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Glow discharge

A glow discharge is a plasma formed by the passage of electric current through a gas. It is often created by applying a voltage between two electrodes in a glass tube containing a low-pressure gas. When the voltage exceeds a value called the striking voltage, the gas ionization becomes self-sustaining, and the tube glows with a colored light. The color depends on the gas used.

Glow discharges are used as a source of light in devices such as neon lights, cold cathode fluorescent lamps and plasma-screen televisions. Analyzing the light produced with spectroscopy can reveal information about the atomic interactions in the gas, so glow discharges are used in plasma physics and analytical chemistry. They are also used in the surface treatment technique called sputtering.

Electrical conduction in gas
Conduction in a gas requires charge carriers, which can be either electrons or ions. Charge carriers come from ionizing some of the gas molecules. In terms of current flow, glow discharge falls between dark discharge and arc discharge.

 * In a dark discharge, the gas is ionized (the carriers are generated) by a radiation source such as ultraviolet light or Cosmic rays. At higher voltages across the anode and cathode, the freed carriers can gain enough energy so that additional carriers are freed during collisions; the process is a Townsend avalanche or multiplication.
 * In a glow discharge, the carrier generation process reaches a point where the average electron leaving the cathode allows another electron to leave the cathode. For example, the average electron may cause dozens of ionizing collisions via the Townsend avalanche; the resulting positive ions head toward the cathode, and a fraction of those that cause collisions with the cathode will dislodge an electron by secondary emission.
 * In an arc discharge, electrons leave the cathode by thermionic emission and field emission, and the gas is ionized by thermal means.

Below the breakdown voltage there is little to no glow and the electric field is uniform. When the electric field increases enough to cause ionization, the Townsend discharge starts. When a glow discharge develops, the electric field is considerably modified by the presence of positive ions; the field is concentrated near the cathode. The glow discharge starts as a normal glow. As the current is increased, more of the cathode surface is involved in the glow. When the current is increased above the level where the entire cathode surface is involved, the discharge is known as an abnormal glow. If the current is increased still further, other factors come into play and an arc discharge begins.

Mechanism
The simplest type of glow discharge is a direct-current glow discharge. In its simplest form, it consists of two electrodes in a cell held at low pressure (0.1–10 torr; about 1/10000th to 1/100th of atmospheric pressure). A low pressure is used to increase the mean free path; for a fixed electric field, a longer mean free path allows a charged particle to gain more energy before colliding with another particle. The cell is typically filled with neon, but other gases can also be used. An electric potential of several hundred volts is applied between the two electrodes. A small fraction of the population of atoms within the cell is initially ionized through random processes, such as thermal collisions between atoms or by gamma rays. The positive ions are driven towards the cathode by the electric potential, and the electrons are driven towards the anode by the same potential. The initial population of ions and electrons collides with other atoms, exciting or ionizing them. As long as the potential is maintained, a population of ions and electrons remains.

Secondary emission
Some of the ions' kinetic energy is transferred to the cathode. This happens partially through the ions striking the cathode directly. The primary mechanism, however, is less direct. Ions strike the more numerous neutral gas atoms, transferring a portion of their energy to them. These neutral atoms then strike the cathode. Whichever species (ions or atoms) strike the cathode, collisions within the cathode redistribute this energy resulting in electrons ejected from the cathode. This process is known as secondary electron emission. Once free of the cathode, the electric field accelerates electrons into the bulk of the glow discharge. Atoms can then be excited by collisions with ions, electrons, or other atoms that have been previously excited by collisions.

Light production
Once excited, atoms will lose their energy fairly quickly. Of the various ways that this energy can be lost, the most important is radiatively, meaning that a photon is released to carry the energy away. In optical atomic spectroscopy, the wavelength of this photon can be used to determine the identity of the atom (that is, which chemical element it is) and the number of photons is directly proportional to the concentration of that element in the sample. Some collisions (those of high enough energy) will cause ionization. In atomic mass spectrometry, these ions are detected. Their mass identifies the type of atoms and their quantity reveals the amount of that element in the sample.

Regions
The illustrations to the right shows the main regions that may be present in a glow discharge. Regions described as "glows" emit significant light; regions labeled as "dark spaces" do not. As the discharge becomes more extended (i.e., stretched horizontally in the geometry of the illustrations), the positive column may become striated. That is, alternating dark and bright regions may form. Compressing the discharge horizontally will result in fewer regions. The positive column will be compressed while the negative glow will remain the same size, and, with small enough gaps, the positive column will disappear altogether. In an analytical glow discharge, the discharge is primarily a negative glow with dark region above and below it.

Cathode layer
The cathode layer begins with the Aston dark space, and ends with the negative glow region. The cathode layer shortens with increased gas pressure. The cathode layer has a positive space charge and a strong electric field.

Aston dark space
Electrons leave the cathode with an energy of about 1 eV, which is not enough to ionize or excite atoms, leaving a thin dark layer next to the cathode.

Cathode glow
Electrons from the cathode eventually attain enough energy to excite atoms. These excited atoms quickly fall back to the ground state, emitting light at a wavelength corresponding to the difference between the energy bands of the atoms. This glow is seen very near the cathode.

Cathode dark space
As electrons from the cathode gain more energy, they tend to ionize, rather than excite atoms. Excited atoms quickly fall back to ground level emitting light, however, when atoms are ionized, the opposite charges are separated, and do not immediately recombine. This results in more ions and electrons, but no light. This region is sometimes called Crookes dark space, and sometimes referred to as the cathode fall, because the largest voltage drop in the tube occurs in this region.

Negative glow
The ionization in the cathode dark space results in a high electron density, but slower electrons, making it easier for the electrons to recombine with positive ions, leading to intense light, through a process called bremsstrahlung radiation.

Faraday dark space
As the electrons keep losing energy, less light is emitted, resulting in another dark space.

Anode layer
The anode layer begins with the positive column, and ends at the anode. The anode layer has a negative space charge and a moderate electric field.

Positive column
With fewer ions, the electric field increases, resulting in electrons with energy of about 2 eV, which is enough to excite atoms and produce light. With longer glow discharge tubes, the longer space is occupied by a longer positive column, while the cathode layer remains the same. For example, with a neon sign, the positive column occupies almost the entire length of the tube.

Anode glow
An electric field increase results in the anode glow.

Anode dark space
Fewer electrons results in another dark space.

Striations
Bands of alternating light and dark in the positive column are called striations. There is no universal mechanism explaining the striations for all conditions of gas and pressure producing them, but recent theoretical and modelling studies, supported with experimental results, mention the importance of the Dufour effect.

Sputtering
In addition to causing secondary emission, positive ions can strike the cathode with sufficient force to eject particles of the material from which the cathode is made. This process is called sputtering and it gradually ablates the cathode. Sputtering is useful when using spectroscopy to analyze the composition of the cathode, as is done in Glow-discharge optical emission spectroscopy.

However, sputtering is not desirable when glow discharge is used for lighting, because it shortens the life of the lamp. For example, neon signs have hollow cathodes designed to minimize sputtering, and contain charcoal to continuously remove undesired ions and atoms.

Carrier gas
In the context of sputtering, the gas in the tube is called "carrier gas," because it carries the particles from the cathode.

Color difference
Because of sputtering occurring at the cathode, the colors emitted from regions near the cathode are quite different from the anode. Particles sputtered from the cathode are excited and emit radiation from the metals and oxides that make up the cathode. The radiation from these particles combines with radiation from excited carrier gas, giving the cathode region a white or blue color, while in the rest of the tube, radiation is only from the carrier gas and tends to be more monochromatic.

Electrons near the cathode are less energetic than the rest of the tube. Surrounding the cathode is a negative field, which slows electrons as they are ejected from the surface. Only those electrons with the highest velocity are able to escape this field, and those without enough kinetic energy are pulled back into the cathode. Once outside the negative field, the attraction from the positive field begins to accelerate these electrons toward the anode. During this acceleration electrons are deflected and slowed down by positive ions speeding toward the cathode, which, in turn, produces bright blue-white bremsstrahlung radiation in the negative glow region.

Use in analytical chemistry
Glow discharges can be used to analyze the elemental, and sometimes molecular, composition of solids, liquids, and gases, but elemental analysis of solids is the most common. In this arrangement, the sample is used as the cathode. As mentioned earlier, gas ions and atoms striking the sample surface knock atoms off of it, a process known as sputtering.

The sputtered atoms, now in the gas phase, can be detected by atomic absorption, but this is a comparatively rare strategy. Instead, atomic emission and mass spectrometry are usually used.

Collisions between the gas-phase sample atoms and the plasma gas pass energy to the sample atoms. This energy can excite the atoms, after which they can lose their energy through atomic emission. By observing the wavelength of the emitted light, the atom's identity can be determined. By observing the intensity of the emission, the concentration of atoms of that type can be determined.

Energy gained through collisions can also ionize the sample atoms. The ions can then be detected by mass spectrometry. In this case, it is the mass of the ions that identify the element and the number of ions that reflect the concentration. This method is referred to as glow discharge mass spectrometry (GDMS) and it has detection limits down to the sub-ppb range for most elements that are nearly matrix-independent.

Depth analysis
Both bulk and depth analysis of solids may be performed with glow discharge. Bulk analysis assumes that the sample is fairly homogeneous and averages the emission or mass spectrometric signal over time. Depth analysis relies on tracking the signal in time, therefore, is the same as tracking the elemental composition in depth.

