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39 Melakhot

The 39 Melakhot (ל״ט אבות מלאכה, lamed-tet avot melakhah, "39 categories of work") are thirty-nine categories of activity which Jewish law identifies as prohibited by biblical law on Shabbat. These activities are also prohibited on the Jewish holidays listed in the Torah ("Yom Tov"), but there are significant exceptions that permit carrying and preparing food under specific circumstances on holidays (except Yom Kippur).

In addition to the 39 melakhot, certain other activities are forbidden on Shabbat due to rabbinic law.

It is of note that the (strict) observance of Shabbat is often seen as a benchmark for orthodoxy and indeed has legal bearing on the way a Jew is seen by an Orthodox religious court regarding their affiliation to Judaism.

The commandment
The commandment to keep Shabbat as a day of rest is repeated many times in the Hebrew Bible. Its importance is also stressed in Exodus 31:12–17: "12 And יהוה said to Moses: 13 Speak to the Israelite people and say: Nevertheless, you must keep My sabbaths, for this is a sign between Me and you throughout the ages, that you may know that I יהוה have consecrated you. 14 You shall keep the sabbath, for it is holy for you. One who profanes it shall be put to death: whoever does work on it, that person shall be cut off from among kin. 15 Six days may work be done, but on the seventh day there shall be a sabbath of complete rest, holy to יהוה; whoever does work on the sabbath day shall be put to death. 16 The Israelite people shall keep the sabbath, observing the sabbath throughout the ages as a covenant for all time: 17 it shall be a sign for all time between Me and the people of Israel. For in six days יהוה made heaven and earth, and on the seventh day [God] ceased from work and was refreshed."

Meaning of "work"
Though melakha is usually translated as "work" in English, the term does not correspond to the ordinary definition of the term, as explained below. The traditional analysis and explanation of the term, as well as the logic for identifying the activities prohibited to be done on the Sabbath, is recorded in tractate Shabbat (70a; 49b).

The rabbis there noted the symmetry between Genesis 2:1–3 and Exodus 31:1–11 and derive the rule on this basis based on the Thirteen Rules of Rabbi Ishmael. The same term melakha ["work"] is used in both places:

"Heaven and earth, and all their components, were completed. With the seventh day, God finished all the work [melakha] that He had done. He ceased on the seventh day from all the work [melakha] that he had been doing. God blessed the seventh day, and he declared it to be holy, for it was on this day that God ceased from all the work [melakha] that he had been creating to function."
 * uses the term melakha in reference to the Creation:

 * provides detailed instructions for the construction of the Tabernacle, again using the term melakha. The word is usually translated as "workmanship", which has a strong element of "creation" or "creativity". This section immediately precedes the section concerning Sabbath rest quoted above.

From the common wording (in the Hebrew original), and the juxtaposition of subject matter, the rabbis of the Mishnah derive a basis, as well as a listing, as to which activities are prohibited on the Sabbath. In the first passage, there is a "ceasing from" "creation" or "creating", thus melakha in the latter paragraph is also taken to refer to creative, and mindful, activity. As regards the listing: similarly, the activities required for the construction of the Tabernacle and preparing the showbread form the thirty-nine categories of activity listed below.

Definition
All the categories of work prohibited on the Sabbath are derived from activities which were required in the setting up, and maintenance of, the Tabernacle known as the "Mishkan". The first group of eleven activities are involved in the making of the showbreads that were always present in the Mishkan. Or, according to another opinion, the exact same eleven activities were required for the procurement and manufacture of dyes required for the making of the tapestries that were used as part of the roofing of the Tabernacle. The next grouping was for the manufacture of the tapestries, starting with the manufacture of wool right from the shearing process. The next group were for the manufacture of the leather hides also used in the Tabernacle's covering starting right from the trapping of animals. The last group of activities are grouped together for things that were required in the construction, disassembly and running of the Tabernacle itself.

The thirty-nine melakhot are not so much activities as categories of activity. For example, "threshing" usually refers exclusively to the loosening of the edible part of grain attached to its chaff. From this heading the Talmudic legal discussion applies this to any separation of intermixed materials where a desirable inner portion is extracted from an undesirable exterior element. So, "threshing" was the heading of the topic that was used to describe this process as it was familiar to all in Talmudic times.

Many rabbinical scholars have, as above, pointed out that these regulations of labor have something in common – they prohibit any activity that is externally creative, or that exercises control or dominion over one's environment.

The extension of the definition is consistent with the common etymology -melakha for "work" and malach for messenger / agent or "angel": just as the malach is the agent used to bring about the realization and execution of a certain idea, so does melakha take a thought or idea and carry through to turn it into a reality.

The definitions presented in this article are only 'headings' for in-depth topics and without study of the relevant laws it would be very difficult, perhaps impossible, to properly keep the Sabbath according to Halacha/Jewish Law.

The thirty-nine creative activities
The 39 melakhot are discussed in the Talmud in tractate Shabbat. As listed in the Mishna (Shabbat 7:2), they are as follows:

Transferring between domains (see below) and preparing food are permitted on Jewish holidays. These are the only exceptions to the rule that activities prohibited on the Sabbath are likewise prohibited on holidays.

Note: The thirty-nine prohibited activities are bolded.

Ploughing
Hebrew: (Ḥoresh)

Definition: Promotion of substrate in readiness for plant growth.

Included in this prohibition is any preparation or improvement of any material for agricultural use, be it soil, water for hydroponics, etc.. This activity is standalone; irrespective of whether seeding takes place in the substrate subsequently.

This includes dragging chair legs in soft soil thereby unintentionally making furrows, or pouring water on arable land that is not saturated. Making a hole in the soil would also provide protection for a seed placed there from rain and runoff; even if no seed is ever placed there, the soil is now enhanced for the process of planting.

The Mishna (Shabbat 7:2) lists ploughing after planting, although one must plow a field before planting. The Gemara asks why this order occurs and answers that the author of this Mishna was a Tanna living in the Land of Israel, where the ground is hard. Since the ground is so hard in Israel, it needed to be ploughed both before planting and after planting. The Mishna lists ploughing second, teaching that the second ploughing (after planting) is [also] prohibited. (The ploughing before the planting is also prohibited, if not biblically, certainly rabbinically). The Rambam lists ploughing first and planting second.

See further: Mishneh Torah Shabbat 7:3, 8:1, 21:2–4; Ḥayei Adam Shabbat 10

Planting
Hebrew: (Zore'a)

Definition: Promotion of plant growth.

Not only planting is included in this category; other activities that promote plant growth are also prohibited. This includes watering, fertilizing, planting seeds, or planting grown plants.

See further: Mishneh Torah Shabbat 8:2, 21:5; Shulḥan Arukh Oraḥ Ḥayim 336; Ḥayei Adam Shabbat 11

Reaping
Hebrew: (Kotzer)

Definition: Severing a plant from its source of growth.

Removing all or part of a plant from its source of growth is reaping. Climbing a tree is rabbinically forbidden, for fear this may lead to one tearing off a branch. Riding an animal is also rabbinically forbidden, as one may unthinkingly detach a stick with which to hit the animal.

See further: Mishneh Torah Shabbat 8:3–5, 21:6–10; Ḥayei Adam Shabbat 12

Gathering
Hebrew: (Me'amer)

Definition: Initial gathering of earth-borne/organic material in its original place.

E.g. After picking strawberries, forming a pile or collecting them into one's pockets, or a basket. Collecting rock salt or any mineral (from a mine or from the Earth) and making a pile of the produce. This can only occur in the place where the gathering should take place. So, a bowl of apples that falls in a house can be gathered as 1) they do not grow in that environment and 2) they were already initially gathered in the orchard.

However, subsequent gathering, which improves the object(s) affected is included in this law. For example, stringing diamonds together to form a necklace is a significant improvement of their gathered status. This may well extend to pearls as well.

See further: Mishneh Torah Shabbat 8:5, 21:11; Ḥayei Adam Shabbat 13

Threshing/extraction
Hebrew: (Dosh)

Definition: Extraction of a desirable inner from an undesirable outer.

This is derived from the cracking of the husks that encase the kernels of wheat. These undesirable husks have to be cracked open in order to extract the desirable inner kernels in order to process them further.

This is a large topic of study. It refers to any productive extraction and includes juicing fruits and vegetables and wringing (desirable fluids) out of cloths, as the juice or water inside the fruit is considered 'desirable' for these purposes, while the pulp of the fruit would be the 'undesirable.'

As such, squeezing (S'ḥita) to extract a desirable inner is generally forbidden unless certain rules are applicable dependant upon the case. The wringing of undesirable water out of cloths may also come under scouring/laundering. This activity should be viewed more accurately as extraction, while sorting (see below) is more akin to purification.

See further: Mishneh Torah Shabbat 8:7–10, 21:12–16; Shulḥan Arukh Oraḥ Ḥayim 319–321; Ḥayei Adam Shabbat 14

Winnowing
Hebrew: (Zoreh)

Definition: Sorting undesirable from desirable via the force of air (Babylonian Talmud), or dispersal via the force of air (Jerusalem Talmud).

In the Babylonian Talmud this refers exclusively to an act of separation, for example, chaff from grain – i.e. to any separation of intermixed materials. Example: If one has a handful of peanuts, in their paper-thin brown skins, and one blows on the mixture of peanuts and skins, dispersing the unwanted skins from the peanuts, this would be an act of winnowing according to both the Babylonian and Jerusalem Talmud.

The Jerusalem Talmud has a more inclusive and general definition of Zoreh. By this definition, use of the Venturi tube spray system and spray painting would come under this prohibition, while butane or propane propelled sprays (common in deodorants and air fresheners, etc.) are permissible to operate as the dispersal force generated is not from air, rather from the propellant within the can. According to the Babylonian Talmud's definition, neither of the above spraying methods is involved in sorting undesirable from desirable and therefore not part of this heading.

Rabbi Moses Isserles (the Rema) holds that, unusually, the Jerusalem Talmud's definition should also be taken into account. As there's no argument between the Rema and the Beit Yosef on this point, Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jews do not disagree with the Rema's extended inclusion of the Jerusalem Talmud's definition in this case.

See further: Shulḥan Arukh Oraḥ Ḥayim 219:7; Ḥayei Adam Shabbat 15.

Sorting/purification
Hebrew: (Borer)

Definition: Removal of undesirable from desirable from a mixture of types.

In the Talmudic sense usually refers exclusively to the separation of debris from grain – i.e. to any separation of intermixed materials which renders edible that which was inedible. Thus, picking small bones from fish in order to eat the meat would be borer. This prohibition has led to the popularity of gefilte fish as a culinary dish on the Sabbath, since it is deboned prior to being cooked or sold.

Sorting/purification differs from threshing/extraction as here there is a mixture of types, and sorting a mixture via the removal of undesirable elements leaves a purified, refined component. In contrast, threshing/extraction does not entail sorting or purification, just extraction of the inner from the unwanted housing or outer component, such as squeezing a grape for its juice. The juice and the pulp have not undergone sorting, the juice has been extracted from the pulp.

