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Racing bicycle

A racing bicycle, also known as a road bike is a bicycle designed for competitive road cycling, a sport governed by and according to the rules of the Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI).

Racing bicycles are designed for maximum performance while remaining legal under the UCI rules. They are designed to minimise aerodynamic drag, rolling resistance, and weight, and balance the desire for stiffness for pedaling effiency with the need for some flexibility for comfort. Racing bicycles sacrifice comfort for speed compared to non-racing bicycles. The drop handlebars are positioned lower than the saddle to put the rider in a more aerodynamic posture. The front and back wheels are close together so the bicycle has quick handling, which is preferred by experienced racing cyclists. The derailleur gear ratios are closely spaced so that the rider can pedal at their optimum cadence. However, racing bicycles must retain the ability to maneuver safely within a tightly-packed peloton, and be sufficiently comfortable to ride for races of six hours or more.

Bicycles and most wheels ridden in professional competition must be type-approved by the UCI, and made available for commercial sale. It is common for professional road cycling teams to use prototype bicycles and equipment before they become commercially available.

Racing bicycles are generally legal for use on public roads and are widely used for non-racing fitness and utility riding.

Distinction between road bicycles and others
Bicycles for racing on velodromes are track bicycles; bicycles for racing off-road are mountain bicycles, cyclo-cross bicycles, gravel bicycles or cycle speedway bicycles; bicycles that race according to the rules of the International Human Powered Vehicle Association include faired recumbent bicycles which, on flat ground, are the fastest bicycles in the world. Recumbents were excluded from the UCI definition of a bicycle on 1 April 1934.

Time trial bicycles are a subset of road bicycles that are designed for time trial events. The UCI rules for these bikes are slightly less prescriptive than those for "massed start road races" (see rules 1.3.020 to 1.3.023).

Triathlon bicycles are governed by International Triathlon Union (ITU) rules, which allow more recent technological developments than do the UCI rules.

Owing to the lower air resistance and better body stance for pushing, road bicycles tend to be more efficient for use on smooth roads. Cyclo-cross bicycles, which are used for racing on off-road circuits, are closer to racing bikes than to mountain bikes. They have wider, treaded tires are less efficient than racing bikes at higher speeds on sealed roads. Gravel bicycles evolved from cyclo-cross bicycles and are drop-bar bicycles designed for riding on maintained but unsealed roads, often over very long distances.

Frame
The frame of a road bicycle must, according to the UCI regulations, be constructed using a "main triangle" with three straight tubular shapes—the top tube, down tube, and seat tube. These three tubes, and other parts of the frame, need not be cylindrical, however, and many racing bicycles feature frames that use alternative shapes. Traditionally, the top tube of a racing bicycle is close to parallel with the ground when the bicycle is in its normal upright position. Some racing bicycles, however, have a top tube that slopes down towards the rear of the bicycle; the "compact" frame geometry was popularized by Giant.

Frame manufacturers are free to use any material they choose in the frame. For most of the history of road racing, bicycle frames were constructed from steel tubing, and aluminium and titanium alloys were also used successfully in racing bicycles. Racing bicycles in these three materials are still commercially available and are still used by some amateur racing cyclists or in vintage racing classes. However, virtually all professional road racing cyclists now use frames constructed from various carbon fiber composite materials, and a typical modern carbon fiber frame weighs less than 1 kg (2.2 lbs).

Particularly since the introduction of carbon fiber frames, the shape of the tubes that make up the frame has increasingly diverged from the traditional cylinder, either to modify the ride characteristics of the bicycle, reduce weight, or simply achieve styling differentiation. However, a recent trend in road bicycle frame design is tubing claimed to reduce aerodynamic drag, adopting many design features from time trial bicycles, and the majority of top-level teams use bikes with aerodynamic tube shaping at least some of the time.

Unlike mountain bikes, most road bicycles do not have a dedicated suspension. The majority of damping is provided by the tires, padding in a cyclist's clothing, seat, and handlebar tape. Wheels, frames, and forks provide a limited amount of flex, and manufacturers tune the thickness and construction of frame tubing to offer the best compromise between a stiff frame (desired for pedalling efficiency, particularly when sprinting) and ride comfort. Additionally, a few manufacturers offer racing bicycles using additional flexing points or vibration-absorbing materials at key points in the frame for additional comfort.

Wheels and tires
Most road bicycles use 700C bicycle wheels (622 mm bead seat diameter), with matching tyres that are 23-28 mm wide. Wider tires became more common over the 2010s, as more sophisticated measurement showed that wider tires increase rider comfort, improve grip, and decrease rolling resistance without unduly affecting aerodynamics.

The wheels greatly affect the performance of a racing bike. The rim of the wheel can be shaped for greater aerodynamic efficiency making a triangular cross-section to form a teardrop with the tire.

For aerodynamics and rotating weight, it is generally better to reduce the number of spokes in the wheel. For high-end wheelsets, the spokes can be shaped to have a bladed cross-section, further reducing wind resistance.

The most common wheel material for professional racing is now molded carbon fiber rims being a popular choice for pro-level racers and enthusiasts. Aluminium rims are still widely used outside racing and by some less well-funded amateur racers. Carbon fiber rims are lighter than the same shape in aluminium, allowing riders to choose "deeper", more aerodynamic rims without an unacceptable weight penalty. Race-grade wheelsets are very expensive and often fragile. Riders who race often choose to own at least two pairs of wheels: a heavier, more durable, and cheaper wheelset for training, and a lighter, more aerodynamic wheelset for racing. Racers with sufficient resources may have multiple racing wheelsets to choose from depending on the course and weather conditions; deeper rims lose their aerodynamic advantage, and are hard to control, in high crosswinds, and on mountainous courses the lightest possible wheelset may be preferred by some riders.

To reduce both air resistance and rolling resistance on the road, tires are lightweight, narrow, and have a thin, smooth tread. Track racing tires can be inflated up to circa 200 psi. Tires for road racing used to be inflated to pressures almost as high in the belief that this minimised rolling restistance. However, it was discovered that on real road surfaces, much lower tyre pressures or around 70 psi, depending on rider weight and conditions, result in both a more comfortable ride and lower rolling resistance. Until recently, most racing bikes used tubular tires which have no beads: they are sewn around the tube and glued to the rim. These tires provide an advantage in weight (lacking the relatively heavy wire bead), grip and pinch flat protection, but their greatest advantage lies in the ability to use a very lightweight simple box-section rim, rather than the U-shaped clincher rim. A U-shaped clincher rim must be made of relatively heavier gauge material to prevent the tire pressure from spreading the inherently weak U shape and allowing the tire to come off the rim. Advances in tire technology, however, have seen the far more practical (due to greater ease of changeability) clincher (beaded) tire close the gap. Some teams are using tubeless tires, which are claimed to offer the resistance to pinch flats of tubular tires, as well as greater ease of fitment and lower rolling resistance than tubulars.

Wheel moment of inertia is a controversial subject. In this article: wheel theory, the author does some calculations on wheel effects. Moment of inertia changes result in a decrease in watts of between .004 and .022%, while lower mass provided between .2 and .46%, and better aerodynamics provided between .6 and 1.8% decrease in power. Based on this it can be argued that wheel moment of inertia effects are neither noticeable nor important. At the same time, a product launched in 2008 to dynamically alter the rotating inertia of bicycle wheels claims to have "outperformed the standard, equivalent wheel by 5.6 seconds per mile" (or about 3.5 seconds per km).

Components
Road bike components are collectively referred to as the groupset. The quality of the groupset determines how refined the bike feels, how much maintenance it requires, and contributes to the performance of the bike. The three major groupset manufacturers of complete groupsets for racing bicycles are Shimano, SRAM, and Campagnolo. Some companies only produce specific components of the groupset, such as Full Speed Ahead (often abbreviated to FSA). The companies have different design strategies, and some cyclists have great brand loyalty for one or the other.

In the early 1990s, Shimano introduced dual-control with a system called Shimano Total Integration (STI). STI is characterized by its combined brake and shift levers, or "brifters". Previously, the shifters were mounted on the stem, handlebar ends or the down tube of the frame. Dual control addressed the problem of having to reposition a hand to change gears. STI was followed by the competing Campagnolo/Sachs Ergolever. SRAM uses a technology known as Double Tap for their integrated shifter/brake lever.

In the mid 1990s Mavic, known for their wheelsets, introduced an electronic shifting system which was pioneered in the Tour de France by American Greg LeMond and later on by Briton Chris Boardman, who liked the fact that the system allowed him to shift from his aerobars and his brake levers. The system did not catch on due to technological hurdles. In 2009, Shimano commercially released the Dura-Ace Di2 electronic shifter, and Campagnolo and SRAM followed suit in the early 2010s. As of 2022, the vast majority of top-level professional teams use electronic shifting, as do many amateur riders. Mechanical derailleurs remain popular with amateur racers and recreational riders for cost reasons.

Groupset manufacturers have gradually increased the number of gears on racing bicycles, allowing a greater range between the highest and lowest gears while maintaining relatively small gaps between each successive gear. As of 2022, most racing bicycles used in professional racing have 2 front chainrings and 11 or 12 gears on the rear cassette.

Carbon fiber has also become more popular for components. Shimano, Campagnolo and SRAM have introduced carbon fiber for their high-end shifters and brake levers, cranks, and parts of their derailleurs. Carbon fiber stems, handlebars, shoe soles, forks and seatposts are also more commonplace, including integrated stem/handlebar combinations. The advantages of carbon fiber are low weight as well as increased vibration damping leading to a more comfortable ride.

As of 2022, the majority of professional teams use hydraulic disc brakes for most or all races. A few top-level professional teams still use bikes with caliper brakes in mountain stages, as their disc-brake models are significantly heavier than the UCI's legal minimum weight of 6.8 kg. Disc brakes offer better stopping performance, particularly in wet conditions. For many years, racing bicycles were required to use caliper brakes by UCI regulation, but manufacturers began producing road bikes with disc brakes for recreational use in the mid-2010s, and their use was trialled in professional racing in 2016 and 2017. Rider disquiet over the crash safety of disc brakes led to the introduction of versions with chamfered edges to reduce the risk of the rotating disc acting as a cutting blade. In 2018, the UCI concluded the trial and legalised the use of disc brakes in all road racing events.

Non-competitive uses
Road bicycles are built for casual recreational use, often labeled as "sportif" bicycles or "dropped-bar fitness bikes". These have much in common with a competitive racing bicycle, but the frame geometry is relaxed to make the bicycle more comfortable over long distances, though less effective for short bursts of speed. They usually have a wider range of gear ratios (with greater gaps between each ratio) and fewer high-tech racing features.