Depth analysis requires greater control over operational parameters. For example, conditions (current, potential, pressure) need to be adjusted so that the crater produced by sputtering is flat bottom (that is, so that the depth analyzed over the crater area is uniform). In bulk measurement, a rough or rounded crater bottom would not adversely impact analysis. Under the best conditions, depth resolution in the single nanometer range has been achieved (in fact, within-molecule resolution has been demonstrated).

The chemistry of ions and neutrals in vacuum is called gas phase ion chemistry and is part of the analytical study that includes glow discharge.

Powering modes

In analytical chemistry, glow discharges are usually operated in direct-current mode. For direct-current, the cathode (which is the sample in solids analysis) must be conductive. In contrast, analysis of a non conductive cathode requires the use of a high frequency alternating current.

The potential, pressure, and current are interrelated. Only two can be directly controlled at once, while the third must be allowed to vary. The pressure is most typically held constant, but other schemes may be used. The pressure and current may be held constant, while potential is allowed to vary. The pressure and voltage may be held constant while the current is allowed to vary. The power (product of voltage and current) may be held constant while the pressure is allowed to vary.

Glow discharges may also be operated in radio-frequency. The use of this frequency will establish a negative DC-bias voltage on the sample surface. The DC-bias is the result of an alternating current waveform that is centered about negative potential; as such it more or less represent the average potential residing on the sample surface. Radio-frequency has ability to appear to flow through insulators (non-conductive materials).

Both radio-frequency and direct-current glow discharges can be operated in pulsed mode, where the potential is turned on and off. This allows higher instantaneous powers to be applied without excessively heating the cathode. These higher instantaneous powers produce higher instantaneous signals, aiding detection. Combining time-resolved detection with pulsed powering results in additional benefits. In atomic emission, analyte atoms emit during different portions of the pulse than background atoms, allowing the two to be discriminated. Analogously, in mass spectrometry, sample and background ions are created at different times.

Application to analog computing
An interesting application for using glow discharge was described in a 2002 scientific paper by Ryes, Ghanem et al. According to a Nature news article describing the work, researchers at Imperial College London demonstrated how they built a mini-map that glows along the shortest route between two points. The Nature news article describes the system as follows:

 * To make the one-inch London chip, the team etched a plan of the city centre on a glass slide. Fitting a flat lid over the top turned the streets into hollow, connected tubes. They filled these with helium gas, and inserted electrodes at key tourist hubs. When a voltage is applied between two points, electricity naturally runs through the streets along the shortest route from A to B - and the gas glows like a tiny neon strip light.

The approach itself provides a novel visible analog computing approach for solving a wide class of maze searching problems based on the properties of lighting up of a glow discharge in a microfluidic chip.

Application to voltage regulation
In the mid-20th century, prior to the development of solid state components such as Zener diodes, voltage regulation in circuits was often accomplished with voltage-regulator tubes, which used glow discharge.

title: Glow discharge


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Double action

Double action (or double-action) refers to one of two systems in firearms where the trigger both cocks and releases the hammer.
 * Double-action only (DAO) firearms trigger: The trigger both cocks and releases the hammer. There is no single-action function and the hammer will return to its decocked position after each shot.
 * Double Action Kellerman (DAK): A variant of traditional double-action used on certain SIG Sauer semi-automatic pistols. DAK triggers have a long stroke with 29 N pull.  However, if a user shooting under stress short-strokes the trigger by only releasing it halfway, the trigger will reset, but with a 38 N pull.  This temporary increased trigger pull is intended to prevent negligent discharges.
 * Double-action – firearms trigger: Pressing the trigger 1) cocks, and 2) drops the hammer. The hammer can also be cocked to fire in single-action (SA) mode.
 * With a DA revolver, the hammer can be cocked first (single action), or the trigger can be pulled and it will cock and release the hammer (double action). Once the gun has fired, the hammer stays in the decocked position until the hammer is re-cocked (single action), or the trigger is pulled again (double action).
 * With a DA semi-automatic pistol, the initial trigger pull will cock and release the hammer (double action). The blowback from the firing mechanism automatically re-cocks the hammer after the gun is fired, such that each subsequent shot only requires the hammer to be released (single action). A decocker, if present on the pistol, can be used to return the hammer to its decocked position to prevent negligent discharges.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Double action


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Mount Spurr

Mount Spurr (Dena'ina: K'idazq'eni) is a stratovolcano in the Aleutian Arc of Alaska, named after United States Geological Survey geologist and explorer Josiah Edward Spurr, who led an expedition to the area in 1898. The Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO) currently rates Mount Spurr as Level of Concern Color Code Green. The mountain is known aboriginally by the Dena'ina Athabascan name K'idazq'eni, literally 'that which is burning inside'.

Mount Spurr, the highest volcano of the Aleutian Arc, is a large lava dome constructed at the center of a roughly 5 km-wide horseshoe-shaped caldera that is open to the south. The volcano lies 80.87 miles west of Anchorage and NE of Chakachamna Lake. The caldera was formed by a late-Pleistocene or early Holocene debris avalanche and associated pyroclastic flows that destroyed an ancestral Spurr volcano. The debris avalanche traveled more than 15.5 miles to the SE, and the resulting deposit contains blocks as large as 100m in diameter. Several ice-carved post-caldera domes lie in the caldera. Present Mt. Spurr is the highest of the post-caldera. This regrown summit peak of Spurr experienced a heating event in 2004 which created a small crater lake. By 2008, the summit crater had cooled enough to have begun to have accumulated significant amounts of snow again. The youngest post-caldera dome, Crater Peak (2309m, 7575 ft), formed at the breached southern end of the caldera about 3.2 km south of Spurr, has been the source of about 40 identified Holocene tephra layers. Spurr's two historical eruptions, from Crater Peak in 1953 and 1992, deposited ash on the city of Anchorage. Crater Peak has a summit crater that is itself slightly breached along the south rim; the north wall of the crater exposes the truncated remains of an older dome or lava lake. Before the 1992 eruption, a small crater lake occupied the bottom of Crater Peak's crater.

As with other Alaskan volcanoes, the proximity of Spurr to major trans-Pacific aviation routes means that an eruption of this volcano can significantly disrupt air travel. Volcanic ash can cause jet engines to fail.

Recent activity
On July 26, 2004, the AVO raised the "Color Concern Code" at Spurr from green to yellow due to an increasing number of earthquakes. Earthquakes beneath a volcano may indicate the movement of magma preceding a volcanic eruption, but the earthquakes might also die out without an eruption. In the first week of August 2004, the AVO reported the presence of a collapse pit, filled with water forming a new crater lake, in the ice and snow cover on the summit. This lake may have been caused by an increase in heat flow through the summit lava dome.

On May 3, 2005, a debris flow was observed in webcam images, as well as by a nearby pilot. A subsequent overflight revealed that much of the sitting pond within the melt hole had drained away, a notable depth.

title: Mount Spurr


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Talk:Mount Spurr

Webcam
I inserted a webcam page for Spurr in the external links. I thought that it kind of needed it since it talks about it in the article.

mt spurr volcanoe
it is the most exspsive volcanoe in thre world —Preceding unsigned comment added by 63.133.236.1 (talk) 16:27, 29 January 2008 (UTC) none —Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.103.53.170 (talk) 06:34, 20 October 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mount Spurr


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Moshi, Tanzania

Moshi is a municipality and the capital of Kilimanjaro region in the north eastern Tanzania. As of 2017, the municipality has an estimated population of 201,150 and a population density of 3,409 persons per km2. In the last official census of 2022, the municipality had a population of 221,733. The municipality is situated on the lower slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro, a dormant volcano that is the highest mountain in Africa. The name Moshi has been reported to refer to the smoke that emanates from the nearby mountain. The municipality covers about 59 km2 and is the smallest municipality in Tanzania by area.

History and administration
Germany established a military camp in Moshi (Neumoschi) in August 1893. The northern line railroad reached Moshi in 1912.

Moshi attained the status of a town in 1956. In 1988, it became a municipality under Tanzanian law, but as of 31 October 2014, the process for submitting its application to become a city was in its final stages. Moshi is administratively divided into 21 wards and then subdivided into 60 hamlets.

Economy
As the capital of the region, it is the center of government activities, trade, finance, and tourism. In the first half of the 20th century, Moshi was traditionally an important railway town, center of banana agriculture, and commercial producer of pyrethrum.

Tourism
Moshi is one of tourism centers in the northern safari circuit of Tanzania. The closest tourism spots include Kilimanjaro National Park, Mkomazi National Park, Lake Jipe, and Lake Chala. There are also several waterfalls, natural springs, and tropical forests. Tours can also be arranged from Moshi to other areas such as Serengeti National Park, Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Arusha National Park, Lake Manyara National Park, and Tarangire National Park. The city has several hotels and recreation centers.

There is annual fair, KiliFair, organized to be an international tourism & industry fair, promoting and presenting companies based in the Kilimanjaro region. The fair has the character of a business networking event for the tourism industry, in combination with a community fair to attract local people, families & expats. Recently, Karibu Fair (TATO) and Kilifair, both well-known tourism fairs decided to join into one and create by far the largest and most important Tourism Trade Fair in East Africa. The newly formed “Karibu/KiliFair” is expecting to host 350+ exhibitors from East and Central Africa, 300+ international hosted and semi-hosted buyers, as well as approximately 4000 trade visitors during the days of the fair. The fair will annually alternate between Moshi and Arusha starting 2018 event.

