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Robert Motherwell

Robert Motherwell (January 24, 1915 – July 16, 1991) was an American abstract expressionist painter, printmaker, and editor of The Dada Painters and Poets: an Anthology. He was one of the youngest of the New York School, which also included Willem de Kooning, Jackson Pollock, and Mark Rothko.

Trained in philosophy, Motherwell then became an artist regarded as among the most articulate spokesmen and the founders of the abstract expressionist painters. He was known for his series of abstract paintings and prints which touched on political, philosophical and literary themes, such as the Elegies to the Spanish Republic.

Early life and education
Robert Motherwell was born in Aberdeen, Washington on January 24, 1915, the first child of Robert Burns Motherwell II and Margaret Hogan Motherwell. The family later moved to San Francisco, where Motherwell's father served as president of Wells Fargo Bank, but returned to Cohasset Beach, Washington, every summer during his youth. Another Aberdeen native with a home at Cohasset Beach was Lance Wood Hart, painter and art teacher, who became Motherwel's early mentor. Due to the artist's asthmatic condition, Motherwell was reared largely on the Pacific Coast and spent most of his school years in California. There he developed a love for the broad spaces and bright colours that later emerged as essential characteristics of his abstract paintings (ultramarine blue of the sky and yellow ochre of Californian hills). His later concern with themes of mortality can likewise be traced to his frail health as a child.

Between 1932 and 1937, Motherwell briefly studied painting at California School of Fine Arts, San Francisco and received a BA in philosophy from Stanford University. At Stanford, Motherwell was introduced to modernism through his extensive reading of symbolist and other literature, especially Mallarmé, James Joyce, Edgar Allan Poe, and Octavio Paz. This passion stayed with Motherwell for the rest of his life and became a major theme of his later paintings and drawings.

At the age of 20, Motherwell took a grand tour of Europe, accompanied by his father and sister. They began in Paris, then traveled to Amalfi, Italy. The next stops were Switzerland, Germany, The Netherlands and London. The group ended their tour in Motherwell, Scotland.

According to Motherwell, the reason he went to Harvard was that he wanted to be a painter, although his father urged him to pursue a more secure career: "And finally after months of really a cold war he made a very generous agreement with me that if I would get a Ph.D. so that I would be equipped to teach in a college as an economic insurance, he would give me fifty dollars a week for the rest of my life to do whatever I wanted to do on the assumption that with fifty dollars I could not starve but it would be no inducement to last. So with that agreed on Harvard then—it was actually the last year—Harvard still had the best philosophy school in the world. And since I had taken my degree at Stanford in philosophy, and since he didn't care what the Ph.D. was in, I went on to Harvard."

At Harvard, Motherwell studied under Arthur Oncken Lovejoy and David Wite Prall. He spent a year in Paris to research the writings of Eugène Delacroix, where he met American composer Arthur Berger who advised him to continue his education at Columbia University, under Meyer Schapiro. In 1939, Lance Wood Hart, then a professor of drawing and painting at the University of Oregon, invited Motherwell to join him in Eugene, OR to assist in teaching his classes for a full semester.

The New York School and the Surrealists

In 1940, Motherwell moved to New York to study at Columbia University, where he was encouraged by Meyer Schapiro to devote himself to painting rather than scholarship. Schapiro introduced the young artist to a group of exiled Parisian Surrealists (Max Ernst, Duchamp, Masson) and arranged for Motherwell to study with Kurt Seligmann. The time that Motherwell spent with the Surrealists proved to be influential to his artistic process. After a 1941 voyage with Roberto Matta to Mexico—on a boat where he met Maria Emilia Ferreira y Moyeros, an actress and his future wife—Motherwell decided to make painting his primary vocation. The sketches Motherwell made in Mexico later evolved into his first important paintings, such as The Little Spanish Prison (1941) and Pancho Villa, Dead and Alive (1943).

Matta introduced Motherwell to the concept of "automatic" drawing or automatism, which the Surrealists used to tap into their unconscious. The concept had a lasting effect on Motherwell, further augmented by his meeting with the artist Wolfgang Paalen. Motherwell's encounter with Paalen prompted him to prolong his stay in Mexico for several months, in order to collaborate with him. Motherwell's noted Mexican Sketchbook visually reflects the resulting change: while the first drawings are influenced by Matta and Yves Tanguy, later drawings associated with Motherwell's time with Paalen show more plane graphic cadences and details distinguished from the earlier period. Paalen also introduced Motherwell to André Breton, via a letter. Motherwell's seminal trip to Mexico has been described as a little-known but important factor in the history and aesthetics of abstract expressionism. In 1991, shortly before his death, Motherwell remembered a "conspiracy of silence" regarding Paalen's innovative role in the genesis of abstract expressionism.

Upon return from Mexico Motherwell spent time developing his creative principle based on automatism: "What I realized was that Americans potentially could paint like angels but that there was no creative principle around, so that everybody who liked modern art was copying it. Gorky was copying Picasso. Pollock was copying Picasso. De Kooning was copying Picasso. I mean I say this unqualifiedly. I was painting French intimate pictures or whatever. And all we needed was a creative principle, I mean something that would mobilize this capacity to paint in a creative way, and that's what Europe had that we hadn't had; we had always followed in their wake. And I thought of all the possibilities of free association—because I also had a psychoanalytic background and I understood the implications—might be the best chance to really make something entirely new which everybody agreed was the thing to do."

Thus, in the early 1940s, Robert Motherwell played a significant role in laying the foundations for the new movement of abstract expressionism (or the New York School): "Matta wanted to start a revolution, a movement, within Surrealism. He asked me to find some other American artists that would help start a new movement. It was then that Baziotes and I went to see Pollock and de Kooning and Hofmann and Kamrowski and Busa and several other people. And if we could come with something. Peggy Guggenheim who liked us said that she would put on a show of this new business. And so I went around explaining the theory of automatism to everybody because the only way that you could have a movement was that it had some common principle. It sort of all began that way."

In 1942 Motherwell began to exhibit his work in New York and in 1944 he had his first one-man show at Peggy Guggenheim's "Art of This Century" gallery; that same year the MoMA was the first museum to purchase one of his works. From the mid-1940s, Motherwell became the leading spokesman for avant-garde art in America. His circle came to include William Baziotes, David Hare, Barnett Newman, and Mark Rothko, with whom he eventually started the Subjects of the Artist School (1948–1949). In 1949 Motherwell divorced Maria and in 1950 he married Betty Little, with whom he had two daughters.

Motherwell was a member of the editorial board of the Surrealist magazine VVV and a contributor to Wolfgang Paalen's journal DYN, which was edited from 1942 to 1944 in six issues. He also edited Paalen's collected essays Form and Sense in 1945 as the first issue of Problems of Contemporary Art.

In 1948 Motherwell executed the image which would prove to be the germ of the Elegies to the Spanish Republic, one of his best known series of works. During 1947–48, Motherwell collaborated with the art critic Harold Rosenberg and others to produce Possibilities, an art review. During the latter year Motherwell created an image incorporating Rosenberg's poem "The Bird for Every Bird", meant for inclusion in the review's second issue. The top half was a handwritten, stylized rendering of the poem's final three lines, and the bottom half was a visual element consisting of roughly rendered black ovoid and rectangular forms against a white background. The stark image was meant to "illustrate" the violent imagery of the poem in an abstract, non-literal way; Motherwell therefore preferred the term "illumination". The second issue of Possibilities did not materialize, and Motherwell placed the image in storage. He rediscovered it roughly one year later and decided to rework its basic elements. This led to the Elegies to the Spanish Republic which Motherwell continued to produce for the rest of his life; several years later Motherwell retroactively titled the original image Elegy to the Spanish Republic No. 1, recognizing it as the series' starting point. A representative example is Elegy to the Spanish Republic No. 110 (1971) which employs the same visual motif of rough ovoid and rectangular forms. The series' abstract imagery has been interpreted as representing violence in Hispanic culture, not necessarily related to the Spanish Civil War of its title. For example, Motherwell himself and others have compared the images to the display of a dead bull's genitalia in the Spanish bullfighting ring.

In 1948, Motherwell, William Baziotes, Barnett Newman, David Hare, and Mark Rothko founded the Subjects of the Artist School at 35 East 8th Street. Well attended lectures were open to the public with speakers such as Jean Arp, John Cage and Ad Reinhardt. The school failed financially and closed in the spring of 1949. Throughout the 1950s Motherwell taught painting at Hunter College in New York and at Black Mountain College in North Carolina. Cy Twombly, Robert Rauschenberg and Kenneth Noland studied under and were influenced by Motherwell. At this time, he was a prolific writer and lecturer, and in addition to directing the influential Documents of Modern Art Series, he edited The Dada Painters and Poets: An Anthology, which was published in 1951.

From 1954 to 1958, during the break-up of his second marriage, he worked on a small series of paintings which incorporated the words Je t'aime, expressing his most intimate and private feelings. His collages began to incorporate material from his studio such as cigarette packets and labels, becoming records of his daily life. He was married for the third time, from 1958 to 1971, to fellow abstract painter Helen Frankenthaler. Because Frankenthaler and Motherwell were both born into wealth and known to host lavish parties, the pair were known as "the golden couple".

Mature years

In 1958–59, Motherwell was included in "The New American Painting" exhibition, initiated by the Museum of Modern Art, which traveled across Europe. In 1958 he and Frankenthaler spent a three-month honeymoon in Spain and France, during which he began painting with a new energy that he attributed to her influence. The Two Figures series he made that year shows "the brightening power of Helen's colors" on his work.

During the 1960s, Motherwell exhibited widely in both America and Europe and in 1965 he was given a major retrospective exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art; this show subsequently traveled to Amsterdam, London, Brussels, Essen, and Turin. In 1962, Motherwell and Frankenthaler spent the summer at the artists' colony at Provincetown, Massachusetts, where the coastline inspired the Beside the Sea series of 64 paintings, the oil paint splashed with full force imitating the sea crashing on the shore in front of his studio. The 1963 untitled oil on canvas painting in the collection of the Honolulu Museum of Art exemplifies this stage in the artist's career.

In 1964, Motherwell created a mural-sized painting entitled Dublin 1916, with Black and Tan, which is in the Governor Nelson A. Rockefeller Empire State Plaza Art Collection in Albany, NY. The size and content suggest that Motherwell intended to create a monument to heroism in the tradition of Picasso's Guernica.