For recreational road cycling, the road-style bicycles with drop handlebars used to be the norm in the 1980s, along with the touring bicycle (a drop-handlebar bike with a slightly longer wheelbase to provide a smoother ride and less sensitivity to steer and balance disturbances). These designs, called "road bikes" or colloquially, "roadies" or "racing bikes", have become less popular in recent years. The Mountain bike geometry, with its straight handlebars and upright sitting position (resembling the city bike), have moved into the high-performance spaces, and high production volumes have brought down costs significantly.

UCI rules
The UCI rules currently specify that a road bicycle have the following characteristics:
 * be a vehicle with a front wheel steered by a handlebar and a rear wheel driven by a system comprising pedals and a chain by the legs moving in a circular movement
 * that the only points of support are the following: the feet on the pedals, the hands on the handlebars and the seat on the saddle
 * wheels must be of equal diameter, between 70 cm and 55 cm, and must have minimum 12 spokes; spokes can be round, flattened or oval, as far as no dimension of their sections exceeds 10 mm
 * maximum length 185 cm
 * maximum width 50 cm
 * the peak of the saddle must be at least 5 cm behind a vertical plane passing through the bottom bracket spindle
 * the saddle must be between 24 cm and 30 cm in length
 * the distance between the bottom bracket spindle and the ground must be between 24 cm and 30 cm
 * the distance between the vertical passing through the lower bracket spindle and the front wheel spindle must be between 54 cm and 65 cm
 * the distance between the vertical passing through the bottom bracket spindle and the rear wheel spindle must be between 35 cm and 50 cm
 * the maximum internal distance between the front fork ends is 10.5 cm, and of the rear stays 13.5 cm
 * minimum mass 6.8 kg (14.99 lb)
 * frame must be built around a main triangle, constructed of tubular elements (that may have non-circular cross-sections) such that the form of each encloses a straight line
 * The maximum height of the frame elements shall be 8 cm and the minimum thickness 2.5 cm. The minimum thickness shall be reduced to 1 cm for the chain stays and the seat stays. The minimum thickness of the elements of the front fork shall be 1 cm; these may be straight or curved. The top tube may slope, provided that this element fits within a horizontal template defined by a maximum height of 16 cm and a minimum thickness of 2.5 cm

Note that the regulations regarding the dimensions of the bike are allowed exception, given that the rider can demonstrate a morphological need for the exception based on limb size or other factors.

These rules effectively and purposely rule out recumbent bicycles, and have done so since 1934.

title: Racing bicycle


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Apperson

The Apperson was a brand of American automobile manufactured from 1901 to 1926 in Kokomo, Indiana.

Company history
The company was founded by the brothers Edgar and Elmer Apperson shortly after they left Haynes-Apperson; for a time they continued to use a FR layout-mounted flat-twin engine, following it with a horizontal four.

Apperson cars
In 1904, Apperson offered vertical fours in two models. The 1904 Apperson Touring Car was a touring car model. Equipped with a tonneau, it could seat 6 passengers and sold for US$6000. The vertical-mounted straight-4, situated at the front of the car, produced 40 hp (29.8 kW). A 4-speed transmission was fitted. The steel-framed car weighed 2800 lb (1270 kg). The wheel base was 96 inches. The Apperson offered electric lights, a novelty for the time, and used a modern cellular radiator. The 25 hp (18.6 kW) version weighed 1800 lb (816 kg) and sold for US$3500.

In 1906 the company cataloged a 95 hp (71 kW) four at $10,500. The next year the first of the famed Jackrabbit speedsters rolled off the line; this was a 60 hp (45 kW) that sold for $5000. For a time, the entire range was known as the "Jack Rabbit" - in 1913 a 32.4 hp (24 kW) four and a 33.7 hp (25 kW) six were listed, and a 33.8 hp (25 kW) 90-degree V-8 of 5.5 L (5502 cc/335 in3) followed in 1914.

Roadplane models introduced
In 1916 the company announced production of the "Roadplane" six and eights. The term "Roadplane" did not refer to a specific model but was a marketing concept devised by Elmer Apperson that was applied to the "Chummy Roadster" and the "Touring" car. Elmer took the unusual step of patenting the "Chummy Roadster" design (see:"U.S. Patent 48359").

The "Silver-Apperson", designed by Conover T. Silver, was launched in 1917; the model was known as the "Anniversary" after 1919. A sedan proprietary with six cylinders of 3.2 L (3243 cc/197 in3) appeared in 1923, and a Lycoming eight-cylinder was offered beginning in 1924.

Final production
By 1924, Apperson and Haynes were both losing sales; a rumored remarriage came to naught, and Apperson folded for good despite the introduction of four-wheel brakes on the 1926 models.

Apperson production models

 * Apperson Six Sport Sedan

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Apperson


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Rock-hewn Churches of Ivanovo

The Rock-hewn Churches of Ivanovo (Ивановски скални църкви, Ivanovski skalni tsarkvi) are a group of monolithic churches, chapels and monasteries hewn out of solid rock and completely different from other monastery complexes in Bulgaria, located near the village of Ivanovo, 20 km south of Rousse, on the high rocky banks of the Rusenski Lom, 32 m above the river. The complex is noted for its beautiful and well-preserved medieval frescoes. The churches are inside Rusenski Lom Nature Park.

History
The caves in the region had been inhabited by monks from the 1220s, when it was founded by the future Patriarch of Bulgaria Joachim I, to the 17th century, where they hewed cells, churches and chapels out of solid rock. At the peak of the monastery complex, the number of churches was about 40, while the other premises were around 300, most of which are not preserved today.

Second Bulgarian Empire rulers such as Ivan Alexander and Ivan Asen II frequently made donations to the complex, as evidenced by donor portraits in some of the churches. Other patrons included nobles from the capital Tarnovo and nearest big medieval town Cherven, with which the monastery complex had strong ties in the 13th and 14th century. It was a centre of hesychasm in the Bulgarian lands in the 14th century and continued to exist in the early centuries of the Ottoman rule of Bulgaria, but gradually decayed.

The Rock-hewn Churches of Ivanovo were included in the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1979.

Preserved heritage
The monastery complex owes much of its fame to 13th- and 14th-century frescoes, preserved in five of the churches, which are thought of as wonderful examples of Bulgarian mediaeval art. The rock premises used by the monks include the St Archangel Michael Chapel ("The Buried Church"), the Baptistery, the Gospodev Dol Chapel, the St Theodore Church ("The Demolished Church") and the main Church, with the 14th-century murals in the latter one being arguably the most famous of all in Ivanovo and noted as some of the most representative examples of Palaeologan art.

Many century-old inscriptions have also been preserved in the monastical premises, including the famous indented inscription of the monk Ivo Gramatik from 1308–1309.

Burials

 * George I of Bulgaria

title: Rock-hewn Churches of Ivanovo


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Apple (1910s automobile)

The Apple Eight was a short-lived American automobile manufactured by the Apple Motor Car Company in Dayton, Ohio, from 1915 to 1917. The Apple 8 model cost $1,150 and had 44 hp. An inline eight-cylinder engine and three-speed transmission were in a unit. Well-tested standard vendor parts were used. The body had a 118 in wheelbase and could seat five. It was advertised as a luxury car and used the slogan "No hills too steep. No roads too rough".

William A. Apple formed W. A. Apple Auto Top Company in 1912 to make tops for the Ford Model T. In 1915 he changed the name to W. A. Apple Motor Car Co. and began assembling the Eight in May. By September he had assembled 40. A fire on October 11, 1915, completely destroyed the factory. After suing his insurance company, in 1917 William A. was awarded $28,014.31. He returned to car tops and upholstery. A successor business, W. A. Apple Textile Manufacturer, built parachutes during World War II.

title: Apple (1910s automobile)


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/West Bank israeli annexation

This page is based on a false claim. Israel did not annex the West Bank in 1980. It is also biased and will lead to problems. Delete. Danny 19:39, 25 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Yes, I agree, delete. Plus bad capitalization, and contains no information that was not already included in West Bank.  (I was just coming here to add this.) RickK 20:43, Jul 25, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. NPOV info already available in Wikipedia. Probably not possible to write a NPOV article with this title. Arevich 21:30, 25 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. SWAdair | Talk  01:14, 26 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, it's junk. --Zero 02:53, 26 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, it's a political diatribe, not an encyclopedia article. --Jll 11:49, 26 Jul 2004 (UTC)


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List of lakes and lochs of the United Kingdom

The list of lakes, lochs, loughs and llyns of the United Kingdom is a link page for some large lakes of the United Kingdom (England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland), including lochs fully enclosed by land.

Lakes in Scotland are called lochs, and in Northern Ireland loughs (pronounced the same way, i.e. (/lɒç/)). In Wales a lake is called a llyn. The words "loch" and "lough", in addition to referring to bodies of freshwater ("lakes"), are also applied to bodies of brackish water or seawater, which in other countries or contexts may be called fjord, firth, estuary, bay etc. In particular, the term "sea-loch" is used in Scotland in this way, as the English language equivalent of 'fjord'. (There are many examples, including Loch Carron, Loch Torridon etc.)

Some of the largest lakes in England and Wales are man-made reservoirs or lakes whose size has been increased by damming.

Largest water bodies in the United Kingdom

This table includes the ten largest fresh water bodies by area. Lough Neagh is the largest water body in the UK by this measure, although Loch Ness is the largest by volume and contains nearly double the amount of water in all the lakes of England and Wales combined. Loch Morar is the deepest of the UK's lakes and Loch Awe the longest. Murray and Pullar (1910) note that the mean depth of Loch Ness is 57.4% of the maximum depth – higher than in any other large deep loch in Scotland. The deepest lake in England is Wast Water which descends to 76 metres (249 ft).

Largest natural lakes in Wales
These are largely 'natural' but some have minor modifications to regulate their outflow.


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Bamburgh Castle

Bamburgh Castle, on the northeast coast of England, by the village of Bamburgh in Northumberland, is a Grade I listed building.

The site was originally the location of a Celtic Brittonic fort known as Din Guarie and may have been the capital of the kingdom of Bernicia from its foundation c. 420 to 547. In that last year, it was captured by King Ida of Bernicia. After passing between the Britons and the Anglo-Saxons three times, the fort came under Anglo-Saxon control in 590. The fort was destroyed by Vikings in 993, and the Normans later built a new castle on the site, which forms the core of the present one. After a revolt in 1095 supported by the castle's owner, it became the property of the English monarch.

In the 17th century, financial difficulties led to the castle deteriorating, but it was restored by various owners during the 18th and 19th centuries. It was finally bought by the Victorian era industrialist William Armstrong, who completed its restoration. The castle still belongs to the Armstrong family and is open to the public.

Medieval history
Built on top of a black crag of volcanic dolerite, and part of the Whin Sill, the location was previously home to a fort of the indigenous Celtic Britons known as Din Guarie. It may have been the capital of the kingdom of Bernicia, the realm of the Gododdin people, from the realm's foundation c. 420 until 547, the year of the first written reference to the castle. In that year the citadel was captured by the Anglo-Saxon ruler Ida of Bernicia (Beornice) and became Ida's seat.

