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Medieval Latin

Medieval Latin was the form of Literary Latin used in Roman Catholic Western Europe during the Middle Ages. In this region it served as the primary written language, though local languages were also written to varying degrees. Latin functioned as the main medium of scholarly exchange, as the liturgical language of the Church, and as the working language of science, literature, law, and administration.

Medieval Latin represented a continuation of Classical Latin and Late Latin, with enhancements for new concepts as well as for the increasing integration of Christianity. Despite some meaningful differences from Classical Latin, its writers did not regard it as a fundamentally different language. There is no real consensus on the exact boundary where Late Latin ends and Medieval Latin begins. Some scholarly surveys begin with the rise of early Ecclesiastical Latin in the middle of the 4th century, others around 500, and still others with the replacement of written Late Latin by written Romance languages starting around the year 900.

The terms Medieval Latin and Ecclesiastical Latin are sometimes used synonymously, though some scholars draw distinctions. Ecclesiastical Latin refers specifically to the form that has been used by the Roman Catholic Church (even before the Middle Ages in Antiquity), whereas Medieval Latin refers to all of the (written) forms of Latin used in the Middle Ages. The Romance languages spoken in the Middle Ages were often referred to as Latin, since the Romance languages were all descended from Vulgar Latin itself. Medieval Latin would be replaced by educated humanist Renaissance Latin, otherwise known as Neo-Latin.

Christian Latin
Medieval Latin had an enlarged vocabulary, which freely borrowed from other sources. It was heavily influenced by the language of the Vulgate, which contained many peculiarities alien to Classical Latin that resulted from a more or less direct translation from Greek and Hebrew; the peculiarities mirrored the original not only in its vocabulary but also in its grammar and syntax. Greek provided much of the technical vocabulary of Christianity. The various Germanic languages spoken by the Germanic tribes, who invaded southern Europe, were also major sources of new words. Germanic leaders became the rulers of parts of the Roman Empire that they conquered, and words from their languages were freely imported into the vocabulary of law. Other more ordinary words were replaced by coinages from Vulgar Latin or Germanic sources because the classical words had fallen into disuse.

Latin was also spread to areas such as Ireland and Germany, where Romance languages were not spoken, and which had never known Roman rule. Works written in those lands where Latin was a learned language, having no relation to the local vernacular, also influenced the vocabulary and syntax of Medieval Latin.

Since subjects like science and philosophy, including Rhetoric and Ethics, were communicated in Latin, the Latin vocabulary that developed for them became the source of a great many technical words in modern languages. English words like abstract, subject, communicate, matter, probable and their cognates in other European languages generally have the meanings given to them in Medieval Latin, often terms for abstract concepts not available in English.

Vulgar Latin
The influence of Vulgar Latin was also apparent in the syntax of some Medieval Latin writers, although Classical Latin continued to be held in high esteem and studied as models for literary compositions. The high point of the development of Medieval Latin as a literary language came with the Carolingian Renaissance, a rebirth of learning kindled under the patronage of Charlemagne, king of the Franks. Alcuin was Charlemagne's Latin secretary and an important writer in his own right; his influence led to a rebirth of Latin literature and learning after the depressed period following the final disintegration of the authority of the Western Roman Empire.

Although it was simultaneously developing into the Romance languages, Latin itself remained very conservative, as it was no longer a native language and there were many ancient and medieval grammar books to give one standard form. On the other hand, strictly speaking there was no single form of "Medieval Latin". Every Latin author in the medieval period spoke Latin as a second language, with varying degrees of fluency and syntax. Grammar and vocabulary, however, were often influenced by an author's native language. This was especially true beginning around the 12th century, after which the language became increasingly adulterated: late Medieval Latin documents written by French speakers tend to show similarities to medieval French grammar and vocabulary; those written by Germans tend to show similarities to German, etc. For instance, rather than following the classical Latin practice of generally placing the verb at the end, medieval writers would often follow the conventions of their own native language instead. Whereas Latin had no definite or indefinite articles, medieval writers sometimes used forms of unus as an indefinite article, and forms of ille (reflecting usage in the Romance languages) as a definite article or even quidam (meaning "a certain one/thing" in Classical Latin) as something like an article. Unlike classical Latin, where esse ("to be") was the only auxiliary verb, Medieval Latin writers might use habere ("to have") as an auxiliary, similar to constructions in Germanic and Romance languages. The accusative and infinitive construction in classical Latin was often replaced by a subordinate clause introduced by quod or quia. This is almost identical, for example, to the use of que in similar constructions in French. Many of these developments are similar to Standard Average European and the use of medieval Latin among the learned elites of Christendom may have played a role in the spread of those features.

In every age from the late 8th century onwards, there were learned writers (especially within the Church) who were familiar enough with classical syntax to be aware that these forms and usages were "wrong" and resisted their use. Thus the Latin of a theologian like St Thomas Aquinas or of an erudite clerical historian such as William of Tyre tends to avoid most of the characteristics described above, showing its period in vocabulary and spelling alone; the features listed are much more prominent in the language of lawyers (e.g. the 11th-century English Domesday Book), physicians, technical writers and secular chroniclers. However the use of quod to introduce subordinate clauses was especially pervasive and is found at all levels.

Changes in vocabulary, syntax, and grammar
Medieval Latin had ceased to be a living language and was instead a scholarly language of the minority of educated men (and a tiny number of women) in medieval Europe, used in official documents more than for everyday communication. This resulted in two major features of Medieval Latin compared with Classical Latin, though when it is compared to the other vernacular languages, Medieval Latin developed very few changes. There are many prose constructions written by authors of this period that can be considered "showing off" a knowledge of Classical or Old Latin by the use of rare or archaic forms and sequences. Though they had not existed together historically, it is common that an author would use grammatical ideas of the two periods Republican and archaic, placing them equally in the same sentence. Also, many undistinguished scholars had limited education in "proper" Latin, or had been influenced in their writings by Vulgar Latin.

 * Word order usually tended towards that of the vernacular language of the author, not the artificial and polished word order of Classical Latin. Conversely, an erudite scholar might attempt to "show off" by intentionally constructing a very complicated sentence. Because Latin is an inflected language, it is technically possible to place related words at opposite ends of a paragraph-long sentence, and owing to the complexity of doing so, it was seen by some as a sign of great skill.
 * Typically, prepositions are used much more frequently (as in modern Romance languages) for greater clarity, instead of using the ablative case alone. Furthermore, in Classical Latin the subject of a verb was often left implied, unless it was being stressed: videt = "he sees". For clarity, Medieval Latin more frequently includes an explicit subject: is videt = "he sees" without necessarily stressing the subject.
 * Various changes occurred in vocabulary, and certain words were mixed into different declensions or conjugations. Many new compound verbs were formed. Some words retained their original structure but drastically changed in meaning: animositas specifically means "wrath" in Medieval Latin while in Classical Latin, it generally referred to "high spirits, excited spirits" of any kind.
 * Owing to heavy use of biblical terms, there was a large influx of new words borrowed from Greek and Hebrew and even some grammatical influences. That obviously largely occurred among priests and scholars, not the laity. In general, it is difficult to express abstract concepts in Latin, as many scholars admitted. For example, Plato's abstract concept of "the Truth" had to be expressed in Latin as "what is always true". Medieval scholars and theologians, translating both the Bible and Greek philosophers into Latin out of the Koine and Classical Greek, cobbled together many new abstract concept words in Latin.

Syntax

 * Indirect discourse, which in Classical Latin was achieved by using a subject accusative and infinitive, was now often simply replaced by new conjunctions serving the function of English "that" such as quod, quia, or quoniam. There was a high level of overlap between the old and new constructions, even within the same author's work, and it was often a matter of preference. A particularly famous and often cited example is from the Venerable Bede, using both constructions within the same sentence: "Dico me scire et quod sum ignobilis" = "I say that I know [accusative and infinitive] and that I am unknown [new construction]". The resulting subordinate clause often used the subjunctive mood instead of the indicative. This new syntax for indirect discourse is among the most prominent features of Medieval Latin, the largest syntactical change. However, such use of quod or quia also occurred in the Latin of the late Roman Empire, e.g. the Vulgate's Matthew 2:22: "Audiens autem quod Archelaus regnaret in Judaea pro Herode..." = "But hearing that Archelaus reigned in Judaea in Herod's place..."
 * Several substitutions were often used instead of subjunctive clause constructions. They did not break the rules of Classical Latin but were an alternative way to express the same meaning, avoiding the use of a subjunctive clause.
 * The present participle was frequently used adverbially in place of qui or cum clauses, such as clauses of time, cause, concession, and purpose. That was loosely similar to the use of the present participle in an ablative absolute phrase, but the participle did not need to be in the ablative case.
 * Habeo (I have [to]) and "Debeo" (I must) would be used to express obligation more often than the gerundive.
 * Given that obligation inherently carries a sense of futurity ("Carthage must be destroyed" at some point in the future), this parallels the Romance languages' use of "habeo" as the basis of their future tenses (abandoning the Latin forms of the future tense). While in Latin "amare habeo" is the indirect discourse "I have to love", in the French equivalent, "aimerai" (habeo > ayyo > ai, aimer+ai), it has become the future tense, "I shall love", losing the sense of obligation. In Medieval Latin, however, it was only indirect discourse and not used as simply a future tense.
 * Instead of a clause introduced by ut or ne, an infinitive was often used with a verb of hoping, fearing, promising, etc.
 * Conversely, some authors might haphazardly switch between the subjunctive and indicative forms of verbs, with no intended difference in meaning.
 * The usage of sum changed significantly: it was frequently omitted or implied. Further, many medieval authors did not feel that it made sense for the perfect passive construction "laudatus sum" to use the present tense of esse in a past tense construction so they began using fui, the past perfect of sum, interchangeably with sum.
 * Chaos in the usage of demonstrative pronouns. Hic, ille, iste, and even the intensive ipse are often used virtually interchangeably. As in the Romance languages, hic and ille were also frequently used simply to express the definite article "the", which Classical Latin did not possess. Unus was also used for the indefinite article "a, an".
 * Use of reflexives became much looser. A reflexive pronoun in a subordinate clause might refer to the subject of the main clause. The reflexive possessive suus might be used in place of a possessive genitive such as eius.
 * Comparison of adjectives changed somewhat. The comparative form was sometimes used with positive or superlative meaning. Also, the adverb "magis" was often used with a positive adjective to indicate a comparative meaning, and multum and nimis could be used with a positive form of adjective to give a superlative meaning.
 * Classical Latin used the ablative absolute, but as stated above, in Medieval Latin examples of nominative absolute or accusative absolute may be found. This was a point of difference between the ecclesiastical Latin of the clergy and the "Vulgar Latin" of the laity, which existed alongside it. The educated clergy mostly knew that traditional Latin did not use the nominative or accusative case in such constructions, but only the ablative case. These constructions are observed in the medieval era, but they are changes that developed among the uneducated commoners.
 * Classical Latin does not distinguish progressive action in the present tense, thus laudo can mean either "I praise" or "I am praising". In imitation of Greek, Medieval Latin could use a present participle with sum to form a periphrastic tense equivalent to the English progressive. This "Greek Periphrastic Tense" formation could also be done in the past and future tenses: laudans sum ("I am praising"), laudans eram ("I was praising"), laudans ero ("I shall be praising").
 * Classical Latin verbs had at most two voices, active and passive, but Greek (the original language of the New Testament) had an additional "middle voice" (or reflexive voice). One use was to express when the subject is acting upon itself: "Achilles put the armor onto himself" or "Jesus clothed himself in the robe" would use the middle voice. Because Latin had no middle voice, Medieval Latin expresses such sentences by putting the verb in the passive voice form, but the conceptual meaning is active (similar to Latin deponent verbs). For example, the Medieval Latin translation of Genesis states literally, "the Spirit of God was moved over the waters" ("spiritus Dei ferebatur super aquas", Genesis 1:2), but it is just expressing a Greek middle-voice verb: "God moved [himself] over the waters".
 * Overlapping with orthography differences (see below), certain diphthongs were sometimes shortened: "oe" to "e", and "ae" to "e". Thus, "oecumenicus" becomes the more familiar "ecumenicus" (more familiar in this later form because religious terms such as "ecumenical" were more common in Medieval Latin). The "oe" diphthong is not particularly frequent in Latin, but the shift from "ae" to "e" affects many common words, such as "caelum" (heaven) being shortened to "celum"; even "puellae" (girls) was shortened to "puelle".
 * Often, a town would lose its name to that of the tribe which was either accusative or ablative plural; two forms that were then used for all cases, or in other words, considered "indeclinable".

