text:
Sequin

A sequin is a small, typically shiny, generally disk-shaped ornament.

Sequins are also referred to as paillettes, spangles, or diamanté (also spelled diamante). Although the words sequins, paillettes, lentejuelas, and spangles can be used interchangeably, diamanté (literally "set with diamonds") is both an adjective and a plural-only noun, which specifically refers to diamond-shaped sequins and can also be used to mean "artificial diamonds", which serve the same purpose as sequins.

In costuming, sequins have a center hole, while spangles have the hole located at the top. Paillettes are typically very large and flat. Sequins may be stitched flat to the fabric, so they do not move, and are less likely to fall off; or they may be stitched at only one point, so they dangle and move easily, catching more light. Some sequins are made with multiple facets, to increase their reflective ability, while others are stamped out with lobes resembling flower petals.

Etymology
The name sequin originates from the Venetian colloquial noun zecchino, meaning a Venetian ducat coin, rendered into French as sequin. The ducat stopped being minted after the Napoleonic invasion of Italy, and the name sequin was falling out of use in its original sense. It was then that the name was taken up in France to designate what it means today, as 19th century sequins were made of shiny metal.

History

Historically across many parts of the world, attaching metal coins and ornaments to clothes was done to display wealth or status or to keep the item tightly secured.

Sequins made with nautilus shell were found dating back 12,000 years in Indonesia. Evidence exists that gold sequins were being used as decoration on clothing or paraphernalia in the Indus Valley as early as 2500 BC, during the Kot Diji phase. Solid gold sequins sewn into royal garments were found inside the tomb of Tutankhamun.

Sequins (mainly made out of reflective bits of metals) sewn into jackets, bonnets, and dresses were popular among the nobility and wealthy during the 17th to 19th centuries.

During the 1920s, after the discovery of the Tomb of Tutankhamun, sequins witnessed renewed popularity as a consequence of Egyptomania. The usage of sequins (typically made out of metal) was widely popularized as a fashion statement by flapper girls during this period.

In the 1930s, lightweight electroplated gelatin sequins were produced, which were significantly less heavy than their metal counterparts. However, the gelatin sequins would melt if they got wet or too warm. Algy Trimmings Co. (an apparel manufacturing company), working with Kodak, produced clear plastic sequins, although it often suffered from brittleness. Polyester film was later used to surround the plastic sequin to safely wash it. Eventually, vinyl plastic mostly replaced film and clear plastic because of its durability and cost effectiveness.

In the late 1960s, sequins began to be widely used by popular musicians such as The Supremes. Sequins continued to be popular into the 1970s and early 1980s.

title: Sequin


text: User talk:66.27.95.234

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:66.27.95.234


text:
Talk:Russian Revolution (disambiguation)

More info
I'm adding some (well, a lot) of information about the causes and consequences of the Russian Revolution to this disambiguation page because it covers not one revolution, but all of them as a whole. → Jarlaxle Artemis   01:04, 16 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * Thanks for your contributions, but I think that most of the information is already in the articles on the respective revolutions. As  much of the information you have added is rather simplistic—e.g., that people revolted because they were unhappy with the government.  (Do people revolt for any other reason?)  You also seem to get a few points wrong, such as the name of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party,and needlessly meander into the Stalin era, which came several decades later.  This wouldn't happen to be another one of your homework assignments, would it?  Anyway, I think it's best to leave this as a short disambiguation page.  Any important facts which are missing from the individual revolution articles should be added thereto. —Psychonaut 06:23, 16 Mar 2005 (UTC)

october revolution
what is the october revolution? how long was this war? when did it happen?

disambiguation
I think this page should be turned into a strictly disambiguation page. C 70.59.142.151 20:10, 22 March 2006 (UTC)

 * I agree. It used to look like this, which I think is better. As it is at the moment, there is too much info for a disambig and not enough to be useful. Anyone object to going back to the version linked above? --Squiddy | (squirt ink?)  10:46, 24 March 2006 (UTC)

Move discussion in progress
There is a move discussion in progress which affects this page. Please participate at Talk:Russian Revolution (1917) - Requested move and not in this talk page section. Thank you. —RM bot 17:30, 15 October 2011 (UTC)


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Nana Buluku

Nana Buluku, also known as Nana Buruku, Nana Buku or Nanan-bouclou, is the female supreme being in the West African traditional religion of the Fon people (Benin, Dahomey) and the Ewe people (Togo). She is one of the most influential deities in West African theology, and one shared by many ethnic groups other than the Fon people, albeit with variations. For example, she is called the Nana Bukuu among the Yoruba people and the Olisabuluwa among Igbo people but described differently, with some actively worshiping her while some do not worship her and worship the gods originating from her.

In Dahomey mythology, Nana Buluku is the mother supreme creator who gave birth to the moon spirit Mawu, the sun spirit Lisa, and all of the universe. After giving birth to these, she retired and left the matters of the world to Mawu-Lisa. She is the primary creator, Mawu-Lisa the secondary creator, and the theology based on these is called Vodun, Voodoo or Vodoun.

According to Maya Deren, some Vodouwizan believe that Nanan-bouclou is both male and female.

Africa
The Vodoun religion of the Fon people has four overlapping elements: public gods, personal or private gods, ancestral spirits, and magic or charms. In this traditional religion of West Africa, creation starts with a female supreme being called Nana Buluku, who gave birth to Mawu and Lisa and created the universe. After giving birth, the mother supreme retired and left everything to Mawu-Lisa (Moon-Sun, female-male), deities, spirits, and inert universe. Mawu-Lisa created numerous minor imperfect deities. In Fon belief, the feminine deity Mawu had to work with the trickster Legba and the snake Aido Hwedo to create living beings, a method of creation that imbued the good, the bad, and a destiny for every creature including human beings. Only by appeasing lesser deities and Legba, in Fon theology, can one change that destiny. This appeasing requires rituals and offerings to the lesser gods and ancestral spirits, who are believed to have the ability to do favors for human beings.

Americas
As millions of West Africans were captured and enslaved during the colonial era, then shipped across the Atlantic to work on sugarcane, cotton, and tobacco plantations, they brought with them their religious ideas, including those about Nana Buluku. She is celebrated as Nanã in Candomblé Jejé and Tambor de Mina and as Nana Burukú in Candomblé Ketu, where she is pictured as a very old woman, older than creation itself. She is found in French, Dutch, and British West Indies in particular, such as among the African heritage communities of French Guiana, Suriname, Guyana, Brazil, Trinidad, Martinique, Haiti, and other Caribbean islands.

Other info

 * There is a song that was made in the "Tamil Language" with the title "Nana Buluku" (Youtube) and was shown in the movie "Pichaikaran 2" released in the year 2023. The lyrics also mention Nana Buluku as a god and refer to the dancer having a friendship with the god.

title: Nana Buluku


text:
Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District (novella)

Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District (Леди Макбет Мценского уезда Ledi Makbet Mtsenskogo uyezda) is an 1865 novella by Nikolai Leskov. It was originally published in Fyodor Dostoyevsky's magazine Epoch.

Among its themes are the subordinate role expected from women in 19th-century European society, adultery, provincial life (thus drawing comparison with Flaubert's Madame Bovary) and the planning of murder by a woman, hence it having a title inspired by the Shakespearean character Lady Macbeth from his play Macbeth, and echoing the title of Turgenev's story Hamlet of the Shchigrovsky District (1859).

Plot summary
The Ismailov family is introduced: Boris, the father of Zinovy, the husband of Katerina for the past five years. Boris and Zinovy are merchants, ruling an estate with many serfs. Katerina is bored in their empty home, and tired of Boris' constant orders and scolding of her for not producing any children. She would actually welcome a child, and Zinovy's previous wife of twenty years fared no better.
 * Chapter 1

A dam bursts at a mill owned by Boris, and Zinovy leaves town to oversee its repair. Aksinya, the female cook, and Sergei, a newly arrived farmhand, are introduced. Katerina flirts somewhat innocently with Sergei. Aksinya tells Katerina, who has become bored enough to venture out amongst the peasants, of Sergei's reputation as a womanizer.
 * Chapter 2

Sergei comes into Katerina's room, and after some dialogue about romance, moves to kiss her roughly. She protests at first, but then gives in; after an implied sexual encounter, she tells Sergei to leave because Boris will be coming by to lock her door. He stays, saying he can use the window instead.
 * Chapter 3

After a week of the continued affair, Boris catches Sergei and accuses him of adultery. Sergei will neither admit nor deny it, so Boris whips him until his own arm hurts from the exertion, and locks Sergei in a cellar. Katerina seems to come alive from her boredom, but Boris threatens to beat her as well when she asks for Sergei's release.
 * Chapter 4

Katerina poisons Boris by putting arsenical rat poison in a dish of mushrooms and kasha, and he is buried in the absence of his son - without incurring suspicion, because many have died from mistaking poisonous mushrooms for edible ones. She then takes charge of the estate and begins to order people around, openly being around Sergei every day.
 * Chapter 5

Katerina has a strange dream about a cat. Some dialogue occurs with Sergei, which by its end reveals his worry over Zinovy's return and desire to marry her.
 * Chapter 6

Katerina again dreams of the cat, which this time has Boris's head rather than a cat's. Zinovy returns and takes some time to get around to confronting Katerina with what he has heard about her affair. Finally she calls Sergei in, kisses him in front of her husband, some violence occurs, and the two of them strangle Zinovy.
 * Chapter 7

Zinovy dies, and Sergei buries him deep in the walls of the cellar where he himself had been kept.
 * Chapter 8

Some convenient circumstances regarding Zinovy's return shroud his disappearance in mystery, and while there is an inquiry, nothing is found and no trouble comes to Sergei or Katerina. The latter becomes pregnant. Everything seems to be working out for them, until Boris's young nephew Fyodor shows up with his mother, preventing Katerina from inheriting the estate. She has no problem with this and actually makes an effort to be a good aunt, but Sergei complains repeatedly for a time about their misfortune.
 * Chapter 9

