text:
Talk:Q (James Bond)

Untitled
couldn't Q stand for quiet, like in *Q-ship or *Q-car ? 213.220.214.176 21:08, 8 October 2007 (UTC)

While it is possible that Q is an abbreviation for Quartermaster, it is certainly not proven. The other branches of the Secret Service, (M for operations, H for signals) don't have letters abbreviated from their names. Whatever the case Q is certainly not an initial. DJ Clayworth 16:18, 19 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Yes it is. Several Fleming and Gardner novels, as well as Die Another Day, directly indicate that Q stands for Quartermaster, although Die Another Day was the first Bond film to do so. 23skidoo 20:23, 1 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Can we not find a picture of Desmond Llewellyn ? DJ Clayworth 14:27, 3 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * Sorry, I've yet to really figure out or look into how to upload pictures so I used the John Cleese one someone had previously uploaded. Also while to many of us Q is Desmond Llewellyn, the current Q is John Cleese. Perhaps, both should be displayed since they are two different people. K1Bond007 15:40, 3 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * Added pic of Desmond Llewelyn from Tomorrow Never Dies K1Bond007 19:19, 6 Sep 2004 (UTC)

I noted that there was an article on "R" which was duplicated almost word for word from the main Q article, so I have turned that page into a redirect to this one.23skidoo 20:23, 1 Dec 2004 (UTC)

John Cleese Section
Do we really need to say 'jokingly known as R' in the title? It should be mentioned, but not in the title of the section (or the table of information) MadJaxter 19:54, 27 June 2007 (UTC)

It's more complicated
If you read my comments above you will find that there is an explanation. DJ Clayworth 16:34, 15 Mar 2005 (UTC) Oops, didn't read the reply. I'll let it stand. DJ Clayworth 16:35, 15 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Major Boothroyd
The article presently reads: In the sixth novel, Dr. No, the service armourer Major Boothroyd appears for the first time. Isn't this the only time Major Boothroyd ever appears in a Fleming novel? He is referred to in the novel as "Armourer", and not "Q". Is this character called Q in the film of Dr No? If not, then as far as I can make out the first identification of the head of Q Branch with Major Boothroyd is in the film The Spy Who Loved Me, when Barbara Bach addresses Desmond Llewellyn as such. 62.25.106.209 17:37, 25 October 2006 (UTC)

Based on my reading of the Ian Flemming novels, it seems that Q and Major Boothroyd were two separate characters. Casino Royale and From Russia With Love implied that Q and Bond already knew each other, but in Dr. No, it seems that Bond met Boothroyd for the first time. The only alternative would be that Q was replaced between FRWL and Dr. No.. Emperor001 00:00, 25 August 2007 (UTC)

 * Never Mind, even though my theory about them being separate characters is possible, it is also possible that Bond didn't know Q was a firearms expert. The only way to know for sure whether Q and Boothroyd were intended to be the same or separate characters would be to ask Fleming himself which is kind of impossible unless you, yourself are dead and went to the same place he did.  Emperor001 14:51, 8 September 2007 (UTC)

1) In 'From Russia With Love' Desmond Llewellen recalled that the original script was meant to call him 'Major Boothroyd' but Terence Young said 'no, he's someone different' and was called 'Armourer' though he was credited in the end titles as Major Boothroyd. 2) Desmond Llewellyn has said in several interviews that Terence Young initially wanted him to play his character with a strong Welsh accent that he refused to do. It would contrast with Peter Burton's delivery in Young's 'Dr. No'. 3)One of the books on the making of 'Goldfinger' said that in an original draft of the screenplay (most probably when Terence Young was still attached to the project) that both Boothroyd and Q appeared as different characters. 4)Terence Young had worked with Peter Burton in previous films as he worked with Desmond Llewelyn so may have wantd him back, like Young's idea of Sylvia Trench in a recurring role as Bond's English girlfriendFoofbun (talk) 22:49, 3 March 2011 (UTC)
 * I've begun to wonder whether Q and Major Boothroyd were meant to be two different characters.

Q Branch or?
There seems to be a 'style' conflict throughout this article (and others) in regards to Q Branch. I've seen it appear as "Q-Branch", "Q Branch", and "Q branch". Which one is correct? From what I've seen there are two uses of it on this article. At the very least we should have a uniform 'style' here. K1Bond007 08:31, 14 December 2005 (UTC)
 * Still need an update on this K1Bond007 05:37, 26 January 2006 (UTC)
 * Nevermind, I guess. I'm gonna go with Q Branch per Gardner. K1Bond007 23:05, 10 February 2006 (UTC)

Removing Q-like characters
Can't we just work the essence of this section into the intro or something? I fail to see how most of these mentioned are really relevant to this character. He's iconic, I get that, but this section doesn't add anything to the article. It'd be one thing if there weren't that many within fiction, but there are probably hundreds if not thousands of this type of character. Just doesn't make a whole lot of sense to me. K1Bond007 05:37, 26 January 2006 (UTC)

Q in Casino Royale? Really a prequel?
It has been suggested that Casino Royale was the be a prequel to the existing film series, and that as a result, since Q was not in the novel, he would not be in the film.

There appear to be some problems with this. First of all, if this was to be a prequel, it appears that it is to be a direct prequel to Dr. No, by having Craig emerge as the hardened Bond that Connery played--though it established an earlier meeting between Bond and Felix Leiter. It also uses Judi Dench as M again. This suggests that the film is being re-written to take place after the established film. Also, IMDB reports that John Cleese will be in it, another sign that it appears to use the later continuity of the series. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by Kenobifan (talk • contribs).
 * It's not a prequel. It's a reboot. They're essentially going back to when Bond got into the 00 section, except their keeping Dench as M and most likely in the future Cleese as Q. If you think of it in terms of that then it makes sense. If you try to claim it as a prequel then it won't make much sense at all. Cleese is not in Casino Royale. I assure you. IMDb is wrong. K1Bond007 23:23, 12 March 2006 (UTC)

Cleese is now gone from IMDb. --GunnarRene 19:30, 21 November 2006 (UTC)

Live and Let Die
Why wasn't Q in the film Live and Let Die? Emperor001 (talk) 21:58, 17 May 2008 (UTC)

Desmond Llewelyn had other commitments during the filming of Live and Let Die. cocoapropo (talk) 00:27, 10 August 2008 (UTC)

Title of article
On 5 August 2008 User:Cocoapropo moved this article from Q (James Bond) to Q ("James Bond" character), with the justification that "This page describes the character, not Bond". "X (James Bond)" is at present the standard format for characters which require a disambiguating suffix, e.g. Aki (James Bond), Mister Big (James Bond), Camille (James Bond), M (James Bond), Renard (James Bond), etc. I don't think anyone would mistake Q or any of these others for an article on James Bond; the Wikipedia article "James Bond" isn't even an article on the character, but on the franchise in general. I would regard Q (James Bond character) as acceptable but those ugly and unnecessary quotation marks definitely need to go. Any other opinions? Opera hat (talk) 16:25, 6 August 2008 (UTC)
 * I agree with the quotation marks, they need to go Highfields (talk) (contribs) 18:57, 6 August 2008 (UTC)

Actually, I was trying to put "James Bond" in italics, but the move screen didn't accept the formatting, hence the quotation marks. I figured that the quotation marks were the next easiest way to distinguish, as it refers to the franchise, not the man (Bond). But I wouldn't object to the quotation marks being removed, because I do agree with you, but that's the best way I could think of to distinguish, especially for those who aren't very familiar with the James Bond franchise. cocoapropo (talk) 19:38, 6 August 2008 (UTC)

 * Because Cocoapropo has editted both "Q (James Bond)" and "Q (James Bond character)" after moving the article, you will now need an admin to delete the edit histories of those pages so this can be moved there. Disambiguation convention is that only the franchise name is in the brackets ie "(James Bond)", and at the least these quote marks need to be ditched, especially as this breaks consistency with all other James Bond articles, which use "(James Bond)" if disambiguation brackets are necessary. Post a message at WP:RM, or ask any admins you might know of. -- Sabre (talk) 14:01, 11 August 2008 (UTC)

Eon/non Eon vs Official/Unofficial
The more accurate (and correct) terminology for the productions outwith the Eon stable is 'non-Eon', not 'unofficial', as this meaning is unclear. The non-Eon films were 'official' in the sense they were copyright-owned by their producers.--62.239.159.5 (talk) 15:27, 11 September 2008 (UTC)

"Official" refers to the Eon-produced James Bond film series, and, often at the first instance in an article, wherever it refers to the "official series", that mention is coded as a link to this page. The only ambiguation in referring to it as the "official series", then, can be alleviated by clicking on the link to the James Bond (film series) article. Any question as to what constitutes the "official series", therefore, becomes moot. cocoapropo (talk) 23:28, 11 September 2008 (UTC)

More confusion or fun regarding the change from books to movies
In the early scenes of Dr. No, M calls for the 'armourer' to replace Bond's sidearm.

