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Korban

In Judaism, the ', also spelled ' or , is any of a variety of sacrificial offerings described and commanded in the Torah. The plural form is ', ', or .

The term primarily refers to sacrificial offerings given from humans to God for the purpose of doing homage, winning favor, or securing pardon. The object sacrificed was usually an animal that was ritually slaughtered and then transferred from the human to the divine realm by being burned on an altar. Other sacrifices include grain offerings made of flour and oil, not meat.

After the destruction of the Second Temple, sacrifices were prohibited because there was no longer a Temple, the only place allowed by halakha for sacrifices. Offering of sacrifices was briefly reinstated during the Jewish–Roman wars of the second century CE.

When sacrifices were offered in ancient times, they were offered as a fulfillment of Biblical commandments. According to Orthodox Judaism, the coming of the messiah will not remove the requirement to keep the 613 commandments, and when the Temple is rebuilt, sacrifices will be offered again.

While some were offered as part of the atonement process for sin, this role was strictly limited, and in Judaism atonement can be achieved through means such as repentance even without sacrifices.

Etymology
The Semitic root (קרב) means be near and is found in a number of related languages in addition to Hebrew, e.g. in the Akkadian language noun, meaning act of offering. In Hebrew it is found in a number of words, such as, close, , relatives, and the verb form , he brought near; offered a sacrifice. The noun (plural, ) first occurs in the Bible in  and occurs 80 times in the Masoretic Text; 40 times in Leviticus, 38 in Numbers and twice in Ezekiel. The related form appears only in  and  referring to the 'wood offering'. The etymology of the 'offer' sense is traditionally understood as deriving from the verbal sense of 'bringing near', viz. bringing the offering near to the deity, but some theological explanations see it rather as bringing "man back to God".

The Septuagint generally translates the term in Koine Greek as δῶρον, gift, θυσία, sacrifice, or προσφορά, offering up. By the Second Temple period, Hellenistic Jewish texts use korban specifically to mean a vow. The New Testament preserves korban once as a transliterated loan-word for a vow, once also a related noun, κορβανάς (temple treasury), otherwise using δῶρον, θυσία or προσφορά and other terms drawn from the Septuagint. Josephus also generally uses other words for 'offering' but uses for the vow of the Nazirites (Antiquities of the Jews 4:73 / 4,4,4) and cites Theophrastus as having cited a korban vow among the Tyrians (Against Apion 1.167 / 1,22,4).

Purpose
The idea conveyed in most was that of a "gift" to God.

served a variety of purposes. Many were brought purely for the purpose of communing with God and becoming closer to God, or in order to express thanks, gratitude, and love to God.

While some were offered as part of the atonement process for sin, this role was strictly limited. Standard sin-offerings could only be offered for unintentional sins; according to the rabbis, they could not be offered for all sins, but only for unintentional violations of some of the most serious sins. In addition, generally had no expiating effect without sincere repentance and restitution to any person who was harmed by the violation. In the absence of sacrifices, atonement can still be achieved through means such as repentance, prayer, or giving.

The slaughter of an animal sacrifice is not considered a fundamental part of the sacrifice, but rather is an unavoidable preparatory step to the offering of its meat to God; thus, the slaughter may be performed by any Jew, while the other stages of the sacrifice could only be performed by priests.

Laws and stories

Offerings are mentioned in the Book of Genesis, but further outlined in the later four books of the Torah, including aspects of their origins and history. Cain and Abel, Noah, Abraham, and Jacob offered sacrifices, as did the Israelites at Mount Sinai.

The Torah contains many laws regarding sacrifices. Every regular weekday, Sabbath, and many Jewish holidays had their own unique offerings. Sacrificial procedures were described in detail. Sacrifices were only to be offered by the (hereditary priesthood), whom the Hebrew Bible describes as descendants of Aaron who meet certain marital and ritual purity requirements.

Sacrifices were offered in varying locations. Before building the Temple in Jerusalem, when the Israelites were in the desert, sacrifices were only to be offered in the Tabernacle. After the invasion of Canaan, sacrifices were also permitted at bamot in any location until the nation's enemies had been defeated and the people lived securely, after which sacrifices were supposed to be centralized again. However, in practice the bamot were still used even in the secure monarchic period, and the Bible sometimes criticizes Israelite kings for allowing this. Sacrifices outside the main sanctuary are recorded at Beit Shemesh, Mizpah, Ramah, Gilgal, and Bethlehem, among other locations.

After the entry to Canaan, the main sacrificial centre was initially at Shiloh. Under Saul the main center of sacrifice was Nob, though private offerings continued to be made at Shiloh. David created a new sacrificial center in Jerusalem at the threshing floor of Araunaḥ, adjacent to Jerusalem, to which he moved the Ark. According to the Hebrew Bible, after the building of Solomon's Temple, sacrifices were only to be carried out there. After Solomon's Temple was destroyed, sacrifices were resumed when the Second Temple was built, until the Second Temple was also destroyed in 70 CE.

Attitudes
Many of the Biblical prophets criticized those Israelites who brought sacrifices while continuing to violate God's will with immoral behavior. This criticism often took the form of scathing denunciations: "What need have I for all your sacrifices? says the Lord."

"Your burnt-offerings are not desirable to Me, nor are your sacrifices pleasing to Me."

"How shall I come before the Lord, and bow before the exalted God? Shall I approach him with burnt-offerings, with yearling calves? Will the Lord be pleased with thousands of rams, with myriads of rivers of oil?... You, man, have been told what is good, and what the Lord requires of you: only to do justice, to love kindness, and to walk modestly with your God."

However, while rejecting the value of sacrifices accompanied by unjust behavior, the same prophets promised an eventual reconciliation between God and a more moral people of Israel, and proclaimed that the reestablishment of sacrifices would be a sign of this reconciliation. Thus sacrifices have a place in their visions of eventual redemption:

"I will bring them to My holy mountain; I will gladden them in My house of prayer. Their burnt-offerings and sacrifices will find favor on My altar, for My house will be a house of prayer for all the nations."

"Again will be heard in this place... the voice of those who say "Give thanks to the Lord of Hosts, for the Lord is Good, for His kindness is forever", and of those who bring thanksgiving sacrifices to the house of the Lord."

List of sacrifices
This is an incomplete list of sacrifices mentioned in the Hebrew Bible.

Types of sacrifice include:
 * Burnt offering (olah), entirely burnt on the altar
 * Peace offering (shelamim), mostly eaten by humans
 * Sin offering (hatat)
 * Guilt offering (asham)
 * Gift offering (mincha), consisting of vegetable rather than animal products

Sacrifices offered on specific occasions include:
 * Daily offerings (tamid)
 * Mussaf (additional) offering for Shabbat and holidays
 * The Passover sacrifice
 * First Fruits on the holiday of Shavuot.
 * Temple tax – The half-shekel tax for Temple needs.

Sacrifices connected to one's personal status or situation include:
 * Offering following childbirth (see Kinnim)
 * The offering for an accused adulterous wife (Ordeal of the bitter water)
 * Thank offering (todah)
 * Offerings relevant to fulfillment of, or transgression of, the Nazirite vow.
 * Offerings following cure from certain diseases and unusual bodily discharges.

Other sacrifices include:
 * Dough offering (challah)
 * Voluntary offerings

Procedures connected to sacrifices include:
 * (laying on hands) of sacrificial animals

100 among the 613 commandments
According to Maimonides, about one hundred of the permanent 613 commandments based on the Torah, by rabbinical enumeration, directly concern sacrifices, excluding those commandments that concern the actual Temple and the priests themselves of which there are about another fifty.

Instructions in Mishnah and Talmud
The Mishnah and Talmud devote a very large section, known as a, to the study and analysis of this subject known as , whereby all the detailed varieties of korbanot are enumerated and analyzed in great logical depth, such as (of minor degree of sanctity) and  (of major degree of sanctity). In addition, large parts of every other book of the Talmud discuss various kinds of sacrifices. Pesachim is largely devoted to a discussion of how to offer the Passover sacrifice. Yoma contains a detailed discussion of the Yom Kippur sacrifices, and there are sections in Seder Moed (Festivals) for the special offerings and Temple ritual for other major Jewish holidays. Shekalim discusses the annual half-shekel offering for Temple maintenance and Temple governance and management, and Nashim discusses the offerings made by Nazirites and the suspected adulteress.

The Talmud provides extensive details not only on how to perform sacrifices but how to adjudicate difficult cases, such what to do if a mistake was made and whether improperly performing one of the required ritual elements invalidates it or not. The Talmud explains how to roast the Passover offering, how to dash blood from different kinds of sacrifices upon the altar, how to prepare the incense, the regulatory code for the system of taxation that financed the priesthood and public sacrifices, and numerous other details.

