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Royal Canadian Sea Cadets

The Royal Canadian Sea Cadets (RCSC; Cadets de la Marine royale du Canada) is a Canadian national youth program sponsored by the Canadian Armed Forces and the civilian Navy League of Canada. Administered by the Canadian Forces, the program is funded through the Department of National Defence, with the civilian partner providing support in the local community. Cadets are not members of the Canadian Armed Forces.

Overview
Along with the Royal Canadian Army Cadets and Royal Canadian Air Cadets, the Royal Canadian Sea Cadets form part of the Canadian Cadet Organizations. Although the RCSCC and the other cadet programs are sponsored by the Canadian Forces and the civilian Leagues, cadets are not members of the Forces and are not expected to join. In keeping with Commonwealth custom, the Royal Canadian Sea Cadets stand first in the order of precedence, before the Army Cadets and Air Cadets. This is in keeping with the Royal Navy's status as the Senior Service, a tradition common to most Commonwealth navies.

An inclusive program, youth aged 12 to 18 may join the RCSCC. There is no enrollment fee, and uniforms are loaned at no charge. The organization and rank system is similar to that of the Royal Canadian Navy. Adult leadership is provided by members of the Canadian Forces Reserve Subcomponent Cadet Organization Administration and Training Service, composed mostly of officers of the Cadet Instructor Cadre (CIC) Branch, supplemented, if necessary, by contracted Civilian Instructors, authorized adult volunteers, and, on occasion, officers and non-commissioned members of other CF branches. The CIC Branch is specifically trained to serve the Royal Canadian Sea, Army, and Air Cadet training programs, and like all reservists, they come from all walks of life and all parts of the community. Some are former cadets, and many have former regular or reserve force service.

Aim
The aim of the Royal Canadian Sea Cadets is to develop in youth the attributes of good citizenship and leadership; promote physical fitness, and stimulate the interest of youth in the sea, land and air activities of the Canadian Forces. The RCSC shares this aim with the Army and Air Cadets; however, each discipline focuses on its own parent element.

Early days
In 1895, due to concern over the Royal Navy's ability to provide adequate naval defence, concerned citizens formed the Navy League, to promote interest in the problems of maritime trade and defence.

The League formed local branches throughout the United Kingdom and in other countries of the British Empire. The earliest Canadian branch was formed in Toronto. Its warrant (Warrant No. 5) is dated December 10, 1895, and currently hangs in the Navy League of Canada's National Office.

At that time, Canadian branches supported a cadet program called the Boys’ Naval Brigades, aimed at encouraging young men to consider a seafaring career and provide basic training in citizenship and seamanship.

Evolution
With the formation of the Canadian Naval Service in May 1910, the organisation was renamed from "Boys’ Naval Brigade" to "Navy League Sea Cadets," to permit closer liaison with the Navy. In 1942, King George VI graciously consented to be Admiral of the Navy League's Sea Cadets, and granted the "Royal" prefix, causing another name change, to the current "Royal Canadian Sea Cadets." Queen Elizabeth continued this Royal patronage and named His Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh as the Admiral of the RCSC. Finally, in 1941, the RCN became a joint partner with the Navy League in support of the RCSC.

Girls
In 1950, the Navy League of Canada established the Wrenette program for girls aged 13 to 18 years, though at least one corps (in Victoria, British Columbia) unofficially existed before that date. Starting in 1975, girls were permitted to become sea cadets (as well as army and air cadets), making the Wrenette Corps largely redundant. As a result, the Wrenette program steadily declined until it was disbanded in 1997.

Memorial

At the Royal Military College of Canada, outside Currie Hall in Kingston, Ontario, stained glass windows relate to the history of the Royal Canadian Sea Cadets.
 * Donated as a tribute to all national presidents of the Navy League of Canada for the proven love of country in promoting patriotism... seapower ... youth training, the window bestows 'Honour and Glory to patriotic citizens who have and will serve Canada.' The window features images of the Royal Canadian Sea Cadets, Navy League Cadets and Navy League Wrenettes.
 * In memory of David H. Gibson, C.B.E. national president, Navy League of Canada, 1938–1952 a stained glass window features images of a young sailor and God behind the ships' wheel. The window is dedicated to Canadians who in defence of the country went down to the sea in ships. The window includes a poem by H.R. Gillarm: "Proudly in ships they sailed to sea. Ahead their goal, perhaps eternity. But with God as their pilot they had no fear facing all danger as their course was clear. Their cargo? The record of their life. Some good, some bad, some peace, some strife."

Navy League today
In 1995, the Navy League of Canada celebrated its 100th anniversary. The League promotes the same subjects today, as at its founding: knowledge of, and support for, maritime interests. On a national level, the League supports the International Exchange Program, certain scholarships, and the National Sea Cadet Regatta, while local branches provide vital logistical support to individual RCSC Corps.

Corps
Individual cadets belong to units called Royal Canadian Sea Cadet Corps (RCSCC), or Corps de cadet de la Marine royale canadienne (CCMRC), which are the basic operating units of the program. Each corps consists of officers from the Cadet Instructors Cadre (CIC) Branch of the Canadian Armed Forces, Civilian Instructors (CI), Civilian Volunteers (CV), volunteer Regular/ Primary Reserve Force members, and cadets.

The entirety of a given corps organizes itself as a ship's company, employing the naval divisional system. Under this system, cadets become members of a division under a cadet petty officer (Divisional Petty Officer or DPO) and a CIC officer (Divisional Officer or DivO), although the officer position is sometimes filled by a Civilian instructor or Volunteer. Cadets parade by divisions, and are expected to route grievances and requests through the chain of command, running either directly from the DPO to DivO to the executive officer (XO) to the commanding officer (CO) or from the DPO to the cadet Regulating Petty Officer (RPO, the second senior cadet in the unit), to the cadet coxswain (cox'n, the senior cadet in a unit). The chain stops at the level able to deal with a concern – for example, a cadet's request for a new item of uniform might result in the DivO giving approval, and directing the cadet to visit Stores.

Sea Cadet Units also house key departments such as Training, Administration, and Supply. These departments are normally operated under the direction of a CIC officer but can also be operated by a Civilian Instructor, possibly with an assistant adult staff member, and a senior cadet. Units may also house teams such as Range (Marksmanship/Biathlon), Band, and Drill.Larger units may have dedicated staff for each of the teams.

Units generally adhere to the school schedule, meeting weekly for mandatory training, and carrying out additional training on weekends and other weeknights. The primary meeting is referred to as a parade/training night while training/activities conducted on weekends or on other weeknights are referred to by the activity/training occurring.

Key Departments

 * The Training Department comprises the Training Officer (TrgO), Training Chief or Petty Officer (Trg CPO/PO), and a staff of senior cadets and adult staff, often with other duties within the unit, serving as instructors. The Trg CPO/PO is often responsible for maintaining each cadets' training record, as well as handling resources and rating instructors.
 * The Administration Department comprises the Administration Officer (AdmO) and Administration Chief or Petty Officer (Adm CPO/PO), who wears the quill-pen and scroll badge of a Ship's Writer, and may be referred to as such. Administration handles all incoming and outgoing mail, as well as maintaining corps records other than those specifically handled by Training or Supply.
 * The Supply (or Stores) Department is composed of a Supply (or Stores) Officer, sometimes assisted by a senior cadet, who is entitled to wear the crossed-keys badge of a Storekeeper. The Supply Department is responsible for all equipment belonging to the corps; however, Supply tends to be primarily concerned with issuing cadets uniforms and related gear – bands often deal with their own gear, as do competitive teams.

Sponsoring group

 * Along with the Army Cadets and Air Cadets, the Sea Cadets make up a program sponsored by the Canadian Forces funded primarily through the Department of National Defence. The Canadian Forces provides training, pay and allowances for reserve force cadet instructors; uniforms for instructors and cadets; transportation, facilities and staff for summer training; the training program and training aids; and policy and regulation regarding the operation of the cadet organization.
 * The primary local community sponsor for Sea Cadets is a local branch of the Navy League of Canada that is often a committee of parents supported by groups such as Royal Canadian Legion branch, or some similar service club; i.e. Lions, Rotary, etc. The civilian Navy League provides local support by way of accommodation, utilities, liability insurance, transportation and training aids not provided by the CF. Navy League branches rely on community support, in the form of direct donations of money and goods, trusts, and various forms of fund-raising efforts. These last include sale of various items, much like bake and chocolate bar sales, street-corner pin and tag sales by cadets, and funds raised through the attached cadet unit's own canteen.
 * Canteen: Operated by the local sponsoring group with proceeds for corps activities, the canteen typically sells pop, chips, and the like at breaks in training. Some also offer cadets various necessities such as thread, boot polish, and starch. More ambitious corps canteens offer unit clothing, typically sweatshirts, T-shirts, belt buckles, etc., suitably emblazoned with unit insignia, mottos, and the like.

Ranks
In accordance with QR and O Cadets 4.11 the following are the rank badges of the Royal Canadian Sea Cadets: In addition to the rank-specific criteria given below, all appointments are subject to the approval of the cadet's commanding officer, who generally promotes based on the advice of Divisional Officers and unit training staff.

As a note, the official phrasing for the Petty Officer and Chief Petty Officer ranks is "Petty Officer Cadet First (or Second) Class," and "Chief Petty Officer Cadet First (or Second) Class." However, outside of Cadet Administrative and Training Orders (CATO), and Queen's Regulations and Orders (Cadets) (QR&O(Cdt)), custom omits "Cadet" in casual reference. Thus, Petty Officer First Class is the customary rendering. Generally, where there is a need to distinguish between cadets and Canadian Forces members, the NCO ranks will be written or spoken as Cadet Petty Officer First Class, abbreviated as C/PO1. Additionally, while it is customary within the organisation to refer to a cadet receiving a rank as being "promoted," the official documentation refers to such an act as an "appointment."

Forms of address

 * Junior cadets are typically addressed by their last name by all ranks; however, a superior might address them as simply "cadet," especially in situations where names are not known, such as at multi-unit events.
 * Petty officers are typically addressed by their juniors as "Petty Officer So-and-So," or, conversationally, as "P.O." Superiors and equals will often use last name only, sometimes prefacing it with "Mr." or "Miss."
 * Chief petty officers are typically addressed by all personnel as "Chief So-and-So," or, conversationally, as "chief." Superiors and equals will rarely use last name only, though superiors might replace "chief" with "Mr." or "Miss."
 * Additionally, cadets often hold an appointment in addition to their rank, and many of these are used as an alternate form of address, especially the following: coxswain (cox'n); corps gunner, chief gunner, or gunner's mate ("gunner"), drum major ("drum major" or "drummie"); bugler; messenger; and boatswain, boatswain's mate, chief boatswain's mate, and chief boatswain ("bosun" or "buffer").
 * In formal situations (for example, being called up for an award or promotion), a cadet's full rank and last name is used "Cadet (rank) name."