 * Timing:  At the beginning of June every year (from 2015).
 * Venue(s): Ushirika Stadium in Moshi and Friedkin Recreation Center – TGT in Arusha
 * Coming Event: 2019, June 7 – 9 (to be held in Arusha)

Manufacturing
Moshi is the home to one of the three Coca-Cola bottlers in Tanzania, Bonite Botters Ltd. Serengeti Breweries, an East African Breweries company, also has a manufacturing plant in Moshi. Just south of the city, there is a sugar production facility by TPC Ltd which owns one of the largest and oldest sugar cane plantation in the country. There are several small and medium scale manufacturing facilities in dairy and food packaging sector.

Agriculture
Moshi's lower altitude and drier climate mean that the main crops grown on the higher slopes of Mt Kilimanjaro, coffee and bananas, do not thrive there. The surrounding areas in Moshi district are known for extensive farms of maize and beans, grown once per year during the long rainy season (known as "masika" in Kiswahili). In addition, the Tanganyika Planting Company operates a very large sugar cane plantation and company town 20 km south of Moshi.

Roman Catholic missionaries introduced Arabica coffee cultivation to the Moshi region in 1893. The Kilimanjaro Native Co-operative Union was established in 1929 by the district commissioner, Charles Cecil Farquharson Dundas. Its purpose was to enable Chagga coffee growers to compete on equal terms in world markets with European growers. KNCU collects coffee from 96 village societies, representing over 150,000 small-scale farmers. KNCU handles between 50 and 70 percent of the coffee grown in the area and trades over 5,250 tons of Arabica coffee, or about 11 percent of national production.

Education
Like all of Tanzania, Moshi has universal primary education. According to the Tanzania Demographic and Health Survey 2010, the Kilimanjaro Region, which includes Moshi, had the second highest female literacy rate and the third highest male literacy rate among Tanzania's then-existing 26 regions. According to the Tanzania Poverty and Human Development Report 2005, the Moshi urban district had the highest literacy rate for persons over 15 years of age when compared to any of the 128 other districts in Tanzania.

Moshi hosts a number of higher education facilities, which include the Kilimanjaro Christian Medical College (KCMCo), the Stefano Moshi Memorial University College (SMMUCo), the Mwenge Catholic University (MWECAU), the Moshi Co-operative University (MoCU), the College of African Wildlife Management (CAWM), the Kilimanjaro School of Pharmacy (KSP), and the Tanzania Training Centre for Orthopaedic Technologists (TATCOT).

 * KCMCo is a campus of Tumaini University. It was started in 1997 and offers a number of medical courses. The college is located within the Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre complex, about 6 km from Moshi.
 * SMMUCo is also a campus of Tumaini University. It was developed from the Masoka Management Training Institute and the Mwika Lutheran Bible College. It belongs to the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Tanzania - Northern Diocese, and it is a multi-campus university college. Currently, SMMUCo has campuses in Masoka, Mwika and Moshi, with future campuses planned for Machame, Siha, and Karatu.
 * MWECAU formerly a constituent college of the Saint Augustine University of Tanzania. MWECAU is located 10 km north of Moshi.
 * Since May 2004, the Moshi Co-operative University has been a constituent college of the Sokoine University of Agriculture. Formerly known as the Ushirika College, it is the oldest training institution in Tanzania and is located along Sokoine Road in Moshi. Moshi Co-operative University has accumulated 43 years' experience in the fields of co-operative accounting, co-operative management and rural development has of recently turned into other expertise in accounting, management, marketing, auditing and cooperative development employed in different institutions within and outside Tanzania. Moshi Co-operative University grew from a college enrolling only 150 students, conducting tailored courses, to a university college with a capacity of 1500 students.
 * CAWM is commonly known as Mweka College. It was established in 1963 following the Arusha Manifesto (1961) as a pioneer institution for the training of African wildlife managers. The majority of the CAWM's students come from the SADC region, although the College opens its doors to all students with an interest in African Wildlife Management.
 * KSP is owned by the Saint Luke Foundation, a registered trust founded to provide broad spectrum services to an African population that faces serious deficiencies in pharmaceutical and health systems. KSP is currently the only pharmacy school providing competence based training for different levels of pharmaceuticals cadres to a diploma level.
 * The Tanzania Training Centre for Orthopaedic Technologists (TATCOT) was founded in Moshi with the material, financial and human resource support of the governments of Tanzania and the Federal Republic of Germany in June 1981. TATCOT is a supra-regional training centre providing courses in the field of orthopaedic technology in Africa and enrols students from all English speaking African countries as well as other interested countries. The reason for establishing these courses was to educate the professionals who are required to provide technical services to people with amputations and other neuromuscular disorders such as poliomyelitis, paralysis, cerebral palsy, clubfoot and trauma. In order to do this the professionals are provided with the knowledge and skills to provide prostheses, orthoses, wheelchairs and supportive seating to people with disabilities.
 * CAWM is commonly known as Mweka College. It was established in 1963 following the Arusha Manifesto (1961) as a pioneer institution for the training of African wildlife managers. The majority of the CAWM's students come from the SADC region, although the College opens its doors to all students with an interest in African Wildlife Management.
 * KSP is owned by the Saint Luke Foundation, a registered trust founded to provide broad spectrum services to an African population that faces serious deficiencies in pharmaceutical and health systems. KSP is currently the only pharmacy school providing competence based training for different levels of pharmaceuticals cadres to a diploma level.
 * The Tanzania Training Centre for Orthopaedic Technologists (TATCOT) was founded in Moshi with the material, financial and human resource support of the governments of Tanzania and the Federal Republic of Germany in June 1981. TATCOT is a supra-regional training centre providing courses in the field of orthopaedic technology in Africa and enrols students from all English speaking African countries as well as other interested countries. The reason for establishing these courses was to educate the professionals who are required to provide technical services to people with amputations and other neuromuscular disorders such as poliomyelitis, paralysis, cerebral palsy, clubfoot and trauma. In order to do this the professionals are provided with the knowledge and skills to provide prostheses, orthoses, wheelchairs and supportive seating to people with disabilities.
 * KSP is owned by the Saint Luke Foundation, a registered trust founded to provide broad spectrum services to an African population that faces serious deficiencies in pharmaceutical and health systems. KSP is currently the only pharmacy school providing competence based training for different levels of pharmaceuticals cadres to a diploma level.
 * The Tanzania Training Centre for Orthopaedic Technologists (TATCOT) was founded in Moshi with the material, financial and human resource support of the governments of Tanzania and the Federal Republic of Germany in June 1981. TATCOT is a supra-regional training centre providing courses in the field of orthopaedic technology in Africa and enrols students from all English speaking African countries as well as other interested countries. The reason for establishing these courses was to educate the professionals who are required to provide technical services to people with amputations and other neuromuscular disorders such as poliomyelitis, paralysis, cerebral palsy, clubfoot and trauma. In order to do this the professionals are provided with the knowledge and skills to provide prostheses, orthoses, wheelchairs and supportive seating to people with disabilities.
 * The Tanzania Training Centre for Orthopaedic Technologists (TATCOT) was founded in Moshi with the material, financial and human resource support of the governments of Tanzania and the Federal Republic of Germany in June 1981. TATCOT is a supra-regional training centre providing courses in the field of orthopaedic technology in Africa and enrols students from all English speaking African countries as well as other interested countries. The reason for establishing these courses was to educate the professionals who are required to provide technical services to people with amputations and other neuromuscular disorders such as poliomyelitis, paralysis, cerebral palsy, clubfoot and trauma. In order to do this the professionals are provided with the knowledge and skills to provide prostheses, orthoses, wheelchairs and supportive seating to people with disabilities.

Moshi also has several secondary schools. The government schools are Mawenzi Secondary School, Moshi Technical School, Moshi Secondary School, and J. K. Nyerere Secondary School. The private schools are Majengo Secondary School, Northern Highland Secondary School, United World College East Africa, and Kibo Secondary School. In addition, each ward of Moshi has a community-established secondary school, such as Rau Secondary School and Kiboriloni Secondary School.

 * Mawenzi Secondary School started as the Indian School of Moshi in 1956. It is now a thriving school of 1,100 pupils. All A-Level students are female boarders and come from all over Tanzania. The school specialises at A-Level in Kiswahili, geography, history, and English. The school operates a double shift system for junior pupils (Form 1–4).  All subjects are taught in English, apart from Kiswahili and French.  Mawenzi School has had a link with Buckie High School in Scotland since 1987. Pupils and teachers have travelled between Tanzania and Scotland many times.
 * The United World College East Africa, formerly known as the International School Moshi (ISM), was established in 1969 to serve the needs of the expatriate and local communities. The school has about 600 students from nearly 40 different nationalities on two campuses in Moshi and Arusha. The Moshi campus has about 190 students, including 90 boarders, from 25 nationalities and offers a full range of courses from early childhood to the International Baccalaureate Diploma. The school has been an International Baccalaureate World School since 1977, and was the first school to offer the IB in Africa. ISM is one of only two world schools in Tanzania to offer the primary years, middle years, and diploma programmes. In August 2019 ISM became the 18th United World College in the world, adopting the name UWC East Africa.