In 1965 Motherwell worked on another prominent series called the Lyric Suite, named after Alban Berg's string quartet. Motherwell recalled, "I went to a Japanese store to buy a toy for a friend's kid, and I saw this beautiful Japanese paper and I bought a thousand sheets. And I made up my mind, this was in the beginning of April 1965, that I would do the thousand sheets without correction. I'd make an absolute rule for myself.  And I got to 600 in April and May, when one night my wife and I were having dinner and the telephone rang. And it was Kenneth Noland in Vermont saying that I should come immediately.  And I said, 'what's happened?' And he said, 'David Smith's been in an accident'." Smith, the sculptor, was Motherwell and Frankenthaler's friend. The couple drove hastily to Vermont, arriving 15 minutes after Smith had died. Motherwell stopped work on the series. He said of them: "And then one year I had them all framed, and I like them very much now. I should also say that I half painted them and they half painted themselves. I'd never used rice paper before except occasionally as an element in a collage. And most of these were made with very small, I mean very thin lines. And then I would look at amazement on the floor after I'd finished. It would spread like spots of oil and fill all kinds of strange dimensions."

In 1967 Motherwell began to work on his Open series. Inspired by a chance juxtaposition of a large and small canvas, the Open paintings occupied Motherwell for nearly two decades. The Opens consist of limited planes of colour, broken up by minimally rendered lines in loosely rectangular configurations. As the series progressed, the works became more complex and more painterly, as Motherwell worked through the possible permutations of such reduced means.

The late 1960s saw Motherwell using Gauloises packets and cartons in many collages, including an extensive series with the packets surrounded by bright red acrylic paint, often with incised lines in the painted areas.

In 1972 Motherwell married the artist-photographer Renate Ponsold and moved to Greenwich, Connecticut, where they lived in a carriage house with a hayloft aerie, a barn and a guest cottage adjoining a large studio. He had begun living there full-time beginning in the fall of 1971 after his divorce with Helen Frankenthaler was finalized. Motherwell set up different studios for different modes of production (painting, collage, printmaking) throughout the 13000 ft2 property. During the 1970s, he had retrospective exhibitions in several European cities, including Düsseldorf, Stockholm, Vienna, Paris, Edinburgh, and London. In 1977, Motherwell was given a major mural commission for the new wing of the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C.

In 1983, a major retrospective exhibition of Motherwell's work, organized by Douglas G. Schultz, was held at the Albright-Knox Art Gallery in Buffalo, New York.

From 1983 to 1985, this exhibition was subsequently shown at major museums, Los Angeles County Museum of Art San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, Seattle Art Museum, Corcoran Gallery of Art, and Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum. Another retrospective was shown in Mexico City, Monterey, and Fort Worth, Texas, in 1991.

In 1985, Motherwell was awarded the Edward Macdowell Medal.

In 1988, Motherwell worked with the publisher Andrew Hoyem of Arion Press on a limited edition of the modernist novel Ulysses, by James Joyce. Motherwell produced 40 lithographs for the project.

Death and legacy
Motherwell died in Provincetown, Massachusetts on July 16, 1991. On his death, Clement Greenberg, champion of the New York School, left in little doubt his esteem for the artist, commenting that "although he is underrated today, in my opinion he was one of the very best of the abstract expressionist painters".

The Dedalus Foundation was set up by Robert Motherwell in 1981 to foster public understanding of modern art and modernism through its support of research, education, publications, and exhibitions. When Motherwell died, he left an estate then estimated at more than $25 million and more than 1,000 works of art, not including prints. His will was filed for probate in Greenwich and named as executors his widow, Renate Ponsold Motherwell, and longtime friend Richard Rubin, a professor of political science at Swarthmore College.

On July 20, 1991, several hundred people attended a memorial service for Motherwell on the beach outside his Provincetown home. Among them were the writer Norman Mailer and the photographer Joel Meyerowitz, both Provincetown summer residents. Speakers included the poet Stanley Kunitz, who read a poem that was a favorite of Motherwell's, William Butler Yeats's Sailing to Byzantium. Others in attendance included family members, friends, other artists, and Senator Howard Metzenbaum, an acquaintance of Motherwell's.

Selected exhibitions
Several major exhibitions of Motherwell's work have been held.

 * Peggy Guggenheim's Art of this Century Gallery, New York (1944).
 * Bennington College, Bennington, Vermont (1957)
 * Galerie Heinz Berggruen, Paris, France (1961)
 * Pasadena Art Museum, California (1962)
 * Smith College Museum of Art (1963)
 * The Phillips Collection, Washington, D.C. (1965)
 * The Museum of Modern Art, New York (1965)
 * The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, Texas (1972–73, traveled)
 * David Mirvish Gallery, Toronto, Ontario, Canada (1973)
 * Princeton University Art Museum, New Jersey (1973)
 * Museo de Arte Moderna, Mexico City, Mexico (1975)
 * Stadtisches Kunsthalle, Düsseldorf, Germany (1976)
 * Musée d'art moderne de la ville de Paris, France (1977)
 * Royal Academy of Art, London, England (1978)
 * The William Benton Museum of Art, University of Connecticut, Storrs (1979)
 * Fundación Juan March, Madrid, Spain (1980)
 * Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, New York (1983, traveled)
 * Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota (1985)
 * Museo Rufino Tamayo, Mexico City, Mexico (1991–92, traveled)
 * Fundació Antoni Tàpies, Barcelona, Spain (1996–97, traveled)
 * Museum Morsbroich, Leverkusen, Germany (2004–05)
 * Art Gallery of Ontario, Canada (2011)

Books

 * Robert Motherwell, The Dada Painters and Poets, R. Motherwell, New York, 1951.
 * Robert Motherwell, The Collected Writings of Robert Motherwell, University of California Press, 1999.
 * Robert Motherwell translated to English Paul Signac's book, D'Eugène Delacroix au néo-impressionisme, 1938.
 * Arnason, H.H. Robert Motherwell. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1977; revised edition 1982.
 * Motherwell, Robert, Engberg, Siri and Joan Banach. Robert Motherwell: The Complete Prints 1940–1991. Minneapolis: Walker Art Center, 2003.
 * Flam, Jack. Motherwell. London: Phaidon, 1991
 * Marika Herskovic, American Abstract Expressionism of the 1950s An Illustrated Survey, (New York School Press, 2003.) ISBN 0-9677994-1-4. p. 238-241
 * Marika Herskovic, New York School Abstract Expressionists Artists Choice by Artists, (New York School Press, 2000.) ISBN 0-9677994-0-6. p. 11; p. 16; p. 27; p. 38; p. 258-261
 * Robert Hobbs. "Robert Motherwell Retrospective." Düsseldorf: Städische Kunsthalle Düsseldorf, 1976.
 * Robert Hobbs, Matthew Collings, Mel Gooding and Robert Motherwell. "Open." London: 21 Publishing Ltd., 2009.
 * Kingsley, April. The Turning Point: The Abstract Expressionists and the Transformation of American Art. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992.
 * Pleynet, Marcelin. Robert Motherwell. Paris: Daniel Papierski, 1989.

title: Robert Motherwell


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Independent radio

Independent radio indicates a radio station that is run in a manner different from usual for the country it broadcasts in.

Conversely, in places such as the United States, where commercial broadcasters are the norm, independent radio is sometimes used to refer to non-commercial educational radio stations that are primarily supported by listener contributions and are thus independent of commercial advertising concerns. With the advent of large commercial broadcast radio network companies, and the general adoption of the term public radio in the United States to refer to non-religious radio-oriented listener-supported stations, the term has also been used to refer to commercial radio stations that are run independently of the large radio conglomerates.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Independent radio


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Prehistoric warfare

Prehistoric warfare refers to war that occurred between societies without recorded history.

The existence—and the definition—of war in humanity's hypothetical state of nature has been a controversial topic in the history of ideas at least since Thomas Hobbes in Leviathan (1651) argued a "war of all against all", a view directly challenged by Jean-Jacques Rousseau in a Discourse on Inequality (1755) and The Social Contract (1762). The debate over human nature continues, spanning contemporary anthropology, archaeology, ethnography, history, political science, psychology, primatology, and philosophy in such divergent books as Azar Gat's War in Human Civilization and Raymond C. Kelly's Warless Societies and the Origin of War. For the purposes of this article, "prehistoric war" will be broadly defined as a state of organized lethal aggression between autonomous preliterate communities.

Paleolithic

According to cultural anthropologist and ethnographer Raymond C. Kelly, population density among the earliest hunter-gatherer societies of Homo erectus was probably low enough to avoid armed conflict. The development of the throwing-spear and ambush hunting techniques required cooperation, which made potential violence between hunting parties very costly. The need to prevent competition for resources by maintenance of low population densities may have accelerated the migration out of Africa of H. erectus some 1.8 million years ago as a natural consequence of conflict avoidance.

Hypotheses which suggest that genocidal violence may have caused the extinction of the Neanderthals have been offered by several authors, including Jared Diamond and Ronald Wright. The hypothesis that early humans violently replaced Neanderthals was first proposed by French paleontologist Marcellin Boule (the first person to publish an analysis of a Neanderthal) in 1912. However, several scholars have formed alternative theories as to why the Neanderthals died out, and there is no clear consensus as to what caused their extinction within the current scientific community.

Kelly believes that this period of "Paleolithic warlessness" persisted until well after the appearance of Homo sapiens some 315,000 years ago, ending only at the occurrence of economic and social shifts associated with sedentism, when new conditions incentivized organized raiding of settlements.

None of the many cave paintings of the Upper Paleolithic depicts people attacking other people explicitly, but there are depictions of human beings pierced with arrows both of the Aurignacian-Périgordian (roughly 30,000 years old) and the early Magdalenian (c. 17,000 years old), possibly representing "spontaneous confrontations over game resources" in which hostile trespassers were killed; however, other interpretations, including capital punishment, human sacrifice, assassination or systemic warfare cannot be ruled out.

It has also been suggested that lack of evidence of Paleolithic warfare is due to differences in archaeology resulting in less evidence being likely to survive to be analysed compared to other eras. Since Paleolithic humans lived in small, mobile bands, with low population densities and less durable structures, while also existing further back in history, this results in a lower probability of finding clear evidence as well as that evidence not decaying by the modern day. Furthermore, humans only began to bury their dead 150,000 years ago and not all cultures did so (some preferring to remove them by cremation or exposure), limiting remains that can be found. The absence of fortifications could also be due to the fact that fortifications would be inefficient to construct for society that is primarily nomadic and that only spends a short period of time in one place. Kissel et al. argue that while the general scarcity of evidence from the period suggests warfare may not have been common, it does not support the hypothesis that war was absent.

Epipaleolithic
The most ancient archaeological record of what could have been a prehistoric massacre is at the site of Jebel Sahaba, committed against a population associated with the Qadan culture of far northern Sudan. The cemetery contains a large number of skeletons that are approximately 13,000 to 14,000 years old, with 24 out of 59 skeletons presenting arrowheads embedded in their skeletons, which indicates that they might have been the casualties of warfare. It has been noted that the violence, if dated correctly, likely occurred in the wake of a local ecological crisis. Initially, Jebel Seheba was believed to be the site of a singular battle. However re-examination of the remains has superseded this thesis. The co-occurrence of healed and unhealed lesions among 41 individuals was found to strongly support sporadic and recurrent violence between the social groups of the Nile valley.

