text:
Petria Thomas

Petria Ann Thomas, (born 25 August 1975) is an Australian swimmer and Olympic gold medallist and a winner of 15 national titles. She was born in Lismore, New South Wales, and grew up in the nearby town of Mullumbimby.

Career
In 1993, at the age of 17, Thomas won a bronze medal in the 200-metre butterfly at the World Short Course Championships. She followed this with two gold medals, in the 100-metre butterfly and 4×100-metre freestyle in the 1994 Commonwealth Games in Victoria, Canada. However, she then struggled for two years, until making a comeback at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta in 1996. She won a silver medal, finishing second to fellow Australian Susie O'Neill.

Despite being plagued by a shoulder injury, Thomas repeated her 1994 Commonwealth Games effort at the 1998 Games in Kuala Lumpur. She also won a bronze in the 100-metre butterfly and a silver in the 200-metre at the World Championships in Perth, the same year. She had similar success at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney in 2000, winning three medals – bronze in the 200-metre butterfly, silver in the 4×100-metre medley, and silver in the 4×200-metre freestyle.

Thomas had always struggled to surpass O'Neill, despite being talented in her own right. However, after the 2000 games, O'Neill retired, and Thomas, despite battling recurring injuries, decided to continue. The decision paid off when she won three gold medals at the 2001 World Championships in Fukuoka, Japan. She won both the 100-metre and 200-metre butterfly, and then was part of the winning 4×100-metre medley relay team. She was also part of the 4×200-metre freestyle relay team, which completed the race first, but they were disqualified when Thomas jumped in the pool to celebrate before the other competitors had completed the race.

At the 2002 Commonwealth Games, Thomas won five gold, one silver and one bronze medals. While being one of the pinnacles of her career, her victory also made her the first female swimmer ever to win the same event at three consecutive Commonwealth Games – the 100-metre butterfly. She followed this with three gold and two silver medals at the 2002 Pan Pacific Championships in Yokohama, Japan. At the short-course championships in Moscow, Russia, Thomas won another gold medal in her pet event, the 200-metre butterfly. However, injuries forced her out of competition soon afterwards, and she had to spend much of 2003 recovering from yet another shoulder reconstruction.

In 2004, Thomas made another comeback at the Olympic selection trials in Sydney while training with the Ginninderra Swimming Club. She broke the Commonwealth records in the 50-metre and 100-metre butterfly, set new personal best times in the 100-metre freestyle, 200-metre freestyle and narrowly missed the world record in the 200-metre butterfly.

After having missed out on first place in 1996 and 2000, Thomas finally achieved gold at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens. She won the individual 100-metre butterfly, and was a part of two world record-setting teams in the 4×100-metre freestyle and 4×100-metre medley relays. She was subsequently chosen to carry the Australian flag at the closing ceremony. Thomas announced her retirement from competitive swimming at the conclusion of the games.

In mid-2005, Thomas released an autobiography, Swimming Against The Tide, in which she describes her career, including her experiences with depression and injuries.

She currently resides in Amaroo, Canberra, with her husband, Julian Jones, the head strength and conditioning coach at the AIS. They have two children. Thomas manages the Swimming Australia National Training Centre at the AIS.

She served as Chef de Mission of the Australian team at the 2022 Commonwealth Games held in Birmingham, England.

Recognition

 * 1996 – Australian Institute of Sport Swimming Hall of Fame inductee
 * 2001 – AIS Athlete of the Year (with gymnast Philippe Rizzo)
 * 2002 – AIS Athlete of the Year
 * 2006 – AIS 'Best of the Best' inductee
 * 2007 – Sport Australia Hall of Fame inductee
 * 2022 – University of Canberra Sport Walk of Fame inaugural inductee
 * 2022 – Australian Institute of Sport Leadership Award

title: Petria Thomas


text:
Jodie Henry

Jodie Clare Henry, OAM (born 17 November 1983) is an Australian former competitive swimmer, Olympic gold medallist and former world-record holder.

Swimming career
At the 2002 Commonwealth Games in Manchester, Henry won the women's 100 metre freestyle as well as being a member of the Australian teams that won both the 4×100-metre freestyle relay and the 4×100-metre medley relay. Later that year, she won silver at the Pan Pacific Championships in the 50- and 100-metre freestyle, and helped Australian teams to victory over the Americans in the freestyle and medley relays.

In 2003, Henry won the 100-metre silver medal, and picked up bronze medals in both the 4×100-metre freestyle and 4×100-metre medley relays at the FINA World Championships in Barcelona. She was also named the Speedo female sprinter of the year for 2003.

2004 Summer Olympics
At the 2004 Summer Olympics, Henry anchored the Australian women's 4×100-metre freestyle relay team that won the gold in world record time. She then competed in the individual 100-metre freestyle, breaking the previous world record time of 53.66 seconds (set by team member Libby Lenton) with a time of 53.52 seconds in the semifinals. She then went on to win the gold medal for the event, the first Australian to do so since Dawn Fraser 40 years earlier. In her final race at Athens she swam the last leg (freestyle) of the 4×100-metre medley relay, again helping the Australian team win gold in world record time, leaving her with three gold medals and three world records.

 * women's 4×100-metre freestyle relay
 * 1st- Australia (Alice Mills, Libby Lenton, Petria Thomas, Jodie Henry) 3:35.94 - world record
 * women's 100-metre freestyle
 * Semi-final 2: 1st - 53.52 - world record
 * Final: 1st - 53.84
 * women's 4×100-metre medley relay
 * 1st - Australia (Giaan Rooney, Leisel Jones, Petria Thomas, Jodie Henry) 3:57.32 - world record

Henry was awarded the Order of Australia Medal that year.

On 29 November 2004, Henry was named the Australian Swimmer of the Year, becoming just the third woman in 15 years to take the honour, joining Susie O'Neill and Hayley Lewis. Henry also snapped Ian Thorpe's five-year streak of receiving the award. She narrowly defeated teammate Petria Thomas to take the honour. Henry was also named Female Sprint Freestyler and her win with Thomas, Giaan Rooney, and Leisel Jones in the 4×100-metre medley relay in Athens was named the Golden Moment of the Year.

After the 2004 Olympics she followed her coach Shannon Rollason to the Australian Institute of Sport.

2005 onwards
Henry won the 100-metre freestyle gold medal at the 2005 World Championships in Montreal, clocking 54.18 seconds. That win came on top of her leadoff role in Australia's victorious 4×100-metre freestyle team and second relay gold as a heat swimmer in the 4×100-metre medley.

She is a friend and was a training partner of Alice Mills under Shannon Rollason, until after nine years, she announced that she would be switching to the tutelage of John Fowlie.

Lenton broke Henry's world record at the Commonwealth Games selection trials, setting a new mark of 53.42 seconds. Henry finished with the silver medal at the 2006 Commonwealth Games, finishing behind compatriot Lenton (24.61) in the 50-metre and (53.54) 100-metre freestyle, clocking 53.78 seconds and a personal best in the 50-metre with 24.72 seconds for another silver behind Lenton. Henry swam in the 4×100-metre freestyle relay, helping Australia to the gold medal.

On 25 March, at the 2007 World Aquatics Championships in Melbourne, Henry claimed gold again. Combining with Shayne Reese, rookie Melanie Schlanger and Libby Lenton, Henry anchored the Australian 4×100-metre freestyle relay team in a world championship record time of 3:35.48 seconds, ahead of the United States in 3:35.68 and the Netherlands in 3:36.81. She also won another gold medal in the 4×100-metre medley relay.

In November 2007, Henry returned to her hometown of Brisbane to regain form under new coach Drew McGregor and training at Chandler Swim Club.

She was unable to qualify for the 2008 Summer Olympics because of a pelvic complaint.

On 30 September 2009, she announced her retirement from swimming.

Personal life
She married Tim Notting, and they have three children.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Jodie Henry


text:
User:Benc/Sandbox/3

pre-NFL | '20s | '30s | '40s | '50s | '60s | '70s | '80s | '90s | '00s

1898

 * New team:
 * Racine Cardinals begin play as an amateur team at ???.

1919

 * New team:
 * Green Bay Packers begin play as an amateur team at ???.

1920

 * New league:
 * APFA begins play with ??? charter members.
 * New team:
 * Decatur Staleys begin play as an APFA charter team at ???.

1921

 * League change:
 * Green Bay Packers join the NFL.
 * Team relocation:
 * Chicago Staleys relocate from Decatur to ???.

1922

 * League renaming:
 * NFL changes its name from APFA.
 * Team renaming:
 * Chicago Bears change their name from Chicago Staleys.

1924

 * New team:
 * Frankford Yellowjackets begin play in the ??? at Frankford Stadium.
 * New stadium:
 * Chicago Bears move from ??? to Municipal Grant Park Stadium.

1925

 * New team:
 * New York Football Giants begin play in the ??? at the fourth Polo Grounds.
 * Stadium renaming:
 * Chicago Bears' Municipal Grant Park Stadium renamed to Soldier Field.

1926

 * New stadium:
 * Green Bay Packers move from ??? to the original City Stadium, though several home games each year continued to be played in Milwaukee.

1930

 * New team:
 * Portsmouth Spartans begin play in the ??? at ???.

