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Nymphalis antiopa

Nymphalis antiopa, known as the mourning cloak in North America and the Camberwell beauty in Britain, is a large butterfly native to Eurasia and North America. The immature form of this species is sometimes known as the spiny elm caterpillar. Other older names for this species include grand surprise and white petticoat. A powerful flier, this species is sometimes found in areas far from its usual range during migration.

These butterflies have a lifespan of 11 to 12 months, one of the longest lifespans for any butterfly. It is the state insect of the U.S. state of Montana, adopted in 2001.

Etymology
The specific epithet antiopa is thought to be derived from Antiope, a common name in Greek mythology.

North American name "mourning cloak"
In several European countries with Germanic languages, other than Britain, the name for this butterfly literally translates to "mourning cloak", such as German "Trauermantel", Dutch "rouwmantel", Swedish "sorgmantel", Finnish "suruvaippa" and Norwegian "sørgekåpe". This suggests it is a name which came with Scandinavian or German rather than with British settlers, for whom this species would be considerably less familiar. Other common names include: Czech "Černopláštník". "Babočka osiková". Polish "Rusałka żałobnik". Russian "Траурница". Japanese "キベリタテハ". Chinese "黄縁立羽". L. Hugh Newman likened the butterfly's pattern to a girl who, disliking having to be in mourning, defiantly let a few inches of a bright dress show below her mourning dress.

British name "Camberwell beauty"
The name originated from the discovery of two individuals at Coldharbour Lane in Camberwell in August 1748. Camberwell is in South London, about three miles south of London Bridge—in reporting this, the author Moses Harris named the species grand surprise or Camberwell beauty (Bretherton & Emmet, 1990).

Distribution
The mourning cloak butterflies are distributed broadly around the northern hemisphere. They are commonly found throughout all of North America and northern Eurasia. Three subspecies of mourning cloak butterflies are found throughout North America: northern Nymphalis antiopa hyperborea Seitz, 1913; eastern N. a. lintnerii Fitch, 1857; southwestern N. a. thomsoni Butler, 1887. They can usually be found in hardwood forests, though they have been found in virtually all habitats. They may also be found as far as the northern part of South America, though they are typically not seen as frequently in southern states such as Florida, Louisiana, or Texas. They are occasionally seen in the more temperate places in Asia, and a few have even been seen in Japan. However, the mourning cloaks tend to be found predominantly in cold, mountainous areas.

Migrants arrive in Great Britain most years during summer and autumn, but numbers are usually very low. There is no evidence that the species breeds in Britain; it is thought that mild, wet winters prevent them from surviving there for very long. The 'Butterfly Farmer' L. Hugh Newman raised thousands for release at his 'farm' in Bexley, but none were seen the following spring. Specimens stored in his refrigerator for the winter, however, survived. In a book he said that Camberwell Beauty catches in England were suspiciously concentrated around London, Hull and Harwich, all these being ports in the timber trade with Scandinavia, and theorized that they had hibernated in stacks of timber which was then shipped to England, and had not traveled naturally.

Eggs
Mourning cloak eggs are amber-yellow or pale olive-green when first laid. Upon further development, the coloration of the eggs will change, becoming lilac-pink, and darkening to almost black, as they mature prior to hatching. The eggs are generally 0.7 by 0.9 mm in size. Laid on terminal shoots of the larval food-plant, encircling the stem. Later in season, when the leaves appear, females also lay the eggs on the upper surface.

Larvae
The spiny caterpillars are striking in appearance, with black bodies and a line of eight reddish-orange dots running down the back (aposematic, warning coloration). The prolegs are dark red. The body is covered with short hairs and black spines and white dots. The fully grown mourning cloak caterpillars attain two inches in length.

Pupae
Mourning cloak pupae are on average 0.8 inches (2.0 cm) in length, though they can reach over 1.1 inches (2.8 cm) in length. They tend to be a tan or brown gray, with two rows of sharp, red-tipped spikes protruding from the ventro-lateral side of the pupae. The chrysalis has a "beak", tubercles, and two head horns.

Adult
The mourning cloak butterfly is a large, unique butterfly, with special markings that do not match those of any other butterfly, making it easily distinguishable. It can have a wingspan up to four inches. The dorsal side of its wings are a dark maroon, or occasionally brown, with ragged pale-yellow edges. Bright, iridescent blue spots line the black demarcation between the maroon and the yellow. The ventral side of the wings has gray striations, with the same pale-yellow edges. They are a part of the family Nymphalidae, called the brush-footed butterflies due to their hairy front legs. The species does not display any obvious sexual dimorphism.

Mating system
Mourning cloak butterflies display polygynous mating behavior, where an individual male will mate with multiple females throughout one breeding season. He will either use a display site to attract females or fly around searching for females that are more widely dispersed in a process called scramble competition polygyny. This means that male mourning cloak butterflies primarily lek, or display territorial behavior, in which they settle and defend desirable areas, such as those that either offer increased probability of females or those that provide ample amounts of good resources. The more desirable territories will be able to increase the males' chances of reproductive success. Thus, lekking maximizes the males' ability to attract the most female butterflies, either by being in a prime location to view them or to have a location that females would want to visit. Locations of choice typically include sunny perches near ravines, wood margins, parks, gardens, lakes, ponds, around stream edges, or canyons in which males can perch and defend for multiple days. These locations can be more than an area of 300 square meters. Given the male-male competition for mating, this strategy offers males an ideal location in order to maximize success in territorial protection, and thus mating. Despite the fact that butterflies, particularly the mourning cloak butterflies, have an affinity for perches on high objects, they are not known to display any hilltopping behavior, where male butterflies fly up to perch on hill summits.

Spring marks the beginning of their mating season, when female mourning cloaks will find a host plant and begin to lay their eggs. Adult mourning cloak butterflies can first be seen in late spring through early summer. They then aestivate for the summer, where they will enter into a "dormant" state similar to that of hibernation. In concordance with this is the mourning cloak butterflies' exhibition of diapause, which is a suspension in development in response to certain conditions, such as environmental stimuli. They will break diapause once some, though not all, of the butterflies start to migrate through September and October. They then overwinter, and then restart their mating cycle throughout the spring, from April through June.