Fyodor falls ill, and Katerina, while tending to him, has a change of heart because of Sergei's earlier complaints.
 * Chapter 10

Katerina and Sergei suffocate the boy, but a crowd returning from church storms the house, one of its members having spied the act through the shutters of Fyodor's room. Sergei, hearing the windows clattering from the crowd's fists, thinks the ghosts of his murder victims have come back to haunt him, and breaks down.
 * Chapter 11

Sergei admits to the crime publicly and, in repentance, also tells of where Zinovy is buried and admits to that crime as well. Katerina indifferently admits that she helped with the murders, saying it was all for Sergei. The two are sent to exile in Siberia. During their journey there, Katerina gives birth in a prison hospital, and wants nothing to do with their child.
 * Chapter 12

The child is sent to be raised by Fyodor's mother and becomes heir to the Ismailov estate. Katerina continues to be obsessed with Sergei, who increasingly wants nothing to do with her. Fiona and "little Sonya," two members of the prison convoy with Katerina and Sergei, are introduced, the former being known for being sexually prolific, the latter the opposite.
 * Chapter 13

Sergei is caught by Katerina being intimate with Fiona. Katerina is mortified, but seeing Fiona's indifference to the whole situation, reaches something approaching cordiality with Fiona by writing her off. Sergei then pursues little Sonya, who will not sleep with him unless he gives her a pair of stockings. He then complains to Katerina about his ankle-cuffs. She, being happy that he is talking to her again, readily gives him her last pair of new stockings to ease his pain, which he then gives to Sonya in return for sexual favours.
 * Chapter 14

Katerina sees Sonya wearing her stockings; she spits in Sergei's eyes, and shoves him. He promises revenge, and later breaks into her cell with another man, giving her fifty lashes with a rope, while her cell-mate Sonya giggles in the background. Katerina, broken, lets Fiona console her, and realizes that she is no better than Fiona, which is her breaking-point: after that she is emotionless. On the road in the prison convoy, Sergei and Sonya together mock Katerina. Sonya offers her stockings to her for sale. Sergei reminisces about both their courtship and their murders in the same airy manner. Fiona and an old man in the convoy, Gordyushka, defend Katerina, but to no avail. The convoy arrives at a river and boards a ferry, and Katerina, repeating some phrases similar to Sergei's feigned nostalgia for their life at the estate, sets upon Sonya; they both end up in the river after Katerina has seen the faces of Boris, Zinovy, and Fyodor in the water. The two women briefly resurface, still alive, but Katerina grabs Sonya, and they both drown.
 * Chapter 15

Translations into English

 * A. E. Chamot (1922)
 * George H. Hanna (1958)
 * David McDuff (1988)
 * Robert Chandler (2003)
 * Richard Pevear and Larissa Volokhonsky (2013)

Adaptations

 * Opera: the 1934 opera of the same name by Dmitri Shostakovich
 * Ballet: Lady Macbeth '77 (Katarina Izmailova) by Yugoslav composer Rudolf Brucci
 * Film: the 1962 Yugoslavian film Sibirska Ledi Magbet (Siberian Lady Macbeth) directed by Andrzej Wajda
 * Film: the 1989 Soviet film Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District by Roman Balayan
 * Film: 1994 Katya Ismailova by Valery Todorovsky
 * Film: the 2016 British film by William Oldroyd, Lady Macbeth.


text: Category:Breads

title: Category:Breads


text:
Saint Mirin

Saint Mirin was born in 565, is also known as Mirren of Benchor (now called Bangor), Merinus, Merryn and Meadhrán. The patron saint of the town and Roman Catholic diocese of Paisley, Scotland, he was the founder of a religious community which grew to become Paisley Abbey. The shrine of this saint in the abbey became a centre of pilgrimage.

A contemporary of the better known St Columba of Iona and disciple of Saint Comgall, he was prior of Bangor Abbey in County Down, Ireland before making his missionary voyage to Scotland. He is venerated in both Ireland and Scotland and in the Orthodox tradition.

History and legend
Much of what is known about Mirin is difficult to separate from fable, however it is believed that he was of noble birth. While still a young boy, his mother took him to the monastery of Bangor Abbey in County Down in the north east of Ireland, where he was placed under the care of St. Comgall. St Mirin later took oversight of the monastery and thus became the prior of Bangor Abbey, where he accepted visitors and sojourners.

Later on, St Mirin travelled to the camp of the High King of Ireland with the purpose of spreading the Christian faith. Having heard of Mirin's arrival, the king refused to allow the saint to enter the camp. Mirin, thus slighted, was said to have prayed to God that the king might feel his wife's labour pangs, her time being near. The legend continues that, just as St Mirin had prayed, the king fell ill and roared in pain for three days and nights. In desperation the king sought out Mirin and granted him all he wished, including the right to go out and preach the Gospel to the men of his camp. In response to these concessions St Mirin prayed on his behalf and he was freed from his pain.

Thereafter he was appointed to the west of Scotland and, after a long and difficult journey, arrived where the town of Paisley now stands. The area had recently been abandoned by the Romans and was in the possession of a powerful local chieftain. This chief took a liking to Mirin and the saint was allotted a small field near the river in the southern part of town. This plot was called St Mirin's Croft until it was later developed. He founded the first church in Paisley, thought to be at Seedhill and after his death the shrine of Saint Mirin became a centre of pilgrimage.

In various charters and Papal Bulls Mirin is referred to as The glorious confessor, Saint Mirin. His image was engraved on the seal of the Abbey, depicting him in the vestments of a bishop. Around the seal was inscribed the prayer O Mirin, pray for your servants. In King James IV's Charter of 1488 raising Paisley to the status of burgh of barony, one of the reasons cited was "the singular respect we have for the glorious confessor, Saint Mirin".

Mirin in modern Scotland
There is a chapel within Paisley Abbey, dedicated to Mirin containing a sculptured stone frieze depicting the life of the saint. The Roman Catholic St Mirin's Cathedral is also named in his honour. St Mirren F.C., a football club from Paisley, is named after him. The St Mirin Burn flows into the White Cart Water close to the town centre. He is also commemorated by St Mirren Street which links Paisley Cross to Causeyside Street. Since the closure of St Mirin's and St Margaret's High School (formerly St Mirin's Academy) in 2001, there has been no school in the town dedicated to the saint. However, there is a St Mirin's Primary School in the Simshill area of the neighbouring city of Glasgow.

Elsewhere in Scotland, the island of Inchmurrin (i.e. Mirin's Island) in Loch Lomond and a farm called Knockmurran (i.e. Mirin's Hill) near Coylton in Ayrshire are named after him. St Mirin's Well can be found near Kilsyth in Stirlingshire.

Statue
A pedestal of blond sandstone, designed by landscape architect Daniel McKendry, bearing the inscription taken from the Aberdeen Breviary At Length Full of Sanctity and Miracles, Mirin Slept in the Lord at Paisley was erected in 2003 opposite St Mirin's Cathedral at the junction of Incle Street, Gauze Street and Glasgow Road in Paisley. A bronze statue of the saint by Norman Galbraith was mounted on the pedestal and was unveiled on the saint's day, 15 September 2007, by the Provost of Renfrewshire Councillor Celia Lawson in the presence of the Bishop of Paisley the Rt Rev Philip Tartaglia, the Minister of Paisley Abbey the Rt Rev Alan Birss, the Rt Hon Douglas Alexander MP, Jim Sheridan MP, Hugh Henry MSP, the Deputy Lord Lieutenant of Renfrewshire James Wardrop and the sculptor Norman Galbraith. The erection and unveiling of the statue were co-ordinated by Daniel McKendry on behalf of the Mirin Project.

title: Saint Mirin


text:
George Busbee

George Dekle Busbee Sr. (August 7, 1927 – July 16, 2004), was an American politician who served as the 77th governor of Georgia from 1975 to 1983.

Early life
Born in Vienna, Georgia, Busbee attended Georgia Military College and Abraham Baldwin Agricultural College before joining the U.S. Navy. After his discharge, he completed his education at the University of Georgia and its School of Law in Athens, where he was a member of the Phi Delta Theta fraternity and the Phi Kappa Literary Society, having procured a bachelor's degree in 1949 and a law degree in 1952.

Political life
Establishing a law practice in Albany, Busbee served nine terms in the Georgia House of Representatives and was floor leader for Governor Carl Sanders. In 1967, Busbee was one of thirty Democrats in the legislature who voted for the Republican Howard Callaway in the disputed 1966 gubernatorial race, rather than the Democratic nominee Lester Maddox, a segregationist from Atlanta. The legislature, acting under the 1824 Georgia Constitution, upheld by the United States Supreme Court, chose Maddox 182 to 66.

In 1974, Busbee won the Democratic nomination for governor in Jimmy Carter's final year in that office. In the party runoff, he defeated, 551,106 (59.9 percent) to 369,608 (40.1 percent), former governor and sitting Lieutenant Governor Lester Maddox, the man whom Busbee had voted against in the legislative election for governor some seven years earlier. In the fall of 1974, Busbee handily defeated Ronnie Thompson, the first Republican to have served as mayor of Macon.

In 1976, voters approved a wholesale revision of the Georgia Constitution, which included a provision that allowed Busbee to become the state's first governor to serve two consecutive four-year terms. Lt. Gov. Zell Miller, who wanted to run for governor in 1978, opposed the constitutional amendment to allow a governor to serve two consecutive four-year terms. Busbee won election to his second term in 1978 with an easy victory over Republican Rodney Cook of Atlanta.

Personal life
After his service as governor, Busbee joined the Atlanta law firm King & Spalding and moved to the Atlanta suburb of Duluth.