1931

 * New stadium:
 * Frankford Yellowjackets move from Frankford Stadium to the Baker Bowl.

1932

 * New team:
 * Boston Braves begin play as the ??st NFL expansion team at Braves Field.

1933

 * New team:
 * Pittsburgh Pirates begin play in the ??? at ???.
 * Team renamings:
 * Philadelphia Eagles change their name from Frankford Yellowjackets.
 * Boston Redskins change their name from Boston Braves.
 * New stadium:
 * Boston Redskins move from Braves Field to Fenway Park.

1934

 * Team relocation:
 * Detroit Lions relocate from Portsmouth to ???.
 * Team renaming:
 * Detroit Lions change their name from Portsmouth Spartans.

1936

 * New stadiums:
 * Philadelphia Eagles move from the Baker Bowl to Municipal Stadium.
 * Boston Redskins forced to play its home championship game at the fourth Polo Grounds.

1937

 * New team:
 * Cleveland Rams begin play in the ??? at ???.
 * Team relocation:
 * Washington Redskins relocate from Boston to ???.

1938

 * New stadium:
 * Detroit Lions move from ??? to Briggs Stadium.

1940

 * New stadium:
 * Philadelphia Eagles move from Municipal Stadium to Shibe Park.

1941

 * The United States enters World War II, resulting in player shortages.
 * Team renaming:
 * Pittsburgh Steelers change their name from Pittsburgh Pirates.

1942

 * Team merger:
 * Pittsburgh Steelers temporarily merge with Chicago Cardinals; team known as the "Car-Pitts" or "Carpets" because they won no games.

1943

 * Team merger:
 * Pittsburgh Steelers temporarily merge with Philadelphia Eagles; team known as the "Steagles".

1945

 * World War II ends, ending the player shortages.

1946

 * New teams:
 * Original Cleveland Browns begin play in the AAFC at ???.
 * San Francisco 49ers begin play in the AAFC at Kezar Stadium.
 * Team relocation:
 * Los Angeles Rams relocate from Cleveland to ???.

1953

 * League merger:
 * Remnants of the AAFC merged into NFL, incorporating ??? teams.
 * League changes:
 * The original Cleveland Browns join the NFL.
 * San Francisco 49ers join the NFL.
 * The second team named Baltimore Colts is created from the remnants of the original Dallas Texans.
 * Stadium renaming:
 * Philadelphia Eagles' Shibe Park renamed to Connie Mack Stadium.

1956

 * New stadium:
 * New York Giants move from the fourth Polo Grounds to Yankee Stadium.

1957

 * New stadium:
 * Green Bay Packers move from the original City Stadium to the second City Stadium, though several home games each year continued to be played in Milwaukee.

1958

 * New stadium:
 * Philadelphia Eagles move from Connie Mack Stadium to Franklin Field.

1960

 * New league:
 * The American Football League begins play with eight charter members.
 * New teams:
 * Buffalo Bills begin play as an AFL charter team at War Memorial Stadium.
 * Denver Broncos begin play as an AFL charter team at Bears Stadium.
 * Dallas Texans begin play as an AFL charter team at the Cotton Bowl.
 * Boston Patriots begin play as an AFL charter team at Nickerson Field.
 * Oakland Raiders begin play as an AFL charter team at ???.
 * New York Titans begin play as an AFL charter team at the fourth Polo Grounds.
 * Houston Oilers begin play as an AFL charter team at Jeppesen Stadium.
 * Los Angeles Chargers begin play as an AFL charter team at ???.
 * Dallas Cowboys begin play as the ??st NFL expansion team at ???.
 * Team relocation:
 * St. Louis Cardinals relocate from Chicago to ???.

1961

 * New team:
 * Minnesota Vikings begin play as the ??st NFL expansion team at Metropolitan Stadium.
 * Team relocation:
 * San Diego Chargers relocate from Los Angeles to ???.
 * New stadiums:
 * Oakland Raiders move from ??? to ???.
 * Washington Redskins move from ??? to D.C. Stadium.
 * Stadium renaming:
 * Detroit Lions' Briggs Stadium renamed to Tiger Stadium.

1962

 * New stadium:
 * Oakland Raiders move from ??? to ???.

1963

 * Team relocation:
 * Kansas City Chiefs relocate from Dallas to Municipal Stadium.
 * Team renamings:
 * Kansas City Chiefs change their name from Dallas Texans.
 * New York Jets change their name from New York Titans.
 * New stadiums:
 * Boston Patriots move from Nickerson Field to Fenway Park.

1964

 * New stadium:
 * New York Jets move from the fourth Polo Grounds to Shea Stadium.

1965

 * New team:
 * Atlanta Falcons begin play as the ??st NFL expansion team at ???.
 * New stadium:
 * Houston Oilers move from Jeppesen Stadium to Rice Stadium.
 * Stadium renamed:
 * Green Bay Packers' second City Stadium renamed to Lambeau Field.
 * New team planned:
 * AFL expansion team franchise awarded to lawyer Joseph Robbie and actor Danny Thomas (became Miami Dolphins).

1966

 * New team:
 * Miami Dolphins begin play as the 9th AFL expansion team at ???.
 * New stadiums:
 * Oakland Raiders move from ??? to Oakland-Alameda County Coliseum.
 * Atlanta Falcons move from ??? to Atlanta-Fulton County Stadium.
 * New teams planned:
 * AFL expansion team franchise awarded to Paul Brown (became Cincinnati Bengals).
 * NFL expansion team franchise awarded to John W. Mecom, Jr. (became New Orleans Saints).

1967

 * New team:
 * New Orleans Saints begin play as the ??st NFL expansion team at ???.
 * New stadium:
 * San Diego Chargers move from Balboa Stadium to San Diego Stadium.

1968

 * New team:
 * Cincinnati Bengals begin play as the 10th AFL expansion team at ???.
 * New stadium:
 * Houston Oilers move from Rice Stadium to the Houston Astrodome.
 * Stadium renaming:
 * Denver Broncos' Bears Stadium renamed to Mile High Stadium.

1969

 * New stadium:
 * Boston Patriots move from Fenway Park to ???.
 * Stadium renaming:
 * Washington Redskins' D.C. Stadium renamed to Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium.

1970

 * League merger:
 * AFL merged into NFL, incorporating all of the AFL's 10 teams.
 * League changes:
 * Buffalo Bills join the NFL.
 * Denver Broncos join the NFL.
 * Miami Dolphins join the NFL.
 * Cincinnati Bengals join the NFL.
 * Kansas City Chiefs join the NFL.
 * Boston Patriots join the NFL.
 * Oakland Raiders join the NFL.
 * New York Jets join the NFL.
 * Houston Oilers join the NFL.
 * San Diego Chargers join the NFL.

1971

 * Team renaming:
 * New England Patriots change their name from Boston Patriots.
 * New stadiums:
 * New England Patriots move from ??? to Schaefer Stadium.
 * Dallas Cowboys move from ??? to Texas Stadium.
 * Philadelphia Eagles move from Franklin Field to Veterans Stadium.
 * San Francisco 49ers move from Kezar Stadium to Candlestick Park.

1972

 * New stadium:
 * Kansas City Chiefs move from Municipal Stadium to Arrowhead Stadium.

1973

 * New stadium:
 * Buffalo Bills move from War Memorial Stadium to Rich Stadium.

1974

 * New stadium:
 * New York Giants move from Yankee Stadium to ???.

1975

 * New stadiums:
 * New York Giants move from ??? to Shea Stadium.
 * Detroit Lions move from Tiger Stadium to the Pontiac Silverdome.
 * New Orleans Saints move from ??? to the Louisiana Superdome.

1976

 * New teams: (??st and ??st)
 * Tampa Bay Buccaneers begin play as an NFL expansion team at Tampa Stadium.
 * Seattle Seahawks begin play as an NFL expansion team at the Seattle Kingdome.
 * New stadium:
 * New York Giants move from Shea Stadium to Giants Stadium.

1979

 * New stadium:
 * Los Angeles Rams move from ??? to ???.

1981

 * New stadium:
 * Minnesota Vikings move from Metropolitan Stadium to the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome.
 * Stadium renaming:
 * San Diego Chargers' San Diego Stadium renamed to Jack Murphy Stadium.

1982

 * Team relocation:
 * Los Angeles Raiders relocate from Oakland to Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum.

1984

 * Team relocation:
 * Indianapolis Colts relocate from Baltimore to the RCA Dome.
 * New stadium:
 * New York Jets move from Shea Stadium to Giants Stadium.

1987

 * New stadium:
 * Miami Dolphins move from ??? to Joe Robbie Stadium.

1988

 * Team relocation:
 * Phoenix Cardinals relocate from St. Louis to Sun Devil Stadium.

1992

 * New stadium:
 * Atlanta Falcons move from Atlanta-Fulton County Stadium to the Georgia Dome.

1993

 * New team planned:
 * NFL expansion team franchise awarded to ??? (became Jacksonville Jaguars).

1994

 * Team renamed:
 * Arizona Cardinals change their name from Phoenix Cardinals.
 * New stadium:
 * Seattle Seahawks temporarily move from the Seattle Kingdome to Husky Stadium.