Rationale and rabbinic commentary
Maimonides, a medieval Jewish scholar, drew on the early critiques of the need for sacrifice, taking the view that God always held sacrifice inferior to prayer and philosophical meditation. However, God understood that the Israelites were used to the animal sacrifices that the surrounding pagan tribes used as the primary way to commune with their gods. As such, in Maimonides' view, it was only natural that Israelites would believe that sacrifice would be a necessary part of the relationship between God and man. This view is controversial since the Torah also forbids worship of foreign idols and practices of pagan religions as "detestable" before God including their sacrifices. Maimonides concludes that God's decision to allow sacrifices was a concession to human psychological limitations. It would have been too much to have expected the Israelites to leap from pagan worship to prayer and meditation in one step. In The Guide for the Perplexed, he writes: "But the custom which was in those days general among men, and the general mode of worship in which the Israelites were brought up consisted in sacrificing animals... It was in accordance with the wisdom and plan of God...that God did not command us to give up and to discontinue all these manners of service. For to obey such a commandment would have been contrary to the nature of man, who generally cleaves to that to which he is used; it would in those days have made the same impression as a prophet would make at present [the 12th century] if he called us to the service of God and told us in His name, that we should not pray to God nor fast, nor seek His help in time of trouble; that we should serve Him in thought, and not by any action."

In contrast, many others such as Nahmanides (in his commentary on Leviticus 1:9) disagreed. Nahmanides cites the fact that the Torah records the practices of animal and other sacrifices from the times of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob and earlier. Indeed, the purpose of recounting the near sacrifice of Isaac was to illustrate the sublime significance and need of animal sacrifices as supplanting the abomination of human sacrifices.

Through a non-all encompassing view of the ritual life of "Abraham [sic] as it is presented in the book of Genesis, the evolving philosophical theology that seems to underlie the modes of worship that [he] develops over time [...] is reconstruct[ed.]" Abram's building of a number of altars without mentioning that he sacrificed animals on them, and that for most of these occasions, he "called out in the name of God" is interpreted by Lebens as theologically stating that God's desires are sated without animal sacrifices. Noting that not all these altar building occasions were accompanied by call-outs, and that call-outs also took place on returns, in Everlasting Dominion, American Old Testament scholar Eugene H. Merrill attributes a multipurpose nature to the altars, in which Abram was participating in only one:

"Later, Abram, having entered Canaan, 'built' an altar to the Lord at Shechem (Gen. 12:7). The narrative fails to speak of his making a sacrifice there; in fact, the inspiration for building the altar is that the Lord 'appeared to [him].' This may suggest that mīzbēaḥ refers not so much to an altar of sacrifice as to some kind of stele or monument marking God's presence there. As we shall see, this was not an uncommon thing even among the Israelites (e.g., Judg. 6:24; Josh. 22.21-34; 2 Kings 16:15b). Future generations of Abram's offspring would see the altar at Shechem and remember the promises the Lord had made to their ancestors and to them. The same was true at Bethel (v. 8), and though there is no reference to the appearance of the Lord at that place, there is likewise no record of a sacrifice being made there. Abram himself returned to Bethel; and seeing the altar still there, he 'called on the name of the Lord' (Gen 13:4 NIV). The altar clearly served the purpose of a sacred memorial."

Nonetheless, Abram also engaged in the covenant of the pieces which was based on this divine set of promises accompanied by obligations and an animal sacrifice ritual to the extent that it physically symbolized irrevocability. Likewise, in Hebrew, the verb meaning to seal a covenant translates literally as "to cut." Furthermore, to measure the general importance given to animal sacrifice preceding Abram in Genesis, in the story of Cain and Abel the only differentiator mentioned leading God to "[have] not respect [...] unto Cain and to his offering" was Abel's "firstlings of his flock and of the fat thereof" as opposed to Cain's "fruit of the ground[.]" Then, starkly contrasting a diminutive effect resulting from Abram's altar building and call-outs, animal sacrifice was institutionalized in the era of Moses in the Book of Numbers 28:1-30:1. The schedule of obligatory sacrifices included two daily lamb burnt-offerings. However, the physical participation of God in the consumption of sacrificial offerings is debatable. The seeming all-time peak occurred with his conclusive victory as Yahweh when Elijah challenged worshippers of the Canaanite deity Baal to pray for fire to light their respective bull animal sacrifices.

As a metaphor
Metaphorically, a person's efforts to purify their soul are described as "sacrific[ing one's] animalistic nature", in order to allow them to become close to God (in keeping with the root of the word, meaning to draw close). Devotion to God can be described as "sacrificing one's soul to God", as in the poem Bilvavi mishkan evneh by Yitzchak Hutner.

The end of sacrifices
With the destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem by the Romans, the Jewish practice of offering stopped for all intents and purposes. Despite subsequent intermittent periods of small Jewish groups offering the traditional sacrifices on the Temple Mount, the practice effectively ended.

Rabbinic Judaism was forced to undergo a significant development in response to this change; no longer could Judaism revolve around the Temple services. The destruction of the Temple led to a development of Jewish observance in the direction of text study, prayer, and other practices, which were seen to varying extents as substitutes for the Temple service. A range of responses is recorded in classical rabbinic literature on this subject:

"Once, Rabbi Yohanan ben Zakkai was walking with his disciple, Rabbi Yehoshua, near Jerusalem after the destruction of the Temple. Rabbi Yehoshua looked at the Temple ruins and said "Alas for us! The place that atoned for the sins of the people Israel lies in ruins!" Then Rabbi Yohanan ben Zakkai spoke to him these words of comfort: 'Be not grieved, my son. There is another equally meritorious way of gaining ritual atonement, even though the Temple is destroyed. We can still gain ritual atonement through deeds of loving-kindness. For it is written "Loving kindness I desire, not sacrifice." (Hosea 6:6)"

In the Babylonian Talmud, a number of sages opined that following Jewish law, doing charitable deeds, and studying Jewish texts is greater than performing animal sacrifices:

"Rabbi Elazar said: Doing righteous deeds of charity is greater than offering all of the sacrifices, as it is written: "Doing charity and justice is more desirable to the Lord than sacrifice" (Proverbs 21:3)."

Nonetheless, numerous texts of the Talmud stress the importance of and hope for eventual re-introduction of sacrifices, and regard their loss as a tragedy. Partaking of sacrificial offerings was compared to eating directly at one's Father's table, whose loss synagogue worship does not entirely replace. One example is in :

"...at the time that the people of Israel enter the synagogues and houses of study, and respond (in the Kaddish) "May His great name be blessed", the Holy One, Blessed is He, shakes His head and says: "Fortunate for the king who is praised this way in his house. What is there for the Father who has exiled His children. And woe to the children who have been exiled from their Father's table.""

Another example is in :

"Rabbi Akiva said: Shimon Ben Loga related the following to me: I was once collecting grasses, and I saw a child from the House of Avitnas (the incense-makers). And I saw that he cried, and I saw that he laughed. I said to him, "My son, why did you cry?" He said, Because of the glory of my Father's house that has decreased." I asked "And why did you laugh?" He said to me "Because of the glory prepared for the righteous in the future." I asked "And what did you see?" [that brought on these emotions]. "The herb [used in Temple incense] is growing next to me.""

In non-Orthodox Judaism
Non-Orthodox branches of Judaism (Conservative, Reform, and Reconstructionist) regard the korbanot as an ancient ritual that will not return.

Conservative Judaism disavows the resumption of. Consistent with this view, it has deleted prayers for the resumption of sacrifices from the Conservative, including the morning study section from the sacrifices and prayers for the restoration of qorbanot in the , and various mentions elsewhere. Consistent with its view that priesthood and sacrificial system will not be restored, Conservative Judaism has also lifted certain restrictions on, including limitations on marriage prohibiting marrying a divorced woman or a convert. Conservative Judaism does, however, believe in the restoration of a Temple in some form, and in the continuation of and Levites under relaxed requirements, and has retained references to both in its prayer books. Consistent with its stress on the continuity of tradition, many Conservative synagogues have also retained references to Shabbat and Festival, changing all references to sacrifices into the past tense (e.g. the Orthodox "and there we will sacrifice" is changed to "and there they sacrificed"). Some more liberal Conservative synagogues, however, have removed all references to sacrifices, past or present, from the prayer service. The most recent official Conservative prayer book, Sim Shalom, provides both service alternatives.

Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism disavow all belief in a restoration of a Temple, the resumption of, or the continuation of identified Cohens or Levites. These branches of Judaism believe that all such practices represent ancient practices inconsistent with the requirements of modernity, and have removed all or virtually all references to from their prayer books.

In prayer
The traditional prayer book, as developed over the past two millenia, contains many references to Temple sacrifices, prayers for their resumption, and rituals intended to remind worshipers of the Temple service.

Numerous details of the daily religious practice of an ordinary Jew are connected to keeping memory of the rhythm of the life of the Temple and its sacrifices.

Contemporary Orthodox Judaism
Today Orthodox Judaism includes mention of each on either a daily basis in the  (daily prayer book) or in the  (holiday prayerbook) as part of the prayers for the relevant days concerned. They are also referred to in the prayerbooks of Conservative Judaism, in an abbreviated fashion.

References to sacrifices in the Orthodox prayer service include:
 * The standard prayer services (shacharit, mincha, maariv, and mussaf) were instituted to correspond to sacrifices once offered at the same times.
 * The mussaf prayer (recited on Shabbat and Jewish holidays) requests the reinstitution of the special sacrifices for those days.
 * (see section below) – a section of the morning prayer service devoted to readings related to the sacrifices.
 * – Every Orthodox, the central prayer of Jewish services, contains the paragraph: "Be favorable, Oh Lord our God, to your people Israel and their prayer, and restore the service of the Holy of Holies of Your House, and accept the fire-offerings of Israel and their prayer with love and favor, and may the service of your people Israel always be favored." (Conservative Judaism removes the fire-offerings clause from this prayer.)
 * – Private recitation of the traditionally ends with the  prayer for the restoration of the Temple.
 * The itself is said to represent liturgically the  of the daily, while the recitation of the  sections fulfill the  to perform them, in the absence of the Temple.
 * After the weekday Torah reading, a prayer is recited for the restoration of the Temple: "May it be the will before our Father who is in heaven to establish the House of our lives and to return his into our midst, speedily, in our days, and let us say Amen."
 * The Torah reading for each Jewish holiday includes the passage describing that holiday's mussaf sacrifice.
 * The traditional texts for selichot, and for each Yom Kippur prayer, include a request that God fulfill the promise of that sacrifices will be resumed in the Temple and accepted by God.