In the novels, Bond had heretofore carried a '.25 Beretta', described as having a 'safety catch' and a 'sawn barrel'. Fleming never fully identifies the pistol. The main article on this page has identified the pistol as a model 418 Beretta. This is as close as possible; the model 418 does have a safety catch, but sawing off the barrel is not practical. There is a barrel, and it can be 'sawn'in the sense most items made of ferrous alloy can be worked, but it is already so short that sawing off the barrel will not make the pistol any smaller.

In the novel, Armourer - identified only as 'Major Boothroyd' replaces Bond's trusted Beretta with a Walther PPk in caliber .32 ACP. A .32 ACP pistol was not a very powerful defensive pistol even in the 1960s. It is a step up from .25 ACP of the model 418 Beretta, but not much of a step.

However, in the movie scene depicting this, Bond does not offer up a Beretta 418, but a Beretta 1934 or 1935 model pistol. The two pistols are difficult to differentiate on screen; the only difference being the caliber of the pistol and the finish.

The Beretta 1934 pistol was a commercially made pistol in caliber .380 ACP - or in Italian, 9mm Corto. As a commercial pistol, it was nicely finished and polished and blued or nickle plated. The 1934 was pressed into wartime service and wartime made guns were not as well finished as the commercial models.

The Beretta 1935 pistol was a contract pistol for the Italian Air Force in the early days of what would be World War II; it was not as finely finished as the commercial 1934 pistol and was made only in caliber .32 ACP. The caliber was specified by the Italian Air Force.

In the novel and the movie, armourer suggested a Smith & Wesson Centennial revolver in caliber .38 Special in the event Bond needed something 'heavier'. In the novel, armourer gave an option for a Colt Detective Special, also in caliber .38 Special; I don't recall that in the movie.

Also mentioned in the books, but ignored in the movies, Bond drove a Bentley automobile in the early books of the series. Expressly for use from the car, he had a 'long barreled Colt .45' hidden in the Bentley. I always assumed that was a Single Action Army Revolver in caliber .45 Colt. However, it could have just as easily been a Colt New Service in caliber .45 Colt, or a Colt model 1917 in .45 ACP. It could have been a Colt Government Model in .45 ACP, but the descriptor 'long barreled' somewhat rules that pistol out.

Writing fiction must be liberating at times. — Preceding unsigned comment added by OldManMontgomery (talk • contribs) 04:17, 10 January 2012 (UTC)
 * Erm, are you trying to make a particular point related to this article? Mezigue (talk) 10:54, 10 January 2012 (UTC)

Main image
I've reverted the change to the image back to the one with Alec McCowen. This ensures we have four pictures of people playing Q, not 3 pictures of Q and one of an actor out of character. If possible the aim should be to have one with him from a screenshot – preferably added to a montage of all six Qs. - SchroCat ( ^  •  @ ) 20:23, 20 February 2012 (UTC)
 * I have no problem with your view here, I agree that having an image of Whishaw out of character is perhaps unfavorable, but I figured it was better than (only one) unofficial portrayal of Q. Let's wait until an image of him as Q emerges — FoxCE (talk | contribs) 20:51, 20 February 2012 (UTC)
 * I agree with waiting for the "right" image of Wishaw as Q. There should, however, be both actors from the non-Eon films alongside the Eon actors: why discriminate against the two non-Eon ones? - SchroCat ( ^  •  @ ) 20:53, 20 February 2012 (UTC)

Should Wishaw be added to the main image?
I think he should, while McCowen should get his own image in the unofficial films section. — Preceding unsigned comment added by MaxOfTheDead (talk • contribs) 15:57, 25 October 2012 (UTC)
 * Any reason in particular? Both have played the role of Q in a film. Please also note there is no such thing as "official", just Eon and non-Eon. - SchroCat ( ^  •  @ ) 16:13, 25 October 2012 (UTC)
 * I actually think a more preferable way of doing it would be to follow the layout of the M (James Bond) article and have no image in the infobox, but instead have separate images next to the relevant sections. - SchroCat ( ^  •  @ ) 12:05, 29 October 2012 (UTC)
 * Agreed. I'll leave SchroCat to do it. - Fanthrillers (talk) 21:18, 29 October 2012 (UTC)

Desmond Llewelyn - most recurring appearances as a character in a movie franchise?
I heard on the radio the other day that Desmond Llewelyn holds a record for the most recurring appearances as the same character in any film franchise, not just Bond. Can't find a reference though, and there may well be other contenders - possibly in oriental cinema? David (talk) 20:26, 26 November 2012 (UTC)

2 novels sections
There are 2 sections for q in the novels. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.14.65.231 (talk) 20:12, 3 August 2013 (UTC)

Major Giffard LeQuesne Martel, aka 'Q'
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giffard_LeQuesne_Martel It would be a strange coincidence if someone with Fleming's particular wartime experience had not come across the inventor of battlefield gadgets like the bridging and mine-clearing tanks, given that it was part of his job to evaluate (and propose) similarly unconventional solutions to military problems. Robocon1 (talk) 14:57, 22 July 2014 (UTC)

Main image
There are two composite images to use, which have been swapped over recently. Both are scheduled for deletion because of non-existent licence info. One contains four Qs and is a rectangle. One contains five Qs and is a horrible mess. Any bright ideas on resolving the question? Personally I'd plump for one of Llewellyn and leave it at that, but any other sensible suggestions? – SchroCat (talk) 14:54, 4 January 2015 (UTC)

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James Bond, Jr.’s IQ
In terms of corroborating that Q’s surname is Boothroyd, is it worth including a mention here that in James Bond, Jr. (1991) Q’s grandson is named Horace Boothroyd (AKA “IQ”)? Felicity4711 (talk) 19:04, 31 January 2019 (UTC)

Which painting is this? For that matter, which museum? Looks like a Turner.

kencf0618 (talk) 14:58, 9 October 2020 (UTC)

Nightfire
I would just like to point out that Nightfire is listed as using Llewelyn's likeness, but this is not true. In the few cutscenes Q is in, an original likeness is used. I bring this up because I don't know where in the article would be best to mention Nightfire after taking it off the Llewelyn list. MrBelpitsLegs (talk) 02:07, 12 June 2021 (UTC)

Novelisations?
It seems odd to say that Q is a character from the "films and novelisations", unless he was absent from the original Fleming novels. It's a long time since I read any. 92.19.60.133 (talk) 12:16, 18 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Q (James Bond)


text: User talk:68.58.135.157

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:68.58.135.157


text:
System of systems

System of systems is a collection of task-oriented or dedicated systems that pool their resources and capabilities together to create a new, more complex system which offers more functionality and performance than simply the sum of the constituent systems. Currently, systems of systems is a critical research discipline for which frames of reference, thought processes, quantitative analysis, tools, and design methods are incomplete. The methodology for defining, abstracting, modeling, and analyzing system of systems problems is typically referred to as system of systems engineering.

Overview
Commonly proposed descriptions—not necessarily definitions—of systems of systems, are outlined below in order of their appearance in the literature:

 * 1) Linking systems into joint system of systems allows for the interoperability and synergism of Command, Control, Computers, Communications and Information (C4I) and Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance (ISR) Systems: description in the field of information superiority in modern military.
 * 2) System of systems are large-scale concurrent and distributed systems the components of which are complex systems themselves: description in the field of communicating structures and information systems in private enterprise.
 * 3) System of systems education involves the integration of systems into system of systems that ultimately contribute to evolution of the social infrastructure: description in the field of education of engineers on the importance of systems and their integration.
 * 4) System of systems integration is a method to pursue development, integration, interoperability and optimization of systems to enhance performance in future battlefield scenarios: description in the field of information intensive systems integration in the military.
 * 5) Modern systems that comprise system of systems problems are not monolithic, rather they have five common characteristics: operational independence of the individual systems, managerial independence of the systems, geographical distribution, emergent behavior and evolutionary development: description in the field of evolutionary acquisition of complex adaptive systems in the military.
 * 6) Enterprise systems of systems engineering is focused on coupling traditional systems engineering activities with enterprise activities of strategic planning and investment analysis: description in the field of information intensive systems in private enterprise.
 * 7) System of systems problems are a collection of trans-domain networks of heterogeneous systems that are likely to exhibit operational and managerial independence, geographical distribution, and emergent and evolutionary behaviors that would not be apparent if the systems and their interactions are modeled separately: description in the field of National Transportation System, Integrated Military and Space Exploration.