For example, suppose that one has a bowl of mixed raisins and peanuts, and desires to eat only the raisins. Removing (effectively sorting) the peanuts from the bowl, leaving a 'purified' pile of raisins free from unwanted peanuts, would be sorting/purification as the peanuts are removed. However, removing the desirable raisins from the peanuts does not purify the mixture, as one is left with undesirable peanuts (hence unrefined) not a refined component as before, and is thus permissible. Note that in this case there has not been any extraction of material from either the peanuts or raisins (threshing/extraction), just the sorting of undesirable from desirable (sorting/purification).

General Introduction:
 * After threshing, a mixed collection of waste matter remained on the threshing floor together with the grain kernels. Included in this combination would be small pebbles and similar debris.
 * These pebbles could not be separated by winnowing because they were too heavy to be carried by the wind. The pebbles and debris were therefore sorted and removed by hand. This process is sorting/purification.

 * Any form of selecting from (or sorting of) an assorted mixture or combination can be borer. This includes removing undesired objects, or matter from a mixture or combination.

Borer with mixed foods:
 * Even though the classic form of borer as performed in the Mishkan involved the removal of pebbles and similar waste matter from the grain produce, sorting/purification is by no means limited to the removal of "useless" matter from food. In fact, any selective removal from a mixture can, indeed, be sorting/purification, even if the mixture contains an assortment of foods. The criteria are types and desire, not intrinsic value. Therefore, removing any food or item from a mix of different types of foods simply because he does not desire the item at that time is considered sorting/purification.

The three conditions of sorting/purification:

 * Sorting/purification is permitted when three conditions are fulfilled simultaneously. It is absolutely imperative that all three conditions be present while sorting/purifying

 * 1) B'yad (By hand): The selection must be done by hand and not a utensil that aids in the selection.
 * 2) Oḥel Mitoḥ Psolet (desired from undesired): The desired objects must be selected from the undesired, and not the reverse; that is, unless it is impossible to remove desired from undesirable.
 * 3) Miyad (Immediate use): The selection must be done immediately before the time of use and not for later use. There is no precise amount of time indicated by the concept of "immediate use" (miyad). The criteria used to define "immediate use" relate to the circumstances. For instance if a particular individual prepares food for a meal rather slowly, that individual may allow a more liberal amount of time in which to do so without having transgressed "borer."

Examples of Permissible and Prohibited Types of sorting/purification:

 * 1) Peeling fruits: Peeling fruits is permissible with the understanding that the fruit will be eaten right away.
 * 2) Sorting silverware: Sorting silverware is permitted when the sorter intends to eat the Sabbath meal immediately. Alternatively, if the sorter intends to set up the meal for a later point, it is prohibited.
 * 3) Removing items from a mixture: If the desired item is being removed from the mix then this is permissible. If the non-desired item is being removed, the person removing is committing a serious transgression according to the laws of the Sabbath.

See further: Mishneh Torah Shabbat 8:11–13, 21:17; Shulḥan Arukh Oraḥ Ḥayim 319; Ḥayei Adam Shabbat 16

Grinding
Hebrew: (Toḥein)

Definition: Reducing an earth-borne thing's size for a productive purpose.

Dissection can arise in simply cutting into pieces fruits or vegetables for a salad. Very small pieces would involve dissection, therefore cutting into slightly larger than usual pieces would be permitted, thus avoiding cutting the pieces into their final, most usable, state.

All laws relating to the use of medicine on the Sabbath are a toldah, or sub-category, of this order, as most medicines require pulverization at some point and thus are dissected. The laws of medicine use on the Sabbath are complex; they are based around the kind of illness the patient is suffering from and the type of medication or procedure that is required. Generally, the more severe the illness (from a halakhic perspective) the further into the list the patient's situation is classed. As a patient is classed as more ill there are fewer restrictions and greater leniencies available for treating the illness on the Sabbath. The list of definitions, from least to most severe, is as follows:

 * 1)  / Mayḥush beAl'ma / Minor Indisposition
 * 2)  / Mikṣat Ḥoli / Semi-illness
 * 3)  / Ṣa'ar Gadol / Severe Pain (Can in some cases be practically regarded as level 4)
 * 4)  / Ḥoleh Kol Gufo / Debilitating Illness
 * 5)  / Sakanat Ever / Threat to a Limb or Organ (Can in some cases be practically regarded as level 6)
 * 6)  / Sofek Pikuaḥ Nefesh / Possibly Life-Threatening (Practically treated as level 7)
 * 7)  / Pikuaḥ Nefesh / Certainly Life-Threatening

For most practical applications the use of medicines on the Sabbath, there are primarily two categories of non-life-threatening (Pikuaḥ Nefesh) illnesses and maladies. They are either Meiḥush b'Al'ma or Ḥoleh Kol Gufo. In many or most practical applications for non-trained personnel, there are practically only three category levels (1, 4, & 7) as the line of distinction between them can often be difficult to ascertain for the untrained and it may prove dangerous to underestimate the condition.

See further: Mishneh Torah Shabbat 8:15, 21:18–31; Shulḥan Arukh Oraḥ Ḥayim 321; Ḥayei Adam Shabbat 17

Sifting
Hebrew: (Merakaied)

Definition: Sorting desirable from undesirable by means of a specifically designed utensil.

This is essentially the same as sorting/purification (see above) but performed with a utensil specifically designed for the purpose of sorting, such as a sieve, strainer, or the like. As such, sorting/purifying with such a device, such as the netting of a tea bag, would be classed as an act of sifting.

For instance, using a cafetière coffee maker would involve Meraked. As one pushes the plunger down, to sift out the unwanted coffee grinds, a purification of the coffee solution is taking place. The undesirable grinds are removed leaving clear coffee solution that can be decanted to another vessel, e.g., a cup or mug. This act is identical to that the act of Borer but done with a tool or utensil specifically designed for purpose. This classes this act as one of Meraked, not Borer.

See further: Mishneh Torah Shabbat 8:14, 21:32; Shulḥan Arukh Oraḥ Ḥayim 321, 324; Ḥayei Adam Shabbat 18

Kneading/amalgamation
Hebrew: (Losh)

Definition: Combining particles into a semi-solid or solid mass via liquid.

The accepted description of this category, translated to "kneading", is inaccurate. More precisely, the prohibited activity is amalgamation or combining solid and liquid together to form a paste or dough-like substance.

There are four categories of produced substances:
 * 1) Belilah Avah (a thick, dense mixture)
 * 2) Belilah Rakha (a thinner, pourable mixture)
 * 3) Mashkeh/Davar Nozel (a pourable liquid with a similar viscosity to water)
 * 4) Ḥatikhot Gedolot (large pieces mixed with a liquid)

Only producing a Belilah Avah is biblically forbidden. A Blilah Raḥa mixture is rabbinically forbidden but may be produced by using a shinui (unusual mode), such as the reversing the adding of the ingredients or mixing in crisscross rather than circular motions. As Mashkim and Ḥatikhot Gedolot are not really mixtures, even after adding the liquid to the solid, making them is permitted even without a shinui.

See further: Mishneh Torah Shabbat 8:16, 21:33–36; Shulḥan Arukh Oraḥ Ḥayim 321,324; Ḥayei Adam Shabbat 19

Cooking/baking
Hebrew: (Bishul/Ofeh)

Definition for solids : Desirably changing the properties of something via heat.

Definition for liquids : Bringing a liquid's temperature to the heat threshold. This threshold is known as yad soledet (lit. "A hand reflexively recoils [due to such heat]"). According to Igrot Moshe (Rabbi Moshe Feinstein) this temperature is 110 F.

(Note, however, that cooking/baking is permitted on Jewish holidays. It is an exception to the rule that activities prohibited on the Sabbath are likewise prohibited on holidays.)

Any method of cooking food to prepare it for eating is included in this prohibition. For example, vegetables may not be cooked to soften them for eating. Baking was performed in the Mishkan as showbreads were continually required. Some opine immersion cooking is listed regarding the preparation of the dyes used for the tapestries.

This law is not restricted to foods. Firing a brick in a kiln or tempering a piece of metal in a furnace would also be included in desirably changing the properties of an item via heat. However, destroying an item, for no constructive purpose, via heat would not be scripturally prohibited.

See further: Mishneh Torah Shabbat 22:1–10; Shulḥan Arukh Oraḥ Ḥayim 318; Ḥayei Adam Shabbat 22

Shearing
Hebrew: (Gozeiz)

Definition: Severing/uprooting any body-part of a creature.

Shearing a sheep, having a haircut, plucking one's eyebrows or paring one's nails would fall into this category.

This law is analogous to Kotzer. Kotzer is the same activity but performed on a vegetative item still attached to its source of growth.

See further: Mishneh Torah Shabbat 9:179, 22:13–14; Ḥayei Adam Shabbat 21

Scouring/laundering
Hebrew: (Melabain)

Definition: Cleansing absorbent materials of absorbed/ingrained impurities.

See further: Mishneh Torah Shabbat 9:10–11 22:15–20; Shulḥan Arukh Oraḥ Ḥayim 301–302; Ḥayei Adam Shabbat 22

Carding/combing wool
Hebrew: (Menapeitṣ)

Definition: Separating/disentangling fibers.

See further: Mishneh Torah Shabbat 9:12; Ḥayei Adam Shabbat 23

Dyeing
Hebrew: (Tzove'ah)

Definition: Coloring/enriching the color of any material or substance.

Merely enriching a color already present, such as applying clear gloss to wood or a fingernail, thus enriching is colour/appearance, would transgress the scriptural law. (This may also present issues of fine-tuning/perfecting, as well).

There may be an exemption for foods as they are not considered permanent. However, aesthetically coloring foods for decoration, such as in a sugar sculpture, is included.

See further: Mishneh Torah Shabbat 9:13–14, 22:23; Shulḥan Arukh Oraḥ Ḥayim 320; Ḥayei Adam Shabbat 24

Spinning
Hebrew: (Toveh)

Definition: Twisting fibers into a thread or twining strands into a yarn.

See further: Mishneh Torah Shabbat 9; Ḥayei Adam Shabbat 25

Warping
Hebrew: (Meisach)

Definition: Creating the first form for the purpose of weaving.

See further: Ḥayei Adam Shabbat 25

Making two loops/threading heddles
Hebrew: (Oseh Sh'tei Botei Nirin)

Definition: Forming loops for the purpose of weaving. This also applies to the threading of two heddles on a loom to allow a shed for the shuttle to pass through.

According to the Rambam, however, this activity is described as the making of net-like materials.

See further: Ḥayei Adam Shabbat 25

Weaving
Hebrew: (Oreg)

Definition: Forming fabric (or a fabric item) by interlacing long threads passing in one direction with others at a right angle to them.

See further: Ḥayei Adam Shabbats 25

Separating two threads
Hebrew: (Potze'ah) lit. unravelling. Or, according to the Rambam (Botze'ah) unweaving

Definition: Removing, cutting or tearing fibres from their frame, loom or place. This would include tearing cotton wool apart.

According to the Rambam it's removing/unpicking threads from woven material, which only applies to material that's undergone the weaving process.

See further: Ḥayei Adam Shabbat 25

Tying
Hebrew: (Koshair)

Definition: Binding two pliant objects skillfully or permanently via twisting.

