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Talk:Philosophical zombie

amnesia
The state of philosophical zombie is possible when people don't remember what have they done, from a certain point in time, under the influence of different substances (e.g. alcohol, muscimol) but they are reminded by the people around. They realize that things happened just before that moment:"where am I?", "what happened?", "what have I done"?

dumb
I can envision (although it has no basis in reality or rationality) that a plant can grow without light. Therefore plants dont need light to grow? This article seems to be dedicated to the thought of one contemporary fly-by-night "philosopher". Why does this exist? Mercster (talk) 04:41, 31 July 2017 (UTC)
 * A few things:
 * 1. You should post at the bottom of the talk page not the top.
 * 2. The quality of the argument isn't relevant. Wikipedia's criterion for inclusion is notability, i.e. discussion in reliable sources, of which there has been lots in philosophy and to some extent neuroscience.
 * 3. If you can find a reliable source making a similar counter-argument, add it. But it seems you misunderstand the argument... the form is not 'Where P is conceivable, P is true', but rather (to vastly oversimplify) 'If it is conceivable that P but not Q, P and Q are not identical'. Light and plants are in fact ontologically separate (though causally related), which is all the zombie argument seeks to show about the brain and qualia. Gazelle55 (talk) 09:29, 18 March 2018 (UTC)

The same?
If we have a flashlight which is emitting light. Then we try to imagine a flashlight which is exactly identical and in the exact same environment, except it is not emitting light. But this could not be; there would have to be a physical explanation for why one flashlight was emitting light. 75.118.170.35 (talk) 01:30, 3 July 2009 (UTC)
 * Not the same. You can see the light. You can't see a person's feelings. This article is about theoretical people who act like they have feelings but don't. Someone the Person (talk) 20:15, 11 September 2009 (UTC)
 * I understand what the article is about. But it doesn't matter whether or not we can see the light or see another person's experience. You could not have two flashlights that were physically identical in every way, except one of them is emitting light and the other is not. If one is emitting light and another is not, there would have to be some physical difference. Similarly, if we have two people physically different in every way, we couldn't have one with conscious experience and another without, there would have to be some physical difference. If it were otherwise, I would have no reason whatsoever to believe that anyone else in the universe had conscious experience.--RLent (talk) 20:34, 28 September 2009 (UTC)

Mistake
The concept of philosophical zombie, as presented in the article, is flawed. The reason is that a zombie does not lack sentience. A zombie has sensation, perception, and understanding. It sees and recognizes objects. The zombie, however, lacks will. Its internal will is absent and has been replaced by the will of another being. As such, the zombie obeys an external will.Lestrade (talk) 13:59, 17 October 2009 (UTC)Lestrade

 * You made this argument already; see the talk page's archive. It remains wholly inappropriate for the talk page. LW izard  @ 19:03, 17 October 2009 (UTC)

Inappropriate? It relates to the very essence of the concept of philosophical zombie. A zombie has intelligence but lacks its own will. An automaton, on the contrary, lacks intelligence but acts on its own will. Why wouldn't a reader want to know this?Lestrade (talk) 00:13, 4 June 2014 (UTC)Lestrade

Deletion of the survey
This user erased a section of this article as you can see here calling it original research. It is obviously not original research: it's an academic research and was made by David Chalmers and other professional philosophers. Should we replace the section?--Pokipsy76 (talk) 13:05, 22 June 2010 (UTC)

zombies in scifi (not what you think)
Hope this can be of use: Robert J. Sawyer's Mindscan talks about 'zombies' a bit. Long story short, these people upload their minds into cybernetic-ish bodies with a quantum fog but their flesh-and-blood bodies still live on. This old chick called Karen's son sues the uploaded Karen b/c real Karen died and the son wants inheritance (Karen's filthy rich and a great author). One of the lawyers makes an argument that Karen could be a 'zombie'. (Wow, I just realized this sounds like the biggest soap. It's so not) It goes through the whole ethical/philosophical argument. Might it be proper to mention this? --- cymru lass (hit me up)⁄(background check) 14:01, 1 November 2010 (UTC)

 * Maybe... if it is the philosophical zombie concept used in SciFi. Rursus dixit. ( m bork3 !) 11:58, 14 November 2010 (UTC)

Ambiguous second para

 * The notion of a philosophical zombie is mainly a thought experiment used in arguments (often called zombie arguments) in the philosophy of mind, particularly arguments against forms of physicalism, such as materialism and behaviorism.

What side use it? I think that a philosophical zombie argument would be an "error" used by some kind of realists, and that it would best be attackable by strict empirists, claiming the meaninglessness of trying to define/use concepts that aren't fundamentally measurable. The para is pretty confusing on how zombies are used and who are destroying them. Rursus dixit. ( m bork3 !) 11:58, 14 November 2010 (UTC)

 * A similar question is: "are the zombies good or bad?" Rursus dixit. ( m bork3 !) 11:59, 14 November 2010 (UTC)

What if some people, because of they genes don't have qualia?
Some people may not have qualia, because in they genes no special atoms or molecules structure or somthing. They are dead, but everything in they brains and they behavior is the same, but just not enough something in brain, some special particles, which makes qualia (human becoming alive because of qualia). For example, there is such physical law, according which, if in human genes or brains is 10 or billion special atoms, then human by law of cosmos have qualia and isn't dead. And at what speed neuroimpulses in brains creating qualia for our senses and sense and understanding, that I am absolutly alive? Can it be speed of light (communication neuro impulses and qualia)? Of course it's need to be seriously stupid or psycho or sleeping or not the one, really to believe, that there is material explanation of qualia. Why philosophy even trying to state, that qualia may aper from matter? There no way, that consciousness and qualia is connected to signals in brains. Who can explain why philosophy so too much counts on material (qualia - understanding and felling, that you are not dead is result of material atoms interactions), like logical explanation of qualia? Perhaps I am the one, thats why? But let's assume, that everyone thinks he is the one and only he have qualia and then no need for philosphy to hide true, that qualia is impossible from material, but philosophy still don't states it as 100000 time more possible reality, than that qualia is result of material interactions of particles. Or isn't it scientific? — Preceding unsigned comment added by Versatranitsonlywaytofly (talk • contribs) 18:59, 30 January 2011 (UTC)

Chalmers argument is misrepresented in this article.
The argument presented here has not much to do with the actual zombie argument by David Chalmers. What is said in the first step here:

''1. If physicalism is true, then it is not possible for there to be a world in which all the physical facts are the same as those of the actual world but in which there are additional facts. (This is because, according to physicalism, all the facts are fully determined by the physical facts; so any world that is physically indistinguishable from our world is entirely indistinguishable from our world.)''

is explicitly denied by Chalmers in his book (1996) in the context of his zombie argument. Chalmers indeed argues that if physikalism is true, then conciousness is physical, so there must be conciousness in every world that is physically identical to our word. Then he argues that a world without conciousness that is physically identical to ours is logically possible. The conlusion is that physicalism is false. But he claims in no way, that a world that is physically identical to our world could not contain facts additional to the facts in our world, if physicalism was true. (Of course there could be additional nonphysical facts in such a world. For example, angels could exist in such a world.) What he says in the first step of his argument, is more that things that exist in our word, could not fail to exist in a word physically identical to our word, if physicalism was true.

My english does not suffice to correct the article, so I just write this to warn the reader, that the article gives a wrong impression of Chalmers argument.

Sebastian. 130.75.46.244 (talk) —Preceding undated comment added 15:30, 8 February 2011 (UTC).

Proposal to change step 1 of the argument
As explained above the first step of Chalmer's zombie argument is misrepresented in the article. It now reads

''1. According to physicalism a world is not possible in which all physical facts are the same as those of the actual world but in which there are additional facts. This is because, all facts are fully determined by physical facts so any world that is physically indistinguishable from our world is entirely indistinguishable from our world.''

Firstly, this statement is incorrect. Physicalism claims that everything in our world is physical, not (necessarily) that worlds in which there is additional nonphysical stuff are logically impossible. Of course a physicalist would usualy not deny, that worlds which are physically like our word, but in which there exist additional nonphysical things like ghosts/angels, are logically possible. He just claims that our world is not like this. So step 1. as it is explicated in the artice does not make much sense. But more impotantly, Chalmes never uses a step like this in his argument. I propose to replace this part of the article by something like:

''1. According to physicalism all that exists in our world (including consciousness) is physical. Thus, if physiclism is true, a logically possible world, in which all physical facts are the same as those of the actual world, has to contain everything that exists in our actual world. In particular conscious experience would have to exist in such a possible world. ''

2. But in fact we can conceive of a world, which is physically like our world and in which there is no consciousness (a zombie world), and we can not see why it should not be possible.

''3. Therefore, physicalism is false. (The conclusion follows by modus tollens.) ''

This would definitely be a more accurate summary of Chalmer's argument, although it may not be completely accurate. It would be very nice if someone who is a native english speaker could replace the summary in the article by something like this.

Sebastian. 217.93.223.208 (talk) 23:50, 27 March 2011 (UTC)

 * Perhaps someone has updated the article since you posted this, but I can't tell the difference between the current formulation of the argument and what you have here. If there is still an issue, can you update here clarifying on what is wrong with the current formulation as stated? (I would be happy to help) Jay Dubya (talk) 01:33, 30 March 2014 (UTC)

"Logically valid?"
How is Chalmers' argument "logically valid" and how is that not POV?

Is this logically valid?