Busbee was married to the former Mary Elizabeth "Mary Beth" Talbot (1927–2012), originally from Ruston in north Louisiana. The sixth child of a country physician, Dr. and Mrs. B. H. Talbot, she graduated from Louisiana Tech University with a Bachelor of Science degree in biological sciences and also did graduate work in pathology at Charity Hospital in New Orleans. She moved to Georgia to work as a medical technician at Athens General Hospital in Athens, where she met George Busbee, then a law student. In 1952, they relocated to Albany, where they remained until his inauguration as governor in January 1975. As First Lady of Georgia, Mrs. Busbee was known for her emphasis on volunteerism. In 1985, she co-authored a cookbook, Guess Who's Coming to Dinner, about favorite recipes and guests served at the governor's mansion during her eight years there. Mrs. Busbee was a 40-year cancer survivor.

The Busbees had four children, Beth Kindt and husband John, Jan Curtis and husband Carlton, George D. Busbee, Jr., and wife Tammy, and Jeff Busbee and wife Kelly. After the governorship, the Busbees started a church in their Duluth home. That congregation is now the Parkway Baptist Church.

Death and legacy
Busbee died of a heart attack on July 16, 2004, at the Savannah International Airport in Savannah. George Busbee Parkway and Busbee Drive in the Town Center Area Community Improvement District of Cobb County are named in his honor, as is Busbee Hall at the University of Georgia and the Busbee Center at Gwinnett Technical College.

title: George Busbee


text:
Golden West Airlines

Golden West Airlines was a commuter airline that operated flights on a high volume schedule in California. It ceased operations in 1983.

History
The original Golden West Airlines, headquartered at Van Nuys, California, was founded in 1968 and operated out of Terminal 4 at Los Angeles International Airport with a fleet of de Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter STOL capable turboprops and at least one HFB 320 Hansa Jet aircraft, serving Pomona, Riverside, Santa Ana, and Ventura. This airline ceased operations on March 11, 1969.

Aero Commuter, founded in December 1967 and based in Long Beach, operated flights between Long Beach, Los Angeles International Airport (LAX), Avalon, Burbank, and Fullerton. Aero Commuter operated de Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter STOL capable aircraft. It also acquired Catalina Air Lines which had been founded in 1953 as Avalon Air Transport. By 1968 service had expanded to include Apple Valley, Bakersfield, El Monte, Ontario, Oceanside, Palm Springs, Palmdale, San Diego, and Santa Ana. In 1969, it merged with Skymark Airlines (a Sacramento-based charter and commuter airline founded in February 1968 that also operated the DHC-6 Twin Otter) and Cable Commuter Airlines (an Upland general aviation concern based at Cable Airport that had entered the scheduled commuter airline business in 1968 via a hub at Los Angeles International Airport (LAX) with flights to such southern California destinations to Burbank, Colton, Inyokern, Ontario, Oxnard, Palmdale, Palm Springs, Santa Ana (Orange County Airport), Santa Barbara and Santa Maria as well as service to Lake Havasu City in Arizona with all flights operated with DHC-6 Twin Otter aircraft). Upon the demise of the original Golden West Airlines (see above) in early 1969, Aero Commuter acquired several assets from Golden West, including its name. Golden West also briefly operated jet service with the HFB 320 Hansa Jet, a West German manufactured business jet configured with ten passenger seats which the airline flew in scheduled service from Burbank Airport (BUR, now Bob Hope Airport) to Santa Barbara (SBA) and Palm Springs (PSP) in 1969.

As Golden West Airlines it continued to expand aggressively through the 1970s, adding service to San Francisco (SFO), Oakland, Bakersfield, Fresno, Oxnard, Santa Rosa, Merced, Modesto, Monterey, San Jose, Stockton and other smaller airports—many of which no longer have commercial service—such as Van Nuys Airport, Fullerton Municipal Airport, and the Airport in the Sky on Santa Catalina Island. In 1971 it attempted to acquire Los Angeles Airways, a local helicopter commuter airline, but the deal fell through. Golden West did acquire Catalina Air Lines, a seaplane operator that served Catalina Island off the coast of southern California with the Grumman G-21 Goose. These Grumman amphibious aircraft were operated as Catalina Golden West which was a division of Golden West.

Because of California's growth and tourist appeal, Golden West was able to become an interline partner with a number of domestic and international airlines. According to the January 1, 1973 Golden West system timetable, these airlines included Aer Lingus, Aerolíneas Argentinas, Aeroméxico, Air Canada, Air France, Alaska Airlines, Allegheny Airlines, Aloha Airlines, American, Braniff International, Continental Airlines, Delta, Eastern, Finnair, Frontier Airlines, Hawaiian Airlines, Hughes Airwest, Japan Airlines (JAL), Lufthansa, National Airlines, Northeast Airlines, Ozark Air Lines, Pan American World Airways (Pan Am), Piedmont Airlines, Scandinavian Airline System (SAS), Southern Airways, Trans World Airlines (TWA), United Airlines, Western Airlines, Wien Air Alaska and other air carriers.

By the early 1980s, Golden West was the largest commuter airline in California operating a high frequency shuttle schedule between LAX and Santa Barbara and San Diego. In 1981, Golden West was the only air carrier flying nonstop between Santa Barbara and LAX with up to fourteen round trip flights a day. Its fleet had grown to include larger aircraft such as the Short 330 and de Havilland Canada DHC-7 Dash 7. The 50-passenger seat Dash 7 was the largest aircraft ever operated by the airline. A huge debt service, among other factors, drove Golden West Airlines out of business in April 1983.

In 2000, Pinnacle Air Charter, Inc. acquired the Air Carrier Certificate for Golden West Airlines. It ultimately operated again, under the DBA of Pinnacle Air Charter, and later, Platinum Air Charter, Inc., conducting on-demand air charter and air ambulance operations under FAR Part 135. Its base of operations was located at Pomona's Brackett Field, and conducted flight operations primarily out of San Bernardino International Airport. It suspended operations and closed in 2007.

Fleet
The Golden West fleet consisted of the following aircraft models and quantities.

 * 4 – Beechcraft Model 99 Airliner
 * 27 – de Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter
 * 5 – de Havilland Canada DHC-7 Dash 7
 * 1 – Grumman G-21 Goose (amphibious aircraft that were formerly operated by Catalina Air Lines which was acquired by Golden West)
 * 1 − HFB 320 Hansa Jet
 * 5 − Short 330

Destinations in 1982
The July 1, 1982, Golden West timetable map includes:

 * Bakersfield (BFL)
 * Fresno (FAT)
 * Lake Tahoe (TVL)
 * Los Angeles (LAX)
 * Monterey (MRY)
 * Ontario (ONT)
 * Orange County (SNA, now John Wayne Airport)
 * Oxnard (OXR)
 * San Diego (SAN)
 * San Francisco (SFO)
 * Santa Barbara (SBA)

Former destinations
Before 1982, Golden West served the following destinations in California at various times:

 * Avalon Harbor Seaplane Base, Catalina Island (served by Golden West division Catalina Air Lines with Grumman Goose seaplanes)
 * Catalina Airport (AVX) (also known as Airport in the Sky)
 * Edwards Air Force Base
 * Fullerton Airport
 * Inyokern
 * Long Beach Airport (served by Golden West with DHC-6 Twin Otters and by Golden West division Catalina Air Lines with Grumman Goose seaplanes)
 * McClellan-Palomar Airport
 * Merced
 * Modesto
 * Mojave Airport
 * Oakland
 * Palmdale Airport
 * Palm Springs
 * Pomona (POC)
 * Redlands Airport
 * Riverside
 * Sacramento
 * San Jose
 * Santa Rosa
 * Stockton
 * Tehachapi
 * Trona
 * Two Harbors Seaplane Base, Catalina Island (served by Golden West division Catalina Air Lines with Grumman Goose seaplanes)
 * Vandenberg Air Force Base

Incidents and accidents
On January 9, 1975, Golden West Airlines Flight 261, a de Havilland Twin Otter, collided with a Cessna 150 over Whittier, California, killing 14 people in both aircraft (all 12 aboard the Golden West plane and the 2 occupants of the Cessna).

title: Golden West Airlines


text:
Siberian Lady Macbeth

Siberian Lady Macbeth (Orig. Sibirska Ledi Magbet), also translated as Fury Is a Woman, is a 1962 film directed by Andrzej Wajda, based on the novella Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District by Nikolai Leskov.

Cast

 * Olivera Marković - Katerina Izmajlowa / Lady Macbeth
 * Ljuba Tadić - Sergei
 * Kapitalina Erić - cook
 * Bojan Stupica - Izmajlow
 * Miodrag Lazarević - Zinovij Izmailow
 * Branka Petrić - aunt

title: Siberian Lady Macbeth


text: Category:Chinese civil utility aircraft

title: Category:Chinese civil utility aircraft


text: Category:Chinese civil aircraft

title: Category:Chinese civil aircraft


text:
Mernda line

The Mernda line is a commuter railway line on the Melbourne metropolitan railway network serving the city of Melbourne in Victoria, Australia. Operated by Metro Trains Melbourne, the line is coloured red and is one of the two lines that constitute the Clifton Hill group. It is the city's eighth longest metropolitan railway line at 33.1 km. The line runs from Flinders Street station in central Melbourne to Mernda station in the north, serving 29 stations via Clifton Hill, Reservoir, Epping, and South Morang.

The line operates for approximately 19 hours a day (from approximately 5:00 am to around 12:00 am) with 24-hour service available on Friday and Saturday nights. During peak hour, headways of up to 7.5 minutes are operated with services every 10–30 minutes during off-peak hours. Trains on the Mernda line run with two three-car formations of X'Trapolis 100 trainsets.

Services on the line began in 1889 when the section between North Fitzroy (on the now-closed Inner Circle line) and Reservoir was opened, which was extended to Whittlesea in the same year. The line was closed beyond Lalor in November 1959, while the remainder of the line was electrified. The closed section has since been gradually reconstructed and reopened; to Epping in 1964, South Morang in April 2012, and to Mernda in August 2018.