Additional Training
Along with their mandatory weekly training, sea cadets may also participate in one or more of the teams below:

 * Range Team: Most units will have at least one trained Range Safety Officer (RSO) and conduct, as part of the mandatory training programme, training in safe and effective marksmanship using the Daisy Air Rifle. A number of corps field range teams, competing in cadet tri-service matches at the area, regional, and national level, while others simply offer a well-supervised recreational shooting program.
 * Firearm safety is given the highest priority throughout this training.
 * Biathlon: An increasing number of RCSC Corps have formed biathlon teams, adding a new aspect to the long-standing marksmanship programs, and encouraging a high degree of athleticism and physical fitness. Ideally, cadets train and compete with Anschutz .22 target rifles; however, some corps train with air rifles in accordance with Olympic marksmanship standards.
 * Firearm safety is given the highest priority throughout this training as well.
 * Sail: The RCSC sailing program uses Canadian Yachting Association levels and material for all training. The Sailing program uses small dinghies, typically Echo- or 420-class vessels, although other comparable designs are used, including Lasers, the Olympic-class 470, Flying Juniors, as well as the older Albacores. At the corps level, the sailing program is often conducted in two parts: on-ground classes during a training night/sail weekend as well as on the water experience with Sail instructors during a sailing weekend. Sail Instructors are typically CIC officers / Civilian Instructors who are members of the Area Sail Center. The Area Sail Center consists of a Coordinating Officer, several Canadian Yachting Association (CYA) certified Head Instructors and volunteer staff cadet instructors. Advanced training focus on competitive sailing and race organization and is normally done at a CTC during the summer.
 * Band: Most units will try to support some sort of musical ensemble, whether drum and bugle, drum and bell (glockenspiel), a military band, or just a drum line. A few corps have a piper or two, while an even smaller group maintain pipe bands.
 * Guard/ Honour Guard: Many units have a division called "Guard". The Guard is a division where anyone from the rank of AB and up can join. Most units carry the Lee-Enfield No. 4 Mk. 1 Long-Branch Rifle and wear webbing. The Guard Commander usually carries a cutlass in lieu of a rifle. The Guard normally parades after the Flag Party in ceremonies.

Summer training
Cadet Training Centres (CTC), provide additional training intended to support or complement that offered at the home unit from September to June. Across the board, cadets applying for summer training must have 75% attendance over the training year, as well as meeting certain course prerequisites.

Cadet Training Centers are staffed by members of the Canadian Forces, primarily members of the CIC, but also including other branches of the CF, as well as Civilian Instructors and senior cadets selected for employment as staff cadets. Sea Cadet STCs are commanded by a CIC officer of the rank of commander. Staff cadets are employed at the ranks of Petty Officer Second Class through Chief Petty Officer First Class, with a CPO1 being appointed as Cadet Cox'n. Staff cadets are paid at a daily fixed rate for the duration of their time as a Staff Cadet.

Sea Cadet CTCs are commissioned as "stone frigates," which is to say, naval shore establishments granted much the same standing as a seagoing unit.

Current Sea Cadet Training Centres (CTC)

 * CTC HMCS Quadra, located in Comox, British Columbia, has operated as a Sea Cadet training facility since 1953. It was commissioned in 1956 and is the second largest summer training facility.  It employs over 100 officers and 150 staff cadets each year. The centre occupies Goose Spit opposite Comox, and makes use of Highland Secondary School as an auxiliary training facility for classroom work, first aid, and music training. Quadra is the only Sea Cadet Training Centre in Canada to include all four trades plus two of the three specialty trades (Marine Engineering, and Shipwright). Cadets undergoing training as boatswains and marine engineers also undergo training in damage control at CFB Esquimalt.  Quadra plays host to a number of international exchange cadets. In recent years, these have included contingents from South  Korea, Japan, the United States, United Kingdom, Germany, Sweden, Australia, New Zealand, Bermuda, and the Netherlands. Since 2022, this has been the only training centre still with the HMCS prefix.
 * CTC Trenton (HMCS Ontario) is a detachment located in Kingston, Ontario HMCS Ontario Sea Cadet Summer Training Centre began life as Cadets Camp Frontenac (sailing camp) on 4 July 1977, and was officially redesignated as HMCS Ontario Cadet summer Training Establishment on 13 July 1981 thus allowing Ontario to expand and to offer a wider range of training opportunities to sea cadets from across Ontario and Canada previously disciplines such as music, drill and ceremonial and the two-week general training course, and now only sail and seamanship. In the summer months Ontarios small cadre of full-time staff are supplemented by 110 officers, non-commissioned members and civilian instructors of the COATS and sea cadets who are offered summer employment as staff cadets. HMCS Ontario is also a year-round operation, responsible for sail training and the operational standards of nine sail centres and a staff of 80 part-time officers and civilian instructors who staff the sail centres located across the province of Ontario in the spring and autumn months.  From 1982 to 2019 HMCS Ontarios main headquarters has been located at CFB Kingston with the main summer training centre located on the grounds of the Royal Military College. From 2022 onwards, its headquarters has been combined under CTC Trenton, and is now a detachment used for the Sail course.

Additionally, cadets may apply for a number of tri-service courses hosted by other training centres.

Former SCSTC

 * HMCS Haida, the historic destroyer that fought in World War II and now a National Historic site, was home to a unique six-week-long boatswain trade training course during the summer months in the 1970s. At that time Haida was a museum ship located in Toronto, Ontario. Approximately 30 Sea Cadets would live aboard, sleep in hammocks like the original crew, and follow a realistic ship's routine for six weeks while training. They would also double as museum guides for periods during the day. On at least one occasion, select cadets were offered the opportunity to use their new skills after graduating from the course. In 1975 four cadets were selected to serve a three week stint aboard Canadian Coast Guard vessels at sea, sailing from Halifax, Nova Scotia.
 * SCSTC HMCS Avalon, located in St. John's, Newfoundland, was, at its closing, the smallest SCSTC in Canada. It offered training in either basic sail or beginner band.
 * SCSTC HMCS Qu'Appelle was located at the Echo Valley Conference Centre, formerly the Fort San sanatorium, near Fort Qu'Appelle, Saskatchewan, an hour north east of Regina, Saskatchewan. HMCS Qu'Appelle offered the introductory Two-Week General Training course, and Trade Groups One through Three of the Music and Sail courses. HMCS Qu'Appelle last offered courses in 2004.
 * SCSTC HMCS Gimli, HMCS Qu'Appelle's predecessor, was located in Hnausa, Manitoba.
 * SCSTC HMCS Québec, located in Sainte-Angèle-de-Laval, Quebec, was the only SCSTC that was entirely delivered in French. It trained cadets in all four trades as well as the Shipwright specialty course. Québec occupied a school during the summer season. The training centre opened its doors in 1975, and offered its last summer courses in 2012.
 * Camp Tillicum, located outside of North Bay, Ontario on Callander Bay was a detachment of HMCS Ontario offering Two-Week General Training and Basic Leadership courses. The camp closed in 1986.
 * SCSTC HMCS Micmac located in the Windsor Park region of Halifax, Nova Scotia. It trained cadets in Boatswain and Submariner.  The camp closed in late 1988. Boatswain cadets were then transferred to HMCS Acadia.
 * CTC HMCS Acadia, located in Cornwallis, Nova Scotia, was the largest summer training facility. During the course of the summer, Acadia was home to roughly 1,200 cadets who were undergoing training.  Acadia provided training in Music, Sail, Drill and Ceremonial, and Seamanship training. In 2006, Acadia celebrated 50 years as a Sea Cadet Summer Training Centre. Acadia closed to cadets in 2020, and was not reopened once summer training resumed in 2022.

Honours and awards
The Canadian Cadet Movement maintains its own Honours and Awards system. Cadets may be awarded these based on many criteria including bravery, citizenship, service, outstanding performance on a summer training course, and are worn on the right side of the cadet uniform, under their name tag. In addition, cadets may also wear any orders, decorations, and medals of Canada they have been awarded on the left side of their uniform.

Within the system, there are several honours and awards common to all three cadet elements and some that are unique to each. A cadet who transfers from one element to another may continue to wear any medals awarded from their previous service, but in general, sea cadets may be eligible for the following nine honours and awards, and are in the order of precedence:

Vessels
STV Fair Jeanne, built by Captain (N) Thomas G. Fuller, does fall and spring youth sail training group trips on the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence Seaway for organizations such as the Royal Canadian Sea Cadets, Girl Guides of Canada, corporate groups and for people who are working towards The Duke of Edinburgh's Awards.

Flags
The Sea Cadets have used a variety of flags during their history: some corps flew the White Ensign until 1929; they then used the Canadian Blue Ensign and the flag of the Navy League of Canada until 1953. In that year, the Chief of Naval Service approved a design for the Royal Canadian Sea Cadet Flag: a white flag with the Union Flag in the canton, and, on the fly, the badge of the Cadets, a gold anchor on a blue roundel surrounded by red maple leaves and surmounted by a Naval Crown. In 1976, the Sovereign approved a new design, which replaced the Union Flag in the canton with the Maple Leaf Flag.

Badge
The badge is the service emblem of the RCSC, and it is worn on cadet-issued parkas. It is also depicted on the flag of the Royal Canadian Sea Cadets. It is used as a cap badge on the beret worn with Order of Dress C4C.

Uniform
These are the uniforms of the Royal Canadian Sea Cadets. The uniforms are classified by a number system that lays them out as uniforms C1, C2, C5, etc. Uniforms C1A, C3A, C3B, C5, and C5A are issued upon joining, along with Winter Accoutrements.

Order of Dress C1A (Ceremonial Dress):
 * White-top
 * Corps title cap tally
 * Short sleeve white dress shirt
 * Black tie
 * Rank slip-ons
 * Trousers
 * Trousers belt
 * Tunic
 * Tunic belt
 * Lanyard
 * Wool socks
 * Parade boots
 * Medals and pins, if the cadet has earned them

Order of Dress C2 (Mess Dress): C1A, a white shirt and bowtie is worn by male cadets and a white shirt with crossover tie is worn by female cadets. However, this order of dress is optional and the white shirt and tie are not purchased at public expense. When the tie is worn, the lanyard is not worn. This is very rarely worn.

Order of Dress C3A (Service Dress): C1A, but ribbons replace medals.

Order of Dress C3B (Service Dress): C3A, minus the tunic

Order of Dress C3E (Service Dress): C3A, but black undershirt replace the short sleeve shirt.

Order of Dress C5 (Sea Training Uniform or STU):
 * Black ball cap with Corps title
 * Black undershirt
 * 'Postman's blue' shirt
 * Trousers
 * Trousers belt
 * Wool socks
 * Parade boots

Order of Dress C5A (STU): C5, minus the Postman's blue shirt.