1. Some people believe water comes out of the water faucet. 2. If water really comes out of the faucet, it must come out of the faucet in an alternate dimension as well. 3. It is possible to conceive of an alternate dimension where it looks like water is coming out of the faucet but it isn't really water. 4. Water does not come out of water faucets. Water is a lie. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.181.161.34 (talk) 10:08, 20 August 2013 (UTC)

 * Funny. I came onto the Talk page to thank everyone for not demanding a citation or the sentence you take issue with. I thought, for a moment, that the encyclopedia had succeeded in producing content without the need for a fallacious appeal to authority. Seriously; I was so excited I wanted to come here to express that excitement. Oh well.

 * Modus tollens is not usually considered a "point of view" (let's focus on basics for a bit). Modus tollens is a rule of inference that has been accepted as correct for thousands of years - these are rules that are widely seen as one of the hallmarks of all rational thought since the beginning of civilization. Rules of inference are older than geometry. If someone wrote A^2+B^2=C^2 would you call that "POV"? When talking about "logically valid", the author is referring to the specific, term-of-art as opposed to one of the word "valid"'s other uses in everyday language. There is a whole article on it, validity, thats not so bad. What it means in a nutshell is that, in the argument stated, the conclusion follows from the premises. Now what you wrote above is what I will, charitably, call a "non sequitur". The conclusion does not follow from the premises. Honestly, thats probably the least of the issues with it but its a place to start. Let's examine the issues.

 * 1. "Some people believe water comes out of the water faucet." This is a statement that is dependent on empirical observation to determine its truth value. Whatever else you might say in 1, it will have absolutely no bearing on Chalmer's argument. Chalmer's argument is explicitly metaphysical. What you *believe* is wholly irrelevant. What most sane, competent people (like Chalmers and Nagel) can conceive is what is important. Delete.
 * 2. "If water really comes out of the faucet, it must come out of the faucet in an alternate dimension as well." This is a proposition: "If A is true, then B is true." Your premise B is one of the most insane things I've ever read on Wikipedia (congrats), but lets see where you go with this.
 * 3. "It is possible to conceive of an alternate dimension where it looks like water is coming out of the faucet but it isn't really water." This is not a proposition. This is a premise. It is unrelated to premises A and B in the prior proposition. In B, you said that water must come out of a faucet in an alternate dimension. In premise C, you say that some water-like substance is coming out of a faucet in an alternate dimension. You do not mention if its the same dimension as mentioned in B, but it doesn't matter. They still aren't connected. This is wholly different than Chalmers, where it is clear in every relevant proposition that he is referring to conception and a theory of physicality. Its what allows us to connect Chalmer's propositions to one another.
 * 4. "Water does not come out of water faucets." What made me laugh about this was not just the ridiculous nature of this, but that you ended your entire comment here, as if this single line was so profound no further explanation was needed. Amazing. I've edited the second sentence out as I simply refuse to type it, and because it is nonsense it is irrelevant to the discussion. Seriously though, this is called "denying the consequent". Let's express it more clearly:

 * 1. (nonsense)
 * 2. If A is true, then B is true.
 * 3. C is possible.
 * 4. Therefore, A is false.
 * To make this easier, think of Chalmer's argument in its most general form also (compare with the base formulation on the article page if you need to, P=A and B=Q):
 * 1. A is true and B is not true.
 * 2. If A is true and B is not true then C is false.
 * 3. Therefore, C is false
 * See the difference? Now in addition to the issues with validity, you are taking wild flights of fancy with the truth values of your premises. Your argument *depends* on all of this stuff about alternate dimensions to be true. Chalmer's argument does not depend on any way for zombies to exist in some alternate universe, it doesn't depend on anyone to believe that they exist. It depends on them being conceivable. Which they are. Your argument depends on radically departing from a present understanding of quantum and newtonian physics to satisfy truth premises.
 * I'm not sure what the point of this exercise was. Its possible you were trying to disprove Chalmers. Its possible you were trying to use the same form as Chalmers to use a reductio ad absurdum to try to "break" modens tullens. Jay Dubya (talk) 01:15, 30 March 2014 (UTC)

 * They just phrased it badly, doesn't make Chalmers' argument make a lick of sense.

 * So let's play by the rules, and say that we are in facetious disagreement that water wetness is something dependent on the physical properties of water. It is assumed to be an unmeasurable sensory difference basically like qualia are supposed to be.

 * Then the only question is that, is it conceivable that when a faucet opens up a flood of water from a conceivable different world, that said water would lack wetness?

 * Chalmers says conceivable (A is true and B is not true because I felt like it), therefore water being wet has nothing to do with water and we must posit some kind of nonsense dualism to account for it.

 * 172.218.204.55 (talk) 02:21, 25 April 2014 (UTC)

No. None of this is logically valid. Premise C is specifically invalid

 * C. In fact we can conceive of a world physically indistinguishable from our world but in which there is no consciousness (a zombie world). From this (so Chalmers argues) it follows that such a world is metaphysically possible.

We can conceive of a world indistinguishable from our world but in which its distinguishable from our world? No. we cant. In order to describe the 'indistinguishable' world we need to distinguished it.

The fact that we can conceive of yellow lego trucks indistinguishable from green lego trucks but in which they are made out of yellow legos - UTTER NONSENSE — Preceding unsigned comment added by 132.241.215.28 (talk) 06:20, 18 May 2014 (UTC)

Pyschopaths as Philosophical Zombies?
I stumbled on this article while researching a publication on psychopathy which actually extended from my work on an experimental project I call the "Zombie Apocalypse Diaries."

Ironically, I may have stumbled on true zombies, even while considering the philosophical zombie as the subject of the project - a reality "show" billed as a fictional perspective on reality wherein the problems we face in industrialized society were blamed on a "zombie virus."

What I realized is that we have two developmental pathways as human beings. We can develop individually, without need for empathy; or we can develop socially, in a social environment, where empathy develops.

In my mind then, a philosophical zombie, or perhaps another, and real, type of philosophical zombie, is the psychopath or any person lacking empathy or moral reasoning. This would be the closest to the "soulless zombie" mentioned by not described in the main article.

Here is a person who does not reason morally. They are not fit for society.

Worse is that we place psychopaths in charge. This is likely a holdover from placement of psychopaths in charge of military and other conflicts. They are ideally suited to military leadership as they lack moral reasoning. But moral reasoning is vital to an effective society.

Additionally, I would characterize psychopaths as primary zombies. But when in position of influence, such as leadership, or in the media; psychopaths have powerful capability of "spreading" their lack of empathy, creating "secondary zombies." So not only do we now have the potential for a very reason philosophical zombie, but a second type - a person affected with an empathy disorder.

An excellent example of how this mechanism takes place, and of a real physical zombie, is the State of the Union address by President George W. Bush in 2002. Here we had a nation in psychological trauma, eager for guidance. What we got was completely lacking in empathy, which influenced people who heard it, and led to such wonderful things as the invasions of Iraq and Afghanistan, as well as the murder of Osama Bin Laden which in turn led to a signicant increase in law enforcement killings of unarmed and innocent citizens.

Worst of all is that our society's design - capitalism specifically, is no more than the result of our having trusted these zombies with leadership and the formation of our economy and society.

Examples of historical philopshical zombies would then include what we already know as monsters: Hitler, Musselini, all of the serial killers, and many more.

The implications are tremendous, and I have begun drafting a paper on the subject, the abstract for which goes something like this:

Human beings can develop to become one of two basic types: a lone, survivor type, or a social type. These disparate types are determined by a developmental pathway which entails empathy. On the one hand, the survivor type does not need empathy and thus does not develop the skill. But in a social being, empathy is necessary and develops. But a developmental disorder where empathy is not developed, the individual becomes the wrong type, unable to develop moral reasoning spontaneously, and thus becomes at-odds with society. This disorder is not only present and ubiquitous in our society, but is the very reason for our societal strife. The survivor types seem to present as natural leaders – and are excellent as such in conflict situations where ruthlessness is beneficial. It seems our reliance on psychopaths, those who lack empathy due to lack of development of the skill, extended from military, to societal. This does well to explain our seemingly militaristic society and its intolerance to empathy and its derivatives. Further, these people who lack empathy, can, in position of leadership and influence, draw away empathy from others, enforcing their views of society. If allowed to lead a society to fruition, conflict both among and within society is of course inevitable.

This abstract reflects the duality between humans and philosophical zombies, whom I describe as psychopaths.

I am currently seeking feedback on the paper and will try to return here to update this section with the results.

My project can be found on YouTube under the username zapocalysediaries if you wish to have futher insight into my thoughts on the matter.

My proposed paper can be found at www.wolveswolveswolves.org/moralreasoning/Theory26Dec13.doc and is in Microsoft Word format.