At the site of Nataruk in Turkana, Kenya, numerous 10,000-year-old human remains were found with possible evidence of major traumatic injuries, including obsidian bladelets embedded in the skeletons, that should have been lethal. According to the original study, published in January 2016, the region was a "fertile lakeshore landscape sustaining a substantial population of hunter-gatherers" where pottery had been found, suggesting storage of food and sedentism. The initial report concluded that the bodies at Nataruk were not interred, but were preserved in the positions the individuals had died at the edge of a lagoon. However, evidence of blunt-force cranial trauma and lack of interment have been called into question, casting doubt upon the assertion that the site represents early intragroup violence.

The oldest rock art depicting acts of violence between hunter-gatherers in Northern Australia has been tentatively dated to 10,000 years ago.

The earliest, limited evidence for war in Mesolithic Europe likewise dates to ca. 10,000 years ago, and episodes of warfare appear to remain "localized and temporarily restricted" during the Late Mesolithic to Early Neolithic period in Europe. Iberian cave art of the Mesolithic shows explicit scenes of battle between groups of archers. A group of three archers encircled by a group of four is found in Cova del Roure, Morella la Vella, Castellón, Valencia. A depiction of a larger battle (which may, however, date to the early Neolithic), in which eleven archers are attacked by seventeen running archers, is found in Les Dogue, Ares del Maestrat, Castellón, Valencia. At Val del Charco del Agua Amarga, Alcañiz, Aragon, seven archers with plumes on their heads are fleeing a group of eight archers running in pursuit.

Early war was influenced by the development of bows, maces, and slings. The bow seems to have been the most important weapon in early warfare, in that it enabled attacks to be launched with far less risk to the attacker when compared to the risk involved in mêlée combat. While there are no cave paintings of battles between men armed with clubs, the development of the bow is concurrent with the first known depictions of organized warfare consisting of clear illustrations of two or more groups of men attacking each other. These figures are arrayed in lines and columns with a distinctly garbed leader at the front. Some paintings even portray still-recognizable tactics like flankings and envelopments. However, it has also been argued that these paintings should be interpreted with caution due to the fact that it is not self-evident that the cultures that made them intended to depict actual events or if they were intended to be symbolic or otherwise possess a different meaning.

Neolithic
Systemic warfare appears to have been a direct consequence of the sedentism as it developed in the wake of the Neolithic Revolution. An important example is the massacre of Talheim Death Pit (near Heilbronn, Germany), dated right on the cusp of the beginning European Neolithic, at 5500 BC. Investigation of the Neolithic skeletons found in the Talheim Death pit in Germany suggests that prehistoric men from neighboring tribes were prepared to brutally fight and kill each other in order to capture and secure women. Researchers discovered that there were women among the immigrant skeletons, but within the local group of skeletons there were only men and children. They concluded that the absence of women among the local skeletons meant that they were regarded as somehow special, thus they were spared execution and captured instead. The capture of women may have indeed been the primary motive for the fierce conflict between the men. Other speculations about the reasons for violence among Linear Pottery Culture settlements in Neolithic Europe include vengeance, conflicts over land and resources, and kidnapping of slaves. Some of these theories related to the lack of resources are supported by the discovery that various fortifications bordering indigenously inhabited areas appear to have not been in use for very long. Mass burial site at Schletz was also fortified, which serves as evidence of violent conflict among tribes and means that these fortifications were built as a form of defense against aggressors. The massacre of Schletz occurred at the same time as the massacre at Talheim and several other massacres. More than 200 Neolithic people were killed during the massacre in the Linear Pottery settlement area of Schletz 7000 years ago.

More recently, a similar site was discovered at Schöneck-Kilianstädten, with the remains of the victims showing "a pattern of intentional mutilation". While the presence of such massacre sites in the context of Early Neolithic Europe is undisputed, diverging definitions of "warfare proper" (i.e. planned campaigns sanctioned by society as opposed to spontaneous massacres) has led to scholarly debate on the existence of warfare in the narrow sense prior to the development of city states in 20th-century archaeology. In the summary of Heath (2017), accumulating archaeology has made it "increasingly harder" to argue for the absence of organised warfare in Neolithic Europe.

Bioarchaeologists have found from the skeletal remains of more than 2,300 early farmers from 180 sites in northwestern Europe between 8,000 and 4,000 years ago that more than one in ten suffered weapon injuries.

During the period of expansion of hunter-gatherer groups associated with the Pitted Ware culture in southern Scandinavia, the Funnelbeaker farmers constructed a number of defensive palisades, which may mean that the two peoples were in conflict with each other. There is archaeological evidence of high levels of violence among the people of the Pitted Ware culture.

The 8500-year-old Kennewick Man, a prehistoric Paleoamerican man, and Ötzi, who lived and died in the European Alps some 5,200 years ago, were probably killed in warfare.

Warfare in pre-Columbian North America has served as an important comparandum in the archaeological study of the indirect evidence for warfare in the Neolithic. A notable example is the massacre at the Crow Creek Site in South Dakota (14th century).

Chalcolithic to Bronze Age

The onset of the Chalcolithic (Copper Age) saw the introduction of copper weapons. Organised warfare between early city states was in existence by the mid-5th millennium BC. Excavations at Mersin, Anatolia show the presence of fortifications and soldiers' quarters by 4300 BC.

Excavation work undertaken in 2005 and 2006 has shown that Hamoukar was destroyed by warfare by around 3500 BC-—probably the earliest urban warfare attested so far in the archaeological record of the Near East. Continued excavations in 2008 and 2010 expand on that.

Archaeological evidence suggests that Proto-Indo-Iranian-speaking Abashevo society was intensely warlike. Mass graves reveal that inter-tribal battles involved hundreds of warriors of both sides. Warfare appears to have been more frequent in the late Abashevo period, and it was in this turbulent environment in which the Sintashta culture emerged. The spread of spoke-wheeled chariots has been closely associated with early Indo-Iranian migrations. The earliest known chariots have been found in Sintashta culture burial sites, and the culture is considered a strong candidate for the origin of the technology, which spread throughout the Old World and played an important role in ancient warfare.

Military conquests expanded city states under Egyptian control. Babylonia and later Assyria built empires in Mesopotamia while the Hittite Empire ruled much of Anatolia. Chariots appear in the 20th century BC, and become central to warfare in the Ancient Near East from the 17th century BC. The Hyksos and Kassite invasions mark the transition to the Late Bronze Age. Ahmose I defeated the Hyksos and re-established Egyptian control of Nubia and Canaan, territories again defended by Ramesses II at the Battle of Kadesh, the greatest chariot battle in history. The raids of the Sea Peoples and the renewed disintegration of Egypt in the Third Intermediate Period marks the end of the Bronze Age.

The Tollense valley battlefield is the oldest evidence of a large scale battle in Europe. More than 4,000 warriors from Central Europe fought in a battle on the site in the 13th century BC.

Mycenaean Greeks (c. 1600) invested in the development of military infrastructure, while military production and logistics were supervised directly from the palatial centers. The most identifiable piece of Mycenaean armor was the boar's tusk helmet. In general, most features of the later hoplite panoply of classical Greek antiquity, were already known to Mycenaean Greece. The Late Bronze Age collapse was a time of widespread societal collapse during the 12th century BC, between c. 1200 and 1150. It was sudden, violent, and culturally disruptive for many Bronze Age civilizations, and it brought a sharp economic decline to regional powers, notably ushering in the Greek Dark Ages. Historian Robert Drews argues for the appearance of massed infantry, using newly developed weapons and armour, such as cast rather than forged spearheads and long swords, a revolutionizing cut-and-thrust weapon, and javelins. Such new weaponry, in the hands of large numbers of "running skirmishers", who could swarm and cut down a chariot army, would destabilize states that were based upon the use of chariots by the ruling class. That would precipitate an abrupt social collapse as raiders began to conquer, loot and burn cities.

The Bronze Age in China traverses the protohistoric and historic periods. Battles utilizing foot and chariot infantry took place regularly between powers in the North China Plain.

Iron Age
Early Iron Age events like the Dorian invasion, Greek colonialism and their interaction with Phoenician and Etruscan forces lie within the prehistoric period. Germanic warrior societies of the Migration period engaged in endemic warfare (see also Thorsberg moor and Illerup Ådal). Anglo-Saxon warfare lies on the edge of historicity, its study relying primarily on archaeology with the help of only fragmentary written accounts.

There are around 3,300 structures that can be classed as hillforts or similar "defended enclosures" within Britain. Hillforts in Britain are known from the Bronze Age, but the great period of hillfort construction was during the British Iron Age, between 700 BC and the Roman conquest of Britain in 43 AD. The reason for the emergence of hillforts in Britain, and their purpose, has been a subject of debate. It has been argued that they could have been military sites constructed in response to invasion from continental Europe, sites built by invaders, or a military reaction to social tensions caused by an increasing population and consequent pressure on agriculture.

Endemic warfare

In warlike cultures, war is often ritualized with a number of taboos and practices that limit the number of casualties and the duration of the conflict. This type of situation is known as endemic warfare. Among tribal societies engaging in endemic warfare, conflict may escalate to actual warfare occasionally for reasons such as conflict over resources or for no readily understandable reason.

Warfare is known to every tribal society, but some societies developed a particular emphasis on the formation of a warrior culture (such as the Nuer of South Sudan, the Māori of New Zealand, the Dugum Dani of Papua, the Yanomami (dubbed "the Fierce People") of the Amazon. The culture of inter-tribal warfare has long been present in New Guinea.

title: Prehistoric warfare


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The Burning of the Red Lotus Temple

The Burning of the Red Lotus Temple  is a lost Chinese silent film serial directed by Zhang Shichuan, widely considered to be the founding father of Chinese cinema. The film is adapted from the novel The Tale of the Extraordinary Swordsman.

The Burning of the Red Lotus Temple, in 16 parts, is among the longest films ever produced and the longest major release, running 27 hours in total. The Mingxing Film Company production was released in 19 feature-length parts between 1928 and 1931. No copies have survived. The craze of the film series eventually led the Kuomintang to ban all wuxia films by the early 1930s because wuxia was thought to be inciting anarchy and rebellion.

title: The Burning of the Red Lotus Temple


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Kintigh Generating Station

The Kintigh Generating Station, also known as Somerset Operating Co. LLC of the Upstate New York Power Producers was a 675-megawatt coal-fired power plant located in Somerset, New York, United States. The plant was owned by AES Corporation until bankruptcy. Its unit was launched into service in 1984. Coal is provided to the plant via the Somerset Railroad. The waste heat is dumped into Lake Ontario, resulting in a warm-water plume visible on satellite images. The plant's 625-foot smoke stack can be seen across Lake Ontario from the shores of Toronto, Pickering, Oshawa, and Ajax, Ontario. It can also be seen from points along the Niagara Escarpment, including Lockport, NY, approximately 20 miles south. Power from the plant is transferred by dual 345kV power lines on wood pylons, which run south from the plant through rural agricultural land. In Royalton, NY they split at their physical junction with the dual circuit 345-kV Niagara-to-Edic transmission line, owned by the New York Power Authority, one circuit heads west to a substation at Niagara Falls, the other heads east to Station 80 south of Rochester. This bulk electric transmission constraint, created by the Somerset plant tie-in and forcing wheeling through 230kV and 345kV transmission lines to the Homer City Coal Plant east of Pittsburgh, PA, and returning to NY at the Watercurry substation outside Elmira, will be resolved through the Empire State Line proposal approved by NY Independent System Operator (NYISO).