Orthography

Many striking differences between classical and Medieval Latin are found in orthography. Perhaps the most striking difference is that medieval manuscripts used a wide range of abbreviations by means of superscripts, special characters etc.: for instance the letters "n" and "s" were often omitted and replaced by a diacritical mark above the preceding or following letter. Apart from this, some of the most frequently occurring differences are as follows. Clearly many of these would have been influenced by the spelling, and indeed pronunciation, of the vernacular language, and thus varied between different European countries.

 * Following the Carolingian reforms of the 9th century, Carolingian minuscule was widely adopted, leading to a clear differentiation between capital and lowercase letters.
 * A partial or full differentiation between v and u, and between j and i.
 * The diphthong ae is usually collapsed and simply written as e (or e caudata, ę); for example, puellae might be written puelle (or puellę). The same happens with the diphthong oe, for example in pena, Edipus, from poena, Oedipus. This feature is already found on coin inscriptions of the 4th century (e.g. reipublice for reipublicae). Conversely, an original e in Classical Latin was often represented by ae or oe (e.g. aecclesia and coena), also reflected in English spellings such as foetus.
 * Because of a severe decline in the knowledge of Greek, in loanwords and foreign names from or transmitted through Greek, y and i might be used more or less interchangeably: Ysidorus, Egiptus, from Isidorus, Aegyptus. This is also found in pure Latin words: ocius ("more swiftly") appears as ocyus and silva as sylva, this last being a form which survived into the 18th century and so became embedded in modern botanical Latin (also cf. Pennsylvania).
 * h might be lost, so that habere becomes abere, or mihi becomes mi (the latter also occurred in Classical Latin); or mihi may be written michi, indicating that the h had come to be pronounced as or perhaps . This pronunciation is not found in Classical Latin, but had existed very early in vulgar speech.
 * The loss of h in pronunciation also led to the addition of h in writing where it did not previously belong, especially in the vicinity of r, such as chorona for corona, a tendency also sometimes seen in Classical Latin.
 * -ti- before a vowel is often written as -ci- [tsi], so that divitiae becomes diviciae (or divicie), tertius becomes tercius, vitium vicium.
 * The combination mn might have another plosive inserted, so that alumnus becomes alumpnus, somnus sompnus.
 * Single consonants were often doubled, or vice versa, so that tranquillitas becomes tranquilitas and Africa becomes Affrica.
 * Syncopation became more frequent: vi, especially in verbs in the perfect tense, might be lost, so that novisse becomes nosse (this occurred in Classical Latin as well but was much more frequent in Medieval Latin).

These orthographical differences were often due to changes in pronunciation or, as in the previous example, morphology, which authors reflected in their writing. By the 16th century, Erasmus complained that speakers from different countries were unable to understand each other's form of Latin.

The gradual changes in Latin did not escape the notice of contemporaries. Petrarch, writing in the 14th century, complained about this linguistic "decline", which helped fuel his general dissatisfaction with his own era.

Medieval Latin literature
The corpus of Medieval Latin literature encompasses a wide range of texts, including such diverse works as sermons, hymns, hagiographical texts, travel literature, histories, epics, and lyric poetry.

The first half of the 5th century saw the literary activities of the great Christian authors Jerome (c. 347–420) and Augustine of Hippo (354–430), whose texts had an enormous influence on theological thought of the Middle Ages, and of the latter's disciple Prosper of Aquitaine (c. 390). Of the later 5th century and early 6th century, Sidonius Apollinaris (c. 430 – after 489) and Ennodius (474–521), both from Gaul, are well known for their poems, as is Venantius Fortunatus (c. 530). This was also a period of transmission: the Roman patrician Boethius (c. 480–524) translated part of Aristotle's logical corpus, thus preserving it for the Latin West, and wrote the influential literary and philosophical treatise De consolatione Philosophiae; Cassiodorus (c. 485) founded an important library at the monastery of Vivarium near Squillace where many texts from Antiquity were to be preserved. Isidore of Seville (c. 560–636) collected all scientific knowledge still available in his time into what might be called the first encyclopedia, the Etymologiae.

Gregory of Tours (c. 538–594) wrote a lengthy history of the Frankish kings. Gregory came from a Gallo-Roman aristocratic family, and his Latin, which shows many aberrations from the classical forms, testifies to the declining significance of classical education in Gaul. At the same time, good knowledge of Latin and even of Greek was being preserved in monastic culture in Ireland and was brought to England and the European mainland by missionaries in the course of the 6th and 7th centuries, such as Columbanus (543–615), who founded the monastery of Bobbio in Northern Italy. Ireland was also the birthplace of a strange poetic style known as Hisperic Latin. Other important Insular authors include the historian Gildas (c. 500) and the poet Aldhelm (c. 640–709). Benedict Biscop (c. 628–690) founded the monastery of Wearmouth-Jarrow and furnished it with books which he had taken home from a journey to Rome and which were later used by Bede (c. 672–735) to write his Ecclesiastical History of the English People.

Many Medieval Latin works have been published in the series Patrologia Latina, Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum and Corpus Christianorum.

Medieval Latin and everyday life
Medieval Latin was separated from Classical Latin around 800 and at this time was no longer considered part of the everyday language. The speaking of Latin became a practice used mostly by the educated high class population. Even then it was not frequently used in casual conversation. An example of these men includes the churchmen who could read Latin, but could not effectively speak it. Latin's use in universities was structured in lectures and debates, however, it was highly recommended that students use it in conversation. This practice was kept up only due to rules. One of Latin's purposes, writing, was still in practice; the main uses being charters for property transactions and to keep track of the pleadings given in court. Even then, those of the church still used Latin more than the rest of the population. At this time, Latin served little purpose to the regular population but was still used regularly in ecclesiastical culture.

6th–8th centuries

 * Boëthius (c. 480 – 525)
 * Cassiodorus (c. 485)
 * Gildas (d. c. 570)
 * Flavius Cresconius Corippus (d. c. 570)
 * Venantius Fortunatus (c. 530)
 * Gregory of Tours (c. 538–594)
 * Pope Gregory I (c. 540 – 604)
 * Isidore of Seville (c. 560–636)
 * Bede (c. 672–735)
 * St. Boniface (c. 672 - 754)
 * Chrodegang of Metz (d. 766)
 * Paul the Deacon (c. 720s)
 * Beatus of Liébana (c. 730)
 * Peter of Pisa (d. 799)
 * Paulinus of Aquileia (730s - 802)
 * Alcuin (c. 735–804)

9th century

 * Einhard (775–840)
 * Rabanus Maurus (780–856)
 * Paschasius Radbertus (790–865)
 * Rudolf of Fulda (d. 865)
 * Dhuoda
 * Lupus of Ferrieres (805–862)
 * Andreas Agnellus (Agnellus of Ravenna) (c. 805–846?)
 * Hincmar (806–882)
 * Walafrid Strabo (808–849)
 * Florus of Lyon (d. 860?)
 * Gottschalk (theologian) (808–867)
 * Sedulius Scottus (fl. 840–860)
 * Anastasius Bibliothecarius (810–878)
 * Johannes Scotus Eriugena (815–877)
 * Asser (d. 909)
 * Notker Balbulus (840–912)

10th century

 * Ratherius (890–974)
 * Hrotsvitha of Gandersheim (935–973)
 * Thietmar of Merseburg (975–1018)

11th century

 * Marianus Scotus (1028–1082)
 * Adam of Bremen (fl. 1060–1080)
 * Anselm of Canterbury (1033/4–1109)
 * Marbodius of Rennes (c. 1035–1123)

12th century

 * Pierre Abélard (1079–1142)
 * Suger of St Denis (c. 1081–1151)
 * Geoffrey of Monmouth (c. 1100)
 * Ailred of Rievaulx (1110–1167)
 * Otto of Freising (c. 1114–1158)
 * Archpoet (c. 1130)
 * William of Tyre (c. 1130–1185)
 * Peter of Blois (c. 1135)
 * Walter of Châtillon (fl. c. 1200)
 * Adam of St. Victor

13th century

 * Giraldus Cambrensis (c. 1146)
 * Saxo Grammaticus (c. 1150)
 * Anonymus (notary of Béla III) ( late 12th century – early 13th century)
 * Thomas of Celano (c. 1200)
 * Albertus Magnus (c. 1200–1280)
 * Roger Bacon (c. 1214–1294)
 * St Thomas Aquinas (c. 1225–1274)
 * Ramon Llull (1232–1315)
 * Siger of Brabant (c. 1240–1280s)
 * Duns Scotus (c. 1266–1308)

14th century

 * Ranulf Higdon (c. 1280)
 * William of Ockham (c. 1288)
 * Jean Buridan (1300–1358)
 * Henry Suso (c. 1295 – 1366)
 * John Gower (c. 1330 – 1408)

Literary movements

 * Goliards
 * Hiberno-Latin
 * Medieval Roman law
 * Riddle poems

Works

 * Carmina Burana (11th–12th century)
 * Pange Lingua (c. 1250)
 * Summa Theologiae (c. 1270)
 * Etymologiae (c. 600)
 * Dies Irae (c. 1260)
 * Decretum Gratiani (c. 1150)
 * De Ortu Waluuanii Nepotis Arturi (c. 1180)
 * Magna Carta (c. 1215)

title: Medieval Latin


text:
Ōgawara, Miyagi

Ōgawara (大河原町) is a town located in Miyagi Prefecture, Japan. , the town had an estimated population of 	23,618, and a population density of 950persons per km² in 9,925 households. The total area of the town is 24.99 sqkm.

Geography
Ōgawara is located in south-central Miyagi Prefecture, in the Tōhoku region of northern Japan. The Shiroishi River runs through the town.