Since the 2010s, due to the heavily utilised infrastructure of the Mernda line, significant improvements and upgrades have been made. Two major upgrades of the corridor have taken place, with the line from Epping extended to South Morang in April 2012, duplicated between Keon Park and Epping, and extended again to Mernda in August 2018. Other works have included replacing sleepers, upgrading signalling technology, the introduction of new rolling stock, the removal of level crossings, and station accessibility upgrades.

19th century
The early beginning of the Mernda line opened on 8 October 1889, as part of railway extensions into the northern suburbs. What became known as the Inner Circle line was opened from Spencer Street station (now Southern Cross station) via Royal Park station, to a station called Collingwood (now called Victoria Park), and then on to Heidelberg. The Epping line branched off at Fitzroy North to Preston-Reservoir station (later renamed Reservoir) in 1889, with the line extended to Whittlesea a few months later, on 23 December.

20th century
Trains on the line operated via Fitzroy and the Inner Circle, until the opening of the current connection between Victoria Park and Princes Bridge stations in 1901. Passenger services were operated in two tiers: a local train to Preston-Reservoir station via Clifton Hill, and a country-bound mixed train to Whittlesea, via Fitzroy. The Epping line was electrified to Reservoir in 1921, with an AEC railmotor providing a shuttle service between Reservoir and the terminus at Whittlesea. Preston-Reservoir station was renamed Reservoir in 1909.

The line had a number of Rail Motor Stopping Places along the line, these being a mere nameboard beside the railway line at a public access point. The first were RMSP 8, 9, and 10, which opened on 10 May 1927; followed by Epping Quarries Siding RMSP in January 1928; RMSP 17 in March 1928; RMSP 26 in January 1930; RMSP 33 in July 1932; RMSP 39 in July 1941; and RMSP 77 in October 1949, which was renamed Lalor station in 1952. Direct trains to Whittlesea from Flinders and Spencer streets were withdrawn from 1948.

Electrification was extended along 4.4 km of single track to Thomastown in 1929, paid for by a land developer, who paid for the works, as well as guaranteeing against operating losses. Keon Park station was opened at the same time, but the Whittlesea shuttle train continued to connect with suburban trains at Reservoir, until 1931. Goods trains to Whittlesea were withdrawn in 1955, and goods trains from Epping ended in 1958.

Electric suburban services were extended to Lalor station in November 1959, in addition to the duplication of the line from Reservoir to Keon Park, services beyond this point (to Whittlesea) were replaced by a bus service, subsequently closing the remaining section of the line. The line to Epping itself was reopened and electrified in 1964, with the remaining line dismantled in the 1970s. However, the right-of-way beyond Epping was retained to allow future expansion of the rail corridor.

South Morang extension
Proposals for the duplication of the line between Keon Park and Epping have dated as far back as 1974. In 1983, Whittlesea Council made a submission to the Victorian Government supporting the duplication of the line. Following the election of the Bracks Government in 1999, a promise was made to restore the service to South Morang, along the former right-of-way by 2003. In 2003, a Trainlink bus service was introduced from Epping to South Morang, meeting every train, but the 2005 Meeting Our Transport Challenges plan postponed construction of the railway until 2021. The restoration of the railway to Mernda was also identified in the Strategic Transportation Study, undertaken by the City of Whittlesea in 2002. In the 2008 State Budget, $10 million was earmarked for planning work on the four-kilometre extension, in addition, to design work for the duplication between Keon Park and Epping stations.

On 1 May 2009, the State Government announced that they had committed $562.3 million in the 2009 State Budget for the extension of the line to South Morang, covering capital and construction works. Construction would begin the following year in 2010 and was to be completed by 2013. Major construction commenced in October 2010, with works including:

 * The duplication of the 5 km of existing single track between Keon Park and Epping
 * The construction of 3.5 km of new double track from Epping to South Morang
 * A rebuilt South Morang station with a bus interchange, 450 car parking spaces, and 29 protected bike spaces
 * A rebuilt Thomastown station with a second platform and a pedestrian overpass
 * Newly built Epping station
 * The upgrade and expansion of the Epping train maintenance facility
 * The construction of a new shared use path between Epping and South Morang

The double track between Keon Park and Epping was commissioned on 28 November 2011. A shared use path was opened to the public on 5 February 2012. The three-metre wide path runs the length of the rail extension and provides connections between the existing bicycle network, through to South Morang station. Finally, the extension to South Morang opened on 2 April 2012. No level crossings were built on the new section of the track, with road overpasses provided at Cooper Street, Pindari Avenue, and Civic Drive.

Mernda extension
Proposals for an extension to Mernda have dated as far back as 1974. In 1983, Whittlesea Council made a submission to the Victorian Government to extend the Epping line to South Morang and Mernda. After many years of extensive community activism, the Andrews government announced in the 2015 State Budget that $9 million was to be allocated to plan the 8 km extension of the line to Mernda, with construction commencing in 2016. The announcement included:

 * The 8 km line to be fully double tracked
 * Completely grade separated through a combination of rail bridges and underpasses, with more than 86% of the rail line being built at ground level
 * The construction of two new stations (Mernda and Middle Gorge) with an option for an additional one (Hawkstowe) (all three were constructed)
 * All three stations included bike and car parking as well as bus interchanges
 * A new shared use path, connecting to the one constructed at South Morang as part of the South Morang rail extension

Construction began in 2016, with the stations opening six months early on 26 August 2018.  Prior to the lines official opening, a community open day was held to promote the new stations to the local residents.

Level Crossing Removals
The Level Crossing Removal Project has removed 6 level crossings on the line, completed in stages from 2019 to 2024. In 2019, the level crossing at High Street, Reservoir was removed by building a rail bridge over the road, along with Reservoir station being rebuilt. In 2022, Bell station and Preston station were both rebuilt with an elevated rail bridge connecting them to remove four crossings, one each at Bell Street, Cramer Street, Murray Road, and Oakover Road. The level crossing at Keon Parade was removed in 2024 by constructing a rail bridge over the road and rebuilding Keon Park station. The Mernda line has 12 remaining level crossings that are not yet proposed for removal.

Melbourne Metro 2
The 2012 Network Development Plan identified the need for a new tunnel connecting the Mernda line to the Werribee line and possibly also the Geelong line. The tunnel would run from Clifton Hill, potentially include a new stop somewhere in the inner north, before connecting with Parkville, Flagstaff, and Southern Cross stations. Exiting the CBD, the line would continue in a tunnel stopping at a new station in the suburb of Fishermans Bend, before crossing underneath the Yarra River and arriving at Newport station. The line would then exit the tunnel and travel further west to connect with the Werribee and Geelong lines. The Werribee and Williamstown lines would be reconfigured to provide better and simpler service. This project was initially meant to be completed in the 2020s, however, no funding or planning has taken place, with the revised Victorian Rail Plan stating that the project would be completed under Stage 6 of the plan.

Wollert extension
Highlighted in the 2018 Victorian Rail Plan, a proposal exists for a spur line to be constructed to the suburb of Wollert, at a cost of up to $300 million. The line would branch off the Mernda line after Lalor station, with new stations at the Pacific Epping shopping centre, and in the suburbs of Epping, Aurora and Wollert. In addition to the new stations, the corridor would be fully grade separated from opening, with the line featuring two tracks, and modern, fully wheelchair accessible stations. In 2017, the State Government announced the acquisition of 6 properties valued at $3.8 million for a future rail corridor. The $3.8 million was sourced from a 'statewide developers' contribution fund. Since the 2017 acquisitions, there has been little planning developments, with only a small amount of attention given by the local residents, council, and some political parties.

Services
Services on the Mernda line operate from approximately 5:00 am to around 12:00 am daily. In general, during peak hours, train frequency is 7–10 minutes in the AM peak on the Mernda line while during non-peak hours the frequency is reduced to 20–30 minutes throughout the entire route. Frequencies are doubled between Flinders Street and Clifton Hill in conjunction with the Hurstbridge line. On Friday nights and weekends, services run 24 hours a day, with 60-minute frequencies available outside of normal operating hours.

Train services on the Mernda line are also subjected to maintenance and renewal works, usually on selected Fridays and Saturdays. Shuttle bus services are provided throughout the duration of work for affected commuters.

Stopping patterns
Legend — Station status
 * ◼ Premium Station – Station staffed from first to last train
 * ◻ Host Station – Usually staffed during morning peak, however this can vary for different stations on the network.

Legend — Stopping patterns Some services do not operate via the City Loop
 * ● – All trains stop
 * ◐ – Some services do not stop
 * ▲ – Only inbound trains stop
 * ▼ – Only outbound trains stop (trains operate clockwise through the city loop all day)
 * | – Trains pass and do not stop

Operators
The Mernda line has had a total of 6 operators since its opening in 1888. The majority of operations throughout its history have been government-run: from its first service in 1888 until the 1999 privatisation of Melbourne's rail network, four different government operators have run the line. These operators, Victorian Railways, the Metropolitan Transit Authority, the Public Transport Corporation and Hillside Trains have a combined operational length of 111 years. Hillside Trains was privatised in August 1999 and later rebranded Connex Melbourne. Metro Trains Melbourne, the current private operator, then took over the operations in 2009. Both private operators have had a combined operational period of 24 years.

Route
The Mernda line forms a relatively linear route from the Melbourne central business district to its terminus in Mernda. The route is 33.1 km long and is double track the entire way from Flinders Street to its termnius. The only underground section of the Mernda line is in the City Loop, where the service stops at 3 underground stations. Exiting the city, the Mernda line traverses mainly flat country with few curves and fairly minimal earthworks for most of the line. Despite the otherwise fairly straight line, it does include Melbourne's sharpest railway curve, between Rushall and Merri. This curve originally made up the third side of a triangular junction, connecting the two original branches from the now-closed North Fitzroy station. Only this third leg of the triangle remains. Some sections of the line has been elevated or lowered into a cutting to eliminate level crossings. Despite some removals, there are a number of level crossings still present with no current plans to remove them.