See further: Mishneh Torah Shabbat 10:1–6; Ḥayei Adam Shabbat 26

Untying
Hebrew: (Matir)

Definition: The undoing of any tied (see Tying) or joined (see Tofer) binding.

See further: Mishneh Torah Shabbat 10:1–6; Ḥayei Adam Shabbat 27

Sewing
Hebrew: (Tofer)

Definition: Combining separate objects into a single entity, whether through sewing, gluing, stapling, welding, dry mounting, etc..

See further: Mishneh Torah Shabbat 10:9, 11; Shulḥan Arukh Oraḥ Ḥayim 340; Ḥayei Adam Shabbat 28

Tearing
Hebrew: (Kore'ah)

Definition: Ripping an object in two or undoing any sewn (see Sewing) connection.

See further: Mishneh Torah Shabbat 10:10; Shulḥan Arukh Oraḥ Ḥayim 340; Ḥayei Adam Shabbat 29, Shabbat 7

Trapping
Hebrew: (Tzod)

Definition: Forcible confinement of a living creature.

The Mishna does not just write "trapping"; rather, the Mishna says "trapping deer". According to at least one interpretation, this teaches that to violate the Torah's prohibition of Trapping, two conditions must be met:
 * 1) The trapped animal must be non-domesticated.
 * 2) The animal must not be legally confined. For example, closing one's front door, thereby confining insects in one's house is not considered trapping as no difference to the insect's 'trappable' status has occurred. I.e. it was as easy or difficult to trap it now as when the door was open.

This creates practical questions such as: "May a fly be trapped under a cup on Shabbat?" The Meno Netziv says that an animal that is not normally trapped (e.g. a fly, or a lizard) is not covered under the Torah prohibition of trapping, but it's a rabbinic prohibition to do so, therefore one is not allowed to trap the animal. However, if one is afraid of the animal because of its venomous nature or that it might have rabies, one may trap it. If life or limb is threatened, it may be trapped and even killed if absolutely necessary.

Animals which are considered too slow-moving to be 'free' are not included in this category, as trapping them does not change their legal status of being able to grab them in 'one hand swoop' (a term used by the Rambam to define this law). A snail, tortoise, etc. may therefore be confined as they can be grabbed just as easily whether they are in an enclosure or unhindered in the wild. For these purposes trapping them serves no change to their legal status regarding their 'ease of capture,' and they are termed legally pre-trapped due to their nature. Trapping is therefore seen not as a 'removal of liberty,' which caging even such a slow-moving creature would be, but rather the confining of a creature to make it easier to capture in one's hand.

Laying traps violates a rabbinic prohibition regardless of what the trap is, as this is a normal method of trapping a creature.

See further: Mishneh Torah Shabbat 10:15; Shulḥan Arukh Oraḥ Ḥayim 317; Ḥayei Adam Shabbat 30

Killing
Hebrew: (Shoḥeit)

Definition: Ending a creature's life, whether through slaughter or any other method.

See further: Mishneh Torah Shabbat 11:1–4; Shulḥan Arukh Oraḥ Ḥayim 316; Ḥayei Adam Shabbat 31

Flaying/skinning
Hebrew: (Mafshit)

Definition: Removing the hide from the body of a dead animal.

(Removing skin from a live creature would fall under shearing.)

See further: Mishneh Torah Shabbat 11:5–6, 22:1–10; Shulḥan Arukh Oraḥ Ḥayim 321, 327; Ḥayei Adam Shabbat 32

Curing/preservation
Hebrew: (Me'abaid); sometimes referred to as "Salting"  (Mole'aḥ)

Definition: Preserving any item to prevent spoiling for a long period of time.

The list of activities in the Mishna includes salting hides and curing as separate categories of activity; the Gemara (Tractate Shabbat 75b) amends this to consider them the same activity and to include "tracing lines", also involved in the production of leather, as the thirty-ninth category of activity.

This activity extends rabbinically to salting/pickling foods for non-immediate use on the Sabbath.

See further: Ḥayei Adam Shabbat 32–33, Shulḥan Arukh Oraḥ Ḥayim 321, 327.

Smoothing
Hebrew: (Memaḥeik)

Definition: Scraping/sanding a surface to achieve smoothness. The Jerusalem Talmud (Shabbat 7:2) describes the forbidden labor as being learnt from the act of rubbing animal skins against the surface of a stone pillar or column in order to render the hide soft and pliable.

This law contains a sub-law (known as a Tolda) called Memarei'aḥ which prohibits the smearing or smoothing of an already pliable substance.

See further: Ḥayei Adam Shabbat 34–35

Scoring
Hebrew: (Mesartait)

Definition: Scoring/drawing a cutting guideline.

See further: Jerusalem Talmud, Tractate Shabbat, Chapter "Kelal Gadol", p. 52.

Measured cutting
Hebrew: (Meḥataiḥ)

Definition: Cutting any object to a specific size.

See further: Mishneh Torah Shabbat 11:7; Ḥayei Adam Shabbat 36

Writing
Hebrew: (Kotev)

Definition: Writing/forming a meaningful character or design.

Rabbinically, even writing with one's weaker hand is forbidden. The rabbis also forbade any commercial activities, which often lead to writing.

This melakha is notable due to the early non-biblical records of its observance. In one of the Arad ostraca (c. 600 BCE) a military commander is told to deliver goods on the first of the month, but only to record this delivery in writing on the second of the month (seemingly because writing was considered a forbidden melakha, and at the time melakha was avoided on Rosh Chodesh as well as Shabbat). Similarly, in the Al-Yahudu Tablets (c. 500 BCE), dates were not signed on Shabbat.

See further: Mishneh Torah Shabbat 11:9–17, 23:12–19; Shulḥ an Arukh Oraḥ Ḥ ayim 340; Ḥayei Adam Shabbat 36

Erasing
Hebrew: (Moḥaik)

Definition: Cleaning/preparing a surface to render it suitable for writing.

Erasing in order to write two or more letters is an example of erasing.

See further: Mishneh Torah Shabbat 11:17; Ḥayei Adam Shabbat 38

Construction
Hebrew: (Boneh)

Definition: Contributing to the forming of any permanent structure.

See further: Mishneh Torah Shabbat 10:12–14 22:25–33; Ḥayei Adam Shabbat 39–44

Construction can take two forms. First, there was the action of joining the different pieces together, just like in the making of the make the Mishkan. E.g., inserting the handle of an axe into the socket is a derived form of this activity. Another type is to add to an already existing structure called Mosif Al HaBinyan. As such, putting a nail into a wall in order to serve a useful purpose such as hanging a picture, would be adding the nail to the already existing wall structure.

Making a protective covering (or a tent) is forbidden, as is setting up a fixed partition.

Opening and closing a door is perfectly permitted due to the presence of a hinge. This shows that this is the intended use and falls under a heading of "Derech Tashmisho"/Mode of Use. Opening and closing a collapsible stroller is permitted due to this concept. However, placing a plank or board into a doorway, or gap in a wall to serve as a door is forbidden. This would be an act of construction of plugging the gap in the wall.

Demolition
Hebrew: (Soter)

Definition: Demolishing for any constructive purpose.

For example, knocking down a wall in order to extend or repair the wall would be demolition for a constructive purpose. Combing a wig to set it correctly and pulling out hairs during the procedure with a metal toothed brush or comb would be constructive 'demolition', as each hair that is removed in the process of the wig (a utensil) is progressing its state towards a desired completion. Each hair's removal partially demolishes the wig (for these legal purposes) and is considered constructive when viewed in context of the desired goal.

See further: Mishneh Torah Shabbat 10:15; Ḥayei Adam Shabbat 39, 43

Final Completion/Fine-tuning/Perfecting
Hebrew: (Makeh bePatish), literally, one who strikes with a hammer.

Definition: Any initial act of completion.

This complex, and possibly most abstract section of Sabbath law, refers to activities completing an object and/or bringing it into its final useful form.

For example, if the pages of a newspaper were poorly separated, slicing them open would constitute the final act of completion of the pages.

Using a stapler involves transgressing final completion/fine-tuning/perfection in regard to the staple itself, (in addition to sewing affecting the papers being joined), which is brought into its final useful form by the base of the stapler forming the open staple into a curled clasp around the papers.

Adding hot water to a pre-made 'noodle-soup-pot' type cup (a dehydrated mixture of freeze-dried seasoning and noodles) would be the final act of completion for such a food as the manufacturer desired to make the product incomplete, awaiting the consumer to finish the cooking process at their convenience. This particular example would also violate Cooking/Baking as well if hot water from a kettle/urn was directly applied.

Musical instruments are Muktza, set aside for non-Sabbath use, as they are delicate and regularly require fixing and/or tuning as part of their regular use. Due to this, a Rabbinic restriction on handling musical instruments was enacted specifically because of Makeh bePatish. For example, if a guitar string is slightly out of tune, even though the whole instrument is not considered broken, the string requires tuning to bring the entire instrument to its desired state. As such, the corrective tuning renders an act of Makeh BePatish on the whole instrument. The guitar's said to be 'in tune', ready for usual use. This is considered a significant enough improvement to be an act of Makeh BePatish.

See further: Mishneh Torah Shabbat 10:16–18, 23:4–9; Ḥayei Adam Shabbat 44

Ignition
Hebrew: (Mav'ir)

Definition: Igniting, fueling or spreading a fire/flame.

This includes making, transferring or adding fuel to a fire. (Note, however, that transferring fire is permitted on Jewish holidays. It is an exception to the rule that activities prohibited on the Sabbath are likewise prohibited on holidays.) This is one of the few Sabbath prohibitions mentioned explicitly in the Torah.

Judaism requires Sabbath candles to be lit before the Sabbath; it is forbidden to light them on the Sabbath.

Ignition is one of the Sabbath laws that has been cited to prohibit electricity on Shabbat.

See further: Mishneh Torah Shabbat 12:1; Ḥayei Adam Shabbat 46

Extinguishing a fire
Hebrew: (Mechabeh)

Definition: Extinguishing a fire/flame, or diminishing its intensity.

While extinguishing a fire is forbidden even when great property damage will result, in the event of any life-threatening fire, the flames must be extinguished, by the principle of pikuaḥ nefesh.

See further: Shulḥan Arukh Oraḥ Ḥ ayim 334; Ḥayei Adam Shabbat 45

Transferring between domains
Hebrew: (Hoṣa'ah)

Definition: Transferring something from one domain type to another domain type or transferring within a public thoroughfare.

(Note, however, that Transferring between domain types is permitted on Jewish holidays. It is an exception to the rule that activities prohibited on the Sabbath are likewise prohibited on holidays.)

All areas are divided into four categories: a private domain (Reshut haYocḥid), a public thoroughfare (Reshut haRabim), an open, inhabited area (Karmelit) and areas not designated for human habitation, such as meadows, forests, etc. (Karpef). There are also special 'exempt areas' (Makom Potur) that only exist in public thoroughfares (and tend to be very small) with specific rules.