Neighboring municipalities
Miyagi Prefecture
 * Kakuda
 * Shiroishi
 * Shibata
 * Murata
 * Zaō

Climate
Ōgawara has a humid climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa) characterized by mild summers and cold winters. The average annual temperature in Ōgawara is 12.5 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1272 mm with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 24.9 °C, and lowest in January, at around 1.4 °C.

Demographics
Per Japanese census data, the population of Ōgawara has steadily increased over the past 60 years.

History
The area of present-day Ōgawara was part of ancient Mutsu Province, and was part of the holdings of Sendai Domain under the Edo period Tokugawa shogunate. The town of Ōgawara was established on April 1, 1889 with the establishment of the post-Meiji restoration modern municipalities system. The town annexed the neighboring village of Kanegase on September 30, 1955. However, an effort to merge Ōgawara with the neighboring towns of Shibata and Murata in 2002 was rejected by the town assembly in 2004.

Government
Ōgawara has a mayor-council form of government with a directly elected mayor and a unicameral town council of 15 members. Ōgawara, collectively with the other municipalities in Shibata District contributes two seats to the Miyagi Prefectural legislature. In terms of national politics, the town is part of Miyagi 3rd district of the lower house of the Diet of Japan.

Economy
The economy of Ōgawara is largely based on agriculture.

Education
Ōgawara has three public elementary schools and two public middle schools operated by the town government, and two public high schools operated by the Miyagi Prefectural Board of Education. The prefecture also operates one special education school for the handicapped.

Railway
East Japan Railway Company (JR East) - Tōhoku Main Line
 * Ōgawara

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Ōgawara, Miyagi


text:
Murata, Miyagi

Murata (村田町) is a town located in Miyagi Prefecture, Japan. , the town had an estimated population of 10,675, and a population density of 140 persons per km2 in 4026 households. The total area of the town is 78.38 sqkm. In September 2014, the 7.4 hectare old centre of town was protected as an Important Preservation District by the national government for its traditional merchant quarter architecture.

Geography
Murata is located in south-central Miyagi Prefecture in the Tōhoku region of northern Japan. The Shiroishi River runs through the town.

Neighboring municipalities
Miyagi Prefecture
 * Sendai
 * Natori
 * Iwanuma
 * Ōgawara
 * Shibata
 * Kawasaki
 * Zaō

Climate
Murata has a humid climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa) characterized by mild summers and cold winters. The average annual temperature in Murata is 12.5 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1271 mm with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 25.0 °C, and lowest in January, at around 1.5 °C.

Demographics
Per Japanese census data, the population of Murata declined over the past 30 years.

History
The area of present-day Murata was part of ancient Mutsu Province, and was part of the holdings of Sendai Domain under the Edo period Tokugawa shogunate. The modern village of Murata was established on April 1, 1889 with the establishment of post-Meiji restoration modern municipalities system. It was promoted to town status on October 31, 1895. The town merged with the neighboring towns on Tomioka and Numabe on April 20, 1955.

Government
Murata has a mayor-council form of government with a directly elected mayor and a unicameral town council of 12 members. Murata, collectively with the other municipalities in Shibata District contributes two seats to the Miyagi Prefectural legislature. In terms of national politics, the town is part of Miyagi 3rd district of the lower house of the Diet of Japan.

Economy
The economy of Murata is largely based on agriculture, and the town is especially known for its production of fava beans.

Education
Murata has two public elementary schools and two public middle schools operated by the town government, and one public high school operated by the Miyagi Prefectural Board of Education.

Railway

 * Murata does not have any passenger train service.

Highway

 * – Murata Interchange – Murata Junction
 * – Murata Junction

Sister city relations

 * Buckley, Flintshire, Wales,

Local attractions

 * Sportsland SUGO

title: Murata, Miyagi


text:
Shibata, Miyagi

Shibata (柴田町) is a town located in Miyagi Prefecture, Japan. , the town had an estimated population of 37,617, and a population density of 700 persons per km2 in 15,590 households. The total area of the town is 54.03 sqkm.

Geography
Shibata is located in south-central Miyagi Prefecture in the Tōhoku region of northern Japan. The Abukuma River runs through the town.

Neighboring municipalities
Miyagi Prefecture
 * Iwanuma
 * Kakuda
 * Natori
 * Ōgawara
 * Murata
 * Watari

Climate
Shibata has a humid climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa) characterized by mild summers and cold winters. The average annual temperature in Shibata is 12.5 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1263 mm with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 24.9 °C, and lowest in January, at around 1.4 °C.

Demographics
Per Japanese census data, the population of Shibata increased throughout the 20th century and has declined slightly in the 21st.

History
The area of present-day Shibata was part of ancient Mutsu Province, and was part of the holdings of Sendai Domain under the Edo period Tokugawa shogunate. The villages of Funaoka and Tsukinoki were established on April 1, 1889 with the establishment of the post-Meiji restoration modern municipalities system. Tsukioki was promoted to town status on April 1, 1904 and Funaoka on November 3, 1941. The two towns merged to form Shibata on April 1, 1956.

Government
Shibata has a mayor-council form of government with a directly elected mayor and a unicameral town council of 18 members. Shibata, together with the rest of Shibata District, collectively contributes two seats to the Miyagi Prefectural legislature. In terms of national politics, the town is part of Miyagi 3rd district of the lower house of the Diet of Japan.

Economy
The economy of Shibata is largely based on agriculture.

Education

 * Sendai University
 * Shibata has six public elementary schools and three public middle schools operated by the town government, and one public high school operated by the Miyagi Prefectural Board of Education. The prefecture also operates one special education school for the handicapped.

Railway
East Japan Railway Company (JR East) - Tōhoku Main Line AbukumaExpress - Abukuma Express Line
 * Funaoka - Tsukinoki
 * Tsukinoki - Higashi-Funaoka

Local attractions

 * Site of Funaoka Castle

Sister city relations

 * 🇧🇷 Brazil – Assis Chateaubriand (Paraná), Brazil since April 13, 1981
 * 🇨🇳 China – Danyang, Jiangsu, China, since February 23, 1994
 * 🇯🇵 Japan - Kitakami, Iwate, Japan, since January 25, 1980
 * 🇯🇵 Japan - Date, Hokkaido, Japan, since May 30, 1988 (friendship city)

title: Shibata, Miyagi


text:
Friedrichshain

Friedrichshain is a quarter (Ortsteil) of the borough of Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg in Berlin, Germany. From its creation in 1920 until 2001, it was a freestanding city borough. Formerly part of East Berlin, it is adjacent to Mitte, Prenzlauer Berg, Kreuzberg and Lichtenberg.

Friedrichshain is named after the Volkspark Friedrichshain, a vast green park at the northern border with Prenzlauer Berg. In the Nazi era, the borough was called Horst-Wessel-Stadt. Friedrichshain is one of the trendy districts of Berlin and has experienced gentrification.

Geography
Friedrichshain is defined by the following roads and places, starting clock-wise in the west: Lichtenberger Straße, Mollstraße, Otto-Braun-Straße, Am Friedrichshain, Virchowstraße, Margarete-Sommer-Straße, Danziger Straße, Landsberger Allee, Hausburgstraße, Thaerstraße, Eldenaer Straße, S-Bahn-Trasse, Kynaststraße, Stralauer Halbinsel, Spree.

History
The largely working-class district was created in 1920 when Greater Berlin was established by referendum, incorporating several surrounding settlements. Friedrichshain united the Frankfurter Vorstadt, already part of Berlin, and the villages of Boxhagen and Stralau. It took its name (meaning 'Frederick's Grove') from the Volkspark ('People's Park'), which was planned in 1840 to commemorate the centenary of Frederick the Great's coronation. Much of the district was settled in the rapid industrialization of the 19th and early 20th centuries, led by growth in manufacturing and crafts. It owed much to the opening of the railway line between Berlin and Frankfurt (Oder) in 1846 (which terminated near the site of today's Berlin Ostbahnhof), and the opening of the first waterworks in 1865 at Stralauer Tor. In 1874 the Krankenhaus im Friedrichshain was opened, Berlin's first hospital beside the university clinic Charité. In the early 1900s, the district's largest employer was the Knorr-Bremse brake factory; the Knorrpromenade, one of Friedrichshain's most attractive streets, was built to house the management. The street network of Friedrichhain was originally specified in the Hobrecht-Plan and the area was part of what came to be known architecturally as the Wilhelmine Ring.

When the Nazis came to power in 1933, the district was renamed Horst-Wessel-Stadt after the Nazi activist and writer of the Nazi hymn whose slow death, after being shot by communists, in Friedrichshain hospital in 1930 was turned into a propaganda event by Joseph Goebbels.

During World War II Friedrichshain was one of the most badly damaged parts of Berlin, as Allied strategic bombers specifically targeted its industries. As late as the nineties, some buildings still displayed bullet holes from the intense house to house fighting during the Battle of Berlin. After the war ended, the boundary between the US and Soviet occupation sectors ran between Friedrichshain and Kreuzberg, with Friedrichshain in the east and Kreuzberg in the west. This became a sealed border between East and West Berlin when the Berlin Wall was built in 1961.

Stalinallee (previously Große Frankfurter Straße) was built in Friedrichshain in the late 1940s and early 1950s as a prestige project; the architecture of its 'workers' palaces' is strongly reminiscent of the ostentatious Soviet-era Moscow boulevards and is sometimes mockingly described as Zuckerbäckerstil ('wedding cake style'). The 1953 uprising had its origins in these construction projects, as increased work quotas led to protests that soon spread throughout East Germany, and were only put down by armed Soviet intervention.

In the period of De-Stalinization following the Soviet leader's death, the boulevard was renamed Karl-Marx-Allee at one end and Frankfurter Allee at the other. From this time onwards, Friedrichshain often featured on East Berlin's cultural map: in 1962 the Kosmos, East Germany's largest cinema, was opened, followed in 1981 by the country's most ambitious swimming and sports complex, the Sport- und Erholungszentrum. Neither of these buildings serve their original function today.

Lifestyle
In the course of the changes following the fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989, the free elections in March 1990 and leading up to German reunification the following October, Friedrichshain began to develop a reputation as a young, dynamic district, thanks in part to low rents and the many empty apartments that also attracted the attention of squatters including many from former West Berlin. On 14 November that year, Friedrichshain experienced violent clashes when hundreds of squatters were forcefully evicted from houses in Mainzer Straße by police acting on the orders of the Senate of the recently united city, an act which would trigger the fall of the governing coalition when the Green Party withdrew in protest. In the following years further squatters were evicted under the hardline conservative Senator for the Interior, but others were able to buy the houses they lived in, and they remain a distinct counter-cultural influence in the district to this day. The fight against eviction remains a daily struggle for the last squats still standing: in October 2020, the anarco-queer-feminist squat Liebig34 on Liebigstrasse was evicted.

