Music Literature in Sets and Series. Schirmer Books, New York, 1972.  No ISBN.
 * Andrew Kirkman, The Three-Voice Mass in the Later Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Centuries: Style, Distribution and Case Studies.  New York and London, Garland Publishing, Inc., 1995.  ISBN 0-8153-1871-5
 * Author, "Article", in Honey Meconi, ed., Early Musical Borrowing. New York and London, Routledge. 2004. ISBN 0-8153-3521-0
 * Julie E. Cumming, The Motet in the Age of Dufay. Cambridge University Press, 1999.  ISBN 0-521-47377-2

Santa Barbara

 * Tompkins, Walker A. Santa Barbara, Past and Present.  Tecolote Books, Santa Barbara, CA, 1975.
 * Tompkins, Walker A. It Happened in Old Santa Barbara.  Sandollar Press, Santa Barbara, CA, 1976.
 * Graham, Otis L.; Bauman, Robert; Dodd, Douglas W.; Geraci, Victor W.; Murray, Fermina Brel. Stearns Wharf:  Surviving Change on the California Coast.  Graduate Program in Public Historical Studies, University of California, 1994.  ISBN 1-883535-15-8
 * Baker, Gayle. Santa Barbara.  Harbor Town Histories, Santa Barbara.  2003.  ISBN 0-9710984-1-7
 * Birchard, Robert S. Silent-Era Filmmaking in Santa Barbara.  Arcadia Publishing.  2007.  ISBN 0-7385-4730-1
 * Tompkins, Walker A. Santa Barbara History Makers. McNally & Loftin, Santa Barbara.  1983.  ISBN 0-87461-059-1

Periodicals here and there

 * Anne Walters Robertson, "The Savior, the Woman, and the Head of the Dragon in the Caput Masses and Motet". Journal of the American Musicological Society, Vol. 59 No. 3., pp. 537-630.  Fall 2006.  ISSN 0003-0139

And using the template:

Unofficial sources
You can't get a doctorate without attending hundreds of lectures, recitals, readings, book reviews, dreadfully dull and scintillatingly exciting presentations on all manner of arcana, exotica, microscopic trivia, protozoic expectorata and excrementa, much of which you remember with a terrifying immediacy, and some of which you will never, ever, recall again, itself proof perhaps of the existence of a merciful Divine. Generally you can put together a coherent article, sans dates and maybe a few names, without once opening a book, if you are writing in a field somewhere close to the one you studied: but a basic consideration of the laws of Mankind, Common Sense and Wikipedia compels such sore-headed and wilfully lazy academics to attempt to list their sources. So I'll try. A lot of stuff I just remember. And usually at the very least I look it up in Grove as I write.

title: User:Antandrus/sources


text:
Jean Duceppe (TV series)

Jean Duceppe is a French-Canadian biographical television mini-series that aired on Télé-Québec in 2002. It told the story of Jean Duceppe, a Canadian actor, and chronicled his life, in particular his work in theatre and struggle for Quebec independence. It also followed his wife Hélène Rowley and his son Gilles Duceppe, who would later become prominent as the leader of the Bloc Québécois.

The series starred Paul Doucet as Jean Duceppe and Suzanne Clément as Hélène Rowley.

title: Jean Duceppe (TV series)


text:
WSH

WSH may refer to:
 * Windows Script Host, in computing
 * World Series Hockey, a hockey tournament
 * Sports teams based in Washington, DC, US:
 * Washington Commanders, American football
 * Washington Wizards, basketball
 * Washington Nationals, baseball
 * Washington Capitals, hockey
 * Western Steppe Herders, a hypothesised ancient people
 * Traverse City West Senior High School, Michigan, US

title: WSH