The line follows the same alignment as the Hurstbridge line with the two services splitting onto different routes at Clifton Hill. The Mernda line continues on its northern alignment, whereas the Hurstbridge line takes a north-eastern alignment towards its final destination of Hurstbridge station. Most of the rail line goes through built-up suburbs and some industrial areas, but after Middle Gorge, the line gets into more sporadic suburbs and park lands. This outer portion of the line is one of Melbourne's main growth corridors, which is rapidly replacing farmland with housing and commercial developments causing a rise in patronage.

Stations
The line serves 29 stations across 33.1 km of track. The stations are a mix of elevated, lowered, underground, and ground-level designs. Underground stations are present only in the City Loop, with the majority of elevated and lowered stations being constructed as part of level crossing removals or line extension projects. From 2025, Keon Park station will be elevated as part of level crossing removal works.

Rolling stock
The Mernda line uses X'Trapolis 100 electric multiple unit (EMU) trains operating in a two three-car configuration, with three doors per side on each carriage, and can accommodate up to 432 seated passengers in each six-car configuration. The trains were originally built between 2002 and 2004 as well as between 2009 and 2020 with a total of 212 three-car sets constructed. The trains are shared with 7 other metropolitan train lines and have been in service since 2003.

Alongside the passenger trains, Mernda line tracks and equipment are maintained by a fleet of engineering trains. The four types of engineering trains are: the shunting train; designed for moving trains along non-electrified corridors and for transporting other maintenance locomotives, for track evaluation; designed for evaluating track and its condition, the overhead inspection train; designed for overhead wiring inspection, and the infrastructure evaluation carriage designed for general infrastructure evaluation. Most of these trains are repurposed locomotives previously used by V/Line, Metro Trains, and the Southern Shorthaul Railroad.

Accessibility
In compliance with the Disability Discrimination Act of 1992, all stations that are new-built or rebuilt are fully accessible and comply with these guidelines. Just over half of the stations on the corridor are fully accessible, however, some stations haven't been upgraded to meet these guidelines. These stations do feature ramps, however, they have a gradient greater than 1 in 14. Stations that are fully accessible feature ramps that have a gradient less than 1 in 14, have at-grade paths, or feature lifts. These stations typically also feature tactile boarding indicators, independent boarding ramps, wheelchair accessible myki barriers, hearing loops, and widened paths.

Projects improving station accessibility have included the Level Crossing Removal Project, which involves station rebuilds and upgrades, and individual station upgrade projects. These works have made significant strides in improving network accessibility, with more than 67% of Mernda line stations classed as fully accessible. Future station upgrade projects will continue to increase the number of fully accessible stations overtime.

Signalling
The Mernda line uses three-position signalling which is widely used across the Melbourne train network. Three-position signalling was first introduced on the line in 1921, with the final section of the line converted to the new type of signalling during the extension of the line to Mernda in 2018.

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Meghnad Saha

Meghnad Saha (6 October 1893 – 16 February 1956) was an Indian astrophysicist who helped devise the theory of thermal ionisation. His Saha ionisation equation allowed astronomers to accurately relate the spectral classes of stars to their actual temperatures. Saha's equation is considered one of the ten most outstanding discoveries in astronomy and astrophysics since Galileo's invention of the telescope in 1608.

Biography
Meghnad Saha hailed from a Bengali Hindu Dalit family of Gazipur, Dhaka, Bengal, now Bangladesh (East Bengal).

During his youth, he was forced to leave Dhaka Collegiate School because he participated in the Swadeshi movement. After that he joined K. L. Jubilee High School & College. He earned his Indian School Certificate from Dhaka College. He was also a student at the Presidency College, Kolkata and Rajabazar Science College CU. Saha faced discrimination from other students due to his caste; when he was at the Eden Hindu Hostel, upper-caste students objected to him eating in the same dining hall as them.

He was a professor at Allahabad University from 1923 to 1938, and thereafter a professor and Dean of the Faculty of Science at the University of Calcutta until his death in 1956. He became a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1927. He was president of the 21st session of the Indian Science Congress in 1934.

Amongst Saha's classmates were Satyendra Nath Bose, Jnan Ghosh and Jnanendra Nath Mukherjee. In his later life, he was close to Amiya Charan Banerjee. Saha was an atheist.

Career
Saha's study of the thermal ionisation of elements led him to formulate what is known as the Saha ionisation equation. This equation is one of the basic tools for interpreting the spectra of stars. By studying the spectra of stars, one can find their temperature and using Saha's equation determine the ionisation state of the elements making up the star. This was extended by Ralph H. Fowler and Edward Arthur Milne. Saha had previously reached the following conclusion on the subject:

"It will be admitted from what has gone before that the temperature plays the leading role in determining the nature of the stellar spectrum. Too much importance must not be attached to the figures given, for the theory is only a first attempt for quantitatively estimating the physical processes taking place at high temperature. We have practically no laboratory data to guide us, but the stellar spectra may be regarded as unfolding to us, in an unbroken sequence, the physical processes succeeding each other as the temperature is continually varied from 3000 K to 40,000 K."

Saha also invented an instrument to measure the weight and pressure of solar rays.

Meghnad Saha helped to establish several scientific institutions, including the Physics Department at Allahabad University in United Provinces (now Uttar Pradesh) and the Institute of Nuclear Physics (now Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics) in Kolkata. He founded the journal Science and Culture and was the editor until his death. He was the leading figure in organising several scientific societies, such as the National Academy of Science (1930), the Indian Physical Society (1934), and the Indian Institute of Science (1935). He was the director at Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science from 1953 to 1956. The Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics, founded in 1943 in Kolkata, is named after him.

Saha stood as a candidate for North-West Calcutta in the 1951 Lok Sabha election. He ran as a member of the Union of Socialists and Progressives,  but maintained his independence from the party. His goal was to improve the planning of education, industrialisation, healthcare, and river valley development. He was up against Prabhu Dayal Himatsingka. Due to low funding for his campaign, Saha wrote to the publisher of his textbook Treatise on Heat to ask for an advance of ₹5000. He was elected by a margin of 16%.

Saha participated in the areas of education, refugees, rehabilitation, atomic energy, multipurpose river projects, flood control, and long term planning. In the book Meghnad Saha in Parliament, Saha is described as:"'Never unduly critical... forthright, so incisive, so thorough in pointing out lapses that the treasury bench was constantly on the defensive. This is brought out by the way he was accused of leaving his laboratory and straying into a territory not his own. But the reason why he was slowly drifting towards this public role (he was never a politician in the correct sense of the term) was the gradually widening gulf between his dream and the reality—between his vision of an industrialised India and the Government implementation of the plan.'"Saha was the chief architect of river planning in India and prepared the original plan for the Damodar Valley Project. His own observation with respect to his transition into government projects and political affairs was:

"Scientists are often accused of living in the 'Ivory Tower' and not troubling their mind with realities and apart from my association with political movements in my juvenile years, I had lived in ivory tower up to 1930. But science and technology are as important for administration now-a-days as law and order. I have gradually glided into politics because I wanted to be of some use to the country in my own humble way."

Death
Saha died on the way to the hospital on 16 February 1956 after getting cardiac arrest. He was going to the office of the Planning Commission in the Rashtrapati Bhavan. It was reported he had been dealing with hypertension for ten months prior to his death. His remains were cremated at the Keoratola crematorium, Kolkata the following day.

Tributes

 * "Meghnad Saha's ionization equation (c. 1920), which opened the door to stellar astrophysics was one of the top ten achievements of 20th century Indian science [and] could be considered in the Nobel Prize class." — Jayant Narlikar
 * "The impetus given to astrophysics by Saha's work can scarcely be overestimated, as nearly all later progress in this field has been influenced by it and much of the subsequent work has the character of refinements of Saha's ideas." — Svein Rosseland
 * "He (Saha) was extremely simple, almost austere, in his habits and personal needs. Outwardly, he sometimes gave an impression of being remote, matter of fact, and even harsh, but once the outer shell was broken, one invariably found in him a person of extreme warmth, deep humanity, sympathy and understanding; and though almost altogether unmindful of his own personal comforts, he was extremely solicitous in the case of others. It was not in his nature to placate others. He was a man of undaunted spirit, resolute determination, untiring energy and dedication." — Daulat Singh Kothari

title: Meghnad Saha


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Samuel Smith (Upper Canada politician)

Samuel Bois Smith (27 December 1756 – 20 October 1826) was a Loyalist British Army officer and politician. He was appointed to the Executive Council of Upper Canada and appointed Administrator of Upper Canada.

Smith was born in Hempstead, New York, the son of Scottish immigrants (James Smith). In 1777, he joined the Queen's Rangers during the American Revolutionary War. He surrendered to the Americans after the Battle of Yorktown. Smith moved with the Rangers to Queensbury Parish in the newly created colony of New Brunswick where the Rangers were disbanded. Smith likely met his wife (a native of nearby Maugerville Parish) during this period and then moved to England in 1784 to continue his service in the British Army. He rose to the rank of captain and was sent to Niagara in 1791. He was promoted to the position of lieutenant-colonel of his old regiment (which was recreated in Upper Canada) in 1801 before retiring to 1,000 acres (4 km2) of land he had bought in Etobicoke. Later some of this land was sold to John Strachan for the original Trinity College campus, now Trinity Bellwoods Park. Smith was appointed 30 November 1813 to the Executive Council of Upper Canada for the town of Etobicoke.

In 1817 he was sworn in as Administrator of Upper Canada in the absence of Lieutenant Governor Francis Gore and served until 1818. He acted again as Administrator in the absence of Lieutenant Governor Sir Peregrine Maitland for three months in 1820.

As Administrator, Smith was advised not grant land to American immigrants until they had taken the oath of allegiance and resided in Upper Canada for seven years. He decided to follow the advice of his Executive Council and not to remove title to the land from those who did not qualify.