Alongside the neighbouring districts of Mitte, Prenzlauer Berg, and Kreuzberg, Friedrichshain is now considered one of Berlin's most fashionable areas, and is home to numerous design and media companies. It is known for its many bars, clubs, pubs, and cafés, concentrated in the vicinity of Simon-Dach-Straße and Boxhagener Platz. There were numerous squats in Friedrichshain, with many in and around Rigaer Straße, Mainzer Straße and Scharnweberstraße. In contrast to the districts of Prenzlauer Berg and Mitte, which have experienced high levels of demographic change and rented accommodation is higher price, it is only since the late 1990s that Friedrichshain has undergone a similar trend. Following German reunification, the availability of comparatively cheap rented accommodation attracted students and artists. In the 2020s, numerous restoration works are under way and Friedrichshain is developing at a fast pace becoming more and more gentrified itself.

At the opposite end of the district, the Volkspark Friedrichshain is a large park serving the densely populated area of Prenzlauer Berg on the other side. Its distinctive features include the Märchenbrunnen (Fairytale Fountain) and two wooded "mountains" consisting purely of rubble and the ruins of two World War II Flak towers.

The urban park Volkspark Friedrichshain offers opportunities for sport and recreation. The neighborhood is also home to many restaurants, several exhibition spaces, cinemas and the Berlin Kriminal Theatre, which specialises in crime stories. Frankfurter Allee features various shopping facilities as well as the Ring-Center shopping mall.

Points of interest

 * East Side Gallery, a part of the Berlin Wall that was turned into an international outdoor gallery
 * Karl-Marx-Allee, a boulevard lined with buildings in the Stalinist style, originally called Stalinallee
 * Frankfurter Tor, two landmark towers on Karl-Marx-Allee, which resemble the church domes on Gendarmenmarkt
 * Oberbaumbrücke, a road and rail bridge connecting Kreuzberg and Friedrichshain built in North German brick
 * Fairytale Fountain in Volkspark Friedrichshain
 * Simon-Dach-Straße, a street with numerous pubs and restaurants
 * Boxhagener Platz, heart of the Friedrichshain Kiez or neighborhood
 * Straße der Pariser Kommune, a street beginning north of the Karl-Marx-Allee and extending to the banks of the Spree
 * Samariterviertel with the Samariterkirche (Church of the Good Samaritan)
 * Berlin Ostbahnhof
 * Volkspark Friedrichshain, with its Memorial to Polish Soldiers and German Anti-Fascists
 * Skatehall Berlin, Revaler Straße 99
 * Cassiopeia Berlin, Revaler Straße 99
 * Der Kegel Climbing Centre, Revaler Straße 99
 * Bänschstraße, a boulevard lined with buildings in the Jugendstil in Berlin Friedrichshain
 * Stralau peninsula, a 5 min walk from railway station Treptower Park. A riverside path runs around the entire peninsula and the Rummelsburger See lake. The Stralau peninsula is a perfect spot for a picnic on weekends, do sport, take a nice walk at the waterfront or watch the sun go down behind the Oberbaum Bridge
 * Friedrichshain Photo Gallery, an oldest communal photo gallery in Berlin
 * Berghain, one of the most famous techno music clubs in the world
 * Rockcafé Halford, a bar dedicated to the British heavy metal vocalist Rob Halford
 * Ramones Museum, a museum dedicated to the American punk rock band the Ramones

People

 * Nina Hagen (born 1955), singer
 * Maybrit Illner (born 1965), journalist and TV presenter

title: Friedrichshain


text:
Kawasaki, Miyagi

Kawasaki (川崎町) is a town located in Miyagi Prefecture, Japan. , the town had an estimated population of 8,637 and a population density of 32 persons per km2 in 3,391 households. The total area of the town is 270.77 sqkm.

Geography
Kawasaki is located in south-western Miyagi Prefecture, bordered by the Ōu Mountains to the west. Mount Zaō (1840.8 meters) is partly within the borders of Kawasaki. About 85% of the town area is classified as mountainous.

Neighboring municipalities
Miyagi Prefecture Yamagata Prefecture
 * Sendai
 * Murata
 * Zaō
 * Yamagata
 * Kaminoyama

Climate
Kawasaki has a humid climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa) characterized by mild summers and cold winters. The average annual temperature in Kawasaki is 11.0 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1318 mm with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 24.1 °C, and lowest in January, at around -0.9 °C.

Demographics
Per Japanese census data, the population of Kawasaki has declined over the past 70 years.

History
The area of present-day Kawasaki was part of ancient Mutsu Province, and was part of the holdings of Sendai Domain under the Edo period Tokugawa shogunate. The village of Kawasaki was established on April 1, 1889 with the establishment of post-Meiji restoration modern municipalities system. It was promoted to town status on May 3, 1948. Kawasaki merged with the neighboring town of Tomioka and the former village of Hasekura on April 20, 1955.

Government
Kawasaki has a mayor-council form of government with a directly elected mayor and a unicameral city legislature of 13 members. Kawasaki, collectively with the other municipalities in Shibata District contributes two seats to the Miyagi Prefectural legislature. In terms of national politics, the town is part of Miyagi 3rd district of the lower house of the Diet of Japan.

Economy
The economy of Kawasaki is largely based on agriculture and forestry.

Education

 * Kawasaki has four public elementary schools and two public middle schools operated by the town government, one public high school operated by the Miyagi Prefectural Board of Education.

Railway
Kawasaki is not served by any passenger train lines.

Highway

 * Miyagi-Kawasaki and Sasaya IC

Local attractions

 * Kamafusa Dam
 * Site of Kawasaki Castle

title: Kawasaki, Miyagi


text:
Shibata District, Miyagi

 * List of Provinces of Japan > Tōsandō > Rikuzen Province > Shibata District
 * Japan > Tōhoku region > Miyagi Prefecture > Shibata District

Shibata (柴田郡) is a district located in Miyagi Prefecture, Japan.

As of 2003, the district has an estimated population of 86,405 and a population density of 201.79 persons per km2. The total area is 428.20 km2.

Towns and villages

 * Kawasaki
 * Murata
 * Ōgawara
 * Shibata

title: Shibata District, Miyagi


text:
Marumori, Miyagi

Marumori (丸森町) is a town located in Miyagi Prefecture, Japan. , the town had an estimated population of 13,092, and a population density of 48 persons per km2 in 5,050 households. The total area of the town is 273.30 sqkm.

Geography
Marumori is located in the extreme southern portion of Miyagi Prefecture in the Tōhoku region of northern Japan, bordered by Fukushima Prefecture to the south, east and west. The name “Marumori” means "circle forest" in Japanese and the town is located in a circular basin surrounded by heavily forested mountains. The Abukuma River passes through the town.

Neighboring municipalities
Miyagi Prefecture Fukushima Prefecture
 * Kakuda
 * Shiroishi
 * Yamamoto
 * Sōma
 * Date
 * Shinchi

Climate
Marumori has a humid climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa) characterized by mild summers and cold winters. The average annual temperature in Marumori is 12.2 C. The average annual rainfall is 1298.7 mm with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 24.0 C, and lowest in January, at around 1.3 C.

Demographics
Per Japanese census data, the population of Marumori has declined over the past 70 years.

History
The area of present-day Marumori was part of ancient Mutsu Province and was part of the holdings of Sendai Domain under the Edo period Tokugawa shogunate. The village of Marumori was established on April 1, 1889, with the establishment of the post-Meiji restoration modern municipalities system. It was raised to town status on December 1, 1954, after merging with the neighboring villages of Kaneyama, Ōuchi, Ōhari, Kōya, Kosai, Tateyama and Hippo.

Government
Marumori has a mayor-council form of government with a directly elected mayor and a unicameral town council of 14 members. Marumori, together with the city of Kakuda, contributes one seat to the Miyagi Prefectural legislature. In terms of national politics, the town is part of Miyagi 3rd district of the lower house of the Diet of Japan.

Economy
The economy of Marumori is largely based on agriculture and forestry.

Education
As of April 2022, Marumori has two public elementary schools and one public junior high school operated by the town government, and one public high school operated by the Miyagi Prefectural Board of Education. There is also one private elementary school.

Railway
AbukumaExpress - Abukuma Express Line
 * Abukuma - Marumori - Kita-Marumori

Sister city relations

 * 🇺🇸 USA - Hemet, California, USA
 * 🇯🇵 Japan - Kitami, Hokkaido, Japan

title: Marumori, Miyagi


text:
Igu District, Miyagi

Igu (伊具郡) is a district located in Miyagi Prefecture, Japan.

As of 2003, the district has an estimated population of 17,139 and a population density of 62.70 persons per km2. The total area is 273.34 km2.

Towns and villages

 * Marumori

title: Igu District, Miyagi


text:
User:PedanticallySpeaking/Articles

Try to learn something about everything and everything about something.
 * ---Thomas Huxley

Jack, how do you know all these things that normal people don't know and you don't know things that normal people do know?
 * ---Joey Potter, Dawson's Creek

This page is to record articles I've written, started, or done significant work on.

Most Important Contributions
The most substantial pieces of work I've done here include:
 * James Aubrey--Head of CBS and MGM and a featured article from November 2005.
 * Tom Brinkman--Member of the Ohio House and a featured article from August 9, 2005.
 * Helen Gandy--J. Edgar Hoover's secretary and a featured article from July 21, 2005.
 * WGA screenwriting credit system, on how credit is awarded for films--A featured article from May 20, 2005
 * Dawson's Creek, the American television show--A featured article from May 19, 2005
 * Warren County Canal, an ill-fated venture in the 1840's--A featured article from April 28, 2005
 * Julia Stiles, the New York-born actress--A featured article from March 15, 2005!
 * Cincinnati, Lebanon and Northern Railway, a narrow gauge line that wound up part of the Pennsy--A featured article from March 4, 2005
 * List of Ohio county name etymologies--A featured list from June 20, 2005
 * Jean Schmidt--The new congresswoman from Ohio
 * Paul Hackett--Her rival in the special election
 * Bob McEwen--Former Ohio Congressman, featured article of the day on June 3, 2006.
 * Curtis Sittenfeld--A biography of a new writer from Ohio, with bibliography
 * W. Mark Felt aka Deep Throat--Mostly mine, but many others have contributed
 * Webster's Dictionary
 * Dana Gioia, American poet and head of the National Endowment for the Arts
 * John Henninger Reagan, Texas politician in the 19th century and Confederate Postmaster General
 * John W. Griffin, a perennial candidate in Ohio
 * Warren County, Ohio
 * Cincinnati Enquirer
 * Katie Holmes, the Buckeye actress and Tom Cruise's squeeze--Now with a bibliography!
 * Montague Summers, the writer on the occult
 * Lowell Thomas, the American writer, traveller, and broadcaster
 * Mary Beth Peil, the opera singer who found fame on Dawson's Creek
 * Model State Emergency Health Powers Act
 * July 20

County Names and Namesakes
List of Ohio county name etymologies, List of Ohio county name etymologies, A-K, List of Ohio county name etymologies, L-Z, William Darke, William Crawford (soldier), John Hardin, Hugh Mercer, Isaac Shelby, Benjamin Logan, James Lawrence, William Darke, Richard Butler, Andrew Holmes (started), John Allen