Taken together, all these descriptions suggest that a complete system of systems engineering framework is needed to improve decision support for system of systems problems. Specifically, an effective system of systems engineering framework is needed to help decision makers to determine whether related infrastructure, policy and/or technology considerations as an interrelated whole are good, bad or neutral over time. The need to solve system of systems problems is urgent not only because of the growing complexity of today's challenges, but also because such problems require large monetary and resource investments with multi-generational consequences.

The system-of-systems approach
While the individual systems constituting a system of systems can be very different and operate independently, their interactions typically expose and deliver important emergent properties. These emergent patterns have an evolving nature that stakeholders must recognize, analyze and understand. The system of systems approach does not advocate particular tools, methods or practices; instead, it promotes a new way of thinking for solving grand challenges where the interactions of technology, policy, and economics are the primary drivers. System of systems study is related to the general study of designing, complexity and systems engineering, but also brings to the fore the additional challenge of design.

Systems of systems typically exhibit the behaviors of complex systems, but not all complex problems fall in the realm of systems of systems. Inherent to system of systems problems are several combinations of traits, not all of which are exhibited by every such problem:

 * Operational Independence of Elements
 * Managerial Independence of Elements
 * Evolutionary Development
 * Emergent Behavior
 * Geographical Distribution of Elements
 * Interdisciplinary Study
 * Heterogeneity of Systems
 * Networks of Systems

The first five traits are known as Maier's criteria for identifying system of systems challenges. The remaining three traits have been proposed from the study of mathematical implications of modeling and analyzing system of systems challenges by Dr. Daniel DeLaurentis and his co-researchers at Purdue University.

Research
Current research into effective approaches to system of systems problems includes:

 * Establishment of an effective frame of reference
 * Crafting of a unifying lexicon
 * Developing effective methodologies to visualize and communicate complex systems
 * Distributed resource management
 * Study of designing architecture
 * Interoperability
 * Data distribution policies: policy definition, design guidance and verification
 * Formal modelling language with integrated tools platform
 * Study of various modeling, simulation and analysis techniques
 * network theory
 * agent based modeling
 * general systems theory
 * probabilistic robust design (including uncertainty modeling/management)
 * object-oriented simulation and programming
 * multi-objective optimization
 * Study of various numerical and visual tools for capturing the interaction of system requirements, concepts and technologies

Applications
Systems of systems, while still being investigated predominantly in the defense sector, is also seeing application in such fields as national air and auto transportation and space exploration. Other fields where it can be applied include health care, design of the Internet, software integration, and energy management and power systems. Social-ecological interpretations of resilience, where different levels of our world (e.g., the Earth system, the political system) are interpreted as interconnected or nested systems, take a systems-of-systems approach. An application in business can be found for supply chain resilience.

Educational institutions and industry
Collaboration among a wide array of organizations is helping to drive the development of defining system of systems problem class and methodology for modeling and analysis of system of systems problems. There are ongoing projects throughout many commercial entities, research institutions, academic programs, and government agencies.

Major stakeholders in the development of this concept are: For example, DoD recently established the National Centers for System of Systems Engineering to develop a formal methodology for system-of-systems engineering for applications in defense-related projects.
 * Universities working on system of systems problems, including Purdue University, the Georgia Institute of Technology, Old Dominion University, George Mason University, the University of New Mexico, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Naval Postgraduate School and Carnegie Mellon University.
 * Corporations active in this area of research such as The MITRE Corporation, Airbus, BAE Systems, Northrop Grumman, Boeing, Raytheon, Thales Group, CAE Inc., Altair Engineering, Saber Astronautics and Lockheed Martin.
 * Government agencies that perform and support research in systems of systems research and applications, such as DARPA, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration, NASA and Department of Defense (DoD)

In another example, according to the Exploration Systems Architecture Study, NASA established the Exploration Systems Mission Directorate (ESMD) organization to lead the development of a new exploration "system-of-systems" to accomplish the goals outlined by President G.W. Bush in the 2004 Vision for Space Exploration.

A number of research projects and support actions, sponsored by the European Commission, were performed in the Seventh Framework Programme. These target Strategic Objective IST-2011.3.3 in the FP7 ICT Work Programme (New paradigms for embedded systems, monitoring and control towards complex systems engineering). This objective had a specific focus on the "design, development and engineering of System-of-Systems". These projects included: Ongoing European projects which are using a System of Systems approach include:
 * T-AREA-SoS (Trans-Atlantic Research and Education Agenda on Systems of Systems), which aims "to increase European competitiveness in, and improve the societal impact of, the development and management of large complex systems in a range of sectors through the creation of a commonly agreed EU-US Systems of Systems (SoS) research agenda".
 * COMPASS (Comprehensive Modelling for Advanced Systems of Systems), aiming to provide a semantic foundation and open tools framework to allow complex SoSs to be successfully and cost-effectively engineered, using methods and tools that promote the construction and early analysis of models.
 * DANSE (Designing for Adaptability and evolutioN in System of systems Engineering), which aims to develop "a new methodology to support evolving, adaptive and iterative System of Systems life-cycle models based on a formal semantics for SoS inter-operations and supported by novel tools for analysis, simulation, and optimisation".
 * ROAD2SOS (Roadmaps for System-of-System Engineering), aiming to develop "strategic research and engineering roadmaps in Systems of Systems Engineering and related case studies".
 * DYMASOS (DYnamic MAnagement of physically-coupled Systems Of Systems), aiming to develop theoretical approaches and engineering tools for dynamic management of SoS based on industrial use cases.
 * AMADEOS (Architecture for Multi-criticality Agile Dependable Evolutionary Open System-of-Systems) aiming to bring time awareness and evolution into the design of System-of- Systems (SoS) with possible emergent behavior, to establish a sound conceptual model, a generic architectural framework and a design methodology.
 * Arctic PASSION (Pan-Arctic observing System of Systems: Implementing Observations for societal Needs; July 2021 - June 2025) is a Horizon_2020 research project with the key motivation of co-creating and implementing a coherent, integrated Arctic observing system: the Pan-Arctic Observing System of Systems - pan-AOSS. The project aims to overcome shortcomings in the present observing system by refining its operability, improving and extending pan-Arctic scientific and community-based monitoring and the integration with indigenous and local knowledge.
 * COLOSSUS (Collaborative System of Systems Exploration of Aviation Products, Services and Business Models; Feb 2023 - Jan 2026) is a Horizon_Europe research project for the development of a system-of-systems design methodology which for the first time will enable the combined optimization of aircraft, operations and business models. The project aims at establishing a transformative digital collaborative (TDC) framework to enable European aviation to conduct research, technology development, and innovation. The TDC framework will support the simulation, analysis, optimization and evaluation of complex products and services in real-world scenarios.

title: System of systems


text:
Morfran

Morfran (Middle Welsh: Moruran "cormorant"; literally "sea crow", from môr, "sea", and brân, "crow", from Common Brittonic *mori-brannos, as in French cormoran < L corvus marinus) is a figure in Welsh mythology. Usually portrayed as a warrior under King Arthur, he is noted for the darkness of his skin and his hideousness. He appears in the narratives about the bard Taliesin and in the Welsh Triads, where he is often contrasted with the angelically handsome Sanddef.