Smith was considered a weak official and was the target of complaints by both the reformer Robert Gourlay and the Family Compact member John Strachan, who thought him feeble, inept, and talentless. However, in April 1818, Smith ordered Gourlay arrested when he called an illegal assembly at York (now Toronto).

Smith retired from the Executive Council in October 1825. He died 20 October 1826 in York and left his wife and nine children. His son (Samuel B. Smith Jr.) was Clerk in the Executive Council of the Province of Canada and died in Toronto in 1882.

Legacy
The City of Toronto's Colonel Samuel Smith Park in Etobicoke was created in the 1970s and opened in 1996 along Lake Ontario is named in his honour. The park lands was part of his property (known as Colonel Smith Tract). The Tract in Mississauga was inherited by his son Samuel and sold off by 1872 in what is now Lakeview, Mississauga.

Smith Estate
Following his death, his estate (on Lake Shore Boulevard between 40th and 41st Streets across from Long Branch GO Station) was occupied by his son and later sold. The last owner of the home was James Eastwood and the home was demolished in 1952. It is now a residential community consisting of townhouses, detached homes and apartments.

title: Samuel Smith (Upper Canada politician)


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André Vingt-Trois

André Armand Vingt-Trois (born 7 November 1942) is a French cardinal of the Catholic Church. He served as Archbishop of Paris from 2005 to 2017, having previously served as Archbishop of Tours from 1999 to 2005. He was elevated to the cardinalate in 2007.

Early life and ordination
André Vingt-Trois was born in Paris, France, to Armand Vingt-Trois and Paulette (née Vuillamy). His surname, which is French for "twenty-three", is probably from an ancestor who, as a child or baby, was abandoned and found on the 23rd day of the month. Vingt-Trois completed his secondary studies at the Lycée Henri IV and entered the Seminary of Saint-Sulpice at Issy-les-Moulineaux in 1962. He then attended the Institut Catholique de Paris, from where he obtained his licentiate in moral theology. From 1964 to 1965, Vingt-Trois performed his military service in Germany. He was ordained to the diaconate by Bishop Daniel Pezeril in October 1968 and to the priesthood by Cardinal François Marty on 28 June 1969.

Pastoral work
During his priestly ministry, he worked especially in parochial catechetics and the formation of the laity. From 1974 to 1981, Vingt-Trois was vicar at the Parisian parish of Sainte-Jeanne de Chantal. He then served as director of his alma mater of the Seminary of Saint-Sulpice until 1988, also teaching moral and sacramental theology there. Vingt-Trois participated in different pastoral movements, including the Centre de préparation au mariage and the sessions of permanent formation of the clergy. He was later named vicar general of Paris, and was charged with the diocesan formation (the cathedral school and diocesan seminary), of the means of communications (Radio Notre-Dame, Paris Notre-Dame, Centre d'Information), of the familial pastoral, of the chaplains of public education, and of catechetics.

Episcopate
On 25 June 1988, Vingt-Trois was appointed Auxiliary Bishop of Paris and Titular Bishop of Thibilis by Pope John Paul II. He received his episcopal consecration on the following 14 October in Notre-Dame Cathedral from Cardinal Jean-Marie Lustiger, with Bishops Pézeril and Gabriel Vanel serving as co-consecrators. Vingt-Trois was appointed Archbishop of Tours on 21 April 1999, and Archbishop of Paris on 11 February 2005. He was installed in Paris on the following 5 March and additionally appointed Ordinary of French Catholics of the Eastern Rites on 14 March. On 5 November 2007, he was elected President of the French Episcopal Conference for a term of three years.

Cardinalate
Pope Benedict XVI created him Cardinal-Priest of S. Luigi dei Francesi in the consistory of 23 November 2007. Vingt-Trois is no longer eligible to participate in papal conclaves, having reached the age of 80 on 7 November 2022.

He has been a member of the Congregation for Bishops and the Pontifical Council for the Family since 12 June 2008 and of the Congregation for the Clergy since 2 February 2010. On 7 March 2012 he was appointed a member of the Congregation for the Oriental Churches. In October 2012, after being appointed a synod father by Pope Francis, he took part in the 13th Ordinary General Assembly of the Synod of Bishops, which concerned itself with the new evangelization for the transmission of the Christian faith.

He was one of the cardinal electors who participated in the 2013 papal conclave that selected Pope Francis. Francis accepted his resignation as Archbishop of Paris on 7 December 2017.

Opposition to same-sex marriage
The cardinal has been a vocal opponent of efforts to introduce same-sex marriage in France. In 2013, he warned that it could incite violence and split society in France: "This is the way a violent society develops. Society has lost its capacity of integration and especially its ability to blend differences in a common project." He insisted that as long as the government is not listening to French citizens, this could lead to more violence.

title: André Vingt-Trois


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User talk:Kadett

Welcome to the Wikipedia
Here are some links I find useful:

 * Policy Library
 * Utilities
 * Cite your sources
 * Verifiability
 * Wikiquette
 * Civility
 * Conflict resolution
 * Brilliant prose
 * Neutral point of view
 * Pages needing attention
 * Peer review
 * Bad jokes and other deleted nonsense
 * Village pump
 * Boilerplate text
 * IRC channel
 * Mailing lists
 * Current polls

Feel free to ask me anything the links and talk pages don't answer. You can sign your name by typing 4 tildes, likes this: ~.

Cheers, Sam [Spade] 23:53, 17 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Pope John XXIII and his failed prophecy
Hi Kadett, Please go to google and type in "Sun Magazine" + XXIII + Prediction and you will find a number of web pages that contain information that this particular pope made that failed prediction. If you know of any website that contains information that can effectively disprove this belief, then please remove the quote from the article again and paste a copy of the website address in the discussion page with a quick explanation of how all the other websites are wrong. One Salient Oversight 08:44, 5 Oct 2004 (UTC)

You may be interested
You might be interested in this current vote: Votes for deletion/List of Roman Catholics -Doohickey

title: User talk:Kadett


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Jack Wagner

Jack Wagner may refer to:

 * Jack Wagner (screenwriter) (1891–1963), U.S. screenwriter
 * Jack Wagner (announcer) (1925–1995), announcer for Disney theme parks
 * Jack Wagner (politician) (born 1948), former Auditor General of Pennsylvania
 * Jack Wagner (actor) (born 1959), actor and singer
 * Jack Wagner (director) (born 1989), director and podcast host

title: Jack Wagner


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Harry Harlow

Harry Frederick Harlow (October 31, 1905 – December 6, 1981) was an American psychologist best known for his maternal-separation, dependency needs, and social isolation experiments on rhesus monkeys, which manifested the importance of caregiving and companionship to social and cognitive development. He conducted most of his research at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, where humanistic psychologist Abraham Maslow worked with him for a short period of time.

Harlow's experiments were ethically controversial; they included creating inanimate wire and wood surrogate "mothers" for the rhesus infants. Each infant became attached to its particular mother, recognizing its unique face. Harlow then investigated whether the infants had a preference for bare-wire mothers or cloth-covered mothers in different situations: with the wire mother holding a bottle with food, and the cloth mother holding nothing, or with the wire mother holding nothing, while the cloth mother held a bottle with food. The monkeys overwhelmingly chose the cloth mother, with or without food, only visiting the wire mother that had food when needing sustenance.

Later in his career, he cultivated infant monkeys in isolation chambers for up to 24 months, from which they emerged intensely disturbed. Some researchers cite the experiments as a factor in the rise of the animal liberation movement in the United States. A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Harlow as the 26th most cited psychologist of the 20th century.

Biography
Harry Harlow was born on October 31, 1905, to Mabel Rock and Alonzo Harlow Israel. Harlow was born and raised in Fairfield, Iowa, the third of four brothers. Little is known of Harlow's early life, but in an unfinished autobiography he recollected that his mother was cold to him and he experienced bouts of depression throughout his life. After a year at Reed College in Portland, Oregon, Harlow obtained admission to Stanford University through a special aptitude test. After a semester as an English major with nearly disastrous grades, he declared himself as a psychology major.

Harlow attended Stanford in 1924, and subsequently became a graduate student in psychology, working directly under Calvin Perry Stone, a well-known animal behaviorist, and Walter Richard Miles, a vision expert, who were all supervised by Lewis Terman. Harlow studied largely under Terman, the developer of the Stanford-Binet IQ Test, and Terman helped shape Harlow's future. After receiving a PhD in 1930, he changed his name from Israel to Harlow. The change was made at Terman's prompting for fear of the negative consequences of having a seemingly Jewish last name, even though his family was not Jewish.

Directly after completing his doctoral dissertation, Harlow accepted a professorship at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. Harlow was unsuccessful in persuading the Department of Psychology to provide him with adequate laboratory space. As a result, Harlow acquired a vacant building down the street from the university, and, with the assistance of his graduate students, renovated the building into what later became known as the Primate Laboratory, one of the first of its kind in the world. Under Harlow's direction, it became a place of cutting-edge research at which some 40 students earned their PhDs.

Harlow received numerous awards and honors, including election to the United States National Academy of Sciences (1951), the Howard Crosby Warren Medal (1956), election to the American Philosophical Society (1957), the National Medal of Science (1967), election to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1961), and the Gold Medal from the American Psychological Foundation (1973). He served as head of the Human Resources Research branch of the Department of the Army from 1950 to 1952, head of the Division of Anthropology and Psychology of the National Research Council from 1952 to 1955, consultant to the Army Scientific Advisory Panel, and president of the American Psychological Association from 1958 to 1959.

