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Scleractinia

Scleractinia, also called stony corals or hard corals, are marine animals in the phylum Cnidaria that build themselves a hard skeleton. The individual animals are known as polyps and have a cylindrical body crowned by an oral disc in which a mouth is fringed with tentacles. Although some species are solitary, most are colonial. The founding polyp settles and starts to secrete calcium carbonate to protect its soft body. Solitary corals can be as much as 25 cm across but in colonial species the polyps are usually only a few millimetres in diameter. These polyps reproduce asexually by budding, but remain attached to each other, forming a multi-polyp colony of clones with a common skeleton, which may be up to several metres in diameter or height according to species.

The shape and appearance of each coral colony depends not only on the species, but also on its location, depth, the amount of water movement and other factors. Many shallow-water corals contain symbiont unicellular organisms known as zooxanthellae within their tissues. These give their colour to the coral which thus may vary in hue depending on what species of symbiont it contains. Stony corals are closely related to sea anemones, and like them are armed with stinging cells known as cnidocytes. Corals reproduce both sexually and asexually. Most species release gametes into the sea where fertilisation takes place, and the planula larvae drift as part of the plankton, but a few species brood their eggs. Asexual reproduction is mostly by fragmentation, when part of a colony becomes detached and reattaches elsewhere.

Stony corals occur in all the world's oceans. Much of the framework of modern coral reefs is formed by scleractinians. Reef-building or hermatypic corals are mostly colonial; most of these are zooxanthellate and are found in the shallow waters into which sunlight penetrates. Other corals that do not form reefs may be solitary or colonial; some of these occur at abyssal depths where no light reaches.

Stony corals first appeared in the Middle Triassic, but their relationship to the tabulate and rugose corals of the Paleozoic is currently unresolved. In modern times stony corals numbers are expected to decline due to the effects of global warming and ocean acidification.

Anatomy
Scleractinian corals may be solitary or colonial. Colonies can reach considerable size, consisting of a large number of individual polyps.

Soft parts
Stony corals are members of the class Anthozoa and like other members of the group, do not have a medusa stage in their life cycle. The individual animals are known as polyps and have a cylindrical body crowned by an oral disc surrounded by a ring of tentacles. The base of the polyp secretes the stony material from which the coral skeleton is formed. The body wall of the polyp consists of mesoglea sandwiched between two layers of epidermis. The mouth is at the centre of the oral disc and leads into a tubular pharynx which descends for some distance into the body before opening into the gastrovascular cavity that fills the interior of the body and tentacles. Unlike other cnidarians however, the cavity is subdivided by a number of radiating partitions, thin sheets of living tissue, known as mesenteries. The gonads are also located within the cavity walls. The polyp is retractable into the corallite, the stony cup in which it sits, being pulled back by sheet-like retractor muscles.

The polyps are connected by horizontal sheets of tissue known as coenosarc extending over the outer surface of the skeleton and completely covering it. These sheets are continuous with the body wall of the polyps, and include extensions of the gastrovascular cavity, so that food and water can circulate between all the different members of the colony. In colonial species, the repeated asexual division of the polyps causes the corallites to be interconnected, thus forming the colonies. Also, cases exist in which the adjacent colonies of the same species form a single colony by fusing. Most colonial species have very small polyps, ranging from 1 to 3 mm in diameter, although some solitary species may be as large as 25 cm.

Skeleton
The skeleton of an individual scleractinian polyp is known as a corallite. It is secreted by the epidermis of the lower part of the body, and initially forms a cup surrounding this part of the polyp. The interior of the cup contains radially aligned plates, or septa, projecting upwards from the base. Each of these plates is flanked by a pair of mesenteries.

The septa are secreted by the mesenteries, and are therefore added in the same order as the mesenteries are. As a result, septa of different ages are adjacent to one another, and the symmetry of the scleractinian skeleton is radial or biradial. This pattern of septal insertion is termed "cyclic" by paleontologists. By contrast, in some fossil corals, adjacent septa lie in order of increasing age, a pattern termed serial and produces a bilateral symmetry. Scleractinians secrete a stony exoskeleton in which the septa are inserted between the mesenteries in multiples of six.

All modern scleractinian skeletons are composed of calcium carbonate in the form of crystals of aragonite, however, a prehistoric scleractinian (Coelosimilia) had a non-aragonite skeletal structure which was composed of calcite. The structure of both simple and compound scleractinians is light and porous, rather than solid as is the case in the prehistoric order Rugosa. Scleractinians are also distinguished from rugosans by their pattern of septal insertion.

Growth
In colonial corals, growth results from the budding of new polyps. There are two types of budding, intratentacular and extratentacular. In intratentacular budding, a new polyp develops on the oral disc, inside the ring of tentacles. This can form individual, separate polyps or a row of partially separated polyps sharing an elongate oral disc with a series of mouths. Tentacles grow around the margin of this elongated oral disc and not around the individual mouths. This is surrounded by a single corallite wall, as is the case in the meandroid corallites of brain corals.

Extratentacular budding always results in separate polyps, each with its own corallite wall. In the case of bushy corals such as Acropora, lateral budding from axial polyps form the basis of the trunk and branches. The rate at which a stony coral colony lays down calcium carbonate depends on the species, but some of the branching species can increase in height or length by around 10 cm a year (about the same rate as human hair grows). Other corals, like the dome and plate species, are more bulky and may only grow 0.3 to 2 cm per year. The rate of aragonite deposition varies diurnally and seasonally. Examination of cross sections of coral can show bands of deposition indicating annual growth. Like tree rings, these can be used to estimate the age of the coral.

Solitary corals do not bud. They gradually increase in size as they deposit more calcium carbonate and produce new whorls of septa. A large Ctenactis echinata for example normally has a single mouth, may be about 25 cm long and have more than a thousand septa.

Distribution
Stony corals occur in all the world's oceans. There are two main ecological groups. Hermatypic corals are mostly colonial corals which tend to live in clear, oligotrophic, shallow tropical waters; they are the world's primary reef-builders. Ahermatypic corals are either colonial or solitary and are found in all regions of the ocean and do not build reefs. Some live in tropical waters but some inhabit temperate seas, polar waters, or live at great depths, from the photic zone down to about 6000 m.

Ecology
Scleractinians fall into one of two main categories:
 * Reef-forming or hermatypic corals, which mostly contain zooxanthellae;
 * Non-reef-forming or ahermatypic corals, which mostly do not contain zooxanthellae

In reef-forming corals, the endodermal cells are usually replete with symbiotic unicellular dinoflagellates known as zooxanthellae. There are sometimes as many as five million cells of these per 1 cm2 of coral tissue. Up to 50% of organic compounds produced by symbionts are used as food by polyps. The oxygen byproduct of photosynthesis and the additional energy derived from sugars produced by zooxanthellae enable these corals to grow at a rate up to three times faster than similar species without symbionts. These corals typically grow in shallow, well-lit, warm water with moderate to brisk turbulence and abundant oxygen, and prefer firm, non-muddy surfaces on which to settle.

Most stony corals extend their tentacles to feed on zooplankton, but those with larger polyps take correspondingly larger prey, including various invertebrates and even small fish. In addition to capturing prey in this way, many stony corals also produce mucus films they can move over their bodies using cilia; these trap small organic particles which are then pulled towards and into the mouth. In a few stony corals, this is the primary method of feeding, and the tentacles are reduced or absent, an example being Acropora acuminata. Caribbean stony corals are generally nocturnal, with the polyps retracting into their skeletons during the day, thus maximising the exposure of the zooxanthellae to the light, but in the Indo-Pacific region, many species feed by day and night.

Non-zooxanthellate corals are usually not reef-formers; they can be found most abundantly beneath about 500 m of water. They thrive at much colder temperatures and can live in total darkness, deriving their energy from the capture of plankton and suspended organic particles. The growth rates of most species of non-zooxanthellate corals are significantly slower than those of their counterparts, and the typical structure for these corals is less calcified and more susceptible to mechanical damage than that of zooxanthellate corals.

Scleratinians were previously believed to be obligatory hosts of another group of barnacles, the pyrgomatids, but a recent study recorded evidence of living pyrgomatids in stylasterids, casting doubt on this idea.

Life cycle

Stony corals have a great range of reproductive strategies and can reproduce both sexually and asexually. Many species have separate sexes, the whole colony being either male or female, but others are hermaphroditic, with individual polyps having both male and female gonads. Some species brood their eggs but in most species, sexual reproduction results in the production of a free-swimming planula larva that eventually settles on the seabed to undergo metamorphosis into a polyp. In colonial species, this initial polyp then repeatedly divides asexually, to give rise to the entire colony.

Asexual reproduction
The most common means of asexual reproduction in colonial stony corals is by fragmentation. Pieces of branching corals may get detached during storms, by strong water movement or by mechanical means, and fragments fall to the sea bed. In suitable conditions, these are capable of adhering to the substrate and starting new colonies. Even such massive corals as Montastraea annularis have been shown to be capable of forming new colonies after fragmentation. This process is used in the reef aquarium hobby to increase stock without the necessity to harvest corals from the wild.

Under adverse conditions, certain species of coral resort to another type of asexual reproduction in the form of "polyp bail-out", which may allow polyps to survive even though the parent colony dies. It involves the growth of the coenosarc to seal off the polyps, detachment of the polyps and their settlement on the seabed to initiate new colonies. In other species, small balls of tissue detach themselves from the coenosarc, differentiate into polyps and start secreting calcium carbonate to form new colonies, and in Pocillopora damicornis, unfertilised eggs can develop into viable larvae.