The section of prayer
A section of the morning daily prayer is called, and is mostly devoted to recitation of legal passages relating to the sacrifices. According to the Talmud, this recitation takes the place of the sacrificial offering, and achieves the same atonement that would have been achieved by sacrifices if they were possible.

In the Nusach Ashkenaz custom, this section includes the following:
 * – the biblical command to offer a daily morning and evening sacrifice
 * On Shabbat and Rosh Chodesh, Biblical verses regarding the mussaf offerings for those days ( and respectively) are recited after the Korban Tamid.

 * – a concise overview of all the sacrifices and many of their laws (Chapter 5 of Mishnah Zevachim). Some suggest that it was included in the at this stage because it discusses all the sacrifices and the sages do not dispute within it.
 * – Rabbi Yishmael's 13 rules of exegesis (Introduction to the Sifra).
 * The study session concludes with a short prayer "...that the Temple be rebuilt speedily in our days... and may the offering of Judah and Jerusalem be pleasing to God, as in days of old and in former years."

The passage does not discuss sacrifices, and recitation of both it and  was instituted so that a person would study a selection of each of the three divisions of Torah (mikra, mishnah, gemara) each day, not because of any connection to sacrifices. However, these passages are still commonly considered part of the section of prayer.

In a later period, some communities began to add the following (all or some of the paragraphs):
 * – Describing the basin containing pure water to wash up before touching the (offerings), based on
 * – Removing the ashes of the (elevation offering), based on
 * (Incense offering): Based on and  as well as a rabbinic text derived from Talmud ( 6a; Jerusalem Talmud  4:5, 33a).

Attitudes
The prevailing belief among rabbinic Jews is that in the messianic era, the Messiah will come, and a Third Temple will be built. The standard Amidah prayer-text, recited daily by Jews worldwide for the last 1800 years, asks God to "return the service to the Holy of Holies of your Temple, and the fire-offerings of Israel and their prayers may you accept with favor". It is believed that the will be reinstituted, but to what extent and for how long is unknown.

According to some classical rabbinic sources hold that most or all sacrifices will not be offered: "In the future all sacrifices, with the exception of the Thanksgiving-sacrifice, will be discontinued."

Maimonides and Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook, despite some claims, believed that sacrifices would be resumed in the messianic era. However, Kook believed that sacrifices could only be resumed once there was "an open appearance of the holy spirit in Israel". Rabbi Hayim David HaLevi suggested that the future sacrificial service might be limited to grain-offerings, with no animal sacrifices being performed. He based this assertion, which he called "highly novel", on which speaks only of future mincha offerings, as well as the assumption that the word mincha refers to grain-offerings, as it usually does. However, according to other interpretations, mincha can also refer to animal sacrifices.

According to a minority opinion in the Talmud, in the future the Torah's commandments will be nullified. Interpretations of this statement differ as to which commandments will be nullified, for whom, and at what stage (for example, Rashba ruled that commandments are nullified for a person after they have died but never for the living). Some kabbalistic sources envision a messianic era when the natural order will drastically change, and animals will be on a human level, at which point no animal sacrifices will be offered.

Orthodox Judaism holds that in the messianic era, most or all of the korbanot will be reinstituted, at least for a time.

Conservative Judaism and Reform Judaism hold that no animal sacrifices will be offered in a rebuilt Temple at all.

Halakhic issues
In the 1800s a number of Orthodox rabbis studied the idea of reinstating on the Temple Mount, even though the messianic era had not yet arrived and the Temple was not rebuilt. A number of responsa concluded that within certain parameters, it is permissible according to Jewish law to offer such sacrifices. The debate on this topic involves numerous complex halakhic questions, among them:
 * Whether Jews are commanded nowadays to build a Temple
 * Whether sacrifices may be offered in the absence of a Temple
 * Whether the proper locations of the Temple building and altar can be identified
 * Whether the surviving halachic texts provide enough detail to construct the Temple and its vessels properly
 * Whether the current state of ritual impurity prevents offering sacrifices
 * Whether the proper representation of the Jewish people can be organized for communal sacrifices
 * Whether priests and Levites whose status can be properly verified can be identified.

During the early 20th century, Israel Meir Kagan advised some followers to set up special yeshivas for married students known as that would specialize in the study of the korbanot and study with greater intensity the  sections of the Talmud in order to prepare for the arrival of the Jewish Messiah who would oversee the rebuilding of the original Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem that would be known as the Third Temple. His advice was taken seriously and today there are a number of well-established Haredi institutions in Israel that focus solely on the subject of the, , and the needs of the future Jewish Temple, such as the Brisk tradition and Soloveitchik dynasty.

Efforts to resume sacrifices
A few groups, notably the Temple Institute and the Temple Mount Faithful, have petitioned the Israeli government to rebuild a Third Temple on the Temple Mount and restore sacrificial worship. The Israeli government has not responded favorably. Most Orthodox Jews regard rebuilding a Temple as an activity for a Jewish Messiah as part of a future Jewish eschatology, and most non-Orthodox Jews do not believe in the restoration of sacrificial worship at all. The Temple Institute has been constructing ritual objects in preparation for a resumption of sacrifices.

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title: Korban


text: User talk:202.78.16.12

title: User talk:202.78.16.12


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IWZ

The initialism IWZ may refer to:
 * Impact Wrestling Zone
 * InstallShield WiZard (Project file extension used by InstallShield Express 1.0 and 2.x)

title: IWZ


text: User talk:61.95.203.37

title: User talk:61.95.203.37


text:
Birch Lake

Birch Lake may refer to:

Communities

 * Birch Lake Township, in Cass County, Minnesota
 * Birch Lake, a hamlet in Meadstead Rural Municipality No. 497, Saskatchewan
 * Harding-Birch Lakes, a census-designated place in Alaska

Canada

 * Birch Lake (Nova Scotia)
 * Birch Lake (Ontario), one of nineteen lakes of that name in Ontario

United States

 * Birch Lake (Aitkin County, Minnesota)
 * Birch Lake (Alaska), in Fairbanks North Star Borough
 * Birch Lake, in Goodhue County, Minnesota
 * Birch Lake (Cass County, Minnesota)
 * Birch Lake (Laona, Wisconsin)
 * Birch Lake, in White Bear Lake, Minnesota
 * Birch Lake, in Vandalia, Michigan
 * Birch Lake (Oklahoma), in Osage County

Canada and United States

 * Birch Lake (Minnesota/Ontario), an international lake in St. Louis County, Minnesota

Parks

 * Birch Lakes State Forest, Minnesota
 * Birch Lake State Recreation Site, Alaska

title: Birch Lake


text:
Doulos

Doulos (δοῦλος,, Linear B: do-e-ro) is a Greek masculine noun meaning "slave". Doulos may refer to:

 * A slave (δοῦλος) in ancient Greece; see also Slavery in Ancient Rome as well as Slavery in the New Testament and Slavery in antiquity. Some translations of the New Testament also render this word as "servant" or "bondsman" and some New Testament authors used it metaphorically to refer to Christians as slaves/servants of Jesus Christ.
 * MV Doulos, a passenger ship
 * Doulos SIL, a Unicode font produced by the SIL International
 * Le Doulos, a 1962 film

title: Doulos


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Arran (Caucasus)

Arran (Middle Persian form; Persian: اران or اردان), also known as Aran or Ardan, was a geographical name used in ancient and medieval times to signify a historically-Iranian region which lay within the triangle of land, lowland in the east and mountainous in the west, formed by the junction of the Kura and Aras rivers, including the highland and lowland Karabakh, Mil plain and parts of the Mughan plain. In pre-Islamic times, it corresponded roughly to the territory of the modern-day Republic of Azerbaijan. The term is the Middle Persian equivalent to the Greco-Roman Albania. It was known as Aghvania, Alvan-k in Armenian, and Al-ran (Arabized form of Arran ) in Arabic.

Today, the term Aran is mainly used in Azerbaijan to indicate territories consisting of Mil and Mughan plains (mostly, Beylagan, Imishli, Kurdamir, Saatly, Sabirabad provinces of the Republic of Azerbaijan). It has also been used by Iranian historian Enayatollah Reza to refer to the country of Azerbaijan, freeing the name "Azerbaijan" to refer to a region within Iran. The bulk of the territory of the republic of Azerbaijan was the historic Shirvan, as well as Quba/Qubbah).

Etymology
The region is known as Ardhan in Parthian, Al-Ran in Arabic, Aghvank or Alvank in Armenian, Rani (რანი) in Georgian and Caucasian Albania in Latin.