History
Symmes Purchase, Millcreek Township, Hamilton County, Ohio

Government
John William Brown (contributed information on governship), Robert T. Bennett (started), Michael K. Allen, John W. Griffin, Charles W. Sanders, Sandra Beckwith, Ohio county government, John D. Herbert, Ken Blackwell, Ohio State Board of Education, Ohio Ballot Board, Bruce Johnson, Joe Deters, Paper township

Congressmen From Ohio
William Harsha, Samuel Finley Vinton, Frank Cremeans, Clarence E. Miller, Clarence J. Brown, Clarence J. Brown, Junior, Bob McEwen, Tom Kindness, John McLean, Rob Portman

2d District Candidates in 2005
Ohio Second Congressional District Election, 2005 Steve Austin (Ohioan), Tom Bemmes, Tom Brinkman, Pat DeWine, Peter Fossett, Paul Hackett, Arthur Stanley Katz, Bob McEwen, Eric Minamyer, Douglas E. Mink, Jeff Morgan (Ohioan), James John Parker, Charles Sanders, Jean Schmidt, Jeff Sinnard, David R. Smith, Victoria Wells Wulsin

General
Warren County, Ohio, Middletown and Cincinnati Railroad, Golden Lamb Inn, Jeremiah Morrow Bridge, Little Miami Bike Trail (started), Little Miami Railroad, Marietta and Cincinnati Railroad (started), Cincinnati, Lebanon and Northern Railway, Glendower House, The Western Star, The Lebanon Gazette, The Lebanon Patriot, Lebanon Correctional Institution, Warren Correctional Institution, Warren County Canal, Durbin Ward, Joseph Whitehill, Caesar Creek State Park

Townships
Turtlecreek Township, Warren County, Ohio, Clearcreek Township, Warren County, Ohio, Salem Township, Warren County, Ohio, Union Township, Warren County, Ohio, Wayne Township, Warren County, Ohio, Massie Township, Warren County, Ohio, Deerfield Township, Warren County, Ohio, Franklin Township, Warren County, Ohio, Washington Township, Warren County, Ohio, Harlan Township, Warren County, Ohio

Places
Ridgeville, Ohio (started), Hagemans Crossing, Ohio, Crosswick, Ohio, New Burlington, Ohio (started), Fort Ancient, Ohio, Beedles Station, Ohio, Kings Mills, Ohio, Oregonia, Ohio, Hammel, Ohio, Millgrove, Ohio, Greentree Corner, Ohio, Cozadale, Ohio, Hopkinsville, Ohio, Murdock, Ohio, Zoar, Warren County, Ohio, Dallasburg, Ohio, Middletown Junction, Ohio, Fosters, Ohio

Townships
Fairfield Township, Butler County, Ohio, Hanover Township, Butler County, Ohio, Lemon Township, Butler County, Ohio, Liberty Township, Butler County, Ohio, Madison Township, Butler County, Ohio, Milford Township, Butler County, Ohio, Morgan Township, Butler County, Ohio, Oxford Township, Butler County, Ohio,   Reily Township, Butler County, Ohio, Ross Township, Butler County, Ohio, St. Clair Township, Butler County, Ohio, Wayne Township, Butler County, Ohio, West Chester Township, Butler County, Ohio

Places
Heno, Ohio, Woodsdale, Ohio, Poasttown, Ohio, Tylersville, Ohio, Reily, Ohio, Bunker Hill, Ohio, Woods Station, Ohio, Peoria, Ohio, Alert, Ohio, Okeana, Ohio, Scipio, Ohio, Shandon, Ohio, Mcconigles, Ohio, Port Union, Ohio, Mauds, Ohio, Rialto, Ohio, Crescentville, Ohio, Pisgah, Ohio, Gano, Ohio, Overpeck, Ohio, Busenbark, Ohio, Collinsville, Ohio, Darrtown, Ohio, Amanda, Butler County, Ohio, Excello, Ohio, LeSourdsville, Ohio, Blue Ball, Ohio, Hughes Station, Ohio, Kyles Station, Ohio, Princeton, Ohio, Huntsville, Butler County, Ohio

Other
Voice of America Bethany Relay Station, Bethany, Ohio, College Township, Hueston Woods State Park

Townships
Adams Township, Clinton County, Ohio, Chester Township, Clinton County, Ohio, Clark Township, Clinton County, Ohio, Green Township, Clinton County, Ohio, Jefferson Township, Clinton County, Ohio, Liberty Township, Clinton County, Ohio, Marion Township, Clinton County, Ohio, Richland Township, Clinton County, Ohio, Union Township, Clinton County, Ohio, Vernon Township, Clinton County, Ohio, Washington Township, Clinton County, Ohio, Wayne Township, Clinton County, Ohio, Wilson Township, Clinton County, Ohio

Justices
John McLean, Pierce Butler, Samuel Freeman Miller, James Clark McReynolds, Four Horsemen, David Josiah Brewer (started), Joseph Philo Bradley (started), John Catron (started), John Hessin Clarke (started), George Shiras, Jr., John Archibald Campbell (started), Stephen Johnson Field, Edward Terry Sanford (started), Peter V. Daniel (started), Horace Gray (started), Robert Cooper Grier (started)

Other Subjects
Supreme Court of the United States Reporter of Decisions, Richard Peters, Alexander J. Dallas (expanded considerably), Benjamin Chew Howard, William Cranch, John William Wallace, William Tod Otto, John Chandler Bancroft Davis, Charles Henry Butler, Ernest Knaebel, Walter Wyatt, Henry Putzel, Jr., Henry Curtis Lind, Republican Party of Minnesota v. White (started).

Congress
Sen. John McLean (Illinois), the Bricker Amendment, John H. Reagan, Robert Smith Walker, Edwin Duing Eshleman, Bud Shuster (revised), Enid Greene (revised), Maury Maverick, Elizur Goodrich, Chauncey Goodrich, Doris Matsui, Paul Hays, Meg Goetz, Mary Kevin Niland

Congressmen From Ohio
William Harsha, Samuel Finley Vinton, Frank Cremeans, Clarence E. Miller, Clarence J. Brown, Clarence J. Brown, Junior, Bob McEwen, Tom Kindness, John McLean, Rob Portman

Copyright
Wheaton v. Peters, Donaldson v. Beckett, Millar v. Taylor (some rewriting), common law copyright

Nixon Administration
Hugh W. Sloan, Jr., Morton Halperin, Kenneth Reese Cole, Jr. Egil Krogh, Harry M. Rosenfeld

Law
Model State Emergency Health Powers Act, Lawrence O. Gostin

Other
Joseph A. Steger (started), Nancy Zimpher (started), Hang on Sloopy (Ohio's rock song), Goshen, Ohio (started), Spring Grove, Avondale and Cincinnati Railway, Cincinnati, Lebanon and Northern Railway, United States District Court for the Southern District of Ohio

Dawson's Creek
Dawson's Creek, Katie Holmes, Kevin Williamson, Michelle Williams, Harve Presnell, Paul Stupin, David Dukes, Mary Beth Peil, Monica Keena (started), Meredith Monroe (started), Greg Berlanti (started), Gregory Prange (started), Mary-Margaret Humes, John Wesley Shipp, Nina Repeta, Kerr Smith, Gareth Williams, Obi Ndefo, Dylan Neal, Sasha Alexander, Leann Hunley, Outerbanks Entertainment

Other TV Shows
James at 15, Life As We Know It, Young Americans

Actors
Julia Stiles, Ian Richardson, Charles Kimbrough (started), Elaine Stritch (started), Hal Smith, Joanna Kerns (started), Josh Andrew Koenig (started), Jaime Bergman (started), Roger Rees, Melanie Mayron

Producers, Directors, Etc.
Richard D. Zanuck (started), David Brown (started), Carl Dudley (started), Stanley Donen (rewrote), James T. Aubrey, Jr., Amy Heckerling, Edith Head (revised), Jeff Zucker, Writers Guild of America (scandal), Vic Mizzy (started), Frank Capra, Jr. (started), Screenwriting credit, Art house film, Spyros Skouras, John A. Schneider.

Journalism
The Western Star, The Lebanon Patriot, The Lebanon Gazette, William H. P. Denny, William C. McClintock,Chillicothe Gazette, Centinel of the Northwest Territory, Cincinnati Enquirer, Dayton Daily News, Cox Communications, Eugene Meyer, Cincinnati Post, Harold Ross, William Shawn, The New Yorker (contributed history, Eustace Tilley info), Ely Jacques Kahn, Jr., Franklin Pierce Adams, Lowell Thomas, Washington Star (started), Cissy Patterson, Carrie Donovan, USA Weekend, Miller Publishing Company, Springboro Star Press, Middletown Journal

Lexicography and Language
Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, F.G. Fowler, dord, Nicholson Baker (info on libraries), Webster's Dictionary, Philip Babcock Gove, William Torrey Harris, Chauncey Allen Goodrich, William Allen Neilson, Webster's New World Dictionary, American Heritage Dictionary, Century Dictionary, William Dwight Whitney, Joseph Emerson Worcester, Random House Dictionary of the English Language, Dictionary of American English, John Bartlett (publisher), Bartlett's Familiar Quotations

Literature
Montague Summers, Winston Churchill (novelist) (revised)

Everything Else
James Bond (ornithologist) (rewrote article), Margaret Herrick, Thomas Hoving, J. Irwin Miller (revised heavily), Dana Gioia, Jeff Koons (revised), Skeeter Davis (merged two articles, added obits), Carmella DeCesare, Christopher Buckley, Barry Wakeman, Metropolitan Opera, Margaret Juntwait, Timothy Greenfield-Sanders, Current Biography

Geography
Henderson Island, Ducie Island, Oeno Island

Other
Wilson Edgar Terry, Kentucky colonel, Berniece T. Hiser, John Morton Eshleman, General Land Office, Kenneth Cole (started), naturalist Marjorie Courtenay-Latimer, Robert S. Bennett (started), United Fruit Company (added corporate history), United Brands Company, Samuel Zemurray, Eli M. Black, Cuddebackville Dam, Jean MacArthur, Sidney Frank, Ira Rennert (started), Betsy McCaughey Ross (info on Clinton plan), Mary Carey (platform), Samuel Maverick, July 20, USS Howard (DD-179) (wikified), George Rippey Stewart (started), Postal savings systems

Images
See: User:PedanticallySpeaking/Images

Wikipedia

 * Frequent contributor to WP:RD. See User:PedanticallySpeaking/RefDesk
 * Template:Lacking ISBN
 * Founder of WikiProject Ohio townships
 * Creator of Naming conventions (Ohio school districts)

FAC Candidacies
These are articles I submitted FAC candidacies for.