Sexual reproduction
The overwhelming majority of scleractinian taxa are hermaphroditic in their adult colonies. In temperate regions, the usual pattern is synchronized release of eggs and sperm into the water during brief spawning events, often related to the phases of the moon. In tropical regions, reproduction may occur throughout the year. In many cases, as in the genus Acropora, the eggs and sperm are released in buoyant bundles which rise to the surface. This increases the concentration of sperm and eggs and thus the likelihood of fertilization, and reduces the risk of self-fertilization. Immediately after spawning, the eggs are delayed in their capability for fertilization until after the release of polar bodies. This delay, and possibly some degree of self-incompatibility, likely increases the chance of cross-fertilization. A study of four species of Scleractinia found that cross-fertilization was actually the dominant mating pattern, although three of the species were also capable of self-fertilization to varying extents.

Evolutionary history
There is little evidence on which to base a hypothesis about the origin of the scleractinians; plenty is known about modern species but very little about fossil specimens, which first appeared in the record in the Middle Triassic. It was not until 25 million years later that they became important reef builders, their success likely a result of teaming up with symbiotic algae. Nine of the sub-orders were in existence by the end of the Triassic and three more had appeared by the Jurassic (200 million years ago), with a further suborder appearing in the Middle Cretaceous (100 million years ago). Some may have developed from a common ancestor, either an anemone-like coral without a skeleton, or a rugose coral. A rugose coral seems an unlikely common ancestor because these corals had calcite rather than aragonite skeletons, and the septa were arranged serially rather than cyclically. However, it may be that similarities of scleractinians to rugosans are due to a common non-skeletalized ancestor in the early Paleozoic. Alternatively, scleractinians may have developed from a Corallimorpharia-like ancestor. It seems that skeletogenesis may have been associated with the development of symbiosis and reef formation, and may have occurred on more than one occasion. DNA sequencing appears to indicate that scleractinian corals are a monophyletic group.

The earliest scleractinians were not reef builders, but were small, phaceloid or solitary individuals. Scleractinian corals were probably at their greatest diversity in the Jurassic and all but disappeared in the mass extinction event at the end of the Cretaceous, about 18 out of 67 genera surviving. Recently discovered Paleozoic corals with aragonitic skeletons and cyclic septal insertion – two features that characterize Scleractinia – have strengthened the hypothesis for an independent origin of the Scleractinia. Whether the early scleractinian corals were zooxanthellate is an open question. The phenomenon seems to have evolved independently on numerous occasions during the Tertiary, and the genera Astrangia, Madracis, Cladocora and Oculina, all in different families, each have both zooxanthellate and non-zooxanthellate members.

The fact that zooxanthellate coral make up only about half of the order is unusual, as symbiosis is almost always an all-or-nothing phenomenon. This symbiotic equilibrium suggests that there must be evolutionary processes simultaneously maintaining and limiting symbiotic relationships. This is likely because despite the energetic benefits it provides, photosymbiosis appears to be an evolutionary disadvantage during mass extinctions. Traits that generally enable corals to survive mass extinction include deep-water or large habitat range, non-symbiotic, solitary or small colonies, and bleaching resistance, all of which tend to characterize azooxanthellate (non-symbiotic) corals. Endosymbionts, on the other hand, which rely on specialized conditions and access to light to survive, are especially vulnerable to prolonged darkness, temperature change, and eutrophication, all of which have been hallmarks of past mass extinctions. This makes zooxanthellate coral especially vulnerable to unstable conditions. Therefore, it is possible that coral and zooxanthellate coevolved loosely, with the relationship dissolving when advantages decreased, then reforming when conditions stabilized.

Classification
The taxonomy of Scleractinia is particularly challenging. Many species were described before the advent of scuba diving, with little realisation by the authors that coral species could have varying morphologies in different habitats. Collectors were mostly limited to observing corals on reef flats, and were unable to observe the changes in morphology that occurred in more turbid, deeper-water conditions. More than 2,000 nominal species were described in this era, and by the rules of nomenclature, the name given to the first described species has precedence over the rest, even when that description is poor, and the environment and even sometimes the country of the type specimen is unknown.

Even the concept of "the species" is suspect, with regard to corals which have large geographical ranges with a number of sub-populations; their geographic boundaries merge with those of other species; their morphological boundaries merge with those of other species; and there are no definite distinctions between species and subspecies.

The evolutionary relationships among stony corals were first examined in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The two most advanced 19th century classifications both used complex skeletal characters; The 1857 classification of the French zoologists Henri Milne-Edwards and Jules Haime's was based on macroscopic skeletal characters, while Francis Grant Ogilvie's 1897 scheme was developed using observations of skeletal microstructures, with particular attention to the structure and pattern of the septal trabeculae. In 1943, the American zoologists Thomas Wayland Vaughan and John West Wells, and Wells again in 1956, used the patterns of the septal trabeculae to divide the group into five suborders. In addition, they considered polypoid features such as the growth of the tentacles. They also distinguished families by wall type and type of budding.

The 1952 classification by French zoologist J. Alloiteau was built on these earlier systems but included more microstructural observations and did not involve the anatomical characters of the polyp. Alloiteau recognized eight suborders. In 1942, W.H. Bryan and D. Hill stressed the importance of microstructural observations by proposing that stony corals begin skeletal growth by configuring calcification centers, which are genetically derived. Therefore, diverse patterns of calcification centers are vital to classification. Alloiteau later showed that established morphological classifications were unbalanced and that there were many examples of convergent evolution between fossils and recent taxa.

The rise of molecular techniques at the end of the 20th century prompted new evolutionary hypotheses that were different from ones founded on skeletal data. Results of molecular studies explained a variety of aspects of the evolutionary biology of the Scleractinia, including connections between and within extant taxa, and supplied support for hypotheses about extant corals that are founded on the fossil record. The 1996 analysis of mitochondrial RNA undertaken by American zoologists Sandra Romano and Stephen Palumbi found that molecular data supported the assembling of species into the existing families, but not into the traditional suborders. For example, some genera affiliated with different suborders were now located on the same branch of a phylogenetic tree. In addition, there is no distinguishing morphological character that separates clades, only molecular differences.

The Australian zoologist John Veron and his co-workers analyzed ribosomal RNA in 1996 to obtain similar results to Romano and Palumbi, again concluding that the traditional families were plausible but that the suborders were incorrect. They also established that stony corals are monophyletic, including all the descendants of a common ancestor, but that they are divided into two groups, the robust and complex clades. Veron suggested that both morphological and molecular systems be used in future classification schemes.

Conservation
All Scleractinian corals (excluding fossils) are listed under Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) meaning that their international trade (including in parts and derivatives) is regulated.

Families
The World Register of Marine Species lists the following families as being included in the order Scleractinia. Some species have not been placeable (Incertae sedis):

 * Acroporidae
 * Agariciidae
 * †Agathiphylliidae
 * Anthemiphylliidae
 * Astrocoeniidae
 * Caryophylliidae
 * Coscinaraeidae
 * Deltocyathidae
 * Dendrophylliidae
 * Diploastreidae
 * Euphylliidae
 * Flabellidae
 * Fungiacyathidae
 * Fungiidae
 * Gardineriidae
 * Guyniidae
 * Lobophylliidae
 * Meandrinidae
 * Merulinidae
 * Micrabaciidae
 * Montastraeidae
 * Mussidae
 * Oculinidae
 * †Oulastreidae
 * Plesiastreidae
 * Pocilloporidae
 * Poritidae
 * Psammocoridae
 * Rhizangiidae
 * Schizocyathidae
 * Siderastreidae
 * Stenocyathidae
 * †Stylinidae
 * Turbinoliidae

 * Mussidae accepted as Faviidae

title: Scleractinia


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 * Albert of Mainz (1490–1545), Elector and Archbishop of Mainz (1514–1545) and of Magdeburg (1513–1545)
 * Albert of Prussia (1490–1568), Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights

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title: Albrecht of Brandenburg


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User talk:Tabitcorne2

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Talk:Christian theological controversy

Discernment
I think this article is not really about Christian theological controversy in the general sense, but really about what it calls "discernmentalists". How can it focus on today's disputes about charismatic gifts when there are issues like the role of women in ministry, of gays in ministry and in the church at large, and even the virginity of Mary and the real resurrection of Jesus Christ still being disputed?

It also labels some positions in the list as "key RCC doctrines" when in some cases they are caricatures of doctrines, in others they are not full doctrines at all but merely commonly held beliefs among laymen. It also ignores the Eastern Orthodox Church, or the fact that the RCC and EOC were the same church for the first 1,000 years when many of these "doctrines" were promulgated.

The only question I have is whether to submit this to Votes for Deletion, or move it to discernmentalism or discernment ministries, where the idiosyncratic views of these "discernmentalists" can be properly labeled as such. Wesley 16:30, 16 Aug 2004 (UTC)

I removed some of the heavier POV information about Discernmentalists. I think that there is still a problem in how they are portrayed but it's better than it was before (previously it was basically calling them errant Christians and belittling their beliefs and arguments). Patrick Swanson 13:03 2005/02/06

This article does need more work, but it has the potential to become a useful page. I sorted the lists of pre and post-reformation controversies for ease of reading (they were in no particular order as far as I could tell). TrickyApron 19:02, 12 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Refer not to "time of Jesus Christ" but to "Time of Jesus" or something.