The castle was briefly retaken by the Britons from his son Hussa during the war of 590 before being retaken later the same year. Circa 600, Hussa's successor Æthelfrith passed it on to his wife Bebba, from whom the early name Bebbanburh was derived. Vikings destroyed the original fortification in 993.

The Normans built a new castle on the site, which forms the core of the present one. William II unsuccessfully besieged it in 1095 during a revolt supported by its owner, Robert de Mowbray, Earl of Northumbria. After Robert was captured, his wife continued the defence until coerced to surrender by the king's threat to blind her husband.

Bamburgh then became the property of the reigning English monarch. Henry II probably built the keep as it was complete by 1164. Following the Siege of Acre in 1191, and as a reward for his service, King Richard I appointed Sir John Forster the first Governor of Bamburgh Castle. Following the defeat of the Scots at the Battle of Neville's Cross in 1346, King David II was held prisoner at Bamburgh Castle.

During the civil wars at the end of King John's reign, the castle was under the control of Philip of Oldcoates. In 1464 during the Wars of the Roses, it was subject to a nine-month siege by Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, the "Kingmaker", on behalf of the Yorkists which was marked by the extensive use of artillery.

Modern history
The Forster family of Northumberland continued to provide the Crown with successive governors of the castle until the Crown granted ownership (or a lease according to some sources) of the church and the castle to another Sir John Forster in the mid-1500s, after the Dissolution of the Monasteries. The family retained ownership until Sir William Forster (d. 1700) was posthumously declared bankrupt, and his estates, including the castle, were sold to Lord Crew, Bishop of Durham (husband of his sister Dorothy) under an Act of Parliament to settle the debts in 1704.

Crewe placed the castle in the hands of a board of trustees chaired by Thomas Sharp, the Archdeacon of Northumberland. Following the death of Thomas Sharp, leadership of the board of trustees passed to John Sharp (Thomas Sharp's son) who refurbished the castle keep and court rooms and established a hospital on the site. In 1894, the castle was bought by the Victorian industrialist William Armstrong, who completed the restoration.

During the Second World War, pillboxes were established in the sand dunes to protect the castle and surrounding area from German invasion and, in 1944, a Royal Navy corvette was named HMS Bamborough Castle after the castle. The castle still remains in the ownership of the Armstrong family.

After the War, the castle became a Grade I Listed property. The description included this comment about the status of the building in 1952 and its history: "Castle, divided into apartments. C12; ruinous when acquired by Lord Crewe in 1704 and made habitable after his death by Dr. Sharpe ... Acquired by Lord Armstrong, who had extensive restoration and rebuilding of high quality by C.J. Ferguson, 1894-1904. Squared sandstone and ashlar."

Location
About 9 mi to the south on a point of coastal land is the ancient fortress of Dunstanburgh Castle and about 5 mi to the north is Lindisfarne Castle on Holy Island. Inland about 16 miles (26 km) to the south is Alnwick Castle, the home of the Duke of Northumberland.

Environmental factors
Air quality levels at Bamburgh Castle are excellent due to the absence of industrial sources in the region. Sound levels near the north–south road passing by Bamburgh Castle are in the range of 59 to 63 dBA in the daytime (Northumberland Sound Mapping Study, Northumberland, England, June 2003). Nearby are breeding colonies of Arctic and common terns on the inner Farne Islands, and of Atlantic puffin, European shag and razorbill on Staple Island.

Archaeology at Bamburgh
Archaeological excavations were started in the 1960s by Brian Hope-Taylor, who discovered the gold plaque known as the Bamburgh Beast as well as the Bamburgh Sword. Since 1996, the Bamburgh Research Project has been investigating the archaeology and history of the Castle and Bamburgh area. The project has concentrated on the fortress site and the early medieval burial ground at the Bowl Hole, located in sand dunes to the south of the castle, evidence of which had first been revealed in a storm of 1817.

During excavations at the Bowl Hole between 1998 and 2007, the remains of 120 individuals from the 7th and 8th century were discovered in that graveyard. The research project was led by Professor Charlotte Roberts of Durham University, and found remains of individuals who had originated from Ireland, Scotland, Scandinavia, the Mediterranean and North Africa.

Finally, in 2016, they were moved into the crypt of St Aidan's Church, Bamburgh; the crypt can be viewed by visitors through a small gate.

Armstrong and Aviation Artefacts Museum
The castle's laundry rooms feature the Armstrong and Aviation Artefacts Museum, with exhibits about Victorian industrialist William Armstrong and Armstrong Whitworth, the manufacturing company he founded. Displays include engines, artillery and weaponry, and aviation artefacts from two world wars.

Civil parish
Bamburgh Castle was a civil parish, in 1951 the parish had a population of 18. Bamburgh Castle was formerly a township in Bambrough parish, from 1866 Bamburgh Castle was a civil parish in its own right until it was abolished on 1 April 1955 and merged with Bamburgh.

Selected literary appearances
The castle features in the ballad The Laidly Worm of Spindleston Heugh written in circa 1270. Late medieval British author Thomas Malory identified Bamburgh Castle with Joyous Gard, the mythical castle home of Sir Launcelot in Arthurian legend.

In literature, Bamburgh, under its Saxon name Bebbanburg, is the home of Uhtred Uhtredson, the main character in Bernard Cornwell's The Saxon Stories. It features either as a significant location or as the inspiration for the protagonist in all books in the series, starting with The Last Kingdom, and the sequels The Pale Horseman, The Lords of the North, Sword Song, The Burning Land, Death of Kings, The Pagan Lord, The Empty Throne, Warriors of the Storm, The Flame Bearer, War of the Wolf, Sword of Kings and War Lord.

The castle and also the village provide the setting for the crime novel Bamburgh written by LJ Ross.

Selected film and television appearances
In addition to appearances as itself, Bamburgh Castle has been used as a filming location for a number of television and film projects:

 * 1927: Huntingtower
 * 1949: A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court
 * 1964: Becket
 * 1971: The Devils
 * 1971: Macbeth
 * 1971: Mary, Queen of Scots
 * 1982: Ivanhoe
 * 1984–86: Robin of Sherwood
 * 1998: Elizabeth
 * 2011: Channel 4's Time Team dig at Bamburgh Castle
 * 2015: Macbeth (film)
 * 2018: The Last Kingdom (TV series)
 * 2023: Indiana Jones and the Dial of Destiny

Videogames
Bamburgh Castle and village appeared in 2018 racing game Forza Horizon 4.

title: Bamburgh Castle


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Srebarna Nature Reserve

The Srebarna Nature Reserve (Природен резерват Сребърна, transliterated as Priroden rezervat Srebarna) is a nature reserve in northeastern Bulgaria (Southern Dobruja), near the village of the same name, 18 km west of Silistra and 2 km south of the Danube. It comprises Lake Srebarna and its surroundings, and is an important wetland located on the Via Pontica, a bird migration route between Europe and Africa. As a result, it provides nesting and migratory habitat for many endangered bird species.

The reserve embraces 6 km2 of protected area and a buffer zone of 5.4 km2. The lake's depth varies from 1 to 3 m. There is a museum constructed, where a collection of stuffed species typical for the reserve is arranged.

History
While Lake Srebarna was studied many times in the past by foreign biologists, the first Bulgarian scientist to take an interest in the area was Aleksi Petrov, who visited the reserve in 1911. In 1913, the whole of Southern Dobrudja was incorporated in Romania, but was returned to Bulgaria in 1940, when the area was visited once again by Petrov to examine the colonies of birds that nest there.

The area was proclaimed a nature reserve in 1948 and is a Ramsar site since 1975. The reserve was recognized as World Natural Heritage Site under the 1972 Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage and included in the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1983.

Legends
There are several legends about the origin of the lake's name. The one is about a khan named Srebrist, who died in the neighbourhood whilst engaging in an unequal battle with the Pechenegs. A second one tells about a boat full of silver (srebro in Bulgarian) along the shores of the lake. According to a third one, which is regarded as most plausible, the name comes from the silvery reflections on the lake's surface during full moon.

Flora
There are hydrophyte species such as reed in and around the lake. The reserve is home to 139 plant species, 11 of them are in danger of extinction outside the territory of Srebarna.

Fauna
A wide variety of fauna exists in the area. 39 mammal, 21 reptile and amphibian and 10 fish species inhabit the reserve, but it is most famous for the 179 bird species that nest on its territory. These species include multiple species of herons and cormorants, the glossy ibis, the Dalmatian pelican, the mute swan, the greylag goose, the marsh harrier and the bluethroat. Small mammals in the reserve include several shrew and mice species.

Honour
Srebarna Glacier on Livingston Island in the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica is named after Srebarna.

title: Srebarna Nature Reserve


text:
Aquila Italiana

Aquila Italiana (founded as the Società Anonima Aquila and quickly renamed the Società Anonima Italiana Aquila) was an Italian automobile manufacturer from 1906 to 1917. The company was renamed again in 1909 to Aquila Anonima Italiana di L. Marsaglia after it was bought by a bank – the Marsaglia part came from the name of the bank owner's son (Vincenzo Marsaglia, a talented automobile driver).

Designed by Giulio Cesare Cappa, the cars were big four- and six-cylinder models with ioe engines of an advanced type. There was an interruption in construction after 1908, but the company introduced new models in 1911; these featured 4192 cc six-cylinder engines and proved to be successful in many races. Among Aquila Italiana drivers were Meo Constantini (later to join Bugatti at Molsheim, where he became first a racing driver and later the Chef d'Equipe) and Carlo Masetti (Count Giulio Masetti's elder brother).