Transferring an object from a private domain to a public thoroughfare, and vice versa, is biblically forbidden. Transferring an object between an open area to a private domain or public thoroughfare is rabbinically prohibited. Transferring an object between an exempt area and any other domain is permissible. In addition, transferring an object for a distance of four cubits (or more) in a public thoroughfare or open area is forbidden.

For these purposes "transferring" means both "removing [from one domain type] and depositing [in another domain type]". As such, carrying an article out of one domain type and returning to the same domain type, without setting it down in the interim in a different domain type, does not violate this activity. However, it is rabbinically prohibited.

The definition of an area as public thoroughfare or private domain is related to its degree of enclosure, not solely based on ownership.

This law is often referred to as carrying. This is a misnomer: carrying within a private domain is permitted; and carrying within an open area is biblically permitted (though rabbinically forbidden).

See further: Ḥayei Adam Shabbat 47–56.

Exception: Saving of human life
When human life is endangered, a Jew is not only allowed, but required, to violate any Sabbath law that stands in the way of saving that person. The concept of life being in danger is interpreted broadly; for example, it is mandated that one violate the Sabbath to take a woman in active labor to a hospital.

title: 39 Melakhot


text:
Slave Labor Graphics

Slave Labor Graphics (SLG) is an independent American comic book publisher, well known for publishing darkly humorous, offbeat adult comics. Creators associated with SLG over the years include Evan Dorkin, Roman Dirge, Sarah Dyer, Woodrow Phoenix, Jhonen Vasquez, and Andi Watson.

Company history
Slave Labor Graphics was started in 1986 by Dan Vado, who remains the company's president and publisher.

The first book Slave Labor Graphics published was ShadowStar #3, a female superhero character previously published independently by some of Vado's friends. The company's first wave of titles — Samurai Penguin, Barrabas, Lee Flea, and The Light — were all written by Vado, with art by a variety of creators. Other early titles, such as Hero Sandwich and It's Science With Dr. Radium, were all created by friends of Vado's from high school.

Slave Labor Graphics's first major success was Samurai Penguin #1 by Vado and Mark Buck, which sold 58,000 copies in the summer of 1986. Other successes were Milk & Cheese, a comic about mean-spirited anthropomorphic dairy products by Evan Dorkin, and Johnny the Homicidal Maniac, a comic about the adventures of a serial killer by Jhonen Vasquez. In this time period, comic book speculation was rampant, so Slave Labor Graphics was able to sell its entire print run of many titles. However, at the end of the mid-1990s speculation bubble, some distributors went out of business without paying Slave Labor Graphics.

In 1995, Slave Labor Graphics added a more genre-oriented imprint called "Amaze Ink" intended to be for all audiences; the "stranger, more adult, and more difficult to categorize material" would still be published under the main "Slave Labor" imprint.

In 2005, Slave Labor Graphics entered into a partnership with The Walt Disney Company to produce comic book series based on some of its properties: Haunted Mansion, Wonderland, Tron, and Gargoyles. Its own creations, such as Little Gloomy (1999–2005), Kid Gravity (2003–2007), and The Super Scary Monster Show: Featuring Little Gloomy (2005–2007), appeared regularly in Disney Adventures magazine.

In September 2008, SLG remodeled its lobby to be a smaller gallery/shop which opened as Boutiki in San Jose in December 2008. The gallery/shop is still operating (with name of Art Boutiki) as of 2014 December.

In late 2010, Slave Labor Graphics established an independent record label entitled Slab Yard Sound Company.

In January 2012, editor-in-chief Jennifer de Guzman, who had been with the company since 2001, left to become the PR and Marketing Director at Image Comics.

Titles

 * Absent Friends (2004)
 * A Bag of Anteaters
 * Action Girl Comics #1–19 (by Sarah Dyer, 1994–2001)
 * Adora Gone and The Electric Electric Elephant (2010)
 * Awkward (by Ariel Schrag, 1999)
 * Autumn #1–5 (2004–2006)
 * Babyhead Magazine #1 (2004)
 * Babysitter
 * Bad Art Collection
 * Barrabas #1–2 (1986)
 * Bear #1–10 (by Jamie Smart, 2004–2005)
 * Beer and Roaming in Las Vegas
 * Bill The Clown 3 issues (1992–1993)
 * Bloody Dreadful (by Justin Bastard Sane)
 * Black Heart Billy
 * Bombaby Screen Goddess #1–3 plus a TPB (by Antony Mazzotta, 2003–2004)
 * Byron: Mad, Bad, and Dangerous (by Karl Christian Krumpholz, 2007)
 * Cactus Thief #1–20
 * Caffeine #1–10 (by Jim Hill; April 1996 – 1999)
 * Camping with Bigfoot
 * Captain Dingleberry
 * The Cat With The Really Big Head
 * Cemetarians 6 issues (2008)
 * Charm School #1–9 (by Elizabeth Watasin; Apr. 2000 – 2003)
 * Chumble Spuzz (by Ethan Nicolle, 2008)
 * The Clarence Principle (by Fehed Said and Shari Chankhamma, 2007)
 * Cocopiazo
 * The Comical Tragedy of Punch and Judy
 * Comic Book Heaven
 * Corporate Ninja (2005)
 * Dead Eyes Open (by Matt Shepherd and Roy Boney, 2005)
 * Definition
 * Dim Witted Darryl
 * Dork #1–11 (by Evan Dorkin, 1993–2006; continued by Dark Horse Comics)
 * Dr. Grave (by Ed Clayton
 * Dystopik Snomen (by Don M. Haring, Jr., 1995)
 * Eating Steve: A Love Story
 * Egg Story
 * Elmer
 * Emily and the Intergalactic Lemonade Stand
 * Emo Boy #1–11 (by Steve Emond, 2005–2007)
 * Empty Love Stories #1–2 (all stories written by Steve Darnall, Nov. 1994 – Aug. 1996)
 * Evenfall (by Pete Stathis, 2004)
 * Everwinds
 * Everything Can Be Beaten
 * Farewell Georgia
 * Fishmasters
 * Gargoyles  15 issues (by Greg Weisman, et al; a continuation of the TV series)
 * Ghost Ship #1–3 (by Jon Lewis, Mar. 1996 – Oct. 1996)
 * Ghouly Boys
 * Gloomcookie #1–28 (by Serena Valentino and Vincent Batignole, 1999–2006)
 * The Griffin (by Dan Vado)
 * Halo and Sprocket #1–4 (2002)
 * Haunted Mansion
 * Heart of a Corpse (by Justin Bastard Sane)
 * Hectic Planet (by Evan Dorkin; previously known as Pirate Corp$)
 * Hero Sandwich #1–5 (1987–1989)
 * Highway 13 #1–10 (by Les McClaine, 2001–2003)
 * Hummingbird
 * Hsu and Chan (by Jeremy "Norm" Scott)
 * I Feel Sick #1–2 (by Jhonen Vasquez, 1999–2000)
 * Imp
 * Iliad #1–2
 * ''It's Science With Doctor Radium (1986)
 * ''Jellyfist (by Jhonen Vasquez and Jenny Goldberg)
 * Jet Comics #1–3
 * Jet Pack Pets
 * Johnny the Homicidal Maniac #1–7 (by Jhonen Vasquez, 1995–1997)
 * Kitsune Tales #1 (by Woodrow Phoenix and Andi Watson, 2003)
 * Knights of the Living Dead
 * Lenore #1–13 (by Roman Dirge, 1998–2007)
 * Life of a Fetus #1–7
 * Likewise #1–2 (by Ariel Schrag, 2002)
 * Little Gloomy #1–6 (by Landry Walker and Eric Jones, 1999)
 * Little Gloomy Adventures one-shot (2003)
 * Little Gloomy Crypt of Creepts one-shot (2004)
 * Little Gloomy Hallowe'en Special one-shot
 * Little Scrowlie 18 issues (by Jennifer Feinberg and Todd Meister; Mar. 2003 – Jan. 2008)
 * Longshot Comics, Shanne Simmons (volume 1: 1995. volume 2: 1997)
 * Love In Tights
 * Metamorphosis Odyssey (by Jim Starlin)
 * Midnight Sun
 * Milk & Cheese 7 issues plus a TPB (by Evan Dorkin, 1991–2000)
 * Mister Blank 15 issues (by Christopher J. Hicks, 1996–1998)
 * Model A
 * The Monsters In My Tummy
 * Mr. Night
 * Murder Can Be Fun #1–12 (anthology; 1996–1999)
 * MuZz
 * My Monkey's Name is Jennifer (2002)
 * Next Exit #1–10 (by Christy Lijewski; 2004 – 2006)
 * Nightmares & Fairy Tales #1–23 (by Serena Valentino and Camilla D'Errico, May 2002 – May 2008)
 * Nil: A Land Beyond Belief original graphic novel (by James Turner, 2005)
 * No Hope
 * Oblivion City
 * Oddjob #1–8 (by Ian Smith and Tyson Smith, Spring 1999 – May 2001)
 * On the Bus
 * One Fisted Tales #1–11 (anthology, 1990 – Aug. 1994)
 * Outlook:Grim #1–6 (2003–2004)
 * The Pants Ant Trouser Hour
 * Paris (by Andi Watson, 2005–2006)
 * Patty Cake 33 issues (by Scott Roberts; 1997–2005)
 * Pinocchio: Vampire Slayer
 * Pirate Club #1–10 (by Derek Hunter & Elias Pate, 2004–2006)
 * Pirate Corp$ (by Evan Dorkin, 1989–1993)
 * The Price
 * Private Beach #1–7? (2002?)
 * Punk Rock & Trailer Parks (2008)
 * The Replacement God #1–8 (by Zander Cannon, June 1995 –1997)
 * Rex Libris #1–13 (by James Turner, 2005–2008)
 * Rogue Satellite Comics #1–3 (Reilly & Atkinson, 1996–1997)
 * The Royal Historian of Oz
 * Samurai Jam #3–4 (by Andi Watson, 1993, previously Samurai Funnies, published by Solson Publications)
 * Samurai Penguin #1–8 (1986–1988)
 * Samurai Penguin: Food Chain Follies #1
 * Sanctuary
 * Screenplay #1
 * Screwtooth #1-? (2006)
 * Serenity Rose #1–5 (by Aaron Alexovich, 2003–2004)
 * Seth Throb, Underground Artist
 * Shadoweyes (by Sophie Campbell, 2010)
 * ShadowStar #3 (1986; #1–2 published by Savage Graphics)
 * Sidney Mellon's Thunderskull!
 * The Sister's Luck (by Shari Chankhamma, 2010)
 * Skaggy The Lost #1–4, trade paperback
 * Skeleton Girl Comics #1–3
 * Skeleton Key #1–30 (by Andi Watson, July 1995 – Jan. 1998 )
 * Sky Ape #1–4
 * Slacker Comics #1–18 (by Doug Slack, Aug. 1994 – Oct. 1998)
 * Slow News Day (by Andi Watson, 2001)
 * Street Angel #1–5 (by Jim Rugg, 2004–2005)
 * Space Bunny #1–30
 * Sparks
 * Spot the Dog #1–5 (by Brian Villaverde, 2007)
 * Squee #1–4 (by Jhonen Vasquez, 1997–1998)
 * Strongman by Charles Soule
 * Sugar Buzz #1–9 (by Ian Carney and Woodrow Phoenix, Jan. 1998 – May 2002)
 * Swerve #1–2 (by "Downer" creator Kyle S. Hunter)
 * T+ #1–16
 * The Jam #2–6, 1989–1990 (by Bernie Mireault; came from Matrix Graphics, moved to Dark Horse Comics)
 * The Super Scary Monster Show: Featuring Little Gloomy
 * Tales from the Heart #3–11, 1988 – May 1994 (by Cindy Goff, Rafael Nieves and Seitu Hayden; came from Entropy Enterprises)
 * Tron: The Ghost in the Machine (2006–2008; miniseries following up the film and the video game TRON 2.0)
 * The Trouble With Igor #1 (2006)
 * True Swamp #4–5 (by Jon Lewis, Oct. 1994 – Feb. 1995); first 3 issues published by Peristaltic Press
 * Truth Serum
 * Ubu Bubu #1–4 (2008–2009)
 * Ursa Minors #1-? (2006)
 * Vaistron #1–5 (2005)
 * The Vesha Valentine Story (by Des Taylor, 2011)
 * The Waiting Place 18 issues (by Sean McKeever, Mike Norton, and David Yurkovich; Apr. – Sept. 1997; Nov. 1999 – Feb. 2002)
 * Weird Science (1986)
 * Where's It At, Sugar Kat? #1–3 (by Woodrow Phoenix and Ian Carney, Sept. 2000 – Mar. 2001)
 * Whistles (by Andrew Hussie, 2007)
 * Wonderland
 * Zombies Calling (by Faith Erin Hicks, 2007)