1995

 * New teams:
 * Carolina Panthers begin play as an NFL expansion team at Memorial Stadium.
 * Jacksonville Jaguars begin play as an NFL expansion team at Jacksonville Municipal Stadium.
 * Team relocations:
 * Oakland Raiders relocate back from Los Angeles to Oakland-Alameda County Coliseum.
 * St. Louis Rams relocate from Los Angeles to the Trans World Dome.
 * Stadium renamings:
 * San Francisco 49ers' Candlestick Park renamed to 3Com Park.

1996

 * NFL announces that the Cleveland Brown team would be "deactivated" until 1999.
 * Team relocation:
 * Baltimore Ravens begin play at M&T Bank Stadium. Team formed from the remnants of the original Cleveland Browns.
 * New stadiums:
 * [Carolina Panthers]] move from Memorial Stadium to Ericsson Stadium.
 * Green Bay Packers begin playing all of their home games at Lambeau Field.
 * Stadium renamings:
 * Miami Dolphins' Joe Robbie Stadium renamed to Pro Player Stadium.

1997

 * Team relocations:
 * Tennessee Oilers relocate from Houston to the Liberty Bowl.
 * New stadium:
 * Washington Redskins move from Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium to Jack Kent Cooke Stadium.
 * Stadium renamings:
 * Jacksonville Jaguars' Jacksonville Municipal Stadium renamed to ALLTEL Stadium.
 * San Diego Chargers' Jack Murphy Stadium renamed to Qualcomm Stadium.

1998

 * New stadiums:
 * Tennessee Oilers move from the Liberty Bowl to Vanderbilt Stadium.
 * Tampa Bay Buccaneers move from Houlihan's Stadium to Raymond James Stadium (date???).
 * Stadium renamings:
 * Oakland Raiders' Oakland-Alameda County Coliseum renamed to Network Associates Coliseum.
 * Buffalo Bills' Rich Stadium renamed to Ralph Wilson Stadium.

1999

 * New team:
 * The second team named Cleveland Browns begin play as the 31st NFL expansion team atCleveland Browns Stadium.
 * Team renaming:
 * Tennessee Titans change their name from Tennessee Oilers.
 * New stadium:
 * Tennessee Titans move from Vanderbilt Stadium to Adelphia Coliseum.
 * Stadium renaming:
 * Washington Redskins' Jack Kent Cooke Stadium renamed to FedEx Field.
 * New team planned:
 * NFL expansion team franchise awarded to ??? (became Houston Texans).

2000

 * New stadiums:
 * Cincinnati Bengals move from ??? to Paul Brown Stadium.
 * Seattle Seahawks move from the Seattle Kingdome to Husky Stadium.

2001

 * New stadiums:
 * Denver Broncos move from Mile High Stadium to INVESCO Field at Mile High.
 * Pittsburgh Steelers move from ??? to Heinz Field.
 * Stadium renaming:
 * St. Louis Rams' Trans World Dome renamed to the Edward Jones Dome.

2002

 * New team:
 * Houston Texans begin play as the 32nd NFL expansion team at Reliant Stadium.
 * New stadiums:
 * New England Patriots move from Foxboro Stadium to CMGI Field.
 * Detroit Lions move from the Pontiac Silverdome to Ford Field.
 * Seattle Seahawks move from the Husky Stadium to Seahawks Stadium.
 * Chicago Bears temporarily move to Champaign, Illinois while Soldier Field was being renovated. (date???)

2003

 * New stadium:
 * Philadelphia Eagles move from Veterans Stadium to Lincoln Financial Field.
 * Stadium renamings:
 * Tennessee Titans' Adelphia Coliseum renamed to the Coliseum.
 * San Francisco 49ers' 3Com Park renamed to San Francisco Stadium at Candlestick Point.

2004

 * Stadium renamings:
 * Carolina Panthers' Ericsson Stadium renamed to Bank of America Stadium.
 * Seattle Seahawks' Seahawks Stadium renamed to Qwest Field.

2006

 * New stadium:
 * Arizona Cardinals scheduled to move from Sun Devil Stadium to a new retractable-roof stadium in Glendale.

Unknown dates

 * Chicago Racine Cardinals change their name from Racine Cardinals.
 * Chicago Cardinals change their name from Chicago Racine Cardinals.
 * Chicago Cardinals join the NFL.
 * Pittsburgh Pirates join the NFL.
 * New York Giants change their name from New York Football Giants.
 * New England Patriots' Schaefer Stadium renamed to Sullivan Stadium.
 * New England Patriots' Sullivan Stadium renamed to Foxboro Stadium.
 * New England Patriots' CMGI Field renamed to Gillette Stadium.
 * Tampa Bay Buccaneers' Tampa Stadium renamed to Houlihan's Stadium.
 * NFL expansion team franchise awarded to ??? (became Carolina Panthers).

Example year

 * Major event not related to football
 * New leagues
 * League mergers
 * League renamings
 * New teams
 * Defunct teams
 * Team mergers
 * League changes
 * Team relocations (will always be accompanied by new stadiums)
 * Team renamings
 * New teams planned (franchise award year, if different from when the new team actually starts playing)
 * New stadiums
 * Stadium renamings

Interesting notes

 * Three teams named the Texans (fourth if you count Arena)
 * Boston Yanks 1944-48, New York Bulldogs 1949, New York Yanks 1950-51, Dallas Texans 1952, Baltimore Colts 1953-83, Indianapolis Colts 1984-present
 * Dallas Texans 1960-62, Kansas City Chiefs 1973-present
 * Houston Texans 2002-present

 * Two teams named the Cleveland Browns, the whole record issue
 * Cleveland Browns 1946-95, Baltimore Ravens 1996-present
 * Cleveland Browns 1946-95, "deactivated" 1996-98, Cleveland Browns 1999-present

 * Two teams named the Colts
 * Miami Seahawks 1947-49, Baltimore Colts 1950 (defunct)
 * Boston Yanks 1944-48, New York Bulldogs 1949, New York Yanks 1950-51, Dallas Texans 1952, Baltimore Colts 1953-83, Indianapolis Colts 1984-present

 * Two teams named the Titans

 * Two teams named the New York Giants
 * Brickley's Giants 1921 (defunct)
 * New York Giants 1925-present

 * 1995 was the first time in ??? years that the NFL expanded, adding a 30th and 31st team:

 * Raiders moved back and forth
 * Jets and Giants share stadium
 * 1995 was the first expansion year in 20 years
 * Steagles
 * original Buffalo Bills was an AAFC team
 * Los Angeles has had three NFL teams, none of which stayed:
 * Dons (pre-NFL)
 * Rams (1946-94)
 * Chargers (1960)
 * Raiders (1982-94)

title: User:Benc/Sandbox/3


text:
Christy Gibson

Christy Gibson (คริสตี้ กิ๊บสัน) is a professional Thai raised Anglo-Dutch singer and performer of mor lam and luk thung, traditional styles of music in Thailand.

Background
Christy Gibson moved to Thailand as a child with her family when she was six years of age. They lived in Korat and then Bangkok.

Christy Gibson had an interest in singing and music from an early age. Growing up in up-country Thailand she began to pick up Thai songs. As a teenager, she and her family moved to Bangkok and later enrolled in a performing arts course.

Professional career
Gibson was discovered in 2000, while performing a well-known Thai song. She was subsequently invited to perform on a variety of popular TV shows, including the country's premier nationally televised lukthung concert, "Wetee Thai".

Gibson released her first album, Christy Der Ka Der, in 2001 and her second, Jam Gan Boh Dai Gah?, in 2002. Gibson was signed by Sony Music Thailand in 2003, released her third album titled Gulahp Wiang Ping. During her time with Sony Music Thailand, Gibson also recorded an album jointly with Swedish luk tung singer Jonas Anderson, called Rum-tone, Rum-thai. This was followed up by two more duet albums, released independently.

In 2012 and 2011, Gibson had two consecutive hit songs. In 2010, her song "Jep Tee Mai Dai Cheun" charted all over Thailand. This was her most popular song up until that time and remained in the top of the charts for that genre for two years straight.

Her album of 2011, Yah Yohm Pae, was an anthem of hope for many during the massive floods in Thailand of that year. For this song she received the Siam Dara Star Award for the Greatest Lukthoong Song of 2011. She has also received a number of other prestigious awards throughout her career.

In 2012, Gibson released 2 more singles; Tah Lohk Mai Leua Poochai Suk Kon and Neua Koo Kohng Chun Gert Reuyung Noh. She travels and performs in concert all throughout the country commercially and for social causes and has performed internationally for a variety of cultural events throughout the world, including, but not limited to; Thailand, Laos, Taiwan, Singapore, India, Jordan, England, Switzerland, Germany, Australia and the USA.