According to the Movses Kagankatvatsi, Arran or Arhan was the name of the legendary founder of Caucasian Albania, who in some versions was the son of Noah's son Yafet (Japheth) and also, possibly the eponym of the ancient Caucasian Albanians (Aghvan), and/or the Iranian tribe known as Alans (Alani). The nearby Araks (Aras) river was known to Ancient Greek geographers as the Araxes, and has a source near Mount Ararat. James Darmesteter, in his discussion of the geography of the Avesta's Vendidad I, observes that the 12th century Bundahishn (29:12) identified the "Airyana Vaego by the Vanguhi Daitya" on the northern border of Azerbaijan, and did so "probably in order that it should be as near as possible to the seat of the Zoroastrian religion yet without losing its supernatural character by the counter-evidence of facts." Darmesteter further associated the Vanguhi Daitya river with the Araxes, and compared the name "Airyana Vaego" with that of Arran.

According to C.E. Bosworth:

The Georgians knew them [the Caucasian Albanians] as Rani, a form taken over in an Arabized form for the early Islamic geographical term al-Rān (pronounced ar-Rān)''. Later Greek writers also call the country Ariania instead of Albania, and the people Arianoi instead of Albanoi. In some Classical authors one finds the form Arian/Aryan.

Boundaries
In pre-Islamic times, Caucasian Albania/Arran was a wider concept than that of post-Islamic Arran. Ancient Arran covered all of eastern Transcaucasia, which included most of the territory of the modern-day Azerbaijan Republic and part of the territory of Dagestan. However, in post-Islamic times the geographic notion of Arran shrank to the territory between the rivers of Kura and Araks.

A medieval chronicle, the "Ajayib-ad-Dunya", written in the 13th century by an unknown author, says Arran was 30 parasangs (200 km) in width, and 40 farsakhs (270 km) in length. The entire right bank of the Kura river until it joined with the Aras was attributed to Arran (the left bank of the Kura was known as Shirvan). The boundaries of Arran have shifted throughout history, sometimes encompassing the entire territory of the present-day Republic of Azerbaijan, and at other times only parts of the South Caucasus. Sometimes Arran was part of Armenia.

Medieval Islamic geographers gave descriptions of Arran in general, and of its towns, including Barda, Beylagan, and Ganja.

History of Arran

 * History of Arran is summarized in History of Azerbaijan section, where you can refer for detailed description.

Islamic
Following the Arab invasion of Iran, the Arabs invaded the Caucasus in the 8th century and most of the former territory of Caucasian Albania was included under the name of Arran. This region was at times part of the Abbasid Caliphate based on numismatic and historical evidence. Dynasties of Parthian or Persian descent, such as the Mihranids had come to rule the territory during Sassanian times. Its kings were given the title Arranshah, and after the Arab invasions, fought against the caliphate from the late 7th to middle 8th centuries.

Early Muslim ruling dynasties of the time included Rawadids, Sajids, Salarids, Shaddadids, Shirvanshahs, and the Sheki and Tiflis emirates. The principal cities of Arran in early medieval times were Bardha'a (Partav) and Ganja. Bardha'a reached prominence in the 10th century and was used to house a mint. Bardha'a was sacked by the Rus and Norse several times in the 10th century as a result of the Caspian expeditions of the Rus. Bardha'a never recovered after these raids and was replaced as capital by Beylaqan, which in turn was sacked by the Mongols in 1221. After this Ganja rose to prominence and became the central city of the region. The capital of the Shaddadid dynasty, Ganja was considered the "mother city of Arran" during their reign.

The territory of Arran became a part of the Seljuq Empire, followed by the Ildegizid state. It was taken briefly by the Khwarizmid dynasty and then overran by Mongol Hulagu empire in the 13th century. Later, it became a part of Chobanid, Jalayirid, Timurid, and Iranian Safavid, Afsharid, and Qajar states which means at least from 1500 until 1828, when Iran lost a major battle to the expanding Russian Empire and as a result had to sign the Treaty of Turkmenchay (Туркманчайский договор, ) in which it had to concede all the Caucasus territories to Russia.

People
The population of Arran consisted of a great variety of peoples. Greek, Roman and Armenian authors provide the names of some peoples who inhabited the lands between the Kur and Araxes rivers:

 * Utians and Mycians — apparently migrants from the south,
 * Caspians, Gargarians and Gardmans
 * Sakasenians — of Scythian origin,
 * Gelians, Sodians, Lupenians, Balasanians — possibly Caucasian tribes,
 * Parsians and Parrasians — were probably Iranian

In the late 4th century, when the region passed to Caucasian Albania, its population consisted of Armenians and Armenicized aborigines, though many of the latter were still cited as distinct ethnic entities.

In pre-Islamic times the population of Arran and most of Caucasian Albania had mostly been Christian who belonged to the Church of Caucasian Albania. Under Arabic rule (7th to 9th centuries) a part of the population was Islamicized and adopted Alevism. Muslim chronicles of the 10th century reported that some of the population of Arran spoke al-rānīya, as well as Arabic and Persian languages. Because there is no written evidence, some scholars have presumed al-rānīya to be an Iranian dialect while others have presumed it to be a remnant of a Caucasian Albanian language. The area in which there was Ganja, during the 9th to 12th century named Arran; its urban population spoke mainly in Persian.

After the Turkification of the region, the population became Turkic speaking, and thus referred to by Europeans, particularly the Russians, as Tartars. They were much later called Azerbaijanis.

With the exception of some Udi, the population of Arran which remained Christian, was ultimately absorbed by the Armenians and in part by the Georgians.

title: Arran (Caucasus)


text:
Bird City

Bird City may refer to:

 * Bird City (wildfowl refuge) in Louisiana, United States
 * Bird City, Kansas, United States
 * Bird City Township, Cheyenne County, Kansas, United States

title: Bird City


text:
High-intensity discharge lamp

High-intensity discharge lamps (HID lamps) are a type of electrical gas-discharge lamp which produces light by means of an electric arc between tungsten electrodes housed inside a translucent or transparent fused quartz or fused alumina arc tube. This tube is filled with noble gas and often also contains suitable metal or metal salts. The noble gas enables the arc's initial strike. Once the arc is started, it heats and evaporates the metallic admixture. Its presence in the arc plasma greatly increases the intensity of visible light produced by the arc for a given power input, as the metals have many emission spectral lines in the visible part of the spectrum. High-intensity discharge lamps are a type of arc lamp.

Brand new high-intensity discharge lamps make more visible light per unit of electric power consumed than fluorescent and incandescent lamps, since a greater proportion of their radiation is visible light in contrast to infrared. However, the lumen output of HID lighting can deteriorate by up to 70% over 10,000 burning hours.

Many modern vehicles use HID bulbs for the main lighting systems, although some applications are now moving from HID bulbs to LED and laser technology.

Construction

Various types of chemistry are used in the arc tubes of HID lamps, depending on the desired characteristics of light intensity, correlated color temperature, color rendering index (CRI), energy efficiency, and lifespan. Varieties of HID lamp include:
 * Mercury-vapor lamps
 * Metal-halide (MH) lamps
 * Ceramic MH lamps
 * Sodium-vapor lamps
 * Xenon short-arc lamps

The light-producing element of these lamp types is a well-stabilized arc discharge contained within a refractory envelope arc tube with wall loading in excess of 3 W/cm2.

Mercury-vapor lamps were the first commercially available HID lamps. Originally they produced a bluish-green light, but more recent versions can produce light with a less pronounced color tint. However, mercury-vapor lamps are falling out of favor and being replaced by sodium-vapor and metal-halide lamps.

Metal-halide and ceramic metal-halide lamps can be made to give off neutral white light useful for applications where normal color appearance is critical, such as TV and movie production, indoor or nighttime sports games, automotive headlamps, and aquarium lighting.

Low-pressure sodium-vapor lamps are extremely efficient. They produce a deep yellow-orange light and have an effective CRI of nearly zero; items viewed under their light appear monochromatic. This makes them particularly effective as photographic safelights. High-pressure sodium lamps tend to produce a much whiter light, but still with a characteristic orange-pink cast. New color-corrected versions producing a whiter light are now available, but some efficiency is sacrificed for the improved color.

Like fluorescent lamps, HID lamps require a ballast to start and maintain their arcs. The method used to initially strike the arc varies: mercury-vapor lamps and some metal-halide lamps are usually started using a third electrode near one of the main electrodes, while other lamp styles are usually started using pulses of high voltage.

Replacements for the toxic mercury in the HID lamps have been investigated and are a matter of ongoing research. Experiments show promising results and widespread future applications are expected.

Radioactive substances
Some HID lamps make use of radioactive substances such as krypton-85 and thorium. These isotopes help start the lamps and improve lamp operating characteristics.

Krypton-85 is a gas and is found mixed in with the argon, which is in the arc tube of the lamp. The thorium, which is a solid, is used in the electrodes.

These isotopes produce ionizing radiation of alpha and beta type. This radiation causes high ionization inside the lamp without being able to escape from the lamp. High ionisation makes arc starting via Townsend avalanche much easier. Moreover, the presence of thorium in electrodes reduces the work function which again results in easier arc starting and sustaining.

The amount of gamma radiation produced by the isotopes that can escape from the lamp is negligible.

Applications
HID lamps are typically used when high levels of light over large areas are required, and when energy efficiency and/or light intensity are desired. These areas include gymnasiums, large public areas, warehouses, movie theatres, football stadiums, outdoor activity areas, roadways, parking lots, and pathways. More recently, HID lamps have been used in small retail and even residential environments because of advances in reduced lumen bulbs. Ultra-high performance (UHP) HID lamps are used in LCD or DLP projection TV sets or projection displays as well.