title: Slave Labor Graphics


text:
Hayama, Kanagawa

Hayama (葉山町) is a town located in Kanagawa Prefecture, on central Honshū, Japan. , the town had an estimated population of 32,961 and a population density of 1900 persons per km2. The total area of the town is 17.06 sqkm. Since 1894, the Japanese Imperial Family has maintained a residence in Hayama, the seaside Hayama Imperial Villa.

Geography
Hayama is located at the northern end of Miura Peninsula, facing Sagami Bay on the Pacific Ocean. Geographically, it is often cited as the easternmost point of the Shōnan region.

Surrounding municipalities
Kanagawa Prefecture
 * Zushi
 * Yokosuka

Climate
Hayama has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa) characterized by warm summers and cool winters with light to no snowfall. The average annual temperature in Hayama is 15.8 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1872 mm with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 24.6 °C, and lowest in January, at around 6.4 °C.

Demographics
Per Japanese census data, the population of Hayama has recently plateaued after a long period of growth.

History
During the Edo period, all of eastern Sagami Province was tenryō territory under direct control of the Tokugawa shogunate, and administered by various hatamoto. With the establishment of the modern municipalities system the early Meiji period in April 1889, the area was reorganized into Hayama village through the merger of six hamlets. Hayama was elevated to town status in 1925.

Government
Hayama has a mayor-council form of government with a directly elected mayor and a unicameral town council of 14 members. Hayama, together with neighboring Zushi, contributes one member to the Kanagawa Prefectural Assembly. In terms of national politics, the town is part of Kanagawa 4th district of the lower house of the Diet of Japan.

Economy
Despite its lack of rail connections, Hayama is now primarily a commuter town for Tokyo and Yokohama and, due to its mild climate, a popular resort area with a marina. From the Meiji period it became a prestigious summer home location for the upper classes of Tokyo, partly due to the prestige of the Imperial villa. In the postwar period, its popularity continued with actors, artists and wealthy expatriates. Local agricultural produce includes shiitake mushrooms, and a brand of beef known as "Hayama-gyu".

Education
Hayama has four public elementary schools and two public middle schools operated by the town government. In addition, the Graduate University for Advanced Studies's main administrative campus is hosted here.

Railway
Hayama has no passenger rail service. The nearest train station is the Yokosuka Line Zushi Station or Keikyū Zushi Line Zushi·Hayama Station in neighboring Zushi.

Sister city relations

 * 🇯🇵 – Kusatsu, Gunma, since March 1969
 * 🇦🇺 – City of Holdfast Bay, South Australia (Australia) since 1997; November 18, 2009, Holdfast Bay wrote a letter signed by their Deputy Mayor admonishing Hayama for Japan's whaling in the Southern Ocean.

Local attractions

 * Museum of Modern Art, Kamakura & Hayama

Notable people from Hayama, Kanagawa

 * Prince Tomohito of Mikasa (1946–2012), member of the Imperial House of Japan and the eldest son of Takahito, Prince Mikasa and Yuriko, Princess Mikasa
 * Yasuko Kosuge (born 1974), Japanese former windsurfer
 * Sekai (born 1991), singer, dancer and J-pop idol, leader and member of J-pop boygroup Fantastics from Exile Tribe (Real Name: Sekai Yamamoto, Nihongo: 山本 世界, Yamamoto Sekai)
 * miwa (born 1990), Japanese singer-songwriter and actress

title: Hayama, Kanagawa


text:
Baby shower

A baby shower is a party centered on gift-giving to celebrate the delivery or expected birth of a child. It is a rite of passage that celebrates through giving gifts and spending time together.

Etymology
The term shower is often assumed to mean that the expectant parent is "showered" with gifts. A related custom, called a bridal shower, may have derived its name from the custom in the 19th century for the presents to be put inside a parasol, which when opened would "shower" the bride-to-be with gifts.

Description
Traditionally, baby showers are given only for the family's first child, and only women are invited to party .... though this has changed in recent years, now allowing showers being split up for different audiences: workplace, mixed-sex, etc. Smaller showers, or showers in which guests are encouraged to give only diapers or similar necessities, are common for subsequent babies.

Activities at baby showers include gift-giving and playing themed games. Giving gifts is a primary activity. Baby shower games vary, sometimes including standard games such as bingo, and sometimes being pregnancy-themed, such as "guess the mother's measurements" or "guess the baby".

According to etiquette authority Miss Manners, because the party centers on gift-giving, the baby shower is typically arranged and hosted by a close friend rather than a member of the family, since it is considered improper for families to beg for gifts on behalf of their members. The pregnant mother, as well as her mother and mother-in-law, and any sisters and sisters-in-law are commonly considered too closely related to properly host a baby shower, but a more distant family member, such as a cousin, might be accepted. However, this custom varies by culture or region and in some it is expected and customary for a close female family member to host the baby shower.

Timing
Pre-birth baby showers may be held late in the pregnancy, but not usually during the last few weeks, in case of a pre-term birth.

Many cultures do not have pre-birth celebrations. When a baby shower is held after a baby's birth, an invitation to attend the shower may be combined with a baby announcement. In China, it is considered unlucky to have a baby shower before the baby is born, and gifts are usually sent after the birth, unrelated to a party. In the US, if a baby shower does not happen before the arrival of the baby, a sip-and-see party or other similar events can be organized after the birth.

Gifts
Guests bring small gifts for the expectant parent. Typical gifts related to babies include diapers, blankets, baby bottles, clothes, and toys. It is common to open gifts during the party; sometimes the host will make a game of opening gifts.

Whether and how a gift registry is used depends partly on the family's class, because wealthier families do not depend on the gifts received to care for the baby. Preparing a gift registry is a time-consuming and potentially fun activity for the parents-to-be. It may result in less personal gifts (e.g., the purchase of a store-bought item instead of a handmade one). As with gift registries for other gift-giving occasions, some guests appreciate them, and others do not.

Some families discourage gifts, saying that they want "your presence, not presents", or organizing a different activity, such as a blessing ceremony.

Social significance
In the United States, the baby shower is the only public event that recognizes a woman's transition into motherhood.

The baby shower is a family's first opportunity to gather people together to help play a part in their child's life. The new parents may wish to call on people to assist in the upbringing of their child, and help educate the child over time. People around the family, who care for them, want to be involved in the child's life, and a baby shower presents an opportunity for them to give gifts and be of help, showing their love for the family. If it happens before the birth, it allows the new family to thank everyone.

History
Baby showers are relatively new, having become popular only in the middle of the 20th century, but other celebrations and rituals associated with pregnancy and childbirth are both ancient and enduring.

 * Ancient Egypt: In ancient Egypt, rituals relating to the birth of a child took place after the event itself. Quite unlike modern baby showers, this involved the mother and the child being separated to "contain and eliminate the pollution of birth" – this may have included visiting local temples or shrines. After this, household rituals may have taken place, but the specifics are hard to study as these are such female-focuses events.
 * Ancient and Modern India: In India, a pregnancy ritual has been followed since the Vedic ages: an event called Simantha, held in the 7th or 8th month. The mother-to-be is showered with dry fruits, sweets and other gifts that help the baby's growth. A musical event to please the baby's ears is the highlight of the ritual, as it was common knowledge that the baby's ears would start functioning within the womb. The ritual prays for a healthy baby and mother, as well as a happy delivery and motherhood.
 * Ancient Greece: The ancient Greeks also celebrated pregnancy after the birth, with a shout (oloyge) after the labor has ended, to indicate that "peace had arrived". Five to seven days later, there is a ceremony called Amphidromia, to indicate that the baby had integrated into the household. In wealthy families, the public dekate ceremony, after ten days, indicated the mother's return to society. (The ten-day period is still observed in modern-day Iran.)
 * Medieval Europe: Due to the likelihood a mother would die in childbirth, this time was recognized as having a great risk of spiritual danger in addition to the risk of physical danger. Priests would often visit women during labor so they could confess their sins. After the birth, usually on the same day, a baptism ceremony would take place for the baby. In this ceremony, the godparents would give gifts to the child, including a pair of silver spoons.
 * Renaissance Europe: Pregnancies at this time were celebrated with many other kinds of birth gifts: functional items, like wooden trays and bowls, as well as paintings, sculptures, and food. Childbirth was seen as almost mystical, and mothers-to-be were often surrounded with references to the Annunciation by way of encouragement and celebration.
 * Victorian Britain and North America: Superstitions sometimes led to speculation that a woman might be pregnant, such as two teaspoons being accidentally placed together on a saucer. Gifts were usually hand-made, but the grandmother would give silver, such as a spoon, mug, or porringer. In Britain, the manners of the upper-class (and, later, middle-class) required pregnancy to be treated with discretion: the declining of social invitations was often the only hint given. After the birth, a monthly nurse would be engaged, whose duties included regulating visitors. When the nanny took over, the mother began to resume normal domestic life, and the resumption of the weekly 'at home' afternoon tea an opportunity for female friends to visit. The Christening - usually held when the child was between 8-12 weeks old - was an important social event for the family, godparents and friends.
 * Modern North America: The modern baby shower in America started in the late 1940s and the 1950s, as post-war women were expecting the Baby Boomers generation. As in earlier eras, when young women married and were provided with trousseaux, the shower served the function of providing the mother and her home with useful material goods.

While continuing the traditions from the 1950s, modern technology has altered the form a baby shower takes: games can include identifying baby parts on a sonogram. Moreover, although traditional baby showers were female-exclusive, mixed-sex showers have increased in frequency.