-Michael Wolf — Preceding unsigned comment added by 50.78.109.43 (talk) 23:13, 26 December 2013 (UTC)

Logically valid?
Shouldn't it made more explicit that Chalmers is assuming that consciousness does in fact exist (and that eliminative materialism is wrong)? Hasire (talk) 20:39, 29 January 2016 (UTC)
 * Couldn't hurt, I suppose, but the implication's clear. If subjective consciousness doesn't exist, then neither do zombies, since they are defined as being distinct from humans as regards their consciousness. Sneftel (talk) 14:05, 1 February 2016 (UTC)

I'm going to do a big rewrite of "responses" section
I think the section should be renamed "debate" I'll be using Chalmer's paper "two-dimensional argument against materialism" as the template. He lays out the debate and major players quite effectively. I'll try to preserve as much of what is in the section already. For instance, this copy that I thought was quite good:

"The zombie argument is difficult to assess because it brings to light fundamental disagreements about the method and scope of philosophy itself and the nature and abilities of conceptual analysis. Proponents of the zombie argument may think that conceptual analysis is a central part of (if not the only part of) philosophy and that it certainly can do a great deal of philosophical work. However others, such as Dennett, Paul Churchland and W.V.O. Quine, have fundamentally different views. For this reason, discussion of the zombie argument remains vigorous in philosophy"

Let me know if you'd like to discuss and I'll invite you to my sandbox to help (assuming that's the way this is normally done).DolyaIskrina (talk) 17:44, 16 March 2019 (UTC)

 * Hi, what's the current state of the rewrite? I'd be happy to help. This article is such a mess, and the responses section in particular needs a cleanup... I did a bit a few months back but there's lots left to do. Could you let me know the source(s) for that paragraph? I'd like to add a citation in the article. Gazelle55 (talk) 17:41, 18 April 2021 (UTC)
 * I know it will be hard to believe, but I never got around to working on it. The quote above is a paragraph that is currently in the article that I thought was good. As to using Chalmers' paper as a template for organizing the section, here is the paper. He has a bunch of different headings under which he lumps the different counter arguments. I think it's helpful, but it would probably be UNDUE to list all the detractors' arguments and then Chalmers' retort every time. The same issue came up on Hard Problem of Consciousness. I can't tell yet how busy I'm going to be over the next week, so while I wish I could commit to a productive collaboration, sadly I may do the more annoying thing of waiting to see your edits and then nitpicking. Nothing personal, it's just how my brain works. Sometimes I have to be irked into action, which also make me irksome. Along those lines, I'm going to open up another heading below to discuss the lead. Whether or not this article should be about "Philosophical Zombies" or "The Philosophical Zombie Argument". Thanks for doing all this work. DolyaIskrina (talk) 14:26, 19 April 2021 (UTC)

 * No worries about any delays (or nit-picking!). I'm happy to start on this, though it will probably be a while before I have a chance to do much. One brief thought for now: I agree with using Chalmers' long 2009 paper for the overall structure, since it does seem to double as a literature review, but we might also want to consider Robert Kirk's SEP entry on the topic and take the best of both sources. (Although, I think they both broadly divide the critics into type-A and type-B materialists.) I agree with not including all Chalmers' responses, since he occupies the minority position in the debate. Will reply to your new section below when I have a chance. Gazelle55 (talk) 15:46, 19 April 2021 (UTC)

Prior art
Wittgenstein in 1953's Philosophical Investigations: "420. But can't I imagine that the people around me are automata, lack consciousness, even though they behave in the same way as usual?" — Preceding unsigned comment added by 173.247.204.214 (talk) 03:10, 13 June 2019 (UTC)
 * Definitely sounds relevant, do we have a source connecting that to p-zombies? I'm just worried about WP:SYNTH. Gazelle55 (talk) 17:42, 18 April 2021 (UTC)

Frankish's Anti-Zombie Argument
Can anyone think of a reason not to include Keith Frankish's Anti-Zombie argument? I don't know how well it has been received by the Philosophical community. https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/k0711/kf_articles/blob/master/Frankish_Anti-zombie_eprint.pdf It is ultimately an attack on the notion that conceivability entails metaphysical import. DolyaIskrina (talk) 22:13, 3 November 2019 (UTC)

 * , I'm a year and a half late, but I say include it for sure – it is certainly within scope. Frankish's article is mentioned briefly in the "History" section but deserves more than that. This article is such a mess lol. Gazelle55 (talk) 17:32, 18 April 2021 (UTC)

Kurt Vonnegut's Breakfast of Champions
I'm not sure what the procedure for adding the info to the article is, but given it's publication coincides with the formal birth of this theory, I feel compelled to bring up Kurt Vonnegut's 1973 book Breakfast of Champions. It describes pretty much the exact same philosophical concept where in a character becomes convinced that he is the only actual individual in the world and all other humans are machines perfectly replicating human existence. Aside from the word machine being substitute for the word zombie it's an identical concept published a year before the term was coined. I don't know if this is coincidence or if Vonnegut was familar with the writings of David Chalmers, but I think the use of it by a popular author around the time time as it's formal creation is warranted a mention somewhere. Cillian flood (talk) 14:25, 4 April 2021 (UTC)
 * I love that book. However, it is not an example of a PZombie argument. It's an example of the problem of other minds, solipsism, and also I think a type of psychosis or sociopathy. All of which predate both PZombies and Vonnegut's book by decades and centuries. Cheers DolyaIskrina (talk) 19:29, 15 April 2021 (UTC)
 * Thanks for posting, it sounds like a really interesting book. I agree with, though, it may not be exactly on topic. The litmus test would be whether a reliable source connects it to the topic of philosophical zombies. Best, Gazelle55 (talk) 17:29, 18 April 2021 (UTC)

Questions about the current version of the lead
I think it's important to have the idea of "thought experiment" or "argument" higher in the lead. Per WP:LEADFOLLOWSBODY, this article is really about Chalmers' Conceivability Argument, so starting with an isolated definition of P Zombies seems like we are making the WP:ISATERMFOR error. That might explain why at least one reader above thought the article was about a type of actual person or a mental condition. It'd be like having the Knowledge Argument article called "Mary the Color Scientist". "She a hypothetical scientist.." I think "hypothetical" doesn't do enough work to make it clear to the average reader what the heck is going on. Same issue came up with Boltzmann Brain. I get that we want to make it clear that other philosophers like Kirk have used the term first, but still. I don't think renaming or merging is the solution, because most people will encounter Philosophical Zombie before Knowledge Argument. I merged "Veil of Ignorance" with "Original Position", and I'm now regretting it, since Veil of Ignorance is what shows up more frequently. Still the redirect gets you there. Cheers. DolyaIskrina (talk) 14:56, 19 April 2021 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: Mind-Body, section 18
— Assignment last updated by Schooluser33 (talk) 04:03, 10 December 2022 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: Mind-Body, section 16
— Assignment last updated by Jovanna.lanbaxter (talk) 17:34, 25 December 2022 (UTC)

In the context of artificial intelligence
There's a general consensus in AI research that a large language model could scale smoothly with advances in technology, to the point where it would be indistinguishable from a general intelligence-- it wouldn't really *be* an AGI, but it would be functionally identical; a sort of philosophical zombie. Atomic putty? Rien! 18:25, 13 January 2023 (UTC)

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User talk:Caeriel

Welcome!
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James D. Phelan

James Duval Phelan (April 20, 1861 – August 7, 1930) was an American politician, civic leader, and banker. He served as nonpartisan Mayor of San Francisco from 1897 to 1902. As mayor he advocated municipally run utilities and tried to protect his constituents from the monopolistic practices of the trusts. He represented California in the United States Senate from 1915 to 1921 as a Democrat. Phelan was a progressive supporter of the policies of Woodrow Wilson and was a leader in the movement to restrict Japanese and Chinese immigration to the United States.

Early years
Phelan was born in San Francisco, the son of Irish immigrant and banker, James Phelan and Alice Kelly.

In 1881 Phelan graduated from the Catholic Jesuit college in San Francisco, St. Ignatius College. He had two sisters, Alice Phelan Sullivan and Mary Louis Phelan.

Career
Phelan studied law at the University of California, Berkeley and then became a banker. He was elected Mayor of San Francisco and served from 1897 until 1902, in three 2-year terms. He pushed for the reform City Charter of 1898 in San Francisco. He served as the first president of the League of California Cities, which was created in 1898. Phelan was elected as a Senator of the United States and served from 1915 to 1921. During this time, Phelan established himself as a leader in what fellow anti-Japanese agitator V. S. McClatchy described as the "holy cause" of Japanese exclusion. He remained active in the anti-Japanese movement after leaving office, securing then-presidential candidate Woodrow Wilson's support for restricting Japanese immigration in 1912 and helping to push through California's discriminatory alien land law in 1913. Phelan was also an advocate for excluding Chinese from the United States. He promoted the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 and wrote an article "Why the Chinese Should Be Excluded"(1901) in the North American Review, to increase support for the extension of these laws. In a debate with Imperial Chinese Consul Ho Yow, Phelan mentioned that the Chinese were an undesirable population because they had strong ties to their native country and were incapable of assimilating to the American society. This debate occurred just nineteen months after the outbreak of plague in San Francisco's Chinatown. Phelan mentioned that the Chinese had different mindsets and that after twenty years, they remained unchanged in their values. He concluded that American progress would be stunted if the United States continued to allow Chinese immigrants to remain in the country, and that the Chinese workers were taking work away from white workers because they worked for so much lower wages and an accustomed lower standard of living, allowing their labor to be exploited unfairly, driving down conditions of labor and standards of living generally.

Water and land rights
In the 1900s, Phelan bought land and water acreage in various places around the San Francisco Bay Area, and he obtained the rights to the water flow of the Tuolumne River in Hetch Hetchy Valley. Ethan A. Hitchcock, Secretary of the Interior under President Theodore Roosevelt, tried to stop Phelan, but Roosevelt decided that the wild area could be used for "the permanent material development of the region." Phelan's plans for the region included publicly funded water and electricity for a geographical entity he called "Greater San Francisco." With his Bohemian Club fellows, Phelan sought to annex land at the perimeter of San Francisco Bay.