HID lamps have made indoor gardening practical, particularly for plants that require high levels of direct sunlight in their natural habitat; HID lamps, specifically metal-halide and high-pressure sodium, are a common light source for indoor gardens. They are also used to reproduce tropical intensity sunlight for indoor aquaria.

Most HID lamps produce significant UV radiation and require UV-blocking filters to prevent UV-induced degradation of lamp fixture components and fading of dyed items illuminated by the lamp. Exposure to HID lamps operating with faulty or absent UV-blocking filters causes injury to humans and animals, such as sunburn and arc eye. Many HID lamps are designed to quickly extinguish if their outer UV-shielding glass envelope is broken.

Beginning in the early 1990s, HID lamps have seen applications in automotive headlamps. Xenon, or high-intensity discharge (HID), lighting provides brighter headlights and increases visibility of many peripheral objects (e.g. street signs and pedestrians) left in the shadows by standard halogen lighting.

HID lamps are used in high-performance bicycle headlamps, as well as flashlights and other portable lights, because they produce a great amount of light per unit of power. As the HID lights use less than half the power of an equivalent tungsten-halogen light, a significantly smaller and lighter-weight power supply can be used.

HID lamps have also become common on many aircraft as replacements for traditional landing and taxi lights.

HID lamps are also used in lamps for underwater diving. The higher efficacy of HID lamps compared to halogen units means longer burn times for a given battery size and light output.

Color Temperatures
HID lamps are available in a variety of colors (commonly referred to as color temperatures) and measured in Kelvins (K). The Kelvin color temperature scale ranges from 1000K (amber) to 3000K (yellow) to 5500K (white) to 8000K (blue) to 12000K (purple). HID lamps produce different colors of light primarily through the use of various metal additives in the lamp's arc tube and the physics of the gas discharge process.

 * Metal Additives: HID lamps contain an arc tube filled with a mixture of gases, including a noble gas (like xenon). These metal additives are crucial for producing different colors of light. Different metals emit light at specific wavelengths when energized, and this characteristic determines the lamp's color output.
 * Gas Discharge Process: The lamp's operation involves creating an electric arc across the electrodes within the arc tube. This arc generates intense heat and excites the gases and metal additives within the tube. As the excited atoms return to their ground state, they release energy in the form of light.
 * Spectrum Emission: The specific spectrum of light emitted depends on the energy levels of the excited atoms and the properties of the metal additives. Each metal emits light at certain wavelengths, resulting in specific colors
 * Phosphor Coating: Some HID lamps, like Mercury Vapor lamps, also utilize phosphor coatings on the inner surface of the arc tube. These phosphors absorb the ultraviolet (UV) light emitted by the excited gas atoms and then re-emit visible light. The combination of UV light and the emitted visible light creates a broader spectrum of colors.
 * Color Rendering Index (CRI): HID lamps are not always known for their excellent color rendering properties. Color rendering refers to how accurately the light source displays the true colors of objects compared to natural sunlight. Different HID lamps have varying CRI values, with some providing better color rendering than others.

The choice of metal additives and their concentrations enables lamp manufacturers to create HID lamps with distinct color temperatures and spectral characteristics to meet different lighting needs.

The majority of HID lamps are produced in the color temperature range of 5000K to 6000K, which is similar to natural daylight. This is useful for applications requiring high levels of luminosity such as sport stadiums, warehouses, projection TVs, and gardening lights.

However, for certain applications such as automotive headlamps, HID lamps are produced in nearly every color from yellow and white to blue and purple.

End of life
Factors of wear come mostly from on/off cycles versus the total on time. The highest wear occurs when the HID burner is ignited while still hot and before the metallic salts have recrystallized.

At the end of life, many types of high-intensity discharge lamps exhibit a phenomenon known as cycling. These lamps can be started at a relatively low voltage. As they heat up during operation, however, the internal gas pressure within the arc tube rises and a higher voltage is required to maintain the arc discharge. As a lamp gets older, the voltage necessary to maintain the arc eventually rises to exceed the voltage provided by the electrical ballast. As the lamp heats to this point, the arc fails and the lamp goes out. Eventually, with the arc extinguished, the lamp cools down again, the gas pressure in the arc tube is reduced, and the ballast can once again cause the arc to strike. The effect of this is that the lamp glows for a while and then goes out, repeatedly. More sophisticated ballast designs detect cycling and give up attempting to start the lamp after a few cycles. If power is removed and reapplied, the ballast will make a new series of startup attempts.

Another phenomenon associated with HID lamp wear and aging is discoloration of the emitted light beam ("fading" ). Commonly, a shift towards blue and/or violet can be observed. This shift is slight at first and is more generally a sign of the lamps being "broken in" whilst still being in good overall working order, but towards the end of its life, the HID lamp is often perceived as only producing blue and violet light. Based on Planck's law, this is a direct result of the increased voltage and higher temperature necessary to maintain the arc.

Sometimes the quartz tube containing mercury can explode in a UHP lamp. When that happens, up to 50 mg of mercury vapor is released into the atmosphere. This quantity of mercury is potentially toxic, but the main hazard from broken lamps is glass cuts, and occasional exposure to broken lamps is not expected to have adverse effects. Philips recommends the use of a mercury vacuum cleaner, ventilation or respiratory protection, eye protection, and protective clothing when dealing with broken lamps. Mercury lamps always require specialised disposal or recycling, which is legally mandatory in many locations depending on jurisdiction.

title: High-intensity discharge lamp


text:
Bird Island

Bird Island or Bird Islands may refer to:

Africa

 * Bird Island (Namibia)
 * Bird Island, Seychelles
 * Bird Island Airport
 * Bird Island, Algoa Bay, South Africa
 * Bird Island Nature Reserve (South Africa)

Europe

 * Bird Island, County Down, a townland in Northern Ireland, UK
 * Bird Island, Slovakia

United States

 * Bird Island (Kitnamax), Aleutian Islands, Alaska
 * Bird Island (Juneau, Alaska)
 * Bird Island, Lake Louise, Alaska
 * Bird Island, Brooks Island Regional Preserve, California
 * Bird Island (Marin County, California)
 * Bird Island (San Mateo County, California)
 * Bird Island, a former island in Tulare Lake, California
 * Bird Island (Pearl and Hermes Atoll), Hawaii
 * Bird Island, or Moku Manu, Hawaii
 * Bird Island, or Nihoa, Hawaii
 * Bird Island (Massachusetts)
 * Bird Island, Minnesota
 * Bird Island Township, Renville County, Minnesota
 * Bird Island (Montana), an island in Montana
 * Bird Island, North Carolina
 * Bird Island, Harris Beach State Park, Oregon
 * Bird Island, Utah, a small island in Utah Lake, Utah

Elsewhere

 * Bird Island (Belize)
 * Bird Island, Bermuda
 * Bird Islands (Nunavut), Canada
 * Isla de Aves (Spanish, 'Island of Birds'), a Caribbean dependency of Venezuela

Australia

 * Bird Island Nature Reserve, New South Wales, Australia
 * Bird Islands (Queensland), Australia
 * Bird Island, Whitsunday Islands, Queensland, Australia
 * Bird Island in the Port River estuary north of Adelaide, South Australia
 * Bird Islands Conservation Park, Spencer Gulf, South Australia, Australia
 * Bird Island (Tasmania), Australia
 * Bird Island (Prime Seal Group), Tasmania, Australia
 * Bird Island (Western Australia), the name of three islands

New Zealand

 * Bird Island (Southland)
 * Bird Island (Otago)
 * Bird Island (Tasman Region)
 * Bird Island (Marlborough)
 * Bird Island (North Island)

Elsewhere

 * Bird Island, or Nihoa, Hawaii, United States
 * Bird Island, Palmyra Atoll, Line Islands

Elsewhere

 * Bird Island, Falkland Islands
 * Bird Island, South Georgia
 * Bird Islands, Qinghai Lake, China
 * Tori-shima (Izu Islands), (Japanese, 'Bird Island'), Japan
 * Kuşadası, (Turkish, 'Bird Island'), Turkey
 * Kuş Island, Turkey

Other uses

 * Bird Island (radio series)
 * Bird Island, a fictional island in the Angry Birds films

title: Bird Island


text:
Flight 797

Flight 797 may refer to:

 * Air Canada Flight 797, 1983 flight from Dallas/Fort Worth to Montréal; an in-flight fire killed 23 passengers
 * Varig Flight 797, 1987 flight from Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; plane crashed killing 50 of 51 onboard

title: Flight 797


text:
Wikipedia:WikiProject Dance/Strategy

This page has the strategy/checklist to go about handling this wikiproject. Please use the talk page for this page for discussion, and update the plan here.