Proposed tasks for achieving NPOV and improving the article in general
It is my belief that this article is getting closer to NPOV. However, the article still needs improvement. Here are some ideas:

 * Expanding the intro paragraph, and rewriting it to include a link to Christian theology in the first sentence.
 * Cutting down, rewriting, or removing the paragraphs in the "Background" section that deal with translational difficulties. Many of the disputes listed in the article (especially the early heresies) have nothing to do with the difficulties inherent in translation.
 * Making sure that the treatment of Discernmentalism is NPOV.
 * Tightening the discussion of modern disputes. In particular, the description of the dispute over sexual orientation appears to create a balance between the two sides of the issue, but (IMO) actually goes farther in describing the negative effects of opposition to gay rights than it goes in describing those of support for gay rights.
 * Considering renaming the page. I think that something like Controversy in Christian theology would be better title for this article, in part because it would sound better, but primarily because I think that it would fit current unofficial naming conventions better. At present, it seems to me that the article on "Christian foo" describes either the view of foo in the Christian religion (such as Christian love) or the way individual Christians have treated foo (such as Christian art). However, "theological controversy" is not an element of the Christian religion in the way that something like love is (in fact, it describes arguments over treatments of such elements), and, unlike art, is not the sort of thing that involves individual Christians. I realize that my reasoning could be tighter, but I think there's something to what I'm saying here. NatusRoma 30 June 2005 06:28 (UTC)

Dear Sir the people or person who wrote the article are not only ignorant of facts but not well read of church history. Yes the RCC and the EOC churches were one and then in 1054 AD the Roman Catholic Church went its own way and started to teach heretical doctrines and then it spawned its heretical daughters the Protestant reformation if any one take time to study church history, the Eastern Orthodox church teach the same and is one in the same as the early Church. This is confirmed by church history, the Bible and oral and apostolic tradition. It is the ones who are in a lie, the Protestants who have the gaul to point fingers at the Eastern Orthodox and call us heretics. User:JOSEPHGODLESKI

 * I just retyped it and removed the uppercase lettering. Given the typing of the user's name I suspect rather than being rude, he has a penchant for typing in caps.  Storm Rider (talk) 22:38, 23 June 2006 (UTC)

 * I have much respect for Eastern Orthodoxy despite being a heretic in your eyes. (I'm Catholic) However typing in all caps is deemed "shouting." It's rude and childish. I'll look through the article and see if I can manage any changes. T. Anthony

The person who left this message in caps should please consider removing it from this page as it is only an imflammatory response. I am an Eastern Orthodox Theologian and I have not seen the level of prejudice that you seem to see. If there is some area that should be addressed or changed please note it in a professional way. This is an encyclopedia not a forum for debate. JWPhil

Some editing
I'm not entirely sure how to make it all work. However some of the statements on Christian Science and Mormonism struck me as basically just insults so I changed them a bit. Also Scientism does not link to Christian Science as far as I know so I took that out. Scientism I believe is more like a religion of science or science becoming like a religion or life-philosophy to a person. Correct?

I'm worried about putting a link to the Gospel of Luke on the Purgatory portion. In fact I think I might delete that. Oddly the Catholic Encyclopedia doesn't mention the relevance, but the Douay-Rheims Catholic Bible clearly does. It highlights

''And when thou goest with thy adversary to the prince, whilst thou art in the way, endeavour to be delivered from him: lest perhaps he draw thee to the judge, and the judge deliver thee to the exacter, and the exacter cast thee into prison. I say to thee, thou shalt not'' go out thence, until thou pay the very last mite.

Which Catholics could interpret as a reference to a place where you are imprisoned until you pay "the very last mite." Sorry for any offense, but I'm mentioning it here as a prelude to deleting the link in the article.

I have concern over the general statement in this paragraph of the article: "Most present day controversy revolves around the Pentecostal/Charismatic movements, largely a product of the 20th century. Conservative Evangelical/Reformed theology typically teaches that the charismata, or "sign gifts" of the Holy Spirit, were only given to the early church, and died out permanently after that." First, it is doubtful that the charismata are the key controversy. More important and prevasive controversies include: 1. How to read the Bible and history. 2. How does the church relate to the world, particular world philosophy, politics, ideology, social thought, and ethics. When presented in this manner, they are not limited to a small segment of the world's Christian population. For example, in the two-thirds world, and first world centres in the southern hemisphere, Pentecostal Christian religion is huge. The controversy for us regarding them is how they relate to the larger Christian community. Their own controversies are about leadership and politics. Second, Evangelicals don't typically teach cessationalism, though some Reformed groups do. The charismata are now and important part of the evangelical experience. What is controversial is the recent introduction of these experiences in the last decade or so into mainstream, conservative churches due to influence from Third Wave charismatics.

Just some clarfifications. --Brenton Dickieson 10:53, 13 March 2006 (UTC)

I tend to agree with Brenton, there are more pressing issues of controversy than chrismata. This is certainly one area but it should not dominate the section. JWPhil

Discernment Ministries redirect
Discernment Ministries redirects here, though the intro sentence of Christian countercult movement mentions "discernment ministries" as an alternate term for that movement. Should that redirect be moved? CDC (talk) 22:43, 5 January 2006 (UTC)

 * It certainly sounds like it should. Wesley 14:25, 14 February 2006 (UTC)

Self-identification
Sometimes it is not possible to describe organisations only by how they describe themselves. For example someone just change the entry for LDS to "Believes in the restoration of the original church organization instituted by Christ.". This is not a good description for two reasons. 1) LDS beliefs encompass a huge amount more than that. Since this is about Christian controversies we should describe (in overview) how LDS differs from other Christians, which includes the Trinity, baptism of the dead, non-deity of Christ, polygamy etc. 2) The description I just quoted above describes a huge number of churches, none of them LDS (and with many different ideas of what constitutes the 'original organisation'.) The previous description was better than this, and I'm going to revert. DJ Clayworth 21:03, 11 April 2006 (UTC)

 * I might be wrong but perhaps we should keep the article to those issues affecting the orthodox Christian community. By this I mean those branches of Christianity that hold to the Nicene Creed, this being the one touch stone that we all hold in common and is effectively beyond controversy. As such faiths as Mormons, Jehovah's Witnesses etc do not hold to this aggreement it might be better to include them in another article. This is my thinking.

JWPhil

 * DJ and JW, the title of the article is Christian theological controversy and not Orthodox Christian theological controversy. I would recommend changing the name.  Also, you might consider using the term Historical Christianity.  I would tread lightly in describing 1st century Christianity by anything but what is in the Bible.  The baptism of the dead and polygamy were common during the time of Christ and even prior in regards to polygamy.  The concept of the Trinity is a 4th century concept and has nothing to do with any proclamtion from the mouth of Jesus Christ.  I think you see the sticky wicket you might be opening; Orthodoxy to whom?  To the Chuch instituted by Christ or by Catholicism several hundred years latter?  On WIKI we do not attempt to define who is right, but we report facts.  DJ has been on a bit of a tear lately regarding Mormonism; it may be time to let it rest.  However, if you insist on going down this path, let us be extra careful to keep personal beliefs out of it and stick to facts known, and facts supported by theologians of respective groups; regardless all Christians will be at the table and not just the ones who congregate at the same table.  JW, as a theologian, and I suspect a disciple of Jesus Christ, I would ask you further to not attempt to define who are the sheep that reponsds to the Master's voice.  None of us are capable of that, rather let His peace reside.  Storm Rider (talk) 22:50, 23 June 2006 (UTC)

I think you incorrectly interpret my meaning. It is common and accepted among scholars and theologian to draw the sharp distinction at the Nicene Creed. This is perhaps the last point of complete agreement historically, I cannot see how that is open to arguement. As there was no set canon of scripture during the first 3 centuries it is difficult to use the Bible as criteria. Also you are incorrect in your statement that the doctrine of the trinity was a 4th century concept. It was clearly written of by Tertullian (c.212), Irenaeus (c.180) as well as Origen, Cyprian, Athenagoras etc. But I am not trying to insinuate that the LDS doctrines should not be represented, I am suggesting that they could be noted somewhere else. The suggestion of name change is very likely a good solution. JWPhil

 * It all depends on the theologian and the belief system. I am also familiar with the development of canon in the early historical Christian church and that it is as debatable today as it was then if it supports the doctrine of the Trinity.  Further, I am familiar with the cited writings; however, I would submit that there was no thing such as "orthodoxy" at this point in history.  There was a chorus of voices taking many different positions as I am sure you are aware.  I would strongly recommend a change of title for the article becuase I really think the purpose of this article should be focused on the Historical churches controversies.
 * Also, you might want to start a home page for yourself. Some use it as a place to introduce themselves albeit some pages are quite opaque.  There are a lot of articles where you could contribute.  I hope to see you around.  Storm Rider (talk) 00:57, 24 June 2006 (UTC)

Just stumbled onto this article. It seems that it needs a lot of work. Just as examples, there is no mention of Nestorianism, existentialist theologians, neo-liberals, post Vatican II catholic theologians, the inerrancy debate, postmodern theology, as well as several other major issues. The section on modern issues places way too much emphasis on the "discernmentalists" and their issues (some "discernmentalists" are themselves charismatic and criticize smaller divisions within the movement -- the article seems to ignore this) and ignore some very important issues such as the theology of hope, liberation theology, theonomy, the new perspective on Paul, postmodern theology, etc. etc. etc. To try to say this politely, this section especially needs a lot of work.--Loudguy 21:28, 29 July 2006 (UTC)

Merge with theology
I think this article should be merged into Christian theology. Doesn't seem to have enough substance to stand alone. PhatJew 11:03, 14 February 2006 (UTC)