Production
The company Aquila Italiana produced approximately 1,500 cars (across all models).

title: Aquila Italiana


text:
Talk:USS Texas (1892)

File:USS Texas2.jpg to appear as POTD soon
Hello! This is a note to let the editors of this article know that File:USS Texas2.jpg will be appearing as picture of the day on July 3, 2010. You can view and edit the POTD blurb at Template:POTD/2010-07-03. If this article needs any attention or maintenance, it would be preferable if that could be done before its appearance on the Main Page so Wikipedia doesn't look bad. :) Thanks!  howcheng  {chat} 23:51, 1 July 2010 (UTC)

New book
A new illustrated history, dedicated solely to the USS Texas, was published in October 2011 entitled: Old Hoodoo, The Battleship Texas, America's First Battleship, 1895-1911. The work covers the complete history of the Texas from it's conception to disposition. --Sturmvogel 66 (talk) 17:16, 8 December 2011 (UTC)

Purported photo of the wreck of the ex-USS Texas
I am removing references to the wreck of the ex-USS Texas as still being visible, as well as the photo that purportedly shows the ship with its mast poking out of the water as the claims are unsourced and dubious. Newspaper articles about the wreck from the 1950s available on Navsource do not make any mention of the mast being visible, and the ship's hull was blasted away with explosives in the late 50s' to ensure it wouldn't be a navigation hazard. Photos of the wreck from the early 1920s (also available on Navsource) show a hull without any masts visible. I am therefore challenging the accuracy of these statements and removing the material per WP:V and ask that the material not be readded without a good reference to back it up. Aoi (青い) (talk) 21:15, 22 February 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:USS Texas (1892)


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Apple timer

Apple timer was proposed for deletion. This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was DELETE

Similar to Clockwork orange (see history before it was a redirect, not Clockwork Orange), this article is nonsense. Ironically, the earlier versions were less nonsensical. --ssd 19:47, 25 Jul 2004 (UTC) This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like other '/delete' pages is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion or on the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.
 * Eequor is behaving rather strangely. Delete strange article that wasn't much of an article before it was strange. -- Cyrius|✎ 23:24, 25 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * I almost wonder if Eequor added strageness just to get this worthless article noticed and deleted. --ssd 04:41, 26 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * I'm hearing the music from The Twilight Zone. Odd... can't even revert as earlier versions aren't worthy of keeping, either.  Delete.  SWAdair | Talk  01:52, 26 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Heh. I said previous versions were less nonsense. I didn't say they were more worthy of keeping.  Otherwise, I might have considered reverting. --ssd 04:41, 26 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: And this, friends, is why they call it "dope."  Geogre 03:51, 26 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Note: If this is deleted, Category:Pomology should also be deleted, since this is the only article in it. Actually, Category:Pomology should probably be deleted anyway.  Isomorphic 05:42, 26 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * comment: my knee-jerk reaction was to assume "Pomology" was part of the "joke" (ology of pommes), but it appears to be a legitimate branche of academe, viz. e.g. UC Davis, Department of Pomology, "The Science of Fruit and Nut Production and Distribution" Ianb 05:51, 26 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Pomology will be deleted unless someone fills it up before Apple timer is deleted. --ssd 00:52, 29 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. I didn't realize quite how strange the world is until I found Wikipedia. Ianb 05:51, 26 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * "Do you like apples? Well I've got a delete. How 'bout them apples?" - UtherSRG 01:00, 29 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * We already have "Apple Timer" on BJAODN: An apple Timer is a bright red mechanism that goes tick.  You turn the top half of the mechanism and it turns starts the mechanism going.  At the end of a period of time it dings.  No room for two nonsense articles on the same subject. - Lucky 6.9 22:18, 29 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * If you look far back enough in history, you'll find the above still there. It has just evolved  beyond that BJAODN into total weirdness. Either the orignal was not deleted, or was undeleted and added to. --ssd 03:24, 30 Jul 2004 (UTC)


text:
Pseudoaneurysm

A pseudoaneurysm, also known as a false aneurysm, is a locally contained hematoma outside an artery or the heart due to damage to the vessel wall. The injury passes through all three layers of the arterial wall, causing a leak, which is contained by a new, weak "wall" formed by the products of the clotting cascade. A pseudoaneurysm does not contain any layer of the vessel wall.

This differentiates it from a true aneurysm, which is contained by all three layers of the vessel wall, and a dissecting aneurysm, which has a breach in the innermost layer of an artery and subsequent dissection/separation of the tunica intima from the tunica media.

A pseudoaneurysm, being associated with a vessel, can be pulsatile; it may be confused with a true aneurysm or dissecting aneurysm.

The most common presentation of pseudoaneurysm is femoral artery pseudoaneurysm following access for an endovascular procedure, and this event may complicate up to 8% of vascular interventional procedures. Small pseudoaneurysms are capable of spontaneous clotting, while others require surgical intervention.

A pseudoaneurysm may also occur in a chamber of the heart following myocardial damage due to ischemia or trauma. A pseudoaneurysm of the left ventricle is a potentially lethal complication of a heart attack.

Signs and symptoms
Pseudoaneurysms usually present as a painful, tender, pulsatile mass. The overlying skin is sometimes erythematous (red). They can sometimes be confused with abscesses. The patient may describe a history of catheterization or trauma, and they may note that the pulsatile mass is gradually expanding.

Diagnosis
The diagnosis should be suspected if the patient has a history of arterial trauma. This can include arterial access for catheterization (i.e., the common femoral artery), blunt trauma (i.e., to an extremity), or penetrating trauma (i.e., gunshot or blast injury). Blunt or penetrating trauma can cause a disruption in the arterial wall, leading to a pseudoaneurysm. A patient with such a history who presents with a painful, pulsatile, tender mass at the site of catheterization or trauma should be suspected to have a pseudoaneurysm. The diagnosis should be confirmed using Duplex ultrasonography, which will reveal arterial blood flow into the pseudoaneurysm. A CT angiogram or conventional angiogram can also diagnose a pseudoaneurysm.

''It is important that the diagnosis be confirmed before any procedures are performed. Incision and drainage of a suspected abscess, which is instead a pseudoaneurysm, could lead to extensive hemorrhage.''

Locations
A pseudoaneurysm can form in communication with essentially any artery in the body. With the high volume of cardiac catheterizations performed today, femoral artery pseudoaneurysms, in addition to pseudoaneurysms of arteriovenous fistulas used for hemodialysis, are the most common. Pseudoaneurysms can form in the legs days, months, or even years after blunt or penetrating trauma.

Although aneurysms and left ventricular aneurysms may involve any wall segment, "aneurysms" in the posterolateral wall are frequently due to pseudoaneurysms. In contrast, the most common location for a true left ventricular aneurysm involves the apex of the heart.

A pseudoaneurysm can also occur in the aorta as a consequence of traumatic aortic rupture.

Outside of the heart, pseudoaneurysms associated with pancreatitis can occur in several of the abdominal vessels, including the superior mesenteric artery, superior pancreaticoduodenal artery, inferior pancreaticoduodenal artery, and others.

Treatment
Many options exist for the treatment of pseudoaneurysms. While surgery was the gold-standard treatment in the past, several less-invasive treatment options are popular today.

Covered stent
Since the pseudoaneurysm communicates with an artery through a hole in the arterial wall, a covered stent may be placed endovascularly across this hole to "exclude it," or to prevent it from receiving blood flow from the artery. The covered stent is composed of metal and is covered with Teflon (PTFE) or another sterile fabric-like material. The covered stent remains in place permanently, and the pseudoaneurysm, without a continuous flow of arterial blood, then thromboses. Advantages of this technique are that it has a high success rate without the need for an open surgery. Complications include covered stent migration, persistent leakage of blood into the pseudoaneurysm, fracturing (breaking) of the stent, and infection of the stent or of the arterial insertion site.

Ultrasound probe compression
Another option for treatment is ultrasound probe compression of the neck of the pseudoaneurysm. The "neck" of the pseudoaneurysm is the narrow path of blood flow between the artery, through the arterial wall, and into the pseudoaneurysm cavity. The artery, neck, and pseudoaneurysm are seen on ultrasound. The ultrasound probe can be pushed firmly against the patient's skin to compress the neck of the pseudoaneurysm for usually about 20 minutes. During this time, the blood within the pseudoaneurysm clots; after the probe is then removed, the pseudoaneurysm will hopefully remain clotted and will not continue to expand. The procedure may be stopped early due to patient discomfort. It is less successful if the patient is obese, since there is more fatty tissue between the skin and the neck of the pseudoaneurysm. It also is less successful if the neck of the pseudoaneurysm is wider, since it is less likely to clot off during the period of compression. Finally, it is also much less successful if the patient is taking aspirin, warfarin (Coumadin), or another anticoagulant, since these would prevent clotting of blood within the pseudoaneurysm. Advantages are that this is the least invasive method of stopping arterial blood flow into a pseudoaneurysm.

Ultrasound-guided thrombin injection
In addition to covered stent placement, another popular, minimally-invasive technique used today is ultrasound-guided thrombin injection. Thrombin (factor IIa in the coagulation cascade) is a clotting factor that converts fibrinogen into fibrin, which then polymerizes to form a blood clot. Under ultrasound guidance, thrombin can be injected directly into a pseudoaneurysm, causing it to clot. Advantages are that the technique is relatively easy to perform, is successful, and is minimally invasive. One contraindication to this procedure is if there is an arteriovenous fistula (communication between an artery and vein), in addition to the pseudoaneurysm. This occurs with about 10% of pseudoaneurysms. If this is present, thrombin injected into the pseudoaneurysm could then enter the venous circulation and possibly lead to distant thrombosis.

Surgical ligation (with or without distal bypass)
Open surgery may also be performed to remove pseudoaneurysms or prevent them from expanding. If the artery is small and "expendable" - the tissues it supplies have adequate collateral blood flow - then the artery supplying the pseudoaneurysm may be ligated both proximally and distally to the pseudoaneurysm. The pseudoaneurysm may or may not be removed. If the tissues supplied by the artery do not have sufficient collateral flow (the artery is not expendable), then a vein or synthetic graft would have to be anastomosed proximally and distally to allow for continued blood flow around the pseudoaneurysm. Advantages are that the technique has been successful in the treatment of pseudoaneurysms for many years. However, it is more invasive (a large skin incision is necessary), and there is more postoperative pain and a risk for wound infection. One of the less invasive options may be preferred in a patient with many comorbidities, who is at high risk for surgery.

title: Pseudoaneurysm


text:
Talk:Extreme points of the United Kingdom

Northern Ireland
Why no Northern Ireland? -Rwv37 19:49, Jul 25, 2004 (UTC)

 * Good question. I have attempted to rectify. Trilobite 00:33, 26 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Erm, why the Republic of Ireland, even if "under British Isles"? Co. Kerry wasn't in the UK last time I looked, but I'm sure some Brits would be kind enough to oblige that way!!! --MacRusgail 20:57, 29 April 2007 (UTC)

The British Isles doesn't just include the UK! It also includes the Republic of Ireland (and the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands). It is not a political designation either, that is just the name of the archipelago whether you like it or not and I'm sure you must know this! YourPTR! 01:30, 21 June 2007 (UTC)

 * The point MacRusgail is making, which I have also made below, is that this articles is about the "Extreme points of the United Kingdom ." I'll make the relevant changes. --sony-youth pléigh 06:39, 21 June 2007 (UTC)

 * As the introduction states, this is some useful extra information. Most of the extreme points of the British Isles are the same as those of the UK, and the section clarifies where the differences lie.  It in no way implies that the Republic of Ireland is part of the UK; if it is giving that appearance, please add some text to clarify this. Warofdreams talk 13:08, 21 June 2007 (UTC)

 * In that case, I'd move the article to Extreme points of the British Isles and include the extreme points of the UK as a part of that, otherwise the impression will persist (especially since the British Isles is mentioned second after the UK and before the constituent countries of the UK, strange for "some useful extra information.") Would you be happy with a move? --sony-youth pléigh 13:38, 21 June 2007 (UTC)