Order of Dress C5E (Sports Dress) (May be issued kit or personal):
 * Sports shorts
 * T-shirt
 * Running shoes
 * Tilley hat

Order of Dress C5B (Field Training Dress or Combats)
 * Black beret with RCSC cap badge OR tan tilley hat OR black ball cap
 * Olive drab field jacket
 * Olive drab field pants
 * Field belt
 * Wool socks
 * Combat boots

Order of Dress C5C (Field Training Dress or Combats): C5B minus the field jacket

Winter Accoutrements (for wear with any order of dress in cold weather):
 * Cadet Parka with outer shell and removable liner
 * Black gloves
 * Black toque with white anchor insignia and the word CADET

Special Orders of Dress
These orders of dress are only used on particular occasions, or by cadets in a Highland pipes and drums band.

Order of Dress C1 (Traditional Dress):
 * RCN Uniform (prior to unification)
 * RCSC Shoulder flashes, traditional or current
 * Seaman's cap with appropriate cap tally
 * Chains may replace the lanyard if applicable

Order of Dress C1H (Highland Dress):
 * Glengarry Headdress with Sea Cadet metal headdress insignia
 * White Dress-Shirt
 * Black Tie
 * Lanyard
 * Tunic (cut-away to accommodate the sporran)
 * Kilt Maple leaf tartan
 * Boots
 * Hosetops
 * Flashes, garter
 * Spats
 * White belt
 * Sgian Dubh
 * Sporran, hair
 * Kilt Pin
 * Medals
 * Pins

Order of Dress C1H (same code): As above, without tunic.

Admiral of the Royal Canadian Sea Cadets
The first Admiral of the Royal Canadian Sea Cadets was George VI, King of Canada, assuming the role in 1942, when the Navy League Sea Cadets became the Royal Canadian Sea Cadets.

Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, as a member of the Canadian Royal Family, was appointed Admiral of the Royal Canadian Sea Cadets in 1953.

Honorary Members

 * Captain (N) Dr. Marc Garneau was appointed as Honorary Captain of the Royal Canadian Sea Cadets; the appointment was not renewed.

title: Royal Canadian Sea Cadets


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Mira Road

Mira Road (Marathi pronunciation: [miɾaː]) is a suburb north of Mumbai in Thane District and is also a part of the Mumbai Metropolitan Region. It falls within the Police Jurisdiction of Mira-Bhayander, Vasai-Virar Police Commissionerate. Mira Road is situated in the north-western portion of Salsette Island, Maharashtra state, India. Mira Road has a large Gujarati population followed by other ethnic groups.

History
The rise of Mumbai's real estate prices has been instrumental in the development of the Mira-Bhayandar region. From 1947 onwards, primarily developed by Bharat Shah the rise in real estate prices prompted several largely lower and middle-income families to migrate to the satellite cities of Mumbai like Virar, Vasai and Nalasopara. At that time, the Mira-Bhayandar area was part of a Gram Panchayat and was consisted primarily of agricultural land, majorly rice. This delayed and deterred builders from starting development projects. By 1980, builders began to buy agricultural land and start developing townships.

The Mira Bhayandar Municipal Council was set up on June 12, 1985, by integrating five Gram Panchayats which included the Mira Gram Panchayat, which is from where Mira Road got its name.

By 1990, the council was extended and it held the first election. Gilbert Mendonca was elected as the first president of the Mira-Bhayandar Municipal Council.

As it is located very close to the city, with easy accessibility by road as well as railway, and facilities for the city also extending to this town, have resulted in an increase in population and Mira Bhayandar as a whole, developed further.

The Municipal Council later on 28 February 2002, was changed to a Municipal Corporation due to its large population and had its first elected mayor Smt. Maira Mendonca on 11 August. Mira Road and its neighbouring suburb Bhayandar began emerging as a fast developing suburb and experienced economic development mainly due to its manufacturing sector. Most of the development has occurred only on the east side whereas the west side of the railway line is covered with salt pans and mangroves.

Demographics
Mira Road has a large Gujarati population. Mira Road is in the Northern part of Mumbai City and lies in the North west ward within the jurisdiction of Municipal Corporation  Mira Road has three dominant languages with large Gujarati community residing in most of the suburbs of Northern Mumbai that stretches from Bhayander to Bandra, it is also shown in the linguistic demography of the suburb, while the official language Marathi is spoken by the natives of the land and migrants from other parts of Maharashtra, Hindi is the main language of communication and in trade and commerce in the suburban region of Mumbai and Mumbai Metropolitan region, is spoken by most of the North Indian Community as their native language. Marathi, the official language, is the mother tongue of 30.62% mostly in Uttan and Gorai area, while the dominant language, Gujarati is mother tongue by 35.13% of the population. Hindi by 24.90% as their mother tongue. Hindi is by far the major language spoken as the language of communication by all the people living in the suburbs and metropolitan area of Mumbai as their language of communication.

Geography
Mira Road is located on the northern portion of Salsette Island and at the northern part of the Konkan region. Mira Road along with Bhayandar comes which is under the jurisdiction of Mira Bhayandar Municipal Corporation. The entire Mira-Bhayandar region lies just outside Mumbai Suburban district and officially belongs to Thane district, despite being closer to the island of Mumbai. The Mira-Bhayandar region comprises an area of 79 km2. A marshy creek divides Mumbai and Mira Road. The western part of the city is completely made up of barren lands, where salt pans were situated in the past. In the north lies Vasai Creek, to the east Sanjay Gandhi National Park and the Uttan coast, to the west. It mainly is of Deccan lava terrain and consists of waterlogged and marshy areas. The climate experienced here is tropical, wet and dry climate.

Transport
Power from the Tata Power & Reliance Energy, MTNL telecom services and BEST bus services which are normally provided to the city, are provided to this region too which has been instrumental in the increase in its population, unlike Vasai and Virar.

Mira Road has a railway station, which is a part of the Western Suburban Railway line. All trains from churchgate towards Virar halt at Mira Road. Also Mira Bhayandar Municipal Corporation has its own transportation facility Mira Bhayandar Municipal transportation (MBMT). The bus services from MSRTC which are the state transport buses are available to connect with Thane city and Manori. State transport (ST) buses are also available in Mira Road. They start from Bhayander and are available for Thane, Bhiwandi and Vasai route.

Metro
Line 10 (Mumbai Metro) Gaimukh - Chatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Chowk (Mira Road) corridor, the line runs parallel to Thane-Kashimira highway consisting of 9 stops.

Line 9 (Mumbai Metro) Dahisar(E) - Mira Bhayander corridor, this line offers connection to the western suburbs of Mumbai.

Hospitals

 * Bhaktivedanta Hospital
 * Wockhardt Hospital (Umrao Hospital)

Schools / Academy

 * N. L. Dalmia Institute of Management Studies and Research
 * Seven Eleven Scholastic School, Mira Road East
 * Cosmopolitan High School, Mira Road East

Notable people

 * Amita Khopkar, Marathi Actress (Veteran Marathi Theatre Artist)
 * Syed Muzaffar Hussain, Ex-MLC (Maharashtra), Gen Sec MPCC, Indian National Congress
 * Kunal Khemu, Bollywood actor
 * Harshaali Malhotra, Bollywood child artist
 * Narendra Mehta, Ex-MLA (BJP)
 * Geeta Bharat Jain, Current MLA (Independent)
 * Ayush Mahesh Khedekar, Bollywood actor
 * Madhur Mittal, Bollywood actor
 * Kavi Kumar Azad, Indian television actor
 * Priya Marathe, Indian Television Actress
 * Antara Biswas, better known by her stage name Monalisa, Indian Actress
 * Dipika Kakar, Indian Television Actress
 * Anup Soni, Indian Actor
 * Aryan Prajapati, Indian Former Child Actor
 * Sumeet Vyas, Indian Actor
 * Saurabh Raaj Jain, Indian Actor & Model
 * Ayush Mahesh Khedekar, Indian Actor
 * Shubhangi Atre, Indian Actress
 * Girish Oak, Marathi Television Actor

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Mira Road


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Tulsi Lake

Tulsi Lake is a fresh water lake in northern Mumbai. It is stated to be the second largest lake in Mumbai and supplies part of the city's potable water. This is one of the three lakes located in the Salsette Island; the other two being Powai Lake and Vihar Lake. Both Tulsi lake and Vihar lake are located within the densely forested Sanjay Gandhi National Park or also known popularly as the Borivali National Park (BNP).

Hydrology
Tulsi Lake was built by damming the River Tasso, and redirecting the flow to the nearby Vihar Lake. Rain water from the catchment area of 676 hectares of Powai-Kanheri hill ranges drains into the lake. During the rainy season the flood flows out flows into the Powai Lake and further down into the Mithi River. The maximum height of hill in the catchment is about 400 m. The southwest monsoon sets in by mid June and lasts till September. The maximum rainfall is normally recorded in the months of July and August. The mean annual rainfall is reported to be 3000 mm. Rainfall have reportedly crossed 4000 mm several times. Highest ever recorded rainfall to the figure of 5316 mm have been recorded in the year 2019 (1 June - 30 September).

The plan to create the lake was conceived in 1872 and construction completed 1897. It was designed as a backup for the Vihar Lake to supply portable drinking water to the city of Bombay (now Mumbai). The lake has surface area of 1.35 km2 (135 hectares). The average water depth is reported to be 12 m with a gross storage at Full Supply Level (FSL) of 2294 e6impgal, out of which 4 e6impgal per day are supplied to Greater Mumbai.

The highest overflow level, recorded at the dam is 139.17 m (456.6 ft).This fresh water lake primarily fulfills the water requirement of the southern part of Mumbai.

Access
The lake is located 32 km to the north of Mumbai by road. The nearest suburban electric train station is Borivli East on the Western Railways and is close to western express highway, with a further travel of 6 km from the station by road to the lake. The nearest Sahar International Airport is at a distance of about 20 km. As the lake is located inside the Sanjay Gandhi National Park, entry permits are to be obtained from the park authorities for visit to the lake.

Flora and fauna
The vegetation on the hill slopes draining into the lake is thick and lush, undisturbed and of mixed moist deciduous type. The lake and its catchment are protected by the Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation and Sanjay Gandhi National Park Authority. As the lake is situated inside the Sanjay Gandhi National Park, the flora and fauna reported for the park would be relevant to the lake. However, fresh water crocodiles Mugger or Marsh crocodiles (Crocodilus palustris) are known to inhabit the lake in sustainable numbers. As it is difficult to sight them in the lake, the park has set up a Crocodile Park’ to view the reptiles of different sizes.

title: Tulsi Lake


text:
Paʻao

Paao is a figure from Hawaii. He is most likely a Hawaiian historical character retold through Hawaiian legend. According to Hawaiian tradition and folklore, he is said to have been a high priest from Kahiki, specifically "Wewaʻu" and "ʻUpolu." In Hawaiian prose and chant, the term "Kahiki" is applied in reference to any land outside of Hawaii: the linguistic root is conclusively derived from Tahiti. "Upolu" point to actual places in Samoa; and, Hawaiian scholars and royal commentators consistently claim Paao came from Samoa.