 * Featured article candidates/Tom Brinkman/archive1 Passed
 * Featured article candidates/Cincinnati, Lebanon and Northern Railway  Passed
 * Featured article candidates/Dawson's Creek  Passed
 * Featured article candidates/W. Mark Felt Passed
 * Featured article candidates/W. Mark Felt old Failed
 * Featured article candidates/Helen Gandy/archive1  Passed
 * Featured article candidates/Katie Holmes  Failed
 * Featured article candidates/Bruce Johnson Failed
 * Featured article candidates/List of Ohio county name etymologies/archive1 Failed
 * Featured article candidates/Bob McEwen Failed
 * Featured article candidates/Bob McEwen old Failed
 * Featured article candidates/John Henninger Reagan/archive1 Failed
 * Featured article candidates/Jean Schmidt Passed
 * Featured article candidates/Jean Schmidt (old) Failed
 * Featured article candidates/Curtis Sittenfeld/archive1  Failed
 * Featured article candidates/Julia Stiles  Passed
 * Featured article candidates/The Western Star  Failed
 * Featured article candidates/Warren County Canal  Passed
 * Featured article candidates/WGA screenwriting credit system Failed
 * Featured article candidates/Screenwriting credit Failed

Peer reviews
These are articles I asked for PR's on:

 * Peer review/Bruce Johnson/archive1
 * Peer review/Cincinnati, Lebanon and Northern Railway
 * Peer review/Curtis Sittenfeld
 * Peer review/Dana Gioia
 * Peer review/Helen Gandy/archive1
 * Peer review/Jean Schmidt/archive1
 * Peer review/John W. Griffin
 * Peer review/Julia Stiles/archive1
 * Peer review/Paul Hackett/archive1
 * Peer review/Screenwriting credit
 * Peer review/The Western Star/archive1
 * Peer review/Warren County Canal/archive1

Edit History
To see my current count check out here.

Milestones
My first contribution was at 10:19 A.M. on August 6, 2004, to Requested articles/Social Sciences and Philosophy. My first as a registered user was in creating Warren D. Huff. My tenth was to John Morton Eshleman, my 25th to Clarence J. Brown, my 50th to General Land Office, and my 100th to List of United States representatives from Ohio.

I made my one-thousandth edit on August 26, 2004 and I made my two thousandth edit to Wikipedia on September 11, 2004. My 2500th edit came on September 30, 2004. My 3000th edit came on October 13, 2004. My 3500th edit came on October 25, 2004. My 3800th edit came on October 30, 2004. My 3900th edit came on November 5, 2004. My 4500th edit came on November 19, 2004. My 5000th edit came on December 18, 2004 to Life As We Know It. My 6000th edit came on March 9, 2005, on User talk:PedanticallySpeaking. My 7000th edit was on April 7, 2005, to Jacksonburg, Ohio. My 7500th edit was on April 15, 2005, to the article Vernon Township, Clinton County, Ohio. My 8000th edit was to Bob McEwen on May 20, 2005. My 9000th edit was to Jean Schmidt on June 14, 2005. My 10,000th edit was to Miller Publishing Company on July 16, 2005.

Ranks
As of August 22, 2004 I was ranked the 769th most prolific contributor, having jumped 24,787 places in thirty days, and had made 872 contributions to that date. As of August 28, 2004, I ranked 418th with 315 edits. As of September 6?, 2004, I was ranked 587th with 1312 edits, up from 1885th the previous week. As of September 22, 2004, I was 477th with 1761 mainspace edits. As of October 10, 2004, I was ranked 412th with over 2200 edits to articles and 443d in all namespaces with over 2800 edits. An undated list posted at the ranking page put me at 401st with 3303 edits. As of November 8, 2004, I was ranked 325th with over 2963 edits to articles and 355th in all namespaces with over 3942 edits.

As of November 18, 2004, I was ranked 63d for main namespace edits and 75th for all namespace edits at List_of_Wikipedians_by_number_of_recent_edits. As of circa November 20, 2004, I was ranked I was ranked 310th with over 3123 edits to articles and 329th in all namespaces with over 4254 edits. As of November 29, 2004, I was ranked I was ranked 305th with over 3289 edits to articles and 318th in all namespaces with over 4543 edits.

The CSV data (checked December 15, 2004), credits me with 3,393 mainspace edits, 1,311 other edits, and ranks me 317th, up from 334th. As of January 18, 2005, I was 195th ranked in recent edits, with 709. As of March 9, 2005, I was ranked 311th in edits to the main namespace with 4,045 edits and 306th in all namespaces with 5,987 edits. As of April 27, 2005, I was ranked 255th in the main namespace with 5,357 edits, up sixty-five places, and 253rd in all name spaces, with 7,749 edits. As of July 24, 2005, I was ranked 226th in the main namespace and 233rd in all namespaces.

Other Languages
Though I have done very little in other languages, I have accounts, also under the name PedanticallySpeaking, in the Spanish, French, and Latin Wikipedias.

title: User:PedanticallySpeaking/Articles


text:
Watari, Miyagi

Watari (亘理町) is a town located in Miyagi Prefecture, Japan. , the town had an estimated population of 33,459, and a population density of 450 persons per km2 in 12,643 households. The total area of the town is 73.60 sqkm.

Geography
Watari is located in the Tōhoku region of northern Japan, in the southeastern Miyagi Prefecture, bordered by the Pacific Ocean to the east. The Abukuma River flows through the town, forming its western border.

Neighboring municipalities
Miyagi Prefecture
 * Iwanuma
 * Kakuda
 * Yamamoto
 * Shibata

Climate
Watari has a humid climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa) characterized by mild summers and cold winters. The average annual temperature in Watari is 12.4 C. The average annual rainfall is 1272.2 mm with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 23.9 C, and lowest in January, at around 1.8 C.

Demographics
Per Japanese census data, the population of Watari has remained relatively steady since the turn of the 21st century.

History
The area of present-day Watari was part of ancient Mutsu Province, and the place name of “Watari” appears in the Shoku Nihongi chronicles dated 718 AD. It was part of the holdings of Sendai Domain under the Edo period Tokugawa shogunate.

Watari Town was established on April 1, 1889 with the establishment of the post-Meiji restoration modern municipalities system. It merged with the neighboring town of Arahama and villages of Yoshida and Õkuma on February 1, 1955.

Watari was severely damaged by a tsunami caused by an earthquake on 11 March 2011. Hundreds of people were stranded in a school but were airlifted from the roof by Japanese military helicopters. The tsunami covered 47% of the town's area and 305 residents were reported killed or missing.

Government
Watari has a mayor-council form of government with a directly elected mayor and a unicameral town council of 18 members. Watari contributes one seat to the Miyagi Prefectural legislature. In terms of national politics, the town is part of Miyagi 3rd district of the lower house of the Diet of Japan.

Economy
The economy of Watari is largely based on agriculture (strawberries) and commercial fishing and fish processing.

Education
Watari has six public elementary schools and four public middle schools operated by the town government, and one public high school operated by the Miyagi Prefectural Board of Education.

Railway
East Japan Railway Company (JR East) - Jōban Line
 * Hamayoshida - Watari - Ōkuma

Highway

 * – Torinoumi Interchange and Parking Area – Watari Interchange
 * – Watari Interchange

Local attractions

 * Sanjūsangendō Kanga ruins, Heian period National Historic Site
 * Watari Jinja (site of Watari Castle)

title: Watari, Miyagi


text:
Talk:Pentathlon

Debate 1
I haven't listed the events in the modern athletics pentathlon, as I haven't found a definitive source that lists them (i.e. I can't find it on the IOC's website). Some biographies of Thorpe on the web suggest that it was the same as the ancient Pentathlon, except with a 1500m sprint replacing the wrestling. Note that some websites written by professionals (such as the BBC, who I've emailed about it) have repeatedly confused this track and field pentathlon with the modern pentathlon. Average Earthman 15:31, 13 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Pentathlon is an event for women during the indoor season. See . The events are 60 m hurdles, high jump, shot put, long jump and 800 metres. This event has nothing to do with modern pentathlon. Punkmorten 20:53, 4 June 2006 (UTC)
 * OK, I see that it's called women's pentathlon here. Punkmorten 20:55, 4 June 2006 (UTC)
 * I'm pretty sure we can safely say that pentathlon and modern pentathlon are different. Davidbod 20:13, 29 May 2007 (UTC)

Incident 1: First Sentence Needs Fixing

 * Can someone please fix the first sentence of this article? I have no idea what it means. 72.79.199.205 (talk) 23:54, 30 March 2008 (UTC)

please use Simple-Wiki for easier understanding of the article Pentathlon Tom140996 (123.200.250.35 (talk) 09:49, 3 July 2008 (UTC))

Incident 2: Deletion of Article
Someone deleted all of this article. Does anyone know how to fix it? —Preceding unsigned comment added by GeekyTwin (talk • contribs) 23:59, 15 April 2008 (UTC)

Thank you for reporting this incident. It has been dealt with and the article has been restored. Tom140996 (123.200.250.35 (talk) 09:49, 3 July 2008 (UTC))

Incident 3: Pie Tastes Good?
It has been reported that someone had added Bold textpie tastes good to Pentathlon article and had also added Bold and Italic writing where it was not needed. I have changed this as it has nothing to do with Pentathlon article.

split
This article should be split and either replaced with an overview article of all types of pentathlon, or a dab page. 70.51.11.210 (talk) 07:11, 20 August 2008 (UTC)
 * Support, each pentathlon is clearly a separate topic. A dab page here is preferable. 69.181.46.79 (talk) 01:06, 21 August 2008 (UTC)
 * Support. In the Finnish wiki, each pentathlon already has a separate article. --Vongoiva (talk) 14:16, 6 October 2008 (UTC)
 * I don't see why this article shouldn't document all the types of pentathlon (i.e. a better version of what we have now) then we can have a separate sub-page for each type which goes into more detail. They are all pretty similar in concept (that of five athletic events). I'll see what I can do... Sillyfolkboy (talk) (edits) WIKIPROJECT ATHLETICS NEEDS YOU!  20:15, 29 June 2009 (UTC)

Recast
I've completely overhauled the article to discuss all major pentathlons, with links to sub-articles for further information. The root of the pentathlons are all traced back to the Greek pentathlon so it makes sense to give a lineage and overview. Any further suggestions and improvements are most welcome, especially in terms of describing the points systems, which I know next to nothing about! Sillyfolkboy (talk) (edits) WIKIPROJECT ATHLETICS NEEDS YOU!  20:36, 3 August 2009 (UTC)

 * This article seems to hop around from ancient pentathlon to modern pentathlon and back again. Can we clean this up somehow?
 * I propose: lede introduces the concept, summarizes ancient pent., then remarks on other styles. Then headings for each different style, including attempts at various versions of the ancient pent. in modern games. How's that? Kortoso (talk) 17:38, 16 October 2013 (UTC)

Paralympic Pentathlon events
How about a section about pentathlon in the Paralympics/disability sport? There are slightly different versions for different classifications/types of disability (visually impaired, mild cerebral palsy, leg amputees, wheelchair users). I need to reference this info in articles about competitors/medalists/record holders. Full details in the IPC Athletics Rules and Regs, p114: http://www.paralympic.org/sites/default/files/document/120831090842500_2011_2012_IPC_Athletics_%2BRules_Regulations_updated_Mar%2B2012_0.pdf Sportygeek (talk) 10:05, 22 January 2013 (UTC)

No steeplechase in mod pent
It's show jumping as this point. It's not clear whether and when steeplechase was part of the modern pentathlon. Since steeplechase has fallen into disfavor generally, I can imagine it would be replaced by something less destructive of horses. Kortoso (talk) 17:43, 16 October 2013 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 1 one external link on Pentathlon. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive http://web.archive.org/web/20091207071043/http://www.usatf.org:80/statistics/champions/USAOutdoorTF/men/mPent.asp to http://www.usatf.org/statistics/champions/USAOutdoorTF/men/mPent.asp

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true or failed to let others know (documentation at Sourcecheck).