The plant's electric power was sold in the NYISO wholesale electric markets. The plant was the last coal-fired plant remaining in operation in New York and officially shut down on March 31, 2020. This in effect fulfilled Governor Cuomo's pledge to phase out coal by 2020, enforced by current regulation requirements which will be in effect on December 31, 2020.

History
The Somerset Nuclear Power Plant was proposed by New York State Electric & Gas in 1974 as two General Electric 1,200 MW units, but the project was canceled in 1975.

In 1975, NYSEG announced it was changing its construction plans because a geologic fault had been found 40 miles away in Attica. Extra retrofitting costs would have made a nuclear plant infeasible versus a reinforced coal. A 650 MW coal plant was built at the site and went into service in 1984 ahead of schedule and under budget.

In 2012, the plant was sold to Upstate New York Power Producers along with the Cayuga plant that AES also owned. The transfer occurred as the result of a bankruptcy settlement with AES's creditors. It was noted in the approving public service commission order that the 5 creditors that own the new organization provided AES $550 million in financing to acquire the facility in 1999. One of the five creditors included the California Public Employees’ Retirement System.

Kintigh Electric Energy Production (2006-2012)
In 2016, Upstate New York Power Producers sold the Kintigh facility and the Cayuga facility to Riesling Power, LLC.

In March 2020, the Kintigh facility was retired.

Environmental impacts
In 2010, the Clean Air Task Force, a nonprofit research and advocacy association, published a report evaluating the environmental and health effects attributable to fine particle pollution from coal-fired U.S. power plants, specifically mentioning the Kintigh Generating Station. The report focused on air pollution from soot, heavy metals, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. Alleging that fine particle pollution from coal power plants is responsible for 13,000 deaths annually in the United States, it posited that the Kintigh Generating Station's fine particle pollution caused 11 preventable deaths a year, 19 heart attacks and 170 asthma attacks. The Research and Policy Center of Environment New York has also been critical of the Kintigh Generating Station, claiming in 2011 that the plant emits almost 3.8 million mass tons of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide each year.

title: Kintigh Generating Station


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Jón Sigurðsson

Jón Sigurðsson (17 June 1811 – 7 December 1879) was the leader of the 19th century Icelandic independence movement.

Biography
Born at Hrafnseyri, in Arnarfjörður in the Westfjords area of Iceland, he was the son of Þórdís Jónsdóttir and pastor Sigurður Jónsson. In 1833, he moved to Denmark to study grammar and history at the University of Copenhagen. While in Denmark, Jón developed syphilis and was bedridden for an extended period. According to historian, Jón showed little interest in politics prior to his bout with syphilis.

After completing his education, Jón began to work at the Arnamagnæan Institute, which was then the home of the manuscripts of the Icelandic sagas. He became an expert on the sagas and on Icelandic history. He never graduated from university, as Icelandic politics grew to consume all his time. Before Jón moved to Denmark he proposed to his cousin,, and she and her father, Jón's uncle, accepted the proposal. However Jón and Ingibjörg did not marry until 1845, when Jón came to Iceland for the first time since 1833 to sit at the restored Alþing. Jón had been elected to the Althing in 1844 as an MP for Ísafjörður county. He managed to hold on to this seat throughout his life although he did not attend all sessions of the Althing. In all, he came to 13 of the 17 sessions that were held in his lifetime. He also attended the National Assembly of 1851. There he led the Icelanders in their resistance to the adoption of Denmark's 1849 constitutional reform. The constitution was never formally adopted in Iceland, and after years of struggle the Danish Government granted Iceland a limited constitution in 1874 giving autonomy in internal affairs. Until then the Althing had only been an advisory body to the Danish government and king. He served as speaker of the Althing from 1875 to 1877.

Jón's way of communicating with the Icelandic nation from Denmark where he lived and worked was to publish an annual magazine called Ný félagsrit (New Association Writings). It was published almost every year from 1841 to 1873 with Jón always being the main contributor and financial backer.

The home of Jón and Ingibjörg in Copenhagen became a centre for all Icelanders in the city. They had no children except for one foster-son who was Jón's nephew. However, a contemporary remarked that "all Icelanders are their children".

Jón was a classical liberal, unlike most of his contemporary and subsequent nationalists. Historian Gunnar Karlsson describes him in the following fashion, "Jon Sigurdsson was by no means a typical 19th-century national hero. He was not an extreme nationalist and for his time, was rather devoid of romanticism. Above all, he was a protagonist of modernization, democracy, human rights and economic progress... Jon's career was not typical for a leader of a liberation movement either. He was never arrested for his political activity or spent a single night in prison. On the contrary, for most of his life he was sustained by rather generous research grants from various scholarly institutions, more or less funded by the Danish treasury."Jón never requested full autonomy for Iceland during his lifetime. Jón called for greater self-rule, arguing that "the country should be allowed to govern itself as much as possible, in order for the great energy, which is inherent in the country but lies dormant, to be revived and to mature."

He died in Copenhagen in 1879.

Legacy
His birthday, 17 June, was chosen as Iceland's National Holiday to recognize his efforts toward Icelandic independence.

He is often referred to as President ("Jón forseti") by Icelanders. The main reason for this is that he served as the president of Althing several times, for the first time in 1849. He also served as the President of the Copenhagen Department of Hið íslenska bókmenntafélag (the Icelandic Literature Society). He is currently pictured on Iceland's 500 krónur bill, and

The apartment which Jón and Ingibjörg rented at Øster Voldgade 12 in Copenhagen from 1852 is called Jónshús and has been the property of the Icelandic government since 1967. It serves as a cultural center for Icelanders in Denmark, and as housing for academics on sabbatical. A plaque on the corner with Stokhusgade commemorates that he used to live in the building.

title: Jón Sigurðsson


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Charles I of Württemberg

Charles (Karl Friedrich Alexander; 6 March 1823 – 6 October 1891) was King of Württemberg from 25 June 1864 until his death in 1891. Charles I married Grand Duchess Olga Nikolaevna of Russia in 1846 and ascended to the throne in 1864. Despite their marriage, the couple had no children, likely due to Charles' homosexuality. Charles was involved in several scandals, including a close relationship with American Charles Woodcock. In 1870, the couple adopted Olga's niece, Vera Konstantinovna. Charles I aligned with Austria during the Austro-Prussian War but later sided with Prussia in the Franco-Prussian War, joining the new German Empire in 1870. He died childless and was succeeded by his nephew, William II.

Early life
Charles was born on 6 March 1823 in Stuttgart as the only son of King William I and his third wife Pauline Therese (1800–1873). As the king's eldest son he became Crown Prince of Württemberg. His father's first wife was Princess Caroline Augusta, daughter of King Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria and Princess Augusta Wilhelmine of Hesse-Darmstadt. After their 1814 divorce, without issue, he married his first cousin, Grand Duchess Catherine Pavlovna of Russia, daughter of Emperor Paul I of Russia and Princess Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg. Catherine died in 1819 after having two daughters, Princess Marie Friederike Charlotte of Württemberg (wife of Alfred, Count von Neipperg) and Princess Sophie of Württemberg (wife of King William III of the Netherlands). From his parents marriage, he had two sisters, Princess Catherine (who married Prince Frederick of Württemberg) and Princess Augusta (wife of Prince Hermann of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach).

His paternal grandparents were King Frederick I of Württemberg and Augusta of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (a daughter of Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick and Princess Augusta of Great Britain, elder sister to King George III). His grandmother's younger sister, Princess Caroline married King George IV. His maternal grandparents were Duke Louis of Württemberg and Princess Henrietta of Nassau-Weilburg.

Charles studied in Berlin and Tübingen.

Reign
Charles acceded to the throne of Württemberg upon his father's death on 25 June 1864 and was crowned on 12 July 1864. More liberal-leaning than his father, he replaced Chief Minister Joseph von Linden with Karl von Varnbüler, and restored freedom of the press and association on 24 December 1864 followed by universal suffrage introduced for the People's Deputies of the Second Chamber on 26 March 1868.

In relation to foreign policy, after siding with Austria in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, he moved closer to the Kingdom of Prussia. Following the Battle of Sadowa, he enacted a secret military treaty with Prussia (which became public in 1867) and recognized the dissolution of the German Confederation in 1866. Nevertheless, an anti-Prussian attitude was officially represented by the Court, the government and the people.

Because of the alliance, Württemberg took Prussia's side in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 to 1871. At the end of October 1870 the king withdrew to Friedrichshafen and in October 1870, signed one of the November treaties, joining the North German Confederation which began on 1 January 1871 and renamed itself the German Empire. He was represented at the Palace of Versailles at the Proclamation of the German Empire by his cousin, Prince August of Württemberg.

The King showed a tendency to withdraw into private life in other ways, going around the country and, later, spending time in Nice. In doing so, he was accused of having neglected the obligations incumbent on him as a constitutional body, including by having up to 800 unsigned documents accumulate in one case. On the one hand, it was a nuisance for the administration, but on the other hand it was also convenient for the government who was largely able to rule without interference from the King.

As a result of Württemberg being a Federal State of the German Empire since 1871, there were considerable restrictions on its sovereignty. Württemberg lost its previous international position, but gained greater security both internally and externally. Postal and telegraph services, financial sovereignty, cultural maintenance and railway administration remained in Württemberg hands, and the Kingdom of Württemberg also had its own military administration.

Personal life
On 18 January 1846, he became engaged in Palermo to the 23-year-old Grand Duchess Olga Nikolaevna of Russia, the daughter of Emperor Nicholas I of Russia and Charlotte of Prussia (a daughter of King Frederick William III of Prussia and sister to William I, German Emperor). Olga's grandmother, Empress Maria Feodorovna, was the younger sister of Charles' grandfather, King Frederick. They married on 13 July 1846 at Peterhof Palace in Petergof, Saint Petersburg. The young couple moved to Stuttgart, and from 1854 until Charles' accession in 1864, lived at the Crown Prince Palace (Kronprinzenpalais) built between 1846 and 1850 at state expense on Königstraße, corner of Schloßplatz (which was demolished in c. 1962). For their summer residence, the crown prince couple stayed at Villa Berg, which had been designed by Christian Friedrich von Leins according to their own ideas and is considered one of the first Renaissance Revival style buildings in Germany.