There are also various English medium schools with pre-primary, primary, and secondary education, such as the Eden Garden schools.

Medical care
The main private hospital in the area is the Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre (KCMC), a zonal referral hospital. This complex has more than 450 beds and serves a population of over 11 million individuals. The Good Samaritan Foundation of Tanzania founded KCMC in March 1971.

Next to KCMC is the Kilimanjaro Centre for Community Ophthalmology (KCCO), which was founded in 2001 and is co-directed by Dr. Paul Courtright and Dr. Susan Lewallen. A new three-story building for KCCO was finished in 2007, funded by several individuals and non-governmental organizations. The KCCO is "dedicated to the elimination of avoidable blindness through programmes, training, and research focusing on the delivery of sustainable and replicable community ophthalmology services". The KCCO has an "official memorandum of understanding ... with the Department of Ophthalmology and Kilimanjaro Christian Medical College under which the KCCO assumes or shares responsibility (subject to specific funding grants) for many teaching activities, running workshops and seminars, supervising the ... [Ophthalmic Resource Centre for Eastern Africa], serving in an advisory capacity for planning Eye Department services, conducting epidemiologic and clinical research in prevention or treatment of vision loss or related fields, and serves on committees".

Moshi also hosts the Kilimanjaro Clinical Research Institute (KCRI), which is the research arm of KCMC. KCRI evolved from the Kilimanjaro Clinical Research Centre (KCRC) in 2009. KCRC was established in 2006 with the support of the Dutch government through the Netherlands-African partnership for Capacity development and Clinical interventions Against Poverty-related disease (NACCAP).

The primary public hospital in Moshi is the Mawenzi Regional Hospital, which started sometime before 1920 as a small dispensary for German soldiers and became a hospital in 1956. The hospital has about 300 beds but is severely underfunded. In late 2010, its surgical services were suspended indefinitely by the Government and Private Hospitals Inspection Committee of the Tanzanian Ministry of Health and Social Welfare. The head of the committee, Dr. Pamella Sawa, said, "During our inspection, we inspected the theatre room of Mawenzi Hospital and found it very dirty, with no[t] enough ventilation, the situation which is dangerous not only to the patient but also to his/her attendant...." The hospital includes a Care and Treatment Centre for people living with HIV/AIDS. The hospital's physical therapy department has a student learning program in cooperation with Norway, in which Norwegian physiotherapy students in their second and third years come as short term apprentices.

Roads
Moshi is connected to other cities in Tanzania by Tanroads highway T2. Several bus companies operate intercity routes from Moshi. There are also local buses for the intracity travel.

Air
Kilimanjaro International Airport, which is operated by the Kilimanjaro Airport Development Company and located in Hai District approximately 40 km along the Moshi-Arusha Highway. There is also a small airport nearby (Moshi Airport) approximately 5 km from the city center. The airport serves mostly chartered and private flights.

Rail
Tanga Line passes through Moshi. The line carries cargo mostly cement from Tanga to Moshi and Arusha. There is regular passenger service to Arusha and Dar Es Salaam.

Running races
Moshi hosts the Kilimanjaro Marathon, Tanzania's largest sport event, held annually at the end of February or beginning of March since 2002. The race is a member of the Association of International Marathons and Distance Races. Apart from promoting tourism, the race promotes the sport in Tanzania and has the official backing of the Tanzania Tourist Board, Athletics Tanzania, and the International Association of Athletics Federations.

In 2015, 313 persons finished the 42.2 km full marathon, and 2,593 persons finished the 21.1 km half marathon. The race also includes a 5 kilometer (3.1 mile) fun run.

Hockey
Moshi has one field hockey pitch, formerly known as Sikh Club and it is home to well known hockey teams from Moshi like Moshi Khalsa and Kili Vijana. Hockey is an active sport in Moshi and it holds tournaments as well such as the annual Nyerere Cup hosted by the Sikh Community.

Football
Moshi has several football pitches where players from different ethnicities and backgrounds come together to enjoy the sport. The Ushirika Stadium is the only full - sized pitch where many official league matches have been played including the Tanzanian Premier League. Other pitches include the Hindu Mandal ground and the Moshi Club.

Golf
Moshi has two golf courses, Moshi Golf Course operated by Moshi Gymkhana Club (MGC) and TPC Moshi Golf Course operated by TPC Club. The clubs host various national and regional events, annually, coordinated by the Tanzania Golf Union.

Climate
Moshi has a tropical wet and dry climate. Its weather is dominated year round by monsoonal flow. The northeast monsoon prevails December through March and is accompanied by the highest temperatures of the year. The southeast monsoon prevails from June through September. Unique among the world's monsoons, both monsoons in Tanzania are divergent in the low levels, shallow (averaging only 2 km in depth), and capped by inversion and dry, subsiding air. These factors result in light or insignificant rainfall year-round except during the transitional periods between the monsoons.

Moshi's altitude keeps temperatures lower than surrounding cities, even without the maritime effects that a coastal city enjoys. Nighttime temperatures are relatively consistent throughout the year, averaging from 15 to 17 degrees Celsius. Moshi has noticeably warmer daytime temperatures from October through March, when average high temperatures exceed 30 degrees Celsius, and noticeably cooler daytime temperatures from May through August, when average high temperatures are 25 to 26 degrees Celsius.

Moshi's wettest months are March through May, when around 71 percent of its annual rainfall occurs.

Politics
Moshi has been the base of opposition politics since the struggle for independence.

The last Mangi Mkuu (Paramount Chief) of the Chagga, Thomas Lenana Marealle II, whose palace was located in Moshi, worked for the independence of Tanganyika when it was still a United Nations trust territory under British administration. In his speech to the United Nations Trusteeship Council on 17 June 1957, he said that Tanganyika could become self-governing within ten to fifteen years. This speech occurred one day before Julius Nyerere addressed the same body.

In 2010, the unsuccessful Chadema presidential candidate, Willibrod Slaa, received 55.6 percent of the popular vote in the Moshi Urban District compared to 43.5 percent for the nationwide winner, Jakaya Mrisho Kikwete of the Chama cha Mapinduzi party.

In 2010, the Chadema parliamentary candidate, Philemon Kiwelu Ndesamburo, was elected to office with 62.3 percent of the vote.

As of May 2012, six of the seven special seats on the Moshi Municipal Council are held by Chadema party members.

In Literature
In 1953, Journalist John Gunther described Moshi as "the kind of town Somerset Maugham, if he ever wrote about Africa, might have invented."

title: Moshi, Tanzania


text:
Hosaka

Hosaka (written: 保坂) is a Japanese surname. Notable people with the surname include:

 * Choji Hosaka (保坂長治), Japanese Olympian and sport shooter
 * Edward Yataro Hosaka (1907–1961), American botanist
 * Hideki Hosaka (保坂 秀樹), Japanese professional wrestler
 * Kazunari Hosaka (保坂 一成), Japanese footballer
 * Kazushi Hosaka (保坂 和志), Japanese writer
 * Kensuke Hosaka (穂坂 健祐), Japanese basketball coach
 * Malia Hosaka (born 1969), American professional wrestler
 * Nobuto Hosaka (保坂 展人), Japanese politician
 * Nobuyuki Hosaka (born 1970), Japanese footballer
 * Takeshi Hosaka (保坂 武), Japanese politician
 * Tsukasa Hosaka (保坂 司), Japanese footballer and manager

title: Hosaka


text:
ART image file format

ART is a proprietary image file format used mostly by the America Online (AOL) service and client software.

Technical details
The ART format (file extension ".art") holds a single still image that has been highly compressed. The format was designed to facilitate the quick downloading of images, among other things. Originally, the compression was developed by the Johnson-Grace Company, which was then acquired by AOL. When an image is converted to the ART format, the image is analyzed and the software decides what compression technique would be best. The ART format has similarities to the progressive JPEG format, and certain attributes of the ART format can lead to image quality being sacrificed for the sake of image compression (for instance, the image's color palette can be limited).

Usage by AOL
The AOL service used the ART image format for most of the image presentation of the online service. In addition, the AOL client's web browser also automatically served such images in the ART format to achieve faster downloads on the slower dialup connections that were prevalent in those days. This conversion was done in the AOL proxy servers and could be optionally disabled by the user. This image conversion process effectively reduced the download time for image files. This technology was once branded as Turboweb and is now known as AOL TopSpeed.

Software support for ART
The Graphic Workshop Professional software from Alchemy Mindworks Corp. supports ART files. (With later versions of the Graphic Workshop Professional software, an ART plugin from Alchemy Mindworks is required for this support.) For the Windows 2000 platform, Microsoft released the AOL Image Support Update which added support for ART images. As of June 2006 the Internet Explorer browser no longer supported ART files when Microsoft released a security update. Among other things, this update removed support for ART files from the Internet Explorer browser in order to help prevent issues where invalid ART data could cause the Internet Explorer software to unexpectedly quit. An ART file that is opened with the AOL picture viewer can be saved as another file type. Software Mfg. Delcam (a subsidiary of Autodesk) has a product called Artcam which uses the ART file extension to create CAD/CAM files.

title: ART image file format


text:
User:Cirdan (usurped)

Cirdan
Cirdan comes from a Lord of the Rings character by the same name.