San Francisco Plague
In 1900, San Francisco citizens distrusted government for previous waste of taxpayers' money as well as previous refusal to enhance community resources. Government officials refused to invest in public health because health was seen as a personal concern or even a commodity. For this reason, citizens had a lot of hope in Mayor Phelan, who had previously declared the need for healthier living conditions as well as the need for "health departments to provide salutary environments."

During his tenure as the Mayor of San Francisco, Phelan and his administration were faced with dealing with the plague of 1900–1904 that infected the city's Chinatown community. Prior to the plague outbreak in Chinatown, Phelan was an active advocate for improving public health in San Francisco. On October 25, 1897, Phelan addressed the California health board in San Francisco and stated that government intervention was needed in order to establish healthier living conditions. He argued that public health departments required more funding to help improve living conditions. Furthermore, in 1899, Phelan continued his strong advocacy for public health and the prevention of disease through city measures. Later that year, in a shocking move, he opted instead to support an $18-million-dollar bond to create a new hospital, schools, and city parks. On September 1899, Phelan and the San Francisco Board of Supervisors further defunded the cities health department. The San Francisco health department was only allocated $155,960 with two-thirds of that going towards the operation of a municipal hospital. Shortly after, the health board members were released from their duties due to political in-house fighting and excessive patronage. After being sworn in, Phelan's new health department board members discovered that the department was broke and that within the first six months of fiscal year 1899-1900 the department had already spent the majority of its budget. Through the defunding and mishandling of the department, Phelan and his administration left the health department and the city ill-prepared for what was looming around the corner.

In June 1900 San Francisco's city hall received the news that Joseph J. Kinyoun had instituted a travel ban in hopes of preventing the spread of the plague to the rest of the country. Mayor Phelan confirmed the news by stating that Kinyoun had notified him personally about the travel ban. Phelan went on to blame the federal court ruling that restricted the ability of the local government to deal with the plague. In order to improve sanitary living conditions in Chinatown, Governor Henry Gage proposed to hire inspectors and workers to eradicate the plague. Gage requested for Mayor Phelan and his administration to match the state's $25,000 contribution. However, Phelan informed Governor Gage that the city did not have the resources to match the state's contribution. After meeting with Governor Gage, Phelan and his Board of Supervisors agreed to contribute $6,000. In the summer of 1901, Mayor Phelan publicly announced that he would not run for another term. "During his final address before leaving office, Phelan praised the health board, claiming that because of its vigilance the city 'was saved from Oriental infection.'" Phelan concluded by thanking the federal government and their efforts to help the city endure the crisis.

Although the San Francisco Plague in Chinatown was reported in journalism, the material printed was prone to exaggerations, biased information, and focused on making the Chinese population look substandard. Newspapers were heavily averse to the Phelan administration and believed the health officials were corrupt and wasteful. For this reason, publications refused to print public health initiatives to prevent disease outbreaks and instead would focus on the community's lack of sanitation. Acts of racism were apparent because publications were heavily inclined to use offensive images and headlines to attract attention of readers.

Earthquake recovery efforts
During the 1906 San Francisco earthquake Phelan was a member of the Committee of Fifty, called into existence by Mayor Schmitz to manage the crisis. Afterward, when Dr. Edward Thomas Devine, representing the American Red Cross by appointment of President Roosevelt, was responsible for Relief and Red Cross Funds, ex-Mayor Phelan was allowed to assist Devine, thus keeping the money out of the hands of Schmitz and Abe Ruef.

U.S. Senate
As a Democrat, Phelan ran for the U.S. Senate against Republican Joseph R. Knowland and Progressive Francis J. Heney. He was elected to the United States Senate in 1914 and served from March 4, 1915, to March 3, 1921. Although he had toned down his anti-Japanese rhetoric during World War I, when the United States had allied with Japan, in 1919, Phelan once again began to speak out against the "Yellow Peril," delivering a speech in favor of Japanese exclusion before a special session of the state legislature. He was an unsuccessful candidate for reelection in 1920, defeated by Republican Samuel M. Shortridge, coming in second with 40% of the vote. His re-election campaign relied on racial fears; one of his reelection campaign posters contained the headline "Keep California White." (This poster is displayed at the Japanese American National Museum). During his time in the Senate, he was chairman of the U.S. Senate Committee on Railroads during the 64th Congress and of the U.S. Senate Committee on Irrigation and Reclamation of Arid Lands during the 65th Congress.

Later life
After his time in the Senate, Phelan returned to banking and collected art. He remained active in the anti-Japanese movement, collaborating with McClatchy and the Japanese Exclusion League of California to successfully ban Japanese immigrants from entering the country with the Immigration Act of 1924. First National Bank of San Francisco merged with Crocker National Bank in 1925. Phelan died at his country estate Villa Montalvo in Saratoga in 1930. He is buried in the family mausoleum in Holy Cross Cemetery in Colma, California.

Legacy

 * Upon his death, Phelan bequeathed the Villa Montalvo estate for use as a public park. Since 1930, it has been a center for the performing and visual arts called Montalvo Arts Center. Some of his mementos and correspondence are on display in the library at Villa Montalvo.
 * Phelan Avenue, the main thoroughfare on the Ocean Campus of the City College of San Francisco, named after him was changed in 2018 to Frida Kahlo Way after a public vote.
 * The unincorporated community of Phelan, California was named for him and his brother.
 * The James D. Phelan awards, given to young California writers and artists, were established by a bequest in his will.
 * A dormitory at the University of San Francisco used to be called Phelan Hall but was renamed in 2017 after protests by students concerned about Phelan's racist views.
 * In 1887, James D. Phelan's father bought an 11-acre parcel on Point Santa Cruz as a family summer retreat, called Phelan Park. The property stayed in the family until a great-niece, Alice Sullivan Doyle, died in 1932. A year earlier Mrs. Doyle had funded construction of the Mission Santa Cruz chapel replica, and she is buried in an alcove off the chapel. A large portion of Phelan Park was given to the Oblates of St. Joseph, and the rest became Lighthouse Field State Beach in 1978.
 * As mayor, he promoted bond issues for new sewer systems, city hospitals, and schools.
 * Despite his contributions to San Francisco’s economic and industrial growth, James D. Phelan's white nativist ideology has caused controversy. His infamous slogan while running for re-election in the US Senate, “Keep California White”, earned allies as well as enemies and he was defeated.

title: James D. Phelan


text:
Sector model

The sector model, also known as the Hoyt model, is a model of urban land use proposed in 1939 by land economist Homer Hoyt. It is a modification of the concentric zone model of city development. The benefits of the application of this model include the fact it allows for an outward progression of growth. As with all simple models of such complex phenomena, its validity is limited.

Application
This model applies to numerous British cities. Also, if it is turned 90 degrees counter-clockwise it fits the city of Mönchengladbach reasonably accurately. This may be because of the age of the cities when transportation was a key, as a general rule older cities follow the Hoyt model and more recent cities follow the Burgess (concentric zone) model.

Limitations
The theory is based on early twentieth-century rail transport and does not make allowances for private cars that enable commuting from cheaper land outside city boundaries. This occurred in Calgary in the 1930s when many near-slums were established outside the city but close to the termini of the street car lines. These are now incorporated into the city boundary but are pockets of low-cost housing in medium cost areas. The theory also does not take into account the new concepts of edge cities and boomburbs, which began to emerge in the 1980s, after the creation of the model. Since its creation, the traditional Central Business District has diminished in importance as many retail and office buildings have moved into the suburbs.
 * Physical features - physical features may restrict or direct growth along certain wedges
 * The growth of a sector can be limited by leapfrog land.
 * The theory too lacks the idea based on land topography.

title: Sector model


text:
Mathematical Bridge

The Mathematical Bridge is a wooden footbridge in the southwest of central Cambridge, England. It bridges the River Cam about one hundred feet northwest of Silver Street Bridge and connects two parts of Queens' College. Its official name is simply the Wooden Bridge or Queens' Bridge. It is a Grade II listed building.

The bridge was designed by William Etheridge, and built by James Essex in 1749. It has been rebuilt on two occasions, in 1866 and in 1905, but has kept the same overall design. Although it appears to be an arch, it is composed entirely of straight timbers built to an unusually sophisticated engineering design, hence the name.

A replica of the bridge was built in 1923 near the Iffley Lock in Oxford.

The original Mathematical Bridge was another bridge of the same design, also commissioned by James Essex, crossing the Cam between Trinity and Trinity Hall colleges, where Garret Hostel Bridge now stands.

Mathematical explanation
The arrangement of timbers is a series of tangents that describe the arc of the bridge, with radial members to tie the tangents together and triangulate the structure, making it rigid and self-supporting. This type of structure, technically tangent and radial trussing, is an efficient structural use of timber, and was also used for the timber supporting arches (centring) used for building stone bridges. Analysis of the design shows that the tangent members are almost entirely under compression, while the radial timbers are almost entirely subject to tension with very little bending stress, or to put it another way, the tangent and radial elements elegantly express the forces involved in arched construction.