In different countries
Baby showers and other social events to celebrate an impending or recent birth are popular around the world, but not in Western Europe. They are often women-only social gatherings.

 * In Armenia, a baby shower is called "qarasunq" (քառասունք) and is celebrated 40 days after the birth. It is a mixed party for all relatives and friends. Guests usually bring gifts for the baby or parents.
 * In Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the United States, baby showers are a common tradition.
 * In Brazil, a party called "chá de bebê" (baby tea) is offered before birth.
 * In Bulgaria, as a superstition, no baby gifts are given to the family before the baby's birth. However, family and friends give or send unsolicited gifts to the newborn baby, even if some babies are kept from the public for the first 40 days to prevent early infections.
 * In Chinese tradition a baby shower, manyue (满月), is held one month after the baby is born.
 * In Hmong culture, a baby shower is called "Puv Hli", and is held one month after the baby is born. A ceremony would be hosted by the paternal grandparents or the father to welcome the baby to the family by tying the baby's wrist with white yarn and/or strings.
 * In Costa Rica, a baby shower party is called té de canastilla ("basket tea"), and multiple events are held for a single pregnancy for the family, co-workers, and friends.
 * In Egypt a baby shower is known as " Sebouh " (سبوع) (sebouh means week) which is usually celebrated one week after birth hence its name. This is usually celebrated with a DJ, much decoration, a food and candy buffet, activities and games.
 * In Guatemala, only women attend this event. Middle-class women usually celebrate more than one baby shower (one with close friends, co-workers, family, etc.).
 * In Indian tradition, they are called by different names depending on the family's community.
 * In northern India it is known as godbharaai (filled lap), in the Punjab region, it is also known as "reet". In western India, especially Maharashtra, the celebration is known as dohaaljewan, and in Odisha it is called saadhroshi. In West Bengal, in many places a party named "sadh" (সাধ) or "sadhbhokkhon" (সাধভক্ষণ) is observed on the seventh month of pregnancy. After this, the woman resides in her father's house instead of her husband's until the birth.
 * In southern India, in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh it is called seemantham, valaikaapu or poochoottal. The expecting mother wears bangles and is adorned with flowers.
 * In Karnataka it is called seemanta(ಸೀಮಂತ) or kubasa (ಕುಬಸ). It is held when the woman is in her 5th, 7th, or 9th month of pregnancy.
 * In coastal Karnataka, especially in Tulunadu (Tulu speaking region), the ceremony is also known as "baayake" ('ಬಾಯಕೆ'). Baayake in Tulu means desire. It is popularly considered that pregnant women crave fruits and eatables during the pregnancy period; and the ceremony was designed in the olden days to fulfill the desire or food cravings of the mother-to-be.
 * Although these might be celebrated together, they are very different: seemantham is a religious ceremony, while valaikappu and poochoottal are purely social events much like Western baby showers. In a valaikappu or poochoottal, music is played and the expectant mother is decked in traditional attire with many flowers and garlands made of jasmine or mogra. A swing is decorated with flowers of her choice, which she uses to sit and swing. At times, symbolic cut-outs of moons and stars are put up. The elderly ladies from the household and community shower blessings on the expectant mother and gifts are given to her.
 * In Gujarat, it is known as seemant or kholo bharyo, a religious ritual for most Gujarati Hindus during the 5th or 7th month of pregnancy, usually only for the first child. The expectant mother can only go to her father's house for delivery after her seemant. They offer special prayer and food to the goddess "Randal, the wife of the Sun".
 * In Jain tradition, the baby shower ceremony is often called as "Shreemant". The expectant mother can go to her father's house in the 5th month of pregnancy and has to come back before the baby shower ceremony. After the ceremony the expectant mother cannot go back to her father's house. The ceremony is only performed on Sunday, Tuesday or Thursday of the seventh or ninth month of pregnancy. During the ceremony one of the practice is that the younger brother-in-law of the expectant mother dips his hands in Kumkuma water and slaps the expectant mother seven times on her cheeks and then the expectant mother slaps her younger brother-in-law seven times on his cheeks.
 * In Kerala it is known as pulikudi or vayattu pongala', and is practiced predominantly in the Nair community, though its popularity has spread to other Hindu sects over the years. On an auspicious day, after being massaged with homemade ayurvedic oil the woman has a customary bath with the help of the elderly women in the family. After this, the family deity is worshipped, invoking all the paradevatas (family deities) and a concoction of herbal medicines prepared traditionally, is given to the woman. She is dressed in new clothes and jewellery used for such occasions. A big difference in the western concept of baby shower and Hindu tradition is that the Hindu ceremony is a religious ceremony to pray for the baby's well-being. In most conservative families, gifts are bought for the mother-to-be but not the baby. The baby is showered with gifts only after birth.

 * In Iran, a baby shower (Persian:حمام زایمان) is also called a "sismooni party" (Persian:جشن سیسمونی). It is celebrated 1–3 months before the baby's birth. Family and close friends give gifts intended for the baby such as a cot, toys, and baby clothes.
 * In the Islamic tradition of Aqiqah, an animal (such as a sheep) is slaughtered anytime after the birth, and the meat is distributed among relatives and the poor. The practice is considered sunnah and is not done universally.
 * In Italy a party is held when the expectant mother is three or four months pregnant. Marked by the revelation of the baby's gender to parents, friends, and relatives, this festive gathering features an array of food and music. Symbolically, colored balloons, either pink or blue, are released into the air, signifying the anticipated arrival of a baby girl or boy. Attendees express their well-wishes through the presentation of gifts to the soon-to-be parents; this tradition has been recently imported to Italy, where it was not celebrated before the early 2010s;
 * In Mongolia, a baby shower is called "хүүхдийн угаалга" (huuhdyn ugaalga).
 * In Nepal a baby shower is known as "dahi chiura khuwaune". The mother-to-be is given gifts from her elders and a meal is cooked for her according to her preferences. The pregnant mother is often invited by her relatives to eat meals with them. Pasni is a traditional celebration that often marks a baby boy's 6th month or a baby girl's fifth month, marking the transition to a diet higher in carbohydrates and allowing guests to bestow blessings, and money and other gifts.
 * In Puerto Rico, a baby shower is celebrated anytime after other family members are made aware of the pregnancy, but typically during the last trimester. The grandmother, sisters, or friends of the pregnant mother organize the celebration and invite other relatives and friends. It is not common for men to attend baby showers. The "bendición" (blessing) is bestowed money and other gifts.
 * In Russia, and Commonwealth of Independent States, there are no baby showers, though some of the younger generation are starting to adopt the custom.
 * In South Africa, a baby shower is called a stork party (named after the folk myth that a white stork delivers babies), and typically takes place during the mother's 6th month. Stork parties, usually not attended by men and often organized as a surprise for the mother, involve silliness such as dressing up, and mothers receive gifts of baby supplies.
 * In Vietnam, as a superstition no baby shower should be planned before the baby arrives. The baby shower is only organized when it is one month old. The baby shower is known as “Đầy tháng” which means “one full month”. The party is usually organized by the baby’s parents and/or the grandparents (baby’s father’s side). Relatives and close friends are invited. Gifts are welcomed, but try to avoid white color material gifts such as white clothing, white towels, white cloths … (mourning color)

Baby showers for fathers
Some baby showers are directed at fathers. These may be more oriented towards drinking beer, watching sports, fishing, or playing video games. The primary nature of these gifts is diapers and/or diaper-related items. The organization of the diaper party is typically done by the friends of the father-to-be as a way of helping to prepare for the coming child. These parties may be held at local pubs/bars, a friend's house, or the soon-to-be grandfather's house. In the United Kingdom, this is called wetting the baby's head, and is generally more common than baby showers. However, with the growth of American cultural influence – accelerated through celebrities via social media sites like Instagram – baby shower decorations are becoming more common in the United Kingdom. Wetting the baby's head is traditionally when the father celebrates the birth by having a few drinks and getting drunk with a group of friends.

There has been some controversy over these, with Judith Martin calling them a "monstrous imposition", although she was referring to the attitude of demanding gifts and not necessarily the male version of a baby shower.

In Hungary, such an event is called a milking party, and is held by tradition in favor of the mother to be blessed with breast milk for the newborn. Practically, it is the last day-off of the father for some time as he is expected to stay home to help. No similar domestic custom exists for mothers, such as a baby shower. Gifts for the baby are given on the first visit to his/her home. This, due to health concerns, happens at the appropriate and suitable time for each counterpart.

Names for events

 * Diaper shower refers to a small-scale baby shower, generally for subsequent children, when the parents don't need as many baby supplies.
 * Grandma's shower refers to a shower at which people bring items for the grandparents to keep at their house, such as a collapsible crib and a changing pad.
 * Sprinkles or mistings are small showers for a subsequent child, especially a child who is of a different gender than the previous offspring.
 * A sip and see party is a celebration usually planned by the new parents after the baby's birth, so that friends and family can sip on refreshments and meet the new baby.
 * An adoption shower is held to celebrate a child's adoption into a family. Such events are called welcome parties when it's an older child being adopted rather than an infant.

title: Baby shower


text:
Miura District, Kanagawa

Miura District (三浦郡) is a district located in Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan.

As of 2009, the district has an estimated population of 32,333 and a density of 1,900 persons per km2. The total area is 17.06 km2.

It currently consists of only one town, Hayama. The cities of Yokosuka, Zushi and Miura were formerly part of Miura District.

Towns and villages

 * Hayama

History
Miura District was one of the ancient subdivisions of Sagami Province, covering all of Miura Peninsula. It was under the control of the Miura clan from the late Heian period through the Sengoku period, and was held as tenryō territory administered by the shōgun under the Tokugawa shogunate of the Edo period. After the Meiji Restoration, it was established as a district under the cadastral reform of 1878, with a district office built near what is now Shioiri Station.

Timeline

 * On April 1, 1889, Miura District was divided into the following municipalities under the Meiji :
 * three towns (Yokosuka, Uraga and Misaki)
 * 12 villages (Toyoshima, Kinugasa, Urago, Kurihama, Nagai, Takeyama, Kitashitaura, Nakanishiura, Tagoe, Hayama, Minamishitaura and Hasse).
 * On October 1, 1903, Toyoshima Village was promoted town status, but was absorbed into the town of Yokosuka on December 15, 1906 (which Yokosuka was promoted city status on February 15, 1907).
 * On July 1, 1911, Nakanishiura Village was renamed as the village of Nishiura.
 * On June 1, 1914, Urago Village was promoted town status and was renamed as the town of Taura.
 * On April 1, 1924, Tagoe Village was promoted town status and was renamed as the town of Zushi.
 * On January 1, 1925, Hayama Village was promoted town status.
 * On February 2, 1925, Nagai Village was promoted town status.
 * On February 15, 1933, Kinugasa Village was absorbed into the city of Yokosuka.
 * On April 1, 1933, Taura Town was absorbed into the city of Yokosuka.
 * On July 1, 1935, Nishiura Village was promoted town status and was renamed as the town of Okusu.
 * On April 1, 1937, Kuriham Village was absorbed into the city of Yokosuka.
 * On April 1, 1940, Minamishtaura Village was promoted town status.
 * However, in 1943, Yokosuka expanded greatly by absorbing the towns of Uraga, Zushi, Nagai and Okusu and the two neighboring villages of Takeyama and Kitashitaura.
 * On July 1, 1950, Zushi was separated from Yokosuka (becoming an independent municipality once again; which was promoted city status on July 1, 1954).
 * On January 1, 1955, Minamishitaura Town, Misaki Town and Hasse Village merged to form the city of Miura.