Interests

 * Fantasy
 * ScienceFiction
 * Literature
 * Film

title: User:Cirdan (usurped)


text:
Wakhi language

Wakhi (Wakhi: وخی/В̌aхi, IPA: [waχi]) is an Indo-European language in the Eastern Iranian branch of the language family spoken today in Wakhan District, Northern Afghanistan, and also in Tajikistan, Northern Pakistan and Western China.

Due to the effects of dominant languages in Pakistani media like Urdu, Standard Punjabi, and English and the religious impact of Arabic and Persian, Wakhi, like other languages of Pakistan, continuously expands its vocabulary base with loan words.

Classification and distribution
Wakhi is one of several languages that belong to the areal Pamir language group. It is believed to be a descendant of the Scytho-Khotanese language once spoken in the Kingdom of Khotan.

The Wakhi people are occasionally called Pamiris and Guhjali. It is spoken by the inhabitants of the Wakhan Corridor of Afghanistan, parts of Gilgit-Baltistan (the former NAs) of Pakistan, the Gorno-Badakhshan region of Tajikistan, and Xinjiang in Western China. The Wakhi use the self-appellation 'X̌ik' (ethnic) and suffix it with 'wor'/'war' to denote their language as 'X̌ik-wor' themselves. The noun 'X̌ik' comes from *waxša-ī̆ka- (an inhabitant of *Waxša- 'Oxus', for Wakhan, in Wakhi 'Wux̌.' There are other equivalents for the name Wakhi (Anglicised) or Wakhani (Arabic and Persian), Vakhantsy (Russian), Gojali/Gojo (Dingrik-wor/Shina), Guyits/Guicho (Burushaski), Wakhigi/Wakhik-war (Kivi-wor/Khow-wor) and Cert (Turki).

The language belongs, as yet to be confirmed according to studies and sources, to the southern group of the Pamir languages, in the Iranian group of the Indo-European family (450) of languages, where the Ishkashmi, Shighni/...nani and Wakhi languages are included. A very rough estimate of the population of Wakhis is 58,000 worldwide. The Wakhi live in six countries. In the Gilgit-Baltistan region of Pakistan, the Wakhi people mainly live in Gojal, Ishkoman, and Darkut, as well as in Chitral District's Broghol. They live in parts of Wakhan in Afghanistan, Gorno-Badakhshan in Tajikistan, and the Taxkorgan Tajik Autonomous County in China, Russia, and Turkey.

In Afghanistan
In the Wakhan Corridor of Afghanistan, Wakhi is spoken from Putur, near Ishkashim, to the upper reaches of the Wakhan River.

In Tajikistan
In Tajikistan, the Wakhi and other communities that speak one of the Pamir languages refer to themselves as Pamiri or Badakhshani, and there has been a movement to separate their identity from that of the majority of Persian-speaking Tajiks. Linguists universally refer to Wakhi as an East Iranian language independent of Tajik Persian, but many Tajik nationalists insist that Wakhi and other Pamir languages are dialects of Tajik.

In Pakistan
In Gilgit-Baltistan, Wakhi is spoken in the sparsely populated upper portions of five of the northernmost valleys: Hunza, Gojal, Ishkoman, Yasin, Gupis, and Yarkhun. The Hunza Valley has the largest Wakhi population in Pakistan. The Wakhis of Ishkoman lives primarily in the Karambar valley, the town of Imit, and beyond. In Yasin, they live mainly in the vicinity of Darkot, and in Yarhkun, they are found in Baroghil and a few other small villages in the high, upper portion of the valley.

In Pakistan, the central organization of the Wakhi is the Wakhi Cultural Association Pakistan (WCA). This organization is registered with the Government of Pakistan and collaborates with the Ministry of Culture and Tourism and Lok Virsa Pakistan. The Association is working to preserve the Wakhi language and culture and document their poetry and music.

Radio Pakistan Gilgit relays the Wakhi radio programme "Sadoyah Boomy Dunyo", the voice of the roof of the world. The Wakhi Cultural Association has arranged more than twenty programmes since 1984, which include cultural shows, musical nights, and large-scale musical festivals with the collaboration of Lok Virsa Pakistan, the Aga Khan Cultural Service Pakistan (AKCSP), and Pakistan television. In 2000, the WCA won a "Best Programme" organizer award in the Silk Road Festival from the President of Pakistan, Pervez Musharraf. A computerized codification of the Wakhi script has been released, which will help to promote the language development program and documentation of Wakhi poetry, literature, and history.

In China
Wakhi is also spoken in the Taxkorgan Tajik Autonomous County, in Xinjiang of China, mainly in the township of Dafdar.

In Russia
There are approximately 6,000 Wakhi in Russia, Most of them have migrated from Tajikistan and Afghanistan.

In Turkey
There are some Wakhi villages in Turkey in the eastern regions, where they have migrated from Afghanistan in 1979 during the Afghan and Russian war.

Orthography
Traditionally, Wakhi was not a written language. Wakhi people live in 4 countries, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Pakistan, and China, and are in contact with speakers of various other languages. Writing systems have been developed for the language using Arabic, Cyrillic, and Latin scripts, each with inspirations from neighboring languages and orthographic conventions. However, due to the pluricentric nature of Wakhi dialects, marginalization in favour of a more significant national/regional language, remoteness, and political instability, no one orthographic standard has managed to rise to the level of a singular unifying writing system.

Perso-Arabic script
The Perso-Arabic script for the Wakhi language has been derived from the Persian alphabet used in Afghanistan. However, there are sounds in Wakhi that are not found in Persian. Here, two diverging conventions have emerged, one in Afghanistan and another in Pakistan (and Pakistani-controlled Gilgit-Baltistan). Pashto has inspired letters in Afghanistan to represent missing sounds in Wakhi, especially the various retroflex sounds missing in Persian. Urdu and orthographies of other languages of Gilgit-Baltistan have been the inspiration in Pakistan.

Afghan Perso-Arabic alphabet
The below table is the Afghan version of the Perso-Arabic alphabet for the Wakhi language. The alphabet has been derived from the alphabet of Dari (Persian), one of Afghanistan's national languages. Pashto, the other national language of Afghanistan, has been the source of letters for phonemes that don't exist in Persian. This orthographic standard has similarities to the orthographies of other Pamir languages, such as Shughni and Munji.

Notes:
 * 1) Letter alef at the beginning of a word can serve two functions. First, it precedes vowel letters "" [e] and [i], or "" [u]. Second, it acts as a vowel carrier for diacritics of the vowel, "" [a].
 * 2)  Vowel phoneme [ɔ] is represented with "" when at the beginning of a word, and with "" when in the middle or end of a word.
 * 3) While the letter se "" represents the phoneme [θ] in Arabic, this letter in Arabic loanwords that have entered Dari (Persian) have come to be pronounced as [s]. Due to consistent contact with Dari (Persian), Arabic loanwords have entered Wakhi via Persian, with their modified Persian pronunciation. Unlike Persian, Wakhi does have a separate phoneme [θ]. Some sources use the letter se "", whereas others use a new letter, te with 4 dots "" that has been introduced so that there can be distinguishment between the native sound [θ] and the sound [s] produced by the letter se "" in loanwords.
 * 4) While the letter zal "" represents the phoneme [ð] in Arabic, this letter in Arabic loanwords that have entered Dari (Persian) have come to be pronounced as [z]. Due to consistent contact with Dari (Persian), Arabic loanwords have entered Wakhi via Persian, with their modified Persian pronunciation. Unlike Persian, Wakhi does have a separate phoneme [ð]. Some sources use the letter zal "", whereas others use a new letter, dal with 3 dots "" that has been introduced so that there can be distinguishment between the native sound [ð] and the sound [z] produced by the letter zal "" in loanwords.
 * 5) Represents two phonemes based on context, [w] and [u]. If used at the beginning of a word, if representing consonant [w], it will be written standalone "", if representing a vowel [u], it will be preceded by alef "".
 * 6) Represents a vowel phoneme. But even if at the beginning of a word, it is written standalone, and without a preceding alef; "".
 * 7) At the end of a word, the letter he "" can either represent a consonant sound [h] or a vowel sound [a] depending on context.
 * 8) The letter ye represents three phonemes based on context, [e], [i] and [j]. If used at the beginning of a word, if representing consonant [j], it will be written standalone "", if representing a vowel [e] or a vowel [i], it will be preceded by alef "".
 * 9) There are two types of final ye. in At the end of a word, if representing the consonant [j], the dotless final ye "" is ued. If representing the vowel [i], the double dot final ye "" is used.

Pakistani Perso-Arabic alphabet
The below table is the Pakistani version of the Perso-Arabic alphabet for the Wakhi language.[1] This alphabet has also been derived from the alphabet of Dari (Persian). However, Urdu, Pakistan's national language, has been the source of letters for phonemes that don't exist in Persian. The vowels are shown to reflect Urdu pronunciations and not the Dari/Tajik pronunciation. Meaning that, for example, the phoneme [ɔ], which is equivalent to Iranian Persian[ ɒː] after having undergone a chain shift, is not written with alef "آ / ا /ا ـا", but with the letter waw "".

Stylistically, while in Afghanistan Naskh is the more common script, in Pakistan, similar with Urdu and other orthographies of Northern Pakistan and Pakistani-controlled Gilgit-Baltistan, Nastaliq is the more common script.