Appearances
The character appears in the Tale of Taliesin, where he is depicted as the son of Ceridwen and Tegid Foel, and is given an extremely beautiful sister named Creirwy. In later versions of this tale his characteristic ugliness is transferred to a brother, Afagddu (Middle Welsh: Avagddu; from y fagddu, "utter darkness"), though Ifor Williams suggested this name arose as a nickname for the famously gruesome Morfran. In the story, Ceridwen tries to help her son make his way in the world by creating a potion whose first three drops would bestow the drinker with knowledge of the future. She gives Gwion Bach (the bard Taliesin) the job of stirring the brew; he splashes three drops on his fingers and licks them, whereupon he gains the knowledge intended for Morfran/Afagddu, who remains ugly and despised. The story has a parallel in the Irish tale The Boyhood Deeds of Fionn, in which the young hero Fionn mac Cumhaill receives prophetic wisdom intended for his master Finn Eces by consuming the Salmon of Knowledge.

Morfran eil Tegid (Morfran son of Tegid) appears in several of the Welsh Triads. In Triad 24 he is recognized as one of the "Three Slaughter-Blocks of the Island of Britain", while Triad 41 celebrates his horse Guelwgan Gohoewgein (Silver-White, Proud and Fair) as one of the "Three Lover's Horses of the Island of Britain". Other manuscripts attribute this horse to Drystan (Tristan) and Ceredig ap Gwallawg. In other triads he is associated with Sanddef, whose beauty is as notable as Morfran's ugliness. In a triad preserved in the prose tale Culhwch and Olwen, Morfran and Sanddef are named as two of the three men who survived the Battle of Camlann, in Morfran's case because his ugliness led everyone to believe he was "a devil helping, for there was hair on his face like the hair of a stag." This triad was adapted in the 15th-century triad collection known as "The Twenty-four Knights of Arthur's Court"; the pair are two of the "Three Irresistible Knights", as their peculiarities made it "repugnant to anyone to refuse them anything."

Morfran is further mentioned in the 12th-century prose tale The Dream of Rhonabwy. Rachel Bromwich notes that a 12th-century poem by Cynddelw Brydydd Mawr contains a reference to an otherwise forgotten early poet named Morfran, and suggests a connection with the Morfran of The Tale of Taliesin who was the intended recipient of the cauldron of poetic inspiration. Scholar Caitlin Green further suggests a connection with the character called "Osfran's Son", who is buried at Camlann according to the Englynion y Beddau (Stanzas of the Graves).

title: Morfran


text:
Gonagas

A gonagas (or konagas) (gånågas), bird man, was a shaman ranking level in Northern Scandinavia amongst noayddes. Gonagas possessed a special level of spiritual knowledge and claimed to have the ability to transform into a bird figure to "fly" over mountains. Because of this spiritual ability, Lundius states they were treated more respectfully or had a higher position than other people. According to the myth they could "spiritually communicate," i.e., travel to trading ports and see who would come to trade. In the witchcrafting period, the figure could not be burned on the stake because the fire would be smothered in the same way water cannot be ignited.

The word ultimately derives from a Germanic word for "king" (Compare to Finnish Kuningas and Lithuanian Kunigas, both from Proto-Germanic *Kuningaz; in archaic contex the Finnish word simply had the meaning of "leader" or "high-ranked person" instead of monarch).

title: Gonagas


text:
Metrical psalter

A metrical psalter is a kind of Bible translation: a book containing a verse translation of all or part of the Book of Psalms in vernacular poetry, meant to be sung as hymns in a church. Some metrical psalters include melodies or harmonisations. The composition of metrical psalters was a large enterprise of the Protestant Reformation, especially in its Calvinist manifestation.

Biblical basis
During the Protestant Reformation, a number of Bible texts were interpreted as requiring reforms in the music used in worship. The Psalms were particularly commended for singing. In particular, John Calvin said,

When we have looked thoroughly everywhere and searched high and low, we shall find no better songs nor more appropriate to the purpose than the Psalms of David which the Holy Spirit made and spoke through him

Various Reformers interpreted certain scriptural texts as imposing strictures on sacred music. The psalms, especially, were felt to be commended to be sung by these texts. One example is James 5:13 (KJV)

"Is any merry? let him sing psalms."

It is interesting to note that the word translated "sing psalms" in the KJV at James 5:13 is ψαλλετω. Some other versions give more general translations such as "sing praise" in the ESV.

Another key reference is Colossians 3:16

"Let the word of Christ dwell in you richly as you teach and admonish one another with all wisdom, and as you sing psalms, hymns and spiritual songs with gratitude in your hearts to God."

The need was felt to have metrical vernacular versions of the Psalms and other Scripture texts, suitable to sing to metrical tunes and even popular song forms.

Following an interpretation of the regulative principle of worship, many Reformed churches adopted the doctrine of exclusive psalmody: every hymn sung in worship must be an actual translation of a Psalm or some other Biblical passage. Some Reformed churches, especially the Calvinists, rejected the use of instrumental music and organs in church, preferring to sing all of the music a cappella. Even today, the Reformed Presbyterian Church of North America, the Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland, and other Reformed churches of the Scottish tradition maintain this practice.

The psalters themselves
During the pre-reformation days, it was not customary for lay members of a church's congregation to communally sing hymns. Singing was done by the priests and other clergy; communal singing of Gregorian chant was the function of professional choirs, or among communities of monks and nuns. The reformers, perhaps inspired by Erasmus's desire for all to know the scriptures, pursued singable versions of the Psalms and other Christian texts for the communal use of the Reformed churches.

The Genevan Psalter

One of the greatest metrical psalters produced during the Reformation, the Genevan Psalter, was authored for the Protestant churches of France and Geneva (called the Huguenots). It has been in uninterrupted use to the present day by the Huguenot and other French-speaking Protestant churches.

The texts of the French Psalter were brought together from two independent sources: the poet Clément Marot and the theologian Théodore de Bèze. Marot and Beza's psalms appeared in a number of different collections, published between 1533 and 1543; in the latter year Marot published Cinquante Pseaumes, a collection of 50 psalms rendered into French verse. The full psalter containing all 150 canonical Psalms, plus the Nunc Dimittis, appeared in 1562.

The French psalms were set to melodies that were harmonized and altered for congregational singing. Music for the Genevan Psalter was furnished by Loys Bourgeois and others like Guillaume Franc and a certain Maistre Pierre. The composer Claude Goudimel harmonized these melodies with great variation in the complexity of the music. In some cases each part matches note for note, while others are contrapuntal or even motets. Even more elaborate musical arrangements were composed in the seventeenth century by Paschal de l'Estocart and Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck.

An example of the Huguenot Psalter is Psalm 134 (tune given above): Vous, saints ministres du Seigneur, Qui, dévoués à son honneur, Veillez la nuit dans sa maison, Présentez-lui votre oraison.

The Dutch metrical psalter
A metrical psalter was also produced for the Calvinist Reformed Church of the Netherlands by Petrus Datheen in 1566. This Psalter borrowed the hymn tunes from the Genevan Psalter and consisted of a literal translation of Marot and Beza's French translation. The Dutch psalter was revised on orders of the Dutch legislature in 1773, in a revision which also added non-paraphrase hymns to the collection. This psalter also continues in use among the Reformed community of the Netherlands, and was recently revised in 1985. In 1968 a new metrical psalmbook appeared, which is incorporated in the Dutch hymnbook; Liedboek voor de kerken of 1973.

Metrical psalters in German
The Genevan Psalms were translated into German by Ambrosius Lobwasser (1515–1585) in 1573 "Psalter des königlichen Propheten Davids" and were sung a capella to Goudimel's harmonies for over two centuries. The Lobwasser psalms are still in use in the Amish congregations in North America, who took them with the Swiss Hymnbooks to the New World. The music edition of 1576 was reprinted in 2004, which was a result of the International Psalm Symposion in Emden. In 1798 the German pastor in Den Haag Matthias Jorissen gave out his: "Neue Bereimung der Psalmen" which replaced the old-fashioned psalm book for nearly 200 years. The present Hymnbook (1996) of the Evangelical-reformed Churches and the Old Reformed Churches of Germany contains the complete psalter with many psalms of Matthias Jorissen and other authors. It was an important decision of the synods to retain the psalms in the hymnbook with the Genevan tunes. The need and interest in the complete Jorissen- Psalter led to different new editions in 1931, 1951 and 2006. The last one was given out for singing of the people and not for scientific use only. Today, psalms make up a quarter (102) of the Protestant hymn book from 1998 in German Switzerland.

Another German psalter is the Becker Psalter.