Scholars of Hawaiian lore including David Malo, Samuel M. Kamakau, John Papa ʻĪʻī, Solomon Peleioholani, Teuira Henry, and Stephen L. Desha support the notion that Pili and Pa'ao immigrated from the Society Islands of Samoa.

King Kalākaua, in his Legends and Myths of Hawai'i, theorized that the lineage of "Tahitian" chiefs and their aristocrats and priests descended from Samoa (i.e. Paao and Pilikaaiea). His theory comes from the Big Island in the village of Upolu named after Samoa (or Western Samoa called Upolu). Most historians have concluded that Pili and Pa'ao both came from the islands known today as Samoa. ʻUpolu is the capital city of Western Samoa; and is linguistically and politically closer to Hawaii in the past.

Legends suggest that Paao introduced certain customs (such as human sacrifice, primary worship of the god Kū, red feathered girdles "Kāʻei", Kāʻeke drums and veneration of the bonito fish) to Hawaii. He is also said to have brought a "pure" chief to rule over Hawai'i Island, deposing the tyrant and highest ranking chief, Kapawā.

At this time in Hawai'i's history, the four island kingdoms were Kauaʻi (Kauaʻi and Niʻihau), Oʻahu, Maui (Maui, Molokaʻi, Lānaʻi, and Kaho'olawe), and Hawai'i. After the overthrow by Pāʻao and Pili, Kapawā fled to the Island Kingdom of Maui where his royal relatives, through the ancient ʻUlu bloodlines, provided him with shelter and protection. The two bloodlines between Hawai'i (Pili) and Maui (ʻUlu) would often go to war, with Maui usually remaining victorious. It wasn't until the time of King Kamehameha the Great, who was a direct descendant of Pili, that Hawai'i fully conquered the kingdom of Maui. Having done so, Kamehameha was able to complete his conquests, bringing about the unification of the Hawaiian islands under one rule.

Documented history of the story of Paao
The Paao story makes its first documented historical appearance in 1835–1836, in a collection of Hawaiian traditions called Moolelo Hawaii assembled by Hawaiian students of Lahainaluna High School, on the Hawaiian island of Maui. This collection was the basis of Sheldon Dibble's 1838 history of Hawaii. David Malo was one of the Lahainaluna students active in collecting oral traditions. He continued collecting legends and when he died in 1854, he had completed an unpublished manuscript that was finally translated to English and published in 1898.

Martha Beckwith, in her Hawaiian Mythology (1940, as republished in 1970), notes these historical sources:

 * Emerson, Nathaniel – "The Long Voyages of the Ancient Hawaiians," Hawaiian Historical Society Papers Vol. 5, 1893, pp. 5–13
 * Malo, David – Hawaiian Antiquities, as translated by Emerson, 1951 edition, pp. 6–7
 * Green, Laura – Folktales from Hawaii, Honolulu, 1928, pp. 120–124
 * Kamakau, Samuel M. – article in the Hawaiian newspaper Kuokoa, December 29, 1866
 * Thrum, Thomas G. – More Hawaiian Folk Tales, Chicago, 1923, pp. 46–52
 * Remy, Jules M. as translated by Brigham – Contributions of a Venerable Savage to the Ancient History of the Hawaiian Islands, Boston, 1868, pp. 10–11
 * Westervelt, William D. – Hawaiian Historical Legends, New York, 1923, pp. 65–78
 * Kalakaua, David – The Legends and Myths of Hawai'i, New York, 1888, pp. 47–48
 * Stokes, John – "Whence Paao?" Hawaiian Historical Society Papers Vol. 15, Honolulu 1928, pp. 40–45

The Paao story also survives in various oral traditions passed down through Native Hawaiian families. Some Hawaiians insist on the purity and reliability of these traditions, but academic scholars believe that much from these traditions have been shaped by easily available published versions of the narrative.

However, there is no reason to doubt that the Paao story was widespread in pre-contact times. A lineage of Hawaiian high priests claimed descent from Paao, and Hawaiian high chiefs from the Big Island of Hawaiʻi traced their genealogies to Pili-kaaiea (Pili), the "pure" chief brought by Paao. Paao is said to have introduced human sacrifice, the walled heiau, the red feather girdle, the puloulou kapu sign, the prostrating kapu, the veneration of aku fish, and the feather god Tairi. The Paao narrative justified and sanctioned the social order as it then existed.

Narrative as found in Malo

 * We are informed (by historical tradition) that two men named Paʻao and Makua-kaumana, with a company of others, voyaged hither, observing the stars as a compass; and that Paʻao remained in Kohala, while Makua-Kaumana returned to Tahiti. Paʻao arrived at Hawaiʻi during the reign of Lono-ka-wai, the king of Hawaiʻi. He (Lono-ka-wai) was the sixteenth in that line of kings, succeeding Kapawa. Paʻao continued to live in Kohala until the kings of Hawaiʻi became degraded and corrupted (hewa); then he sailed away to Tahiti to fetch a king from thence. Pili (Kaʻaiea) was that king and he became one in Hawaiʻi's line of kings (papa aliʻi).
 * –David Malo, Hawaiian Antiquities, 1951 edition, p. 6.

Narrative in greater detail
The main outlines of the story follow. Many details vary from version to version. In one version told by British missionary William Ellis in 1826 Paao was a Caucasian chief.

Paao is said to have been a priest and a master navigator. He lived on a distant island called Kahiki in the oldest versions, and identified as either Tahiti or Samoa by believers in the historicity of the narrative.

His older brother, Lonopele, was the chief priest in some versions of the story, or the ruler of the island in others. Lonopele accused Paao's son of removing some kapu fish from the royal fishpond, or with stealing fruit. Paao was angry at his brother's persecution and in his anger, he killed his own son and ripped open the corpse's stomach, showing that there were no remnants of kapu fish or of fruit, in another version these partially digested foods were found.

Paao brooded over his misfortunes and decided to migrate to a distant land, far from his brother. He readied three large canoes for the voyage. He placed a kapu over the boats; no one was to touch the canoes without his permission. One evening, Paao discovered his nephew, the son of Lonopele, touching one of the sacred canoes. Paao killed his nephew and buried him in the sand under one of the canoes, which was elevated on blocks. Flies buzzed around the decomposing corpse, so the canoe was named Ka-nalo-a-muia, "the buzzing of flies."

Paao hurriedly assembled his retainers, launched the voyaging canoes, and departed. He left in such a hurry that one of his followers, an aged priest or prophet named Makuakaumana, was left behind. Makuakaumana climbed a cliff and called out to Paao; Paao refused to stop, saying that the canoes were full, all save the projection of the stern. Makuakaumana leapt from the cliff and gained his position in the canoe.

Paao sailed by the stars until they reached the Big Island of Hawaii. They landed in Puna, where Paao built the stone temple platform, or heiau, of Aha-ula, or Red Mouth. This was the first luakini heiau in Hawaii, the first heiau where human sacrifices were offered. He is also said to have landed in Kohala, on the opposite side of the island, and built the famous heiau of Mo'okini.

Paao believed that the chiefs of Hawaii had become hewa, or degraded, by indiscriminate intermarriage with lesser chiefs and commoners. He is said to have returned to his home island to fetch a chief of impeccable ancestry. He asked Lono-ka-eho, or Lono, who refused, and then recruited Pili-kaaiea, or Pili. Paao and Pili, along with Piliʻs sister Hina-au-kekele, chiefs and warriors, and their families, returned to Hawaii, where Pili became the new high chief.

Lineages of Paao and Pili
All the succeeding chiefs of the island claimed descent from the legendary Pili. Paao's descendants became priests, and their line or order, called Holae, continued into historical times. The last high priest, Hewahewa, who acquiesced to Christianity and the breaking of the kapus or ʻAi Noa in 1819, claimed descent from Paao.

Historicity
Until fairly recently, Hawaiian historians relied primarily on recorded oral history and comparative linguistics and ethnology. The "two migrations" theory was widely accepted. That is, in a first migration, Polynesians (specifically, Marquesans) settled the Hawaiian islands. In the second migration, Tahitians came north, conquered the original settlers, and established stratified chiefdoms.

Hawaiian archaeology then came into its own and sought material evidence for two migrations. Evidence is found of migrations that originated from the S. China Sea - Lapita (Kirsch, 1999). Then later, followed by migrations that originated from the E. Pacific i.e. Galapagos and Easter Island, which traversed a mostly submerged archipelago pathway leading directly into Tahiti. Thor Heyerdahl theorized that Polynesians originated from S. America and drifted to Hawai'i by luck, but his ethnocentric thought processes was debunked chiefly by Polynesian Voyaging Society, who showed that non-instrumental navigation was practical. However, there is some evidence that supported Heyerdahl's incorrect theory: Sweet potato and coconut originated from the E. Pacific. These along with sugar cane, that originated in India, are among several Hawaiian crops that are now termed "canoe plants"; they were extremely important to voyaging way-finders i.e. Paao, who migrated to Hawaii. Furthermore, war implements of S. America, which were not typical in the W. Pacific, strongly resembled the Hawaiian ihe (spear), mahiole (war helmet) and ahaula (cape of royalty).

Many Native Hawaiians and scholars who have studied the narratives believe the Paao narrative contains elements of actual history, and reflects a literal wave of migration from the south. The Polynesian Voyaging Society's undertakings, such as Hōkūleʻa canoe's voyages, indicate the feasibility of long voyages in ancient Polynesian canoes and the reliability of celestial navigation; these demonstrations show that the types of voyaging mentioned in the Pa'ao stories were indeed feasible, but the recreated voyages do little to prove the authenticity of the Pa'ao legends.

Hawaiian attitudes towards the high chiefs have changed; the ancient high chiefs are often seen today as oppressors, invaders who descended upon a peaceful and egalitarian Hawaiian population. Activists praise these pre-Paao days as the real Hawaiian past, to be revived and reenacted in the present, and vilify Paao as a source of Hawaiian problems. In this version, all the problems faced by Native Hawaiians can be traced to foreign interference.

title: Paʻao


text:
Adiaphora

Adiaphoron ( plural: adiaphora; from the Greek ἀδιάφορον (pl. ἀδιάφορα), meaning "not different or differentiable") is the negation of διαφορά diaphora, "difference".

In Ancient Greek philosophy
In Cynicism, adiaphora represents indifference to the s of life through ascetic practices which help one become free from influences – such as wealth, fame, and power – that have no value in nature. Examples include Diogenes' practice of living in a tub and walking barefoot in winter.

Similarly, the Stoics distinguish all the objects of human pursuit into three classes: good, bad, and adiaphora (indifferent). Virtue, wisdom, justice, temperance, and the like, are denominated good; their opposites were bad. Besides these there are many other objects of pursuit such as wealth, fame, etc., of themselves neither good nor bad. These are thought therefore in ethics to occupy neutral territory, and are denominated "adiaphora". This distinction amounts practically to an exclusion of the adiaphora from the field of morals. In the context of Stoicism adiaphora is usually translated as "indifference".