Cheers.—cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 04:35, 28 February 2016 (UTC)

Science Olympiad?? Notice for removal
I propose we remove the Science Olypiad subsection from the Styles section, as it is not truly a style of pentathlon. The Science Olympiad should be removed for two reasons: informality and obscurity.

First, the informality of the Science Olympiad. There is no definite static form of the Science Olympiad as a pentathlon, given that the disciplines change yearly, and there is no clear indication that the Science Olympiad always holds five events in its B-division, or that there has been a pentathlon since 2010 (as the source cites).

The second issue of including the Science Olympiad as a 'Style' of pentathlon is its obscurity. A single event, in a single division of an American secondary school competition is hardly germane to an article on the sport of pentathlon. According to the top of the page: "This article is about the general sporting event" and it's variants, not a list to catalogue any and every competition that has five events, regardless of whether the organisers of that competition decided to name it a 'pentathlon'.

Please respond if you disagree with the removal of the Science Olympiad subsection from the page, otherwise I shall shortly remove it.

Coldham10 (talk) 12:56, 20 August 2016 (UTC)

How to say the word 96.3.74.85 (talk) 00:22, 26 January 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Pentathlon


text:
Yamamoto, Miyagi

Yamamoto (山元町) is a town located in Miyagi Prefecture, Japan. , the town had an estimated population of 12,100, and a population density of 190 persons per km2 in 4794 households. The total area of the town is 64.58 sqkm.

Geography
Yamamoto is located in south-east Miyagi Prefecture in the Tōhoku region of northern Japan. It is bordered by the Pacific Ocean to the east, and Fukushima Prefecture to the south.

Neighboring municipalities
Miyagi Prefecture Fukushima Prefecture
 * Kakuda
 * Watari
 * Marumori
 * Shinchi

Climate
Yamamoto has a humid climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa) characterized by mild summers and cold winters. The average annual temperature in Yamamoto is 12.6 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1252 mm with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 24.8 °C, and lowest in January, at around 1.7 °C.

Demographics
Per Japanese census data, the population of Yamamoto peaked at around the year 2000, and has dropped rapidly since, especially since the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake.

History
The area of present-day Yamamoto was part of ancient Mutsu Province and was part of the holdings of Sendai Domain under the Edo period Tokugawa shogunate. The village of Yamamoto was established on April 1, 1889, with the establishment of a post-Meiji restoration modern municipalities system. It was raised to town status on February 1, 1951, by merging with the neighboring village of Sakamoto.

Yamamoto was devastated by the 9–9.1 moment magnitude scale 2011 Tōhoku earthquake (Shindo 6+) off the coast of Japan that occurred at 14:46 JST (05:46 UTC) on 11 March 2011 and resultant tsunami. Eyewitness accounts describe Yamamoto as "one of the worst-hit areas" with no houses left undamaged. On February 13, 2021, Yamamoto was again hit by a M7.3 earthquake that struck off the coast of Fukushima prefecture, with a Shindo 6- rating, though some record the shaking as Shindo 7.

Government
Yamamoto has a mayor-council form of government with a directly elected mayor and a unicameral town council of 13 members. Yamamoto and the town of Watari together contribute two seats to the Miyagi Prefectural legislature. In terms of national politics, the town is part of Miyagi 3rd district of the lower house of the Diet of Japan.

Economy
The economy of Yamamoto is largely based on agriculture and commercial fishing.

Education
Yamamoto has four public elementary schools and two public middle schools operated by the town government. The town does not have a public high school; however, there is a special education school for the handicapped operated by the Miyagi Prefectural Board of Education.

Railway
East Japan Railway Company (JR East) - Jōban Line
 * Sakamoto - Yamashita

Noted people from Yamamoto

 * Makoto Kosaka, professional baseball player
 * Keita Saito, professional football player

title: Yamamoto, Miyagi


text:
Watari District, Miyagi

 * List of Provinces of Japan > Tōsandō > Iwaki Province > Watari District
 * Japan > Tōhoku region > Miyagi Prefecture > Watari District

Watari (亘理郡) is a district located in Miyagi Prefecture, Japan.

As of 2003, the district has an estimated population of 53,076 and a population density of 385.47 persons per km2. The total area is 137.69 km2.

Towns and villages

 * Watari
 * Yamamoto

Merger
The towns of Watari and Yamamoto were planning to merge and create a new city under the name of Watari. Watari District would dissolve if the city should be created. However, nothing has yet to occur.

title: Watari District, Miyagi


text:
Lesum

The Lesum is a 9.85 km river in northern Germany, right tributary of the Weser, navigable for Class III ships. It is formed at the confluence of the rivers Wümme and Hamme, near Ritterhude, northwest of Bremen. It flows west and flows into the Weser in Bremen-Vegesack.

title: Lesum


text:
Matsushima, Miyagi

Matsushima (松島町) is a town in Miyagi Prefecture, Japan. , the town had an estimated population of 13,804 in 5663 households, and a population density of 260 persons per km². The total area of the town is 53.56 km2. It is most famous as the location of Matsushima Bay, one of the Three Views of Japan, and is also the site of the Zuigan-ji, Entsū-in and Kanrantei.

Geography
Matsushima is located in east-central Miyagi Prefecture, with Matsushima Bay to the east. The town’s highest point is Mount Danyama, with a height of 178 meters.

Neighboring municipalities
Miyagi Prefecture
 * Higashimatsushima
 * Misato
 * Ōsaki
 * Ōsato
 * Rifu

Climate
Matsushima has a humid climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa) characterized by mild summers and cold winters. The average annual temperature in Higashi-Matsushima is 12.0 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1207 mm with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 24.5 °C, and lowest in January, at around 0.6 °C.

Demographics
Per Japanese census data, the population of Matsushima has declined over the past 30 years.

History
The area of present-day Matsushima was part of ancient Mutsu Province and has been settled since at least the Jōmon period. The Daigigakoi Shell Mound is one of the largest shell middens to have been discovered in Japan. With the establishment of Tagajō in the Nara period, Matsushima was part of the Yamato colonization area in the region. The Buddhist temple of Zuigan-ji comes to have been founded in 828 AD. During the Sengoku period, the area was contested by samurai clans before it came under the control of the Date clan of Sendai Domain during the Edo period, under the Tokugawa shogunate.

The village of Matsushima within Miyagi District, Miyagi was established on June 1, 1889 with the post-Meiji restoration establishment of the modern municipalities system. It was raised to town status on December 16, 1963.

Government
Matsushima has a mayor-council form of government with a directly elected mayor and a unicameral town council of 14 members. Matsushima, as part of Miyagi District contributes one seat to the Miyagi Prefectural legislature. In terms of national politics, the town is part of Miyagi 5th district of the lower house of the Diet of Japan.

Economy
The economy of Matsushima is largely based on tourism, farming, and commercial fishing, primarily the cultivation of oysters in Matsushima Bay.

Education
Matsushima has three public elementary schools and one public middle school operated by the town government and one public high school operated by the Miyagi Prefectural Board of Education.

Railway
East Japan Railway Company (JR East) - Tōhoku Main Line East Japan Railway Company (JR East) - Senseki Line
 * Matsushima, Atago, Shinainuma
 * Matsushima-Kaigan, Takagimachi, Tetaru, Rikuzen-Tomiyama

Highway

 * (Matsushima-Ōsato IC — Matsushima-Kita IC)

Seaports

 * Port of Matsushima - Matsushima sightseeing boats

Local attractions

 * Matsushima, one of the Three Views of Japan
 * Zuigan-ji, founded 828 AD
 * Entsū-in
 * Nishinohama Shell Mound, a National Historic Site

International sister cities

 * 🇫🇷 France – Isle of Pines, New Caledonia, since September 4, 1980

Japanese sister cities

 * August 1, 1987: Kisakata, Akita
 * October 16, 1988: Kami-Amakusa, Kumamoto (formerly known as Matsushima)

Noted people from Matsushima

 * Jun Senoue, musician

title: Matsushima, Miyagi


text:
Shichigahama

Shichigahama (七ヶ浜町) is a town located in Miyagi Prefecture, Japan. , the town had an estimated population of 18,447, and a population density of 1,400 persons per km2 in 6,681 households. The total area of the town is 13.19 km2.

Geography
The town is situated on a peninsula in the middle of Miyagi Prefecture between the cities of Tagajō in the west and Shiogama in the north and east, and about halfway between Sendai and Matsushima. Shichigahama is the smallest city, town or village by land area in the whole Tōhoku region. The climate is relatively mild compared to its surrounding area and temperatures do not greatly fluctuate.

The name Shichigahama literally means "seven beaches". The name comes from the seven seaside villages that originally combined to form the town. The seven beaches of Shichigahama are: Minatohama (湊浜), Matsugahama (松ヶ浜), Shobutahama (菖蒲田浜), Hanabuchihama (花渕浜), Yoshidahama (吉田浜), Yokasakihama (代ヶ崎浜) and Toguhama (東宮浜). In addition to the seven beaches, a number of neighborhoods located inland on the peninsula house a large portion of the population. These split into older neighborhoods: Yogai (要害), and Toyama (遠山), which sit close to the border with Tagajo and Shiogama, and newer neighborhoods, Shiomidai (汐見台) and Shiomidai Minami (汐見台南), which were built in the late 20th century.

Neighboring municipalities
Miyagi Prefecture
 * Sendai
 * Tagajō
 * Shiogama

Climate
Shichigahama has a humid climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa) characterized by mild summers and cold winters. The average annual temperature in Shichigahama is 12.1 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1217 mm with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 24.6 °C, and lowest in January, at around 0.9 °C.

Demographics
Per Japanese census data, the population of Shichigahama peaked around the year 2000 and has declined since.

History
The area of present-day Shichigahama was part of ancient Mutsu Province, and has been settled since at least the Jōmon period of Japanese pre-history. One of the largest shell mounds to be discovered in Japan is located at the Shichigahama Jōmon History Museum (Daigigakoikaizuka). With the establishment of Tagajō in the Nara period, Shichigahama was part of the central Yamato colonization area in the region. During this time, Shichigahama was recorded as sending a wealth of marine produce to the nearby capital. During the Sengoku period, the area was contested by various samurai clans before the area came under the control of the Date clan of Sendai Domain during the Edo period, under the Tokugawa shogunate.

Modern Shichigahama developed as the seven coastal settlements that now give the town its name and the village of Shichigahama was officially established in 1889 with the post-Meiji restoration establishment of the modern municipalities system.. The village was raised to town status on January 1, 1959. The population grew steadily, with the neighborhoods of Shiomidai and Shiomidai Minami being developed in the late 20th century, to a peak population of 21,131 people in 2000.