I believe the article has some merit or at least the topic does, but it would benefit from some kind of coherent structure. Right now it reads like a list of beliefs, doctrines and heresies all jumbled together. The heresies should be taken out or moved to the heresy article if they are not already there and only the controversial doctrines should remain with a brief history and explanation of each. Also placing the arcticle in its proper chronological structure would be useful. JWPhil

 * Perhaps it should be converted to "List of Christian theological controversies" and the information not suitable to list be merged. I think the list itself is useful.  Goldfritha 00:09, 31 July 2006 (UTC)

 * I think this article should merge with the article on Christian theology because all Christian theology has been hammered out in the heat of controversy. Furthermore, the "Present Day Distinctions" section fails to meet any standard of scholarliness for the reasons Loudguy and others who have written above mention and several more.  I hope this does not sound too condescending, but it sounds like it was written by someone who has done all of his or her reading on the internet.  The term "discernmentalist" is not in popular use and thus represents a pejorative term that violates NPOV.  There are other points I could elaborate on.  I strongly believe this section should be scrapped and remade when the two articles merge.--Will3935 23:21, 30 July 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Christian theological controversy


text: User talk:64.216.47.167

title: User talk:64.216.47.167


text:
User:Pontac

Wine lover, writer and traveller living in England.

title: User:Pontac


text: File:HMS Conqueror (S48).jpg

title: File:HMS Conqueror (S48).jpg


text:
Hayato

Hayato may refer to:

 * Hayato (given name), a masculine Japanese given name
 * Hayato, Kagoshima, a town located in Aira District, Kagoshima, Japan
 * Hayato people (隼人), peoples of ancient Japan
 * Hayato (satellite), a Japanese CubeSat

title: Hayato


text: Category:Geography of Switzerland

title: Category:Geography of Switzerland


text:
Category:Corbetts

A Corbett is a hill in Scotland between 2500 and 3000 feet (762–914.4 m) with a relative height of at least 150 m. There are 219 Corbetts.

title: Category:Corbetts


text:
User talk:ThierryVignaud

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Breton possessive pronouns
The problem is, "very close" isn't the same thing as homophonous. Unless e, he, and o are pronounced identically in Breton, then I can't say that the third person possessive pronouns are homophonous in all languages. --Angr/undefined 29 June 2005 21:03 (UTC)

 * Why not rephrase it as "In all languages, the 3rd person possessive pronouns for 'his', 'her', and 'their' are homophonous or very close and so are mostly distinguished from each other on the basis of which mutation they trigger" then? ThierryVignaud 29 June 2005 21:07 (UTC)

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Unreferenced BLPs
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Lars Levi Laestadius

Lars Levi Laestadius (10 January 1800 – 21 February 1861) was a Swedish Sami writer, ecologist, mythologist, and ethnographer as well as a pastor and administrator of the Swedish state Lutheran church in Lapland who founded the Laestadian pietist revival movement to help his largely Sami congregations, who were being ravaged by alcoholism. Laestadius himself became a teetotaller (except for his ongoing use of wine in holy Communion) in the 1840s, when he began successfully talking his Sami parishioners out of alcoholism. Laestadius was also a noted botanist and an author.

Birth and education
Laestadius was born in Swedish Lapland at Jäckvik near Arjeplog in a western mountainous part of Norrbotten County, the northernmost county in Sweden, to Carl Laestadius (1746-1832)—a Swedish hunter, fisherman, tar-maker, and one-time silver mine bailiff, who lost his job due to alcoholism—and Anna Magdalena (née Johansdotter) (1759-1824), who was the elder Laestadius's second wife. Both were of distant Sami descent. The family lived in poverty due to Carl Laestadius's alcoholism and extended absences. However, with help from Lars Levi's older half-brother Carl Erik Laestadius (1775-1817), a pastor at Kvikkjokk, with whom Lars Levi and his younger brother Petrus (1802-1841) lived part of their childhood, the boys were able to pursue educations, first at Härnösand and starting in 1820, at Uppsala University. Due to their benefactor half-brother's death in 1817, the boys were constantly short of funds from the outset of their university studies. Nevertheless, Lars Levi proved to be a brilliant student. Because of his interest in botany, he was made assistant in the botany department while pursuing studies in theology. Lars Levi Laestadius was ordained a Lutheran priest in 1825 by the bishop of Härnösand, Erik Abraham Almquist.

Marriage and family
In 1827 Laestadius married Brita Katarina Alstadius, a local Sami woman who was a childhood friend of his; and together they had twelve children, at least two of whom died in childhood.

Parishes where he served
Laestadius's first parish was at Arjeplog in Lapland, where he became the regional missionary for the Pite district. From 1826 to 1849 he was the vicar in Karesuando parish in Lapland. Near the end of his tenure in Karesuando, Laestadius applied for the positions of dean in Pajala parish in Norrbotten County and inspector of the Lapland parishes. After he complemented his exams in Härnösand as required, he took over these offices in 1849 and held them until his death in 1861.

Revival movement
At the time of Laestadius's 1826 arrival in Karesuando, the people of Lapland parish suffered from widespread misery and alcoholism.

Laestadius's awakening
Laestadius met a Sami woman named Milla Clementsdotter of Föllinge (also known as Lapp Mary by the Laestadian Lutheran Church) in the municipality of Krokom in Jämtland during an 1844 inspection tour of Åsele in Lapland. She belonged to a revival movement marked by pietistic and Moravian influences and led by pastor Pehr Brandell of the parish of Nora in the municipality of Kramfors in Ångermanland.

She told Laestadius about her experiences on her journey to living faith. This was an important meeting for Laestadius because after it, he said he first understood the secret of living faith. He had a religious experience, and he wrote later that he at last saw the path that leads to eternal life. His sermons acquired, in his own words, "a new kind of colour" to which people began to respond. The movement spread quickly from Sweden to Finland and Norway.

Initial effect on parishioners
According to an account from the Sami cultural perspective,

 * "[T]he Sami began to notice that...Laestadius had changed. His sermons were filled with vivid metaphors from the lives of the Sami that they could understand. He preached about a God who cared about the lives of the people. He attacked priests and traders who lined their pockets at the expense of others... After twenty years, something new had begun to happen between the pastor and his parishioners. Young and old alike wanted to learn to read. There was also a bustle and energy in the church, with people confessing their sins, crying and praying for forgiveness (within [Finnish] Laestadianism this was known as liikutuksia, a kind of ecstasy). Not everybody liked it, of course... Those who had previously earned a lot of money through the sale of liquor saw their incomes disappear and derided the new morals... Drunkenness and the theft of reindeer diminished, which had a positive influence on the Sami's relationships, finances and family life."

Resistance
The resistance to Laestadius's radical Christian ethics and morals and to his way of confronting the parishioners about their sins was greater in Pajala where Laestadius moved in 1849; and the bishop decided in 1853 that two separate church services should be held, one for the Laestadians and one for the others. It could be said that Laestadianism, the religious revival named after him, became a movement in its own right at this time, although it remained within and never separated from the Church of Sweden.

Rise of Laestadianism among the Sami
The rapid rise of Laestadianism among the Sami was due to several factors. Laestadius proudly self-identified as Southern Sami through his mother and spoke and preached in two Sami dialects. Further he chose uneducated lay preachers from the Sami reindeer herders to travel year around with them and preach to the unrepented. Additionally, in the early days of the movement, Laestadius, in order to find common ground with his parishioners, borrowed the Samis' own familiar pagan deities and concepts and adapted them to Christianity. Another factor in the rise of Laestadianism among the Sami was that the state-mandated boarding schools soon came to be populated by Laestadian personnel. Next, the strict moral code including strict temperance of Laestadianism appealed to the Sami. Whole communities that had been wrecked by alcoholism went dry virtually overnight. This had the added positive effect of improving the Samis' social standing with the outside world.

Finally, Laestadianism was a faith that the Sami could identify as originating from within insofar that Laestadius himself professed to have come to know the true living faith only upon his encounter with Milla Clementsdotter.

Successor
When Laestadius died in 1861, he was succeeded by Johan Raattamaa as the leader of the Laestadian movement.

Botanist
Laestadius undertook his first botanic trip as a student. Later the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences paid him to travel to Skåne in southern Sweden and to Lapland, to study and make drawings of plants, to be used in Swedish botany scientific work. He was as an internationally recognized botanist and a member of the Edinburgh Botanical Society as well as the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala.

A number of plant species have been named for Laestadius, e.g.:
 * Salix laestadiana Hartm.
 * Carex laestadii Holmb.
 * Papaver laestadianum Nordh.

Laestadius named many plant species: List of plants named by Laestadius in IPNI

La Recherche Expedition (1838-1840)
While attending to his pastoral duties, Laestadius continued his interest in botany and authored a number of articles on plant life in Lapland. Because of the wide recognition for his knowledge of botany and the Sami, the French Admiralty invited Laestadius to participate in the La Recherche Expedition to Samiland of 1838–40. As an expedition member, Laestadius served as field guide for the islands and the interior of Northern Norway and Sweden, studying both plant life and the culture of the Sami inhabitants.

During the expedition, Laestadius at the request of the organizers began his manuscript. Eventually published for the first time more than 150 years later Fragments of Lappish Mythology provides a snapshot of Sami traditional religious beliefs that by the 1830s were passing into history due to the Church of Sweden's Christianization mandate in full swing at that time. However, Laestadius did not finish the manuscript until long afterward, and the completed work was lost for many years. Due to these and other reasons, the manuscript was not published until 1997, over 150 years after the expedition.

For his participation in the La Recherche Expedition, Laestadius was awarded the Medal of Honor of the Legion of Honor of France after 1841. He was the first Scandinavian to receive this honor.