Life cycle
Mourning cloaks, like all other butterflies, undergo complete metamorphosis. Egg →Larva (L1 ... L5) → Pupa → Adult. Before the leaves bud-out, Mourning cloaks are known to lay their eggs as ring clusters around the terminal twigs on host plants. The host plant selection is vital because it provides the food source for the young caterpillars. Females are known to have multiple broods, typically up to two to three. The newly hatched caterpillars will group together until they shed their skin—termed an instar for each shedding. This shedding event occurs four times throughout development in a process called ecdysis. The larvae experience a fifth skin shed to produce a fully grown caterpillar. The next stage in the mourning cloak's life cycle is to morph into a pupa and then cocoon in a process that encases the creature in a tan or gray chrysalis, which will hang from the stems of grass. This pupa stage allows for resting and further maturation. This metamorphosis takes approximately fifteen days. Following development as the chrysalis is the emergence of an adult mourning cloak butterfly.

Studies show that the mourning cloaks use endocrine mechanisms similar to other lepidopterans to regulate female specific protein synthesis, oogenesis, and male and female reproductive gland development. Juvenile hormone (JH) is involved in the regulation of oogenesis and development of the male and female reproductive glands in the mourning cloak butterfly.

Behavior
The adult butterflies hibernate during the winter months. Typical locations of overwintering include tree cavities and on the ground underneath loose tree bark (covered by snow). They often emerge from hibernation before the snow has completely melted, making it one of the first butterflies to take wing in the spring.

The mourning cloak is a non-migratory species but some sources suggest that a portion of the North American population migrates southward. Experiments carried out in Germany by Hubert Roer in 1962-68, documented a long-distance (one way) migration from Bonn to Greece (Chalkiditi).

Larval food-plants
Upon hatching, the caterpillars will begin to eat the leaves of the larval food-plant. A large number of food-plant plants was recorded, such as willow (Salix nigra, Salix pentandra, Salix caprea, Salix aurita, Salix cinerea, Salix phylicifolia), American elm, hackberry, hawthorn, wild rose, Betula species (Betula verrucosa, Betula chinensis), Alnus incana and poplar. The caterpillars live gregariously in communal silken nest on the host-plant, until they disperse prior to pupation.

Adult mourning cloaks primarily feed on sap, ripe and fallen fruits and sugary exudate from aphids, very rarely seen nectaring on flowers.

Predation
The mourning cloak butterfly faces many predators throughout its development. The mourning cloak's eggs can be eaten by predators such as beetles, true bugs, ants, beetle larvae, wasps, assassin bugs, and mites. Some of the butterflies' major predators include praying mantises, assassin bugs, dragon flies, and vertebrate predators such as birds, reptiles, amphibians, and mammals.

Defense mechanisms
An anti-predation mechanism the mourning cloaks have employed as adult butterflies is camouflage. To do this, the butterflies fold their wings back when attached to trees as their folded wings will provide camouflage against the dark backdrop of the trees.

An additional anti-predation tactic used by the mourning cloaks is to join together with other butterflies in a perch and fly menacingly towards their attackers—most often birds or other butterflies.

Mourning cloaks also play dead by closing their wings tightly together and tucking their legs up against their body for protection and holding completely still. They will maintain this for a few minutes before returning to their natural healthy and lively behavior.

Further defense mechanisms include loud clicks when the mourning cloak flies away from a predator.

To protect themselves from the cold weather of their habitats, mourning cloaks will find areas under direct sunlight. This behavior, in conjunction with their darkly-colored wings, allow for maximum heat absorption.

Newly hatched mourning cloak caterpillars can display selfish behavior, such as siblicide, by eating non-hatched eggs. The larvae also group together for the duration of their development, preventing some predation by numbers. The larvae and pupae can also respond to disturbances by twitching simultaneously – this may be performed as a defense mechanism.

Pollination
Mourning cloak butterflies are not known to be significant pollinators, since their primary food source is sap of deciduous trees rather than flowering plants. However, they still can occasionally act as pollinators.

Pests
On occasions, the gregarious mourning cloak larvae will completely defoliate ornamental trees, in nurseries, plantations, and parks. Some areas that this damage has been documented has been Oregon and Canada. The young willows and poplars could be completely defoliated due to the caterpillars, though mature trees tend not to be affected.

Research
Mourning cloak butterflies have been a part of some epigenetics experiments testing to determine if the environment affects certain butterfly phenotypic characteristics. Scientists hypothesized that traumatic heat or cold shocks "during a critical period of its development can cause profound changes". The first experiments occurred in the 1890s. The mourning cloaks were temperature shocked at specific times in their development, which led to differences in pupae color. It was later learned that the color change was due to hormonal changes in response to varying temperatures.

Conservation
Mourning cloak butterflies are protected by law in Switzerland and Austria, though they generally have an increasing trend regarding population density in Finland. They also assume "safe" status in the Czech Republic. In general, the mourning cloak butterflies find areas that have experienced fire breaks to be more inviting, presumably because the fire breaks increase the amount of open space and clearings available to the butterflies, which is a more ideal habitat for these butterflies to live in.

Subspecies
Subspecies include:
 * N. a. antiopa (Linnaeus, 1758)
 * The nominotypical subspecies. Type-locality: "Sweden"
 * N. a. hyperborea (Seitz, 1913) (Canada, Alaska)
 * This subspecies lays more amber-yellow eggs, instead of the olive-green. As the eggs develop, the coloration will change to lilac pinkish-purple. These larvae's spines are shorter and stouter than those of European mourning cloak larvae. and the spots bordering the wing edges may be more of a violet color.
 * N. a. lintnerii (Fitch, 1857) (slightly larger than preceding; se Canada, eastern US)
 * N. a. asopos (Fruhstorfer, 1909) (Japan)