The couple had no children, perhaps because of Charles' homosexuality, and, in 1870, Olga and Charles I adopted Olga's niece Vera Konstantinovna, the daughter of her brother Grand Duke Konstantin.

After a stay at Bebenhausen Palace where he spent his autumns at Bebenhausen (and had tasked architect August Beyer (born 1834) with renovating the palace's rooms), he returned to Stuttgart on 3 October 1891, three days before his death on 6 October 1891. He was succeeded as King of Württemberg by his nephew, William II. His wife died a year later, on 30 October 1892, and was buried together with him in the Old Castle in Stuttgart.

Homosexuality
Charles I became the object of scandal several times for his closeness with various men. A first "intimate" long-standing "heart friendship" was with his adjutant general, Baron Wilhelm von Spitzemberg. Another friend was Richard Jackson of Cincinnati, the secretary of the U.S. Consulate. Charles' most notorious relationship was with the American Charles Woodcock, a 30-year-old he met in 1883. The King made Woodcock his chamberlain and even elevated him as to Freiherr Woodcock-Savage in 1888. Charles I and Charles Woodcock became inseparable, going so far as to appear together in public dressed identically. It was less the king's homosexuality than the fact that Woodcock used his position to exercise significant influence over the king's personnel decisions that became a scandal. This did not go unnoticed by the press, and together with the political establishment, headed by Prime Minister Hermann von Mittnacht, the King was put under intense pressure to give up Woodcock. In 1889, however, Charles found a new friend in Wilhelm Georges, the technical director of the royal theater. The relationship with Georges lasted until the King's death two years later.

Honours
• Württemberg:

• * Grand Cross of the Württemberg Crown, 1837

• * Grand Cross of the Friedrich Order

• * Founder of the Order of Olga, 27 June 1871

•  Russian Empire: Knight of St. Andrew, April 1829

•  Baden:

• * Grand Cross of the House Order of Fidelity, 1830

• * Grand Cross of the Zähringer Lion, 1830

•    Ernestine duchies: Grand Cross of the Saxe-Ernestine House Order, April 1841

•  Kingdom of Prussia:

• * Knight of the Black Eagle, 20 May 1841; with Collar, 1861

• * Grand Commander's Cross of the Royal House Order of Hohenzollern, 22 September 1876

•  Kingdom of Bavaria: Knight of St. Hubert, 1841

•  Austrian Empire: Grand Cross of the Royal Hungarian Order of St. Stephen, 1845

•  Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach: Grand Cross of the White Falcon, 19 September 1846

•  Grand Duchy of Hesse: Grand Cross of the Ludwig Order, 22 October 1848

•  Oldenburg: Grand Cross of the Order of Duke Peter Friedrich Ludwig, with Golden Crown, 17 October 1853

•  Kingdom of Hanover:

• * Knight of St. George, 1855

• * Grand Cross of the Royal Guelphic Order, 1855

• 🇧🇪 Belgium: Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold (military), 17 July 1864

•  Kingdom of Saxony: Knight of the Rue Crown, 1864

• 🇲🇨 Monaco: Grand Cross of St. Charles, 24 September 1865

•  French Empire: Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour, July 1867

• 🇸🇪 🇳🇴 Sweden-Norway: Knight of the Seraphim, 17 October 1879

•  Kingdom of Italy: Knight of the Annunciation, 13 April 1882

•  undefined: Knight of the Golden Fleece, 6 February 1888

• 🇩🇰 Denmark: Knight of the Elephant, 23 June 1889

•  undefined: Stranger Knight Companion of the Garter, 23 April 1890

title: Charles I of Württemberg


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Trossachs

The Trossachs (Na Tròiseachan) generally refers to an area of wooded glens, braes, and lochs lying to the east of Ben Lomond in the Stirling council area of Scotland. The name is taken from that of a small woodland glen that lies at the centre of the area, but is now generally applied to the wider region.

The wooded hills and lochs of the area may be considered to represent a microcosm of a typical highland landscape, and the woodlands are an important habitat for many species. Much of the Trossachs area is protected by various different conservation designations, including the Great Trossachs Forest National Nature Reserve.

The Trossachs form part of the Loch Lomond and The Trossachs National Park, which was established in 2002. The area has long been visited by tourists due to the relative proximity of major population centres such as Glasgow and Stirling, and remains popular with walkers, cyclists and tourists. Scenic boat rides on Loch Katrine are popular with visitors: the steamer SS Sir Walter Scott, launched in 1899, remains in operation. The Great Trossachs Path, one of Scotland's Great Trails, is a 48 km route suitable for walkers, cyclists and horse riders. It runs between Callander in the east and Inversnaid on the banks of Loch Lomond in the west, passing along the northern shores of Loch Katrine and Loch Arklet.

Name and etymology
The name Trossachs involves the Brittonic root trōs meaning "across" (c.f. Welsh traws), perhaps conserving the compound trawsfynydd meaning "cross-hill".

Also suggested is a derivation from a Gaelic word for "bristly".

Geography
The Trossachs glen lies between Ben A'an to the north and Ben Venue to the south, with Loch Katrine to the west and Loch Achray to the east. It lies at the centre of the wider region, which is generally regarded as being bounded by Glen Gyle to the south, with the western boundary being the road between Stronachlachar and Aberfoyle. Loch Doine, Loch Voil, and Loch Lubnaig form the northern and eastern boundary of the area.

The A821 road between Aberfoyle and Callander runs through this glen, and is the main access route into the Trossachs from the south and east. The section between Aberfoyle and the Trossachs glen runs through the Achray Forest, reaching a height of 238 m above sea level at the summit of the Duke's Pass. The main route to Callander continues east via the north shores of Loch Achray and Loch Venachar, whilst a branch of the A821 heads west to finish at the western end of Loch Katrine. No public road continues along the shore of Loch Katrine, although the Great Trossachs Path allows walkers and cyclists to follow the northern shore round to Stronachlachar on the western shore. From here a minor road heads west to Loch Lomond. Stronachlachar can also be reached by the B829 road from Aberfoyle, which passes north of Loch Choin and Loch Ard.

The small town of Callander and the village of Aberfoyle lie at the edge of the Trossachs, however Brig o' Turk is the only settlement of any size within the Trossachs. The Lake of Menteith, situated near Aberfoyle, lies about six miles (10 km) to the south east of the glen, on the edge of the Trossachs area. The lake is a fishing destination that features the ruins of Inchmahome Priory on one of its islands, Inchmahome, where Mary, Queen of Scots was taken as a child before being taken to France for her protection.

History
There are several prehistoric sites in the area, including a cup and ring marked rock and burnt mounds in Glen Finglas. There are crannogs on Loch Ard and Loch Venachar, and an Iron Age hill fort at Dunmore.

The Trossachs were one of the first parts of Scotland to become a recognised tourist destination due to the area's position on the southern edge of the highlands and the quality of the scenery, which may be considered to represent a microcosm of a typical highland landscape. The poet William Wordsworth and his sister Dorothy visited the area, with Dorothy publishing an account of their visit in Recollections of a Tour Made in Scotland in 1803.

The scenic charms of the area came to popularity with Sir Walter Scott's 1810 poem The Lady of the Lake, extending his romantic portrayal of Scotland's past from border ballads to poems of a medieval past rich in chivalry and symbolism. The poem gives a roll call of Trossachs place names, the lady herself being found on Loch Katrine. Scott followed up with his 1817 historical novel Rob Roy romanticising the outlaw cattle thief Raibert Ruadh, who was born by Loch Katrine and buried at nearby Balquhidder.

The leading Victorian art critic John Ruskin (1819–1900) and the Pre-Raphaelite painter John Everett Millais (1829–1896) spent the summer of 1853 together at Glenfinlas in the Trossachs. Millais started a painting of John Ruskin during the visit, which he finished the following year. The painting is held in a private collection, but was on show at an exhibition on the Pre-Raphaelites at Tate Britain in London during 2004. John Ruskin himself was especially interested in the rock formations in the area and undertook his own studies of these.

The Trossachs Hotel was built on the north bank of Loch Achray in response to the growing number of tourists visiting the region. The building now functions as the Tigh Mor Trossachs holiday apartments, owned by the Holiday Property Bond (HPB). In 1859, a dam was built at the eastern end of Loch Katrine and connecting aqueducts were added to as part of a new main water supply to Glasgow. At the expense of the Glasgow water company, Queen Victoria had a holiday house built overlooking the loch. The queen never stayed in the house, named Royal Cottage, as the windows were broken by the 21-gun salute that welcomed her, and the cottage later became accommodation for the employees of Scottish Water.

Nature and conservation
The forests of the Trossachs comprise both areas of ancient, semi-natural and traditionally managed woodland alongside commercial forestry plantations. The native woodland is largely deciduous, whilst the commercial forestry consists mostly of conifers.

Fauna found in the woods of the Trossachs include black grouse, capercaillie and goshawk; mammal species include red and roe deer, red squirrel and pine marten. Beavers are also now present in the area, with signs of beaver activity being observed on Loch Achray during a survey undertaken over the winter of 2017–18; the beavers are assumed to have spread there from the existing population on the River Tay.

Species of fish found in the lochs of the Trossachs include brown trout, perch and pike, and the lochs are also a habitat for osprey and otter. Arctic char are known to have lived in Loch Venachar and Loch Achray, but as of 2006 it was believed that they were no longer present. The more farmed areas of the Trossachs provide areas of marshland that are habitat for wildfowl and waders, with both wintering and breeding species recorded. In 2011 the pearl-bordered fritillary butterfly - a species considered rare in Britain - was found to be living around Loch Katrine, the first time the species had been identified in the area for 25 years.

Much of the Trossachs area is protected via several different conservation designations.

Great Trossachs Forest National Nature Reserve
The Great Trossachs Forest is a project that aims to deliver a 165 km2 forest in the heart of the Trossachs in order to develop a wide range of habitats for invertebrates, mammals, birds and other wildlife. Since 2015 the area, which covers much of the core area of the Trossachs around Loch Katrine and Loch Arklet (including the Trossachs glen), has been classified as national nature reserve with the title Great Trossachs Forest National Nature Reserve. The reserve is considered to be a "forest in the making", and is managed jointly by Forestry and Land Scotland, RSPB Scotland and Woodland Trust Scotland. The reserve is classified as a Category II protected area by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. The project aims to deliver a varied landscape that provides habitats for species that are otherwise rare in Britain, including black grouse, golden eagle, osprey, wildcat, pine marten, red squirrel, water vole and otter.