 * I suppose that would be a possibility; we could merge in the extreme points of Ireland article, but I felt that it might be more useful to keep the details separate, and I wouldn't like to see an article on the British Isles dominated by details on the UK, so in that case it wouldn't be appropriate to move this article. Would moving the British Isles info to the bottom of the article, reducing its prominence, be useful? Warofdreams talk 13:48, 21 June 2007 (UTC)

 * Could do the merge, but seems more hassle than its worth. The issue is simply one of bewilderment - why are the extreme points of the British Isles "useful extra information" for the extreme points of the UK? Half of those points are not even in the UK - you might as well include "some useful extra information" for the most southerly point of France, with the most easterly tip of Japan thrown in for good measure! The British Islands at least constitute an area where the UK parliament can (in theory and on rare occasions) legistlate, but conflating the UK with the whole of the British Isles makes about as much sense as including the same "useful extra information" in the "Extreme points of Ireland" article - its nonsensical. --sony-youth pléigh 14:09, 21 June 2007 (UTC)

This article is named as being about the political entity, the United Kingdom. Including places outside the United Kingdom as being "extreme points" thereof is contradictory and confusing, not "helpful extra information". 83.39.134.72 16:21, 21 June 2007 (UTC)

 * I disagree. The most relevant parallel is with our extreme points of Russia.  As they are similar to the extreme points of the Soviet Union, rather than having an additional article repeating almost all of the information, we mention the helpful additional information in that article.  The British Isles are a widely recognised entity, which at one historical period were almost conterminous with the UK, but no longer are.  Parallels with the most southerly point of France or the easterly tip of Japan are way off the mark.  If the article is insufficiently clear that the British Isles are different to the UK, please add some text so that nobody could possibly misunderstand.  But why should we remove useful information? Warofdreams talk 18:33, 21 June 2007 (UTC)

 * "at one historical period were almost coterminous" i.e. were never actually coterminous and are not at all coterminous now.  If you suggest that a basis like "at one historical period were almost coterminous" is sufficient then Kaliningrad should probably be listed as the Easternmost major German city (it´s not).  After all, it´s in historical Prussia, which "at one historical period was almost coterminous" with Germany.    The point is that the information is confusing, not helpful.  There are whole articles dedicated to trying to straighten out terminology related to the UK and Ireland and here we have an article that just confuses everything again.  If this article is about the UK, make it about the UK.  Point people to articles about the British Isles.  There are plenty.  83.39.134.72 21:28, 21 June 2007 (UTC)

 * Lots of things were useful approximations at one time and are no longer true. If you think that a list of the extreme points of Prussia would be notable and could be sourced, then by all means create one.  It might be appropriate to list it in the extreme points of Germany article (but probably not, as it is solely a historical region with no currency).  If you find this article confusing, write some text so that there is no possibility of confusion.  There is no need to remove useful information from this article. Warofdreams talk 01:10, 22 June 2007 (UTC)

I have not removed useful information from this article. I have improved this article by de-confusing it and by organising it a little. 83.39.134.72 07:36, 22 June 2007 (UTC)

 * Warofdreams, you mean the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland?? You're talking about a century ago! And even then that state was not contigious with the British Isles. Inclusion of the British Isles is simply bewildering, and still I'm asking how is its inclusion "some useful extra information"? "Useful extra information", I believe, would be the British Islands (for the reasons stated above). I'll leave that to you to decide whether it should be included or not. For now, I've moved the British Isles information to a seperate page and linked to it from the "See also." If a reader wants that information its there and its clear where to find it (as opposed to when it was included under the UK!!). --sony-youth pléigh 07:57, 22 June 2007 (UTC)

 * I really cannot understand your point of view, but as your compromise preserves the information, it seems a reasonable compromise. Warofdreams talk 04:17, 24 June 2007 (UTC)

Rockall
As far as I am aware, Rockall is contested by Ireland and Iceland as well as the UK. I'm not sure it counts as part of the UK (by anyone elses standards).

Zoney 23:38, 25 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Yeah, this should be made clearer. As it is actually disputed (in the real world), including it here without making that perfectly clear is a break of NPOV. --sony-youth pléigh 09:29, 26 May 2007 (UTC)

 * AFAIK, the rock of Rockall itself is not disputed. There is dispute about the continental shelf nearby, but no-one other than the UK formally claims the rock itself.  83.39.134.72 16:23, 21 June 2007 (UTC)

 * According to our article, that is true, but several other nations have claims to the continental shelf and would include Rockall in that (as a rock incapable of supporting permanent human habitation). There seems to me to be a strong argument for reversing the current position and instead listing Rockall in the footnotes, and the internationally accepted points in the main text. Warofdreams talk 01:12, 22 June 2007 (UTC)

Southern Ireland now recognizes British sovereignty over the islet, check the page on Rockall and see for yourself and no other country actually claims the rock itself just the surrounding seabed. Rockall is British! YourPTR! (talk) 19:27, 29 December 2007 (UTC)

The Lizard / Scilly Isles
How can the Southernmost point of the United Kingdom and the Southernmost point of England be in different places? As far as I know the Scillies are still part of the U.K.

Donald Renouf 04.09, 26th July 2004 (British Summer Time)

 * Southernmost point of the UK and of England is in the Scillies — they are further south than the Lizard. Southernmost point of mainland England however is the Lizard. Trilobite 23:57, 26 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * How can the southernmost point of Great Britain be different to the southernmost point of England? How can they differ? If the Scilly Isles is part of England, and England is part of Great Britain, then the southernmost point of England and Great Britain will be the same.
 * Joolz 14:32, 24 Feb 2005 (UTC)

 * England is a country which includes much of Great Britain and some small surrounding islands. Great Britain is an island. Warofdreams 14:36, 24 Feb 2005 (UTC)

 * I'm aware of those facts thanks, (I can only assume you're being purposely patronising because I clearly said "England is part of Great Britain" not "England is Great Britain"). I obviously didn't express myself clearly enough. England occupies the southern portion of Great Britain, The Scilly Isles are part of England. The Scilly Isles are also part of Great Britain. Therefore it would make sense that the Scilly Isles were listed as being the most extreme southernmost point in Great Britain as well as England. Basically, what I'm saying is the southernmost point of Great Britain is not Lizard Point but the Scilly Isles. -- Joolz 18:52, 1 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * Perhaps you didn't read it carefully. England is a country which includes much of Great Britain and some small surrounding islands.  Our article on Great Britain explains that its main, geographical definition is as an island.  Warofdreams 10:22, 2 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Easternmost point in Wales
I have corrected this once but I'm not fully confident in my correction. The border at the far eastern edge of Monmouthshire is a north-south line with many small twists and turns in it - if anyone has any definitive information on which bit extends furthest into England please go ahead and update. I am not making any great claims for Bulwark. Trilobite 00:58, 27 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * I have had a look on the maps and co-ordinates given via Streetmap's website, and I think I have found a better candidate.

 * The easternmost point of land on the riverbank near Bulwark, which you suggested, appears to be here: http://www.streetmap.co.uk/streetmap.dll?G2M?X=354545&Y=191695&A=Y&Z=3 which shows as 02d 39m 29s west. (grid ref ST545916)

 * However, further upriver not far from Symonds Yat there is a small wiggle of border further east: http://www.streetmap.co.uk/streetmap.dll?G2M?X=355290&Y=214165&A=Y&Z=3 (grid ref SO553142) which shows up as 02:39:00W or maybe even 02:38:59W, i.e. half a minute of longitude further east :)

 * On the 1:25,000 map this area seems to be called Lady Park Wood so I have updated the main article. 143.252.80.124 12:51, 6 May 2005 (UTC)

I'm confused. The easternmost point of Wales is Lady park Wood, but the easternmost point of the Welsh mainland is Bulwark? Something not right there... Grutness...  wha?  05:00, 24 August 2005 (UTC)

 * My mistake - I forgot to change the mainland section when I changed the Wales part. Fixed now.

 * Sorry for adding this in the wrong section, but the most westerly part of Wales is NOT Grassholm Island, it is 'The Smalls' also known as 'Smalls Reef' - it is 9 miles further out than Grassholm Island. This mistake should be corrected. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 84.13.124.52 (talk) 11:04, 15 July 2011 (UTC)

Westernmost point in Wales
Small Isle is much further west than Grassholm - this needs correcting

Southernmost point in Wales
While I've got the Welsh maps out, it seems to me that Rhoose Point is marginally further south than the nearby Breaksea Point. Streetmap agrees, giving 51:22:51N for Rhoose Point, 51:22:52N for Breaksea Point. Also found a couple of websites that back it up, e.g. http://www.glamorganwalks.com/porthkerry.htm and http://www.britishwalks.org/walks/2003/373.php ("Rhoose Point is the southernmost point in mainland Wales, a fact that a sign proudly told me.")

Anyone have any reasons not to change it? 143.252.80.124 13:10, 6 May 2005 (UTC)

 * No one did, so I have made the change. 143.252.80.124 13:34, 25 May 2005 (UTC)

British Isles
UK and British Isles are obviously quite different things and I think it is quite wrong and misleading to confuse the two. I would propose changing the "British Isles" section to "British Islands" (the only change this would have would be to the "Westernmost Settlement" would be Manger Beg, County Fermanagh). --sony-youth pléigh 09:27, 26 May 2007 (UTC)

 * Disagree somewhat. If this article is about the UK, let it be about the UK.  If it´s about "British Islands", let it be about that.  Extreme points lists should be clear and entirely unambiguous in order to be helpful.  Blurring and confusing an extreme points list is hardly sensible.  83.39.134.72 21:33, 21 June 2007 (UTC)

Perhaps there should be seperate articles for the UK and the British Isles then? British Islands is the UK + the Channel Islands & the Isle of Man, British Isles is the British Islands plus Southern Ireland (ROI). Just to clear up any confusion between the terms. :) YourPTR! 01:10, 22 June 2007 (UTC)

 * Sony has created a page with a list of extreme points of the British Isles. The whole point of his (and my) comments here was to clear up confusion.  83.39.134.72 07:45, 22 June 2007 (UTC)

Shetland is part of the UK. Its northernmost extreme point (Out Stack) is therefore the northernmost point of the UK and Great Britain. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 86.160.156.107 (talk) 20:44, 27 February 2011 (UTC)

Northern Ireland...
may be "constituent", but both nationalists and unionists agree that it is not a country. --MacRusgail (talk) 15:34, 25 November 2007 (UTC)

So what? Wales isn't a country either it's a principality of England and "Northern Ireland" is a province. The only real countries in the British Isles are England, Ireland and Scotland. YourPTR! (talk) 19:20, 29 December 2007 (UTC)

Overseas Territories
Can we also include the extreme points when the Overseas Territories are taken into account just like the Extreme points of the United States page does with the USA's overseas territories? The USA's equivalent page includes American Samoa for most southerly point of the USA when it is NOT in the USA. YourPTR! (talk) 19:18, 29 December 2007 (UTC)