Unlike in Stoicism and Cynicism, In Pyrrhonism adiaphora has no specific connection to morality, but indicates things that cannot be logically differentiated, while Aristotle uses "adiaphora" to mean "undifferentiated by a logical διαφορά/differentia."

Christianity
In Christianity, adiaphora are matters not regarded as essential to faith, but nevertheless as permissible for Christians or allowed by the church. What is specifically considered adiaphora depends on the specific theology in view.

Lutheranism
The issue of what constituted adiaphora became a major dispute during the Protestant Reformation. In 1548, two years after the death of Martin Luther, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V tried to unite Catholics and Protestants in his realm with a law called the Augsburg Interim. This law was rejected by Philipp Melanchthon, because it did not ensure justification by faith as a fundamental doctrine. Later he was persuaded to accept a compromise known as the Leipzig Interim, deciding that doctrinal differences not related to justification by faith were adiaphora or matters not essential for salvation. Melanchthon's compromise was vehemently opposed by Matthias Flacius and his followers in Magdeburg, who went to the opposite extreme by claiming that adiaphora cease to be such in a case of scandal and confession. By 1576 both extremes were rejected by the majority of Lutherans led by Martin Chemnitz and the formulators of the Formula of Concord.

In 1577, the Formula of Concord was crafted to settle the question of the nature of genuine adiaphora, which it defined as church rites that are "neither commanded nor forbidden in the Word of God". However, the Concord added believers should not yield even in matters of adiaphora when these are being forced upon them by the "enemies of God's Word".

The Lutheran Augsburg Confession states that the true unity of the Church is enough to allow for agreement, concerning the doctrine of the Gospel and the administration of the Sacraments. It also posits that merely human traditions, namely extrabiblical rites or ceremonies, need not be the same across all congregations.

Puritanism
The Westminster Confession of Faith, a confession of faith written by the Puritans, which after the English Civil War was rejected by the Anglicans, distinguishes between elements or acts of worship (worship proper) and the circumstances of worship. The elements of worship must be limited to what has positive warrant in Scripture, a doctrine known as the regulative principle of worship. In this framework, the elements of worship have included praise (the words and manner of music), prayer, preaching and teaching from the Bible, the taking of vows, and the two sacraments of baptism and the Lord's Supper, while the circumstances of worship have included the building and its necessary furniture and the time of day for worship.

The circumstances of worship are considered adiaphora, although they must be done for edification and to promote peace and order (compare ; ). According to the Westminster Confession 20.2, the conscience is left free in general belief and behavior within the realm of whatever is not "contrary to the Word". However, specifically concerning worship and religious faith, the conscience is free from whatever is "besides" Scripture; that is, it is free to worship and believe only according to whatever has positive warrant in Scripture.

Presbyterians who have subscribed to the Westminster Confession, for instance, sometimes considered the questions of musical instruments and of the singing of hymns (as opposed to exclusive psalmody) not drawn directly from the Bible as related to the elements of worship, not optional circumstances, and for this reason they rejected musical instruments and hymns because they believed they were neither commanded by scripture nor deduced by good and necessary consequence from it. Adherence to such a position is rare among modern Presbyterians, however.

The Puritan position on worship is thus in line with the common saying regarding adiaphora: "In necessary things, unity; in doubtful things, liberty; in all things, charity".

Latitudinarianism in Anglicanism
Latitudinarianism was initially a pejorative term applied to a group of 17th-century English theologians who believed in conforming to official Church of England practices but who felt that matters of doctrine, liturgical practice, and ecclesiastical organization were of relatively little importance. Good examples of the latitudinarian philosophy were found among the Cambridge Platonists. The latitudinarian Anglicans of the seventeenth century built on Richard Hooker's position, in Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity, that God cares about the moral state of the individual soul and that such things as church leadership are "things indifferent". However, they took the position far beyond Hooker's own and extended it to doctrinal matters.

title: Adiaphora


text:
Interstate 185 (South Carolina)

Interstate 185 (I-185) is a 17.7 mi auxiliary Interstate Highway located entirely in Greenville County, South Carolina. I-185 serves as a spur route of I-85 into the city of Greenville as well as a shortcut route for drivers accessing I-385 from northbound I-85. A portion of this road is tolled and is known as the "Southern Connector". Together with a portion of I-385, it forms a partial beltway through Greenville's southern suburbs.

Route description
I-185's northern portion starts at an at-grade intersection at Henrydale Avenue. North of this intersection, US Highway 29 (US 29) continues as Mills Avenue into downtown Greenville. I-185 travels south with two lanes in each direction to its junction with I-85. At this junction, I-185 has only one lane of thru traffic each way; south of the junction, I-185 returns to two lanes in each direction. In addition, US 29 leaves I-185 and travels concurrently with I-85 for 8 mi.

South of exit 12, I-185 has a toll in each direction, with one lane in each direction dedicated for travelers with the Palmetto Pass. At exit 10 (South Carolina Highway 20 [SC 20]), travelers exiting northbound I-185 and entering southbound I-185 also are tolled. At this point, I-185 leaves the Greenville city limits and enters Golden Grove. Just north of exit 7 (US 25), I-185 reenters Greenville.

At exit 4 (Fork Shoals Road), travelers exiting southbound I-185 and entering northbound I-185 are tolled. South of this interchange is another toll plaza for both directions, again with one lane in each direction for drivers with the Palmetto Pass.

Near the end of I-185's southern terminus at I-385, I-185 enters Mauldin. Exit 1A on I-185 northbound, Neely Ferry Road, allows access to Discovery Island. I-185 then splits; one lane exits rights and merges with I-385 southbound while other traffic continues straight to merge with I-385 northbound. Traffic toward I-385 northbound also can exit on SC 417, an exit with no number. At the merge with I-385 northbound, I-185 shrinks to one lane. I-185 ends here.

History
The northern portion, which runs from I-85 to the Greenville city limits, was opened in the 1960s and is cosigned with US 29. The southern portion, which connects the I-85/I-185 interchange (exit 42) with the I-385/US 276 interchange (exit 30), was opened as a toll road in 2001. This extension was dubbed the "Southern Connector" and increased I-185 from three to 17 mi in length.

Southern Connector
The Southern Connector was constructed as a public–private partnership between the South Carolina Department of Transportation (SCDOT) and Interwest Carolina Transportation Group, LLC, a development team that included a not-for-profit corporation called Connector 2000 Association, Inc. (C2A). Under this agreement, C2A operates the toll road under a 50-year license. They were responsible for financing, designing, constructing, operating, and maintaining the road during this period and the toll revenue would be used to pay them for these efforts. To finance the project, C2A sold bonds that were tax-exempt under Internal Revenue Service Rule 63-20, which provides that the bonds sold will be exempt if they finance an activity which is "public in nature".

The highway opened in February 2001, nine months ahead of schedule. By 2007, the Connector 2000 Association was having financial difficulties because ridership on the toll road was not meeting original estimates. In late 2007, the association began looking for a concessionaire to take over the operation and financial liability of the toll road. By early 2008, C2A had received a default notice from their bond trustee In January 2010, the bond trustee missed an interest payment, and the C2A was more than $8 million (equivalent to $ in ) behind in its payments to SCDOT for the maintenance and license fees under their agreement. On June 24, 2010, the Southern Connector filed for bankruptcy.

The corporation emerged from bankruptcy on March 28, 2011, by restructuring bond debt and their concession and maintenance agreement with SCDOT. Tolls were raised on January 2, 2012, as part of the settlement.

In 2016, the Southern Connector surpassed 75 million toll transactions since its inception. Between the two main toll plazas, the speed limit has been raised to 70 mph.

Tolls
There are two toll plazas located along the Southern Connector, known as the east and west plazas. Toll booths are located on entrance/exit ramps on Fork Shoals Road (exit 4) and Piedmont Highway (exit 10). The toll plazas have both electronic toll collection (ETC) and cash lanes; toll booths located on ramps accept only ETC or exact change only. Those that do not have exact change or do not pay the toll can fill out a "Pledge Payment Form"; violators have 30 days to remit payment before administrative fees are added to the toll due.

Palmetto Pass is the only form of electronic toll collection accepted on the Southern Connector.

Toll rates
Toll rates,.

title: Interstate 185 (South Carolina)


text:
Aryan language

The term Aryan language appears in works published in the 19th century and 20th century to mean very old Indo-European languages:
 * The Vedic Sanskrit language
 * The Old Persian language
 * The Avestan language
 * The Bactrian language
 * The term Proto-Aryan is an alternative name of the Proto-Indo-Iranian language
 * In works published in the late 19th century and early 20th century, this term, or the term Proto-Aryan, was sometimes used to describe the Proto-Indo-European language

title: Aryan language


text:
Vihar Lake

Vihar Lake (Pronunciation: [ʋiɦaːɾ]) is located near Vihar village on the Mithi River within the precincts of the Borivali National Park, also called the Sanjay Gandhi National Park, in North Mumbai. When built in 1860 (construction started in 1856), it was considered as the largest lake in Mumbai in the Salsette group of islands. It is hemmed between the Tulsi Lake and the Powai Lake (shown in map). It partly meets the drinking water needs of the Mumbai region. It supplies only 3% of the Mumbai city's water requirement, after filtration at Bhandup where the large water filtration plant is located.

History
With the few thousand wells feeding the population of Mumbai tending to go dry during summer, the acute shortage of water resulted in protests by the local residents in June 1845. A two-man committee, appointed by the British rulers of the time, to examine the grievances of the agitators concurred with water shortage problem and stressed the urgent need to solve the water supply problem of Mumbai.

The Committee appointed by the government located suitable sites to construct dams and create reservoirs to store the monsoon flows of the Mithi river catchment, which resulted in presently existing Vihar Lake, Tulsi Lake, and the Powai Lake. Vihar reservoir was the first piped water supply scheme of Mumbai.

In 1850, Captain Crawford submitted a report favouring the Vihar Scheme for the Mumbai city's water supply needs.

Work on the "Vihar Water Works" commenced in January 1856 and was completed in 1860, during the governorship of John Lord Elphinstone.

The Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation (BMC), a Govt. body which controls the lake's affairs has also acquired agricultural land in the catchment area of the Vihar lake as a sanitary precaution.

Access
By road, it is 31 km from Mumbai. Access by suburban electric train is to Kurla or Andheri and then by road.

Access to the lake for the general public has been curtailed since 13 March 1993 (Source: Official BMC Board installed at the gate) following the Bombay Blasts on 12 March 1993 due to perceived threats to the Mumbai public, as the lake is located in the Sanjay Gandhi National Park. It can still be viewed in many Bollywood movies in a long shot taken from Mumbai Film City, as seen in the Infobox.