Discography
Solo albums
 * Christy Der ka Der (released in 2001 under Wetee Thai)
 * Jum Gun Boh Dai Gah (released in 2001 under Wetee Thai)
 * Gulap Wiang Ping (released in 2004 under Sony Music, Thailand)
 * Yah Yohm Pae (EP, released in 2011 independently)

Singles
 * Tah Lohk Mai Leua Poochai Suk Kon (released in 2012 independently)
 * Neua Koo Kohng Chun Gert Reuyung Noh (released in 2012 independently)
 * Gamaloh (OST for Tahn Chai Gammalor, Channel 3 TV Series – released in 2016 under Channel 3)

Duet albums (with Jonas Anderson)
 * Ram Tone Ram Thai (released in 2005 under Sony Music, Thailand)
 * Noom Tam Lao Sao Tam Thai (released in 2007 under Mangpong)
 * Jonas and Christy (released in 2009 independently)

Guest appearances Album: H.M. Blues By: His Majesty King Bhumibol Adulyadej – King of Thailand Album: Mae Haeng Chat (special album produced in honor of HM Queen Sirikit's 72nd birthday) By Artist: Various Artists Remarks: Sung in duet with Jonas Anderson
 * Song: Glai Roong
 * Song: Sai Tan Nam Pratai

Awards

 * Outstanding Thai Language Award: Recognition of exceptional use of the Thai Language (Awarded by the Thai Ministry of Culture) 2010
 * Siam Dara Star Award: Greatest Lukthoong Song 2012 (Yah Yohm Pae)
 * Award for Social Causes and Thai Culture Promotion (Awarded by the Department of Cultural Promotion, Thai Ministry of Culture) 2012

title: Christy Gibson


text: Category:Cayman Islands

title: Category:Cayman Islands


text: Category:Towns in Indiana

title: Category:Towns in Indiana


text: Category:Montserrat

title: Category:Montserrat


text: Category:Boone County, Indiana

title: Category:Boone County, Indiana


text:
Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick

Charles William Ferdinand (Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand; 9 October 1735 – 10 November 1806) was the prince of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel and duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg and a military leader. His titles are usually shortened to Duke of Brunswick in English-language sources.

He succeeded his father as sovereign prince of the Principality of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, one of the princely states of the Holy Roman Empire. The duke was a cultured and benevolent despot in the model of his uncle, Frederick the Great, and was married to Princess Augusta, the eldest sister of George III of Great Britain. He was also a recognized master of 18th century warfare, serving as a Field Marshal in the Prussian Army. During the Napoleonic Wars, he was mortally wounded by a musket ball at the Battle of Jena–Auerstedt in 1806.

Early life

Charles William Ferdinand was born in the town of Wolfenbüttel on 9 October 1735, probably in Wolfenbüttel Castle. He was the first-born son of Charles I, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel and his wife Philippine Charlotte.

His father Charles I was the ruling prince (Fürst) of the small state of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, one of the imperial states of the Holy Roman Empire. Philippine Charlotte was the favourite daughter of King Frederick William I of Prussia and sister of Frederick II of Prussia (Frederick the Great). As the heir apparent of a sovereign prince, Charles William Ferdinand received the title of Hereditary Prince (Erbprinz).

He received an unusually wide and thorough education, overseen by his mother. In his youth he travelled in the Netherlands, France and various parts of Germany. In 1753, his father moved the capital of the principality back to Brunswick (Braunschweig), the state's largest city. (Wolfenbüttel had been the capital since 1432.) The royal family moved into the newly built Brunswick Palace.

Early military career
Charles William Ferdinand entered the military, serving during the Seven Years' War of 1756–63. He joined the allied north-German forces of the Hanoverian Army of Observation, whose task was to protect Hanover (in personal union with the Kingdom of Great Britain) and the surrounding states from invasion by the French. The force was initially commanded by the Anglo-Hanoverian Prince William, Duke of Cumberland. At the Battle of Hastenbeck (1757) Charles William Ferdinand led a charge at the head of an infantry brigade, an action which gained him some renown.

The subsequent French Invasion of Hanover and the Convention of Klosterzeven of 1757 temporarily knocked Hanover out of the war (they were to return the following year). Cumberland was recalled to Britain and the remaining allied north-German forces were placed under the command of Ferdinand of Brunswick, brother of Charles I, who easily persuaded his nephew Charles William Ferdinand to renew his military service as a general officer.

Charles William Ferdinand was part of the allied Anglo-German force at the Battle of Minden (1759), and the Battle of Warburg (1760). Both were decisive victories over the French, during which he proved himself an excellent subordinate commander. He continued to serve in the army commanded by his uncle for the remainder of the war, which was generally successful for the north German forces. The hereditary prince's reputation improved throughout, and he became an acknowledged master of irregular warfare. Peace was restored in 1763.

Marriage and travels

The royal houses of the former Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg had traditionally married within the family, to avoid further division of their family lands under Salic law. By the time, Brunswick-Lüneburg had consolidated back into two states, Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel and the Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg (Hanover). The electorate was ruled by the Hanoverian branch of the family in personal union with the Kingdom of Great Britain. It was therefore arranged for Charles William Ferdinand to marry a British-Hanoverian princess: Princess Augusta of Great Britain, daughter of Frederick, Prince of Wales and his wife, Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha, and sister of the reigning King George III.

In 1764, shortly after the Seven Years' War had ended, he travelled to London (landing at Harwich) to marry Princess Augusta. He received a rapturous welcome from the British people, thanks to his service with allied British troops during the war. The Parliament of Great Britain showed its gratitude by voting him a lump sum of £80,000 and an annual income of £3,000 as a wedding gift. However George III was less welcoming, and sought to express his displeasure through numerous small insults e.g. by lodging the prince at Somerset House, instead of one of the royal palaces; not providing him with a military guard; and instructing the servants at the wedding to wear old clothes. This merely served to exacerbate the enthusiasm of the public, particularly when the prince was suspected of turning his back on the unpopular monarch whilst attending an opera (a breach of social protocol). Charles William Ferdinand defied royal displeasure by meeting William Pitt the Elder (who had been prime minister during the war but resigned in 1761) and the other leaders of the parliamentary opposition. The wedding was completed, but as a result of these machinations, the prince remained in Britain for only thirteen days.

Over the next few years the couple embarked on a wide-ranging tour of Europe, visiting many of the major states. In 1766 they went to France, where they were received by both his allies and recent battlefield enemies with respect. In Paris he made the acquaintance of Marmontel. The couple next proceeded to Switzerland, where they met Voltaire. The longest stop on their travels was Rome, where they remained for a long time exploring the antiquities of the city under the guidance of Johann Winckelmann. During their travels the couple also met Pietro Nardini and in 1767 the prince had his portrait painted by Pompeo Batoni. After a visit to Naples they returned to Paris, and thence to Brunswick.

Restoration of state finances
His father, Charles I, had been an enthusiastic supporter of the war, but nearly bankrupted the state in paying for it. As a result, in 1773 Charles William Ferdinand was given a major role in reforming the economy with the assistance of the Geheimrat, Féronce von Rotenkreuz. They were highly successful, restoring the state's finances and improving the economy. This made the prince hugely popular in the duchy.

When the American Revolutionary War broke out in 1775, Charles William Ferdinand saw an opportunity to replenish the state's treasury by renting its well-trained army to Great Britain. In 1776, Charles I signed a treaty supporting Britain in the war, the first prince to do so. Under the terms of this treaty, Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel supplied 4,000 troops for service with the British armies in America, under the command of general Friedrich Adolf Riedesel. Riedesel was given command of all the German troops serving in the Saratoga campaign, under British general John Burgoyne. Burgoyne was defeated in the Battles of Saratoga (1777), and his troops were taken captive as the Convention Army. Although the terms of surrender allowed the Convention Army to give their parole and return to Europe, the American Continental Congress revoked the convention. The Convention Army was kept in captivity until the war ended in 1783.

Reign
Charles I died in 1780, at which point Charles William Ferdinand inherited the throne. He soon became known as a model sovereign, a typical enlightened despot of the period, characterized by economy and prudence.

The duke's combination of interest in the well-being of his subjects and habitual caution led to a policy of gradual reforms, a successful middle way between the conservatism of some contemporary monarchs and the over-enthusiastic wholesale changes pursued by others. He sponsored enlightenment arts and sciences; most notably he was patron to the young mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss, paying for him to attend university against the wishes of Gauss's father.

He resembled his uncle Frederick the Great in many ways, but he lacked the resolution of the king, and in civil as in military affairs was prone to excessive caution. He brought Brunswick into close alliance with the king of Prussia, for whom he had fought in the Seven Years' War; he was a Prussian field marshal, and was at pains to make the regiment of which he was colonel a model one.

The duke was frequently engaged in diplomatic and other state affairs. In August 1784 he hosted a secret diplomatic visit from Karl August, Duke of Saxe-Weimar and Saxe-Eisenach (Goethe was a member of Karl August's entourage). The visit was disguised as a family visit, but was in fact to discuss the formation of a league of small- and mid-sized German states as a counterbalance within the Holy Roman Empire to Habsburg monarchy's ambitions to trade the Austrian Netherlands for the Electorate of Bavaria. This Fürstenbund (League of Princes) was formally announced in 1785, with the Duke of Brunswick as one of its members and commander of its military forces. The league was successful in forcing the Austrian Joseph II to back down, and thereafter became obsolete.

The Swedish princess and diarist Hedwig Elizabeth Charlotte visited Brunswick in 1799; she described the Duke as "witty, literal and a pleasant acquaintance but ceremonial beyond description. He is said to be quite strict, but a good father of the nation who attends to the needs of his people."