Scotland
I haven't tried all the available links from Geohack, but for those I have the given lat/long figures all seem to go to a point in the sea some way south of Corrachadh Mòr. I lack the l33t Ninja skillz to work out what the figures should be (and if you type "Corrachadh Mòr" into Google Maps it takes you to Ardnamurchan Lighthouse). Anyone? Mr Larrington (talk) 15:28, 29 November 2010 (UTC)

Westernmost inhabited, England. URGENT!
The Scilly isle of Bryher is marginally further west than Saint Agnes, although I don't know where exactly the westernmost house of each isle is. It might have to come down to that to sort it out. 86.154.118.65 (talk) 20:40, 12 March 2012 (UTC)

 * Indeed - it's marginal, but the Hell Bay Hotel (Bryher) is very very slightly further west than Troy Town Farm (St Agnes). I have amended the article accordingly. Sumorsǣte (talk) 00:06, 13 January 2016 (UTC)

 * I like the fact that this was "URGENT" but was not replied to for almost four years... — Amakuru (talk) 14:19, 30 August 2016 (UTC)

Can someone identify and add Eastnermost point of British Overseas territories, given
Given that United Kingdom administration of the Chagos Islands is generally regarded as unlawful (e.g. by UN - see their map ), can an alternate easternmost point be added the same way an alternate to Antarctica is included for southernmost point is? I do not know what the easternmost point is when the Chagos Islands are excluded. Thanks. Frenchmalawi (talk) 15:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)
 * The second Easternmost point is in Akrotiri and Dhekelia, a military base in Cyprus. It has been added as an alternate to Chagos Islands. OrewaTel (talk) 03:24, 4 May 2022 (UTC)

Sources?
While the article seems accurate from what I know, there isn't a single reference on the page. Shouldn't there be? Twasonasummersmorn (talk) 01:04, 3 January 2023 (UTC)
 * Basically the online sources seem to be various maps. Does examining a map constitute original research? Most of the points are not contentious. The extreme points of mainland England, for example, are obvious from looking at a school atlas. However other places are not so clear cut. Is Point of Ayr further north than Great Orme Head in Wales? That is very close. We really need to have an independent definitive sources. So yes, references should be provided. OrewaTel (talk) 20:27, 3 January 2023 (UTC)
 * Note: Point of Ayr is 1550 m North of Great Orme. Since it is 60.7 km away to the East, it's not obvious without careful measurement. Whilst that sort of research is useful and verifiable, it isn't the sort of thing that we should be doing.OrewaTel (talk) 20:53, 3 January 2023 (UTC)

Lowest point
Agree re the need for sources. There are sources available for Holme Fen being the lowest elevation but a problem has arisen recently in that a disused brick pit at King's Dyke, Peterborough is now shown on Ordnance Survey maps as having a minus 5m contour, the only one in the UK to the best of my knowledge, and hence lower. I cannot find any other info on this. cheers Geopersona (talk) 09:23, 15 November 2023 (UTC)
 * That raises a philosophical point. When does an artificial structure become natural? It is possible that there is an active quarry or open cast mine which is lower than 5 below. It is certainly true that there are mines that are lower still. We would not include these as a lowest point. Similarly the highest point of England is the summit of Scafell Pike. The mountain is 3210' high (maybe) but the substantial cairn on top is at least 2m higher. That cairn, by the way, is drum shaped and is at least 6 metres across but is not counted as part of the fabric of the mountain. So when does a disused brick pit become the lowest point in England? OrewaTel (talk) 22:00, 15 November 2023 (UTC)


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Sinister Dexter

Sinister Dexter is a long-running comics series in British comics anthology 2000 AD, created by Dan Abnett and David Millgate.

Overview
Set in the near future, it features the exploits of gun sharks (hitmen) Finnigan "Finny" Sinister and Ramone "Ray" Dexter in the city of Downlode, sprawled across Central Europe "like a hit and run victim". Occasional stories have taken place in other cities, or off planet. The size of Downlode is never specified in the strip, but it appears to stretch from Spain to eastern Europe.

The appearance of the city largely depends on the artist of the particular storyline: often it appears to be styled after the former soviet bloc, with many statues and wide boulevards, plus dilapidated cars such as Trabants and VW Beetles; however, in other strips the city looks clean and futuristic, like the Mega-City One of Judge Dredd stories in the same  magazine. The story "London Town" shows that London and Great Britain still exist separate from Downlode.

Police drive generic saloon cars resembling Ford Crown Victorias, painted as the cars of the Los Angeles Police Department; black on bonnet and boot, with DCPD written on the white doors. In early strips the police used hovercars with "Polizei" written on the side, and this hovercraft technology appears in later stories, retrofitted to old cars such as Checker Cabs. Sinister and Dexter themselves drive a 1950s Edsel, this started out as a hardtop but in the story "Alibi of Broadway" had its roof torn off and was re-built as a convertible.

Advanced robots are occasionally seen in the stories, but appear to be very rare, and are usually controlled by humans and are unable to think for themselves. Some characters also have several cyborg implants, including Ramone himself who has a "Fony Headcase" television implanted into his eyes. In one story a malfunction in this temporarily gave him the ability to see in infra-red and detect a small hole in a crime-bosses' personal forcefield (referred to as a very rare and expensive technology).

The atmosphere of the stories suggests a time of economic recession. Sophisticated army hardware is sold off to the highest bidder, usually criminal gangs. Additionally many strips feature the city looking worn and run-down even in "rich" areas. In the story "Mother 'Lode and the Red Admiral" it is mentioned that Korea has developed cold fusion and become the world's richest nation.

Ramone uses a pair of "Ruger Nines", often drawn as silver 9mm pistols, or occasionally as revolvers. Sinister's "Minigun" (not to be confused with General Electric's Minigun) has been drawn differently by different artists: small pump-action shotgun, large double-barrelled revolver and small machine pistol. It can fire different kinds of bullets, including high explosives.

The title "Sinister Dexter" is a play on words; in Latin sinister means "left" or "on the left side" and dexter means "right" or "on the right side". The term is mentioned in the 1960s Discordian religious book Principia Discordia.

The initial inspiration for Sinister Dexter came from Samuel L. Jackson and John Travolta's characters in Pulp Fiction. However Dexter is designed to look like Wesley Snipes.

Plot
In early stories the duo work as freelance hit-men, taking contracts from their "fact-totem", a PDA-like device, and killing people for money. The kingpin of crime in these early stories is Holy Moses Tanenbaum.

Eventually a large price is put on the head of Holy Moses himself, expecting Sinister and Dexter to take the contract he sends hit-men to kill them, after killing these they decide to take the contract, as their reputation would dictate they have to take the toughest jobs. After a battle which results in the duo both being nearly killed Holy Moses is killed and the person who put out the contract is revealed to be his wife, Demi Octavo.

A brief period of gang violence follows as various gangs attempt to take control of the city's underworld for themselves. Eventually The Czar, moblord of the Russian mafia calls a conference of gang leaders in an attempt to resolve the situation and hires Sinister and Dexter as security for the meeting. During the meeting, Sinister and Dexter discover that, naturally, every single gang has made plans to assassinate the other gang leaders. After these are fought off The Czar reveals "himself" to be a robot double outfitted with a close-focus nuke in its chest cavity. With the gang leaders dead The Czar is able to take over the underworld for himself.

Following the gang-war, Sinister and Dexter are hired by an accountant working for a Mr Bronsky "Ballpeen" Hammer as protection to 'expedite' the handover of the year-end accounts. The rendezvous between the accountant and Mr Hammer's men in Fred Quimby Municipal Park is violently interrupted by the Department of Taxation, causing the "Infamous Audit Showdown of '66". As a result of the carnage, Sinister and Dexter decide to take a holiday and The Czar recommends that they visit a nightclub in Asbestopol known as the Bawdwalk. At the club a pair of hired muscle known as Buddy Boom and Buddy Bing are threatening the club owner, Kilopatra, so Sinister and Dexter step in to help him and scare off the heavies, thus picking themselves up a holiday job.

Kilopatra sends the pair off to pay a visit to local mob-king Philly O'Fisch, as it was he who sent the two heavies after Kilopatra. Sinister and Dexter kill the two Buddies and warn Philly off Kilopatra under threat of taking one of the many contracts that Philly has on his head. When they return from this job, they run into Demi Octavo who is at the nightclub under a pseudonym, she tells the pair that the word spread that she was the one who put out the hit on Holy Moses Tanembaum so she decided to escape Downlode. The Czar suggested that she head to the Bawdwalk, which convinces Sinister and Dexter that The Czar has set them all up.

The pair invade Philly's island lair and kill him and all of his minions and return to Downlode to take out the Czar using a giant, cyborg alligator that ticks (referencing J. M. Barrie's Peter Pan). After this, Demi Octavo takes over as mob-queen and hires Sinister and Dexter as her personal guardians.

Stories from now on generally revolve around them protecting her empire, though occasionally they also take contracts from other people. During this time Demi's younger sister, Billi Octavo, decides to become a Gunshark, but a misunderstanding results in her killing some respected city dignitaries. During the ensuing police chase Sinister explains the unwritten "Gunshark Code" that they never kill cops or "innocents". Later Billi hacks into the police database and finds the dignitaries she killed were actually guilty of "perverted" crimes and it had been covered up. She released this data to the media and the police were forced to abandon the hunt. It is also revealed most rank-and-file police officers actually support Gunsharks, because they only kill other criminals which results in less criminals overall.

Later Dexter begins to see visions on his "Headcase" TV which suggest he is a wanted serial killer, the Blemvoi Butcher. It turns out the actual killer also has a "Headcase" and the signals have been transposed. The Butcher lures the pair and two police officers, including the "by-the-book" Tracey Weld, into a trap. Dexter kills the butcher and this eventually leads to his becoming romantically involved with Weld.

In Eurocrash, Demi sees her empire begin to crumble, so plans to marry Prince Guapo and unite the two biggest gangs and restore 'peace' to Downlode. The wedding gets hijacked by 'syns' (artificial humanoids) and Finnigan and Ramone fail to protect Demi, who dies. They both blame each other and walk away from their partnership.

Downlode Tales depicts Sinister and Dexter going their own ways, with Dexter joining the 'Ass Kickers' D.U.R. police unit to avoid jail, and Sinister putting together his 'whack pack' to avenge Demi's killers.

As the city once again descends into turmoil, the pair mentor a trainee Gunshark, Kal Kutter, who accompanies them on several adventures and eventually becomes a highly competent Gunshark in his own right.

Another mob boss, called Apellido, begins to take over the city and sends a huge squad of "bullet monkeys" (inferior but cheaper gunsharks) after Billi Octavo. Sinister attempts to get her out of the city but the other hitmen are chasing the two. Meanwhile, Dexter is with Detective Weld when he hears the news and rushes out of the house with his guns drawn. By chance he is seen by a police officer who tells him to freeze, before going to get out his handcuffs. Dexter misinterprets this as the officer going for his gun and kills him, thereby breaking the gunshark code. He escapes but doesn't get very far before being surrounded. Fearful of being tortured in prison a standoff ensues, and he is eventually shot by Weld. Sinister is last seen speeding out of the city, with a wounded Billi octavo in the car, still pursued by the bullet monkeys.