As of 2009, this leaves only the town of Hayama as the sole remaining portion of Miura District.

title: Miura District, Kanagawa


text:
Fumigation

Fumigation is a method of pest control or the removal of harmful microorganisms by completely filling an area with gaseous pesticides, or fumigants, to suffocate or poison the pests within. It is used to control pests in buildings (structural fumigation), soil, grain, and produce. Fumigation is also used during the processing of goods for import or export to prevent the transfer of exotic organisms.

Structural fumigation targets pests inside buildings (usually residences), including pests that inhabit the physical structure itself, such as woodborers and drywood termites. Commodity fumigation, on the other hand, is also to be conducted inside a physical structure, such as a storage unit, but it aims to eliminate pests from infesting physical goods, usually food products, by killing pests within the container which will house them.

Each fumigation lasts for a certain duration. This is because after spraying the pesticides, or fumigants, only the pests around are eradicated.

Process
Fumigation generally involves the following phases: first, humans are evacuated from the area intended for fumigation and the area covered to create a sealed environment. Next, the fumigant is released into the space to be fumigated. The space is held for a set period while the fumigant gas percolates through the space and acts on/kills any infestation in the area. Finally, the space is ventilated so that the poisonous gases are allowed to escape from the space, rendering it safe for humans to enter. If successful, the fumigated area is now safe and pest free.

Tent fumigation
Structural fumigation techniques differ from building to building. In a residential setting, a "rubber" tent or tents, typically made of plastic/pvc coated canvas material, may be placed over the entire house while the pesticides are being released into the vacant residence. This process is called tent fumigation, or "tenting". The sealed tent concentrates the poisonous gases and prevents them from escaping into the neighborhood. It is commonly used for sulfuryl fluoride for the treatment of termites.

Operating theatres
Fumigation of hospital rooms with high concentrations of toxic chemicals has been proposed to reduce microbial agents on hospital surfaces and to control surgical site infections. Formaldehyde fumigation has long been an accepted method for areas where microbiological cleanliness is required. Fumigation with formaldehyde vapor is the recognized and most commonly used method because it is a cost-effective procedure. However, alternative methods are sought due to safety and efficacy concerns. Vaporized hydrogen peroxide is a dry gaseous method that has been used as a reliable alternative for aseptic processing isolators, and more recently, for room/facility decontamination. Hydrogen peroxide and silver in solution and diluted in water is a non-toxic and low cost agent. For example, to fumigate a 1000ft3 (~28.32 m3) area, a 20% solution (200mL of solution in 1000mL demineralized water) would be sprayed via fogger for 30 minutes. Fogging may be done at a rate of up to 130mL/minute and the contact time should be at least one hour.

Chemicals
At the heart of this technology is the use of chemicals. Ideally, these chemicals kill or passivate the targeted creatures without harming others. Usually such a feat is impossible, so fumigation is conducted in the absence of humans.

Discontinued or rarely used
Many chemicals have been discontinued owing to safety issues.
 * Ethylene dibromide, carcinogenic
 * Methallyl chloride, carcinogenic
 * dazomet (methyl isothiocyanate precursor)
 * DBCP
 * formaldehyde
 * hydrogen cyanide, extremely toxic
 * iodoform, expensive vs methyl bromide
 * methyl isocyanate

Safety
Fumigation is a hazardous operation. Generally it is a legal requirement that the operator who carries out the fumigation operation holds official certification to perform the fumigation, as the chemicals used are toxic to most forms of life, including humans.

Post operation ventilation of the area is a critical safety aspect of fumigation. It is important to distinguish between the pack or source of the fumigant gas and the environment which has been fumigated. While the fumigant pack may be safe and spent, the space will still hold the fumigant gas until it has been ventilated.

Early publication

 * W. G. Johnson, Fumigation Methods (New York, 1902)

title: Fumigation


text:
Altafiber

Cincinnati Bell, Inc., doing business as Altafiber, is a regional telecommunications service provider based in Cincinnati, Ohio, United States. It provides landline telephone, fiber-optic Internet, and IPTV services through its subsidiaries Altafiber Home Phone and Hawaiian Telcom, which are the incumbent local exchange carriers for the Greater Cincinnati metropolitan area (aka "The Tri-State") and Hawaii. Other subsidiaries provide enterprise information technology services and long distance calling.

Cincinnati Bell was founded in 1873 as a telegraph company and for much of its history was a Bell System franchisee. In the 1990s, Cincinnati Bell expanded into Internet access and mobile phone services. The company divested its mobile phone service in 2014 to focus on enterprise and fiber-optic services. It was acquired in September 2021 by Macquarie Infrastructure and Real Assets, and began doing business as Altafiber in March 2022.

History

Cincinnati Bell was founded as the City and Suburban Telegraph Association on July 5, 1873. Founder Charles Kilgour had run the Cincinnati Street Railway with his brother John but became homebound after an accident and began running his business from home via telegraph. The City and Suburban Telegraph Association ran telegraph lines between homes and businesses beginning in 1873, three years before the invention of the telephone. In 1878, it gained exclusive rights to the Bell franchise within a 25 mi radius of Cincinnati, becoming the first telephone exchange in Ohio and the tenth in the United States. It has substantially the same three-state incumbent local exchange carrier territory today. On August 21, 1877, it signed its first telephone customer, the Cincinnati Gas-Light and Coke Company (later known as Cincinnati Gas and Electric).

The company was renamed Cincinnati and Suburban Bell Telephone Company in 1903.

From 1930 to 1952, the company converted its exchanges from staffed switchboards to dial service. Seven-digit dialing was introduced in 1962. In 1968, electromechanical switching equipment was replaced by one of the first electronic switching systems. The company formally simplified its name to Cincinnati Bell in 1971.

In May 1999, the Public Utilities Commission of Ohio awarded Cincinnati Bell Long Distance the right to offer local wireline telephone service in 55 counties outside its incumbent territory and the company began to resell business local phone service in these counties, in competition with incumbent carrier Ameritech.

During the 1990s, Cincinnati Bell acquired a nationwide transmission network formerly known as IXC Communications and changed its corporate name to "Broadwing Communications," although the local telephone operations continued to operate under the traditional Cincinnati Bell name. The acquisition fell short of expectations due to intense competition and lackluster demand and left Broadwing with over $ in debt. In 2004, the holding company divested the long-distance operation as Broadwing Corporation and changed its name back to Cincinnati Bell.

In 2002, Cincinnati Bell sold Cincinnati Bell Directory, consisting of its directory operations, to Spectrum Equity. The resulting company is named CBD Media. The sale marked the first time a former Bell System-affiliated company had sold off its directory operations. In 2003, when BellSouth exited the payphone market, some former BellSouth payphones in Kentucky were sold to Cincinnati Bell.

In 2017, Cincinnati Bell acquired Toronto-based OnX Enterprise Solutions for $. On July 2, 2018, Cincinnati Bell acquired Hawaiian Telcom Holdco, Inc., parent of local telephone company Hawaiian Telcom, for $. The Hawaiian Telcom acquisition grew Cincinnati Bell's fiber network to over 14000 mi.

In September 2021, Cincinnati Bell was acquired by Macquarie Infrastructure and Real Assets.

On March 2, 2022, shortly after its acquisition by Macquarie, the company announced it would begin doing business as "Altafiber". The company's legal name, Cincinnati Bell Inc., was not immediately affected.

Relationship to the Bell System

Cincinnati Bell and Southern New England Telephone (SNET) were the only two companies in the old Bell System that operated independently because AT&T Corporation only owned minority stakes in the companies. Therefore, neither is considered a Regional Bell Operating Company (RBOC), AT&T was not obligated to dispose of their ownership stakes in the companies, and restrictions placed on the Baby Bells did not apply to these two companies. AT&T owned 32.6% of Cincinnati Bell until 1984, at which point the shares AT&T owned were placed into a trust and then sold. In 1998, SNET was bought by SBC Communications (now AT&T Inc.), an RBOC, and in 2014 was sold to Frontier Communications, a company with no relation to the former Bell System.

Cincinnati Bell was, from 2006 to 2022, the only former Bell System company that continued to publicly do business under the "Bell" name. In July 2006, Cincinnati Bell removed the final iteration of the Bell logo—designed in 1969 by Saul Bass—from most of its corporate branding, leaving only a stylized wordmark. However, the company continued to use the Bell logo in promotional materials for residential landline and long-distance service until another it adopted a new logo in 2016. As of 2022, the Bell logo appears on the bottom of the webpage underneath the Cincinnati Bell copyright notice.

Service area
Cincinnati Bell's conventional telecommunications services are concentrated in markets where its subsidiaries have historically enjoyed incumbent local exchange carrier (ILEC) status. Since the 1870s, Cincinnati Bell Telephone has been the ILEC within a radius of approximately 25 mi from downtown Cincinnati. , the three-state territory consists of:

 * Hamilton County, most of Clermont and Butler counties, and a small part of Warren County in Ohio
 * Boone, Campbell, Gallatin, Grant, Kenton, and Pendleton counties in Kentucky
 * West Harrison, Indiana

Beyond its ILEC territory, Cincinnati Bell Telephone additionally serves Mason, Lebanon, and the Dayton metropolitan area through its subsidiary Cincinnati Bell Extended Territories. Hawaiian Telcom, which Cincinnati Bell acquired in 2018, is the ILEC for the entire state of Hawaii.

OnX provides enterprise IT solutions in the United States, Canada, and United Kingdom.

Services
Cincinnati Bell has historically focused on traditional landline service, but in recent decades it has expanded into adjacent communications and entertainment services. , legacy voice service makes up only a quarter of the company's revenue.

Landline service
Cincinnati Bell provides landline PSTN local and long-distance calling. In recent years, the company has seen subscriptions to these traditional services decline due to competition from cable and wireless providers.

Internet access
Cincinnati Bell offers Internet access to customers in its service area. Its primary competitor for broadband Internet access is Charter Spectrum Internet.

Fiber optics
In late 2009, Cincinnati Bell started offering a fiber-optic communications (Internet, telephone, and IPTV) service called Fioptics, similar to the U-verse service offered by AT&T and the FiOS service offered by Verizon Communications. Cincinnati Bell's Fioptics  provides Internet at speeds from 5 Mbit/s up to 2 Gbit/s to over 500,000 homes in the Cincinnati metropolitan area. The availability is limited to areas wired for Fioptics, and other Fioptics services are not required. In areas now covered by Fioptics, Cincinnati Bell no longer offers ADSL-only speeds greater than 5 Mbit/s.

, Cincinnati Bell's fiber optic network extends nearly 16500 mi.

Electricity
In 2011, Cincinnati Bell became the first telecommunications company to also provide retail energy service. Through a partnership with Viridian Energy, Cincinnati Bell Energy competes with several other alternative electricity retailers for the power generation portion of customers' electricity bills. The subsidiary advertises that its service is entirely sourced from National Wind.