Robert Crowley
The first complete English metrical psalter and the first to include musical notation was The Psalter of Dauid newely translated into Englysh metre in such sort that it maye the more decently, and wyth more delyte of the mynde, be reade and songe of al men. Printed in 1549, it was the work of Robert Crowley and was printed by him, Richard Grafton and/or Stephen Mierdman. Crowley's psalter is a rare example of two-color printing (red and black on the first four leaves) in this era, which makes it visually resemble medieval manuscript psalters. (Christopher Tye and Francis Seager later included musical notation in their psalters, and the Sternhold and Hopkins psalter eventually incorporated a basic tune with the Anglo-Genevan edition of 1556. John Day's The Whole Book of Psalmes (1562) contained sixty-five psalm tunes.) Crowley also included a calendar for calculating feast days as in the Book of Common Prayer, to which Crowley's psalter appears to be intended as a supplement.

The music provided in Crowley's psalter is similar to the Gregorian tones of the Latin Sarum Rite psalter, and it can be found in Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians. A single note is given for each syllable in each verse, in keeping with Archbishop Thomas Cranmer's mandate for the reformed Edwardian liturgy. The goal was to emphasize simplicity and to encourage attentiveness to what was being sung by omitting complex vocal ornamentation. In addition to the Psalms, Crowley's psalter includes English versions of the canticles Benedictus, Magnificat, Nunc Dimittis, and Benedicite, as well as the Te Deum and the Quicumque Vult. These are the Cantica Prophetarium retained in the Book of Common Prayer from the Sarum psalter — key parts of the Divine Office.

Crowley's lyrics are mainly based on Leo Jud's Biblia Sacrosancta, which was in turn a fresh translation from the Hebrew that maintained fidelity to its lyrical arrangement. Crowley rendered all the psalms in simple iambic fourteeners which conform to the single, short, four-part tune that is printed at the beginning of the psalter.

From Crowley's rendition of Psalm 24:
 * The earth and al that it holdeth, do to the lorde belonge:
 * The world and al that dwel therein as wel the olde as yonge.
 * For it is he that aboue al the seas hath it founded:
 * And that aboue the freshe waters hathe the same prepared.

For the sake of comparison, here is how the same text is rendered in contemporary English Bibles:

 * The earth is the Lord's, and all that therein is: the compass of the world, and they that dwell therein.
 * For he hath founded it upon the seas and prepared it upon the floods. ( Coverdale, 1535)
 * The earth is Gods and all that therin is: the worlde, and they that dwell therein.
 * For he hath laide the foundation of it vpon the seas: and he hath set it sure vpon the fluddes. ( Bishop's Bible, 1568)
 * For he hath laide the foundation of it vpon the seas: and he hath set it sure vpon the fluddes. ( Bishop's Bible, 1568)

 * The earth is the Lordes, and all that therein is: the worlde and they that dwell therein.
 * For he hath founded it vpon the seas: and established it vpon the floods. ( Geneva Bible, 1587)

 * The earth is the L ORD 's, and the fulness thereof; the world and they that dwell therein.
 * For he hath founded it upon the seas, and established it upon the floods. ( Authorised, 1611)

Sternhold and Hopkins ('Old Version')
Thomas Sternhold published his first, short collection of nineteen Certayn Psalmes between mid-1547 and early 1549. In December 1549, his posthumous :Al such psalmes of Dauid as Thomas Sternehold ... didde in his life time draw into English Metre was printed, containing thirty-seven psalms by Sternhold and, in a separate section at the end, seven psalms by John Hopkins. This collection was taken to the Continent with Protestant exiles during the reign of Mary Tudor, and editors in Geneva both revised the original texts and gradually added more over several editions. In 1562, the publisher John Day brought together most of the psalm versions from the Genevan editions and many new psalms by John Hopkins, Thomas Norton, and John Markant to make up The Whole Booke of Psalmes, Collected into English Meter. In addition to metrical versions of all 150 psalms, the volume included versified versions of the Apostles' Creed, the Magnificat, and other biblical passages or Christian texts, as well as several non-scriptural versified prayers and a long section of prose prayers largely drawn from the English Forme of Prayers used in Geneva.

Sternhold and Hopkins wrote almost all of their Psalms in the "common" or ballad metre. Their versions were quite widely circulated at the time; copies of the Sternhold and Hopkins psalter were bound with many editions of the Geneva Bible, and their versions of the Psalms were used in many churches. The Sternhold and Hopkins psalter was also published with music, much of it borrowed from the French Geneva Psalter. One setting from their collection that has survived is the metrical form of the Psalm 100 attributed to William Kethe, with the tune known as the Old 100th, often used as a doxology:
 * All people that on earth do dwell,
 * sing to the Lord with cheerful voice:
 * Him serve with fear, his praise forth tell,
 * come ye before him and rejoice.

In 1621, Thomas Ravenscroft published an expanded edition of the Sternhold and Hopkins Psalter; Ravenscroft's edition added many more psalm tunes, some of which had been composed, since the original publication, by leading late Tudor and early Stuart English composers such as Thomas Morley, Thomas Tallis, John Dowland, and Thomas Tomkins. Another musical contributor to this volume was John Milton, the father of the poet of that name.

By any objective measure of circulation Sternhold and Hopkins's psalter was a success. As a separate volume, it was re-printed more than 200 times between 1550 and 1640; in addition, the psalms in this form were included in most editions of the Geneva Bible, and also in most versions of the Book of Common Prayer. They continued to be in regular use in some congregations until the late eighteenth century.

Literary opinion after the sixteenth century, on the other hand, was decidedly negative. In his 1781 History of English Poetry, British poet laureate Thomas Warton called the Sternhold and Hopkins psalter "obsolete and contemptible," "an absolute travesty," and "entirely destitute of elegance, spirit, and propriety." In 1819, Thomas Campbell condemned their "worst taste" and "flat and homely phrasing." In 1757, John Wesley described the verse of Sternhold and Hopkins as "scandalous doggerel".

Sternhold and Hopkins render the beginning of the 24th Psalm in this way:
 * The earth is all the Lord's, with all
 * her store and furniture;
 * Yea, his is all the work, and all
 * that therein doth endure:
 * For he hath fastly founded it
 * above the seas to stand,
 * And placed below the liquid floods,
 * to flow beneath the land.
 * to flow beneath the land.

Tate and Brady ('New Version')
First published in 1696, the New Version of the Psalms of David was the work of Nahum Tate (who was later named poet laureate) and Nicholas Brady. A second edition was published in 1698, and supplements were issued in 1700, 1702, 1704 (twice) and 1708. Their Augustan version shows somewhat more polish than the 17th century versions.

The hymn Through all the changing scenes of life is the setting of Psalm 34 from the New Version, and As pants the hart for cooling streams is a setting of Psalm 42.

Isaac Watts ('Imitated')
Isaac Watts produced a metrical psalter, in which he breaks out of the ballad metre in his 1719 The Psalms of David, Imitated in the Language of the New Testament, and Apply'd to the Christian State and Worship, which, as the title indicates, was intended as an interpretation rather than a strict translation of the psalms. As an example of what is meant by "Language of the New Testament", Psalm 35 ("A psalm of David") verses 13-14 ("But as for me, when they were sick, my clothing was sackcloth: I afflicted my soul with fasting.... I behaved myself as though it had been my friend or my brother") becomes: "Behold the love, the gen’rous love, That holy David shows... The spirit of the gospel reigns, And melts his pious heart."

His translation of Psalm 24 into long metre begins:
 * This spacious earth is all the Lord's,
 * And men, and worms, and beasts, and birds:
 * He raised the building on the seas,
 * And gave it for their dwelling-place.

Other versified psalms in English
During the period of the English Reformation, many other poets besides Sternhold and Hopkins wrote metrical versions of some of the psalms. The first was Sir Thomas Wyatt, who in around 1540 made verse versions of the six penitential Psalms. His version of Psalm 130, the famous De profundis clamavi, begins:
 * From depth of sin and from a deep despair,
 * From depth of death, from depth of heart's sorrow
 * From this deep cave, of darkness deep repair,

 * To thee have I called, O Lord, to be my borrow.
 * Thou in my voice, O Lord, perceive and hear
 * My heart, my hope, my plaint, my overthrow.