Myths
A popular fable is that the bridge was designed and built by Sir Isaac Newton without the use of nuts or bolts. Various stories relate how at some point in the past either students or fellows of the University attempted to take the bridge apart and put it back together, but were unable to work out how to hold the structure together, and were obliged to resort to adding nuts and bolts. In reality, bolts or the equivalent are an inherent part of the design. When it was first built, iron spikes were driven into the joints from the outer side, where they could not be seen from the inside of the parapets, explaining why bolts were thought to be an addition to the original. Newton could not have been directly involved since he died in 1727, twenty-two years before the bridge was constructed.

title: Mathematical Bridge


text:
POSCO

POSCO (formerly Pohang Iron and Steel Company) is a South Korean steel manufacturer headquartered in Pohang, South Korea. It had an output of 42,000,000 t of crude steel in 2015, making it the world's sixth-largest steelmaker by this measure. In 2010, it was the world's largest steel manufacturing company by market value. Also, in 2012, it was named as the world's 146th-largest corporation by the Fortune Global 500.

POSCO currently operates two integrated steel mills in South Korea, in Pohang and Gwangyang. POSCO previously operated a joint venture with U.S. Steel, USS-POSCO Industries, in Pittsburg, California, United States, but U.S. Steel acquired full ownership of the facility in February 2020.

1968–1971
In the 1960s, South Korean administration concluded that self-sufficiency in steel and the construction of an integrated steelworks were essential to economic development. Since South Korea had not possessed a modern steel plant prior to 1968, many foreign and domestic businesses were skeptical of Republic of Korea Government's decision to invest so heavily in developing its own industry. The Korean government created Pohang Iron and Steel Company, Ltd (POSCO) in 1968 and appointed as president of the mill a competent retired army general and friend of President Park Chung Hee, Park Tae-joon, a man with a track record of having turned around the government-owned Korea Tungsten Company. Construction of the Pohang plant began on April 1, 1970, and was dedicated on July 3, 1973, with an initial annual capacity of 1.03 million metric tons.

Japan provided the money for the construction of the initial plant, following an agreement made at the Third South Korea-Japan Ministerial Meeting in 1969. Financing included US$119 million in government grants and loans, US$54 million in credit from the Export-Import Bank of Japan, and technical assistance from Nippon Steel and other corporations. This cooperation was one consequence of the normalization of relations with Japan in 1965 and reflected the view of the government of Japan as noted in the Nixon-Sato communique of November 21, 1969, that "the national security of the Republic of Korea is essential to the security of Japan."

1972–1992
POSCO first began to sell plate products in 1972 and focused its sales policies on the domestic market to improve steel self-sufficiency at home. It made special efforts to supply quality iron and steel to related domestic companies at below export price to strengthen their international competitiveness.

POSCO produced 6,200,000 t of raw steel in 1980, recording a 13% increase over the previous year, and was one of the few exceptions when almost all areas of the Korean economy were in economic depression. Domestic industries absorbed POSCO's major products such as automobile and home appliance manufacturers consuming hot rolled products, shipbuilding and construction and engineering companies consuming medium plates, and electric motor and transformer manufacturers consuming electrical sheets. Some over-produced products were exported to foreign countries but the significant import of sections for construction left Korea as a net importer. Globally, POSCO was already the most efficient steel producer in certain products.

By the late 1980s, POSCO's growth had been immense. It was the fifth biggest steel company in the world, with an annual production approaching 12 million tons worth 3 trillion won. POSCO continued to expand productivity and size at a time when the steel industries of the United States and Japan were declining. POSCO completed its second-phase mill at Gwangyang in August 1988. A third-phase mill completed in 1992 further increased crude steel production to a total output of approximately 17.2 million tons a year. In terms of productivity, POSCO was the world's best steel manufacturer throughout the late 1980s and also was at the top in terms of facilities.

Pohang, previously a fishing port whose major industry was processing fish and marine products, became a major industrial center with almost 520,000 people. In addition to the huge integrated steel mill, Pohang became an industrial complex housing companies that manufacture finished steel products of raw materials provided.

Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH)
POSCO CEO Park Tae-joon was quoted as saying, "You can import coal and machines, but you cannot import talent". Park realized the need for Korea to educate their youth in science and technology to ensure Korea's position in the high technology arena. Park founded the Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH) in 1986 as Korea's first science and technology research-oriented university with the mission to educate young Koreans who can contribute to national prosperity through the advancement in science and technology. In 2012 and 2013, the Times Higher Education ranked POSTECH 1st in their "100 Under 50 Young Universities" rankings.

1992–1997
Changes in managerial systems and organizational structure accelerated in 1993 when POSCO's president and founder, Park Tae-Joon, who had wielded absolute managerial authority for more than 25 years, resigned.

With the change in leadership—from Park Tae-Joon to Ryu-Sang Bu, POSCO increased decentralization and diversification. POSCO's management emphasized greater flexibility, autonomy, and consensual decision-making processes. The chairman also moved to devolve more autonomy to the profit centers and changing from a strictly hierarchical organizational structure to one based on teams.

In July 1994, POSCO created two subsidiary companies, POSTEEL and POSTRADE. POSTEEL is the domestic sales and service arm of the company, while POSTRADE handles international trading of POSCO products. Both subsidiaries commenced full operation in September 1994, with all international POSCO affiliates transferred to POSTRADE by the end of that year. The landmark Posteel Tower on Tehran Street, in Seoul's Gangnam district (not to be confused with the POSCO Center, also on Tehran Street) was completed in 2003.

1997–2000
In 1997, Seoul announced that it was going to transform POSCO into a private company in line with the government's new policy of privatizing state-owned enterprises. The government planned to retain a majority share of the stock; initial reports in the South Korean press in 1998 indicated that the sale of public shares was going slower than anticipated. However, the administration led by Kim Young Sam changed the initial policy direction of privatization of POSCO and decided not to sell government-owned stock to keep it as a government investment enterprise.

But, the Kim Dae Jung administration following the Kim Young Sam administration listed privatization of public enterprise as a high priority policy in economic policy agenda to implement mainly because of outbreak of the economic crisis. The new administration decided to privatize POSCO and by 1998, the South Korean government had reduced its ownership of shares in POSCO to less than 20%, and more than 58% of the shares in POSCO were in the hands of foreign investors. In 2000, full privatization of POSCO was completed.

2001–present
As part of the privatization process, new Chairman Lee Ku-Taek began efforts to introduce a professional management and governance system of global standards for POSCO. Under the new governance system, management made accountability to shareholders a priority. POSCO also introduced a new performance-based evaluation and compensation system. Throughout most of its privatization drive, POSCO increased its revenue and business profit. Thanks to robust demand at home and in China, POSCO recorded the largest profits in the global steel industry in 2004. Net earnings from POSCO's array of steel products – used in everything from screws to skyscrapers – shot up 80% to $1.66 billion in 2004 from the previous year.

With increasing global competition, POSCO looked to China and India for new opportunities. South Korean wages were too high to support a whole range of activities and POSCO looked elsewhere for new projects while keeping the areas where they have a comparative advantage in South Korea. By 2006, POSCO had 26 subsidiaries and invested over $2.4 billion in fresh investment on mainland China, especially in galvanized and stainless steel to supply global auto and appliance makers that have opened plants there. In 2006, POSCO started operating the Zhangjiagang Pohang Stainless Steel (ZPSS) steel mill capable of producing 600,000 tons of stainless steel and hot-rolled products annually in China's Jiangsu Province. As a result, POSCO became the first foreign firm operating an integrated stainless steel mill in China, handling the entire production process from smelting iron ore to finished products, including the cold rolled stainless plant it already operates. In June 2022, POSCO is temporarily cutting production lines in Pohang plants as thousands of truckers go on a strike for higher pay, causing disrupted cargo transport in the country.

POSCO in India
In June 2005, POSCO signed a memorandum of understanding with the State of Orissa in India. Under the agreement, POSCO plans to invest US$12 billion to construct a plant with four blast furnaces, an electricity plant, housing, and an annual production capacity of 12,000,000 t of steel, which is slated to start production in 2010. The project, which would start with a 3,000,000 t capacity initially, would fetch revenue for the government to the tune of Rs 700 crore to Rs 800 crore (Rs 7-8 billion) annually. It would also provide direct employment to 13,000 people and ensure indirect employment for another 35,000. The Odisha state government also promised to provide a total of 600 million tons of iron sources, and will allow POSCO to use iron ore from these sources over the next 30 years. If the project goes ahead, it will be the single largest foreign direct investment in India as well as being the world's biggest greenfield steel plant ever.

However, from 2005 till date (as of August 7, 2010), the India project has not been able to proceed due to strong opposition from the local residents in the area proposed to be given for the steel plant. There have been allegations that the federal and State governments have been illegally trying to take lands and forests for the project, in violation of the Forest Rights Act. There have also been claims that the project will only benefit the company while displacing more people than it employs, damaging the environment and taking India's mineral resources at a very low price.

Further, a study undertaken by the Mining Zone Peoples' Solidarity Group, an international research group focused on India, finds evidence of irregularities in dealings with state, bureaucracy and judiciary and questions and debunks the social, economic and environmental claims that the project has made.

The MoU between POSCO and State of Odisha expired in 2010. Following allegations that the ministry had not adhered to Forest Rights Act, Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) set up the N.C. Saxena committee in July 2010 to review the clearance. Despite the committee's report indicating that provisions of the Forest Rights Act had been violated, the MoEF issued final order on January 31, 2011 and gave environment clearance to POSCO. In May 2013, the National Green Tribunal (NGT) halted land acquisition for the POSCO projects. In July 2013, POSCO completed land acquisition despite the order given by NGT. In December 2013, POSCO began construction of a boundary wall around its plant site. In December 2013, the NGT criticised the forest clearance granted by the Union Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) to the proposed steel plant of South Korean steel giant, POSCO, in Odisha.