Wireless telephony
From 1998 until 2015, Cincinnati Bell Wireless (CBW) offered GSM wireless service in southeastern Indiana, southwestern Ohio, and northwestern Kentucky. It was sold at Best Buy, Circuit City (until 2009), Office Depot, and participating Kroger locations. It offered HSPA+ service in most of Hamilton County, Ohio, and parts of surrounding counties; EDGE service in Dayton and Oxford; and GSM service elsewhere. The local coverage area extended north to Celina and Urbana, east to Hillsboro, south to Corinth and Warsaw, and west to Batesville. Cincinnati Bell's prepaid mobile phone products were sold under the same i-wireless brand as an unrelated service by locally based Kroger.

Cincinnati Bell made its first foray into wireless telephony around 1986, when it acquired a 45% stake in Ameritech Cellular. On February 2, 1998, Cincinnati Bell acquired 80% of AT&T Wireless Services's new Cincinnati-Dayton PCS network for over $100 million. Cincinnati Bell's subsidiary Cincinnati Bell Wireless was responsible for marketing and sales, while AT&T Wireless handled technical operations for the joint venture. Wireless service began by June in Cincinnati and by September in Dayton, eventually covering a 21-county area. When AT&T Wireless was purchased by Cingular, now known as AT&T Mobility, control of its 20% stake also passed to Cingular. On February 17, 2006, Cincinnati Bell took full control of CBW by purchasing Cingular's stake for $83 million. As a part of the deal, Cincinnati Bell and Cingular secured lower roaming charges on each other's respective GSM networks.

On April 7, 2014, Cincinnati Bell announced plans to sell its wireless spectrum and other assets to Verizon Wireless, as part of a planned emphasis on enterprise and entertainment services such as Fioptics. Cincinnati Bell Wireless ended service on February 28, 2015, and the company's retail locations began selling Verizon products.

Directories
Like other Bell System–affiliated companies, Cincinnati Bell published a series of local telephone directories, beginning in 1879. In 2002, it spun off these operations as CBD Media.

Retail presence
Cincinnati Bell originally operated a chain of Cincinnati Bell Phone Center locations until 1992, when it sold the retail chain to AT&T. It reentered the retail space in 1998 with three Store@Cincinnati Bell retail locations. , the company operates nine Cincinnati Bell Stores.

Downtown Cincinnati presence
Cincinnati Bell's headquarters are located in the Atrium Two building on 4th Street in Downtown Cincinnati.

The company's former headquarters and telephone exchange on 7th Street is known as the Cincinnati and Suburban Telephone Company Building. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1995. Next door is a data center operated by CyrusOne, a former Cincinnati Bell subsidiary. It originally opened in 1975 as Cincinnati Bell's central Switching Center.

Cincinnati Bell owns the naming rights to the Cincinnati Bell Connector streetcar line that traverses the downtown area. In August 2016, Cincinnati Bell paid $ to rename the line for 10 years. From 2007 to 2014 Cincinnati Bell also sponsored the annual Cincinnati Bell/WEBN Riverfest, one of the largest fireworks displays in the Midwest.

title: Altafiber


text:
Cadmium sulfide

Cadmium sulfide is the inorganic compound with the formula CdS. Cadmium sulfide is a yellow salt. It occurs in nature with two different crystal structures as the rare minerals greenockite and hawleyite, but is more prevalent as an impurity substituent in the similarly structured zinc ores sphalerite and wurtzite, which are the major economic sources of cadmium. As a compound that is easy to isolate and purify, it is the principal source of cadmium for all commercial applications. Its vivid yellow color led to its adoption as a pigment for the yellow paint "cadmium yellow" in the 18th century.

Production
Cadmium sulfide can be prepared by the precipitation from soluble cadmium(II) salts with sulfide ion. This reaction has been used for gravimetric analysis and qualitative inorganic analysis. The preparative route and the subsequent treatment of the product, affects the polymorphic form that is produced (i.e., cubic vs hexagonal). It has been asserted that chemical precipitation methods result in the cubic zincblende form.

Pigment production usually involves the precipitation of CdS, the washing of the solid precipitate to remove soluble cadmium salts followed by calcination (roasting) to convert it to the hexagonal form followed by milling to produce a powder. When cadmium sulfide selenides are required the CdSe is co-precipitated with CdS and the cadmium sulfoselenide is created during the calcination step.

Cadmium sulfide is sometimes associated with sulfate reducing bacteria.

Routes to thin films of CdS
Special methods are used to produce films of CdS as components in some photoresistors and solar cells. In the chemical bath deposition method, thin films of CdS have been prepared using thiourea as the source of sulfide anions and an ammonium buffer solution to control pH:
 * Cd2+ + H2O   +  (NH2)2CS  +  2 NH3  →   CdS  +  (NH2)2CO   +  2 NH4+

Cadmium sulfide can be produced using metalorganic vapour phase epitaxy and MOCVD techniques by the reaction of dimethylcadmium with diethyl sulfide:
 * Cd(CH3)2 + Et2S  →   CdS  +  CH3CH3   +  C4H10

Other methods to produce films of CdS include
 * Sol–gel techniques
 * Sputtering
 * Electrochemical deposition
 * Spraying with precursor cadmium salt, sulfur compound and dopant
 * Screen printing using a slurry containing dispersed CdS

Reactions
Cadmium sulfide can be dissolved in acids.
 * CdS +  2 HCl   →   CdCl2  +  H2S

When solutions of sulfide containing dispersed CdS particles are irradiated with light, hydrogen gas is generated:
 * H2S → H2 + S      ΔfH = +9.4 kcal/mol

The proposed mechanism involves the electron/hole pairs created when incident light is absorbed by the cadmium sulfide followed by these reacting with water and sulfide:
 * Production of an electron–hole pair
 * CdS + hν → e− + h+
 * Reaction of electron
 * 2e− + 2H2O → H2 + 2OH−
 * Reaction of hole
 * 2h+ + S2− → S

Structure and physical properties
Cadmium sulfide has, like zinc sulfide, two crystal forms. The more stable hexagonal wurtzite structure (found in the mineral Greenockite) and the cubic zinc blende structure (found in the mineral Hawleyite). In both of these forms the cadmium and sulfur atoms are four coordinate. There is also a high pressure form with the NaCl rock salt structure.

Cadmium sulfide is a direct band gap semiconductor (gap 2.42 eV). The proximity of its band gap to visible light wavelengths gives it a coloured appearance. As well as this obvious property other properties result:
 * the conductivity increases when irradiated, (leading to uses as a photoresistor)
 * when combined with a p-type semiconductor it forms the core component of a photovoltaic (solar) cell and a CdS/Cu2S solar cell was one of the first efficient cells to be reported (1954)
 * when doped with for example Cu+ ("activator") and Al3+ ("coactivator") CdS luminesces under electron beam excitation (cathodoluminescence) and is used as phosphor
 * both polymorphs are piezoelectric and the hexagonal is also pyroelectric
 * electroluminescence
 * CdS crystals can act as a gain medium in solid state laser
 * In thin-film form, CdS can be combined with other layers for use in certain types of solar cells. CdS was also one of the first semiconductor materials to be used for thin-film transistors (TFTs). However interest in compound semiconductors for TFTs largely waned after the emergence of amorphous silicon technology in the late 1970s.
 * Thin films of CdS can be piezoelectric and have been used as transducers which can operate at frequencies in the GHz region.
 * Nanoribbons of CdS show a net cooling due annihilation of phonons, during anti-Stokes luminescence at ~510 nm. As a result, a maximum temperature drop of 40 and 15 K has been demonstrated when the nanoribbons are pumped with a 514 or 532 nm laser.

Pigment
CdS is used as pigment in plastics, showing good thermal stability, light and weather fastness, chemical resistance and high opacity. As a pigment, CdS is known as cadmium yellow (CI pigment yellow 37). About 2000 tons are produced annually as of 1982, representing about 25% of the cadmium processed commercially.

Historical use in art
The general commercial availability of cadmium sulfide from the 1840s led to its adoption by artists, notably Van Gogh, Monet (in his London series and other works) and Matisse (Bathers by a River 1916–1919). The presence of cadmium in paints has been used to detect forgeries in paintings alleged to have been produced prior to the 19th century.

CdS-CdSe solutions
CdS and CdSe form solid solutions with each other. Increasing amounts of cadmium selenide, gives pigments verging toward red, for example CI pigment orange 20 and CI pigment red 108. Such solid solutions are components of photoresistors (light dependent resistors) sensitive to visible and near infrared light.

Safety
Cadmium sulfide is toxic, especially dangerous when inhaled as dust, and cadmium compounds in general are classified as carcinogenic. Problems of biocompatibility have been reported when CdS is used as colors in tattoos. CdS has an LD50 of approximately 7,080 mg/kg in rats - which is higher than other cadmium compounds due to its low solubility.

title: Cadmium sulfide


text:
Kōza District, Kanagawa

Kōza District (高座郡) is a district located in central Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan. It currently consists of only one town, Samukawa. The entire cities of Chigasaki, Fujisawa, Yamato, Ayase, Ebina, Zama; and parts of the city of Sagamihara, were formerly part of Kōza District.

As of 2009, the district has an estimated population of 47,812 and a density of 3,560 persons per km2. The total area is 13.42 km2.

Towns and villages

 * Samukawa

History
Kōza District was one of the ancient subdivisions of Sagami Province, extending from Sagami Bay north to the border of Musashi Province between the Sagami River and the Sakai River. It was mentioned in the Nihon Shoki records of 675 AD in the Nara period as Takakura District (高倉郡). The provincial capital of Sagami Province and its kokubunji were located within Kōza District, although its exact location is today unknown.

The area was under the control of various shōen from the Heian period through the Sengoku period, and was held as tenryō territory administered by the shōgun under the Tokugawa shogunate of the Edo period.

Timeline
After the Meiji Restoration, it was established as a district under the cadastral reform of 1878, with a district office built near what is now part of Chigasaki. This was moved to Fujisawa-Ōsaka Town (present-day Fujisawa) in 1906.

 * On April 1, 1889, Kōza District was divided into one town (Fujisawa-Ōsaka) and 22 villages. In 1908, Chigasaki Village became a town, as did Kamimizo in 1928, and Zama in 1937. Fujisawa became a city in 1940. Samukawa and Ebina became towns the same year. In 1941, Zama, Kamimizo and six neighboring villages merged to form the town of Sagamihara. Yamato became a town in 1943, Shibuya in 1944 and Ayase in 1945. Chigasaki became a city in 1947.
 * In 1948, Zama was separated from Sagamihara, which became a city in 1954.
 * The town of Shibuya dissolved in 1955, with the southern portions merging with Fujisawa, and the northern portion reverting to the status of village until absorbed by Yamato town in 1956. Yamato became a city in 1959, and both Ebina and Zama became cities in 1971, and Ayase in 1978, leaving Samukawa as the only remaining component of Kōza District.

title: Kōza District, Kanagawa


text: User:Klykken

title: User:Klykken