Hydrology and dam features
Impoundment of Mithi River, 20 km north of Mumbai, was effected to store the rainwater from a catchment area of 18.96 km2 to create the Vihar Lake. The Powai-Kanheri hill ranges form the catchment area, which drains the rain water into the lake. For this purpose, three earthen embankment dams with a masonry spillway section were constructed to create a reservoir of 9200 million gallons capacity at the full reservoir level of 80.42 metres. The lake has a maximum water depth of 34 m and a minimum of 12 m. The lakes water spread area is 7 km2. The dam height was raised in 1872 resulting in increase of water supply from 32 million gallons (catering to a population of 0.7 million) to 36 million gallons.

Flora and fauna
The lake and its catchment are protected by the Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation and Sanjay Gandhi National Park Authority. The catchment areas of Vihar lake has high hills rising on all sides. The seclusion, protection, and security provided under the Sanjay Gandhi National Park has ensured well wooded hill slopes and abundant natural regeneration. Higher percentage of khair species has been noted in the catchment area of the lake.

As the lake is situated inside the Sanjay Gandhi National Park, the flora and fauna reported for the park would be relevant to the lake. However, fresh water crocodiles Mugger or Marsh crocodiles (Crocodilus palustris) are known to inhabit the lake in sustainable numbers. As it is difficult to sight them in the lake, the park has set up a Crocodile Park’ to view the reptiles of different sizes.

Limnology
Limnological studies carried out by the Central Public Health Engineering Research Institute, Nagpur, India, in 1964, indicated an unstable thermal stratification in the lake waters. The dissolved oxygen (DO) values were found to increase in some months and carbon dioxide was found to be less at the surface than at the bottom. In cooler season, the surface water was found to be less alkaline, which could be attributed to the photosynthesis activity of the algae. The pH stratification was found to be unstable. Interrelation was attributed to fluctuations in the chlorophyll, pH and DO values and nitrates were generally absent on the surface and no sulphates were detected.

An odd event
In the year 2006, finding sweet water at the Mahim Creek (a semi enclosed area), where fresh water and sea water meet, created a lot of excitement among the public. The health department of BMC who analysed the water sample from the site found that salt level in the sea water was as low as 600 particle per million (ppm), compared to the normal level 10000000 particle per million (ppm). The National Institute of Oceanography, Goa who were also consulted stated that this phenomenon was not unusual and could have been caused by heavy rainfall and low tide. This necessitated the Maharashtra Government to intervene and examine the issue rationally to convince the excited public. BMC Commissioner gave a press statement stating:"The Mahim creek is located in a semi-enclosed area where fresh water and sea water mix especially during low tide, which caused the dilution. Also, the Vihar Lake on the outskirts of Mumbai has been overflowing for the past few days and has flown into the Mithi River, which could be the reason for the water tasting sweet."

title: Vihar Lake


text:
Scott Monument

The Scott Monument is a Victorian Gothic monument to Scottish author Sir Walter Scott. It is the second-largest monument to a writer in the world after the José Martí monument in Havana. It stands in Princes Street Gardens in Edinburgh, opposite the former Jenners building on Princes Street and near Edinburgh Waverley Railway Station, which is named after Scott's Waverley novels.

Design and concept
The tower is 200 ft high and has viewing platforms reached by a series of spiral staircases giving panoramic views of central Edinburgh and its surroundings. The highest platform is reached by a total of 287 steps. It is built from Binny sandstone quarried near Ecclesmachan in West Lothian.

It is placed on axis with South St. David Street, one of the two streets leading off St. Andrew Square to Princes Street, and is a focal point within that vista, its scale being large enough to screen the Old Town behind. Its size and elevated position cause it to dominate the eastern section of the Princes Street Gardens. It is dedicated to Sir Scott McHugh.

History
Following Scott's death in 1832, a competition was held to design a monument to him. An unlikely entrant went under the pseudonym "John Morvo", the medieval architect of Melrose Abbey. Morvo was in fact George Meikle Kemp, 45 year-old joiner, draftsman, and self-taught architect. He had feared that his lack of architectural qualifications and reputation would disqualify him, but his design was popular with the competition's judges, and they awarded him the contract to construct the monument in 1838.

John Steell was commissioned to design a monumental statue of Scott to rest in the centre space within the tower's four columns. It is made from white Carrara marble and shows Scott seated, resting from writing one of his works with a quill pen, his dog Maida by his side. The monument carries 64 figures of characters from Scott's novels, sculpted by Scots sculptors including Alexander Handyside Ritchie, John Rhind, William Birnie Rhind, William Brodie, William Grant Stevenson, David Watson Stevenson, John Hutchison, George Anderson Lawson, Thomas Stuart Burnett, William Shirreffs, Andrew Currie, George Clark Stanton, Peter Slater, Amelia Robertson Hill (who also made the statue of David Livingstone immediately east of the monument), and the otherwise unknown Katherine Anne Fraser Tytler.

The stone masons and the Scott monument
The erection of the Scott monument came at a high cost to the stone masons involved, especially to the 'hewing masons' who were responsible for preparing the blocks, with their carvings and statues. This work was done in closed sheds, where they were exposed to large quantities of dangerous fine dust. Things were not so bad for the 'building masons' who worked in the open, placing the already prepared blocks of stone. Because of the hardness of the stone (from the Binnie quarry, near Uphall to the west of Edinburgh) used for the monument and other local buildings, Edinburgh masons were especially vulnerable to phthisis, the term used at the time for silicosis. One contemporary observer says that the monument "killed twenty three of the finest hewers in Edinburgh." Another mentions "one half of the whole number of masons employed" died of the lung disease.

Foundation stone
The foundation stone was laid on 15 August 1840 by Sir James Forrest of Comiston in his capacity as Lord Provost and as Grand Master Mason of Scotland. Construction began in 1841 following permission by Parliament's Monument to Sir Walter Scott Act and ran for nearly four years. It was completed in the autumn of 1844, with Kemp's son placing the finial in August of the year. The total cost was just over £16,154. The monument was inaugurated on 15 August 1846, but George Meikle Kemp was absent. He had fallen into the Union Canal while walking home from the site and drowned on the foggy evening of 6 March 1844.

Statues and locations
There are 68 statues on the monument, not counting Scott and his dog Maida, and 64 are visible from the ground. Four figures are placed above the final viewing gallery and are only visible by telephoto or from the viewing gallery (at a distorted angle). In addition, eight kneeling Druid figures support the final viewing gallery. There are 32 unfilled niches at higher level.

Sixteen heads of Scottish poets and writers appear on the lower faces, at the top of the lower pilasters. The heads represent, counter-clockwise from the northwest: James Hogg, Robert Burns, Robert Fergusson, Allan Ramsay, George Buchanan, Sir David Lindsay, Robert Tannahill, Lord Byron, Tobias Smollett, James Beattie, James Thomson, John Home, Mary, Queen of Scots, King James I of Scotland, King James V of Scotland, and William Drummond of Hawthornden.

(S) represents a small figure

Modern administration
In the early 1990s it was proposed that the stonework should be cleaned. There were views for and against cleaning and a scientific/geological investigation, including cleaning trials on samples of stone, was carried out. It was decided not to clean the stone due to the damage it would sustain. A restoration programme was undertaken involving replacing old repairs and damaged areas with Binny stone for which purpose the original quarry was re-opened. The fresh stonework contrasts with the smoke-darkened original.

The overall cost of the restoration was £2.36 million and was funded by the Heritage Lottery Fund, Historic Scotland and the City of Edinburgh Council.

The monument is now administered by the Culture and Sport division of the City of Edinburgh Council (See External Links for visitor information) who in 2016 installed a new LED lighting system. The design of the lights was "intended to highlight the monument’s architectural features with a soft warm glow" and were first illuminated on 21 September 2016.

In popular culture
The monument is featured prominently in the 2012 film Cloud Atlas, as a location which the character Robert Frobisher frequents An imagined copy of the monument is featured in the 1899 painting by James Ford, Holiday Time in Cape Town, depicting a Victorian era imagined utopian future Cape Town.

title: Scott Monument


text:
Chengde

Chengde, formerly known as Jehol and Rehe, is a prefecture-level city in Hebei province, situated about 225 km northeast of Beijing. It is best known as the site of the Mountain Resort, a vast imperial garden and palace formerly used by the Qing emperors as summer residence. The permanent resident population is approximately 3,473,200 in 2017.

History
In 1703, the Kangxi Emperor made Chengde his summer residence. Constructed throughout the eighteenth century, the Mountain Resort was used by both the Yongzheng and Qianlong emperors. The site is currently an UNESCO World Heritage Site. Since the seat of government followed the emperor, Chengde was a political center of the Chinese empire during these times.

The city of Jehol—an early romanization of Rehe via the French transcription of the northern suffix ér as eul—reached its height under the Qianlong Emperor 1735-1796 (died 1799). The great Putuo Zongcheng Temple, loosely based on the Potala in Lhasa, was completed after just four years of work in 1771. It was heavily decorated with gold and the emperor worshipped in the Golden Pavilion. In the temple itself was a bronze-gilt statue of Tsongkhapa, the Reformer of the Gelugpa sect.

Under the Republic of China, Chengde was the capital of Rehe province. From 1933 to 1945 the city was under Japanese control as a part of the Manchurian puppet state known as Manchukuo. After World War II the Kuomintang government regained jurisdiction. In 1948, the People's Liberation Army took control of Chengde. It would remain a part of Rehe until 1955, when the province was abolished, and the city was incorporated into Hebei.

The city is home to large populations of ethnic minorities, Mongol and Manchu in particular.

Geography
Chengde is located in the northeastern portion of Hebei, with latitude 40° 12'－42° 37' N, and longitude 115° 54'－119° 15' E, and contains the northernmost point in the province. It borders Inner Mongolia, Liaoning, Beijing, and Tianjin. Neighbouring prefecture-level provincial cities are Qinhuangdao and Tangshan on the Bohai Gulf, and land-locked Zhangjiakou. Due to its Liaoning border, it is often considered a part of both the North and Northeast China regions. From north to south the prefecture stretches 269 km, and from west to east 280 km, for a total area of 39702.4 sqkm, thus occupying 21.2% of the total provincial area. It is by area the largest prefecture in the province, though as most of its terrain is mountainous, its population density is low.

The Jehol or Rehe ("Hot River"), which gave Chengde its former name, was so named because it did not freeze in winter. Most sections of the river's former course are now dry because of modern dams.

Climate
Chengde has a four-season, monsoon-influenced humid continental climate (Köppen Dwa), with widely varying conditions through the prefecture due to its size: winters are moderately long, cold and windy, but dry, and summers are hot and humid. Near the city, however, temperatures are much cooler than they are in Beijing, due to the higher elevation: the monthly 24-hour average temperature ranges from −9.3 °C in January to 24.2 °C in July, and the annual mean is 8.93 °C. Spring warming is rapid, but dust storms can blow in from the Mongolian steppe; autumn cooling is similarly quick. Precipitation averages at about 504 mm for the year, with more than two-thirds of it falling during the three summer months. With monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 50% in July to 69% in October, the city receives 2,746 hours of sunshine annually.