In 1803 the process of German Mediatisation led to the acquisition of the neighbouring imperial abbeys of Gandersheim and Helmstedt, which were secularised.

Military commander
He was made a Prussian general in 1773.

War of the Bavarian Succession
From 1778 to 1779 he served in the War of the Bavarian Succession. Frederick II praised the prince personally for his conduct during the war.

Invasion of the Netherlands

In 1787 the Duke was made Generalfeldmarschall (field marshal) in the Prussian army. Frederick William II of Prussia appointed him as commander of a 20,000-strong Prussian force which was to invade the United Provinces of the Netherlands (The Dutch Republic). The goal was to suppress the Patriots of the Batavian Revolution, restoring the authority of the stadtholder William V of the House of Orange. Much of the country was in open revolt against William, whose personal troops were unable to quell the Patriot militias and the various Dutch provinces refused to aid him.

The Encyclopædia Britannica described the Duke's invasion: "His success was rapid, complete and almost bloodless, and in the eyes of contemporaries the campaign appeared as an example of perfect generalship". The Patriots were out-manoeuvred and overwhelmed: their militias were unable to put up any real resistance, were forced to abandon their insurrection, and many Patriots fled to France.

The Duke's forces entered the Netherlands on 13 September and occupied Nijmegen that day. The largest Patriot force, 7,000 men under the Rhinegrave of Salm, was quickly out-manoeuvred and forced to abandon Utrecht, which the Duke occupied on 16 September. The Prussian force captured Gorcum on the 17th after a short artillery bombardment, followed by Dordrecht on the 18th and Delft on the 19th. They entered The Hague on the 20th, from which the Patriots had been forced to withdraw following a loyalist insurrection on the 17th. Amsterdam, the last city occupied by the Patriots, surrendered on 10 October. The campaign had taken less than a month. William V was restored to power, which he was to hold until 1795.

Both contemporaries and historians have praised the Duke's decisive campaign, in which he manoeuvred to concentrate his forces and achieve overwhelming local superiority, before moving on to the next city. He also received credit for the low number of casualties; one British observer suggested that "the sap of the trees was the only blood shed" (an exaggeration), referring to the wooden palisades and batteries constructed by both sides.

War of the First Coalition
At the outbreak of the War of the First Coalition in the early summer of 1792, Ferdinand was poised with military forces at Coblenz. After the Girondins had arranged for France to declare war on Austria, voted on 20 April 1792, the Catholic Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II and the Protestant King of Prussia Frederick William II had combined armies and put them under Brunswick's command.

The Brunswick Proclamation

The "Brunswick Proclamation" or "Brunswick Manifesto" that he now issued from Coblenz on 25 July 1792, threatened war and ruin to soldiers and civilians alike, should the Republicans injure Louis XVI and his family. His avowed aim was: "to put an end to the anarchy in the interior of France, to check the attacks upon the throne and the altar, to reestablish the legal power, to restore to the king the security and the liberty of which he is now deprived and to place him in a position to exercise once more the legitimate authority which belongs to him." Additionally, the manifesto threatened the French population with instant punishment should they resist the Imperial and Prussian armies, or the reinstatement of the monarchy. In large part, the manifesto had been written by Louis XVI's cousin, Louis Joseph de Bourbon, Prince de Condé, who was the leader of a large corps of émigrés in the allied army.

It has been asserted that the manifesto was in fact issued against the advice of Brunswick himself; the duke, a model sovereign in his own principality, sympathized with the constitutional side of the French Revolution, while as a soldier he had no confidence in the success of the enterprise. However, having let the manifesto bear his signature, he had to bear the full responsibility for its consequences. The proclamation was intended to threaten the French population into submission; it had exactly the opposite effect.

In Paris, Louis XVI was generally believed to be in correspondence with the Austrians and Prussians already, and the republicans became more vocal in the early summer of 1792. Rather than assuring the continued existence of the French monarchy, Brunswick's proclamation would instead ensure its downfall; the manifesto was rapidly distributed in Paris on 28 July, apparently by monarchists, who badly misjudged the effect it would have. The Brunswick Manifesto seemed to furnish the agitators with a complete justification for the revolt that they were already planning. When news spread of a combined Austrian and Prussian army led by Brunswick marching into French soil on the days after the Manifesto was publicized, the Paris populace, already incensed by the threat against the city, exploded into violence. The first violent action was carried out on 10 August, when the Tuileries Palace was stormed.

Invasion of France

The Duke was disappointed that the British remained neutral. His initial advance into France was slowed by poor weather, the rough terrain of the Forest of Argonne, and an outbreak of dysentery among his troops.

The Duke was less successful against the French citizens' army that met him at Valmy. Having secured Longwy and Verdun without serious resistance, he turned back after a mere skirmish in Valmy, and evacuated France.

Initially the Duke intended to winter in the fortress of Verdun, before resuming the campaign in France the following spring. However, Kellerman's forces outflanked him by advancing up the Rhine, recapturing French possessions there. The Duke abandoned Verdun on 8 October and Longwy on 22 October, before retreating back into Germany.

When he counterattacked the Revolutionary French who had invaded Germany, in 1793, he recaptured Mainz after a long siege, but resigned in 1794 in protest at interference by Frederick William II of Prussia.

War of the Fourth Coalition

Prussia did not take part in the Second Coalition or the Third Coalition against Revolutionary France. However, in 1806 Prussia declared war on France, beginning the War of the Fourth Coalition. Despite being over 70 years old, the Duke of Brunswick returned to command the Prussian army at the personal request of Louise, Queen of Prussia.

By this stage the Prussian army was regarded as backward, using outdated tactics and with poor communication. The structure of the high command has been particularly criticised by historians, with multiple officers developing differing plans and then disagreeing on which should be followed, leading to disorganisation and indecision.

The duke commanded the large Prussian army at Auerstedt during the double Battle of Jena–Auerstedt on 14 October 1806. His forces were defeated by Napoleon's marshal Davout, despite the Prussians outnumbering the French around Auerstedt by two to one. During the battle he was struck by a musket ball and lost both of his eyes; his second-in-command Friedrich Wilhelm Carl von Schmettau was also mortally wounded, causing a breakdown in the Prussian command. Severely wounded, the Duke was carried with his forces before the advancing French. He died of his wounds in Ottensen on 10 November 1806.

The duke's body was provisionally laid to rest in the Christianskirche at Ottensen in 1806. It was later transferred for reburial in Brunswick Cathedral on 6 November 1819.

Family

On 16 January 1764, Charles married Princess Augusta of Great Britain, eldest sister of King George III. The couple were second cousins to each other, being great-grandchildren of George I of Great Britain. As such, they were not related in a particularly close degree, yet there had been many bonds of marriage between the House of Brunswick-Bevern and the House of Hanover, themselves both branches of the House of Welf.

Some commentators have pointed to inbreeding as a possible cause for the fact that many of the couple's children had physical, mental or psychological disabilities. Indeed, the duke was once moved to describe his children to von Massenbach as "mostly cripples in mind and body."

Shortly after they married, the prince had the Schloss Richmond built for his wife. It was in English architectural style and with an English landscape garden, to remind her of her home.

The duke and his wife Augusta had four sons and three daughters. Three of their four sons had major debilities. Their eldest son, Karl Georg August (1766–1806) was named heir apparent, but had a significant learning disability and was regarded as "well-nigh imbecile."

Nevertheless, he was married in 1790 to Frederika of Orange-Nassau, daughter of William V, Prince of Orange, a gentle, good-hearted woman who remained devoted to him to the end. He died childless at the age of 40 in 1806, shortly before his father. The second son, Georg Wilhelm Christian (1769–1811), had an even more severe learning disability than his elder brother. He was declared incapacitated and excluded from the succession. He never married. The couple's third son was August (1770–1822). He was blind and also excluded from the succession. He, too, never married. The fourth son, Friedrich Wilhelm (1771 – 16 June 1815), was sound of mind and body. He eventually succeeded his father, married and sired two sons.

Frederick and Augusta also had three daughters, two of whom reached adulthood. Neither of them was disabled, but both of them had similar, disastrous trajectories in life. Both of them were married to future kings, both made extreme failures of their marriages, both had extremely acrimonious relations with their husbands, and both were accused by them of similar faults: adultery, uncouth behavior, absence of dignity, falsehood and utter fecklessness. The elder daughter, Auguste Caroline Friederike (1764–1788), was the wife of the future king Frederick I of Württemberg and mother of the future William I of Württemberg. She separated from her husband and died in Russia from complications that arose while giving birth in secret to an illegitimate child.

The younger daughter, Caroline of Brunswick, was married in 1795 to her first cousin, the future George IV of the United Kingdom, and bore him a daughter, the ill-fated Princess Charlotte of Wales. On two occasions (1806 and 1818–19), her husband made serious efforts to divorce her on grounds of adultery, forming commissions of inquiry to indict her, and after he became king, he in fact caused the House of Lords to pass a bill of divorce citing adultery with an Italian commoner.

However, the bill was never introduced in the House of Commons and the divorce was never finalized. Caroline died three weeks after she was physically prevented from entering Westminster Abbey to participate in her husband's coronation.