There have been reports that during protests and land acquisition during Feb - Mar 2013, there has been bombing attack on the resisting villages and naked protest against the police atrocity.

The Central Government of India came out confident on 15 January 2014 that with the renewal of environment clearance, South Korean steel giant POSCO's project in Odisha would take off soon. After a meeting with visiting South Korean Minister of Trade, Industry and Energy Yoon Sang-jick, Mr. Sharma told the media: "So far, 1,700 acres of land — out of 2,718 acres — have been transferred to POSCO and the rest will soon be given." On July 17, 2015, news reported that South Korean steelmaker POSCO may halt a $12 billion US dollar plan agreed with Odisha, India a decade ago due to the delay in regulatory approvals. In 2016, POSCO confirms with National Green Tribunal (NGT) that it will suspend the steel plant project in Odisha, India. POSCO finally exited from this project on March 18, 2017 (Saturday).

On 13 January 2022, the Adani Group announced that it had signed an MoU with POSCO to explore the setting up of an Integrated Steel Mill in Mundra, Gujarat, with an estimated total investment of USD 5 billion.

POSCO in other developing countries
POSCO have pursued investment opportunities in other developing countries such as Vietnam and Mexico. It was announced in August 2006 that POSCO will build a large-scale steel mill in southern Vietnam. POSCO plans to build the US$1 billion plant in two phases for hot-rolled by the end of 2012 and cold rolled products by the time of December 2009. When completed, the mill is expected to produce three-million tons of steel products annually. Posco also plans to build a $250 million plant in the city of Altamira, Mexico, to produce 400,000 tons of galvanized steel sheet a year for automakers. The venture will be Posco's first wholly owned steel-plate plant in North America. Posco began construction in early 2008, and started operations in 2009, producing galvanized and galvannealed steel.

On June 30, 2006, POSCO completed the construction of its sixth continuous galvanizing line (CGL) at its Gwangyang mill in the South Jeolla Province. With this new addition, POSCO becomes the no.2 producer of sheet-steel just behind ArcelorMittal.

In early 2007, Warren Buffett's Berkshire Hathaway purchased a 4% stake in POSCO. Berkshire sold its share later in 2014.

In February 2013 POSCO signed a Memorandum of Understanding with Afferro Mining, Inc, with a view to developing iron ore resources in Cameroon.

In November 2013, the completion of steel plant construction in Cilegon, Indonesia is scheduled. It is predicted that the annual production capability of this plant will be 3 million tons of molten iron. On July 31, 2012, the moving-in ceremony of 4 large steel structured pillars surrounding integrated steel mill furnace was held.

Head Office
POSCO's Headquarters, along with the POSCO Center, form the 'brain' of the company, overseeing major tasks, such as the management, planning, and finances of the steelworks at Pohang and Gwangyang. The construction of POSCO headquarters at 1 Goedong-dong, Nam-gu, Pohang, was completed on April 1, 1987.

POSCO Center
Hosts a variety of cultural programs, events, and exhibitions throughout the year.

Pohang and Gwangyang Steelworks
Pohang - Constructed in four phases between April 1970 and February 1981 along Korea's southeast coast, the nation's first integrated steelworks has produced 230 million tons of pig iron through March 2004 - enough to build some 250 million compact cars. Crude Steel Production (2008) = 13.6 million tons.

Gwangyang - Constructed in four phases between September 1982 and October 1992 on Korea's southern coast, the nation's second integrated steelworks. Gwangyang focus on manufacturing automotive steel, high-strength structure steel, API line pipe steel, and other strategic product categories. Crude Steel Production (2008) = 17.4 million tons.

Subsidiaries
• POSCO International (former POSCO Daewoo)

• POSCO E&C

• POSCO Energy

• POSCO Chemical

• POSCO ICT

• POSCO P&S

• POSCO M-Tech

• POSCO C&C

• SNNC

• POSMATE

• POSCO Terminal

• POSCO PLANTEC

• PNR

• POSCO AST

• POSCO TMC

• POSCO A&C

• eNtoB

• POSRI

• POSCO Capital

• POSCO E&E

• POSCO HUMANS

• POSCO Engineering

• POSCO India

• POSCO Thainox

Carbon footprint
POSCO reported Total CO2e emissions (Direct + Indirect) for 31 December 2020 at 75,650 Kt (-4,614 /-5.7% y-o-y).

title: POSCO


text: Category:Mike Ness albums

title: Category:Mike Ness albums


text:
Baiae

Baiae (Baia; Baia) was an ancient Roman town situated on the northwest shore of the Gulf of Naples and now in the comune of Bacoli. It was a fashionable resort for centuries in antiquity, particularly towards the end of the Roman Republic, when it was reckoned as superior to Capri, Pompeii, and Herculaneum by wealthy Romans, who built villas here from 100 BC. Ancient authors attest that many emperors built in Baia, almost in competition with their predecessors and they and their courts often stayed there. It was notorious for its hedonistic offerings and the attendant rumours of corruption and scandal.

The lower part of the town later became submerged in the sea due to local volcanic, bradyseismic activity which raised or lowered the land. Recent underwater archaeology has revealed many of the fine buildings now protected in the submerged archaeological park.

Many impressive buildings from the upper town can be seen in the Parco Archeologico delle Terme di Baia.

The views and architecture of Baiae were so memorable that they inspired scenes to be depicted on ancient glass flasks made for visitors (probably in Puteoli in the late 3rd to early 4th century AD) many of which have been found scattered throughout the empire, and today kept in many museums notably in Populonia, Empúries and Warsaw. The one in Warsaw in particular seems to give a complete picture of that gradually becoming clear today as a result of research in the submerged archaeological area.

Name
Baiae was said to have been named after Baius (Βαῖος, Baîos), the helmsman of Odysseus's ship in Homer's Odyssey, who was supposedly buried nearby. The adjacent "Baian Gulf" (Sinus Baianus) was named after the town. It now forms the western part of the Gulf of Pozzuoli.

The settlement was also mentioned in 178 BC under the name Aquae Cumanae ("Cumaean Waters").

History

Baiae was built on the Cumaean Peninsula in the Phlegraean Fields, an active volcanic area, on the side of an ancient crater sloping down to the shore. It was perhaps originally developed as the port for Cumae, the Portus Baianus. It also benefitted from thermal springs for bathing establishments.

Around 80 BC it became a fashionable resort for the Roman aristocracy. Marius, Lucullus, and Pompey all frequented it. Julius Caesar had a villa there, and much of the town became imperial property under Augustus.

From 36 BC, Baiae included Portus Julius, the base of the western fleet of the Roman Navy before it was abandoned because of the silting up of Lake Lucrinus (from which a short channel led to Lake Avernus) for the two harbours at Cape Miseno 4 mi south.

Baiae was already notorious for the hedonistic lifestyle of its residents and guests in the Republican era. In 56 BC, the prominent socialite Clodia was condemned by the defence at the trial of Marcus Caelius Rufus as living as a harlot in Rome and at the "crowded resort of Baiae", indulging in beach parties and long drinking sessions. An elegy by Sextus Propertius written in the Augustan Age describes it as a "den of licentiousness and vice". In the 1st century, "Baiae and Vice" formed one of the moral epistles written by Seneca the Younger; he described it as a "vortex of luxury" and a "harbour of vice" where girls went to play at being girls, old women as girls and some men as girls according to a first century BC wag.

Nero had a notable villa constructed in the middle of the 1st century and Hadrian died at his villa in AD 138. It was also a favourite spot of the emperor Septimius Severus. The resorts sometimes capitalised on their imperial associations: Suetonius mentions in his history that the cloak, brooch, and gold bulla given to the young Tiberius by Pompey's daughter Pompeia Magna were still on display around AD 120.

According to Suetonius, in AD 39, Baiae was the location for a stunt by the eccentric emperor Caligula to answer the astrologer Thrasyllus's prediction that he had "no more chance of becoming emperor than of riding a horse across the Gulf of Baiae". Caligula ordered a 3-mile-long pontoon bridge to be built from impounded ships of the area, fastened together and weighted with sand, stretching from Baiae to the neighbouring port of Puteoli. Clad in a gold cloak, he then crossed it upon a horse. Cassius Dio's Roman History also includes the event, with the detail that the emperor ordered resting places and lodging rooms with potable water erected at intervals along the bridge. As late as the 18th century, scattered fragments were still being shown to tourists as the "Bridge of Caligula". Malloch has argued that Suetonius's account was likely coloured by his bias against Caligula; instead, he claims that "the act of bridging the Bay of Naples was an excellent and safe means by which to lay the foundation for [Caligula's] military glory."

It never attained municipal status, being administered throughout by nearby Cumae.

At the end of the 4th century, the fabulously wealthy consul Symmachus, who owned several villas in the Bay of Naples, including one called the praetorium in Baiae, wrote of the calm offered by his villa at Bauli (probably Bacoli).

In the early 6th century, the Ostragothic king Athalaric admired the beauty of the area for its bay, the quality of its oysters and baths of natural waters with health restoring powers.

The lowering of the ground close to the coast below sea level, due to bradyseism, seems to have occurred in two phases: between the third and fifth centuries, still in the late Imperial era, followed by a more substantial submersion a century later. The lower part of Baiae was largely submerged by the sea by the 8th century.

Baiae was sacked during the barbarian invasions and again by Muslim raiders in the 8th century. It was deserted owing to recurrent malaria by 1500, but Pedro de Toledo erected a castle, the Castello di Baia, in the 16th century.