Plan of Action

 * 1) Define the formats that will be used for working through this project
 * 2) Identify and list the "main articles" that need to be worked through
 * 3) Determine a starter article, and work to get that to Featured Article Status
 * 4) Find and list the missing articles throughout the dance category
 * 5) Find and list the articles needing expansion and/or merging in the dance category
 * 6) Find and list articles that are not redlinks, but are not articles on the proper topic
 * 7) Continue and work on expanding the determined "main" articles
 * 8) Work to expand/finalize the non-main dance related articles
 * 9) Work to write/finalize the red linked articles
 * 10) Ensure proper categorization of all articles

title: Wikipedia:WikiProject Dance/Strategy


text:
Birdsall (name)

Birdsall is a surname that derives from Birdsall in North Yorkshire, England. It may refer to:
 * Alice M. Birdsall (1880–1958), attorney, an expert in bankruptcy law, and a female rights advocate
 * Ausburn Birdsall (1814–1903), U.S. Representative from New York
 * Ben Birdsall (born 1967), English writer and artist
 * Benjamin P. Birdsall (1858–1917), American politician
 * Byron Birdsall (1937–2016), American painter
 * Dave Birdsall (1838–1896), American baseball player
 * Derek Birdsall (born 1934), British graphic designer
 * Doris Birdsall (died 2008), British politician
 * Doug Birdsall, president of American Bible Society
 * Emma Birdsall (born 1992), Australian singer-songwriter
 * Horatio L. Birdsall (1833–1891), American soldier
 * James Birdsall (1783–1856), U.S. Representative from New York
 * Jeanne Birdsall (born 1951) American author of children's literature
 * Jesse Birdsall (born 1963), English actor
 * John Birdsall (1802–1839), New York and Texas lawyer and politician
 * John Birdsall (1840–1891), New York politician
 * Mary Birdsall (1828–1894), America journalist and suffragist
 * Nancy Birdsall (born 1946), founding president of the Center for Global Development
 * Pam Birdsall, Canadian politician
 * Paul M. Birdsall (died 1970), American historian and diplomat
 * Richard Birdsall (1799–1852), Canadian surveyor
 * Samuel Birdsall (1791–1872), U.S. Representative from New York
 * Steve Birdsall (born 1944), Australian aviation writer
 * Timothy Birdsall (1936–1963), English cartoonist
 * Tracey Birdsall (born 1963), American actress
 * William Birdsall (1854–1909), American Quaker educator

Birdsall as a given or middle name may refer to:
 * Birdsall Briscoe (1876–1971), American architect
 * Birdsall S. Viault (1932–2012), American historian
 * Richard Birdsall Rogers (1857–1927), Canadian engineer
 * Sarah Birdsall Otis Edey (1872–1940), American suffragist
 * Thomas B. Jackson (1797–1881), American politician

title: Birdsall (name)


text:
Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Dance/Strategy

I've just posted a slightly expanded PoA here, so that we can use this page for strategy building. Tried to include everything we had talked about on the main page... not sure how well I did. Hopefully this will be alright- if you think things need to be added, especially sub sections, go ahead.

May I suggust that we start with Dance, as opposed to Ballet. I'll continue working on ballet articles as well, but since dance is the MAIN article for this project/category, I think it makes sense to get that up to speed as soon as possible. Lyellin 09:37, Aug 4, 2004 (UTC)

Structure vs Hierarchy
I don't understand the distinction between Structure and Hierarchy. Is one to contain the different types of dance and the other things common to all forms of dance: Hierarchy = Ballroom, Latin, Tap, Folk and sub-types Structure = Education, Social, Performance, Competition, Technique, Psychology ?

--195.137.93.171 09:33, 15 September 2007 (UTC)


text:
George Hudson (entomologist)

George Vernon Hudson FRSNZ (20 April 1867 – 5 April 1946) was a British-born New Zealand entomologist credited with proposing the modern daylight saving time. He was awarded the Hector Memorial Medal in 1923.

Biography
Born in London, Britain, on Easter Saturday, 1867 Hudson was the sixth child of Emily Jane Carnal and Charles Hudson, an artist and stained-glass window designer. By the age of 14 he had built up a collection of British insects, and had published a paper in The Entomologist. In 1881 Hudson moved with his father to Nelson, New Zealand. He worked on a farm, and in 1883, aged 16, he began working at the post office in Wellington, where he eventually became chief clerk, retiring in 1918.

Hudson was a member of the 1907 Sub-Antarctic Islands Scientific Expedition. Its main aim was to extend the magnetic survey of New Zealand by investigating the Auckland and Campbell islands but botanical, biological, and zoological surveys were also conducted. The expedition also rescued castaways from the Dundonald, which had been shipwrecked in the Auckland Islands.

Hudson is credited with proposing modern-day daylight saving time. His shift-work job gave him leisure time to collect insects, and led him to value after-hours daylight. In 1895, he presented a paper to the Wellington Philosophical Society proposing a two-hour daylight-saving shift, and after considerable interest was expressed in Christchurch, he followed up in an 1898 paper. In 1933, Hudson was the first recipient (together with Ernest Rutherford) of the T. K. Sidey Medal, set up by the Royal Society of New Zealand from funds collected to commemorate the passing of the Summer-Time Act 1927.

Another Briton, William Willett, championed the use of daylight saving time. It was made law there in 1916.

Hudson's collection of insects, the largest in New Zealand, is housed in the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa. Between 1881 and 1946, Hudson recorded information in three handwritten volumes that described thousands of species, inventing his own coding system. In 2018, Te Papa launched a crowd-sourcing project calling for digital volunteers to help decipher those codes, which will then allow conservation entomologists to compare Hudson's records with the status of those same insects today.

Honours and awards

 * 1919 – Original Fellow of the Royal Society of New Zealand
 * 1923 – Hector Medal
 * 1929 – Hutton Medal
 * 1933 – T. K. Sidey Medal (together with Ernest Rutherford)

Personal life
Hudson's wife, Florence, died in 1935. They left one daughter, Florence Stella Gibbs. Hudson died on 5 April 1946 at his home "Hillview" in the Wellington suburb of Karori.

Works

 * 1892: An Elementary Manual of New Zealand entomology: Being an introduction to the study of our native insects. London: West, Newman, & Co.
 * 1898: New Zealand Moths and Butterflies (Macro-Lepidoptera) London: West, Newman, & Co.
 * 1904:
 * 1928:
 * 1950:

title: George Hudson (entomologist)


text:
Shirvan

Shirvan (from ; Şirvan; Tat: Şirvan) is a historical region in the eastern Caucasus, as known in both pre-Islamic Sasanian and Islamic times. Today, the region is an industrially and agriculturally developed part of the Republic of Azerbaijan that stretches between the western shores of the Caspian Sea and the Kura River, centered on the Shirvan Plain.

Etymology
Vladimir Minorsky believes that names such as Sharvān (Shirwān), Lāyzān and Baylaqān are Iranian names from the Iranian languages of the coast of the Caspian Sea.

There are several explanations about this name:
 * Shirvan or Sharvan are corrupted forms of the word "Shahrbān" which means "the governor". The word "Shahrban" has been used since Achaemenian Dynasty as "Xshathrapawn" (satrap) to refer to different states of the kingdom.
 * Shervan in Persian means cypress tree (the same as 'sarv' in Middle Persian and in New Persian, as well as in Arabic ). It is also used as a male name.
 * It is connected popularly to Anushirvan, the Sasanian King.

However, Said Nafisi points out that according to Khaqani's poems, where Khaqani contrasts his home town with kheyrvān, the original and correct pronunciation of the name was Sharvān. So all etymologies relating this name to sher/shir (lion in Persian) or Anushiravan are most probably folk etymology and not based on historical facts. The form Shervān or Shirvān are from later centuries. According to the Encyclopedia of Islam, Shirwan proper comprised the easternmost spurs of the Caucasus range and the lands which sloped down from these mountains to the banks of the Kur river. But its rulers strove continuously to control also the western shores of the Caspian Sea from Ḳuba (the modern town of Quba) in the district of Maskat in the north, to Baku in the south. To the north of all these lands lay Bab al-Abwab or Derbend, and to the west, beyond the modern Goychay, the region of Shaki. In mediaeval Islamic times, and apparently in pre-Islamic Sāsānid ones also, Shirwan included the district of Layzan, which probably corresponds to modern Lahidj, often ruled as a separate fief by a collateral branch of the Yazidi Shirwan Shahs.'' The 19th century native historian and writer Abbasgulu Bakikhanov defines it as: "The country of Shirvan to the east borders on the Caspian Sea, and to the south on the river Kur, which separates it from the provinces of Moghan and Armenia".

Shirvanshahs

Shirvanshah also spelled as Shīrwān Shāh or Sharwān Shāh, was the title in medieval Islamic times of a Persianized dynasty of Arabic origin. They ruled the area independently or as a vassal of larger empires from 809 A.D. up to 1607 A.D. when Safavid rule became firmly established.

Safavid, Afsharid and Qajar eras
When the Shirvanshah Shah dynasty was ended by the Safavid Shah Tahmasp I, Shirwan formed a province of the Safavids and was usually governed by a Khan, who is often called Beylerbey. Shirvan was taken by the Ottomans in 1578; however, Safavid rule was restored by 1607. In 1722, during the Russo-Persian War (1722–1723), the Khan of Quba, Husayn Ali, submitted to Peter the Great and was accepted as his dignitary. The Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1723) forced the Iranian king to recognise the Russian annexation. By the treaty between the Russian and Ottoman Empires in the year 1724, the coast of the territory of Baku, which was occupied by the Russians, was separated from the rest of Shirvan, which was left to the Ottomans. It was only when Nader Shah defeated the Ottomans (1735) that the Russians ceded back the coastal land and the other areas in the North and South Caucasus as conquered in 1722–1723 from Safavid Iran conform the Treaties of Resht and Ganja, and the area became part of the Afsharid Empire, by which century long Iranian rule was restored.