Harlow married his first wife, Clara Mears, in 1932. One of the select students with an IQ above 150 whom Terman studied at Stanford, Clara was Harlow's student before becoming romantically involved with him. The couple had two children together, Robert and Richard. Harlow and Mears divorced in 1946. That same year, Harlow married child psychologist Margaret Kuenne. They had two children together, Pamela and Jonathan. Margaret died on August 11, 1971, after a prolonged struggle with cancer, with which she had been diagnosed in 1967. Her death led Harlow to depression once more, for which he was treated with electro-convulsive therapy. In March 1972, Harlow remarried Clara Mears. The couple lived together in Tucson, Arizona, until Harlow's death in 1981. He was buried alongside Margaret Kuenne at Forest Hill Cemetery in Madison, Wisconsin.

Monkey studies
Harlow came to the University of Wisconsin–Madison in 1930 after obtaining his doctorate under the guidance of several distinguished researchers, including Calvin Stone and Lewis Terman, at Stanford University. He began his career with nonhuman primate research. He worked with the primates at Henry Vilas Zoo, where he developed the Wisconsin General Testing Apparatus (WGTA) to study learning, cognition, and memory. It was through these studies that Harlow discovered that the monkeys he worked with were developing strategies for his tests. What would later become known as learning sets, Harlow described as "learning to learn."

In order to study the development of these learning sets, Harlow needed access to developing primates, so he established a breeding colony of rhesus macaques in 1932. Due to the nature of his study, Harlow needed regular access to infant primates and thus chose to rear them in a nursery setting, rather than with their protective mothers. This alternative rearing technique, also called maternal deprivation, is highly controversial to this day, and is used, in variants, as a model of early life adversity in primates. Research with and caring for infant rhesus monkeys further inspired Harlow, and ultimately led to some of his best-known experiments: the use of surrogate mothers. Although Harlow, his students, contemporaries, and associates soon learned how to care for the physical needs of their infant monkeys, the nursery-reared infants remained very different from their mother-reared peers. Psychologically speaking, these infants were slightly strange: they were reclusive, had definite social deficits, and clung to their cloth diapers. At the same time in the reverse configuration, babies that had grown up with only a mother and no playmates showed signs of fear or aggressiveness.

Noticing their attachment to the soft cloth of their diapers and the psychological changes that correlated with the absence of a maternal figure, Harlow sought to investigate the mother–infant bond. This relationship was under constant scrutiny in the early twentieth century, as B. F. Skinner and the behaviorists took on John Bowlby in a discussion of the mother's importance in the development of the child, the nature of their relationship, and the impact of physical contact between mother and child.

The studies were motivated by John Bowlby's World Health Organization-sponsored study and report "Maternal Care and Mental Health" in 1950, in which Bowlby reviewed previous studies on the effects of institutionalization on child development, and the distress experienced by children when separated from their mothers, such as René Spitz's and his own surveys on children raised in a variety of settings. In 1953, his colleague James Robertson produced a short and controversial documentary film, titled A Two-Year-Old Goes to Hospital, demonstrating the almost-immediate effects of maternal separation. Bowlby's report, coupled with Robertson's film, demonstrated the importance of the primary caregiver in human and non-human primate development. Bowlby de-emphasized the mother's role in feeding as a basis for the development of a strong mother–child relationship, but his conclusions generated much debate. It was the debate concerning the reasons behind the demonstrated need for maternal care that Harlow addressed in his studies with surrogates. Physical contact with infants was considered harmful to their development, and this view led to sterile, contact-less nurseries across the country. Bowlby disagreed, claiming that the mother provides much more than food to the infant, including a unique bond that positively influences the child's development and mental health.

To investigate the debate, Harlow created inanimate surrogate mothers for the rhesus infants from wire and wood. Each infant became attached to its particular mother, recognizing its unique face and preferring it above all others. Harlow next chose to investigate if the infants had a preference for bare-wire mothers or cloth-covered mothers. For this experiment, he presented the infants with a clothed mother and a wire mother under two conditions. In one situation, the wire mother held a bottle with food, and the cloth mother held no food. In the other situation, the cloth mother held the bottle, and the wire mother had nothing.

Overwhelmingly, the infant macaques preferred spending their time clinging to the cloth mother. Even when only the wire mother could provide nourishment, the monkeys visited her only to feed. Harlow concluded that there was much more to the mother–infant relationship than milk, and that this "contact comfort" was essential to the psychological development and health of infant monkeys and children. It was this research that gave strong, empirical support to Bowlby's assertions on the importance of love and mother–child interaction.

Successive experiments concluded that infants used the surrogate as a base for exploration, and a source of comfort and protection in novel and even frightening situations. In an experiment called the "open-field test", an infant was placed in a novel environment with novel objects. When the infant's surrogate mother was present, it clung to her, but then began venturing off to explore. If frightened, the infant ran back to the surrogate mother and clung to her for a time before venturing out again. Without the surrogate mother's presence, the monkeys were paralyzed with fear, huddling in a ball and sucking their thumbs.

In the "fear test", infants were presented with a fearful stimulus, often a noise-making teddy bear. Without the mother, the infants cowered and avoided the object. When the surrogate mother was present, however, the infant did not show great fearful responses and often contacted the device—exploring and attacking it.

Another study looked at the differentiated effects of being raised with only either a wire-mother or a cloth-mother. Both groups gained weight at equal rates, but the monkeys raised on a wire-mother had softer stool and trouble digesting the milk, frequently suffering from diarrhea. Harlow's interpretation of this behavior, which is still widely accepted, was that a lack of contact comfort is psychologically stressful to the monkeys, and the digestive problems are a physiological manifestation of that stress.

The importance of these findings is that they contradicted both the traditional pedagogic advice of limiting or avoiding bodily contact in an attempt to avoid spoiling children, and the insistence of the predominant behaviorist school of psychology that emotions were negligible. Feeding was thought to be the most important factor in the formation of a mother–child bond. Harlow concluded, however, that nursing strengthened the mother–child bond because of the intimate body contact that it provided. He described his experiments as a study of love. He also believed that contact comfort could be provided by either mother or father. Though widely accepted now, this idea was revolutionary at the time in provoking thoughts and values concerning the studies of love.

Some of Harlow's final experiments explored social deprivation in the quest to create an animal model for the study of depression. This study is the most controversial, and involved isolation of infant and juvenile macaques for various periods of time. Monkeys placed in isolation exhibited social deficits when introduced or re-introduced into a peer group. They appeared unsure of how to interact with their conspecifics, and mostly stayed separate from the group, demonstrating the importance of social interaction and stimuli in forming the ability to interact with conspecifics in developing monkeys, and, comparatively, in children.

Critics of Harlow's research have observed that clinging is a matter of survival in young rhesus monkeys, but not in humans, and have suggested that his conclusions, when applied to humans, overestimate the importance of contact comfort and underestimate the importance of nursing.

Harlow first reported the results of these experiments in "The Nature of Love", the title of his address to the sixty-sixth Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association in Washington, D.C., August 31, 1958.

Partial and total isolation of infant monkeys
Beginning in 1959, Harlow and his students began publishing their observations on the effects of partial and total social isolation. Partial isolation involved raising monkeys in bare wire cages that allowed them to see, smell, and hear other monkeys, but provided no opportunity for physical contact. Total social isolation involved rearing monkeys in isolation chambers that precluded any and all contact with other monkeys.

Harlow et al. reported that partial isolation resulted in various abnormalities such as blank staring, stereotyped repetitive circling in their cages, and self-mutilation. These monkeys were then observed in various settings.

In the total isolation experiments, baby monkeys would be left alone for three, six, 12, or 24 months of "total social deprivation". The experiments produced monkeys that were severely psychologically disturbed. Harlow wrote:

Harlow tried to reintegrate the monkeys who had been isolated for six months by placing them with monkeys who had been raised normally. The rehabilitation attempts met with limited success. Harlow wrote that total social isolation for the first six months of life produced "severe deficits in virtually every aspect of social behavior". Isolates exposed to monkeys the same age who were reared normally "achieved only limited recovery of simple social responses". Some monkey mothers reared in isolation exhibited "acceptable maternal behavior when forced to accept infant contact over a period of months, but showed no further recovery". Isolates given to surrogate mothers developed "crude interactive patterns among themselves". Opposed to this, when six-month isolates were exposed to younger, three-month-old monkeys, they achieved "essentially complete social recovery for all situations tested". The findings were confirmed by other researchers, who found no difference between peer-therapy recipients and mother-reared infants, but found that artificial surrogates had very little effect.

Since Harlow's pioneering work on touch, recent researches have found evidence to support that touch during infancy is very important to health and touch deprivation can be harmful.

Pit of despair
Harlow was well known for refusing to use conventional terminology, instead choosing deliberately outrageous terms for the experimental apparatus he devised. This came from an early conflict with the conventional psychological establishment in which Harlow used the term "love" in place of the popular and archaically correct term "attachment". Such terms and respective devices included a forced-mating device he called the "rape rack", tormenting surrogate-mother devices he called "Iron maidens", and an isolation chamber he called the "pit of despair", developed by him and a graduate student, Stephen Suomi.

In the last of these devices, alternatively called the "well of despair", baby monkeys were left alone in darkness for up to one year from birth, or repetitively separated from their peers and isolated in the chamber. These procedures quickly produced monkeys that were severely psychologically disturbed, which were used as models of human depression.

Harlow tried to rehabilitate monkeys that had been subjected to varying degrees of isolation using various forms of therapy. "In our study of psychopathology, we began as sadists trying to produce abnormality. Today, we are psychiatrists trying to achieve normality and equanimity."

Sigmund Freud's influence
Sigmund Freud can be credited for providing the foundation of mother and child relationships, that would soon be the inspiration and the starting point for Harlow's studies. Freud discovered, after years of observation, that people who lacked consistent mothering were more likely to develop behavioral problems later in life. Freud's findings displayed that people who experienced lack of mothering, suffered from hostility, anxiety withdraws, and alcoholism. Freud constructed the foundation for Harry Harlow to continue and be successful in his work.