The future Queen of Sweden, Hedwig Elizabeth Charlotte of Holstein-Gottorp, described the ducal family thus: The Duchess is the sister to the King of England and a typical Englishwoman. She looked very simple, like a vicar's wife, has I am sure many admirable qualities, and is very respectable, but completely lacks manners. She makes the strangest questions without considering how difficult and unpleasant they can be. ... The sons of the Ducal couple are somewhat peculiar. The (eldest) prince, chubby and fat, almost blind, strange and odd - if not to say an imbecile - attempts to imitate his father but only makes himself artificial and unpleasant. He talks continually, does not know what he says, and is in all aspects unbearable. He is accommodating but a poor thing, loves his consort to the point of worship, and is completely governed by her. The (second) son, Prince Georg, is the most ridiculous person imaginable, and so silly that he can never be left alone but is always accompanied by a courtier. The third son is also described as an original. I never saw him, as he served with his regiment. The fourth is the only normal one, but also torments his parents by his immoral behaviour.

The duke also fathered at least one illegitimate child, a son named Forstenburg, who began a promising military career but was killed in action in 1793.


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High School High

High School High is a 1996 American comedy film about an inner city high school in the Los Angeles, California area, starring Jon Lovitz, Tia Carrere, Mekhi Phifer, Louise Fletcher, Malinda Williams, and Brian Hooks. It is a spoof of films concerning idealistic teachers (such as To Sir, with Love) being confronted with a class of cynical teenagers, disengaged by conventional schooling, and loosely parodies Blackboard Jungle, High School Confidential, The Principal, Dangerous Minds, Lean on Me, The Substitute, Stand and Deliver, and Grease.

The film is dedicated to the memories of casting director Elisabeth Leustig and actor Lexie Bigham, both of whom were killed in automobile crashes shortly after filming was completed.

Plot
Richard Clark is an unsatisfied prep school teacher at the fictional Wellington Academy, who accepts a job at inner city Marion Barry High School, much to the chagrin of his boss and father, Wellington headmaster Thaddeus Clark. Richard arrives to find the school in a state of disarray and disorder, while meeting several students and faculty members including: the blunted, soured, and uninspiring principal, Evelyn Doyle, her cheerful assistant Victoria Chappell and student Griff McReynolds.

Despite initial opposition to his teaching style and harassment from the school gang leader Paco, Richard begins connecting with his students and teaches them effectively, while developing a romantic relationship with Victoria. Barry High eventually is transformed into a fine educational establishment. Frustrated, Paco and his gang tamper with the school's final exam scores, causing everyone to fail. Griff, who grew to see Richard as a mentor, loses faith in him, as does the rest of the school and Richard is fired. Griff subsequently joins Paco's gang to make extra money.

Victoria learns through word of mouth that Paco was behind the failing test scores and rushes to inform Richard, who decides to confront Paco and rescue Griff with the help of several of his students, including Anferny Jefferson, Natalie Thompson and Julie Rubels. By deceiving Mr. DeMarco, a local gangster, Richard and Victoria reach Paco and the local crime boss, "Mr. A", whom they find has been Principal Doyle the entire time. Griff is told the truth about the test scores and after a brief fight, Paco, Doyle and DeMarco are arrested.

Richard (now principal of Barry High) presides over the graduation ceremony and proudly names Griff as the class valedictorian. The six main students of the film graduate (but only those six). Richard makes good on his promise to send Griff to college and is in a relationship with Victoria.

Cast

 * Jon Lovitz as Richard Clark, a naive, mild-mannered white teacher whose main goal is to help the underachieving students at Marion Barry High School succeed.
 * Lovitz also plays Clark's mother.
 * Tia Carrere as Victoria Chappell, the principal's assistant who sympathizes with Richard, as well as with the troubled students at Marion Barry High.
 * Louise Fletcher as Principal Evelyn Doyle, a mean-spirited, uncaring principal who doesn't believe in the academic abilities of a single student at her school and has given up on them. She also takes an immediate dislike to Richard and believes that he will fail.
 * Mekhi Phifer as Griff McReynolds, one of Clark's students. A former gang member who is one of the few students at Marion Barry High who aspires to graduate high school and attend college.
 * Malinda Williams as Natalie Thompson, Griff's girlfriend who used to date Paco, Griff's one time gang partner-turned-nemesis.
 * Guillermo Díaz as Paco de la Vega al Camino Cordoba Jose Cuervo Sanchez Rodriguez Jr., Griff's former gang partner.
 * Brian Hooks as Anferny Jefferson, one of Clark's students. He is a slightly dimwitted gang member who only knows of urban pop culture.
 * Natasha Gregson Wagner as Julie Rubels, one of Clark's students who is a teenage mother with many children.
 * Marco Rodríguez as Mr. DeMarco, a gangster who is in the midst of a shady "business" deal with Paco and another mysterious gangster known as "Mr. A".
 * John Neville as Thaddeus Clark, Richard's father.
 * Lexie Bigham as Two-Bags, a member of Paco's gang.
 * Gil Espinoza as Alonzo, a member of Paco's gang.
 * Baoan Coleman as Mou Mou Bartender
 * Lu Elrod as Miss Bernie Wells
 * Eve Sigall as Miss Foley
 * Michael D. Nye as Vice Principal Mr. Arnott
 * Nicholas Worth as Rhino
 * Eric Allan Kramer as Hulk
 * Jeannie Pepper as Mrs. McReynolds (credited as Joan Ruedelstein)

Release
The film opened at #2 on the weekend of October 25, 1996, behind the film Sleepers. The film remained in the top 5 for the next two weekends.

Reception
The film received generally negative reviews upon its release. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a score of 19% based on reviews from 16 critics, with an average rating of 4.4/10. On Metacritic, it has a score of 33 out of 100 based on reviews from 10 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade B+ on scale of A to F.

Roger Ebert gave the film 1$1/2$ stars out of 4, and said "the movie makes two mistakes: (1) It isn't very funny, and (2) it makes the crucial error of taking its story seriously and angling for a happy ending."

Andrew Hindes wrote in Variety that "the problem with High School High isn’t that it always goes for the cheap laugh, but that it fails at getting it so often. Like a student who studies hard but just doesn’t have the smarts, this joyless send-up of the Dangerous Minds, Stand and Deliver, idealistic-teacher-in-a-ghetto-school genre plods along earnestly with barely passing grades. B.O. prospects appear below average: Given the lack of youth-oriented fare in the marketplace, target teen audiences may fill seats early in the semester, but attendance is likely to drop off quickly."

Upon its video release in March 1997, Michael Sauter wrote in Entertainment Weekly that "uplifting inner-city high school movies on the order of Dangerous Minds get an overdue but underinspired send-up in this occasionally funny spoof cowritten by David Zucker (The Naked Gun)", adding that "despite a steady stream of such typical Zucker sight gags, this parody’s pace is surprisingly slack. Even the TV tube’s reduced, sitcom-friendly confines aren’t enough to hide the holes of High School High."

Soundtrack
A soundtrack containing hip hop and R&B music was released on August 19, 1996, via Big Beat Records. The album peaked at No. 20 on the Billboard 200 and at No. 4 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums and was also certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America for selling over 500,000 copies in the United States.

title: High School High


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Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft/page content/oldtablestandard

Suggested Standards with tables
This data table is the product of contributions by a number of WikiProject Aircraft participants. Suggestions for changes or improvements to the current table should be made here.

When using the table, try not to include empty categories; for example, delete the "bombs" category for fighters having only machine guns, and the whole "Armament" section for civil types. On the other hand, if the data is applicable but you simply don't know it, please leave a space to remind others to fill it in. However, do not place an empty table with no information in it.

Capacity is for airliners and military transports

Power for piston engines, Thrust for jets and rockets. Of course, a few types will have both. Therefore, Thrust/Weight will also apply only to jets and rocket aircraft, and Power/Mass to propeller aircraft. Delete whatever's not appropriate.

Maximum speed may be given as a Mach number for supersonic aircraft

It a suggested project standard to have Imperial (English) units in first column for US and British aircraft and metric in first column for everyone else's. The two different orders as well as templates for different types of aircraft on the following pages are here:

 * This one has imperial units in the first column.

 * This one has metric units in the first column.

Templates currently available include versions for fixed wing piston engined, fixed wing jet, sailplanes, and helicopters in both sets of units.

Standard (base) table

Suggested Standard Footer
Probably best illustrated by examples:

Messerschmitt Me 163

Remember links to the page itself automatically turn to from a link Me 163  to bold Me 163

Douglas DC-6

 * Related Development are those that this aircraft were developed from, or which were developed from it. For the P-51 Mustang, Related Development would include at least the F-82 Twin Mustang, CAC Kangaroo, Cavalier Mustang and Piper Enforcer. Many aircraft will be stand-alone developments with no relatives, in which case this line should be deleted from the table. Development Series cane be used with most linear development sequences.

 * Similar Aircraft are those of similar role, era, and capability to this one. This will always be somewhat subjective, of course, but try to keep this as tight as possible. Again, some aircraft will be one-of-a-kind and this row will be inappropriate. Similar Types can be used applicable as well.

 * The Designation Series will usually be that of the aircraft's manufacturer, but aircraft of the Third Reich and the US armed services have their own series ? see List of RLM aircraft designations and List of military aircraft of the United States for details.