Administrative divisions
Chengde comprises:

Sport
The first ever bandy match in China was organised in Chengde in January 2015 and was played between the Russian and Swedish top clubs Baykal-Energiya and Sandviken. Chengde city was one of the initiators when the China Bandy Federation was founded in December 2014. The city hosted the 2018 Women's Bandy World Championship. While the record number of participants in previous Women's Bandy World Championships was 7, the organisers had thought out measures with the goal to attract 12 participating countries. However, in the end 8 teams participated.

Religion
Chengde is the seat of the Catholic Diocese of Chengde.

Transport
With road and railroad links to Beijing, Chengde has developed into a distribution hub, and its economy is growing rapidly. The newly built Jingcheng Expressway connects Chengde directly to central Beijing, and more freeways are planned for the city. The city's new airport was opened on 31 May 2017. It is located 19.5 km northeast of the city center in Tougou Town, Chengde County.

The Beijing–Harbin high-speed railway, completed in January 2021, has 5 stations within Chengde.

Sights

The project of building Chengde Mountain Resort started in 1703 and finished in 1790. The whole mountain resort covers an area 5,640,000 square meters. It is the largest royal garden in China. The wall of the mountain resort is over 10,000 meters in length. In summers, emperors of the Qing dynasty came to the mountain resort to relax themselves and escape from the high temperature in Beijing.

The whole Resort can be divided into three areas which are lakes area, plains area and hills area. The lakes area, which includes 8 lakes, covers an area of 496,000 square meters. The plains area covers an area of 607,000 square meters. The emperors held horse races and hunted in the area. The largest area of the three is the hills area. It covers an area of 4,435,000 square meters. Hundreds of palaces and temples were built on the hills in this area.

The elaborate Mountain Resort features large parks with lakes, pagodas, and palaces ringed by a wall. Outside the wall are the Eight Outer Temples, built in varying architectural styles drawn from throughout China. One of the best-known of these is the Putuo Zongcheng Temple, built to resemble the Potala Palace in Lhasa, Tibet. The resort and outlying temples were made a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1994. The nearby Puning Temple, built in 1755, houses the world's tallest wooden statue of the Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara.

Another popular attraction of the Chengde area is Sledgehammer Peak, a large rock formation in the shape of an inverted sledgehammer. A variety of other mountains, valleys, and grasslands lie within the borders of the city.

Sister cities
Chengde has city partnerships with the following locations:
 * 🇧🇷 Santo André, São Paulo, Brazil
 * 🇯🇵 Takasaki, Gunma, Japan
 * 🇺🇸 Dakota County, Minnesota, United States
 * 🇯🇵 Kashiwa, Chiba, Japan

title: Chengde


text: Category:Unreleased albums

title: Category:Unreleased albums


text:
P'ent'ay

P'ent'ay (from Ge'ez: ጴንጤ ) is an originally Amharic–Tigrinya language term for Pentecostal Christians. Today, the term refers to all Evangelical Protestant denominations and organisations in Ethiopian and Eritrean societies. Alternative terms include Ethiopian–Eritrean Evangelicalism or the Ethiopian–Eritrean Evangelical Church. Sometimes the denominations and organizations are known as Wenigēlawī (from Ge'ez: ወንጌላዊ "evangelical").

Evangelical Christianity was originally introduced by American and European Protestant missionary work, which began in the 19th century among various peoples, including Christians schismed from the Orthodox Tewahedo church, other branches of Christianity, or converted from non-Christian religions or traditional faith practices. Since the creation of P'ent'ay churches and organisations, prominent movements among them have been Pentecostalism, the Baptist tradition, Lutheranism, Methodism, Presbyterianism, the Mennonites, and the Eastern-oriented Protestant Christians within Ethiopia and Eritrea and the Ethiopian and Eritrean diaspora.

Etymology
The term was coined in the late 1960s and was used as a pejorative for churches that believed in the Pentecostal experience and spiritual gifts of the Holy Spirit, used to describe local Protestant Christians who are not members of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo and Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo churches (collectively known as the Orthodox Tewahedo).

The term P'ent'ay is derived from "Pentecostal"; however, it has since become a general shorthand referring to not only Evangelical Protestants but all Protestant denomination christians, whether they are self-identified as Pentecostal or not. Some Orthodox Ethiopians will even apply the term to the small Catholic population of Ethiopia and Eritrea (but this is rare).

The equivalent rendition in many other languages is "Evangelical"; the term Wenigēlawī means "Evangelical" and has been used alongside P'ent'ay. Many of these groups describe their religious practices as culturally Eastern Christian, but Protestant Evangelical by doctrine.

Denominations
The major Protestant denominations in Ethiopia and Eritrea are a group of indigenous, closely linked (part of the አብያተ ክርስቲያናት or community of churches) Baptist, Lutheran, Pentecostal, and Mennonite denominations.

Primary denominations

 * The Ethiopian Kale Heywet (Word of Life) Church, a charismatic Evangelical Protestant denomination with Pentecostal and Baptist roots. It is associated with the Sudan Interior Mission, an interdenominational organization, and has an Eritrean branch.
 * The Ethiopian Evangelical Church Mekane Yesus (Place of Jesus), a Lutheran denomination which includes a Presbyterian-leaning synod. The Eritrean Evangelical Church Mekane Yesus is the Eritrean Lutheran branch of this Evangelical Protestant denomination. The Ethiopian Lutheran denomination is the largest non-united Lutheran Christian denomination in the world (see list of Christian denominations by number of members).
 * The Evangelical Lutheran Church of Eritrea, a Lutheran denomination which joined the Lutheran World Federation in 1963.
 * The Ethiopian Full Gospel Believers' Church, a Pentecostal denomination with Mennonite influence.
 * The Meserete Kristos (Christ Foundation) Church, a Mennonite denomination with Pentecostal influence.
 * Christian Brethren

Some P'ent'ay communities—especially the Mekane Yesus Lutheran Church for example—have been influenced by the Orthodox Tewahedo churches, which represents the dominant traditional Ethiopian and Eritrean Christian demographic, but for the most part are very Pentecostal in their worship and theology.

Other denominations

 * Ammanuel Baptist Church
 * Misgana Church of Ethiopia
 * Assemblies of God – Pentecostal
 * Hiwot Berhan Church (Light of Life Church)
 * Emnet Kristos
 * Berhane Wongel – Gospel Light
 * Ethiopian Addis Kidan Baptist Church
 * Evangelical Church of Eritrea
 * Lutheran Church of Eritrea
 * Middle East General Mission
 * Seventh-day Adventist Church
 * Anglicanism is represented in Ethiopia and Eritrea by the Episcopal Church in Jerusalem and the Middle East and Episcopal Anglican Province of Alexandria; Ethiopia and Eritrea are both part of the Diocese of Egypt, which also includes other countries in the Horn of Africa as well as the North Africa region. There are two Episcopal churches in Ethiopia, one is in Addis Ababa and the other in Gambela, while in Eritrea there are no officially operated congregations at this time.

Unity and the ECFE
The ECFE, or Evangelical Church Fellowship of Ethiopia, is a consortium of born-again, Trinitarian Christians. The ECFE has 22 member churches, and based on 2004 statistics, 11.5 million members. All P'ent'ay churches, regardless of denomination, are domestically known as አብያተ ክርስቲያናት (Abiate kristianat' or ābiyate kirisitīyanati') meaning 'churches' in the senses of a 'community of Christians' in Amharic, the official working federal language of Ethiopia. Most of these denominations also operate ministries, colleges and bible societies like the Ethiopian Graduate School of Theology, Golden Oil Ministries, Evangelical Theological College, the Ethiopian Bible Society and Meserete Kristos College. These churches often work together by exchanging preachers and organizing church conferences.

Statistics
According to the 2005 statistics from the World Christian Database, Ethiopian Pentecostal/Charismatic members cover a bit over 16 percent of the country as P'ent'ays of Ethiopia. The individual groups are the Word of Life Church (Kale Heywet) Church, Mekane Yesus, Churches of Christ, Misgana Church of Ethiopia, Assembly of God, Hiwot Berhan Church, Emnet Kristos, Meserete Kristos, Light of Life Church, Mulu Wongel (Full Gospel Believers Church) and other churches constituting slightly over 12 million P'ent'ays in Ethiopia. However, according to World Christian Encyclopedia, the Evangelical Protestant community is down to only 13.6% of Ethiopian population. According to the 1994 government census, Protestant Christians comprise 10% of the population (about 7–8 million today). According to membership and adherent records provided by the various churches and denominations, Ethiopian Protestants claim as high as 18.59% of the country's population which is inline with the recent data from the US Department of State.

Beliefs
Evangelicals in Ethiopia and Eritrea believe that one is saved by believing in Jesus as Lord and Saviour for the forgiveness of sins. They believe in the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, the one essence of the Trinity. Like all other Christian groups that accept the canonical gospels, P'ent'ays also believe in being "born again" (dagem meweled), as it is written numerous times in the Gospel of John, and demonstrated by one's baptism in the Holy Spirit as well as water baptism. Speaking in tongues is seen as one of the signs, but not the only sign, of "receiving Christ", which should include a new lifestyle and social behavior.

Although almost all Evangelical Protestant branches in Ethiopia and Eritrea have one or two theological differences or different approaches in the interpretation of the Bible, all of the four major branches follow the beliefs common to born-again Christians. The four major denominations also exchange pastors (megabi) and allow the preachers to serve in different churches when invited (full communion). All of the four main churches and others also share and listen to various gospel singers, mezmur (gospel music or hymn) producers and choirs.

History
Peter Heyling was the first Protestant missionary in Ethiopia, and is regarded as the founding father of the P'ent'ay or Wenigēlawī movement.

For the most part, Ethiopian and Eritrean Protestants state that their form of Christianity is both the reformation of the current Orthodox Tewahedo churches as well as the restoration of it to the original Ethiopian Christianity. They believe Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity was paganized after the 960s, during the reign of queen Gudit, who destroyed and burned most of the church's possessions and scriptures. They claim those events have led to the gradual paganization of the Oriental Orthodox Churches which they say is now merely dominated by rituals, hearsay and fables. P'ent'ay Christians use the alleged "secularized teaching" of the current Ethiopian and Eritrean Orthodox churches, the alleged inability of most Orthodox followers to live according to the instructions of the Bible and the deuterocanonical books used by rural priests, as a proof to their belief in the Orthodox Tewahedo teaching is also mainly syncretized. P'ent'ay Christians use the history of the Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity prior to the 1960s as their own history, despite lacking historical continuity.

It was only during the early 20th century that American and European missionaries spread Protestantism with Mennonite and Pentecostal churches through the Sudan Interior Mission (SIM). When the SIM continued its movement after a brief ban during Ethiopia's war with Italy, it is written that the missionaries were taken aback by the fruits of their initial mission. Protestant Christians still face persecution in rural regions and are assisted by the Voice of the Martyrs; however, there is a growing tolerance between the Ethiopian Orthodox, Muslims and the growing population of P'en'tay Christians in the urban areas of the country. With the dominance of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo and the growing Muslim population, the population of P'en'tay Christians was estimated around 16.15 million (19 percent of total population), according to the information released by the U.S. Department of State.