Popular culture

 * The Camberwell Beauty figures in the short story "A Plague of Butterflies" by Fred M. White, published in The Chronicle, Adelaide, Australia, 28 December 1918.
 * Camberwell Beauty is a buddleia cultivar raised by Elizabeth Keep at the East Malling Research Station.
 * There is a large mosaic of a Camberwell Beauty on the wall of the Passmore Edwards library, baths and wash house in Burgess Park, a large park that is close to the south London suburb of Camberwell. The Camberwell Beauty was the emblem of the Samuel Jones paper company and was previously on their factory on nearby Southampton Way, but was moved when the factory was demolished in 1982. A photograph of the mosaic was used on the cover of Camberwell indie band The House of Love on their self-titled 1990 album.
 * Camberwell Beauty is a novel by Louis Golding, published in 1935.
 * "The Adventure of the Camberwell Beauty" is a short story by August Derleth, published in 1952 in Three Problems for Solar Pons. The Solar Pons stories are pastiche stories of the Sherlock Holmes tales.
 * The Camberwell Beauty (ISBN 978-0-701-12067-2) is a collection of short stories by VS Pritchett, published in 1974.
 * Camberwell Beauty (ISBN 978-0-316-85318-7) is the first novel by the comedian Jenny Eclair, published in 2000.
 * Camberwell Beauty is a 2015 short film directed and written by Chris Ward and featuring Lindsay Armaou. The film is about the lead singer in a punk band, 'Camberwell Beauty', who undergoes plastic surgery to reconstruct her face after a motorbike accident, but is horrified to discover that she is now beautiful. It was originally a 1982 play, of the same name, by Ward.
 * "Camberwell Beauty" is a track on the 2017 album Ealing Feeder by composer Sarah Angliss.
 *  Mourning Cloak Episode 10 Season 7 Fear The Walking Dead references the butterfly throughout the storyline ''*

title: Nymphalis antiopa


text:
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JibJab

JibJab is an American independent digital entertainment studio based in Los Angeles, California. Founded in 1999 by brothers Evan and Gregg Spiridellis, it first achieved widespread attention during the 2004 US presidential election when their video of George W. Bush and John Kerry singing This Land Is Your Land became a viral hit. Initially known for political and social satire, JibJab produced commercials and shorts for clients such as Sony, Noggin, Cartoon Network, Nickelodeon, PBS Kids, Sprout, NBC, Qubo, and Disney before focusing on its now-flagship personalized eCard and messaging services. In 2016, its animated sticker-making program – which has been available since 2004 – became the top App Store app by download growth.

In 2012, JibJab also expanded into the children's educational market with its multi-platform learning program, StoryBots, which has since spawned two Netflix TV series, Ask the StoryBots and StoryBots Super Songs.

In 2019, JibJab was acquired by the private equity firm Catapult Capital.

"Cooking With Clinton"
One of JibJab's first animations. It's about then-president Bill Clinton trying to show the viewers how to bake weed brownies while being high and repeatedly asking Hillary for a glass of water.

"Capitol Ill"
For the 2000 presidential election JibJab released a Flash movie entitled "Capitol Ill" in July 2000, which featured an animated rap battle between George W. Bush and Al Gore. Bill Clinton and George H. W. Bush also make appearances.

"Ahnuld for Governor"
In 2003, JibJab produced a Flash movie poking fun at Arnold Schwarzenegger's campaign for Governor of California. It depicts Schwarzenegger giving a campaign speech.

"This Land"
For the 2004 United States presidential election, JibJab created a Flash movie entitled "This Land," released on July 9, 2004, which featured animated versions of George W. Bush and John Kerry - voiced by comedian Jim Meskimen - singing a parody of Woody Guthrie's song "This Land Is Your Land".

The video was considered an instant success, eventually being viewed all over the world, as well as the International Space Station. The traffic surge forced JibJab's server to be shut down after one day, and the clip was placed on AtomFilms, where it got more than 1 million hits in 24 hours.

After being linked to on thousands of websites, the video was featured several times in the printed media and on television, including NBC Nightly News, Fox News and ABC World News Tonight. On July 26, 2004, the creators appeared on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno. In December 2004, the Spiridellis brothers were named People of the Year by Peter Jennings.

The Richmond Organization, a music publisher that owns the copyright to Guthrie's tune through its Ludlow Music Unit, threatened legal action. JibJab responded with a lawsuit in a California federal court, claiming the song was protected under a fair use exemption for parodies. JibJab and Ludlow Music reached a settlement after JibJab's attorneys unearthed evidence that the song had passed into the public domain in 1973. The terms of the settlement allowed for the continued distribution of This Land.

"Good to Be in DC"
In October 2004, JibJab followed up with another original animation, "Good to Be in DC," set to the tune of Dan Emmett's "Dixie". In this video, animated versions of George W. Bush, Dick Cheney, John Kerry, and John Edwards sing about their hopes for the upcoming election.

"Second Term"
Immediately after George W. Bush's election victory, JibJab released a third video, "Second Term." Set to the tune of "She'll Be Coming 'Round the Mountain", an animated Bush gloats over his successful bid for a second term as president, and his plans for it, based on his campaign promises.

"Time for Some Campaignin'"
For the 2008 presidential election, JibJab released another election-themed animation, "Time for Some Campaignin'" in July of that year. Set to the tune of Bob Dylan's "The Times They Are a-Changin", animated versions of Bill and Hillary Clinton, John McCain, Barack Obama sing of their presidential hopes. As George W. Bush and Dick Cheney Bid Farewell to the White House. This video was the first instance where viewers had the option of using Jibjab's e-card website to insert their own face as that of a harassed voter.

"He's Barack Obama"
Upon Barack Obama becoming president, JibJab released "He's Barack Obama", where they portrayed Obama as a superhero. The music becomes a heavy metal interpretation of "When Johnny Comes Marching Home", as Obama promises he will fix the Middle East, defeat the Taliban, fix the schools, fight a giant space robot, wrestle a bear, fix the deficit and more. This one is notable for being having been viewed by Obama himself. Stated on the description of its YouTube video: "A Over-the-Top Satire That Debuted In front of the President Himself this Friday At the Radio and Television Correspondents Dinner!"

2012 election
For the 2012 United States presidential election, JibJab did not make an election video and instead began to focus their efforts on their e-card business. However, an election web app was released in late October of that year.

Year in Review
Starting in 2005, and for the next nine consecutive years until 2014, JibJab annually released "Year in Review" videos, usually late in December between Christmas and New Year's Day, sung to all various classical melodies. The videos were originally uploaded on YouTube and their website. but on December 11, 2015, JibJab made a Facebook announcement that they would not be releasing anymore "Year in Review" videos as the brothers had begun finding them creatively unfulfilling. By then, ten "Year in Review" videos had been made; by the winter of 2016, JibJab removed all "Year in Review" videos from their website (although they would remain on their YouTube channel) and started to focus on their eCard videos instead. However, on November 24, 2020, in response to popular demand, JibJab revived the "Year In Review" series with a video about 2020, the first to use an original tune.