Qajar Iran to the Azerbaijan SSR
When the Qajars had succeeded in restoring the unity of Persia, the sons of the Khan were no more able to maintain their independence like the other Caucasian chiefs and had to choose between Russia and Persia. The Khan of Shirwan, Mustafa, who had already entered into negotiations with Zubov, submitted to the Russians in 1805, who occupied the Persian cities of Derbend and Baku the next year (1806) during the Russo-Persian War (1804–1813), but soon afterwards he made overtures to the Persians and sought help from them. By the Treaty of Gulistan (12/24 October 1813) following the end of the 1804–1813 war, Persia was forced to cede its territories and regions comprising Darband, Quba, Shirwan and Baku, while giving up all claims on them as well. Nevertheless, Mustafa continued to have secret dealings with Persia. It was not until 1820 that his territory was occupied by Russian troops; the Khan fled to Persia and Shemakha was irrevocably incorporated in Russian territory. Iranian anger while being dissatisfied with losing swaths of its integral territories in the North and South Caucasus subsequently sparked the Russo-Persian War (1826–1828), which resulted in another Iranian loss, as well as the ceding of its last remaining territories in the Caucasus comprising what is now Armenia, and southern parts of the contemporary Republic of Azerbaijan. The Treaty of Turkmenchay of 1828 officially ratified the forced ceding of these Iranian territories to Imperial Russia, while it would also mark the official end of millennia long intertwined Iranian hegemony, rule, and influence over the Caucasus region, including Shirvan.

People and culture

The term Shirvani/Shirvanli is still in use in Azerbaijan to designate the people of Shirvan region, as it was historically. In ancient times, the bulk of the population of Shirvan were Caucasian-speaking groups. Later on Iranization of this native population and subsequent Turkification since the Seljuq era occurred. The bulk of the population today are Turkic-speaking Azerbaijanis, although there are also smaller Caucasian-speaking and Iranian-speaking minorities.

Caucasian population
The original population were Paleo-Caucasians and spoke Caucasian languages, like the Caucasian Albanians. Today, other Daghestani Caucasian languages such as Udi, Lezgian and Avar are still spoken in the region.

Iranian influence and population
Iranian penetration started since the Achaemenid era and continued in the Parthian era. However it was during the Sassanid era that the influence really increased and Persian colonies were set up in the region. According to Vladimir Minorsky: "The presence of Iranian settlers in Transcaucasia, and especially in the proximity of the passes, must have played an important role in absorbing and pushing back the aboriginal inhabitants. Such names as Sharvan, Layzan, Baylaqan, etc., suggest that the Iranian immigration proceeded chiefly from Gilan and other regions on the southern coast of the Caspian." Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn al-Husayn Al-Masudi (896–956), the Arab historian states Persian presence in Aran, Bayleqan, Darband, Shabaran, Masqat and Jorjan. From the 9th century, the urban population of Shirwan increasingly spoke Persian, while the rural population seems to mostly have retained their old Caucasian languages. Up to the nineteenth century, there was still a large number of Tat people (who claim to be descendants of Sassanid era Persian settlers), however due to their similar culture and religion with the Turkic-speaking Azerbaijanis, this population was partly assimilated.

Turkification of the region
Turkic penetration in the region started in the Khazar era, however there are no unambiguous references to settlements. The Turkification of the region started in the Seljuq era, although the area in parallel maintained its Persian culture under the Persianized Shirvanshah until the Safavid era. From the Safavid era onwards, the Turkification of the region accelerated with new wave of Turkoman settlements.

title: Shirvan


text:
Wikipedia:Mandrake DVD

The French company, Mandrake, has requested our permission to release Wikipedia on DVD as part of their free software package, which includes Linux and other software. Optimally, a release date is set for Christmas 2004.

While this is a wonderful opportunity for Wikipedia, it will require quite a bit of work. Over the course of discussions, it was realized that we must make a concerted effort to remove materials that could be deemed copyright violations.

This is especially true of images, which have been downloaded to Wikipedia under various different copyright releases, including "public domain," "fair use," etc. To ensure that no copyright violations are given to Mandrake, we intend to begin the process by tagging each image appearing in Wikipedia by the license under which it was released. Emails will be sent shortly to all contributors of images, asking them to tag their images properly, and these will be checked. All images that are left untagged will be placed in "quarantine," unless their release can be verified as meeting the standards of the DVD version.

To begin this process, we need volunteers to research existing images. If you are so inclined, please sign up here:

title: Wikipedia:Mandrake DVD


text:
Talk:Étienne-Louis Malus

Untitled
But that's not what Malus did! He did not "define a measure (orientation angle) by which to characterize relations between a light source and a system of detectors". It was the other way around. He clarified the law relating the intensity of the output from a polariser to that of the input as a function of the difference between the polarisation direction of the input and that of the polariser. The law that now bears his name is:

"The intensity of the beam from a polariser can be obtained by multiplying that of the input by the square of the cosine of θ, where θ is the angle between the polarisation direction of the input and the polarisation axis of the polariser."

I expect there's a neater way of putting this. I'll check and probably edit the page accordingly. Caroline Thompson 09:47, 4 Aug 2004 (UTC)

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This article was automatically assessed because at least one article was rated and this bot brought all the other ratings up to at least that level. BetacommandBot 08:30, 27 August 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Étienne-Louis Malus


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List of Japanese writers: R

The following is a list of Japanese writers whose family name begins with the letter R

List by Family Name: A - B - C - D - E - F - G - H - I - J - K - M - N - O - R - S - T - U - W - Y - Z

 * Reischauer Haru (1915–1998)
 * Renjo Mikihiko (1948–2013)
 * Ryōgo Narita (born 1980)
 * Ryōkan (1758–1831)
 * Ryo Mizuno (born 1963)

title: List of Japanese writers: R


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Talk:Death's head moth

I see someone moved this from Death's Head moth to Death's head moth, but should it be Death's head hawkmoth (or possibly Death's head hawk moth) instead? -- ALoan (Talk) 09:58, 4 Aug 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Death's head moth


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Radical Women

Radical Women (RW) is an American socialist feminist grassroots activist organization affiliated with the Freedom Socialist Party. It has branches in Seattle, Washington, and Melbourne, Australia.

History
Radical Women emerged in Seattle from a "Free University" class on Women and Society conducted by Gloria Martin, a lifelong communist and civil rights champion. As a result of the class, Martin teamed up with Clara Fraser and Melba Windoffer (initiators of the Freedom Socialist Party) and Susan Stern (a prominent figure in the local Students for a Democratic Society) to launch Radical Women in 1967.

In Socialist Feminism: The First Decade, 1966-76 Martin writes that the new group was formed to "demonstrate that women could act politically, learn and teach theory, administer an organization, develop indigenous leadership, and focus movement and community attention on the sorely neglected matter of women's rights—and that women could do this on their own."

Radical Women participated heavily in the anti-Vietnam War mobilization, and has opposed subsequent military interventions initiated by Western countries. Members worked with African-American women from anti-poverty programs to initiate the abortion rights movement in Washington State with a historic march on the capitol in 1969.

In the early 1970s, RW helped organize a strike and a union of low-paid employees (mostly female) at the University of Washington.

After working closely with the Freedom Socialist Party (FSP), Radical Women and the party formally affiliated in 1973 on the basis of a shared socialist feminist program. Some of its early members, such as Lynda Schraufnagel, were employed by the FSP's newspaper, The Freedom Socialist, and also wrote for it.

Many Radical Women members worked and organized in the nontraditional trades. At Seattle's public power company, Seattle City Light, Clara Fraser was recruited to craft and implement the country's first plan to train women as utility electricians. Three other members of Radical Women, Megan Cornish, Heidi Durham, and Teri Bach, participated in the program and went on to become some of the first women electricians in the country. Just weeks before the program began, however, Fraser participated in a walkout against new rules issued by City Light superintendent Gordon Vickery, which soured her relations with management. After their training, Cornish, Durham, and Bach were laid off in 1975 in an act seen largely as retaliatory against themselves and Fraser. The three women filed a lawsuit alleging discrimination on the basis of sex, and after a year a court ruled in their favor and ordered their reinstatement. Fraser was also laid off in 1975, and she filed her own separate lawsuit alleging discrimination on the basis of sex and political ideology. After a seven-year legal battle and a massive public relations campaign, Fraser won her reinstatement at City Light. In 1991, two members of Radical Women, Heidi Durham and Yolanda Alaniz, ran for Seattle City Council as members of the FSP. The two campaigned together on demands for guaranteed income for families living in poverty, domestic partnership rights for same-sex couples, and community control of the police. Alaniz advanced to the general election and finished with 21% of the vote.

Purpose and ideology
The Radical Women Manifesto: Socialist Feminist Theory, Program and Organizational Structure defines Radical Women's purpose and ideology as follows:

"Radical Women is dedicated to exposing, resisting, and eliminating the inequities of women's existence. To accomplish this task of insuring survival for an entire sex, we must simultaneously address ourselves to the social and material source of sexism: the capitalist form of production and distribution of products, characterized by intrinsic class, race, sex, and caste oppression. When we work for the revolutionary transformation of capitalism into a socialist society, we work for a world in which all people may enjoy the right of full humanity and freedom from poverty, war, racism, sexism, homophobia, anti-Semitism, and repression."