The Baianus lacus
The bay of Baia constitutes the remains of an ancient crater partly submerged in and invaded by the sea. In Roman times it was a complete coastal lagoon, the Baianus lacus, and Roman buildings were located on a sandy expanse between the sea and the eastern bank of the Baianus lacus, now submerged, and occupied the internal slope of the crater.

The channel between the lagoon and the sea made by cutting the sandy isthmus that separated them, and is 32 m wide and delimited by two piers about 230 m long and 9 wide. The piers were made of concrete with tuff chips arranged in layers. The concrete conglomerate was thrown into wooden caissons (arcae) testified by the presence of the typical holes left by the construction piles. In some cases the posts and the planking of the formwork are still perfectly preserved. The north pier is partly preserved in a 63 m length starting from the east.

Archaeology

The statue of the "Aphrodite of Baiae", a variant of the Venus de Medici, was supposedly excavated sometime before 1803, when the English antiquary Thomas Hope began displaying it in his gallery on Duchess Street in London.

The important archaeological remains were intensively excavated from 1941, revealing layers of buildings, villas and thermal complexes belonging to periods from the late Republican age, the Augustan, Hadrianic to the late Empire.

A cache of plaster casts of Hellenistic sculptures was discovered in the cellar of the Baths of Sosandra at Baiae; they are now displayed at the town's archaeological museum. The collection includes parts of several famous sculptures, including Athens's Harmodius and Aristogeiton and the Athena of Velletri. It suggests that the area had a workshop mass-producing marble or bronze copies of Greek art for the Italian market.

In April 2023 the sunken remains of an ancient Roman villa including marble tiled flooring, numerous marble columns and an ornate mosaic were discovered by underwater archaeologists from the Campi Flegrei Archaeological Park. The mosaic included crossing braids and hexagons with concave sides.

Monuments

Among the most significant and remarkable remains are several domed baths buildings such as the great so-called Temple of Mercury, the Temple of Venus, and the Temple of Diana. They were traditionally credited to some of the more famous residents of the town's villas, although they were not temples but parts of thermal baths.

The public and private baths of Baiae were filled with warm mineral water directed to their pools from underground hot springs, as many still are today. Roman engineers were also able to construct a complex system of chambers that channelled underground heat into facilities that acted as saunas. In addition to their recreational function, the baths were used in Roman medicine to treat various illnesses and physicians would attend their patients at the springs.

"Temple of Diana"
This colossal ogival dome, today half collapsed, originally collected vapours coming from the ground below and was used for thermal baths. It was decorated with marble friezes depicting hunting scenes. It is recognisable as the building erected by Alexander Severus (r. 222–235) in honour of his mother Julia Mamaea, and is perhaps a dynastic heroon.

In 1677 Cornelis de Bruijn visited the temple and wrote:

"Then one arrives at the temple of Diana, which is completely ruined, except for a semi-circular structure at the top that still exists. Opposite, there is also a part of the temple of Apollo, next to which one can see the chamber of the nymphs that delight themselves in different spectacles. At the top of it, I saw many figures and bas-reliefs, very strange and beautiful, as the entrance is still reasonably well preserved. "

"Temple of Mercury"
The so-called "Temple of Mercury" contains a large 21.5 m diameter dome, the largest in the world prior to the construction of Rome's Pantheon in 128 AD. The dome has a central hole or oculus, four square skylights, was made with large tuff blocks, and is the oldest known surviving dome made of concrete. Built in the 1st century BC during the late Roman Republic, it was used to enclose the frigidarium or cold pool of the public baths. From the eighteenth century descriptions it appeared to have had six niches of which four were semicircular.

"Temple of Venus"

This domed building was the most important room of a great baths complex which, together with other buildings on the far side of the coastal road, would have occupied a large part of the town. It was lavishly decorated and was most likely commissioned by Hadrian as indicated by rare architectural features it shared with other monuments of Hadrian especially his Villa at Tivoli. It was externally octagonal with eight large arched windows and internally circular (26 m diameter) with a balcony inside overlooking the pool. Its name is due to a statue of the goddess said to have been found there, leading to mistaken identity.

D'Ossat noted in 1942 that the dome was umbrella-shaped, indeed it was an even more sophisticated variant, composed of sixteen segments alternately spherical and veloidic. There were no such domes before Hadrian, nor anything that remotely resembled them. Indeed domes with the same design as this building can be found in Hadrian's Villa in Tivoli, for example the Vestibule of the Piazza d'Oro (Golden Square) and the so-called Serapeum. The same combination of light tuff and Vesuvian pumice is found in the Pantheon, Rome, re-structured at the behest of Hadrian.

The drum supporting the dome was covered with stucco imitating bands of marble ashlar blocks with joints filled with blue glass paste, so that the top octagon of the drum must have appeared from the outside as made up of parallelograms of shining white marble divided by glittering ribbons of blue.

The perimeter had a forecourt annex of exceptional architectural innovation, with a groundplan of 9 equal circles within a bounding square of 15 m sides and three circular rooms. The groundplan was merged into a different geometrical arrangement in the upper part of this chamber which was of 8 circles arranged around a large circle, topped with an elegant umbrella-shaped cupola. It was made of only curved surfaces, in total about twenty. The distinctive plan of this annex resembles elements of the pavilion of the ‘Piazza d’Oro” of Hadrian's Villa.

The mosaics on the interior of the dome extended down to the window sills, while marble covered the swimming pool and the lower surfaces of the wall.

Villa of the Ambulatio

Overlooking the sea is the "Villa of the Ambulatio" with a series of six terraces connected to each other by a complex of staircases of which the last leads to the "sector of Mercury". It is named after the 'ambulatio', the long corridor with two longitudinal naves on the second terrace, intended to be a covered walk with large openings with a magnificent panorama of the gulf below. Traces of precious stucco can be seen on the brick structure of the central pillars.

On the upper terrace were the residential areas, once richly decorated with several rooms dedicated to leisure. The third terrace is now transformed into a tree-lined garden. The fourth terrace was for service areas. On the fifth terrace are several rooms probably used as places to stay and rest, open to the sea and to the last terrace below that once was occupied by a garden, as today, perhaps surrounded by a colonnade.

Sector of Sosandra

Bounded by two parallel staircases is the sector or "Temple of Sosandra" from the name of the statue found in 1953 and now in the National Museum of Naples.

The complexity of this sector on four terraces including a spa, a villa, a hospitalia (a sort of hotel for visitors to the nearby spa) is recognisable as the ebeterion built by Nero, according to Dio Cassius, for rest and recreation of the sailors of the nearby Misenum fleet.

On the highest terrace are service areas and a small balneum with rich stucco decorations on the ceiling. The next level has a large terrace bordered on three sides by a portico. In the garden are four parallel walls that perhaps delimited three triclinia in the open. Above the peristyle are several residential rooms, once richly finished, particularly the original precious mosaic floors representing theatrical masks inside geometric frames. Below this level is a semicircular building surmounted by five vaulted rooms once hidden by a façade decorated with niches and columns, overall making an impressive composition. On the axis of the complex is a room perhaps used as a nymphaeum from which flowed the water that fed an existing large external circular tank. On the peristyle of the lower terrace are paintings from two successive periods: those with an Egyptian taste (characters and symbols of the cult of Isis) from the middle of the 1st century AD; these are largely covered by paintings of the 2nd century, which depict male and female figures within architectural schemes.

Underwater Archaeological Park

In the bay, completely submerged by the waters, are the remains of the commercial ports of Baiae (Lacus Baianus) and the Portus Julius. Further west was the port of Cape Misenum, the base of the Roman imperial fleet. Mosaics, traces of frescoes, sculptures, road layouts and columns are also well-preserved about 5 m below sea level.

The protected areas were established in 2002 as a unique example in the Mediterranean of archaeological and natural protection underwater.

The triclinium-nymphaeum of Claudius

In 1969 a remarkable and high quality marble sculptural group was discovered about 7 m deep on the seabed in front of Punta Epitaffio. A systematic excavation was later carried out and found a large rectangular room of about 18 x 10 m with a semicircular apse at one end, entirely covered in marble and with a large pool in the centre. This triclinium-nymphaeum (banquet hall) is identified as a room of Claudius's villa, a complex arranged in terraces from the top of the promontory extending into the sea up to about 400 m offshore. The room is similar to the triclinium-nymphaeum at Tiberius’s villa at Sperlonga intended for luxurious dining and with similar decoration and statues from the Odyssean cycle.

In each of the side walls were four niches housing a statue, while a water channel ran around the perimeter of the room. A horseshoe-shaped marble bed at the end of the pool is a stibadium, a convivial dining couch like the one described by Pliny for his villa; this was placed between the water channel that ran around the walls and the large central basin. Water gushed from some statues placed in the niches on the long sides of the triclinium and from that of Baios (Ulysses' helmsman) in the apse, by means of small lead tubes inserted into the marble.

The decoration was aimed at recreating the atmosphere of a sea cave by the rough natural rocks that covered the apse, the lateral niches and the entrance arch and the water that flowed in the lateral channel and in the central pool. It replicated the episode from the Odyssey in which Ulysses, a prisoner together with his companions in Polyphemus's cave, tries to get the Cyclops drunk and then blinds him. The main statuary group was housed in the apse dominating the hall of which the figure of Ulysses survives, represented in the act of offering Polyphemus the cup of wine, and one of his companions carrying the skin. Cyclops probably occupied the central position.