The Freudian interpretation believed that "it was the focus around the importance of the breast and the instinctive oral, feeding tendencies during the first year of life". Harlow took this Freudian interpretation and asked "what about that connection is so crucial?" He used what Freud had already determined, and continued to ask questions to further the research in his own studies. The Freudian hypotheses states that a partial component of sexual drives, orality, determines the choice of an object, mother's breast, driven by hunger.

Influences
Harlow's work influenced Bruno Bettelheim, director of the Sonia Shankman Orthogenic School in Chicago. This was a home for "disturbed" children, Bettelheim studied autism in children. He was very fascinated with Harlow and his study with monkeys. He thought that he could use what Harlow learned in his own work.

Definition
Reactive attachment disorder (RAD) forms when a child has experienced maltreatment, sexual and emotional abuse, or other forms of neglect, and manifests as behavioral problems. The treatment for reactive attachment disorder is very complex. By the time a child has been seen and diagnosed with reactive attachment disorder, several different mental health, medical, and developmental conditions need to be treated. While more children are being diagnosed with RAD, most are first mis-diagnosed with other behavioral problems. Children diagnosed with RAD need to be in intensive therapy, and so should their caregivers. The confusing path to a diagnosis often leaves children and families suffering for longer periods of time.

Harlow's contribution
Harlow believed that the relationship between mother and child was created by the mother providing tactile comfort, meaning infants have a natural need to touch and cling to something for emotional support. Harry Harlow helped further research that contributed to the discovery of RAD. He believed, and his study results showed, that the bond between mother and child in the first few years of life is extremely important for the mental health and development of the child. The ideas that he put into the psychology field of study helped discover what we know as RAD today.

Many children are misdiagnosed with RAD when they have other behavioral problems, and vice versa. Harlow's experiments gave psychologists experimental data for the causes and development of RAD, which helped reduce misdiagnosis.

Criticism
Many of Harlow's experiments are now considered unethical—in their nature as well as Harlow's descriptions of them—and they both contributed to heightened awareness of the treatment of laboratory animals, and helped propel the creation of today's ethics regulations. The monkeys in the experiment were deprived of maternal affection, potentially leading to what are now known as panic disorders. University of Washington professor Gene Sackett, one of Harlow's doctoral students, stated that Harlow's experiments provided the impetus for the animal liberation movement in the U.S.

William Mason, another one of Harlow's students who continued conducting deprivation experiments after leaving Wisconsin, has said that Harlow "kept this going to the point where it was clear to many people that the work was really violating ordinary sensibilities, that anybody with respect for life or people would find this offensive. It's as if he sat down and said, 'I'm only going to be around another ten years. What I'd like to do, then, is leave a great big mess behind.' If that was his aim, he did a perfect job." Mason also published articles where he attempted to work through the issue between a scientist's wish to understand the natural world and the "rights" of animals to life and autonomy.

Stephen Suomi, a former Harlow student and supporter who now conducts maternal deprivation experiments on monkeys at the National Institutes of Health, has been criticized by PETA and members of the U.S. Congress.

Deborah Blum, a science journalist, criticized Harlow's work; criticisms by her and by his colleagues, collected by Blum, mentioned almost exclusively the negative impact on the public of his untamed language. Blum reported in her own writing that even Suomi felt that he had to wait until Harlow retired from the University of Wisconsin before he could shut down his unethical "pit of despair" projects; they had been causing him "nightmares".

Yet another of Harlow's students, Leonard Rosenblum, also went on to conduct maternal deprivation experiments with bonnet and pigtail macaque monkeys, and other research, involving exposing monkeys to drug–maternal-deprivation combinations in an attempt to "model" human panic disorder. Rosenblum's research, and his justifications for it, have also been criticized.

E. H. Eyestone, Chief of the Animal Resources Branch of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), expressed the concern of a review committee with the "pits of despair" experiments. Any concerns for welfare and humaneness were reduced to issues of publicity.

Harlow commented to an interviewer in 1974, "The only thing I care about is whether the monkeys will turn out a property I can publish. I don't have any love for them. Never have. I really don't like animals. I despise cats, I hate dogs. How could you like a monkey?".

Although Harlow certainly was aware of the animal protection legislation in place in the United Kingdom since 1876, active legislative attempts in the United States did not begin until 1960, where the Animal Welfare Act was passed in 1966.

Role of the American Psychological Association
Harry Harlow won a national medal of science based on his work with monkeys, in addition to being named the president of the American Psychological Association (APA). The APA is the governing body for researchers in the field of psychology. The APA offers oversight of researchers' works, which includes whether ethical principles are being followed in their research.

In popular culture
A theatrical play, The Harry Harlow Project, based on the life and work of Harlow, has been produced in Victoria and performed nationally in Australia.

Early papers

 * The effect of large cortical lesions on learned behavior in monkeys. Science. 1950.
 * Retention of delayed responses and proficiency in oddity problems by monkeys with preoccipital ablations. Am J Psychol. 1951.
 * Discrimination learning by normal and brain operated monkeys. J Genet Psychol. 1952.
 * Incentive size, food deprivation, and food preference. J Comp Physiol Psychol. 1953.
 * Effect of cortical implantation of radioactive cobalt on learned behavior of rhesus monkeys. J Comp Physiol Psychol. 1955.
 * The effects of repeated doses of total-body x radiation on motivation and learning in rhesus monkeys. J Comp Physiol Psychol. 1956.
 * The sad ones: Studies in depression "Psychology Today". 1971

title: Harry Harlow


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Wikipedia:Goings-on/July 18, 2004

Welcome to Wikipedia's goings-on. This page is a central point for community members to collect current information about the community project and to report on recent goings-on. In a sense, it's an announcement page, but it is supposed to collect even those kinds of information that are normally not announced on pages like Announcements (e.g. arbitration progress, outspoken newcomers, amusing things, etc.). However, please notice that this page is explicitly not for discussion. When listing topics here that are being discussed or have been discussed, please link to the appropriate discussion page and discuss it there. For a project-wide update of events, see the Meta-Wiki Goings-on.

This page is archived in a weekly digest-like fashion, every Sunday at 0:00 UTC.

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Goings-on in the week starting Sunday July 18 2004

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title: Wikipedia:Goings-on/July 18, 2004


text: User:Angela/Disclaimers and licenses

title: User:Angela/Disclaimers and licenses


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Fumaric acid

Fumaric acid is an organic compound with the formula HO2CCH=CHCO2H. A white solid, fumaric acid occurs widely in nature. It has a fruit-like taste and has been used as a food additive. Its E number is E297. The salts and esters are known as fumarates. Fumarate can also refer to the ion (in solution). Fumaric acid is the trans isomer of butenedioic acid, while maleic acid is the cis isomer.

Biosynthesis and occurrence
It is produced in eukaryotic organisms from succinate in complex 2 of the electron transport chain via the enzyme succinate dehydrogenase.

Fumaric acid is found in fumitory (Fumaria officinalis), bolete mushrooms (specifically Boletus fomentarius var. pseudo-igniarius), lichen, and Iceland moss.

Fumarate is an intermediate in the citric acid cycle used by cells to produce energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from food. It is formed by the oxidation of succinate by the enzyme succinate dehydrogenase. Fumarate is then converted by the enzyme fumarase to malate.

Human skin naturally produces fumaric acid when exposed to sunlight.

Fumarate is also a product of the urea cycle.

Food
Fumaric acid has been used as a food acidulant since 1946. It is approved for use as a food additive in the EU, USA and Australia and New Zealand. As a food additive, it is used as an acidity regulator and can be denoted by the E number E297. It is generally used in beverages and baking powders for which requirements are placed on purity. Fumaric acid is used in the making of wheat tortillas as a food preservative and as the acid in leavening. It is generally used as a substitute for tartaric acid and occasionally in place of citric acid, at a rate of 1 g of fumaric acid to every ~1.5 g of citric acid, in order to add sourness, similarly to the way malic acid is used. As well as being a component of some artificial vinegar flavors, such as "Salt and Vinegar" flavored potato chips, it is also used as a coagulant in stove-top pudding mixes.

The European Commission Scientific Committee on Animal Nutrition, part of DG Health, found in 2014 that fumaric acid is "practically non-toxic" but high doses are probably nephrotoxic after long-term use.

Medicine
Fumaric acid was developed as a medicine to treat the autoimmune condition psoriasis in the 1950s in Germany as a tablet containing 3 esters, primarily dimethyl fumarate, and marketed as Fumaderm by Biogen Idec in Europe. Biogen would later go on to develop the main ester, dimethyl fumarate, as a treatment for multiple sclerosis.

In patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis, the ester dimethyl fumarate (BG-12, Biogen) significantly reduced relapse and disability progression in a phase 3 trial. It activates the Nrf2 antioxidant response pathway, the primary cellular defense against the cytotoxic effects of oxidative stress.

Other uses
Fumaric acid is used in the manufacture of polyester resins and polyhydric alcohols and as a mordant for dyes.

When fumaric acid is added to their feed, lambs produce up to 70% less methane during digestion.

Synthesis
Fumaric acid is produced based on catalytic isomerisation of maleic acid in aqueous solutions at low pH. It precipitates from the reaction solution. Maleic acid is accessible in large volumes as a hydrolysis product of maleic anhydride, produced by catalytic oxidation of benzene or butane.

Historic and laboratory routes
Fumaric acid was first prepared from succinic acid. A traditional synthesis involves oxidation of furfural (from the processing of maize) using chlorate in the presence of a vanadium-based catalyst.

Reactions
The chemical properties of fumaric acid can be anticipated from its component functional groups. This weak acid forms a diester, it undergoes bromination across the double bond, and it is a good dienophile.

Safety
The oral LD50 is 10g/kg.

title: Fumaric acid


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Category:Military of the People's Republic of China

Topics related to the military forces of the People's Republic of China which was established in 1949.


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Gainford

Gainford may refer to:
 * Gainford, Alberta, Canada
 * Gainford, County Durham, England

title: Gainford