Other conservation designations
A smaller area (378 ha) of the Trossachs is protected as a Special Area of Conservation due to importance of the existing native forest. The Trossachs are also defined as a national scenic area, being one of 40 such areas in Scotland, which are defined so as to identify areas of exceptional scenery and to ensure its protection from inappropriate development. Areas of forestry owned by Forestry and Land Scotland within the Trossachs form part of the Queen Elizabeth Forest Park, and the entire area lies within the Loch Lomond and The Trossachs National Park.

Government and politics
The Trossachs area forms part of the council area of Stirling; at the most local level there is a Trossachs Community Council.

The area is part of the registration county of Perth, lying in the most westerly part of the county, close to the border with County of Stirling. The area is represented in the Scottish Parliament as part of the constituency of Stirling, which elects one Member of the Scottish Parliament (MSP) by the plurality (first past the post) method of election. The area also forms part of the Mid Scotland and Fife electoral region, which elects seven additional members, in addition to nine constituency MSPs, to produce a form of proportional representation for the region as a whole. At Westminster the Trossachs area is represented as part of a constituency also entitled Stirling, however this constituency, which elects one Member of Parliament (MP) by the first past the post system of election, has different boundaries from the Scottish Parliament constituency.

Hills and lochs
The chief hills of the Trossachs are:
 * Ben Venue (729 m)
 * Ben A'an (454 m)
 * Ben Ledi (879 m)
 * Benvane (821 m)
 * Ceann na Baintighearna (771 m)
 * Stob a' Choin (865 m)

The major lochs in the area are:
 * Loch Katrine
 * Loch Arklet
 * Loch Achray
 * Loch Venachar
 * Loch Drunkie
 * Loch Voil
 * Loch Doine
 * Loch Lubnaig
 * Loch Chon
 * Loch Dubh
 * Loch Ard

Additionally, the Lake of Menteith may be regarded as lying on the boundaries of the district.

title: Trossachs


text:
Amber (Dutch singer)

Marie-Claire Cremers (born 9 May 1969), known professionally as Amber, is a Dutch-born singer, songwriter, label owner, and executive producer. She is best known for her hits "This Is Your Night", "If You Could Read My Mind", and "Sexual (Li Da Di)". In December 2016, Billboard ranked her as the 34th-most successful dance artist of all time. The magazine later declared her the #7 Dance Singles Sales Artist of the 2000s.

Amber is extremely popular among dance club music enthusiasts and especially in the gay community. She is an outspoken LGBTQ advocate who has headlined dozens of Pride celebrations, earning her recognition as one of the "Queens of Pride".

Recently, Amber's career has experienced a resurgence. Tommy Boy Records, the singer's original label now owned by Reservoir Media, began releasing previously vaulted remixes of her songs to digital platforms worldwide in 2022. Six of 9 releases have been Top 3 hits on the iTunes US Dance Albums Chart, four going all the way to #1: "Above the Clouds (Remixes)," "Love One Another (Remixes)," "Colour of Love (Remixes)," and "If You Could Read My Mind (25th Anniversary Edition)". The success of the 2022 and 2023 re-releases of Amber's singles reignited interest in her catalog. Her "This is Your Night (1996)," "Amber (1999)," and "Naked (2002)" CDs charted on the Amazon Euro Pop and Dance Pop Bestsellers charts in Summer and Fall 2023 with "Naked" placing as high as #23.

1996–1997: Debut Album This is Your Night
Amber's music career took off when one of her demos, "This Is Your Night", was released by Tommy Boy Records. The single was on the Hot 100 chart for one year in 1996 and 1997. A full-length album of the same name soon followed, which spawned two additional hit singles: "Colour of Love" and the Hani remix of "One More Night".

The song "This is Your Night" has become a classic that is routinely ranked among the best dance tracks of the 1990s. It was used in the film "A Night at the Roxbury" and has been included in countless dance compilations and playlists. More recently, the track has become popular in fan-made TikTok and YouTube videos with collective views in the millions.

Amber re-recorded "This is Your Night" in 2008 and "One More Night" in 2011 and released multi-track singles on digital platforms. Remix albums of "Colour of Love (Remixes)" and "This is Your Night (Special Edition)" were released digitally in September 2022 and June 2023, respectively. In August 2023, vault remixes of "Being With You," a Smokey Robinson cover, were issued, followed in September 2023 by "Colour of Love, Part II (Bonus Remixes)". "One More Night (Remixes)" dropped in October 2023 and included 17 club versions by Junior Vasquez, Fitch Bros., and Hani among others. It peaked at #4 on the iTunes US Dance Albums chart.

1998–1999: Self-Titled Second Album AMBER
In 1999, Amber released her eponymous self-titled second album which garnered the most mainstream attention thus far. The album's release was preceded in 1998 by the single "If You Could Read My Mind," by Stars on 54 (a collaboration with Ultra Naté and Jocelyn Enriquez) which was recorded for the Miramax film 54. Amber performed the song with Nate and Enriquez in the closing scene of the movie.

The first official single from AMBER was "Sexual (Li Da Di)," which charted on the Billboard Hot 100 and spent 17 weeks at #1 on the Singles Sales Chart. The album also included the #1 dance hits "Above the Clouds" and "Love One Another". The former song as well as the album track "Object of Your Desire" later gained additional exposure when licensed for the HBO series "Sex and the City".

In addition to the four American singles, German label ZYX also released "Do That To Me One More Time" and "I Found Myself in You". "Do That to Me One More Time" was recorded exclusively for the European market and issued with an accompanying video that was shot in Manhattan. In 2007, Amber re-recorded many of the tracks from the album and released them to digital media platforms. This included: "Sexual (Li Da Di)," "Above the Clouds," "Spiritual Virginity," which the artist confirmed was under consideration as a single when the album was originally released, "Object of Your Desire," "Love One Another," and "If I'm Not the One".

More recently, never-before-released remixes of the AMBER album hit singles have been issued digitally: "Sexual (Li Da Di) [Plasma Trance Remix - Extended]," "Above the Clouds (Remixes)," and "Love One Another (Remixes)". The latter two peaked at #1 on the iTunes Dance Albums Chart in July 2022 and August 2022, respectively. The success of these releases renewed interest in the AMBER album which also charted in the Top 10 on Amazon's Digital Dance/Pop Albums.

In July 2023, "If You Could Read My Mind (25th Anniversary Edition)" was issued with 16 remixes by Hex Hector and Steve "Silk" Hurley. It debuted at #1 on the iTunes US Dance Albums Chart. "Sexual (Li Da Di)" Remixes peaked at #3 on the same chart in February 2024.

On May 31, 2024, Amber and Tommy Boy Records marked the 25th anniversary of AMBER by releasing a double CD and two vinyl versions, black and silver, the latter becoming a bestseller at Barnes & Noble. The set includes the original album as well as remixes.

2000: The Hits Remixed and Grammy Nomination
Amber's next release was a compilation of remixes titled appropriately The Hits Remixed (2000). This album contained all of her hit singles up to that point, including "If You Could Read My Mind," as well as the non-album track "Taste the Tears" which she recorded for the Sex and the City TV Soundtrack. "Taste the Tears" was written by Diane Warren (Celine Dion, Whitney Houston) and produced by Chris Cox and Barry Harris (collectively known as Thunderpuss).

Remixes of "Love One Another" and "Taste the Tears" were commissioned to promote the album. "Love One Another," which peaked at #1 on the Billboard Dance Club Play Chart, hence became the fourth overall single from AMBER and the first from The Hits Remixed. Meanwhile, the remixes of "Taste the Tears" were issued as a promo-only single to club DJs.

In addition to releasing a string of #1 dance hits, Amber achieved many other career highlights in the early 2000s. Bette Midler recorded "Bless You Child," (Bette (2000)) which the songwriter co-penned with Billy Steinberg and Rick Nowels, and Amber was invited to sing on Nile Rodger's charity single "We Are Family" alongside many Grammy nominees and winners. Several multi-track EPs were released with remixes by Thunderpuss, Murk, E. Lake, and Robbie Rivera, and a video was directed by Spike Lee in which Amber can be seen sharing the microphone with Dionne Warwick.

Another milestone was achieved in 2001 when Cher covered "Love One Another" for her album Living Proof. The song returned to #1 when issued as a double A-side with "When the Money's Gone" (2003) and was nominated for a Grammy Award as Best Dance Recording, an accolade that Amber shared as co-songwriter.

Amber's version of "Love One Another" was back on fan playlists in June 2022 when Tommy Boy Records issued "The Hits Remixed - Extended," an album that was originally released exclusively on vinyl to DJs. The digital compilation included many never-before commercially available full-length club remixes of Amber's hits. It peaked at #2 (Amazon Digital Dance Albums) behind Honestly, Nevermind by Drake, which dominated every eligible chart at the time. The teaser single "Sexual (Li Da Di) [Plasma Trance Remix - Extended]" made its digital debut in May 2022 in advance of the release of "The Hits Remixed - Extended".

2001–2003: Naked and Departure From Tommy Boy Records
Amber's third album Naked was released in early 2002. Musically, Amber continued the path she had started with: she continued to co-write her own songs and lyrics and attempted even more of a departure from her original Eurodance sound. Three singles were culled from the album: "Yes,” “The Need to Be Naked," and "Anyway (Men Are From Mars)". The latter was the first hit song of her career that the artist wrote entirely on her own.

The lead single "Yes" was written by Billy Steinberg, Marie-Claire D'Ubaldo, and Rick Nowels who had previously penned Amber's "Above the Clouds" as well as "Falling Into You," which was recorded by Celine Dion. In perhaps a first for a pop music song, the track used lyrics from Classical Literature's Ulysses, which were licensed from the Estate of James Joyce. Joyce was credited as co-songwriter.

Mainstream radio's reaction to "Yes" was reminiscent of the attitude towards "Sexual (Li Da Di)" two years earlier. Programmers expressed concern about the perceived sexual subtext of the track and the use of the word "breast". It was suggested at the time that she change the lyric from "breast" to "breath" which she refused to do.

Amber parted ways with Tommy Boy Records (then under previous ownership) after the promotional cycle for Naked was completed because of creative differences. According to Amber, she was unhappy with the direction of her career as well as the way that her label had handled the marketing of Naked.

In 2007, Amber re-recorded many of the tracks on Naked for digital release. These included: "Don't Say Goodbye (3/4 Dance Mix)," "Yes (Spanish Version)," and "The Need to Be Naked (Thunder Fake Mix)". In addition, newly recorded versions of "He" and "Anyway" were released on the digital compilation album Undanced II (Unreleased Remixes/Songs) (2007).