Sir Philip Sidney made verse versions of the first 43 psalms. After he died in 1586, his sister, Mary Sidney Herbert, the Countess of Pembroke, completed the translation of the final two-thirds of the psalter. Together they used a dazzling array of stanza forms and rhyme schemes—as many as 145 different forms for the 150 psalms. The Sidney Psalter was not published in its complete form until the twentieth century, but it was widely read in manuscript, and influenced such later poets as John Donne and George Herbert.

However, poetry remains a matter of private devotion unless given a musical setting for trained choirs or for congregational singing. Rather than iambic pentameter, in England and Scotland in the 16th and 17th centuries, the overwhelming preference in rural congregations was for iambic tetrameters (8s) and iambic trimeters (6s), ridiculed in Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream, in which Nick Bottom and the other "rude mechanicals" obsess over the need for a prologue "written in eight and sixe". The three meters then in use: Common Meter (8,6,8,6), Long Meter (8,8,8,8), and Short Meter (6,6,8,6) remain in widespread use in hymnals today.

Other English metrical psalters
Later writers attempted to repair the literary inadequacies of the Sternhold and Hopkins version. The Bay Psalm Book (1640), the first book published in the British colonies in America, was a new metrical psalter:
 * The earth Jehovah’s is,
 * and the fullness of it:
 * the habitable world, and they
 * that there upon do sit

 * Because upon the seas,
 * he hath it firmly laid:
 * and it upon the water-floods
 * most solidly hath stayed

In the 1640s, the English Parliamentarians Francis Rous and William Barton both authored their own metrical paraphrases. Their translations were scrutinised by the Westminster Assembly and heavily edited. Rous's original version of Psalm 24 read:

 * The earth is Gods, and wholly his
 * the fulnesse of it is:
 * The world, and those that dwell therein
 * he made, and they are his.

 * For firmly he hath founded it
 * above the sea to stand;
 * And laid below the liquid flouds,
 * to flow beneath the land.

After much alteration, a much-altered translation based on Rous's work was approved by the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland and published in 1650 as the Scottish Metrical Psalter, to be used throughout the Church of Scotland. This showed some improvements, but ballad metre remained ubiquitous:
 * The earth belongs unto the Lord,
 * and all that it contains;
 * The world that is inhabited,
 * and all that there remains.

 * For the foundations thereof
 * he on the seas did lay,
 * And he hath it established
 * upon the floods to stay.

One of the most widely known hymns in Christian worship, "The Lord's my Shepherd", is a translation of Psalm 23 appearing in the 1650 Scottish Psalter. But by the time better metrical psalms were made in English, the belief that every hymn sung in church had to be a Biblical translation had been repudiated by the Church of England. A flowering of English hymnody had occurred under writers such as Isaac Watts and Charles Wesley, but their hymns were freed from the stricture that each verse had to be a translation of a scriptural text. Attitudes towards the Biblical text itself had also changed, with closer emphasis being paid on its exact phrasing. This new regard for the letter of the Biblical text diminished the appeal of the psalters' previous versions; those who sang them no longer felt they were singing Scripture. The success of these newer hymns has largely displaced the belief that each hymn must be a direct translation of Scripture. Now, many hymnals contain Biblical references to the passages that inspired the authors, but few are direct translations of Scripture like the metrical psalters were.

Metrical psalter in Gaelic
The Scottish Gaelic Psalter was produced by the Synod of Argyll. By 1658, the first fifty psalms had been translated into ballad metre due to the work of Dugald Campbell, John Stewart, and Alexander McLaine. A manuscript of the final 100 psalms was produced in 1691 with the entire Gaelic psalter, with revisions to the 'first fifty' being produced in 1694. The Gaelic Metrical Psalms are used to this day in the Scottish Highland Presbyterian Churches where the practice of lining out is used, in accordance with the Westminster Assembly of Divines Directory for Public Worship. The corpus of tunes has shrunk over the years with only about twenty-four in general use.

Modern-day metrical psalters
Many churches continue to use metrical psalters today. For example, the Reformed Presbyterian Church of North America (RPCNA) produced psalm books based on the Scots Metrical Psalter, with the intention of making the words more modern and the translation more accurate. These were produced in 1889 (a split-leaf brown book), 1911 (unpopular due to musical complexity), 1920 (a green book) and 1929 (also green, an expanded version of the 1920 one), 1950 (a blue book), and 1973 (a maroon one) called The Book of Psalms for Singing. A further revision has been undertaken by the RPCNA, again for the purposes of making the words more modern, and also to replace some of the more difficult-to-sing tunes, such as Psalm 62B, with tunes that are easier to sing. The new edition, The Book of Psalms for Worship, was released in 2009.

The Reformed Presbyterian Church of Ireland, however, produced a split-leaf version of the Scots Metrical Psalter, but with additional "Alternative versions" of the words included as the second half of the book. These were culled from a number of sources, including the RPCNA books mentioned above. Whenever a new version was necessary, they merely expanded their old book, without removing any of the old translations. One of these editions was produced in 1979. They were available in staff or sol-fa. A revised Psalter in more modern idiom was published in 2004 under the title The Psalms for Singing.

The Melbourne Congregation of the Presbyterian Church of Eastern Australia produced The Complete Book of Psalms for Singing with Study Notes in 1991. Music in staff format is provided in a variety of meters, mostly to established tunes. The texts draw from the best of older versions but provide much new material.

The Free Church of Scotland published Sing Psalms in 2003, being a completely new translation. It is available in words only, and in staff and sol-fa split-leaf formats.

The Canadian Reformed Churches have published and sing from Book of Praise, the Anglo-Genevan Psalter (1961, 1972, 1984, 2014), containing English versifications for all the Genevan tunes. In 2015 Premier Printing published New Genevan Psalter which consists of the 150 Psalms as found in the Book of Praise as well as the Ten Commandments and the Songs of Mary, Zechariah and Simeon.

Split-leaf psalters
A split-leaf psalter (sometimes known as a "Dutch door" psalter) is a book of Psalms in metrical form, in which each page is cut in half at the middle, so that the top half of the pages can be turned separately from the bottom half. The top half usually contains the tunes, and the bottom half contains the words. The tune and words can be matched by matching the meter; each meter is a specification of line length and (implicitly) stressed syllables; if a tune is in Common Meter, any set of Common Meter words can go with it.

Psalter text & audio

 * (Seven psalters in the English and Scottish traditions. Text and MIDI.)
 * (Seven psalters in the English and Scottish traditions. Text and MIDI.)

Psalter text

 * (text only)
 * (text only)
 * (A modern Psalter written by Timothy and Julie Tennent)

Psalter audio

 * (Recordings of seven Scottish Metrical Psalms 1650.)
 * (Hymns derived from Psalms. PDF and MIDI.)
 * (MIDI files arranged by meter)
 * (700 recordings of psalm settings from The 1650 Scottish Psalter, Sing Psalms (2003) and a number of other psalters)

Psalter miscellanea

 * , John Calvin
 * , David T. Koyzis
 * Duguid, T., Metrical Psalmody in Print and Practice: English 'Singing Psalms' and Scottish 'Psalm Buiks', 1547-1640 (Ashgate, 2014), ISBN 9781409468929.
 * Duguid, T., Metrical Psalmody in Print and Practice: English 'Singing Psalms' and Scottish 'Psalm Buiks', 1547-1640 (Ashgate, 2014), ISBN 9781409468929.
 * Duguid, T., Metrical Psalmody in Print and Practice: English 'Singing Psalms' and Scottish 'Psalm Buiks', 1547-1640 (Ashgate, 2014), ISBN 9781409468929.
 * Duguid, T., Metrical Psalmody in Print and Practice: English 'Singing Psalms' and Scottish 'Psalm Buiks', 1547-1640 (Ashgate, 2014), ISBN 9781409468929.
 * Duguid, T., Metrical Psalmody in Print and Practice: English 'Singing Psalms' and Scottish 'Psalm Buiks', 1547-1640 (Ashgate, 2014), ISBN 9781409468929.
 * Duguid, T., Metrical Psalmody in Print and Practice: English 'Singing Psalms' and Scottish 'Psalm Buiks', 1547-1640 (Ashgate, 2014), ISBN 9781409468929.
 * Duguid, T., Metrical Psalmody in Print and Practice: English 'Singing Psalms' and Scottish 'Psalm Buiks', 1547-1640 (Ashgate, 2014), ISBN 9781409468929.

title: Metrical psalter


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Videotext

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User:W3bu53r

Favorite Quote
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User talk:Attig

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User talk:ATZ

Welcome to the Wikipedia
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Parasite aircraft

A parasite aircraft is a component of a composite aircraft which is carried aloft and air launched by a larger carrier aircraft or mother ship to support the primary mission of the carrier. The carrier craft may or may not be able to later recover the parasite during flight.