Languages spoken
Laestadius's mother tongues were Southern Sami from his mother and Swedish, the language of his childhood home, from his father. Laestadius also spoke Pite Sami. After a year in Karesuando, Laestadius spoke Finnish and Northern Sami as well. He usually held his services in Finnish since it was the most widespread language in the area, but on occasion also preached in the Northern Sami and Swedish languages.

Family deaths and personal illnesses
After the death of his older half-brother and financial support, Carl Erik, when Lars Levi was only a teenager, Laestadius mourned the deaths of his mother in 1824, his father in 1832, and his younger brother Petrus in 1841. At least two of Laestadius's own sons reportedly predeceased him as well.

Around 1833 Laestadius suffered from an ailment which the doctors first thought was pneumonia. He recovered. In the 1840s, Laestadius suffered from severe typhoid fever and later tuberculosis. Towards the end of his life, Laestadius experienced "impending blindness" and contracted a cholera-like illness.

Books authored

 * Fragments of Lappish Mythology (1997); ISBN 0-9685881-9-0
 * The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness (A Periodical Published in the Years 1852-1854) (in original Swedish, Ens ropandes röst i öknen 1852-1854)

Literature

 * Gustaf Dahlbäck, Den gamla och nya människan i Lars Levi Læstadius teologi, 1949
 * Lilly Anne Østtveit Elgvin, Lars Levi Læstadius' spiritualitet (Summary: The spirituality of L L Læstadius), 2010.
 * Olle Franzén, Naturalhistorikern Lars Levi Læstadius, 1973
 * Seppo Lohi, Sydämen kristillisyys Lars Levi Læstadius ja læstadiolainen herätyksen alkuvaiheet, 2000.
 * Hannu Juntunen, Lars Levi Læstadiuksen käsitys kirkosta, 1982
 * Kristina Nilsson, Den himmelske föräldern. En studie av kvinnans betydelse för Lars Levi Læstadius teologi och förkunnelse, 1988.
 * Henning Thulin, Lars Levi Læstadius och hans förkunnelse, 1949
 * Gunnar Wikmark, Lars Levi Læstadius’ väg till den nya födelsen, 1980

title: Lars Levi Laestadius


text:
William Paul Jarrett

William Paul Jarrett (August 22, 1877 – November 10, 1929) was a sheriff and congressional delegate representing the Territory of Hawaii.

Biography
Jarrett was born August 22, 1877, and grew up in Honolulu, Hawaii, on the island of Oahu, and attended Saint Louis School. Of Native Hawaiian descent, his father was William Kaauwai Jarrett and mother was Emma Kaoo Stevens. He married Mary H. K. Clark with whom he had six children.

Jarrett became one of the earliest leaders of the Hawaii Democratic Party. Jarrett served as deputy Sheriff of the City and County of Honolulu from 1906 to 1908, Sheriff until 1914, and High Sheriff of the Territory of Hawaii from 1914 to 1922.

From March 4, 1923, to March 3, 1927, Jarrett served in the United States Congress as a territorial delegate. He won elections in November 1922 and 1924, but lost the bid for re-election in 1927. He died on November 10, 1929.

He was interred at Diamond Head Memorial Park. William P. Jarrett Middle School, established in 1955, was named after him.

title: William Paul Jarrett


text:
User talk:Aubrey Osiris

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User talk:Gscshoyru

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RAF Henlow

Royal Air Force Henlow or more simply RAF Henlow is a Royal Air Force station in Bedfordshire, England, equidistant from Bedford, Luton and Stevenage. It houses the RAF Centre of Aerospace Medicine, the Joint Arms Control Implementation Group (JACIG) and the Signals Museum. It formerly hosted light aircraft flying and 616 Volunteer Gliding Squadron. The Ministry of Defence announced on 6 September 2016 that the base is set to be close. As of January 2024, the closure and disposal of the station is expected to take place from 2026. Flying activity ceased in July 2020.

History
Henlow was chosen as a military aircraft repair depot in 1917 and was built by MacAlpine during 1918. Four Belfast Hangars were built and are now listed buildings. Henlow Camp, a civilian settlement, grew up around the base at that time.

Originally a repair depot for aircraft from the Western Front, the Station officially opened on 18 May 1918 when Lt Col Robert Francis Stapleton-Cotton arrived with a party of 40 airmen from Farnborough. In May 1920, RAF Henlow became the first parachute testing centre and was later joined by another parachute unit from RAF Northolt. Parachute testing was undertaken with Vimy aircraft and parachutists hanging off the wings and allowing the chute to deploy and enable them to drift back to the ground. The Officers Engineering School moved there in 1924 from Farnborough.

After the First World War, Henlow was home to four aircraft squadrons; No. 19 Squadron RAF, No. 23 Squadron RAF, No. 43 Squadron RAF and No. 80 Squadron RAF. Between 1932 and 1933, Sir Frank Whittle was a student at the RAF technical College on the base. He later spent some time in charge of aero engine testing on the base before being sent to Cambridge. An additional hangar was added to the inventory in the 1930s and this too is now listed.

During the Second World War Henlow was used to assemble the Hawker Hurricanes which had been built at the Hurricane factory operated by Canadian Car and Foundry in Fort William, Ontario, Canada, under the leadership of Elsie MacGill. After test flying in Fort William, they were disassembled and sent to Henlow in shipping containers and reassembled. During Operation Quickforce in 1941, 100 fitters from the base were deployed onto carriers which were shipping Hurricane fighters to Malta. The finished Hurricanes were completed on the decks of the carriers and flown out to Malta. Over 1,000 Hurricanes (about 10% of the total) were built by Canadian Car and Foundry and shipped to Henlow. Henlow was also used as a repair base for many aircraft types under the direction of No. 13 Maintenance Unit.

The empty packing crates that the Hurricane aircraft were shipped in were used to make the original control tower (which has now been replaced by a more modern two-storey Portakabin type). The original tower and parts of the airfield were seen in several scenes in the 1969 war film 'The Battle of Britain'.

A major RAF technical training college was also formed at Henlow in 1947. This was formed from the RAF School of Aeronautical Engineering, formerly at RAF Farnborough, and its purpose was to train cadets and engineering officers. The college was amalgamated with RAF College Cranwell in 1965. The RAF Officer Cadet Training Unit then moved in, but this also moved to Cranwell in 1980.

Henlow then hosted the RAF Signals Engineering Establishment and the Radio Engineering Unit, established in 1980. In 1983, the Land Registry took over part of the site.

In December 2011, RAF Henlow along with 14 other Ministry of Defence sites in the United Kingdom were designated as being dangerously radioactive. The 15 bases were poisoned by "radium that was used to coat the dials of aircraft...so that they could be seen in the dark" during the Second World War.

Administratively, RAF Henlow was part of a combined base, RAF Brampton Wyton Henlow, until RAF Brampton was closed in 2013.

Flying activity ceased in July 2020.

Based units
Notable units based at RAF Henlow.

Royal Air Force
No. 2 Group (Air Combat Support)
 * Air Security Force
 * Forensic Exploitation Flight
 * Digital Forensic Team
 * Scientific Support Unit
 * RAF Medical Services
 * RAF Centre of Aerospace Medicine
 * Centre of Aerospace Medicine Headquarters
 * Aviation Medicine Wing
 * Occupational and Environmental Medicine Wing
 * Support Wing

British Army
1st (United Kingdom) Division

 * 11th Security Force Assistance Brigade
 * Outreach Group

Strategic Command
Directorate of Overseas Bases
 * Joint Arms Control Implementation Group (JACIG)

Other

 * Signals Museum

Former units
The following units were here at some point: • No. 19 Squadron RAF

• No. 23 Squadron RAF

• No. 43 Squadron RAF

• No. 80 Squadron RAF

• No. 1 Air Stores Park

• No. 1 AACU 'X' Flight

• No. 1 AACU 'Y' Flight

• No. 1 AACU 'Z' Flight

• No. 2 Air Stores Park

• No. 2 RAF Depot

• No. 2 Salvage Centre

• No. 3 Air Stores Park

• No. 3 Ferry Pool RAF

• No. 3 Salvage Centre

• No. 4 Salvage Centre

• No. 5 (Eastern) Aircraft Repair Depot

• No. 6 Air Stores Park

• No. 7 Air Stores Park

• No. 13 Maintenance Unit RAF

• No. 13 School of Technical Training RAF

• No. 14 School of Technical Training RAF

• No. 20 Air Stores Park

• No. 23 Wing Servicing Unit RAF

• No. 43 Group Communication Flight

• No. 49 Maintenance Unit RAF

• No. 106 Gliding School RAF

• No. 616 Gliding School RAF became No. 616 Volunteer Gliding School RAF

• No. 1959 Reserve Air Observation Post Flight RAF

• No. 1961 Reserve Air Observation Post Flight RAF

• No. 2709 Squadron RAF Regiment

• No. 2727 Squadron RAF Regiment

• Home Aircraft Depot

• Inland Area Aircraft Depot

• Parachute Test Unit (Ministry of Supply)

• Pilotless Aircraft Section RAF

• Queen Bee Flight RAF

• Rapier Cold Trials Unit

• RAF School of Aeronautical Engineering (Officers)

• Signals Development Unit RAF became Radio Engineering Unit
 * Tactical Police Wing
 * Tactical Police Sqn

Signals Museum
The Signals Museum, focused on the development of electronic communications by the RAF since the First World War, was established in 1999.