Confusion with non-affiliates
Recent misidentification of certain groups as P'ent'ay has caused confusion. One controversy involves Oneness Pentecostalism and Jehovah's Witnesses, which are strictly opposed by the other Protestant denominations.

The metropolitan sui iuris Eastern Catholic particular churches of the Eritrean Catholic Church and Ethiopian Catholic Church are not P'ent'ay (Evangelical Protestant) churches but some Orthodox Tewahedo adherents have used the term P'ent'ay as a pejorative by conflating and 'othering' them with P'ent'ay (Evangelical Protestants).

Persecution
According to Voice of the Martyrs there have been brutal killings of P'ent'ay Christians in rural areas that tend to be overlooked by the Ethiopian rural officials and stay undisclosed to international organizations. Some Oriental Orthodox families expel children out of their house if the children convert to Protestantism. Since the majority population is Orthodox, Voice of the Martyrs claims no criminal investigations are carried out against Oriental Orthodox mobs who burn Evangelical churches, destroy houses and even murder P'ent'ay Christians.

Voice of the Martyrs also states that Evangelical Christians have been murdered by Islamic militants because they wouldn't renounce their faith in Christ. Islamic militants have stopped at least one bus (near Jijiga, a rural area) and demanded Christians recite the Islamic creed, killing those who refuse. The mostly rural churches like Kale Heywet have historically faced persecution with aggressors often doing so with impunity. During the previous 1970s and 1980s government, persecution was equally severe in the urban cities as well, with the likes of Mulu Wongel church (Full Gospel) and Mesereke Kristos Church facing widespread persecution and mass imprisonments and killings. Lacking western ties, the Mulu Wongel church was outlawed by the Derg Ethiopian government.

More persecution followed Ethiopian Protestants for more than a decade. However, after a change of government, religious equality including the right to worship, build churches and evangelize were restored. Minor and rural issues still exist. Despite these issues, compared to the past, the 1990s have brought the most freedom of religion in Ethiopia. Most of the Evangelical churches, especially Mulu Wongel, Assemblies of God, and Kale Heywet, faced persecution and detentions by previous governments. The state sponsored persecution of Protestants by the 1980s government created what some scholars call an "invisible church" and an underground evangelism where the membership of these churches drastically increased despite this era of persecution.

Since the early 1990s, persecution has mostly ceased, particularly in the cities and areas near the cities, and there is a growing level of tolerance between Evangelical Christians and other religious groups. The ruling party however established a Faith and Religious Affairs Directorate (similar to those in China) to issue licenses, to demand loyalty, and to infiltrate hierarchies of Christian and Islamic institutions. Even though it is not comparable to the state sponsored persecution of the past, P'ent'ay Christians in Ethiopia still face persecution from private citizens in Muslim dominated rural areas. Despite Ethiopia's well-known religious tolerance, culture related acceptance issues and the growth of some Evangelical churches have also led to some violence, especially as non-Orthodox Christians and Muslims seek to gain equal economic and social status as the traditionally privileged Orthodox Christians.

New challenges Christians face in Ethiopia include the Islamic fundamentalism movement mostly coming from radical Islamist organizations or followers of an extreme form of Wahhabist Islam coming from Saudi Arabia-linked Muslim Non-governmental organizations and projects. In Eritrea, torture is used against Protestant Christians, more than 2000 Christians are subject to arrest (2006). The U. S. state department names it a Country of Particular Concern due to its violation of religious liberty. It has been reported that entire families are thrown into jail. According to the Barnabas Fund, in April 2010 a 28-year-old student died after she was held in a metal shipping container for 2 years, after being arrested for attending a Bible study.

Hymns
Music, more technically speaking "hymns" or "psalms" (Mezmur — መዝሙር – in Amharic, the official language of Ethiopia, and also in other Ethiopian-Eritrean languages as well) plays a big role in preaching and the daily life of P'ent'ay/Evangelical Christians. With the belief that music should be for God, and him alone, Ethiopian mezmur does not have ethnic or cultural boundaries, nor restriction on what style or instruments to use. However, there are apparent influences from American evangelicals that have led to commercialization and cross-overs. CD, cassette and DVD sales are now one of the rare Ethiopian industries on the rise.

History of P'ent'ay music
Even though some of the older generation of singers didn't have the financial means to make cassettes, they have influenced Ethiopian music in various ways while singing in local churches. Some of the early singers are Addisu Worku, Leggesse Watro, the Araya Family who used to sing on Misrach Dimts Radio.

Mekane Yesus Church led the way in translating hymnals from the Swedish and adapting from Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church. In the early 1970s the Meserete Kristos Church Choir was established. Some from Tsion Choir from Mulu Wongel joined the newly established choir and Meserete Kristos continued developing songs in Ethiopian languages. During these early years, other groups like Bethel singers also produced Ethiopian gospel songs.

Early comers
Some of the early comers were Mulu Wongel and Meserete Kristos choirs, which now have up to Choir E and F, with each having 8, 9 albums. Some of these churches in other branch cities have stopped using single letters for choir names, and applied names instead. Other early comers Mekane Yesus church choir, Mulu Wengel church choir, Meserete Kristos church (MKC) choir arrived around the 1970s. Solo vocalists developed fast in these and other churches. Addisu Worku, Dereje Kebede, Tamrat Walba, Tesfaye Gabisso, Eyerusalem Teshome, Tamerate Haile, Tadesse Eshete, Gizachew Worku, Atalay Alem and Shewaye Damte fill in some of this list that started early.

Modern
Some of the late 20th century singers include Kalkidan Tilahun (Lily) of Qale Hiywet Church, Ahavah Gospel Singers, Dagmawi Tilahun (Dagi) of Mulu Wongel Church and Elias Abebe of the Assemblies of God church. Others are Awtaru Kebede, Sophia Shibabaw, Mesfin Gutu, Mihiret Itefa, Lealem Tilahun (Lali), Gezahegn Muse, Azeb Hailu and many more. There are also singers who are pastors, some of them are Dawit Molalign, Kasshaun Lemma and Yohannes Girma. Oromo language singers like Kabaa Fidoo, Abbabaa Tamesgeen, Iyoob Yaadataa, Baacaa Bayyanaa, Magarsaa Baqqalaa, Dastaa Insarmuu, Bilisee Karrasaa, and others have also served Evangelical Churches in southwestern Ethiopia. In the Tigrinya language, there are singers like Yonas Haile, Mihret Gebretatios, Selam Hagos, Ruth Mekuria, Yemane Habte, and Adhanom Teklemariam and duos like Yonatan and Sosuna. Introducing new styles are young performers like Dawit "Danny" Wolde who studied at Berklee College of Music.

Classical and instrumental gospel songs have also flourished with Fikru Aligaz and Bethel Music Ministry. Also, Fikru Aligaz has been providing a three-day praise and worship service with the Bethel Praise & Worship Choir to reach local Christian and Non-Christian members of the community twice a year since 1998. Duos like Aster & Endalkachewu or Geta Yawkal & Berektawit bring more variety. Also, formerly secular singers like Hirut Bekele, Solomon Disasa and Muluken have produced gospel songs after they convert and become born-again Christians. There are many music composers in P'ent'ay church like Christian Girma (currently living in Denver, Colorado), Ebenezer Girma, Enku Girma, Nathanael Befikadu, Biruk Bedru, Daniel Ewnetu, Bereket Tesfaye, Samson Tamrat, Yabets Tesema, Ameha Mekonen, Endalkachew Hawaz, Estifanos Mengistu, and there are countless church music players. Digital music composition is used and there are more than twenty Christian music studios in Ethiopia, including CMM, TDS, COMNS, Sami, Nati, Langanoo, Begena, Kinnei, Albastor, Shalom, Exodus, and Bethlehem.

There are also gospel singers who sing in Wolayta, Hadiya-Kambata, Sidama, and other areas of the South.

Modern musical controversy within the Church
Some of the most famous music players in Ethiopia like Elias Melka, played in Evangelical churches has subsequently converted to secular music. Some modern singers often mimic American Evangelical artists, allegedly including other lifestyles that are not genuine depictions of traditional Ethiopian Evangelicalism. The tradition of local church group choirs, has to an extent been supplanted by individual solo singers who have controversially gained celebrity status with their lifestyles often resembling secular celebrities.

title: P'ent'ay


text:
Laddio Bolocko

Laddio Bolocko was a noise rock band from New York City, formed in 1996 by members of Panicsville and the Dazzling Killmen. Their sound has drawn comparisons to experimental rock groups such as This Heat and Can and free jazz musicians like Albert Ayler. The band favored limited releases, offering only small pressings of their original albums. They toured internationally, recording and releasing the EP "As if by Remote" in Europe only.

After disbanding in 2000, Armstrong and St. Ivany formed a new noise rock band, The Psychic Paramount, while Fleming and DeGrazia formed Electric Turn to Me. No Quarter Records released the anthology of Laddio Bolocko in 2003, compiling all three original releases for the first time widely available to the listening public. They were featured in a David Cross DVD entitled "Let America Laugh."

Members

 * Drew St. Ivany – guitar
 * Ben Armstrong – bass
 * Blake Fleming – drums
 * Marcus DeGrazia – horns

Discography

 * Strange Warmings of Laddio Bolocko (1997, Hungarian Records)
 * In Real Time (1998, Hungarian Records)
 * As if by Remote (1999, Hungarian Records)
 * The Life & Times of Laddio Bolocko (2003, No Quarter Records) (featuring the Super 8 film "As if by Remote" by Aran Tharp)

title: Laddio Bolocko


text:
Water sources of Mumbai

Mumbai controls several dams in Shahpur taluk (Thane district) that deliver water to the city. The Western Ghats trap most of the moisture laden monsoon clouds which feed these dammed rivers. Currently, these dams deliver approximately 3.4 billion litres of water to Mumbai daily. Here are the dams supplying the city the water it needs to survive:

Tansa and Vaitarna dams supply the southern region of Mumbai, while the rest supply the suburbs. An underground tank in Malabar Hills is used to store the water.

title: Water sources of Mumbai


text:
Category talk:Painters

Art category organisation
Hello all,

I'm suddenly seeing a lot more activity in this category. I think we have already reached the stage where it is beneficial to subcategorize by nationality. Any suggestions welcome.

More generaly, we could probably use some coordination on organising the various arts and artists categories. I sugges we pick up further discussion on Category talk:art -- Solipsist 20:10, 6 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * It would be great if all the painters in the Category:Lists_of_painters be added in this category. NoiZy 07:33, 1 August 2006 (UTC)
 * I disagree. Painters that already are categorized in "Painters by nationality", and "Painters by period" should not belong directly to "Category:Painters". Catz 11:04, 16 August 2006 (UTC)

title: Category talk:Painters