Big Box Mart
In 2005, JibJab released the video "Big Box Mart". Sung to the tune of "Oh, Susannah", it tells the story of a 53-year-old frequent patron of the titular big-box store, who is enthralled by the store's discounts and offers, but soon loses his job as a factory worker, which is outsourced to Beijing, China as a result of the company now selling cheap products to Big Box Mart stores. The man is left no choice but to be employed at his local Big Box Mart for the rest of his life.

What We Call the News
Sung to the tune of "Battle Hymn of the Republic", "What We Call the News" laments the decline of journalism in the cable TV era, particularly sensationalistic stories.

Founding Fathers Rap
George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, and Thomas Jefferson rap about their accomplishments and end their verse with "We Declare Our independence". They are accompanied by John Adams and James Madison. Adams is the DJ, and Madison says "Oh Yeah" after every verse.

Shawshank in a Minute
This sketch was part (and winner) of a 2006 online competition, The Great Sketch Experiment, held by JibJab and their first live action production. Participants included the comedy duo Famous Last Nerds (Jordan Allen-Dutton and Erik Weiner) and John Landis as director. It both summarizes and parodies The Shawshank Redemption, condensing the plot to a length of nearly three minutes and underlining it with rap music.

CDs
There are CDs in Amazon containing but not limited to, This Land and Good To Be in DC!

Music videos
JibJab produced a music video for the 2006 song "Do I Creep You Out?" by Weird Al Yankovic, a parody of Taylor Hicks' "Do I Make You Proud?". The video depicts the main character stalking a barista in increasingly disturbing ways, ending with his being arrested and jailed as he publicly professes his emotions in a song. In 2009 JibJab produced another music video for Yankovic for the song "CNR", which is a style parody of The White Stripes. The video and song portrays Charles Nelson Reilly as a superhuman doing seemingly impossible or improbable things. It also features Yankovic and Jon "Bermuda" Schwartz as Jack White and Meg White respectively.

E-cards and messaging
Starting in October 2007, JibJab began its focus on personalized eCards and videos, letting users insert photographs of their faces into humorous birthday cards, holiday greetings and congratulatory notes and send them to other people as e-cards or "sendables". Initially, this included branded personalized videos, including working with OfficeMax on the video site Elf Yourself, where an uploaded photo is put onto a singing and dancing elf, as well as partnerships with Star Wars (for the 30th anniversary of The Empire Strikes Back ) and Mad Men. A series of eCards were created by Internet personality Dane Boedigheimer (best known for later creating Annoying Orange) known as "From the Fridge", featuring anthropomorphized foods such as eggs, chocolates, avocados, pumpkins, cranberries, and cookies suffering a horrifying torture or death in accordance with their use or consumption for events and holidays such as birthdays, anniversaries, congratulation, Valentine's Day, the Super Bowl, Easter, Halloween, Thanksgiving, and Christmas.

Since then, in addition to greeting eCards, JibJab has also extended its personalization technology to popular music videos, including: Since launching its eCard service, more than 100 million people have visited JibJab's website annually. In 2014, the company launched a messaging app for personalized animated GIFs, available on both IOS and Android platforms. In 2016, the JibJab app was one of the first mobile apps to be enabled for IMessage and was ranked first among them in download growth. The JibJab app was also featured prominently in Apple's annual WWDC product presentation.
 * ...Baby One More Time (Britney Spears)
 * Friday (Rebecca Black)
 * Gangnam Style (Psy)
 * Sexy and I Know It (LMFAO)
 * Shut Up and Dance (Walk the Moon)
 * Addicted to Love (Robert Palmer)
 * Roar (Katy Perry)
 * Take On Me (A-ha)
 * All About That Bass (Meghan Trainor)
 * Cake by the Ocean (DNCE)
 * Happy (Pharrell Williams)
 * Sorry (Justin Bieber)
 * Cheap Thrills (Sia)

StoryBots
In 2012, JibJab expanded into the children's educational market with its multi-platform learning program, StoryBots. The brand currently includes web-based educational content, as well as two Netflix television series, Ask the StoryBots and StoryBots Super Songs.

title: JibJab


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Louis Fraser

Louis Fraser (1819 – c. 1883) was a British zoologist and collector. In his early years, Fraser was curator of the Museum of the Zoological Society of London.

Little is known about Fraser's early life. He was born in 1819 or 1820 and married Mary Ann Harrison on 17 February 1844. A son Oscar L. Fraser worked as an assistant in the Indian Museum at Calcutta around 1888. He worked for fourteen years at the museum of the Zoological Society of London. He worked with the anatomist Richard Owen on studies of the emu and rhea. He participated in the Niger expedition of 1841 as the African Civilization Society's scientist, with Allen and Thomson. He stayed on in Fernando Po and collected. Upon his return he became in charge of Lord Derby's collection at Knowsley Hall. In 1846 he was sent by Lord Derby to collect in north Africa. In 1848 he became conservator at Knowsley. He wrote Zoologica Typica, or figures of the new and rare animals and birds in the collection of the Zoological Society of London, a lavishly illustrated large-sized book, published in 1849. In this book he described many new species of birds. In 1850, Fraser was appointed Consul of Quidah, Dahomey (now Benin), West Africa. Around 1857–1859, he collected birds and mammals in Ecuador for Philip Lutley Sclater of the Zoological Society of London, and the year after in California. Upon his return to London, he opened a shop in Regent Street, London, selling exotic birds. The last years of his life he spent in America.

Fraser wrote a Catalogue of the Knowsley Collections (1850) and described several new species including the Derbyan parakeet Psittacula derbiana named after his employer. A number of species and subspecies have been named in his honour, including Fraser's anole (Anolis fraseri), Fraser's ground snake (Liophis epinephelus fraseri), a centipede snake (Tantilla fraseri, a synonym of Tantilla melanocephala), Fraser's eagle-owl (Bubo poensis), Fraser's warbler (Myiothlypis fraseri), and Fraser's musk shrew (Crocidura poensis).

title: Louis Fraser


text:
Rickenbacker (car)

Rickenbacker was a Vintage Era automobile manufactured in Detroit, Michigan, from 1922 until 1927. The car is best known for pioneering production of four-wheel brakes.