Future
On 6 September 2016, the Ministry of Defence (MOD) announced the planned closure of RAF Henlow, with a disposal date of 2020. By 2019, a staged drawdown and closure was expected to take place between 2020 and 2023. In January 2024, the MOD indicated that the closure and disposal would take place from 2026.

title: RAF Henlow


text:
Gastrointestinal bleeding

Gastrointestinal bleeding (GI bleed), also called gastrointestinal hemorrhage (GIB), is all forms of bleeding in the gastrointestinal tract, from the mouth to the rectum. When there is significant blood loss over a short time, symptoms may include vomiting red blood, vomiting black blood, bloody stool, or black stool. Small amounts of bleeding over a long time may cause iron-deficiency anemia resulting in feeling tired or heart-related chest pain. Other symptoms may include abdominal pain, shortness of breath, pale skin, or passing out. Sometimes in those with small amounts of bleeding no symptoms may be present.

Bleeding is typically divided into two main types: upper gastrointestinal bleeding and lower gastrointestinal bleeding. Causes of upper GI bleeds include: peptic ulcer disease, esophageal varices due to liver cirrhosis and cancer, among others. Causes of lower GI bleeds include: hemorrhoids, cancer, and inflammatory bowel disease among others. Small amounts of bleeding may be detected by fecal occult blood test. Endoscopy of the lower and upper gastrointestinal tract may locate the area of bleeding. Medical imaging may be useful in cases that are not clear.

Initial treatment focuses on resuscitation which may include intravenous fluids and blood transfusions. Often blood transfusions are not recommended unless the hemoglobin is less than 70 or 80 g/L. Treatment with proton pump inhibitors, octreotide, and antibiotics may be considered in certain cases. If other measures are not effective, an esophageal balloon may be attempted in those with presumed esophageal varices. Endoscopy of the esophagus, stomach, and duodenum or endoscopy of the large bowel are generally recommended within 24 hours and may allow treatment as well as diagnosis.

An upper GI bleed is more common than lower GI bleed. An upper GI bleed occurs in 50 to 150 per 100,000 adults per year. A lower GI bleed is estimated to occur in 20 to 30 per 100,000 per year. It results in about 300,000 hospital admissions a year in the United States. Risk of death from a GI bleed is between 5% and 30%. Risk of bleeding is more common in males and increases with age.

Classification
Gastrointestinal bleeding can be roughly divided into two clinical syndromes: upper gastrointestinal bleeding and lower gastrointestinal bleeding. About 2/3 of all GI bleeds are from upper sources and 1/3 from lower sources. Common causes of gastrointestinal bleeding include infections, cancers, vascular disorders, adverse effects of medications, and blood clotting disorders. Obscure gastrointestinal bleeding (OGIB) is when a source is unclear following investigation.

Upper gastrointestinal
Upper gastrointestinal bleeding is from a source between the pharynx and the ligament of Treitz. An upper source is characterised by hematemesis (vomiting up blood) and melena (tarry stool containing altered blood). About half of cases are due to peptic ulcer disease (gastric or duodenal ulcers). Esophageal inflammation and erosive disease are the next most common causes. In those with liver cirrhosis, 50–60% of bleeding is due to esophageal varices. Approximately half of those with peptic ulcers have an H. pylori infection. Other causes include Mallory-Weiss tears, cancer, and angiodysplasia.

A number of medications are found to cause upper GI bleeds. NSAIDs or COX-2 inhibitors increase the risk about fourfold. SSRIs, corticosteroids, and anticoagulants may also increase the risk. The risk with dabigatran is 30% greater than that with warfarin.

Lower gastrointestinal
Lower gastrointestinal bleeding is typically from the colon, rectum or anus. Common causes of lower gastrointestinal bleeding include hemorrhoids, cancer, angiodysplasia, ulcerative colitis, Crohn's disease, and aortoenteric fistula. It may be indicated by the passage of fresh red blood rectally, especially in the absence of bloody vomiting. Lower gastrointestinal bleeding could also lead to melena if the bleeding occurs in the small intestine or proximal colon.

Signs and symptoms
Gastrointestinal bleeding can range from small non-visible amounts, which are only detected by laboratory testing, to massive bleeding where bright red blood is passed and shock develops. Rapid bleeding may cause syncope. The presence of bright red blood in stool, known as hematochezia, typically indicates lower gastrointestinal bleeding. Digested blood from the upper gastrointestinal tract may appear black rather than red, resulting in "coffee ground" vomit or melena. Other signs and symptoms include feeling tired, dizziness, and pale skin color.

A number of foods and medications can turn the stool either red or black in the absence of bleeding. Bismuth found in many antacids may turn stools black as may activated charcoal. Blood from the vagina or urinary tract may also be confused with blood in the stool.

Diagnosis
Diagnosis is often based on direct observation of blood in the stool or vomit. Although fecal occult blood testing has been used in an emergency setting, this use is not recommended as the test has only been validated for colon cancer screening. Differentiating between upper and lower bleeding in some cases can be difficult. The severity of an upper GI bleed can be judged based on the Blatchford score or Rockall score. The Rockall score is the more accurate of the two. As of 2008 there is no scoring system useful for lower GI bleeds.

Clinical
Gastric aspiration and or lavage, where a tube is inserted into the stomach via the nose in an attempt to determine if there is blood in the stomach, if negative does not rule out an upper GI bleed but if positive is useful for ruling one in. Clots in the stool indicate a lower GI source while melana stools an upper one.

Laboratory testing
Recommended laboratory blood testing includes: cross-matching blood, hemoglobin, hematocrit, platelets, coagulation time, and electrolytes. If the ratio of blood urea nitrogen to creatinine is greater than 30 the source is more likely from the upper GI tract.

Imaging
A CT angiography is useful for determining the exact location of the bleeding within the gastrointestinal tract. Nuclear scintigraphy is a sensitive test for detecting occult gastrointestinal bleeding when direct imaging with upper and lower endoscopies are negative. Direct angiography allows for embolization of a bleeding source, but requires a bleeding rate faster than 1mL/minute.

Prevention
In patients with significant varices or cirrhosis nonselective β-blockers reduce the risk of future bleeding. With a target heart rate of 55 beats per minute B-blockers reduce the absolute risk of bleeding by 10%. Endoscopic band ligation (EBL) is also effective at improving outcomes. Either B-blockers or EBL is recommended as initial preventative measures. In patients who have had a previous variceal bleed both treatments are recommended. Some evidence supports the addition of isosorbide mononitrate. Testing for and treating those who are positive for H. pylori is recommended. Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunting (TIPS) may be used to prevent bleeding in people who re-bleed despite other measures.

Among patients admitted to the ICU with high risk of bleeding, a PPI or H2RA appears useful.

Treatment
The initial focus is on resuscitation beginning with airway management and fluid resuscitation using either intravenous fluids and or blood. A number of medications may improve outcomes depending on the source of the bleeding.

Peptic ulcers
Based on evidence from people with other health problems crystalloid and colloids are believed to be equivalent for peptic ulcer bleeding. Proton pump inhibitor (PPI) treatment before endoscopy may decrease the need for endoscopic hemostatic treatment, however it is not clear if this treatment reduces mortality, the risk of re-bleeding, or the and the need for surgery. Oral and intravenous formulations may be equivalent; however, the evidence to support this is suboptimal. In those with less severe disease and where endoscopy is rapidly available, they are of less immediate clinical importance. There is tentative evidence of benefit for tranexamic acid which inhibits clot breakdown. Somatostatin and octreotide, while recommended for varicial bleeding, have not been found to be of general use for non variceal bleeds. After treatment of a high risk bleeding ulcer endoscopically giving a PPI once or a day rather than as an infusion appears to work just as well and is less expensive (the method may be either by mouth or intravenously).

Variceal bleeding
For initial fluid replacement, colloids or albumin is preferred in people with cirrhosis. Medications typically include octreotide or, if not available, vasopressin and nitroglycerin to reduce portal venous pressures. Terlipressin appears to be more effective than octreotide, but it is not available in many areas of the world. It is the only medication that has been shown to reduce mortality in acute variceal bleeding. This is in addition to endoscopic banding or sclerotherapy for the varices. If this is sufficient then beta blockers and nitrates may be used for the prevention of re-bleeding. If bleeding continues, balloon tamponade with a Sengstaken-Blakemore tube or Minnesota tube may be used in an attempt to mechanically compress the varices. This may then be followed by a transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt. In those with cirrhosis, antibiotics decrease the chance of bleeding again, shorten the length of time spent in hospital, and decrease mortality. Octreotide reduces the need for blood transfusions and may decrease mortality. No trials of vitamin K have been conducted.

Blood products
The evidence for benefit of blood transfusions in GI bleed is poor with some evidence finding harm. In those in shock O-negative packed red blood cells are recommended. If large amounts of pack red blood cells are used additional platelets and fresh frozen plasma (FFP) should be administered to prevent coagulopathies. In alcoholics FFP is suggested before confirmation of a coagulopathy due to presumed blood clotting problems. Evidence supports holding off on blood transfusions in those who have a hemoglobin greater than 7 to 8 g/dL and moderate bleeding, including in those with preexisting coronary artery disease.

If the INR is greater than 1.5 to 1.8 correction with fresh frozen plasma or prothrombin complex may decrease mortality. Evidence of a harm or benefit of recombinant activated factor VII in those with liver diseases and gastrointestinal bleeding is not determined. A massive transfusion protocol may be used, but there is a lack of evidence for this indication.