2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami
On 11 March 2011 at 2:46 p.m. local time, the town was badly damaged by the tsunami caused by the 2011 Tohoku-Pacific Great earthquake. The tsunami was as tall as 10 m as it hit the town, destroying the majority of homes in Shobutahama and Hanabuchihama, as well as washing away or severely damaging many houses and buildings in the other coastal neighborhoods. The town estimates that over 1,000 houses were destroyed or damaged beyond use. The wave reached over 2 km inland, flooding the fields in front of Koyo Junior High School and Shiomidai and scattering the debris of the homes from Shobutahama. Approximately 95% of the town's rice fields were also flooded with seawater.

Ninety Shichigahama townspeople were confirmed to have died in the tsunami, 58 in Shichigahama and 32 in other locations, 6 townspeople were still missing and 7 non-townspeople were confirmed to have died in Shichigahama. Power, water and natural gas lines were damaged and many roads were impassable for days and weeks, except to rescue workers and self-defense forces. During this time, relief was delivered to the town by aid agencies. The conditions varied considerably between centres due to difficulties with logistics and post-disaster organization.

Over 4,000 people were initially evacuated to thirteen evacuation centres. People were slowly able to return to their homes, find alternative rental accommodation or relocate to the homes of family members, leaving 715 people in three shelters by April 27 and 229 people in two shelters (the Kokusaimura and Community Centre) by June 3. By Mid-June, everyone had been moved out of evacuation centres into alternative existing accommodation or town-provided temporary housing.

As the rescue activities were completed, relief and rebuilding efforts began. Temporary housing was built for 877 people at two sites: Shichigahama Sports Fields (151 homes, housing 569 people) and Shichigahama Junior High School Baseball Field (106 homes, housing 308 people). The temporary, pre-fabricated homes were initially intended for 2–3 years, however a large number remain in use in 2014 due to slow progress on rebuilding. The Japanese Self-Defence Force, who were instrumental in initial rescue and relief activities, continued to provide widespread support to the town. They cooked the food at the evacuation centres, provided temporary bathing facilities, and assisted in clearing debris. A volunteer centre was also established at the town community center, operated by volunteers and NGO's. The center coordinates the volunteer activities for hundreds of daily volunteers performing a range of tasks such as collecting and cleaning photos recovered from the debris, delivering donated items to the temporary homes, and clearing rubble and debris from sites of former homes.

Shichigahama's national and international relationships also provided support. The sister town of Plymouth, Massachusetts organized a number of fundraising events capped by a 3-hour telethon which raised over $85,000. Shichigahama's ocean-to-mountain sister town of Asahi, Yamagata-ken sent dozens of volunteers by bus every day to join the volunteer centre activities.

Shichigahama Junior High School was also severely damaged by the earthquake and was forced to close due to the structural damage. The students and staff were temporarily re-located to Koyo Junior High School, where the two schools shared facilities until pre-fabricated buildings could be sourced and installed at the Shichigahama Junior High School site. The former Shichigahama Junior High School building has been demolished (with the exception of the gym) and construction of a new building began in 2013.

Government
Shichigahama has a mayor-council form of government with a directly elected mayor and a unicameral town council of 14 members. Shichigahama, as part of Miyagi District contributes one seat to the Miyagi Prefectural legislature. In terms of national politics, the town is part of Miyagi 5th district of the lower house of the Diet of Japan.

Economy
The economy of Shichigahama is largely based on commercial fishing, and seasonal tourism.

Traditionally, Shichigahama was an ocean-driven economy with a large number of the population working in fishing, seaweed production, and also rice farming. This pattern has changed significantly in recent years with younger residents increasingly commuting to manufacturing and service jobs outside Shichigahama. A survey in 2000 indicated that working residents worked in the following industry sectors:
 * Primary Industry (farming, fishing, resources) - 525 people
 * Secondary Industry (manufacturing, production) - 3,392 people
 * Tertiary Industry (Sales, Services)           - 6,386 people

Seasonal tourism
The town is well known in the region for its beaches, and Shobutahama is a popular summer day-trip location for people from across Miyagi. During the summer season, a handful of "Umi no ie" (海の家) or "sea houses" are temporarily constructed on the beach, selling drinks and beach toys. Azukihama (小豆浜) in Hanabuchihama (花渕浜), is frequented almost year-round by the surfing community in Miyagi and northern Japan.

Farming and fishing
The commercial fishing industry is largely located in Hanabuchihama with a harbour, boats and related services located there. The majority of farmland in Shichigahama is family-owned. Family members work other main jobs in addition to growing rice, this leads a lot of the farming work to be performed by retirees and grandparents. Rice is produced primarily for family consumption with surplus production sold to local agricultural cooperatives. There is significant concern that this farming tradition will be lost in subsequent generations as younger family members choose not to farm or have moved to neighbouring cities and are not available for the daily farming activities. The tsunami is reported to have flooded up to 93% of Shichigahama's rice-fields with the salt-water rendering them unusable for a considerable period of time. The long-term implications of this for Shichigahama's farming are unclear.

Sendai Thermal Power Station
The Sendai Thermal Power Station is located in Yogasakihama, Shichigahama. The plant was built as a coal-fired power plant with four generating turbines but has since been converted to run on cleaner natural gas. Three turbines were decommissioned and the fourth was redesigned as a natural gas-powered combined-cycle generator. The building was also redesigned with the coal smoke stacks removed to reduce the visual profile on the scenic Matsushima coastline. The redesigned plant began operation on July 29, 2010. The plant is owned and operated by Tohoku Electric Power Company. Employees are often transferred from other company plants and relocate to the town either temporarily or semi-permanently.

Industry
A handful of factories are located in Toguhama, employing townspeople as well as workers from neighbouring Shiogama and Tagajo. The most notable are the Sony Supply Chain Solutions Centre, Yochan Foods Factory.

Education
Shichigahama has two public middle schools and three public elementary schools operated by the town government. The town does not have a public high school.
 * Middle Schools
 * Shichigahama Middle School (七ヶ浜中学校)
 * Kōyō Middle School　(向洋中学校)

 * Elementary Schools
 * Matsugahama Elementary School (松ヶ浜小学校)
 * Ekiraku Elementary School (赤楽小学校)
 * Shiomi Elementary School (汐見小学校)

Shichigahama Middle School is nicknamed "Nana-chu" and Kōyō Middle School　is nicknamed "Koyo-chu". Students are assigned to a school based on the location of their family home. Therefore, Shiomi Elementary feeds students into Koyo-chu and Ekiraku Elementary feeds into Nana-chu, Matsugahama Elementary students are split between the two middle schools.

Transportation
Shichigahama is not served by any railway stations or national highways. The nearest rail stations are Tagajō Station, Geba Station, and Hon-Shiogama Station on the JR East Senseki Line. A local town bus called the Guririnko (ぐりりんこ) also runs throughout Shichigahama and goes to and from both Tagajō and Hon-Shiogama Station. Several other bus lines have stops within the town, particularly around the Shiomidai and Shiomidai Minami neighborhoods, that also offer service to nearby railway stations.

Sports and Leisure

 * Aquarena - is a modern leisure centre located in the middle of Shichigahama. The Aquarena contains a main gym hall with arena seating, an indoor running track around the gym, weight and cardio exercise equipment, a hydro-therapy centre (a pool for walking) and a restaurant. Below the Aquarena sits Shichigahama Soccer Stadium (七ヶ浜サッカースタジアム) with a well-maintained grass pitch and a stand for 2,300 spectators. The stadium hosts a small number of amateur club teams, such as Sony Sendai, and school tournaments. Next to the soccer stadium are the town playing fields (七ヶ浜スポーツ広場) which have a gravel soccer pitch, baseball field and hard-court tennis courts.
 * International Village (国際村) - a public facility that holds both locally and internationally themed events and shows. This facility gets its name from the original name of the Takayama resort. Like many other towns in Japan, Shichigahama employs several international Assistant Language Teachers to work in the town's three elementary schools and two junior high schools assisting in English lessons. More unusually for its size, the town also employs two Coordinators for International Relations (CIR) from the JET Programme to work at the International Village coordinating events and supporting the sister city relationship.
 * Takayama colony - a summer resort for foreign missionaries that was established in 1889 when the town leased the land to the colony. The colony is located on a fenced hill overlooking Azukihama and Shobutahama beaches and has a foreigner’s cemetery.

International Relations

 * 🇺🇸 USA – Plymouth, Massachusetts, USA, since October 3, 1990.

title: Shichigahama


text:
Rifu

Rifu (利府町) is a town located in Miyagi Prefecture, Japan. , the town had an estimated population of 36,014, and a population density of 800 persons per km2 in 13,568 households. The total area of the town is 44.89 km². Rifu is known for its nashi pears. Recently, wine and candy made from nashi pears have been developed in the town.

Geography
Rifu is located in east-central Miyagi Prefecture, bordered by Sendai metropolis to the south and by Matsushima Bay to the east.

Neighboring municipalities
Miyagi Prefecture
 * Sendai
 * Tagajō
 * Shiogama
 * Tomiya
 * Ōsato
 * Taiwa
 * Matsushima

Climate
Rifu has a humid climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa) characterized by mild summers and cold winters. The average annual temperature in Rifu is 11.9 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1237 mm with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 24.4 °C, and lowest in January, at around 0.6 °C.

Demographics
Per Japanese census data, the population of Rifu has increased rapidly over the past 50 years.

History
The area of present-day Rifu was part of ancient Mutsu Province, and has been settled since at least the Jōmon period by the Emishi people. With the establishment of Tagajō in the Nara period, Rifu was part of the central Yamato colonization area in the region. During the Sengoku period, the area was contested by various samurai clans before the area came under the control of the Date clan of Sendai Domain during the Edo period, under the Tokugawa shogunate.

The village of Rifu was established on June 1, 1889 with post-Meiji restoration establishment of the modern municipalities system. It was raised to town status on October 1, 1967.

Government
Rifu has a mayor-council form of government with a directly elected mayor and a unicameral town council of 18 members. Rifu, together with the rest of Miyagi District collectively contributes one seat to the Miyagi Prefectural legislature. In terms of national politics, the town is part of Miyagi 4th district of the lower house of the Diet of Japan.

Economy
The economy of Rifu is largely based on agriculture, primarily horticulture and the cultivation of rice. East Japan Railway Company's Sendai Shinkansen maintenance depot is located in Rifu.

Education
Rifu has six public elementary schools and three public junior high schools operated by the town government. The town has one public high school operated by the Miyagi Prefectural Board of Education. The prefecture also operates one special education school for the handicapped.

Railway
East Japan Railway Company (JR East) - Tōhoku Main Line East Japan Railway Company (JR East) - Senseki Line
 * Shin-Rifu – Rifu
 * Rikuzen-Hamada

Highway

 * JP Expressway E6.svg – Rifu-Shiogama, Rifu-Naka, Matsushima-Kaigan interchanges; Rifu Junction
 * – Rifu Junction, Rifu-Shirakashidai Interchange

Local attractions

 * Miyagi Stadium
 * Site of Rifu Castle

Sister city relations

 * 🇫🇷 France – Lifou Island, New Caledonia, since September 4, 1980.

Noted people from Rifu

 * Hisashi Kato, professional soccer player
 * Tsukasa Fujimoto, professional wrestler and actress

title: Rifu