Notes:
 * 1) Letter alef at the beginning of a word can serve two functions. First, it precedes vowel letters "" [e] and [i], or "" [ɔ]. Second, it acts as a vowel carrier for diacritics of the vowel, "" [ɨ].
 * 2)  Vowel phoneme [a] is represented with "" when at the beginning of a word, and with "" when in the middle or end of a word.
 * 3) While the letter se "" represents the phoneme [θ] in Arabic, this letter in Arabic loanwords that have entered Dari (Persian) have come to be pronounced as [s]. Due to consistent contact with Dari (Persian), Arabic loanwords have entered Wakhi via Persian, with their modified Persian pronunciation. Unlike Persian, Wakhi does have a separate phoneme [θ]. Some sources use the letter se "", whereas others use a new letter, te with 4 dots "" that has been introduced so that there can be distinguishment between the native sound [θ] and the sound [s] produced by the letter se "" in loanwords.
 * 4) While the letter zal "" represents the phoneme [ð] in Arabic, this letter in Arabic loanwords that have entered Dari (Persian) and Urdu have come to be pronounced as [z]. Due to consistent contact with Dari (Persian) and Urdu, Arabic loanwords have entered Wakhi via Persian and Urdu, with their modified pronunciation. Unlike Persian and Urdu, Wakhi does have a separate phoneme [ð]. Some sources use the letter zal "", whereas others use a new letter, dal with 2 dots "" that has been introduced so that there can be distinguishment between the native sound [ð] and the sound [z] produced by the letter zal "" in loanwords.
 * 5) Represents three phonemes based on context, [w], [ɔ], and [u]. If used at the beginning of a word, if representing consonant [w], it will be written standalone "". If representing a vowel [ɔ], it will be preceded by alef "". If representing the vowel [u], it will be preceded by a [w] consonant, carrying a zammah diacritic "".
 * 6) At the end of a word, the letter he "" can either represent a consonant sound [h] or a vowel sound [a] depending on context.
 * 7) The letter ye represents three phonemes based on context, [e], [i] and [j]. If used at the beginning of a word, if representing consonant [j], it will be written standalone "", if representing a vowel [e] or a vowel [i], it will be preceded by alef "".
 * 8) There are two types of final ye. in At the end of a word, if representing the consonant [j] or the vowel [i], the small ye "" is used. If representing the vowel [e], the big ye "" is used.

Cyrillic script
When Wakhi is written in Cyrillic, the sounds are usually represented by these letters:

Latin script
A Latin alphabet, which in some variants includes Cyrillic and Greek letters, was developed in 1953 by I.I. Zaroubine and V. S. Sokolova, and further developed by A.L Grünberg and I.M Stéblinn-Kamensky in the early 1960s:

Sample text
Sample text from a Bible translation published in 2001 is shown below:

Vocabulary
The Wakhi lexicon exhibits significant differences with the other Pamir languages. Gawarjon's comparison of the dialects of Sarikoli and Wakhi spoken in China is reproduced below.

Publications
In Pakistan multiple books have been published since 1980s. X̌ikwor zik by Master Haqiqat, Religious hymes by Riaz Ahmed Riaz. Qaida e Wakhi Zaban by Ahmed Jami Sakhi. Magazines and Parlon Wakhi by Karim Khan Saka. "Beyoz-e-Bulbul" by Nazir Ahmad Bulbul. A collection of old and new poems folklores compiled by Bulbulik Heritage Center, Gulmit.

title: Wakhi language


text:
Coach

Coach may refer to:

Guidance/instruction

 * Coach (sport), a director of Athletes' training and activities
 * Coaching, the practice of guiding an individual through a process
 * Acting coach, a teacher who trains performers

Transportation

 * Coach (bus), an automotive vehicle for long-distance travel
 * Coach (carriage), a horse-drawn vehicle
 * Coach (passenger car), a type of railroad car
 * Coach (scheduled transport), the mode of transport using such vehicles
 * Coach Canada, a Canadian bus transport company
 * Coach USA, an American bus transport company
 * Coach class, a category of transport seating
 * Ehroflug Coach II S, a Swiss ultralight aircraft design
 * Funeral coach, a vehicle for carrying the deceased

Business

 * Coach, Inc. (now Tapestry, Inc.), the parent company of Coach New York and other fashion brands
 * Coach New York (aka Coach), an American company specializing in luxury accessories such as handbags

Characters

 * Coach (comics), a Marvel Comics character
 * Coach Ernie Pantusso, a Cheers character
 * Coach, a Left 4 Dead 2 character
 * Coach Harris, a character in the 1984 American teen sex comedy movie Revenge of the Nerds
 * Coach (New Girl), a character from the sitcom New Girl.

Film

 * Coach (1978 film), starring Cathy Lee Crosby
 * Coach (2018 film), a Russian sports film directed by Danilan Kozlovsky

Television

 * Coach (TV series), an American television sitcom, 1989–1997
 * "The Coach" (The Amazing World of Gumball), a television episode

People

 * Jonathan Coachman (born 1972), American professional wrestling personality known as "The Coach"
 * Coach, alias of American professional wrestler John Tolos during a short 1991 stint as a WWF manager
 * Benjamin "Coach" Wade (born 1971), a Survivor contestant

Other uses

 * Zoran COACH, a line of digital cameras from Zoran Corporation
 * The Coach (horse)

title: Coach


text:
10mm Auto

The 10mm Auto (also known as the 10×25mm, official C.I.P. nomenclature: 10 mm Auto, official SAAMI nomenclature: 10mm Automatic) is a powerful and versatile semi-automatic pistol cartridge introduced in 1983. Its design was adopted and later produced by ammunition manufacturer FFV Norma AB of Åmotfors, Sweden.

Although it was selected for service by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) in 1989 in the aftermath of the 1986 FBI Miami shootout, the cartridge was later decommissioned (except by the Hostage Rescue Team and Special Weapons and Tactics Teams) after their Firearms Training Unit eventually concluded that its recoil was too excessive for training average agents and police officers, and that the pistols chambered for the cartridge were too large to grip well for some small-handed individuals. These issues led to the creation of and following replacement by a shorter version of the 10mm that exists today as the .40 S&W, and while the 10mm never attained the mainstream success of this compact variant, there is still an enthusiastic group of supporters and users, and as of 2007, in recent years it has started to grow again in popularity.

History

When FFV Norma AB (now Norma Precision AB) designed the cartridge at the behest of Dornaus & Dixon Enterprises, Inc. for their Bren Ten pistol (a newly developed handgun with a design inspired by the CZ 75), the company decided to increase the power over Jeff Cooper's original concept. The resulting cartridge—which was introduced in 1983 and produced since—is very powerful, retaining the flat trajectory and high energy of a magnum revolver cartridge in a relatively short, versatile rimless cartridge for a semi-automatic pistol.

One of the first issues with its early acceptance as the result of quality problems as a result of rushed production to meet numerous (some even defaulted) pre-orders of the pistol it was originally—as well as then being only—chambered for: the Bren Ten. An example is the peculiar circumstances surrounding the pistol's distribution at its primary release, leading to a number of initial Bren Tens sent to dealers and customers without magazines (the magazines themselves had complications). The relatively high price of the Bren Ten compared to other pistols of the time (manufacturer's suggested retail price was $500 in 1986, the equivalent of $1,200 United States dollars in 2021 ) was another factor in its demise, and the company was eventually forced to declare bankruptcy, ceasing operations in 1986 after only three years of inconsistent, substandard production. Had it not been for Colt making the unexpected decision in 1987 to bring out their Delta Elite pistol (a 10mm Auto version of the M1911) and later, the FBI's adoption of the caliber in 1989, the cartridge might have sunk into obsolescence, becoming an obscure footnote in firearms history.

Due to media exposure in the television series Miami Vice, where one of the lead protagonists had used the pistol as his primary signature weapon, demand for the Bren Ten increased after manufacturing ceased. In the succeeding five years, prices on the Standard Model rose to in excess of U.S. $1,400, and original magazines were selling for over U.S. $150.

The Federal Bureau of Investigation briefly field-tested the 10mm Auto using a M1911 pistol and a Thompson Model 1928 submachine gun before adopting the Smith & Wesson Model 1076 in 1990; a short-barreled version of the Model 1026 with its slide-mounted decock/firing pin block safety supplanted by only a frame-mounted decocker. A contract was signed with Heckler & Koch to produce a quantity of the specialized MP5 utilizing the cartridge, designated MP5/10 for use by their Hostage Rescue Team and Special Weapons and Tactics Teams. Since 1994, both units still field the weapon and caliber to this day.

During testing of the caliber in 1988, it was decided that the full-power commercial load of the 10mm Auto was the best available semi-automatic pistol cartridge for law enforcement usage, but it produced excessive recoil for most agents. Thereafter, experiments were carried out, and a specification for reduced-recoil ammunition was created. The requirement was later submitted to Federal Premium Ammunition for production and further review. This became known as the "10mm Lite", or "10mm FBI" load, or attenuated 10mm, remaining common from various manufacturers today. With some pistol reliability problems increasing in this lighter load, Smith & Wesson observed that a version of the 10mm case reduced to 22 millimeters in length from the original 25 mm could be made with the retained performance parameters of the "10mm Lite". This altered cartridge was named the .40 Smith & Wesson. The shorter case allowed use in pistols designed with similar dimensions to those chambered in 9×19mm Parabellum, with the advantage that smaller-handed shooters could now have smaller-frame semi-automatic handguns with near—or in some cases, exact—10mm performance. Colloquially called the "Forty Cal" and other synonyms, this innovation since became a common handgun cartridge among law enforcement agencies and civilians in the United States, while the parent 10mm Auto remains fairly popular.