Procedures
The benefits versus risks of placing a nasogastric tube in those with upper GI bleeding are not determined. Endoscopic evaluation within 24 hours is recommended, in addition to medical management. A number of endoscopic treatments may be used, including: epinephrine injection, band ligation, sclerotherapy, and fibrin glue depending on what is found. Prokinetic agents such as erythromycin before endoscopy can decrease the amount of blood in the stomach and thus improve the operators view. They also decrease the amount of blood transfusions required. Early endoscopy decreases hospital and the amount of blood transfusions needed. A second endoscopy within a day is routinely recommended by some but by others only in specific situations. Proton pump inhibitors, if they have not been started earlier, are recommended in those in whom high risk signs for bleeding are found. High and low dose PPIs appear equivalent at this point. It is also recommended that people with high risk signs are kept in hospital for at least 72 hours. Those at low risk of re-bleeding may begin eating typically 24 hours following endoscopy. If other measures fail or are not available, esophageal balloon tamponade may be attempted. While there is a success rate up to 90%, there are some potentially significant complications including aspiration and esophageal perforation.

Colonoscopy is useful for the diagnosis and treatment of lower GI bleeding. A number of techniques may be employed including clipping, cauterizing, and sclerotherapy. Preparation for colonoscopy takes a minimum of six hours which in those bleeding briskly may limit its applicability. Surgery, while rarely used to treat upper GI bleeds, is still commonly used to manage lower GI bleeds by cutting out the part of the intestines that is causing the problem. Angiographic embolization may be used for both upper and lower GI bleeds. Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunting (TIPS) may also be considered.

Prognosis
Death in those with a GI bleed is more commonly due to other illnesses (some of which may have contributed to the bleed, such as cancer or cirrhosis) than the bleeding itself. Of those admitted to a hospital because of a GI bleed, death occurs in about 7%. Despite treatment, re-bleeding occurs in about 7–16% of those with upper GI bleeding. In those with esophageal varices, bleeding occurs in about 5–15% a year and if they have bled once, there is a higher risk of further bleeding within six weeks. Testing and treating H. pylori if found can prevent re-bleeding in those with peptic ulcers. The benefits versus risks of restarting blood thinners such as aspirin or warfarin and anti-inflammatories such as NSAIDs need to be carefully considered. If aspirin is needed for cardiovascular disease prevention, it is reasonable to restart it within seven days in combination with a PPI for those with nonvariceal upper GI bleeding.

Epidemiology
Gastrointestinal bleeding from the upper tract occurs in 50 to 150 per 100,000 adults per year. It is more common than lower gastrointestinal bleeding which is estimated to occur at the rate of 20 to 30 per 100,000 per year. Risk of bleeding is more common in males and increases with age.

title: Gastrointestinal bleeding


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Long Beach Island

Long Beach Island (colloquially known as LBI, The LBI Region, or simply The Island) is a barrier island and summer colony along the Atlantic Ocean coast of Ocean County, New Jersey, United States, on the Jersey Shore. Aligned north to south, the northern portion generally has more expensive low-density housing, whereas the southern portion possesses higher-density housing and considerable commercial development. Long Beach Island is 1-2 miles away from Mainland New Jersey. The primary industries include tourism, fishing, and real estate. The only access point to the island by land is a single causeway. The island is the southernmost point of the New York Metropolitan Area.

The island is home to about 10,000 people on a year-round basis. The population is distributed among six separate municipalities, the largest of which is Long Beach Township. However, the island's population swells significantly during the summer months and reaches about 100,000 people, including part-time residents and tourists, who are often referred to as "shoobies". The island's close-knit communities are largely affluent and contain vacation homes for wealthy individuals who reside elsewhere, primarily New Jersey as well as New York, Pennsylvania, and Connecticut.

The island and its properties and economy are expected to be severely affected by sea level rise. By 2013, sea level had increased by six inches and is expected to rise at least another six inches by 2030. Most projections suggest over a meter of sea level rise by 2100 and would require significant climate change adaptation to survive, making both property protection and an engineered retreat economically unattractive.

Geography

Long Beach Island is located 24 mi north of Atlantic City 61 mi east-southeast of Philadelphia and 101 mi south of New York City. LBI is approximately 18 mi in length, which includes three miles (5 km) of marsh protected as part of Edwin B. Forsythe National Wildlife Refuge located on the southern tip. The island is about a half-mile wide (800 m) at its widest point in Ship Bottom, and spans a fifth of a mile (300 m) at its narrowest point in Harvey Cedars.

Long Beach Island is bisected by State Route 72, formerly "South 40", which connects the mainland to the island at Ship Bottom. It is the sole access point for road vehicles to the mainland over Manahawkin Bay. This results in the division of the island into a northern portion and a southern portion. From the bridge northward, the island includes the communities of Surf City, North Beach (a section of Long Beach Township), Harvey Cedars, Loveladies (a section of Long Beach Township), High Bar Harbor (the northernmost section of Long Beach Township), and Barnegat Light. From the bridge southward, the island includes the communities of Ship Bottom, Brant Beach, Long Beach Township (including the census-designated place of North Beach Haven), and Beach Haven, with the Holgate section of Long Beach Township at the southernmost tip of the island.

History

The island has been continuously settled since 1690, initially being a destination for hunters. Barnegat Inlet, to the north of the island, was an important path for freight shipments and whaling from the 17th century through the 20th century. Due to the Inlet's importance and its turbulent waters, a lighthouse tower was constructed in 1835 to guide shippers through the area. Still, it was inadequate to ships, constantly being mistaken for another passing ship because the light was fixed. Erosion problems destroyed the tower in 1857, two years before the current Barnegat Lighthouse was completed in 1859, flashing at each compass point every 10 seconds. It was constructed by the United States Army Corps of Engineers under the supervision of George Gordon Meade, famous for leading the Union forces to victory four years later during the Civil War at the Battle of Gettysburg. The United States Life-Saving Service built Station #17 in Barnegat Light (then known as Brownsville) around 1872, which continues today as a United States Coast Guard station.

A developing tourism sector prompted the Tuckerton Railroad (a short line running from Tuckerton to Whiting) to build a bridge across Barnegat bay that ran from Barnegat city to Beach Haven; the tracks were completed in 1886 and were leased to the Pennsylvania Railroad (PRR). The Jersey Shore shark attacks of 1916 included a fatal attack in Beach Haven, killing University of Pennsylvania student Charles Vansant in July 1916, which partly inspired the book Jaws. A severe winter storm in 1920 destroyed most of the beaches along the island, several hotels, and reopening the new inlet in Holgate. A storm in 1923 further diminished the tourism sector, resulting in the discontinuation of train service to Barnegat City between 1923 and 1926. In 1935, the railroad bridge to the mainland washed out, leaving the entire island without rail service.

Several storms throughout the island's history have resulted in the island being split in two, with the division occurring at the island's narrowest point in Harvey Cedars. The most famous of such storms was the Ash Wednesday Storm of 1962, which split Long Beach Island into numerous pieces and nearly destroyed the island in its entirety. The storm caused the destroyer USS Monssen to run aground in Beach Haven Inlet, Long Beach Township. The existing Route 72 Causeway was erected in the late 1950s, which replaced a low-level two-lane automobile bridge which in itself had replaced the previously destroyed railroad bridge.

Hurricane Sandy

In late October 2012, portions of Long Beach Island were significantly damaged by Hurricane Sandy. Residents were evacuated, and portions of the island were severely flooded, with the ocean meeting the bay in isolated spots. Streets were left covered with up to four feet of sand in some spots. The nine-foot storm surge and 18-foot seas that pounded the barrier island damaged several homes along the ocean and bayfront communities.

The Manahawkin Bay Bridge remained closed to residents for a full 13 days following the storm. Locals were prohibited from returning to the island except for brief visits to retrieve belongings. Bulldozers and front-end loaders moved hundreds of tons of sand, along with power lines and boats, in an attempt to make the roadways passable. Long Beach Island was finally re-opened to residents and building owners on November 10, with the exception of the Holgate section of Long Beach Township, where infrastructure and road damage was still too dangerous. However, island officials warned that some areas were still without sewerage, water and electric service at that time.

Damage was distributed unevenly throughout the island. Areas with a protective dune system had limited damage, while areas without dunes or where dunes were breached received significantly more damage. In those neighborhoods — in sections like Holgate, on the island's southern tip — destruction was severe. The protective dunes, an ambitious project developed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, have been a source of controversy in recent years and have led to conflict between local officials arguing for the need of dunes and property owners who felt that the dunes devalued their property. As such, the work is incomplete and there are significant breaks in the dune system. Other hard-hit areas included Loveladies and North Beach. Areas where the dune system was in place fared much better, such as Harvey Cedars, Ship Bottom, Surf City and Barnegat Light.

Electricity was restored to 70% of the Island by November 4, 2012. By November 20, 2012, natural gas service was restored to nearly the entire Island.

By mid-November, many businesses were re-opened on Long Beach Island with life resuming as normal for much of the Island by mid-December.

Demographics
There are six separate municipalities on Long Beach Island. Long Beach Township is the largest of these, and subdivides into multiple neighborhoods:

 * Barnegat Light
 * Beach Haven
 * Harvey Cedars
 * Long Beach Township
 * Brant Beach
 * Beach Haven Crest
 * Beach Haven Gardens
 * Beach Haven Inlet
 * Beach Haven Park
 * Beach Haven Terrace
 * Brighton Beach
 * Haven Beach
 * High Bar Harbor
 * Holgate
 * Loveladies
 * North Beach Haven
 * North Beach
 * Peahala Park
 * South Beach Haven
 * Spray Beach
 * Ship Bottom
 * Surf City

Culture
In the 1970s, an article in Philadelphia Magazine quipped that, "The haves turn right (south) and the have mores turn left (north)," referring to the option of turning right or left when arriving on the island from the bridge. Nominally accurate, the low-density northern end of the island, Loveladies, North Beach, and the surrounding neighborhoods are home to an assortment of large-scale waterfront homes which attract considerable attention from visitors and are often the source of rumors regarding vacationing celebrities during the summertime. The southern community of Beach Haven features historic and elegant Victorian homes that have survived the many storms. The south end contains significantly more commercial zoning, which generally decreases north of the bridge. Year-round residents and businesses in operation are more common toward the southern end of the island, particularly in the larger boroughs of Beach Haven and Ship Bottom.