The first parasite aircraft flew in 1916, when the British launched a Bristol Scout from a Felixstowe Porte Baby flying boat. The idea eventually developed into jet bombers carrying fully capable parasite fighters. With the advent of long-range fighters equipped with air-to-air missiles, and aerial refueling, parasite fighters fell out of use.

Parasite fighters

Until the middle of the 20th century there was military interest in parasite fighters – fighter aircraft intended to be carried into a combat zone by a larger aircraft, such as a bomber. If the bomber were threatened, the parasite would be released to defend it. Parasite fighters have never been highly successful and have seldom been used in combat. A major disadvantage of a parasite aircraft was that it reduced the payload capacity of the carrier aircraft. Projects for this type were designed to overcome the great disparity in range between bombers and their escort fighters. Development of aerial refueling has made parasite fighters obsolete.

1910s
The first parasite fighters were launched and recovered from trapezes mounted externally to military airships. In 1915 Neville Usborne and another British officer worked on a plan to lift a BE.2C fighter under an SS-class non-rigid airship. This would allow the fighter to reach the height of a raiding Zeppelin rapidly while also conserving fuel. In the first experimental flight on 21 February 1916, the envelope lost pressure and the plane was prematurely separated from it at 4,000 feet. Both officers were killed and there was no further experimentation with small airships.

In May 1916 a Bristol Scout flown by Flt. Lt. M. J. Day was mounted above the top wing of a Porte Baby flying boat flown by Sqn. Ldr John Cyril Porte, and was successfully released at a height of 1000 ft (300 m). Although successful, the scheme, intended to provide long-range defence against Zeppelins, was not pursued. In 1918 the Royal Air Force experimented with launching  Sopwith Camel fighters from HM Airship 23.

The Germans also experimented with the idea, suspending an Albatros D.III fighter aeroplane below a Zeppelin and releasing it at altitude: the intention was to use the aeroplane to defend airships against the British seaplane patrols encountered over the North Sea. Although the single trial, made on 25 January 1918, was successful the experiments were not continued.

On 12 December 1918, in a test to determine the feasibility of carrying fighter aircraft on dirigibles, the airship C-1 lifted a US Army Curtiss JN-4 aircraft to 2,500 feet over Fort Tilden, New York, and at that height released it for a free flight back to base. The airship was piloted by Lieutenant George Crompton, Dirigible Officer at NAS Rockaway, and the airplane by Lieutenant A. W. Redfield, USA, commander of the 52nd Aero Squadron based at Mineola (Long Island, NY).

1920s
The British Imperial Airship Scheme of 1924 envisaged a commercial airship that could also carry five fighter aircraft if put into military use, but this requirement was abandoned. In 1925 first the DH.53 light aeroplane and then Gloster Grebes had been launched from the airship R.33.

1930s
In 1930, the US Navy airship USS Los Angeles (ZR-3) was used to test the trapeze system developed to launch and recover fixed wing aircraft from rigid airships. The tests were a success, and the newly built Navy airships USS Akron (ZRS-4) and USS Macon (ZRS-5) were designed to carry parasite aircraft inside a hangar bay within the hull. Each airship could carry up to five single-seat Curtiss F9C Sparrowhawks for scouting or two-seat Fleet N2Y-1s for training. In 1934, two two-seat Waco UBF XJW-1 biplanes equipped with skyhooks were delivered to the USS Macon.

The temporary system was removed from the Los Angeles, which never carried any aircraft on operational flights. In 1930, the Los Angeles also tested the launching of a glider over Lakehurst, New Jersey.

Although operations of these parasite aircraft were quite successful, the accidental loss of the Akron in 1933 and the Macon in 1935, ended the program.

The first bombers to carry parasite fighters did so as part of the Zveno experiments carried out in the Soviet Union by Vladimir Vakhmistrov from 1931. Up to five fighters of various types were carried by Tupolev TB-1 and Tupolev TB-3 bombers.

1940s
In August 1941, these combinations would fly the only combat missions ever undertaken by parasite fighters. TB-3s carrying Polikarpov I-16SPB dive bombers attacked the Cernavodă bridge and Constantsa docks, in Romania. After that, this squadron, based in the Crimea, carried out a tactical attack on a bridge over the river Dnieper at Zaporozhye, which had been captured by advancing German troops.

Later in World War II, the Luftwaffe experimented with the Messerschmitt Me 328 as a parasite fighter, but problems with its pulsejet engines could not be overcome. Other late-war rocket-powered projects such as the Arado E.381 and Sombold So 344 never left the experimental stage. By contrast, the Empire of Japan was able to get the Yokosuka MXY7 Ohka kamikaze rocket plane type into active service, typically using the Mitsubishi G4M (Betty) bomber class to carry them within range. However, their effectiveness proved minimal in part because Allied air naval defense took advantage of the weight of the parasitical aircraft payload slowing the carrying bombers, making them vulnerable to interception before the rocket plane could launch.

1950s
During the early years of the Cold War, the United States Air Force experimented with a variety of parasite fighters to protect its Convair B-36 bombers, including the dedicated XF-85 Goblin, and methods of either carrying a Republic F-84 Thunderjet in the bomber's bomb bay (the FICON project), or attached to the bomber's wingtips (Project Tom-Tom). One configuration studied for the XF-85/B-36 combination was for a B-36 to drop the XF-85 for a dash across enemy territory for bombing or reconnaissance and for the pilot to hook onto a different B-36 on the other side of the enemy territory. These projects were all soon abandoned, partly because aerial refueling appeared as a much safer solution to extend the range of fighters.

Drone motherships
As of 2014, DARPA is working on a project to launch and recover unmanned aerial vehicles from larger aircraft.

Examples
Examples that have flown include:
 * A Bristol Scout was flown from a Porte Baby to become the first parasite aircraft (1916)
 * An Albatros D.III was flown from L 35 (LZ 80) to become the first parasite fighter flying from an airship (January 26, 1918)
 * A Sopwith Camel was flown from airship HMA 23 (1918)
 * A Sperry Messenger biplane was launched and recovered by non-rigid airships Tc-3 and Tc-7 (1923)
 * Several DH 53 Hummingbird monoplanes were launched and recovered by airship R33 (1924), followed by two Gloster Grebe fighters (1925).
 * A glider and a biplane were recovered by the USS Los Angeles. These were followed by the F9C Sparrowhawk escort fighter which flew operationally from USS Akron and Macon (1935).

 * Ohka Rocket plane on the Mitsubishi G4M.
 * Short S.20 and Short S.21 composite used for transatlantic mail (1937).
 * The Polikarpov I-16 modified into a dive bomber carrying two 250 kg bombs (variant TsKB-29), flown from a Tupolev TB-3 as the Zveno-SPB ("composite dive bomber"), was the first parasite aircraft to see combat (1941)
 * The Messerschmitt Me 328 escort fighter was intended to fly from the Dornier Do 217/Heinkel He 274, but this was unsuccessful due to engine problems.
 * The XF-85 Goblin was an attempt to equip B-36 bombers with their own escort fighters (1948)
 * The RF-84K was a more successful attempt to provide the B-36 with a parasite escort fighter in the FICON project (1952)

Parasite aircraft in popular culture
In the 1957 Jet Pilot movie, featuring John Wayne, parasite fighters are an important part of the plot.

The 1989 movie Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade, a Bücker Bü 131 Jungmann biplane is stolen by Indy and his father to escape the zeppelin.

title: Parasite aircraft


text:
Old Boys

The terms Old Boys and Old Girls are the usual expressions in use in the United Kingdom for former pupils of primary and secondary schools. While these are traditionally associated with independent schools, they are also used for some schools in the state sector. The term is also used for those who attended schools in the Commonwealth realm, a few universities in the UK and, to a lesser extent, schools in Australia, Canada, Republic of Ireland, South Africa and Spain.