The story line at the end of 2005 (over the instalments "...and Death shall have no dumb minions" and "Festive Spirits") seemed to suggest that the deadly duo were both dead. However, this didn't stop some one-page "gag strips" from appearing in the Judge Dredd Megazine

This issue has now been addressed in passing as part of the twist in the, initially apparently unconnected, series Malone. The "Festive Spirits" story, in which both appeared as skeletal zombies who were apparently ignored by their old friends, is hinted at merely being one of Malone's dreams.

After surviving the showdown with his boss, Apellido, Sinister changed his face and took drugs to try to forget his past, fleeing offworld to Generica. It wasn't until Rocky Rhodes told him of his true identity that he returned to Downlode City to get revenge on Apellido making sure he knows that he's now alive. It was also revealed that Ramone also survived the shooting but was rendered quadriplegic.

Sinister allowed himself to be captured and was sent to the same prison as Ramone, with a plan to escape. After enlisting the help of two other prisoners, he executes the break-out and escapes with Ramone in a wheelchair. Heading to an old doctor friend it is revealed Ramone has been kept immobilised by an implant in his spine. With this removed, and surviving an attack by another Apellido hit-squad, they head for a run-down lock-up containing the Edsel and their old guns. They collect these and drive back into Downlode to again work as gunsharks, bringing the series full circle.

Characters

 * Finnigan Rapunzel Sinister, is a superstitious Irish hitman. He is married but separated, and not averse to philandering - considering his marriage over. Sinister is an accomplished poet, and has had volumes of his poetry published. He's also a closet cross-dresser, who enjoys wearing stockings (and occasionally women's lingerie) underneath his clothing.
 * Ramone Algonquin Winnibago Dexter is Spanish, highly fashion conscious and also a womaniser. As the stories progress, he harbours doubts, and becomes somewhat jaded as to his career choice, but can see no alternative. He possesses formidable physical prowess, especially speed, which was gained as a result of his upbringing, training to become a matador like his father.
 * Associates include:
 * Satan Brink (Deceased), fellow gunshark and street fighter from Tasmania
 * Anopheles Bunkum (Deceased), former police detective
 * Floppy Dick (Deceased), a friend of the hitmen
 * Billy Fix, a Tourettes sufferer in Download Penitentiary
 * Wendy Go, Rocky Rhodes' wife and barmaid at the Bar None
 * Carrie Hosanna, Finnigan's estranged wife and fellow gunshark
 * "Nervous" Rex Monday (Deceased), snitch and friend to the hitmen
 * Billi Octavo, younger sister of Demi and friend to the hitmen
 * Demi Octavo (Deceased), girlfriend of "Holy" Moses Tannebaum and former crime boss
 * Rocky Rhodes, a former cop and friend, owner of the Bar None
 * Lizzy Solemnis, a singer on the planet Generica
 * The Surgeon, a surgeon for the criminal underworld
 * Clayton Tushman, Sinister & Dexter's Lawyer
 * Tonto Vega (Deceased), a Sioux Indian and wannabe gunshark
 * Tracy Weld, a rookie cop and Ramone's girlfriend
 * Deakus Whisk, a bank robber in Download Penitentiary
 * SteamPunk Willy (Deceased), a former gunshark whose brain was encased in a robotic body, making him a cyborg.
 * Kal Cutter, former student of Sinister & Dexter, becomes a gun shark in his own right, and has several stories as the main character.
 * Major villains include:
 * The Apellido Mob:
 * Apellido, current Crime Lord of Download City
 * Ronko, Apellido's chief enforcer. Described as being "like the bog roll: Rough, abrasive and hard on everyone's ass". Killed by Dexter.
 * Lars Maybach, Apellido's chief banker
 * Charlie Bigelow, one of Apellido's enforcer
 * Chevy Brakes, a minor enforcer
 * The Mover's Mob:
 * "Holy" Moses Tannebaum (The Mover), first Crime Lord of Download City. Was killed by the duo on the orders of Demi Octavo. Recently, another "Holy" Moses revealed himself to be "The Mover"
 * Miss Deeds, The Mover's assistant
 * John Croak, his Second-in-command
 * Cane Broadus, Kal Cutter's partner in crime
 * Telemachus Gore (Deceased), corrupt cop and former Crime Lord/Marshal
 * Serge, a gangster on the planet Generica

Collected editions
The comics have been collected into trade paperbacks by Rebellion.

Volumes published include:

 * Gunshark Vacation (collects "Gunshark Vacation", 128 pages, Rebellion Developments, September 2004, ISBN 1-904265-16-2; DC Comics, October 2004, ISBN 1-4012-0391-4)
 * Murder 101 (collects 2000 AD #1051–1082, 160 pages, Rebellion, January 2005, ISBN 1-904265-26-X; DC Comics, ISBN 1-4012-0575-5)
 * Slay Per View (collects 2000 AD #1084–1124, 240 pages, Rebellion, May 2005, ISBN 1-904265-38-3; DC Comics, June 2005, ISBN 1-4012-0587-9)
 * Eurocrash (collects 2000 AD #1125–1139, Prog 2000, #1181 and #1189–1999, 160 pages, Rebellion, March 2009, ISBN 1-905437-93-5)
 * Money Shots (collects 2000AD #1200–1211, 1220–1228, 1231–1235, 1243-1248 and Prog 2001, 192 pages, Rebellion, October 2009, ISBN 1-906735-17-4)

The "Downlode Tales" story arcs were collected into three trade paperbacks that came polybagged with issues 330, 334, and 335 of Judge Dredd Megazine.

The stories illustrated by Andy Clarke were also republished by American company IDW Publishing in 7 volumes between December 2013 and June 2014; these were collected in a trade paperback published in the August 2014.

title: Sinister Dexter


text: User talk:147.8.224.157

title: User talk:147.8.224.157


text:
Riccardo Paletti

Riccardo Paletti (15 June 1958 – 13 June 1982) was an Italian motor racing driver. Paletti was killed when he crashed on the start grid in his second Formula One start.

Life before racing
Born in Milan, Riccardo Paletti was the son of Gianna and Arietto Paletti, a Milanese entrepreneur who had built his fortune as a real estate developer, and amongst a number of business interests was the importer for Pioneer audio equipment in Italy.

Paletti's early sporting interests were broad; he was Italian junior karate champion at thirteen, and was in contention for a place on the Italian national alpine skiing youth team.

Racing before Formula One
In 1978 Paletti entered nine races in Formula Super Ford, and in his inaugural race he led for 18 laps. Although he did not win during the first season, he took two second places and finished third in the overall championship. During the end of his first season, he also made his Formula 3 debut in the Italian Championship with a March-Toyota. In 1979, Paletti entered a full F3 championship season, but his best placings were two fifth-place finishes. Later the same year, he competed in a few Formula 2 races for the first time with the team run by Mike Earle. His best result was at Misano, where he finished eighth.

For the 1981 European F2 championship season, Earle severed his collaboration with March to start with Onyx. Paletti tested extensively during the winter, and the effort paid off during the opening rounds of the season, as he qualified 10th in the first race at Silverstone, before finishing second behind Mike Thackwell. He retired in the second round at Hockenheim but set the fastest lap of the race, and his good form continued in round three at Thruxton, where he finished third — this time behind Roberto Guerrero. At that point, he was joint second in the championship with Stefan Johansson, trailing Thackwell by three points. But from then, his results declined, and he finished tenth in the championship.

Formula One career
Although still on a learning curve in the lower class racing, Paletti decided to join the uncompetitive team Osella in 1982. He admitted that Formula One struck him with a little bit of fear, but his sponsor, Pioneer, wanted him to move up and Paletti did not want to miss his opportunity. His teammate was the experienced Frenchman driver Jean-Pierre Jarier. He travelled with a personal medical adviser who was monitoring his blood pressure and heartbeat with small sensors attached to his body during testing and practice sessions. His diet was constantly adapted to the results. Few Formula One drivers took this professional approach seriously at the time.

Making his first attempt during the South African Grand Prix in January 1982, Jarier managed to haul his Osella to qualify in the last position on the grid but Paletti was almost two seconds slower, failing to qualify.

For the second round of the season, at the Jacarepaguá circuit near Rio de Janeiro, the venue for the Brazilian Grand Prix, Paletti had to prequalify on Friday morning, but a wheel fell off the Osella after a suspension failure and again he did not make the grid.

The next round of the championship was the US GP West at the street circuit of Long Beach. Jarier found the right set-up for the Osella and managed to put the car in the top ten during qualifying. Paletti was a massive three and a half seconds slower and failed to qualify again.

For the fourth Grand Prix of the season, at Imola on 25 April, amidst a war between the FISA and FOCA, only 14 cars loyal to the organisation started the race. Paletti had managed to beat the ATS of Eliseo Salazar and was supposed to start from the back of the grid. However, on Sunday afternoon Paletti's Osella failed to fire up for the warm-up lap and by the time he had left the pits the other cars were already lining up for the start. As a result, the moment he crossed the starting line he was already 49 seconds behind. He never got close to the rest of the field and after seven laps he had to park his car due to another suspension failure.

At Zolder Paletti failed to prequalify on Friday, getting more and more disappointed with the Osella. The new chassis, which was to be introduced at Monaco, gave some promise, but still Paletti knew that qualifying for Monaco was virtually impossible with only twenty entries allowed to start in the narrow streets of the principality. There was only one new monocoque for Jarier and the new rear suspension was delayed. Once again, Paletti failed to prequalify.

On his seventh Grand Prix, in Detroit, Paletti was much closer to Jarier's pace and, although the gap was still over a second, he qualified right behind his teammate. However, during the warm-up session Paletti lost a wheel at the beginning. The mechanics tried to repair the car in time for the race and, while there still was the possibility of starting the race in the spare car, that option went up in smoke as well, after Jarier's fire extinguisher had gone off accidentally. Jarier took the spare car. This meant it would be a race against time for Paletti's mechanics to set up the car and they were still busy when the rest of the field progressed to the grid. But just as the work was finished, with Paletti ready to get in the car, news broke that Jarier had hit the wall, damaged his car and was on his way back to the pits. So Paletti's car was ready for Jarier to jump in and start the race from the pit lane, leaving Paletti behind as a spectator once more.