Long Beach Island typically attracts a family-oriented crowd during the summertime, unlike more frenzied beach vacation destinations such as Belmar and Seaside Heights. The island has not contained a boardwalk since the one in Beach Haven was washed away by the 1944 hurricane, and the nightlife is limited to a few bars. Visitors generally participate in activities such as miniature golf, parasailing, jet-skiing, walking, shopping, and relaxing on the beaches. The island has a reputation as a base for many long-range recreational fishing and charter boats, whose trips can range from 10 to 100 mile from one of the island's two inlets (at Barnegat Light in the north and Beach Haven in the south.) In 2009, the Lighthouse International Film Festival was launched on the island. The three-day event screens films in venues throughout the island. Other art venues include the Surflight Theatre in Beach Haven and numerous art galleries throughout the island. The Surflight Theatre was closed due to foreclosure but has now reopened with plans to expand the number of shows presented yearly.

Beach replenishment
Some of the island's 18 mi of beaches have experienced significant erosion in recent decades, threatening the multimillion-dollar waterfront homes in the area. In 2005, with the help of the Army Corps of Engineers, work began on a $75 million project to build a 22 ft high, 30 ft wide dune the length of the island using sand pumped from offshore. In front of the dunes, a 200 ft wide stretch of sand separates the dune from the ocean. The beach replenishment project began in Ship Bottom and Surf City. With work on those beaches now complete, the project continues toward the northern end of the island. Beach replenishment has been a hugely controversial topic. Many surfers and swimmers argue that pumping the sand destroys the sandbars that create waves and provide a better swimming environment. Some homeowners claim dunes will reduce property value, while island officials argue dunes are necessary to counter beach erosion and protect the island from storms.

Transportation
Bisecting the developed region is the sole access point for road vehicles, via State Route 72, which consists of the Dorland J. Henderson Memorial Bridge (locally known as "The Causeway", though the term is incorrect in its application). The bridge is known for its "String of Pearls", a row of lights mounted on the railings lining the length of the bridge. The bridge was designed by an African American, New Jersey Department of Transportation engineer, Dorland J. Henderson who also designed the unique bridge lights. The bridge extends from Manahawkin on the mainland to Ship Bottom on the island. The island can also be reached by water transport. A $155 million plan unveiled by the New Jersey Department of Transportation in 2005 added a second span and will replace the existing bridge. The new southern span was opened in 2016 and the original bridge was built over during the next 3 years, with the project finishing in 2019. Within the island, one road forms the backbone of all transportation: County Route 607. This road, which is known as Bay Avenue in Beach Haven, Central Avenue and Broadway in Barnegat Light, and Long Beach Boulevard across the remainder of the island, runs the length of LBI and connects all the separate municipalities on the island as well as the separate sections of Long Beach Township.

For public transit, NJ Transit Bus 559 Lakewood-Atlantic City runs to Manahawkin. Ocean Ride local service is provided on the OC9 Long Beach Island route.

TransportAzumah offers daily service during the summer season between Midtown Manhattan in New York City and Long Beach Island with a stop at Newark Liberty International Airport.

The LBI Shuttle runs the 18-mile length of the island on Long Beach Boulevard. It provides $2 service from 10am to 10pm and $5 service from 10pm to close. It serves the Long Beach Island municipalities / communities of Barnegat Light, Loveladies, Harvey Cedars, North Beach, Surf City, Ship Bottom, Long Beach Township, Beach Haven and Holgate.

Notable locations

The historic Barnegat Lighthouse is located in Barnegat Lighthouse State Park at the northern tip of the island, along the Barnegat Inlet. The conical tower stands 165 feet (50 m) tall, and the park includes several trails through native foliage and along the jetty constructed in the 1990s. The scallop boat Lindsay L, docked near Viking Village in Barnegat Light, was used in the movie The Perfect Storm. The lighthouse is open daily from 10 AM to 4:30 PM (weather permitting) from Memorial Day through Labor Day. There is a $3 fee per person to enter the lighthouse from Memorial Day through Labor Day. Children ages 6 to 11 are $1, and children ages 5 and under are free and must be accompanied by an adult. Visitors can also catch the views from the top without climbing the 217 steps, thanks to four cameras that transmit live images of the view to a display in the adjacent Interpretive Center.

Loveladies is home to the Long Beach Island Foundation of the Arts and Sciences, established in 1948 by artist Boris Blai. The organization provides arts, science and recreation programs to area residents and visitors. The Foundation offers an After School Arts Education Program to area schools, an Artists Residency and Retreat Program for New Jersey Artists, Visiting Artists in Ceramics during the summer season, and ceramics scholarships and residency opportunities.

To the south, in Beach Haven, the Fantasy Island Amusement Park is the only full-time location on the island with standard-fare amusement rides (including a classically designed carousel). Fantasy Island offers rides, games, food, live entertainment, and a family-style casino arcade. Entertainment, admission, and parking are free. The annual Festival Of The Sea carnival also makes an appearance at the St. Francis Community Church in Ship Bottom every August for one week per year. Lucille's Oh Fudge! Candies has a large salt water taffy display in front of its shop in Brant Beach, a candy that was first created in nearby Atlantic City. Lucille's candy also has a location on Route 72 in Manahawkin. Thundering Surf Water Park, the island's only water park, offers fun for all ages. With six water slides, a kids' area, a lazy river, miniature golf, and a Flow House, the water park is a popular attraction for families.

Two significant commercial establishments are Schooner's Wharf/Bay Village, in Beach Haven, and Viking Village, in Barnegat Light. The latter includes numerous family-owned shops generally oriented toward the local fishing industry and the many fishing charter boats that set sail there, though a variety of handmade crafts can also be found. The former is geared more specifically toward the tourism industry, featuring a variety of eateries and more mainstream shops. Across from the Thundering Surf Water Park, Bay Village began in 1965 when John Maschal purchased a half-block around his shop "Country Kettle Fudge" — which had opened four years earlier — and developed it into the existing shopping area. When Bay Village opened, it adjoined the Lucy Evelyn, a 3 masted schooner that had been set on land and turned into a gift shop and museum. The Lucy Evelyn, 140' long with a 32' beam and 10' draft, built in 1917 in Harrington, Maine, burned to the ground in January 1972. It was replaced by a building that resembles a schooner. One of the original "Seaman's Shacks" that surrounded the Lucy Evelyn still remains on the north-western outskirts of Bay Village. The annual Chowderfest clam chowder competition is held at Schooner's Wharf/Bay Village in Beach Haven every October, drawing a significant influx of tourists during the off-season. For the past 20 years, island restaurants have competed in Manhattan and New England clam chowder categories. Recent winners include Stefano's Pizza and Pasta, Howard's Restaurant, Country Kettle Chowda, Buckalew's Restaurant and Tavern, and The Black Whale Bar and Fish House.

Climate
According to the Köppen climate classification system, Long Beach Island, New Jersey has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa) with hot, moderately humid summers, cool winters and year-around precipitation. Cfa climates are characterized by all months having an average mean temperature > 32.0 °F (> 0.0 °C), at least four months with an average mean temperature ≥ 50.0 °F (≥ 10.0 °C), at least one month with an average mean temperature ≥ 71.6 °F (≥ 22.0 °C) and no significant precipitation difference between seasons. During the summer months in Long Beach Island, a cooling afternoon sea breeze is present on most days, but episodes of extreme heat and humidity can occur with heat index values ≥ 95 °F (≥ 35 °C). During the winter months, episodes of extreme cold and wind can occur with wind chill values < 0 °F (< -18 °C). The plant hardiness zone at 9th St Beach, Ship Bottom is 7a with an average annual extreme minimum air temperature of 3.8 °F (-15.7 °C). The average seasonal (Nov-Apr) snowfall total is between 12 and 18 inch, and the average snowiest month is February which corresponds with the annual peak in nor'easter activity.

Ecology
According to the A. W. Kuchler U.S. potential natural vegetation types, Long Beach Island, New Jersey would have a dominant vegetation type of Northern Cordgrass (73) with a dominant vegetation form of Coastal Prairie (20).

Media
The SandPaper, an award-winning weekly newsmagazine published 50 weeks a year, has for several decades been the leading source of news coverage for communities on the island, as well as on the mainland, in addition to providing much in the way of cultural, historical and entertainment features and commentary. The Press of Atlantic City provides daily news coverage of the towns, as does WPGG radio. The governments of the towns provide columns and commentary to The Southern Ocean Times, which is one of seven weekly papers from Micromedia Publications. There is also a website called LBI Eats, which is written by locals and shares island news, restaurant and bar reviews and details about the destination's best features.

title: Long Beach Island


text:
Category:Marilyns

A Marilyn is a hill in the British Isles that has at least 150 m (492 feet) of relative height. You cannot walk (or run) from one Marilyn to another without at least 150 m (492 feet) of ascent. The name is a pun on "Marilyn Monroe" (the name "Marilyn" and the term "munro").

title: Category:Marilyns


text:
NCEP

NCEP may refer to:

 * National Cholesterol Education Program
 * National Centers for Environmental Prediction

title: NCEP