History
The company was established by Barney Everitt and Captain Eddie Rickenbacker, with Rickenbacker serving as Vice President and Director of Sales. Everitt's former partners Walter Flanders and William Metzger were also involved. Rickenbacker used his World War I, 94th Fighter Squadron emblem depicting a top hat inside a ring. The 'Hat in a Ring' emblems were located both on the front and the back of the cars.

The Rickenbacker was designed by engineers Harry L. Cunningham and E.R. Evans. It had a 3,482cc side-valve six-cylinder engine developing 58-hp, which ran very smoothly due to two flywheels, one at each end of the crankshaft. The first Rickenbackers were displayed at the January 1922 New York Automobile Show. One of the display cars featured experimental four-wheel brakes. The company made sporting coupés, touring cars, sedans, and roadsters. Four-wheel inside brakes were introduced in 1923. Prices in 1923 ranged from $1,485 for a phaeton to $1,985 for a sedan.

Several automobile companies began using four-wheel brakes but some companies not offering them began a promotion campaign suggesting they were unsafe, which probably hurt the new Rickenbacker company's sales. The death of Walter Flanders in an automobile accident in 1923 slowed company momentum as well.

In 1924 a coach-brougham enclosed body style was introduced that would grow to represent 60% of Rickenbacker sales. The six-cylinder engines was up-rated to 60-hp and was joined in 1925 by an 4,401cc eight-cylinder engine developing 80-hp. The model was named Vertical Eight Super Fine which referred to the advanced proprietary engine and the high quality of the cars.

Eddie Rickenbacker resigned from the company in 1926 due to internal discord in the company's leadership. Although 1927 saw new models, designated the 6-70, 8-80, and 8-90, Rickenbacker cars had increased in price and sales were poor. Before the company closed down due to bankruptcy in 1927, more than 27,000 cars had been built.

The manufacturing equipment was sold to Audi and transported to Germany, somewhat ironic since Rickenbacker renounced his supposed German heritage (he was actually of Swiss ancestry) in light of World War I. This transaction was reflected in Audi Zwickau and Dresden models, using six- or eight-cylinder Rickenbacker engines.

In popular culture

 * A 1924 model was featured prominently in the Mr. Bevis episode of The Twilight Zone.

title: Rickenbacker (car)


text: Category:Statics

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text: User talk:210.233.192.68

title: User talk:210.233.192.68


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Talk:New Deal/Archive 1

Untitled
What *were* the legislative measures?

WRT their effectiveness, did they actually make the Depression worse, reduce its severity, or have no effect whatsoever? How politically popular was it at the time?

--Robert Merkel

--- Well, the article was a stub and it did little to answer the questions. I've added much more, hoping that I can better answer them. 172
 * BTW, there is still a large unfinished chunk pertaining to the failures of the NIRA. Just to make this clear before people get in an uproar over missing history. 172

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This article is really nice now. I am no economist, but isn't this at least a moderately controversial POV statement:

It was World War II, not the New Deal, which finally ended the crisis.

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"Never willing to lose the support of Southern Democrats, he declined to support legislation making lynching while—perhaps hypocritically—denouncing lynching in speeches."

Is this supposed to read "he declined to support legislation making lynching illegal"? A word seems to be missing, but not being an expert on the subject, I'm not sure.

In the article is the following paragraph:

"Three days later, Roosevelt sent to Congress the Emergency Banking Act, a generally conservative bill, drafted in large part by holdovers from the Hoover administration, designed primarily to protect large banks from being dragged down by the failing smaller ones. The bill provided for Treasury Department inspection of all banks before they would be allowed to reopen, for federal assistance to tottering large institutions, and for a thorough reorganization of those in greatest difficulty. A confused and frightened Congress passed the bill within four hours of its introduction. Three-quarters of the banks in the Federal Reserve System reopened within the next three days, and $1 billion in hoarded currency and gold flowed back into them within a month. The immediate banking crisis was over."

There should be some mention that the inflows of gold were largely due to FDR making the holding of most forms of gold illegal - he confiscated gold, and offered paper currency in exchange at the rate of 1toz = $20.67. Due to FDR, for 40 years it was a felony for Americans to own monetary gold.

Also the words "hoarded currency and gold" is tautological, since at the time currency was defined in terms of gold - 1toz = $20.67.

Furthermore, there is no mention of the fact that FDR debased US currency shortly afterward, so that 1toz = $35. Doing this after confiscating gold almost doubled the Federal reserve's dollar holdings, and was to the detriment of all the people who handed in gold at the previous rate of exchange.

Strangely, the article also fails to mention that the Supreme Court declared FDR's "New Deal" Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) unconstitutional in early 1936.

The AAA was a plan to raise the cost of farm produce. The AAA paid farmers who destroyed their crops and buried their livestock while US citizens were starving in the streets. These facts also seem to have missed inclusion in this article.

Throughout the article, but particularly in the section "Conclusions", there needs to be some NPOV, currently there is none but strongly leftist dogma.

There is the alternate view that The New Deal was a form of government economic planning which goes back to the 1920s, to World War I, to Italian Fascism, to Soviet Communism, and to World War II economic controls. Fascism was on its way to being discredited and was already in ill repute before the New Deal programs were enacted.

There is the understanding that New Deal has it's roots in national socialism, which failed in Britain and led to massive oppression in the desperate effort to make it work in the Soviet Union. Consequently there exists the POV that the New Deal interventions extended the depression many years longer than were necessary.

The article does not reflect a neutral POV.

 * The article is full of keynesian shit. The new deal only worsened the matters, and surely didn't prove keynesian economics (that still worsened the matters) correct. That's just my POV based on what I understand of the situation, but I fully agree, this is far away from NPOV. --Lussmu 21:40, 2 Jul 2004 (UTC)

There is extensive debate on this subject. The article causes of the Great Depression helps shed light on it. JBurnham 21:43, 24 October 2005 (UTC)

"But the most important achievement of 1935, and perhaps the New Deal as a whole, was the Social Security Act (August 14), which established a system of old-age pensions, unemployment insurance, and welfare benefits for such protected groups as dependent children and the handicapped. It established a framework that shaped the U.S. welfare system through the remainder of the country."