In 2015, SIG Sauer entered the 10mm marketplace with their P220 model chambered in 10mm. Ruger introduced a 10mm auto model to their popular SR1911 line in mid 2017, followed by their Blackhawk, Redhawk and 10mm GP100 Match Champion and Wiley Clapp models in 2018. The Springfield Armory XD-M series added a 10mm offering in late 2018. In November 2021, Smith & Wesson introduced 10mm Auto models in the M&P 2.0 series. In 2022 SIG released the 10mm Auto P320-XTEN in the P320 series. In 2024 Taurus released their first 10mm pistol, the 10mm Auto TH10 pistol in the hammer-fired TH line.

Dimensions
The 10mm Auto has 1.56 milliliter (24.1 grain ) cartridge case capacity.

10mm Auto maximum CIP cartridge dimensions

The common rifling twist rate for this cartridge is 406.40 mm (1 in 16 inches), 6 grooves, Ø lands = 9.91 mm (.390 in), Ø grooves = 10.17 mm (.4005 in), and land width = 3.05 mm (.120 in). A large or small pistol primer is used.

The CIP rulings indicate a maximum pressure of 230 MPa. In CIP-regulated countries, every pistol/cartridge combination is required to be proofed at 130% of this maximum CIP pressure to certify for sale to consumers.

The SAAMI maximum pressure limit for the 10mm Auto is set at 37500 psi.

Performance
At mid-range potential, the 10mm Auto produces energy higher than an average mainstream .357 Magnum. The 10mm is slightly less powerful than the .357 Magnum with high-performing commercially-available ammunition, or hand-loaded .357 magnums, and well below standard .41 Magnum rounds. The cartridge is considered to be high-velocity, giving it a less arcing flight path upon firing (also termed "flat-shooting") relative to other handgun cartridges. More powerful loadings can basically equal the highest performing .357 Magnum loads, and retain more kinetic energy at 100 yards than the .45 ACP has at the muzzle.

The 10mm outperforms the .40 S&W by 150 - 300 ft/s for similar bullet weights when using available full-power loads, as opposed to the "10mm FBI" level loads still found in some ammunition catalogs. This result is due to the 10mm Auto's higher SAAMI pressure rating of 37500 psi, as opposed to 35000 psi for the .40 S&W, and the larger case capacity, which allows the use of heavier bullets and more smokeless powder.

Usage

The 10mm Auto is marketed for hunting, defensive, and tactical use and is one of the few semi-automatic, rimless cartridges that is legal for hunting white-tailed deer in many U.S. states. The round makes the "Major" power factor ranking in the International Practical Shooting Confederation, even in lighter loadings.

The FBI Hostage Rescue Team, Special Weapons and Tactics Teams, and various other law enforcement agencies continue to issue or authorize the use of 10mm, including: the Coconut Creek Police Department, Glasgow, Montana Police Department, Weimar Police Department, and the San Francisco Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART) Police Department.

In military use, the government of Denmark has issued the Glock 20 to the Slædepatruljen Sirius (Sirius Sledge Patrol) headquartered in Daneborg, Northeast Greenland. The pistols were issued as a last resort defence against polar bears which the unit encounters during patrols.

title: 10mm Auto


text:
Talk:Taken (miniseries)

Info box
There should be on info box on this page. --anonymous Done --84.178.117.181 12:50, 27 October 2006 (UTC)

A curious aside
I was first taken when I was eight years old, pulled through the wall of my bedroom by the lights. Eight seems to be a common age among people like me, a common starting point to something that changes the rest of our lives. They say that when you're taken, you see the white light, and then you don't remember anything. They're wrong. You don't remember anything, but your subconcious does, and let me tell you, it scares the hell out of you. Out of the people around you, when they find out that you're not, in the truest sense of the word, a normal human being.

How do I measure the times I've been taken? Do I number them by minutes of lost time? Nosebleeds? Times I've woken up screaming from nightmares about the lights? Scars on my body that weren't there the day before? No. Those are all indicators, side effects. The real way I measure is the tears of loved ones. Every time I wake up screaming, crying, shaking, my wife shares my tears. Why? Because she's scared. She's afraid for me, and it hurts. Every time my children hear me yelling at the lights, they cry. Why? Because they're scared. Afraid, because their father, me, the one who is supposed to be the symbol of strength and leadership, is afraid. Fear. Fear and tears, that's how I measure my experience with the lights. The nosebleeds, the scars, those are all the side effects, they don't really matter, and they are not why I hate the lights.

I hate the lights because my wife is seeing a marriage counselor, trying to find the strength to deal with me. I hate the lights because I can't sleep anymore, can't rest without fragments of parts of shattered memories surfacing to torment me. I hate the lights because my neighbors think that I am clinically insane. I hate the lights because my children are afraid of me, their own father.

I hate the lights because they're tearing my family, my life, apart.

Note: This monologue was inspired by watching an episode of Steven Spielberg's Taken. All people and events portrayed here are fictional, any resemblance to real locations or people, living or dead, is entirely coincidental. No animals were harmed in the creation of this writeup. Batteries not included, some assembly required. Do not operate while under the influence of drugs or alcohol. Keep out of reach of small children. -- anonymous

That's a strange thing to put on a Wikipedia page. Anyhow, regarding the article, what a mess! I came here in search of a concise, coherent synopsis of what the miniseries was about, like start with the setting, the people we meet and what unfolds. All we've got here is a list of the characters with all their details tangled together. Please, somebody who's an expert start again!

 * Don't you people sign things here on the english wikipedia??--HerbSolo 23:38, 12 October 2006 (UTC)

lol, thats all I can say. I agree with the above statement of a plot synopsis needed. Xaritix 02:44, 4 May 2007 (UTC)

Image
Hope the image isn't too much of a spoiler. -- anonymous

Anyone planning to put an episode synopsis on the page? I was puzzled after watching the second disc, which ended with "Acid Test", that the next disc, which starts with "Maintenance", seemed to jump ahead a bit. It made me wonder if I missed something. -- Mapetite526 22:03, 27 January 2007 (UTC)

Very incomplete article
I'm surprised that this article is very incomplete and unexpectedly lacking in information. I find this especially puzzling because I am sure this was a very popular series when it first aired and frankly, "Taken" is the best television I have ever seen in my entire life. Now, I'm not experienced in mass-edits/rewrites in Wikipedia (the only experience I have is editing minor grammatical and spelling errors), but I would like this article to be thorough and complete, as it is so deserving. Some one get on it, please? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.227.179.102 (talk) 06:55, 8 March 2008 (UTC)
 * Feel free to contribute and add to the article. --Mjrmtg (talk) 12:19, 8 March 2008 (UTC)

''Your absolutely right, I hope the new information provided for the episodes fulfills the proper standards. Good work on pointing this out.''' —Preceding unsigned comment added by 86.166.148.164 (talk) 17:15, 29 June 2008 (UTC)

Coalition for Freedom of Information to be merged into this article
By what I see as a faulty outcome, a recent AFD of the above article has been closed as a decision to merge with the present article. I'd rather nominate it for a deletion review than having it merge into the present article, which I think is basically undoable if this article is to retain its integrity. I'm awaiting comments and opinions though. __meco (talk) 08:20, 6 January 2009 (UTC)

Split of episode list
I would have split the episode list per the split tag, however I have had a few bad experiences of doing this and checked first. Sure enough there is a site that appears to be the source of the episode lists i.e. http://www.smellthecult.com/Mo/TV/Sci-Fi%20&%20Genre/Taken.htm. I have followed the process in Copyright problems i.e. remove the section. If there is a problem with that then I am happy top take it to the next stage and add the article to the list of copyright problems and let it be decided that way. I did consider the possibility that Wikipedia was first and smellthecult copied it, I discarded this possibility because this diff shows that the episode lists were added in one go whereas the smell the cult contributor was concerned that the list would be left incomplete. I would prefer to go this route since if I am mistaken then the problem can be rectified whereas if I split off a new article then it could be speedily deleted and any evidence needed to save the article would be lost. Op47 (talk) 23:42, 27 January 2012 (UTC)

Mr Speilberg's decision to make the series.
According to Jordan Maxwell the well known Conspiracy Theorist, Mr Speilberg decided to make the T.V. Miniseries after meeting with Dr Karla Turna and reading her story. I did some checking on the Web and could not find any direct conformation that Mr Speilberg ever met Dr Karla, but she does have a book by the same name 'Taken' which she lays out her theory of Alien abductions. Her views are virtually identical to Mr Speilberg's in the T.V. Show (i.e. multi generational abductions, Military involvement etc). Some would suggest it is helpful to read Dr Karla's book before watching the T.V. Series otherwise viewers may at a loss to understand what is being proposed by the storyline of the Show. Johnwrd (talk) 04:00, 30 March 2019 (UTC)