2004–2006: My Kind of World and Melt With the Sun
Amber created her own label JMCA after successfully buying out her previous contract. The initial release by JMCA was Amber's fourth album, My Kind of World. The moodier tone and more intimate songs were a departure for the artist who was known for her up-tempo dance hits. Amber nevertheless issued three maxi-singles with remixes for "You Move Me", "Voodoo" and "Just Like That" and these versions performed well in the clubs and on dance radio. Additional remixes of "More Time for a Child (Pathos V2)," "You Move Me (Funkadelica Mix)," "Just Like That (Pathos V2)," and "City of Pain (Pathos V2)" were released on Undanced II (2007).

After promotion for My Kind of World had run its course, Amber collaborated with Sweet Rains on the stand-alone single "Melt With the Sun" (December 12, 2006). The maxi single included an all-star roster of remix artists: Tracy Young, Hex Hector, Al B Rich, AM Corona, and Lance Jordan.

2008–2011: Re-Recordings and Stand Alone Singles
In 2008, Amber re-released her debut single "This Is Your Night" with new remixes. She followed up by collaborating with Zelma Davis of C+C Music Factory fame on a cover of "No More Tears (Enough Is Enough)", the classic duet by Donna Summer and Barbra Streisand. Both songs were accompanied by new music videos.

In 2009, she dropped "I Don't Believe in Hate (Drip Drop)" after discovering the track on the MySpace page of singer/songwriter Kelly Mueller and securing permission to be the first to officially release it. Two years later, she issued her final new recording to date, a remake of "One More Night" (2011).

2022-2024 Vault Remixes and New Album
In 2022, Tommy Boy Records began releasing vault remixes of Amber's hit singles. So far, this has included:
 * Sexual (Li Da Di) [Plasma Trance Remix - Extended] (May 2022)
 * The Hits Remixed - Extended (June 2022)
 * Above the Clouds (Remixes) (July 2022)
 * Love One Another (Remixes) (August 2022)
 * Colour of Love (Remixes) (September 2022)
 * This is Your Night Special Edition (Remixes) (June 2023)
 * If You Could Read My Mind 25th Anniversary Edition (Remixes) (July 2023)
 * Being With You (Remixes) (August 2023)
 * Colour of Love, Part II (Bonus Remixes) (September 2023)
 * One More Night (Remixes) (October 2023)
 * Sexual (Li Da Di) (Remixes) (February 2024)

In the early-mid 2010s, Amber teased on social media that she was recording a new album, which as of mid-2023 still has not been released. With the recent chart-topping success of the vault remixes, there is speculation online that the album may soon see the light of day. This has not been confirmed.

Compilation albums

 * Remixed (2000)
 * Undanced (2004)
 * Undanced II (2007)

title: Amber (Dutch singer)


title: Category:1500


text:
Kelvindale

Kelvindale (Dail Chealbhainn) is a district in the West End of the city of Glasgow, Scotland. Kelvindale shares the G12 postcode with the neighbouring residential districts of Kelvinside, Hillhead, Hyndland, Dowanhill, as well as Gartnavel General Hospital, Glasgow Clyde College (Anniesland) and the University of Glasgow, and is also close to the Anniesland and Wyndford areas of the city. The area is characterised by traditional interwar housing, formed of tenements and semi-detached houses.

Construction
Construction started in the late 1920s with work being undertaken by the City Corporation. This was followed up in the early 1930s by the Glasgow-based housebuilding company Mactaggart & Mickel. The houses were intended for rent rather than for sale, they consisted of semi detached villas. A proportion of these houses were set aside for rent by Glasgow Corporation. The Corporation extended the building down Kelvindale Road towards Collins Paper Mill. Subsequently in the 1930s the Western Heritable Investment Company extended the district considerably by building the last range of pre-war tenements at Dorchester Avenue, Ripon Drive, etc. between 1934 and 1938. These tenements are unique since they are built on concrete rafts due to the heavy mine workings in the district from the Garscube Estate. They were planned as four-storey, but due to Scots law they were reduced to three stories.

The district is dominated by the Temple gas holders (erected in 1891, now de-commissioned and Category B listed in 2018) which were reputed to be the biggest in the United Kingdom. During the Second World War the Royal Air Force stationed a balloon unit on what is now ex-MoD housing on Dorchester Avenue. The large fields were once used for grazing horses and cattle but are now the site of more tenement building and the Kelvindale Primary School. Gibson Hall, a former Glasgow Caledonian University Hall of Residence which stood on Dorchester Avenue, was recently demolished to make way for a new build. Flanders House, built for soldiers of the Great War, was demolished in 2006 and has been replaced by a modern construction.

Many of the street names in the area are named after places in England: these include Dorchester, Hertford and Leicester Avenues, Colchester, Chelmsford, Manchester, Kendal, Penrith, Northampton, Ripon, Southampton, Weymouth and Winchester Drives, and Beaconsfield Road. A few are named after Scottish placenames, including Grandtully Drive and Fortingall Avenue.

In the early 2000s, Kelvindale remained a desirable family area near the city's West End. In 2007, Bryant Homes controversially removed a large number of trees from a local lane to provide better access to a new housing development. The actor Robert Carlyle was among those who protested against the felling. In July 2009, a suspected arson attack caused considerable damage to the site. One partially constructed four story housing block burnt to the ground and the only occupied building on the site was evacuated.

Transport
Kelvindale railway station was opened on 26 September 2005. It is situated on the line from Glasgow Queen Street (High Level) to Anniesland, an extension of the Maryhill Line.

Several bus routes including the frequent 6 and 6A services operate along the nearby A82 road Great Western Road. While the 94 service operates both ways along Kelvindale Road - Cleveden Road along Dorchester Avenue and Gt Western Road via the nearby Wyndford Estate to and from Knightswood/Anniesland Cross. The M4 service operates both ways along Dorchester Avenue and Cleveden Road to Partick Bus Station.

The Kelvin Cycle Way which links into the Forth and Clyde Canal cycle path runs through the area.

Education
Kelvindale Primary School is a non-denominational state primary school located in Kelvindale. The increasing number of residents in the 1920s lead to the desire for a local primary school, as children had to travel to Hyndland Primary School (located on the present day site of Hyndland Secondary School) in the neighbouring district of Hyndland. After the second world war, an annexe of Hyndland Primary School was built in Kelvindale (within the present day grounds of Cleveden Secondary School. The two concrete huts were thought to have catered for the first three years of primary school education. In 1963, Kelvindale Primary School was built. The original school consisted of one building with 8 classrooms, and opened its doors on 24 August 1964 with a roll of 248 pupils. Over the years, the school roll increased requiring an annexe of two classrooms to be built in 1971. Another addition came in 1977, when a building specifically to house the infants was opened. The football pitch was sold to become flats and subsequently a new AstroTurf pitch was built opening in late 2006.

Notable buildings
Kelvindale contains St. John's Renfield Church (the local Church of Scotland parish church), Glasgow Nuffield Hospital, Cleveden Secondary School and Kelvindale Primary School.

In recent years, at Cleveden Secondary School and Kelvindale Primary School, the ash football pitches have been sold and replaced by new astroturf pitches.

Historic images of the Kelvindale area can be found on the Virtual Mitchell website.

Political representation
Kelvindale is part of:
 * Glasgow Anniesland (Scottish Parliament constituency)
 * Glasgow North (UK Parliament constituency)
 * The Partick East/Kelvindale ward of Glasgow City Council

title: Kelvindale


title: Category:1500s


text: Category:15th century

title: Category:15th century


text:
Hullabaloo (film)

Hullabaloo is a 1940 American musical comedy film directed by Edwin L. Marin and written by Nat Perrin. It stars Frank Morgan, Virginia Grey, Dan Dailey, Billie Burke, Donald Meek, Reginald Owen, and Connie Gilchrist. Jack Albertson, Leo Gorcey, and Arthur O'Connell appear in bit roles.

Plot
Morgan is the star of the film, as fading actor Frankie Merriweather, who is trying to revive his career by starring on a radio program. When his most recent broadcast, a science fiction invasion from Mars story, panics the nation, he is fired. He decides to jumpstart his career by creating a new show which features his talented children.

Cast

 * Frank Morgan as Frankie Merriweather
 * Virginia Grey as Laura Merriweather
 * Dan Dailey as Bob Strong
 * Billie Burke as Penny Merriweather
 * Nydia Westman as Lulu Perkins
 * Ann Morriss as Wilma Norton
 * Donald Meek as Clyde Perkins
 * Reginald Owen as Buzz Foster
 * Charles Holland as Singing Bellhop
 * Leni Lynn as Judy Merriweather
 * Virginia O'Brien as Virginia Ferris
 * Curt Bois as Armand Francois
 * Sara Haden as Sue Merriweather
 * Larry Nunn as Terry Merriweather
 * Barnett Parker as Samuel Stephens
 * Connie Gilchrist as Arline Merriweather
 * Leo Gorcey as Apartment House Bellhop (uncredited)

Production
A highlight of the film is Morgan's reenactment of the current MGM hit film Boom Town, with Morgan's character, Frank Merriweather, supposedly imitating the voices of the stars of that film. In fact, the Boom Town stars' voices were dubbed over Morgan's. The voices of Clark Gable, Claudette Colbert, Spencer Tracy, and Hedy Lamarr are used.

title: Hullabaloo (film)


title: Category:1800


title: Category:1800s


title: Category:1600


title: Category:1600s


text: Category:17th century

title: Category:17th century


text:
Lake Vyrnwy

Lake Vyrnwy (Llyn Efyrnwy, or Llyn Llanwddyn) is a reservoir in Powys, Wales, built in the 1880s for Liverpool Corporation Waterworks to supply Liverpool with fresh water. It flooded the head of the Vyrnwy (Afon Efyrnwy) valley and submerged the village of Llanwddyn.

The Lake Vyrnwy Nature Reserve and Estate that surrounds the lake is jointly managed by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) and Hafren Dyfrdwy and is a popular destination for ornithologists, cyclists and hikers. The reserve is designated as a national nature reserve, a Site of Special Scientific Interest, a Special Protection Area, and a Special Area of Conservation.

Geography
Lake Vyrnwy is a reservoir in Powys, Wales, created in 1888 by flooding the head of the River Vyrnwy (Afon Efyrnwy) valley. The river flows from the dam into Shropshire where it converges with the River Severn near the village of Melverley on the Welsh border and outflows into the Bristol Channel.

When the reservoir is full, it is 84 ft deep, contains 13.125 e9impgal, and covers an area of 1121 acre, the equivalent of around 600 football pitches. The lake has a perimeter of 12 mi with a road that goes all the way around it. Its length is 4.75 mi.

311 brooks, waterfalls and rivers flow into the lake and are named after the mountains or hillsides they flow from. The main ones, clockwise from the west side of the dam, are named Afon Hirddu, Eunant, Afon Eiddew, Afon Naedroedd, Afon Cedig and Afon Y Dolau Gwynionew.