Could someone clarify that the last word here should indeed be 'country' and not 'century'. If so, then from where did the SSA originate?
 * Problem fixed. 172 15:46, 12 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Assessment comment
Substituted at 21:46, 3 May 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:New Deal/Archive 1


text: Template:Baseball positions

title: Template:Baseball positions


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Lilly Lazer

Although I've never heard of HIM (band), if the group is deemed notable enough for an article then I suppose each of its members is. Nevertheless, this doesn't qualify as a real article about the guy. I would suggest for Cleanup but I don't know how well staffed we are for cleaning up Finnish musicians. JamesMLane 10:09, 14 Aug 2004 (UTC) I think this should be deleted, seeing as how the person that is the main focus of the article doesn't seem to have any real relivance, other than an apparent former membership in the band Him so for that reason i suggest that if anything other than deletion this article should be merged with an article about Him should one exsist.
 * Delete: This break out is very much vanity or fanboi. The band seems to have only Wikipedia and a tab site to bolster it, but that's not under discussion.  This article is uninformative and dewey eyed. Geogre 14:57, 14 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Non-notable person and ridiculous article.  RickK 19:25, Aug 14, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Not notable outside the context of HIM (which is itself notable, however). Article reads like a bio from Seventeen and doesn't contain any information worth saving. The same goes for fellow bandmember Ville Valo's article, which is similarly content-free.   — Gwalla | Talk 02:25, 15 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Wile E. Heresiarch 08:51, 15 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * See, I don't agree that if HIM is notable enough for an article, then each of its members must necessarily be article-worthy too. Not at all. But as long as staffing is the issue, surely we must be well set for cleaning up this article and the one on HIM's frontman Ville Valo listed below (a more notable guy). If you swing a cat on IRC you take out half the populations of Finland and Sweden. For instance, if one of the users going "You stupid delete-happy baboons" on the Ville Valo discussion would like to improve the articles some more (I see some work has been done), to make the notability of the subjects shine forth better, I'll gladly hold my vote till I see it. Bishonen 19:24, 15 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * If you think that someone hit by a swung cat might come forward and improve this article at some point, then perhaps we could change it to a stub ("Lilly Lazer (born August 12, 1976) is a Finnish guitarist. Since 1995 he has been a member of the band HIM."  I took all that information from this article and the one on HIM (band).)  I just don't want to see the present text remain as a disfigurement to Wikipedia while the article is sent on what might well be a hopeless mission to Cleanup. JamesMLane 20:17, 15 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Merge into HIM (band) (who are notable and worth an article) and redirect (no need to delete, the name isn't likely to cause any contention). Ditto for Ville Valo. I'm all for individual articles for people who have been members of multiple notable bands (like Clem Burke), but it seems a bit pointless to have one for someone who hasn't. —Stormie 00:17, Aug 16, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, or merge an edited version into HIM (band). Zaelsius 14:52, 19 Aug 2004 (UTC)


text:
Silver-washed fritillary

The silver-washed fritillary (Argynnis paphia) is a common and variable butterfly found over much of the Palearctic realm – Algeria, Europe and across the Palearctic to Japan.

Description
The silver-washed fritillary butterfly is deep orange with black spots on the upperside of its wings, and has a wingspan of 54–70 mm, with the male being smaller and paler than the female. The underside is green (verdigris) with a metallic gloss and broad silver bands which are partly curved, hence the name silver-washed. In the male the forewings are rather pointed whereas in the female they are more rounded. On females of the minority valesina form, recurrent in most European populations, the ground color is not fawn but grey with greenish reflections. The caterpillar is black brown with two yellow lines along its back and long reddish-brown spines.

The male possesses scent scales on the upperside of the forewing that run along veins one to four as three distinct scent-streaks. The scent produced from these scales attracts females and helps to distinguish it from other species.

Food resources
Adults feed on the nectar of bramble, thistles, and knapweeds, and also on aphid honeydew. The silver-washed is a strong flier, and more mobile than other fritillaries, and, as such, can be seen gliding above the tree canopy at high speed. Its preferred habitat is thin, sunny, deciduous woodland, especially oaks, but it has been known to live in coniferous woodland.

The main larval food plant of the species is the common dog violet (Viola riviniana).

Life cycle
Unusually for a butterfly, the female does not lay her eggs on the leaves or stem of the caterpillar's food source (in this case violets), but instead one or two meters above the woodland floor in the crevices of tree bark close to clumps of violets.

When the egg hatches in August, the caterpillar immediately goes into hibernation until spring. Upon awakening, it will drop to the ground, and feeds on violets close to the base of the tree. The caterpillar usually feeds at night, and usually conceals itself during the day away from its food source, but during cool weather will bask in the sunny spots on the forest floor on dry, dead leaves. It will pupate amongst the ground vegetation, and the adults will emerge in June.

Seitz— The conical, ribbed, yellowish grey eggs are deposited on tree-trunks, particularly pines; the female commences about 4 or 5 ft. above the ground and with a few flappings of the wing flies higher up, depositing an egg at intervalls of 1/2 to 1 m, flying around the tree in a kind of spiral. When reaching a height of about 4 m it leaves the tree in order to begin again in the same way on another one. The larva lives from August until the end of May on Violaceae, hibernating very small (Gillmer) and beginning to feed already in March.It is blackish brown, with a broad yellow dorsal stripe divided by a thin black line, and with numerous yellow dots, spots and streaks on the sides; the spines long, yellow at the base, the two anterior ones curved and prolonged, resembling antennae. The pupa is usually fastened low down on a pine-trunk; it is greyish brown, with pointed processes on the head and sharp angles, and has conical pointed tubercles, which are at first silvery and become golden before the emergence of the butterfly. The species is on the wing in Europe from July till September, in Eastern Asia til October; it is very common everywhere and flies particularly on broad roads in the forest and at the edges of woods. The butterflies visit especially the flowers of brambles, scabious and thistles, on which they can easily be caught. When desirous to mate the male circles around the female, while the latter is flying with even flappings of the wings straight for a bush or a projecting branch. Here copulation takes place, the sexes being often so strongly united that they remain together for some time, frequently the one individual carrying the other about.

Subspecies

 * A. p. paphia
 * female f. valesina (Esper, 1798) ground colour grey
 * f.anargyra Stgr. extreme south of Europe the hindwing beneath devoid of silver, the bands being dull ochreous on an often feebly green ground.
 * immaculata Bell. underside bands without silvery gloss.
 * ab. atroviridis Kollm. North Africa without silver; the male has the upperside fiery red; the hindwing beneath is beautifully bright yellow, sometimes without any trace  of green, in other individuals with greyish green bands.