Radical Women takes a multi-racial, multi-issue, working class and anti-capitalist approach to women's liberation. It advocates for free abortion on demand, an end to forced sterilization of women of color, and for affordable, quality, 24-hour childcare. Early efforts include the Action Childcare Coalition, the Feminist Coordinating Council (an umbrella organization made up of the whole spectrum of women's groups in Seattle), and the Coalition for Protective Legislation (a labor and feminist effort to extend female-designated workplace safeguards to men after passage of the Washington State Equal Rights Amendment).

Radical Women has played a leading role in lesbian/gay/bisexual/transgender liberation struggles. Members have helped build militant lesbian/gay rights organizations and have been involved in many coalitions devoted to preventing forced AIDS testing, opposing ballot-box attacks on gay rights, lobbying for state gay rights bills, and more. In the 1980s Radical Women leader Merle Woo, a college lecturer, writer and Asian American lesbian spokesperson, won a case against the University of California at Berkeley, which had fired her, charging discrimination on race, sex, sexuality, and political ideology.

Archives

 * Freedom Socialist Party Seattle Branch Records, 1984-1992. 3.14 cubic feet. At the Labor Archives of Washington, University of Washington Libraries Special Collections.
 * Freedom Socialist Party National Office (Seattle) Records, 1976-1998. 3.09 cubic feet. At the Labor Archives of Washington, University of Washington Libraries Special Collections.
 * Radical Women Seattle Office Records, 1991-1997. 0.37 cubic feet. At the Labor Archives of Washington, University of Washington Libraries Special Collections.
 * Radical Women National Office (Seattle) Records, 1976-1998. 1.28 cubic feet. At the Labor Archives of Washington, University of Washington Libraries Special Collections.
 * Melba Windoffer Papers, 1910-1993. 7.42 cubic feet. At the Labor Archives of Washington, University of Washington Libraries Special Collections.
 * Megan Cornish Papers, 1970-2003. 10.26 cubic feet. At the Labor Archives of Washington, University of Washington Libraries Special Collections.
 * Clara Fraser Papers, 1905-1998, 36.70 cubic feet. At the Labor Archives of Washington, University of Washington Libraries Special Collections.
 * Heidi Durham Papers and Oral History Interviews, 1937-2017, 1.57 cubic feet. At the Labor Archives of Washington, University of Washington Libraries Special Collections.

Articles and interviews

 * Megan Cornish, Seattle Civil Rights and Labor History Project, 2005.
 * Megan Cornish Interview with Nicole Grant and Alex Morrow, October 20, 2005, YouTube, uploaded by Seattle Civil Rights and Labor History Project, September 9, 2016, Megan Cornish - YouTube
 * Megan Cornish, Conor Casey, and Ellie Belew Interview with Mike Dumovich, "We Do the Work," KSVR, February 22, 2019.
 * Nicole Grant, Challenging Sexism at City Light: The Electrical Trades Trainee Program, Seattle Civil Rights and Labor History Project, 2006.
 * Ellie Belew Interview with Mimi Rosenberg, YouTube, uploaded by Radical Women - U.S., uploaded March 28. 2019, HIGH VOLTAGE WOMEN: Interview & slideshow

Books

 * The Radical Women Manifesto: Socialist Feminist Theory, Program, and Organizational Structure, Red Letter Press, 2001
 * Ellie Belew, High Voltage Women: Breaking Barriers at Seattle City Light, Red Letter Press, 2019.
 * Gloria Martin, Socialist Feminism: The First Decade, 1966-76, Freedom Socialist Publications, 1986

Additional material

 * Radical Women Official site
 * Freedom Socialist Party, affiliates
 * University of Washington Libraries Digital Collections - Vietnam War Era Ephemera This collection contains leaflets and newspapers that were distributed on the University of Washington campus during the decades of the 1960s and 1970s. Includes ephemera from Radical Women and the Freedom Socialist Party.
 * Radical Women Publications
 * A Report from the U.S. 2008 Radical Women Conference submitted to the International Museum of Women.

title: Radical Women


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Psychosexual disorder

Psychosexual disorder is a sexual problem that is psychological, rather than physiological in origin. "Psychosexual disorder" was a term used in Freudian psychology. The term "psychosexual disorder" (Turkish: Psikoseksüel bozukluk) has been used by the TAF for homosexuality as a reason to ban the LGBT people from military service.

Paraphilias
Paraphilias are generally defined as psychosexual disorders in which significant distress or an impairment in a domain of functioning results from recurrent intense sexual urges, fantasies or behaviors generally involving an unusual object, activity, or situation. An alternative definition is given by the DSM-5 which labels them as sexual; attractions to objects, situations or people that deviate from the desires and sexual behaviors that are considered to be socially acceptable. Examples of these paraphilias would include fetishism, sexual masochism and sadism and more.

Fetishism and transvestic fetishism
Fetishism is a disorder that is characterized by a sexual fixation, fantasies or behaviors toward an inanimate object, these objects frequently are articles of clothing. It is only through this object which the individual can achieve sexual gratification. It is not rare that an individual will rub or smell the object. This disorder is more common in males and it is not understood why.

Transvestic fetishism also commonly known as transvestism, is a diagnoses found in the DSM. There are four factors that revolve around this syndrome. These include cross-dressing, being associated with sexual arousal, in a biological male, and the person has to be a heterosexual male.

Sexual sadism and sexual masochism
The disorders known as sexual sadism and sexual masochism are oftentimes confused or hard to separate when their definitions are compared but diagnostic criteria differ slightly between the two and allows for more easy classification. Sexual sadism disorder and sexual masochism are defined as receiving sexual arousal from the humiliation, pain and or suffering of an individual and are thought to overlap with multiple other conditions due to its description along with diagnostic criteria.

Voyeurism, exhibitionism and frotteurism
Voyeurism is self-reported sexual arousal from spying on others or the observation of others who are engaged in sexual interaction.

Exhibitionism are public acts of exposing parts of one's body that are not socially acceptable to be exposed. Exhibitionistic acts are among the most common of the potentially law-breaking sexual behaviors. Examples of this would include "streaking" during a professional sporting event or protesting a political event in the nude.

Frotteurism is considered a rare paraphilia that revolves around an individual's sexual satisfaction being derived from rubbing upon another non-consenting individual. The term frotteurism itself can be broken down and derived from the French verb frotter which means rubbing.

Diagnosis
In the DSM-5 all paraphilia disorders can be diagnosed by two main criteria that are referred to criteria A and criteria B respectively. The A and B criteria include a duration in which the behavior must be present for (typically six months) and specific details of actions or thoughts that are correlated specifically with the respective disorder being diagnosed.

Treatment
Psychosexual disorders can vary greatly in severity and treatability. Medical professionals and licensed therapists are necessary in diagnosis and treatment plans. Treatment can vary from therapy to prescription medication. Sex therapy, behavioral therapy, and group therapy may be helpful to those distressed by sexual dysfunction. More serious sexual disorders may be treated with androgen blockers or selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) to help restore hormonal and neurochemical balances.

Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Freud has contributed to the idea of psychosexual disorders and furthered research of the topic through his ideas of psychosexual development and his psychoanalytic sex drive theory. According to Freud's ideas of psychosexual development, as a child, one will progress through five stages of development. These stages being the oral stage (1 -1 1/2 yrs), the anal stage(1 1/2- 3yrs) phallic stage (3-5 yrs), the latency stage (5-12 yrs) and the genital stage (from puberty on). A psychosexual disorder could arise in an individual if the individual does not progress through these stages properly. Proper progression through these stages requires the correct amounts of stimulation and gratification at each stage. If there is too little stimulation at a certain stage fixation occurs and becoming overly fixated could lead to a psychosexual disorder. In contrast, too much stimulation at a certain stage of development could lead to regression when that individual is in distress, also possibly leading to a psychosexual disorder.

Richard Freiherr von Kraft-Ebing
Richard Krafft-Ebing was a German psychiatrist who sought to revolutionize sexuality in the late nineteenth century. Working in a time of sexual modesty, Krafft-Ebing brought light to sexuality as an innate human nature verses deviancy. His most notable work, Psychopathia Sexualis, was a collection of case studies highlighting sexual practices of the general public. The textbook was the first of its kind recognizing the variation within human sexuality, such as: nymphomania, fetishism, and homosexuality. Psychiatrists were now able to diagnose psychosexual disorders in place of perversions. Psychopathia Sexualis was used as reference in psychological, medical, and judicial settings. Krafft-Ebing is considered the founder of medical sexology; he is the predecessor of both Sigmund Freud and Havelock Ellis.

Havelock Ellis
Havelock Ellis was an English physician and writer born in the eighteen hundreds who studied human sexuality, and is referred to as one of the earliest sexologists. Ellis's work was geared towards human sexual behavior. His major work was a seven-volume publication called Studies in the Psychology of Sex, which related sex to society. Published in 1921, Studies in the Psychology of Sex covered the evolution of modesty, sexual periodicity, auto-erotism, sexual inversion, sexual impulse, sexual selection, and erotic symbolism. Ellis also conceived the term eonism, which references a man dressing as a woman. He elaborated on this term in his publication of Eonism and Other Supplementary Studies. He wrote Sexual Inversion as well in hopes to address any ignorance people have on the topic.

title: Psychosexual disorder