On the northern edge of the lake is a small hamlet called Rhiwargor where the rivers Afon Eiddew and Afon Naedroedd meet. Up the valley of Afon Eiddew is a waterfall known locally as Pistyll Rhyd-y-meincau, commonly known as Rhiwargor waterfall.

Construction

In 1879, George Deacon was instructed to prepare the parliamentary plans for the Vyrnwy Dam. The valley was chosen because of its size, favourable geology and its source, the River Vyrnwy, having a large water catchment area.

Thomas Hawksley was appointed as engineer-in-chief and prepared the design for a stone dam. Dam construction with great blocks of Welsh slate started in 1881 and was completed in 1888. Hawksley resigned in 1885 because of a conflict with George Deacon who was appointed as joint engineer. The dam was the first large stone-built dam in the United Kingdom and cost £620,000 (equivalent to £ million in ). Earlier dams in Britain had been built using great earth embankments to hold back the water. In 1889, shortly after completion, the lake was stocked with 400,000 Loch Leven trout.

Between 1881 and 1892 the aqueducts carrying water to Liverpool were constructed.

Construction of the dam flooded the village of Llanwddyn. The residents of the village were not consulted about the proposal for a dam and opposed the plan. Their relocation involved the demolition of a church, two chapels, three inns, ten farmhouses, and 37 houses. A new settlement to house them was built lower down the valley by Liverpool Corporation.

Description
The Vyrnwy dam is 44 m high from the bottom of the valley, and 39 m thick at the base; it is 358 m long and has a road bridge running along the top. It is decorated with 31 arches each spanning 7.3 m and two small towers each with four corner turrets rising 14 ft above the road surface. The dam was the first to be constructed with drainage tunnels designed to prevent a build up of pressure beneath the base. It is listed as a Grade I historic building by Cadw.

The dam was the first to carry water over its crest instead of in a channel at the side. At the bottom of the dam is a body of water known as a stilling basin necessary to absorb the energy when the water flows over the crest and into the valley, and to stop the water eroding the foundations of the dam.

A power house located under the west tower contains an electrical generator driven by water leaving the reservoir. Before mains electricity arrived in the 1960s this was the area's only source of power.

About 0.75 mi from the dam is the reservoir's straining tower. Standing only 98 ft from the shore, its purpose is to filter or strain out material in the water with a fine metal mesh, before the water flows along the aqueduct to Liverpool. Its architecture represents Gothic revival, built at the same time as the dam. The tower as a whole is 154 ft tall, 104 ft of which is above top water level, and is topped with a pointed copper-clad roof, coloured light green.

The west and east towers release compensation water into the River Vyrnwy through huge valves; the river would dry up unless a minimum flow was maintained. Depending on the levels downstream, the reservoir can release from 25 to 45 Ml of compensation water daily. The flow is measured by Natural Resources Wales at a weir a few hundred metres downstream.

19th century
The water from Lake Vyrnwy is carried 68 mi in the Vyrnwy Large Diameter Trunk Main (LDTM) aqueduct which originally consisted of two pipelines, made largely of cast iron. To help maintenance work on the 9 ft diameter cast-iron tunnel which took the aqueduct under the Mersey, riveted steel piping was also used, which was to become the norm for trunk water-main piping.

The aqueducts cross the valley floor near Penybontfawr and then runs north of Llanrhaeadr-ym-Mochnant and Efail-rhyd on the north-east of the Tanat Valley. The aqueducts are largely underground although there are some visible surface features including air valves, the Cileos valve house, the Parc-uchaf balancing reservoirs, and a deep cutting to the west of Llanrhaeadr-ym-Mochnant.

Brick and concrete-lined tunnels carried pipes at Hirnant, Cynynion and Llanforda, and a fourth was later added at Aber, so that the Hirnant tunnel could be made accessible for maintenance.

20th century
From 1926 to 1938 the first section of a third pipeline was laid using bituminous-coated steel. in 1946, a fourth pipeline was added south of Oswestry to increase capacity to 227 million litres per day.

In 1978–81, the pipe crossings beneath the Mersey and the Manchester Ship Canal were reorganised. After privatisation of the water companies, responsibility for the Vyrnwy Dam and associated structures fell to Severn Trent Water, and since 2018 to its subsidiary company Hafren Dyfrdwy. The rights to the water abstraction are with United Utilities for drinking water supply to Liverpool.

21st century
In 2013, United Utilities commenced a major refurbishment of the entire 240 km of the LDTM aqueduct, which was scheduled for completion in 2020. As of 2014 water provision relied on three parallel, 80 km long gravity pipelines, 42 in in diameter delivering up to 50 e6impgal per day into reservoirs at Prescot, east of Liverpool, which supplied customers in Cheshire and Merseyside.

Nature reserve and conservation
Lake Vyrnwy is a designated Nature Reserve. The RSPB has several bird hides around the lake, where a number of rare species of birds are known to be breeding, including the peregrine falcon, the pied flycatcher, the common redstart, the Eurasian siskin and the wood warbler. Every spring they host a dawn chorus tour.

Around 90 species of bird have been recorded as breeding on the reserve, and six species of bat, including the pipistrelle and brown long-eared bat. Butterfly species include purple hairstreaks, commas and peacocks. Dragonflies include golden ringed, common hawker and four spotted chaser.

Managing the moorland helps improve the habitat for red grouse and the short-eared owl. Heather moorland which grows on the mountains around the lake is now being restored. In the past, heather was burnt, cut and the seeds collected to be sowed where the heather has gone. Burning at the Lake Vyrnwy moorland is no longer carried out, as the burning can have negative consequences for water management, namely water colouration.

Sheep, cattle and ponies also graze on the heather, managed by tenant farmers who farm the moorland in accordance with organic agriculture.

Broadleaf trees are being planted to replace coniferous trees, and man-made features such as hedgerows and dry-stone walls are also being restored, and wildflower areas are being restored to help insects, birds and other wildlife.

Wood sculpture
Llanwddyn has had since 1995 a sculpture park in the valley below the dam, containing many wooden carved works. There are large wooden picnic benches in the shape of leaves and trees on the west side of the lake at Llechwedd Ddu. Near the old village on the beach is a sculpture of dolphins which, when the lake rises in a flood, appear to be jumping out of the water. Several totems are carved into standing trees and re-erected fallen trunks.

Recreation
Activities in the area include sailing, hiking on Glyndŵr's Way, rock climbing, cycling, walking and horse riding. The Lake Vyrnwy Half Marathon is conducted annually. The RSPB have laid out seven waymarked trails ranging from 1 to 5.5 mi in a range of habitats.

Tallest tree
The site was once home to the tallest tree in the UK, a Douglas Fir 63.79 m high. This was damaged in stormy weather during the winter of 2010-2011 and had to be felled at 124 years old in March 2011. A 15.2 m stump was left intact, which in autumn 2011 had its top carved into a 2 m tall giant outstretched hand. A nearby Douglas Fir is now, at 60.62 m, the tallest tree in Wales.

title: Lake Vyrnwy


text: Category:18th century

title: Category:18th century


text:
Faroese Communist Party

The Faroese Communist Party (Kommunistiski flokkur Føroya) was founded at a conference in Tórshavn 14th-15 June 1975. In 1974 a communist group had started organizing in the Faroe Islands which preceded the foundation conference. The chairman of KFF used to be Egon Thomsen and the party secretary Tórður Jóansson. Between 1975 and 1978 the publication of the KFF was Tíðin, from 1983 to 1993 the publication was Fríu Føroyar. The KFF enjoyed relations with the Communist Party of Denmark (DKP), but was not a section of the party. The party ceased activity in 1993.

title: Faroese Communist Party


text:
Talk:Grarrl

I replaced the original description (which was certainly clever) with information that is less subjective. Aranel 23:53, 7 Aug 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Grarrl


text:
Mace

Mace may refer to:

Spices

 * Mace (spice), a spice derived from the aril of nutmeg
 * Achillea ageratum, known as English mace, a flowering plant once used as a herb

Weapons

 * Mace (bludgeon), a weapon with a heavy head on a solid shaft used to bludgeon opponents
 * Flail (weapon), a spiked weapon on a chain, sometimes called a chain mace or mace-and-chain
 * Ceremonial mace, an ornamented mace used in civic ceremonies
 * Gada (mace), the blunt mace or club from India
 * Kaumodaki, the gada (mace) of the Hindu god Vishnu
 * Mace (spray), a brand of tear gas, often used by police
 * MGM-13 Mace, a U.S. tactical surface-to-surface missile
 * Multi-mission Affordable Capacity Effector, a U.S. air-launched cruise missile

Science and technology

 * Major adverse cardiovascular events, a criterion for evaluating cardiovascular disease treatments such as angioplasty
 * Malone antegrade continence enema, a surgical procedure used to create a continent pathway proximal to the anus
 * Major Atmospheric Cerenkov Experiment Telescope, a telescope being built by ECIL to be placed at Hanle
 * Models And Counter-Examples, a computer software for model generation
 * Metal assisted chemical etching
 * Multi Atomic Cluster Expansion, a machine learning architecture for a chemical force field

Arts and entertainment

 * Mace (G.I. Joe), a fictional character in the G.I. Joe universe
 * Sgt. Colt "Mace" Howards, a fictional character in the 1988 animated TV series COPS
 * Mace, a fictional character in the 1995 film Strange Days
 * Mace, a fictional character in the 2007 film Sunshine
 * M.A.C.E. Music, an American record label
 * Mace: The Dark Age, a 1997 video game
 * Mace Windu, a fictional character in the Star Wars universe
 * Mace Tyrell, a fictional character in the A Song of Ice and Fire book series and its TV adaption Game of Thrones

Businesses and organizations

 * Mace (construction company), an international consultancy and construction company
 * Mace (retailer), a convenience store chain in the United Kingdom and Ireland
 * Mace Security International, a manufacturer of personal defense products, e.g. Mace pepper spray
 * Mar Athanasius College of Engineering, an Indian engineering college
 * Media Archive for Central England, a public sector regional film archive that collects, preserves and provides access to moving image material
 * Metropolitan Architectural Consortium for Education

People

 * Mace (surname), a list of people
 * Mace (crossword compiler), a pseudonym of crossword compiler Margaret Irvine (1948–2023)
 * Mace (wrestler) (Dio Maddin; born 1991), American professional wrestler
 * Mace Brown (1909–2002), American baseball player
 * Mace Coronel (born 2004), American actor
 * Mace Francis (born 1978), Australian composer and academic
 * Mace Matiosian, American sound editor
 * Mace Neufeld (1928–2022), American film producer

Places

 * Macé, Normandy, France
 * Mače, Croatia
 * Mače, Slovenia
 * Mace, Indiana, U.S.
 * Hill 262 in Normandy, France, known as the "Mace" in World War II

Other uses

 * Mace (unit), an English term for a traditional Chinese measurement of weight
 * Mace debating, a particular style of debating
 * Member of the Australian College of Educators

title: Mace