Of the eight statues in the side niches, four were in an excellent state of conservation: two are in keeping with the intended use of the room as a banquet hall, being figures of the young Dionysus with a clear reference to the Odyssey group in the apse. Of the other two, the first portrays Claudius's mother, Antonia Minor, as Augusta in the guise of Venus Genitrix, with a diadem on her head and a winged child in her arms, perhaps a funerary Eros; the other is a girl with delicate features, with a hairstyle that recalls the youthful portraits of Nero, also adorned with gems on her head. She is possibly one of Claudius' daughters who died in infancy.

At the beginning of the 4th century the palace began to be flooded by the sea due to bradyseism and the majority of wall decorations as well as lead pipes were removed.

The sculptures were transferred to the in the Castle of Baia, while copies were placed in their original position in the submerged site. The museum contains a realistic reconstruction of the nymphaeum.

Villa Pisoni
South-east of the Punta Epitaffio are the imposing remains of the villa Pisoni from the end of the 1st century BC which initially belonged to the powerful Calpurnia family from which Calpurnia (wife of Caesar), senators, proconsuls, consuls and popes came. It was owned by Lucius Calpurnius Piso shown by lead pipe stamps. The villa passed eventually passed to his grandson, Gaius Piso, the leader of the failed anti-Neronian conspiracy of 65 AD. According to Tacitus, the conspiracy envisaged the elimination of the emperor in this very villa which Nero visited frequently. However, the conspiracy was thwarted, Gaius had to commit suicide and the villa was confiscated to become imperial property.

In the first nucleus of the villa exceptional architectonic solutions were adopted on the ancient promontory in front of Punta Epitaffio with an impressive modification of the original landscape, using artificial piers and quays built directly in the sea, using the astonishing advantages of pozzolana volcanic ash of Campania in the setting of pilae and concrete buildings in submerged or partially submerged conditions.

Hadrian had the villa razed to the ground and rebuilt in an even more grandiose form, experimenting with new compositional solutions. The design of the two apsidal corridors along the courtyard is one of the first significant attestations of a new genre of architecture which in its scenographic results, anticipated the Baroque. The villa shows architectural similarities with Villa Adriana in Tivoli. The facade towards Punta Epitaffio resembled the very rich facades of contemporary theatre buildings.

It was built around a large peristyle courtyard garden (viridarium) of 95 x 65 m, the entire residential complex occupying an area of 120x160 m. The spectacular northern facade probably opened onto a park that separated the villa from the Palace of Claudius and two thermal baths as well as a vast maritime district with piers, docks, fishponds and pleasant lodging pavilions.

Of particular interest is the vast western basin (80 x 110 m) used as a landing place for large boats and protected to the south from the Sirocco winds by a series of double-row pilae.

Villa a Protiro
The villa was next to the entrance channel to the Baianus lacus and stretched for about 120 m along the street front lined by a row of shops. It consists of two main parts, thermal baths and a residential section with garden, separated by a rectangular basin linked to the sea and decorated with statues, one of which (of the Aphrodite of the Gardens type) was recently recovered.

The name is derived from a prothyrum entrance or vestibule, a space between the interior fauces of a villa leading to the atrium and the street. In this case it had two stuccoed columns that edged two short parting walls built on the sides of the threshold with doorways to the ostiarius quarters (gatekeeper's lodge).

The villa has a large variety of architectural types and is especially remarkable for the wide variety of marble flooring and wall coverings in most of the rooms. The atrium walls were clad in marble. To the south of the atrium opens a vast apsidal hall (the apse at the back is 10.4 m wide), probably an addition to the first building and similar to the late imperial halls of the rich domus of Ostia Antica which also have rich covering of large marble slabs. The walls of the adjacent rooms were decorated with marble and many had mosaic flooring.

Other sites
Baiae was supplied with water from a branch of the Aqua Augusta aqueduct, a cross-section of which can be seen nearby.

Cultural depictions

 * Seneca the Younger, the Roman Stoic philosopher, makes reference to this city in one of his Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium.
 * Giovanni Gioviano Pontano (d. 1503) wrote his Two Books of Hendecasyllables on the pleasures of Baiae.
 * The lost wonders of Baiae were a common feature of Romantic poetry. It appears in John Keats's "Ode to May" and in the third stanza of Shelley's "Ode to the West Wind". The vanished columns of the ancient town inundated by the sea is the central conceit of Konstantin Batyushkov's 1819 "You awake, oh Bayya, from the tomb..." (Ты пробуждаешься, о Байя, из гробницы...), "one of his last and finest poems".
 * The "princely" seaside resort of the empire appears in J. Meade Falkner's 1895 novel The Lost Stradivarius and Anatole France's 1902 "Procurator of Judea" (Le Procurateur de Judée). In current fiction, it is the setting of Caroline Lawrence's Sirens of Surrentum; John Maddox Roberts's Under the Shadow of Vesuvius; Steven Saylor's 1992 Arms of Nemesis, set during the Spartacus Rebellion; and Marguerite Yourcenar's Memoirs of Hadrian.
 * In the Ecce Romani series of Latin textbooks, Baiae is the location of the character Gaius Cornelius Calvus's summer villa.
 * Baiae was featured in the PBS show Secrets of the Dead in the March 2017 episode "Nero's Sunken City".
 * Baiae was featured on Channel 4 programme Rome's Sunken Secrets, which aired on in the UK on 16 April 2017.
 * A forgotten Baiae tunnel complex features prominently in the UK series called Forbidden History, whereby the presenter visits a supposed grotto of the Cumaean Sibyl.

title: Baiae


text:
Multiple nuclei model

The multiple nuclei model is an economical model created by Chauncy Harris and Edward Ullman in the 1945 article "The Nature of Cities".

The Model
The model describes the layout of a city, based on Chicago. It says that even though a city may have begun with a central business district, or CBD, other smaller CBDs develop on the outskirts of the city near the more valuable housing areas to allow shorter commutes from the outskirts of the city. This creates nodes or nuclei in other parts of the city besides the CBD thus the name multiple nuclei model. Their aim was to produce a more realistic, if more complicated, model. Their main goals in this were to:
 * 1) Move away from the concentric zone model
 * 2) Better reflect the complex nature of urban areas, especially those of larger size

The model assumes that:
 * 1) Land is not flat in all areas
 * 2) There is even Distribution of Resources
 * 3) There is even Distribution of people in Residential areas
 * 4) There is even Transportation Costs

Reasons for the model
Harris and Ullman argued that cities do not grow around a single nucleus, but rather several separate nuclei. Each nucleus acts like a growth point.

The theory was formed based on the idea that people have greater movement due to increased car ownership. This increase of movement allows for the specialization of regional centers (e.g. heavy industry, business parks, retail areas). The model is suitable for large, expanding cities. The number of nuclei around which the city expands depends upon situational as well as historical factors. Multiple nuclei develop because:
 * 1) Certain industrial activities require transportation facilities e.g. ports, railway stations, etc. to lower transportation costs.
 * 2) Various combinations of activities tend to be kept apart e.g. residential areas and airports, factories and parks, etc.
 * 3) Other activities are found together for their mutual advantage e.g. universities, bookstores and coffee shops, etc.
 * 4) Some facilities need to be set in specific areas in a city - for example, the CBD requires convenient traffic systems, and many factories need an abundant source of resources.

Effects of multiple nuclei on Industry
As the multiple nuclei develop, transportation hubs such as airports are constructed which allow industries to be established with reduced transportation costs. These transportation hubs have negative externality such as noise pollution and lower land values, making land around the hub cheaper. Hotels are also constructed near airports because people who travel tend to want to stay near the source of travel. Housing develops in wedges and gets more expensive the farther it is from the CBD.

title: Multiple nuclei model


text:
Talk:Ann Clwyd

Political biog update
I've just updated the political biography from a Number 10 press release. As it's a press release (and all the information therewithin is in the public domain), I figure that's not copyvio… — OwenBlacker 23:29, Aug 9, 2004 (UTC)

Source for the Plaid Cymru story...
She talked about standing for PC at school on Crwydro, S4C, last night. I can't find an English version of the page, but there's a summary in Welsh on http://www.bbc.co.uk/cymru/gogleddddwyrain/bywyd_bro/pages/ann_clwyd_crwydro.shtml (Is the fact that she speaks Welsh worth noting in the article, incidentally?)

As for the Tower Colliery story, I remember it happening, but I had to rely on a lot of Googling for the date, and it's still later than I thought.

Telsa 15:05, 14 July 2005 (UTC)

Photo?
This page could do with a Photograph — Preceding unsigned comment added by Death4Star34 (talk • contribs) 18:16, 2 June 2006 (UTC)

Just put one in The Gannet 23:53, 28 June 2007 (UTC)

New free photo
I've added a new free photo to replace the one deleted today. It was taken in Aberdare when she unveiled the bust to Keir Hardie. I'm having trouble embedding the photo within the infobox... it seems to be protected or something. --Darren Wyn Rees (talk) 18:47, 10 December 2007 (UTC)

"She has traditionally been regarded as on the left wing of the party, and has been a vocal supporter of the Iraq War." - this makes no sense — Preceding unsigned comment added by 86.151.195.14 (talk) 14:41, 12 February 2008 (UTC)

Name
Why does the article start with the name "Ann Clwyd Roberts" I can't see a reference where she uses that name. Rachel Pearce (talk) 13:21, 4 December 2012 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Ann Clwyd