 * This a small suggested micro-footer thats standardized. It can be placed using msg:Aviation lists, in the form

General Characteristics

 * Crew:
 * Capacity:
 * Length: m ( ft)
 * Wingspan:  m (  ft)
 * Height:  m (  ft)
 * Wing area:  m² (  ft²)
 * Empty:  kg (  lb)
 * Loaded:  kg (  lb)
 * Maximum takeoff: kg (  lb)
 * Powerplant: Engine type(s), kN (lbf) thrust or
 * Powerplant: Engine type(s), kW ( hp)

Performance

 * Maximum speed: km/h ( mph)
 * Range: km ( miles)
 * Service ceiling:  m (  ft)
 * Rate of climb:  m/min (  ft/min)
 * Wing loading: kg/m² ( lb/ft²)
 * Thrust/Weight: or
 * Power/Mass:

Armament
where applicable

Note that these specifications should relate to a specific variant of the aircraft, and be labelled accordingly. Usually this will be the most famous/noteworthy/numerous one.

If a line is not applicable to a particular aircraft type, it should be omitted, for example "powerplant" for sailplanes. On the other hand, if data is applicable but you simply don't know it, please leave the line in place to remind others to fill it in.

Capacity is for airliners and military transports

Power for piston engines, Thrust for jets and rockets. Of course, a few types will have both. Therefore, Thrust/Weight will also apply only to jets and rocket aircraft, and Power/Mass to propeller aircraft. Delete whatever's not appropriate.

Maximum speed may be given as a Mach number for supersonic aircraft

It a suggested project standard to have Imperial (English) units first for US and British aircraft and metric first for everyone else's. The two different orders as well as templates for different types of aircraft on the following pages are here:

 * This one has imperial units first.

 * This one has metric units first.

Templates currently available include versions for fixed wing piston engined, fixed wing jet, sailplanes, and helicopters in both sets of units. See WikiProject Aircraft/Units for a more detailed discussion of units.

Units
There are plenty of converters to be found on-line, but if you want to do them manually, the conversion factors are:

Conversions
 * Imperial to Metric
 * m = ((inches/12)+ft) / 3.28
 * m² = ft² / 10.76
 * kg = lb / 2.2
 * kW = hp × 0.746
 * kN = lbf (thrust) / 224.26
 * km = miles × 1.61

 * Metric to Imperial
 * ft = m × 3.28 (subtract the whole number from the result, then multiply the remainder by 12 to give the number of inches)
 * ft² = m² × 10.76
 * lb = kg × 2.2
 * hp = kW/0.746
 * lbf (thrust) = kN × 224.26, or kg × 2.2 (if thrust is quoted in kg)
 * miles = km / 1.61

Overprecision for performance figures is unnecessary — most of these are approximates under specific conditions anyway, and many published figures show evidence of having already been converted between Imperial and metric and back again.
 * Don't have to worry about metric hp- 735.499 W and UK hp- 745.70 W

Thrust-to-weight ratio

 * Non-metric units. Thrust units are called pounds. Weight units are also called pounds. The result can be expressed without showing the units.

 * Metric units. Thrust units may be newtons (kN, MN etc). Weight will be kg. The result of dividing newtons by kilograms is N/kg (probably kN/kg).

 * Of the various aircraft weights, the loaded weight is the one to be used on Wikipedia when calculating thrust to weight.


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Ozone depletion theory

This page was seemingly set up by Ed Poor to present the views of Fred Singer, a detractor of the accepted theory that CFC's are causing Ozone depletion. These arguments are WELL covered in other articles on ozone such as ozone depletion, Fred Singer and others. This page presents nothing of value to wiki and I would argue serves only to create controversy where there is none. The page should be a redirect to Ozone depletion and if Mr.Poor wants to present the views of Singer that should be done on either the ozone depletion page or the Singer page, not here in effort to confer false legitimacy and avoid the eyes of editors. Furthermore, all the main substance of the page is one big cut-n-paste from a website. --Deglr6328 07:36, 15 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Go ahead and make the redirect yourself, it's much faster than putting the article on vfd. Ordinary editors are allowed to make redirects. I agree that ozone depletion theory isn't a very good article & a redirect is appropriate. Have at it, Wile E. Heresiarch 08:39, 15 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Hmmm, ok then, we'll see what happens I guess....done. Should I remove this VFD then? --Deglr6328 08:47, 15 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Well, I would suggest just leaving this discussion in place so others can see what happened (otherwise the discussion just disappears off the vfd page & people wonder). This discussion will scroll off in a few days anyway. Regards, Wile E. Heresiarch 16:20, 15 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Just archive the discussion on the article's talk page.   — Gwalla | Talk 21:26, 15 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * To clarify, please archive the discussion in accordance with the new deletion process which puts a link on the article's talk page and preserves this discussion page. Rossami


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Jonathan Baldwin Turner

Jonathan Baldwin Turner (December 7, 1805 – January 10, 1899) was an American classical scholar, an ordained minister, a professor, a campaigner for the abolition of slavery, and political activist. He also campaigned in favor of land grant universities. In 1835, Turner married Rhodolphia Kibbe and they had seven children.

Turner was the author of "A Plan for an Industrial University" for the state of Illinois's Farmer's Convention at Granville in 1851. He had laid out a plan for a national grant to provide an industrial and mechanical college for each US state. A similar plan was later introduced in the Senate by Senator Justin Morrill and became law as the Morrill Land-Grant Act in 1862.

Early life
Jonathan Baldwin Turner was born December 7, 1805, outside Templeton, Massachusetts; his parents were farmers Asa Turner and Nabby Baldwin. Jonathan was educated in local schools before attending and graduating from Yale College (University), where he studied classical literature at Yale, and excelled in Greek and English composition. Turner was ordained as a minister and graduated in 1833, after which he moved to Illinois to become a professor at the newly organized Illinois College at Jacksonville. He taught subjects across the whole curriculum but specialized in Belles-lettres, Latin, and Greek. Students of Turner, the Green brothers, brought him in contact with Abraham Lincoln, who was helping with the harvest on the Green Family farm. Lincoln had heard of Turner's teaching and became interested in it.

Educational activism
Jonathan Baldwin Turner's views in favor of the abolition of slavery were a subject of growing controversy. In 1848, he resigned from his teaching post as chair of Belles-lettres, Greek, and literature at Illinois College. He created the Illinois Industrial League to advocate for a publicly funded system to provide "industrial" education that suited the needs of the working ("industrial") classes.

Turner continued to advocate for his model of education. A similar plan Justin Morrill introduced became law as the Morrill Land-Grant Act in 1862. Turner was displeased with the political process that located the Illinois Industrial University in Urbana, Illinois. Turner spoke at university's cornerstone-laying event, saying: "Industrial education prepares the way for a millennium of labor", words that were carved in stone and placed above the university's main square.

Agricultural research

Jonathan Baldwin Turner was an agriculturist; he improved agriculture and established the use of the "hedge apple" or thorny Osage orange tree (Maclura pomifera), a variety of which he developed. At this time, there were very few trees on the prairies to set up split rail fences. While working as a professor at Illinois College, Turner began searching for a plant to use as a hedge to divide, cultivate the expanse of the prairie, and contain livestock. He was inspired by hedgerows in England, and procured seeds from Texas with which to experiment on his farm in Butler, Illinois.

In the late 1830s, Turner selected the Osage orange tree as an ideal plant for this purpose, and patented a machine for preparing the soil and planting the tree's seeds. Turner then advertised and sold Osage orange seeds, which were widely used as hedges before the development of barbed wire between 1867 and 1874. After barbed wire was introduced, farmers still used their Osage orange trees as fence posts, connecting the barbed wire directly to the tree trunks. The wood from this tree is strong, decay resistant, and long-lasting.

Abolitionist and conductor of the Underground Railroad
Jonathan Baldwin Turner became the editor of a Jacksonville abolitionist newspaper, probably during the 1840s; he also became an assistant with the Underground Railroad and a vocal opponent of slavery. Turner and his wife hid three black slaves for two weeks. His life was frequently threatened due to his abolitionist beliefs. Turner believed that the only way to fight slavery was with writing, speech, and the law.

Later years

After the passing of the Morrill Act in 1862, Jonathan Baldwin Turner opposed the power of corporations, which he described as a conflict between the "natural" and "artificial man". In addition, Turner was a trustee for the mentally ill in Illinois' hospitals.

As an ordained minister, Turner was affiliated early on with two Congregational churches but his beliefs became increasingly unorthodox. He wrote religious tracts championing the liberal teachings of Christ while criticizing Catholicism, Mormonism, and the Presbyterian administration of Illinois College, where he was a professor. Turner believed Christ's Creed is broad enough to save all of humanity; he wrote three books on Christ and about his views on Mormonism.

Death and legacy
Jonathan Baldwin Turner died on January 10, 1899, in Jacksonville, Illinois, at the age of 93. Tributes and memorials were made in his memory. A statue of Turner was erected at the University of Illinois, and Jonathan Turner Junior High School in Jacksonville was named for him. In 1923, a centuries-old boulder with a bronze plaque was placed in Granville, Illinois, honoring the Granville Convention and Turner. The bronze tablet commemorates the introduction by Turner of the first institutions for scientific industrial higher learning at the Granville convention in 1851.