The Old Boy form is given a specific identification for each school. Some schools use an adjectival form of the school name, such as "Old Etonian", "Old Harrovian", or "Old Oundelian" (old boys of Eton College, Harrow School, and Oundle School). Some use a Latin form derived from the Latin name of the school or its location as "Old Novaportan" (old boys of Adams' Grammar School, Newport, Shropshire). Some are based on the name of the founder, such as "Old Wykehamist" and "Old Alleynian" (for old boys of Winchester College, founded by William of Wykeham, and Dulwich College, founded by Edward Alleyn). Some are based on the school's location or street, such as "Old Gowers" (for University College School, originally in Gower Street). Many of the schools have histories dating back several hundred years, and the Old Boy forms may have been in use for a hundred years or more. Other more recently established schools have devised Old Boy names that are distinctive to prevent confusion with other schools. The tradition for many girls' schools has been to use the term "Seniors" rather than "Old Girls".

Almost all of these schools have old boy associations that use the official name. Some schools have amalgamated or been renamed through various transformations, but they usually maintain a consistent name for their old boy associations. Many of these schools have teams that compete nationally in sports such as cricket, rugby union, association football, field hockey and golf, and these teams are usually referred to by the standard Old Boy name, although some also have nicknames. In deference to this tradition, the standard "Old Boys" is often used for sporting clubs and used as part of many sporting associations and clubs worldwide. Examples include Argentine football club Newell's Old Boys, New Zealand rugby union club High School Old Boys RFC and Swiss football club BSC Old Boys.

title: Old Boys


text:
Old boy

Old boy or Oldboy or Old Boys may refer to:

 * Old Boys, male former pupils of schools in Britain, some schools in Australia, Canada, India, New Zealand, Trinidad and Tobago
 * Old boy network, social and business connections among former pupils of top male-only schools
 * A cadet who has attended St. John's Military School

 * Films
 * Oldboy (2003 film), South Korean film based on the manga, directed by Park Chan-wook
 * Oldboy (2013 film), American remake of the 2003 South Korean film, directed by Spike Lee
 * Old Boys (2010 film), Chinese short comedy film
 * Old Boys: The Way of the Dragon, 2014 Chinese film
 * Old Boys (2018 film), British film directed by Toby MacDonald

 * People
 * "Old Boy", nom de guerre of Australian sports journalist Reginald Wilmot (1869–1949)

 * Sports teams and clubs
 * BSC Old Boys, Basel, Switzerland
 * Newell's Old Boys, Argentine football club
 * Old Boys' AFC, semi-professional football team based in Invercargill, New Zealand
 * Old Boys & Old Girls Club, Montevideo, Uruguay

 * Other
 * Old Boy (manga), manga series
 * Old Boy (TV series), Chinese television series

title: Old boy


text:
Alex Greenwald

Alex Greenwald is an American musician, actor, and record producer. He is the lead vocalist of the California rock band Phantom Planet.

Life and career
Greenwald is Jewish. In 1994, Greenwald formed Phantom Planet in his teens with four friends – guitarist Darren Robinson, bassist Sam Farrar, guitarist Jacques Brautbar, and drummer Jason Schwartzman. The band is best known for producing the song "California", which was used as the theme song of the teen drama The O.C., which lasted four seasons. Phantom Planet announced their hiatus on November 25, 2008.

In 2006, he collaborated with DJ Mark Ronson, to cover the Radiohead song, "Just". The cover appears on the compilation album Exit Music: Songs with Radio Heads, as well as the Mark Ronson album, Version. He appeared with Ronson at the 2007 Glastonbury Festival where he climbed up on to the lighting rig of the John Peel stage during the performance of "Just", and also sang "California". In 2010, he collaborated once again with Ronson on the album "Record Collection", on which Greenwald shares writing credits on six out of the eleven tracks. He became part of Ronson's band, The Business Intl. for this record. He was also a member of Los Angeles band blackblack, until 2007. At live shows, he was known for 1980s-style dance moves, which were inspired from watching David Byrne of Talking Heads.

Greenwald is a vegan and has appeared in at least two ads for PETA. He told PETA his reasons for going vegan: "In college I stopped eating red meat on a bet with my girlfriend at the time. She bet she could stop smoking, and I bet that I could stop eating red meat. She started smoking again, so I won, which I'm always proud of.…I had been a vegetarian as a child for whatever reason. I guess kids sometimes follow their instincts…My friend dared me to go vegan as I was reading this book Fast Food Nation, which opened my eyes to a lot of cruelties.…Ever since then, I've been vegan and enjoyed it daily."

Greenwald co-produced and appeared on ex – Panic! at the Disco members Ryan Ross and Jon Walker's new band, The Young Veins debut record, Take a Vacation!.

He played bass and produced several tracks on The Like's second studio album Release Me.

He is currently part of the group Phases (previously named JJAMZ), and signed to Warner Bros. Records.

JJAMZ
JJAMZ was a band composed of Greenwald along with James Valentine (Maroon 5), Jason Boesel (Rilo Kiley/Conor Oberst), Michael Runion (solo), and Z Berg (The Like). The group was started at karaoke night at Guys in Hollywood. The band name is an acronym, using the first letter of each member's name. The group was a means of escape from each member's respective band at the time. "JJAMZ started at an interesting time in all of our lives. We all needed some kind of escape from relationships or our other bands. It was a tumultuous time, and the lyrics just came out. It was like word vomit. I can't remember," said Z Berg in one of their first interviews as a band. The band played their first concert at the Echo Plex on January 27, 2009. The band released their first and only album, Suicide Pact, on July 10, 2012. It was released through Dangerbird Records.

Phases
Following Valentine's departure from JJAMZ, the band changed its name to Phases. Signed to Warner Bros. Records, Phases is composed of Greenwald, Z Berg, Jason Boesel, and Michael Runion.

Mark Ronson & The Business International
Greenwald is the executive producer and one of the musicians in The Business International. He also helped to write several of the songs on their album Record Collection. He is one of the lead singers in the song 'The Night Last Night', and appeared in the music video for "The Bike Song".

Cameos
In addition to the commercials for the Gap and his appearance in the 2001 film Donnie Darko, Greenwald appeared in two music videos for the electronica band M83 – "Don't Save Us From the Flames" and "Teen Angst", the video for Uffie's "ADD SUV" and also in videos for Mark Ronson, including the video for "Just".

Personal life
In 2013, Greenwald began a relationship with actress Brie Larson. In May 2016, Larson's representative confirmed that the pair was engaged. On January 10, 2019, it was reported that Greenwald and Larson had called off their engagement. In June 2020, it was confirmed that Greenwald and Australian actress Phoebe Tonkin were in a relationship.

Discography

 * Solo
 * Yo (2014)

 * With JJAMZ
 * Suicide Pact (2012)

 * With Phases
 * For Life (2015)

 * With Phantom Planet

 * Phantom Planet Is Missing (1998)
 * Polaroid (1998)
 * The Guest (2002)
 * Negatives (2004)
 * Negatives 2 (2004)
 * Phantom Planet (2004)
 * Raise the Dead (2008)
 * Devastator (2020)

 * With Blackblack
 * Blackblack EP 1
 * Blackblack EP 2
 * BlackBlack (2006)

title: Alex Greenwald


text:
Hydrargyrum quartz iodide

Hydrargyrum quartz iodide (HQI) is a trademark name of Osram's brand of metal halide lamps made for general floodlighting, arena floodlighting, shop and commercial and industrial lighting. Hydrargyrum is the Latin name for the element mercury. When heated, mercury vapour is created inside the lamp, and deposited when it cools.

An HQI lamp consists of a protective outer glass shield surrounding two heavy wires which are inserted into each end of a smaller inner quartz arctube containing argon, mercury and metal halides. The lamp is powered by an electrical ballast, which regulates the current flow through the arc in the arctube, and an ignitor, to make the high voltage pulse that is necessary to start the arc in the arctube. Like all HID lamps, HQI lamps operate under high pressure and temperature, and require special light fixtures for safe use.

HQI lamps can produce different color temperatures when manufactured with different metal halides. They are relatively efficient light sources producing a high lumen per watt ratio (approximately 6x that of incandescent lamps).

Like HMI, HQI lamps are a subset (or type) of metal halide lamps, which in turn are a subset of high-intensity discharge (HID) lamps. They should not be confused with halogen lamps, which are a specialized type of incandescent lamp.

title: Hydrargyrum quartz iodide