Death
Paletti qualified for the Canadian Grand Prix on Sunday 13 June 1982, the first time he would start successfully in a full line-up. At the start, the lights took an unusually long time to turn to green. During this time, Didier Pironi, who had the pole position, stalled the engine of his Ferrari. Pironi lifted his hand to signal the problem just as the lights switched to green, which was too late to abort the start. The other cars swerved across the track, trying to squeeze past Pironi's stationary car. Raul Boesel just clipped the back left of the Ferrari, spinning his March into the path of Eliseo Salazar and Jochen Mass. Salazar, Boesel and Mass suffered minor impacts but it looked as if everyone had passed the Ferrari without serious consequences. However, Paletti could not react in time and slammed into the rear of the stranded Ferrari at 180 km/h (180 km/h), catapulting it into the path of Geoff Lees. The Osella's nose was crushed heavily.

Due to the force of the severe impact, Paletti sustained heavy chest injuries and was lying unconscious in his car, wedged against the steering wheel. Sid Watkins, the FIA's head doctor, was on the scene to stabilise and assist Paletti. As Watkins climbed over the wreckage of the Osella, the petrol from the fuel tank ignited, enveloping the car in a wall of fire. When the fire was finally put out, the injured Paletti was without a pulse. It took the rescue workers 25 minutes to cut him out safely from his wrecked car, as the sparks caused by the cutting equipment threatened to re-ignite the petrol on the track. He was flown by a medical helicopter to the Royal Victoria Hospital, where he died soon after arriving. His mother was watching from the stands, where they were to celebrate his 24th birthday later that week. Paletti suffered a torn aorta as well as fractures to both legs. According to track doctor Jacques Bouchard his pupils were already dilated when medical personnel arrived and that the extended extraction time made no difference to his chances of survival.

Paletti was the second Formula One driver to die during the 1982 season. Five weeks earlier, Gilles Villeneuve had a fatal crash during qualifying for the Belgian Grand Prix at Zolder. Paletti was the last Formula One driver to die in a race until the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix, which saw the death of Roland Ratzenberger during qualifying and of three-time world champion Ayrton Senna during the race itself. In 1986 Elio de Angelis was killed during testing at Circuit Paul Ricard three days after the 1986 Monaco Grand Prix, but the test was not part of a Grand Prix.

In tribute to Paletti, the racetrack at Varano de' Melegari, in the province of Parma (northern Italy) is now called the Autodromo Riccardo Paletti. There is also a side altar in the Church of Santa Maria al Carrobiolo, Monza dedicated to his memory, in the Chapel of the Crucifix.

Paletti is buried at the Cimitero Maggiore di Milano.

Complete European Formula Two Championship results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap)

Complete Formula One results
(key)

title: Riccardo Paletti


text:
International Human Powered Vehicle Association

The International Human Powered Vehicle Association (IHPVA) is a US-based organization dedicated to promoting the design and development of human powered vehicles (HPVs) and the keeping of speed and distance records for these vehicles and bikes.

History
The IHPVA was founded in 1976 in the USA and was for many years an association of individual members with the publications Human Power and HPV News. In 1997, the IHPVA was reorganised into an international association with national organisations as members and an American association which adopted the name Human Powered Vehicle Association HPVA.

Due to conflicts regarding record keeping and copyrights, the HPVA left the IHPVA in 2004. In 2008, the HPVA renamed itself to IHPVA while the IHPVA of this time decided to keep its name, resulting in a brief period with two organisations of the same name.

In a hostile takeover, the American IHPVA also seized control of the domain name ihpva.org away from the international IHPVA. This tried to regain its domain by appealing to the ICANN's ombudsman but was unsuccessful and in 2009 renamed itself to World Human Powered Vehicle Association (WHPVA).

Members
Today's IHPVA is an association of individuals from all over the world and has affiliate associations in North America. The affiliates are:

 * Association des Véhicules à Propulsion Humaine du Québec (aVPHq)
 * BRAG - Bent Riders of Arizona Group
 * Chicagoland Recumbent Riders
 * Easy Riders Recumbent Club (ERRC) - Oregon
 * Florida, Georgia, and Alabama- Loose Assemblage of SouthEast Recumbent Riders (LASERR)
 * HPVs of Southern Ontario
 * Human Powered Vehicle Operators of Ottawa (HPVOoO)
 * Los Angeles/Orange County Recumbent Riders
 * Los Angeles Recumbent Riders (LARRs)
 * Louisville's Relaxed Recumbent Riders' Group
 * Mars- (Metro Area Recumbent Society) - New Jersey
 * Michigan HPVA
 * Minnesota HPVA (MnHPVA)
 * Bent Trail Riders (BTR) of OHIO
 * Omaha-Nebraska Country Cruisers
 * Oregon Human Power Vehicles (OHPV)
 * Recumbenteers of Western New York
 * Recumbent Cycling Ontario formally HPVSO
 * R-BENT, Recumbent-Bike Enthusiasts of North Texas
 * R-Best (Recumbent - Bicycle Enthusiast of South Texas)
 * Redwood Empire HPV
 * Rochester Area Recumbent Enthusiasts (RARE)
 * San Diego Recumbent Riders
 * Seattle Area Bike Builders' Group
 * Washington's Happily Independent Recumbent Lovers (WHIRL)
 * Wisconsin/Illinois HPV riders (WISIL HPVers)
 * Wolver-Bents Recumbent Cyclist
 * League of Michigan Bicyclist Spin-off

IHPVA records
The IHPVA maintains speed and distance records for various times and distances for land, water and air vehicles. The current hour record was achieved by Sam Wittingham with a total Distance of 90.60 km (56.29 mi) in 2009. Its recordbase has forked from the WHPVA in 2009, who currently recognizes Francesco Russo's 2016 claim of 92.43 km (57.43 mi) as the hour record.


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Thracian Tomb of Sveshtari

The Thracian Tomb of Svestari (Свещарска гробница, Sveshtarska grobnitsa) is 2.5 km southwest of the village of Sveshtari, Razgrad Province, which is 42 km northeast of Razgrad, in northeast Bulgaria. The tomb is probably the grave of Dromichaetes (Δρομιχαίτης; c. 300 – c. 280 BCE) who was a king of the Getae on both sides of the lower Danube (present day Romania and Bulgaria) around 300 BCE, and his wife, the daughter of King Lysimachus (Greek: Λυσίμαχος, Lysimachos; c. 360 – 281 BCE) who was a general and diadochus (i.e., "successor") of Alexander the Great. The tomb is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

General information
Discovered and excavated in 1982 during excavations at Mound No 7 of the East Mound Necropolis of Sboryanovo (Ginina Mogila) – a tumulus of the early Hellenistic period, the Sveshtari tomb was built in the first quarter of the 3rd century BC. The tomb's construction reflects the fundamental structural principles of Thracian cult buildings. The tomb's architectural decor is considered to be unique, with polychrome half-human, half-plant caryatids and painted murals. The ten female figures carved in high relief on the walls of the central chamber and the decorations of the lunette in its vault are the only examples of this type found so far in the Thracian lands. It is an exceptional monument of the Getae, a Thracian people who were in contact with the Hellenistic and Hyperborean worlds, according to ancient geographers.

In 2012, archaeologists uncovered a significant treasure near the village. The treasure included a golden ring, 44 female figure depictions and 100 golden buttons, found in 150 tombs from the 4th century BC. It has been suggested that it is part of the site of the Getan city of Helis.

History
The Getae had been federated in the Odrysian kingdom in the 5th century BC. It is not known how the relations between Getae and Odrysians developed. The Balkan campaigns of Philip II of Macedon between 352 and 340 BC shattered Odrysian authority and the Getae profited from the situation. By the second half of the 4th century, the Getae occupied sites on both banks of the lower Danube and this region flourished as never before. The new Macedonian conquests, secured with considerable military power, caused consternation in the adjoining territories and thus stimulated the political fusion of the Getic tribes.

The Getic tomb at Sveshtari in the western Ludogorie in Bulgaria is also supposed to have been near the location of Helis. In the vicinity of the mausoleum, the remains of a large ancient city were found along with dozens of Getic mound tombs. The settlement is situated in a natural stronghold, a plateau surrounded like a peninsula by the ravines of Krapinets River. The outer stone wall, up to 4m thick, follows the edges of the peninsula and defends a territory of about 10 hectares. The inner wall, of similar construction, encloses a roughly quadrilateral area of about 5 hectares. The fortified territory was relatively densely occupied by dwellings connected by a network of thoroughfares. Dating finds such as amphorae stamps and coins indicate that this settlement existed between c. 335 and c. 250 BC.

title: Thracian Tomb of Sveshtari


text: User talk:69.142.237.29

title: User talk:69.142.237.29


text:
Arab (automobile)

The Arab was a high-performance English automobile designed by Reid Railton and manufactured in Letchworth, Hertfordshire, between 1926 and 1928. The factory had previously been used by the Phoenix car company.

History
The car came about following discussions between J. G. Parry-Thomas, design engineer at Leyland Motors, Reid Railton, his assistant and Henry Spurrier, chairman of Leyland Motors. Leyland had made 50 four-cylinder engine blocks intended to be used in fast delivery vans, but the project was not proceeded with. The three discussed what to do with the blocks, and the building of a 2-litre sporting car was agreed. A prototype was built to test the new engine using an Enfield-Allday chassis and the car taken to Brooklands for the 1924 Easter Meeting. The engine had an overhead camshaft with the same unusual valve springing using leaf springs as those found on Parry Thomas's Leyland Eight. Drive was to the rear wheels via a Moss 4-speed gearbox and ENV spiral-bevel rear axle. It was one of the first English cars to use an electric fuel pump. Production of two variants was started in 1926 at the Letchworth works, a low-chassis sporting model and a high-chassis touring type. Two and four-seater bodies were available on the high-chassis at £525 and probably only the two-seater on the low-chassis at £550.

Parry Thomas died in March 1927 attempting to break the World Land Speed Record in his car Babs, and with his death Railton lost interest in the Arab and the Letchworth works closed after only about 6 or 7 cars were made. The remaining components were bought by Thomson & Taylor, where Railton was working, based at Brooklands and a few more cars were assembled. This was something of a pity, as the car was an impressive performer with the two-seater high chassis good for 80 mph, and the Super Sports was said to have been capable of going 90 mi/h. One high chassis is known to have been supercharged and is said to have achieved 105 mi/h.

Two cars are known to survive, both low chassis.

Engine

 * 1960 cc four-cylinder water-cooled monobloc.
 * Two bearing crankshaft
 * 70 mm bore 127 mm stroke
 * Single overhead cam, leaf spring controlled valves with positive closing.
 * Single Claudel-Hobson carburettor
 * 65 bhp at 4000 rpm

Gearbox

 * Moss 4-speed

Chassis

 * Wheelbase 88.5 in, track 52 in, overall length 154 in
 * Half-elliptical springs front and rear
 * Four wheel brakes (Perrot System)

title: Arab (automobile)


text:
Arbee (automobile)

The Arbee was a short-lived English automobile manufactured in 1904 by Rodgers Brothers, New Kent Road, London; the 6hp two-speed vehicle was advertised as having a "slow-running engine".

title: Arbee (automobile)