 * A. p. delila Röber, 1896 Turkey
 * A. p. tsushimana Fruhstorfer, 1906 (70e) is according to Fruhstorfer, the most beautifully coloured of all the paphia-forms.Japan.The bands of the hindwing beneath are even darker green than in valesina, also the apex of the forewing being very deep sea-green. The silver-bands of the hindwing are exceptionally broadly while and very prominent, and the green submarginal spots are more isolated and not so diffuse as in Chinese paphia.
 * A. p. neopaphia Fruhstorfer, 1907 Amur, Ussuri, Sakhalin, Kuriles, Transbaikal, Kamchatka
 * neopaphia Fruhst. (70e) is the name for the Amur specimens, which are intermediate in size and colour between the small true paphia and the large paphioides.
 * A. p. megalegoria Fruhstorfer, 1907 Szechuan, Yunnan The Chinese forms are all larger than European paphia, the females being the largest of all, surpassing even the African form. The hindwing beneath is more abundantly dusted with green than in Europe, but remains lighter than in Japanese specimens. This is megalegoria Fruhst.
 * A. p. thalassata Fruhstorfer, 1908 SouthEast Europe Towards east one meets already in Eastern Germany (Konigsberg) a modified form of paphia. In Eastern Russia specimens with a darker upperside and more sharply defined silver-bands are a transition towards the Asiatic forms: thalassata Fruhst.
 * A. p. dives Oberthür, 1908 Algeria The most magnificent form without silver is the one from North Africa; the male has the upperside fiery red; the hindwing beneath is beautifully bright yellow, sometimes without any trace of green, in other individuals with greyish green bands. The female differs less from Central and North European specimens,but has the hindwing more strongly dentate, as is also the case in the male. This is diva Oberth.
 * A. p. argyrorrhytes Alphéraky, 1908 N.Caucasus Major A very remarkable form with the metallic bands of the underside confluent.Occurs in the Caucasus: argyrorrhytes Alph. (71a)
 * A. p. argyrophontes Oberthür, 1923 Southwest China
 * A. p. virescens Nakahara, 1926 Kuriles
 * A. p. formosicola Matsumura, 1927 Formosa
 * A. p. geisha Hemming, 1941 Japan Among the Eastern-Asiatic forms we find paphioides = A. p. geisha Hemming, 1941 Btlr. but little different from the European form; it is larger, and the female is darker, although not so dark as valesina; from Japan, where I still met with quite worn specimens as late as October at Hiogo.
 * A. p. masandarensis Gross & Ebert, 1975 Iran, Caucasus, Transcaucasus
 * A. p. angustia Churkin & Pletnev, 2012 Kyrgyzstan
 * Argynnis p. angustia Churkin & Pletnev, 2012 Kyrgyzstan, Ferghansky Mts, W.Urum-Bash R., Arkhangel'skoye v., 1600m

Conservation
The silver-washed fritillary was in decline in the UK for much of the 1970s and 1980s, but seems to be coming back to many of its old territories.

Etymology
Named in the Classical tradition.Aphrodite Paphia is a goddess who arose out of white foam on the waves/ Aphrodite is the goddess of love and beauty.

title: Silver-washed fritillary


text:
Euclid of Megara

Euclid of Megara (Εὐκλείδης Eucleides; c. 435 – c. 365 BC) was a Greek Socratic philosopher who founded the Megarian school of philosophy. He was a pupil of Socrates in the late 5th century BC, and was present at his death. He held the supreme good to be one, eternal and unchangeable, and denied the existence of anything contrary to the good. Editors and translators in the Middle Ages often confused him with Euclid of Alexandria when discussing the latter's Elements.

Life
Euclid was born in Megara. In Athens he became a follower of Socrates: so eager was he to hear the teaching and discourse of Socrates, that when, for a time, Athens had a ban on any citizen of Megara entering the city, Euclid would sneak into Athens after nightfall disguised as a woman, to hear him speak. He is represented in the preface of Plato's Theaetetus as being responsible for writing down the conversation between Socrates and the young Theaetetus many years earlier. Socrates is also supposed to have reproved Euclid for his fondness for eristic disputes. He was present at Socrates' death (399 BCE), after which Euclid returned to Megara, where he offered refuge to Plato and other frightened pupils of Socrates.

In Megara, Euclid founded a school of philosophy which became known as the Megarian school, and which flourished for about a century. Euclid's pupils were said to have been Ichthyas, the second leader of the Megarian school; Eubulides of Miletus; Clinomachus; and Thrasymachus of Corinth. Thrasymachus was a teacher of Stilpo, who was the teacher of Zeno of Citium, the founder of the Stoic school.

Philosophy
Euclid himself wrote six dialogues—the Lamprias, the Aeschines, the Phoenix, the Crito, the Alcibiades, and the Amatory dialogue—but none survive. According to its prologue, the ostensibly Platonic dialogue Theaetetus was originally a Euclidean work. The main extant source on his views is the brief summary by Diogenes Laërtius. Euclid's philosophy was a synthesis of Eleatic and Socratic ideas. Socrates claimed that the greatest knowledge was understanding the good. The Eleatics claimed the greatest knowledge is the one universal being of the world. Mixing these two ideas, Euclid claimed that good is the knowledge of this being. Therefore, this good is the only thing that exists and has many names but is really just one thing. He identified the Eleatic idea of "The One" with the Socratic "Form of the Good", which he called "Reason", "God", "Mind", "Wisdom", etc. This was the true essence of being, and was eternal and unchangeable. The idea of a universal good also allowed Euclid to dismiss all that is not good because he claimed that good covered all things on Earth with its many names. Euclid adopted the Socratic idea that knowledge is virtue and that the only way to understand the never-changing world is through the study of philosophy. Euclid taught that virtues themselves, however, were simply the knowledge of the one good, or being. As he said, "The Good is One, but we can call it by several names, sometimes as wisdom, sometimes as God, sometimes as Reason", and he declared, "the opposite of Good does not exist."