Removal Category:Television series set in 2002
I have removed this from Category:Television series set in 2002. The Television series set in year categories are intended for series set in a year other than that in which they were made/broadcast. This is made clearer in the decade categories such as Category:Television series set in the 2000s which states "This category is for television series with a significant portion set in the 2000s, but which were produced at a later or earlier date". So a TV series set in a past year would be in such a category. In other words it is entirely appropriate for this article to be in a category like Category:Television series set in 1986 and Category:Television series set in 1992. Category:Television series set in 2002 should be for series made prior to 2002, but set in that then future year, or series made since 2002, but set in that historic year (as is the case for Better Call Saul for example). Dunarc (talk) 22:56, 22 June 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Taken (miniseries)


text:
Daniel Clark

Daniel Clark may refer to:

 * Daniel Clark (actor) (born 1985), American actor
 * Daniel Clark (basketball) (born 1988), British basketball player
 * Daniel Clark (Connecticut colonial leader) (1622–1710)
 * Daniel Clark (New Hampshire politician) (1809–1891), U.S. senator
 * Daniel Clark (Louisiana politician) (c. 1766–1813), first Delegate from Orleans Territory to the United States House of Representatives
 * Daniel F. Clark (1954–2014), Pennsylvania politician
 * Daniel Kinnear Clark (1822–1896), British railway engineer
 * Daniel B. Clark (1890–1961), American cinematographer
 * Daniel Clark, shoemaker (d.1744) murder victim in Britain, victim of Eugene Aram

title: Daniel Clark


text:
Plasma globe

A plasma ball, plasma globe, or plasma lamp is a clear glass container filled with noble gases, usually a mixture of neon, krypton, and xenon, that has a high-voltage electrode in the center of the container. When voltage is applied, a plasma is formed within the container. Plasma filaments extend from the inner electrode to the outer glass insulator, giving the appearance of multiple constant beams of colored light (see corona discharge and electric glow discharge). Plasma balls were popular as novelty items in the 1980s.

The plasma lamp was invented by Nikola Tesla, during his experimentation with high-frequency currents in an evacuated glass tube for the purpose of studying high voltage phenomena. Tesla called his invention an "inert gas discharge tube". The modern plasma lamp design was developed by James Falk and MIT student Bill Parker.

A crackle tube is a related device filled with phosphor-coated beads.

Construction
Although many variations exist, a plasma ball is usually a clear glass sphere filled with a mixture of various gases (most commonly neon, sometimes with other noble gases such as argon, xenon and krypton) at nearly atmospheric pressure.

Plasma balls are driven by high-frequency (approximately 35 kHz) alternating current at 2–5 kV. The drive circuit is essentially a specialized power inverter, in which current from a lower-voltage DC supply powers a high-frequency electronic oscillator circuit whose output is stepped up by a high-frequency, high-voltage transformer, for example a miniature Tesla coil or a flyback transformer. The radio-frequency energy from the transformer is transmitted into the gas within the ball through an electrode at its center. Additionally, some designs utilize the ball as a resonant cavity, which provides positive feedback to the drive transistor through the transformer. A much smaller hollow glass orb can also serve as an electrode when it is filled with metal wool or a conducting fluid that is in communication with the transformer output. In this case, the radio-frequency energy is admitted into the larger space by capacitive coupling right through the glass. Plasma filaments extend from the inner electrode to the outer glass insulator, giving the appearance of moving tendrils of colored light within the volume of the ball (see corona discharge and electric glow discharge). If a hand is placed close to the ball it produces a faint smell of ozone, as the gas is produced by high voltage interaction with atmospheric oxygen.

Some balls have a control knob that varies the amount of power going to the center electrode. At the very lowest setting that will light or "strike" the ball, a single tendril is made. This single tendril's plasma channel engages enough space to transmit this lowest striking energy to the outside world through the glass of the ball. As the power is increased, this single channel's capacity is overwhelmed and a second channel forms, then a third, and so on. The tendrils each compete for a footprint on the inner orb as well. The energies flowing through these are all of the same polarity, so they repel each other as like charges: a thin dark boundary surrounds each footprint on the inner electrode.

The ball is prepared by pumping out as much air as is practical. The ball is then backfilled with neon to a pressure similar to one atmosphere. If the radio-frequency power is turned on, if the ball is "struck" or "lit", now, the whole ball will glow a diffuse red. If a little argon is added, the filaments will form. If a very small amount of xenon is added, the "flowers" will bloom at the ends of the filaments.

The neon available for purchase for a neon-sign shop often comes in glass flasks at the pressure of a partial vacuum. These cannot be used to fill a ball with a useful mixture. Tanks of gas, each with its specific, proper, pressure regulator and fitting, are required: one for each of the gases involved.

Of the other noble gases, radon is radioactive, helium escapes through the glass relatively quickly, and krypton is expensive. Other gases such as mercury vapor can be used. Molecular gases may be dissociated by the plasma.

Interaction
Placing a finger tip on the glass creates an attractive spot for the energy to flow because the conductive human body (having an internal resistance less than 1000 ohms) is more easily polarized than the dielectric material around the electrode (i.e. the gas within the ball) providing an alternative discharge path having less resistance. Therefore, the capacity of the large conducting body to accept radio frequency energy is greater than that of the surrounding air. The energy available to the filaments of plasma within the ball will preferentially flow toward the better acceptor. This flow also causes a single filament, from the inner ball to the point of contact, to become brighter and thinner. The filament is brighter because there is more current flowing through it and into the human body, which has a capacitance of about 100 pF. The filament is thinner because the magnetic fields around it, augmented by the now-higher current flowing through it, cause a magnetohydrodynamic effect called pinch: the plasma channel's own magnetic fields create a force acting to compress the size of the plasma channel itself.

Much of the movement of the filaments is due to heating of the gas around the filament. When gas along the filament is heated, it becomes more buoyant and rises, carrying the filament with it. If the filament is discharging into a fixed object (like a hand) on the side of the ball, it will begin to deform into a curved path between the central electrode and the object. When the distance between the electrode and the object becomes too great to maintain, the filament will break and a new filament will reform between the electrode and the hand (see also Jacob's Ladder, which exhibits a similar behavior).

An electric current is produced within any conductive object near the orb. The glass acts as a dielectric in a capacitor formed between the ionized gas and the hand.

History
In ("Incandescent Electric Light", 1894 February 6), Nikola Tesla describes a plasma lamp. This patent is for one of the first high-intensity discharge lamps. Tesla used an incandescent-type lamp ball with a single internal conductive element and excited the element with high voltage currents from a Tesla coil, thus creating the brush discharge emanation. He gained patent protection on a particular form of the lamp in which a light-giving small body or button of refractory material is supported by a conductor entering a very highly exhausted ball or receiver. Tesla called this invention the single terminal lamp, or, later, the "Inert Gas Discharge Tube".

The Groundstar style of plasma ball was created by James Falk and marketed to collectors and science museums in the 1970s and 1980s. Jerry Pournelle in 1984 praised Orb Corporation's Omnisphere as "the most fabulous object in the entire world" and "magnificent ... a new kind of art object", stating "you can't buy mine for any price".

The technology needed to formulate gas mixtures used in today's plasma spheres was not available to Tesla. Modern lamps typically use combinations of xenon, krypton and neon, although other gases can be used. These gas mixtures, along with different glass shapes and integrated-circuit-driven electronics, create the vivid colors, range of motions, and complex patterns seen in today's plasma spheres.

Applications
Plasma balls are mainly used as curiosities or toys for their unique lighting effects and the "tricks" that can be performed on them by users moving their hands around them. They might also form part of a school's laboratory equipment for demonstration purposes. They are not usually employed for general lighting. However, in recent years, some novelty stores have begun selling miniature plasma ball nightlights that can be mounted on a standard light socket.

Plasma balls can be used for experimenting with high voltages. If a conductive plate or wire coil is placed on the ball, capacitive coupling can transfer enough voltage to the plate or coil to produce a small arc or energize a high voltage load. This is possible because the plasma inside the ball and the conductor outside it act as plates of a capacitor, with the glass in between as a dielectric. A step-down transformer connected between the plate and the ball's electrode can produce lower-voltage, higher-current radio frequency output. Careful earth grounding is essential to prevent injury or damage to equipment.

Hazards
Bringing conductive materials or electronic devices close to a plasma ball may cause the glass to become hot. The high voltage radio frequency energy coupled to them from within the ball may cause a mild electric shock to the person touching, even through a protective glass casing. The radio frequency field produced by plasma balls can interfere with the operation of touchpads used on laptop computers, digital audio players, cell phones, and other similar devices. Some types of plasma ball can radiate sufficient radio frequency interference (RFI) to interfere with cordless telephones and Wi-Fi devices several feet or some meters away.

If an electrical conductor touches the outside of the ball, capacitive coupling can induce enough potential on it to produce a small arc. This is possible because the ball's glass acts as a capacitor dielectric: the inside of the lamp acts as one plate, and the conductive object on the outside acts as the opposite capacitor plate. This is a dangerous action that can damage the ball or other electronic devices, and presents a fire ignition hazard.

Perceptible amounts of ozone can be formed on the surface of a plasma ball. Many people can detect ozone at concentrations of $0.01 ppm$, which is right below the lowest concentration at which ozone is considered harmful to health. Exposure of $0.1 ppm$ produces headaches, burning eyes, and irritation to the respiratory passages.

title: Plasma globe