Euclid was also interested in concepts and dilemmas of logic. Euclid and his Megarian followers used dialogue and the eristic method to defend their ideas. The eristic method allowed them to prove their ideas by disproving those of the one they were arguing with and therefore indirectly proving one's own point (see reductio ad absurdum). When attacking a demonstration, it was not the premises assumed but the conclusions that he attacked, which presumably means that he tried to refute his opponents by drawing absurd consequences from their conclusions. He also rejected argument from analogy. His doctrinal heirs, the Stoic logicians, inaugurated the most important school of logic in antiquity other than Aristotle's peripatetics.

title: Euclid of Megara


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Global Artificial Intelligence Act

Non-notable, vaguely defined Syndicate of Software Engineers Who Would Play God. No Google hits, other than our article. • Benc • 10:17, 14 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: Not notable.  (There are world-wide individuals?  That's scary.)  Geogre 15:00, 14 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete neologism or whatever. The article and VfD are the only google hits. -- Cyrius|✎ 06:43, 16 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, for reasons described above. Andris 11:30, Aug 19, 2004 (UTC)


text:
Fyrisvellir

Fyrisvellir, Fyris Wolds or Fyrisvallarna was the marshy plain (vellir) south of Gamla Uppsala where travellers had to leave the ships on the river Fyris (Fyrisån) and walk to the Temple at Uppsala and the hall of the Swedish king.

The name is related to, or derived from, Old Norse Fyrva which meant "to ebb" and it referred to the partially inundated soggy plains that today are dry farmland and the modern town of Uppsala. In mediaeval times, a royal estate called Førisæng, "Fyris meadow", was located near this field. The small lakes Övre Föret, "the Upper Fyri", and Nedre Föret, "the Lower Fyri", are remains of this marsh and retain a modern form of Fyri (the -t suffix is the definite article, which lake names always take in Swedish). The field went alongside what was renamed the Fyris river (Fyrisån) in the 17th century to make the connection between the river and the Sagas more obvious.

In Scandinavian mythology, the battle between Haki and Hugleik took place on these wolds, as well as that between Haki and Jorund. It was also the location of the Battle of the Fýrisvellir between Eric the Victorious and his nephew   Styrbjörn the Strong, in the 980s.

According to a story about Hrólf Kraki found in many texts, Hrólf spread gold on this plain as he and his men were fleeing the Swedish king Adils. The king's men then dismounted to collect the gold. In skaldic poetry gold was often referred to with the kenning the seed of the Fyris Wolds.

title: Fyrisvellir


text:
Category:Counties of Denmark

Counties of Denmark (Danish, amt; plural, amter) were a administrative country subdivisions, which contained one or more municipalities (kommuner).

On January 1, 2007, the Kommunalreformen ("The Municipality Reform" of 2007) abolished the last 13 counties and instead created five administrative regions to replace them. At the same time smaller municipalities were merged into larger units, cutting the number of municipalities from 270 to 98.

title: Category:Counties of Denmark


text:
Barbodhan

Barbodhan is a village in the Surat District of western India, on the north bank of the River Tapti. It comes within the jurisdiction of the Olpad Taluka.

Etymology
According to local folklore, the name Barbodhan comes from the Arabic Bāb Aden or "Gateway to Aden". It is known that at one time Muslims travelling to Mecca on pilgrimage would pass through this village on their way to the seaport of Surat, hence the name. Some sources suggest that the village was named after the Portuguese factor and traveller Duarte Barbosa, though this seems unlikely as he never actually resided in the area. More recently though the village Barbodhan has become known as the 'Golden Village'. The village has existed for many years, and tombstones in the graveyard indicate that Muslims were buried there some three to four hundred years ago. According to one source the first Indian Muslims to settle here were several brothers with the surname Rawat, who came from Nasirpoor Bhatti, a place near Navsari.

The Diaspora of Barbodhanis
Barbodhanis have always interested in trade and commerce and travelled to foreign lands, undertaking long sea voyages. People left Barbodhan in the early 19th century to settle in Burma, where they established many businesses and were great entrepreneurs; a number of them even became advisors to the Burmese rulers. Then from in the 1840s many other emigrants from Barbodhan went to the island of Mauritius, where they were later responsible for introducing hydroelectric power, as well as being involved in other trading and business concerns. The first Muslim mayor in Mauritius was originally from Barbodhan.

Then came the migration to England from the 1950s to the 1970s. Once immigration to the United Kingdom became more difficult, a number of Barbodhians then left for Canada particularly during the period from the 1970s to the 1990s. A considerable number of Barbodhians undertook further migrations from one of these countries to another; such as from Burma to England, England to Canada or Mauritius to England. Despite the fact that Barbodhan is only a small village, its people have made valuable contributions in societies around the world. Barbodhians have set up many Waqfs or Religious Foundations to help poor, needy, disadvantaged and unfortunate members of society, particularly in Burma and Mauritius.

The largest population of Barbodhians outside India is in Bolton, Greater Manchester, where the community settled in the 1950s and 1960s. The first ever Elected Member on Bolton Council of Indian origin was from Barbodhan. There is also a large number of settlers from Barbodhan in Preston, also in Lancashire, where the Barbodhan Muslim Welfare Society (UK) was set as early as 1960.

There are currently two mosques, two temples, one madressa, one school and one library in the village. There is a large pond in the village of Barbodhan which is the biggest pond in the Olpad Taluka. It covers an area of around 999 vigha (250 acres/101.17 hectares).

Demographics
All the Muslim population residing in the village are classed as Surti Sunni Vohra Muslims, or Surti Muslims following the Deobandi Tablighi Jamaat Movement.

Some common surnames attributed to the village are (Atcha/Atchia/ATTCHA), ADIYA/Adia, NALLA, MULLA, KALLA (KALA), NANA, Ghanchi, PATEL,/Esa/ISA, Rawat, RAJA, JEEWA//JIVA), JINA, Makda, ABU, and ... live other villagers LIMALIYA (KAWAS), Attan (KOSAD), AHEMEDJI), NANI NAROLI, sushiwala (surat) gangat, Shah, Shaikh, Gulzar, Rajjab etc..

A number of Hindu families have settled in the UK particularly in Preston from Kenya

Business
Rama Newsprint and Papers Ltd have a large mill complex in Barbodhan, covering over 450 acre. It is India's largest private sector company producing this commodity in a single location. the paper mill, glass factory, farming agriculture, poultry farm, fishing etc.

title: Barbodhan