The Jonathan Baldwin Turner Scholarship at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign provides $8,000 to a student over three years of college. The College of Aces (Jonathan Baldwin Turner Fellowships) are for doctorate candidates. Turner's papers are held by the Illinois History and Lincoln Collections of the University of Illinois Library at Urbana-Champaign.

title: Jonathan Baldwin Turner


text: User:Benc/Bookmarks

title: User:Benc/Bookmarks


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Someone to Watch Over Me (Star Trek: Voyager)

"Someone to Watch Over Me" is the 116th episode of the science fiction television series Star Trek: Voyager, the 21st episode of the fifth season. It was directed by cast member Robert Duncan McNeil.

In this episode, the ship's holographic Doctor makes a bet with Ensign Tom Paris that he can teach ex-Borg, Seven of Nine about romance. The episode has many similarities to the George Bernard Shaw 's 1913 play Pygmalion, which inspired both the 1964 musical My Fair Lady and the 1999 film She's All That.

Plot
Captain Kathryn Janeway and Tuvok leave the ship as official guests of a nearby colony; Neelix is assigned the task of escorting the colony's guest, Tomin, aboard the ship. Neelix is surprised that Tomin is quick to break the strict regime set by his people to sample everything from food to entertainment that Voyager has to offer.

Meanwhile, Tom Paris and B'Elanna Torres become upset after discovering Seven of Nine observing and documenting their romantic interactions. The Doctor offers to help teach Seven on human courting rituals through an elaborate educational course, including such elements as singing. Seven works her way up from interactions with holodeck men and eventually ends up on a date with another human crewman. When they attempt to dance, Seven's strength strains the crewman's arms, prematurely ending the date. Seven comes to believe that she is unsuitable for dating. The Doctor has become somewhat smitten with her, and on a bet with Paris, offers to take her to Tomin's reception. Seven's behavior is perfectly appropriate for the event but upon learning of The Doctor's bet, she storms off.

The crew finds that Tomin's physiology is unable to handle the synthahol used in drinks and becomes highly intoxicated on the night prior to the return of his elder, on the night a shipwide reception is due to take place for him. Neelix works with The Doctor and Seven to use Seven's Borg nano-probes to process the synthahol. Tomin, though still unsteady on his feet, is collected enough to greet his elder, Janeway, and Tuvok with Neelix's help in the same regiment he initially arrived with. To their surprise, the elder thought that Tomin would have taken time to sample what Voyager had, in moderation. Neelix is commended for his duties.

The Doctor, alone, practices wooing Seven in the holodeck. He is interrupted by the real Seven. She presents the Doctor with an enhanced tricorder as a gift for his help, but admits that she believes there is no suitable mate on board and says she may seek his "guidance" in the future. The Doctor is unable to express his feelings and only tells Seven that the last few days have been "unforgettable". After she leaves, the Doctor begins to play George Gershwin's "Someone to Watch Over Me" on piano in one of the hologram simulations of Sandrine's Bar.

Production
The episode was directed by Robert Duncan McNeill who plays Tom Paris. McNeill was happy with how the episode turned out, and he felt lucky to have the chance to direct a more comedic episode, that also included romantic elements.

Reception
Tor.com rated the episode 5 out of 10. Jammer's Reviews gave it 3.5 out of 4 stars and called it "A delightfully pleasant, hilarious, and sincere hour."

In 2011, Tor.com included this as one of six episodes of Star Trek: Voyager that are worth re-watching. The episode was ranked as one of the top 10 episodes of Star Trek: Voyager in 2018.

In 2016, The Hollywood Reporter rated "Someone to Watch Over Me" in the top 100 of all Star Trek episodes.

In 2016, Vox rated this one of the top 25 essential episodes of all Star Trek.

Releases
This episode was released on LaserDisc in Japan on June 22, 2001, as part of 5th Season vol.2, which included episodes from "Dark Frontier" to "Equinox, Part I". The episode had two audio tracks, English and Japanese. This set had 6 double sided 12" optical discs giving a total runtime of 552 minutes.

"Someone to Watch Over Me" and "Juggernaut" were released together on one VHS tape.

On November 9, 2004,this episode was released as part of the season 5 DVD box set of Star Trek: Voyager. The box set includes 7 DVD optical discs with all the episodes in season 5 with some extra features, and episodes have a Dolby Digital 5.1 surround sound audio track.


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Morpho menelaus

The Menelaus blue morpho (Morpho menelaus) is one of thirty species of butterfly in the subfamily Morphinae. Its wingspan is approximately $12 cm$ (4.7"), and its dorsal forewings and hindwings are a bright, iridescent blue edged with black, while the ventral surfaces are brown. Its iridescent wings are an area of interest in research because of their unique microstructure. Due to its characteristic blue color, Morpho menelaus is considered valuable among collectors and was widely hunted in the 20th century.

Range
This neotropical butterfly is found in Central and South America, including the Cerrado which is a vast tropical savanna in Brazil. Other locations include Mexico and Venezuela. Ancestors of the Morpho menelaus butterfly may have been distributed in the Andean regions. Morpho menelaus is one of the six species of Morpho in Costa Rica. The genus of Morpho is present in regions beginning in Mexico and throughout South America, except Chile. Moreover, the Morpho menelaus struggle to survive in the northern Pacific area of Costa Rica since they can’t tolerate such dry conditions. They also need habitats in old growth forests with proper differentiation between the understories and canopies (Murillo-Hiller & Canet, 2018).

Phylogeny
There is great variation among the various species of Morpho. Two groups of Morpho butterflies,  achilles and  hecuba, are distinct in flight behavior and vertical forest distribution. This habitat stratification between the two forest levels may have led to the diversification of the Morpho butterflies. Flight pattern behavior may also have led to changes in the wing shape to make it more suitable for gliding or flapping. Phylogenetic studies suggest these are indicative of ancestral qualities.

Morpho menelaus is part of the achilles subclade of Morpho. Within this species, there are no differences between males and females regarding forewing length, aspect ratio and wing centroid measurement which may be indicative of morphological homogeneity. Despite the popularity of the genus Morpho, there is not a general consensus on the number of species or on how these species are defined. For instance, some consider M. amanthonte a subspecies of Morpho melanus, but this is not supported by morphology. Some older studies have identified 75 Morpho species, and newer studies recognize about 30 species. Despite the many species of the Morpho butterfly displayed in collections, they usually have mismatched or missing abdomens which make it difficult for research. Using combined studies of parsimony and Bayesian analyses, Morpho melanus is associated with the M. helenor, M. sulkowskyi and M. amonthonte clades. The split of Morpho melanus from M. amonthonte is estimated to fall under the Pliocene era.

Related Species

 * M. achilles
 * M. achillaena
 * M. peleides
 * M. granadensis
 * M. deidamia
 * M. laertes
 * M. polyphemus
 * M. catenarius
 * M. amathonte
 * M. didius
 * M. godartii

Behavior
Females inhabit the forest understory and perch on tree stumps, but are found near the tree tops when it is time to lay eggs. Both sexes have a slow and floppy flight pattern and feed on rotting fruit that has dropped to the ground. Males tend to fly in open clearings or high in the canopy. These butterflies collectively emerge in the beginning and the end of the wet season in Cerrado. They do not appear in the middle of the wet season because the heavy rain can cause physical harm to their wings. Their emergence depends on the availability of food which is dependent on climate. For protection from the rain, Morpho menelaus prefers small and enclosed spaces.

Egg
The egg of the Morpho menelaus butterfly is typically small, round, and somewhat flattened. They are usually pale green or whitish in color, sometimes with a slightly metallic sheen, but not as vibrant as the adult butterfly's iridescent blue wings, and shaped like dew drops. The female laid around 12 eggs in cluster of 5 or 6 eggs on the undersides of the leaves. The eggs are laid so that the caterpillars may feed as soon as they hatch.

Caterpillars
These social caterpillars feed on Erythroxylum, Dalbergia, and Fabaceae, and may prefer to feed on new leaves of host plants since these new leaves are easier and more nutritious to eat. The caterpillars are red-brown in color with bright green spots. They are covered with bristles that release an irritant upon contact. Conversely, the peak of the caterpillar is in the dry season, a climate that is unsuitable for most animal communities. These caterpillars will enter diapause or suspend development and can delay pupation in order to survive this harsh period and the lack of water. As the dry season continues, the caterpillar population declines due to predation.

Adults
One of the best seasonal predictors of adult butterfly occurrence is the ripening of zoochorous fruit. Adult emergence occurs primarily in the beginning of the wet season, when the climate and air humidity makes food resources plentiful and oviposition advantageous. The butterfly spends 3 to 4 weeks as an adult, and the entire life cycle is about 115 days. Adults fly along rivers, or anywhere that open land has been revealed.

Adaptations
Eyespots on wings are visual anti-predatory adaptations that have evolved in many species within Lepidoptera. The eyespots are usually dark circles surrounded by a brighter outer layer. The 'pupil' of the eye has a sparkle that mimics the natural reflection of the cornea. These eyes are thought to deflect a predator's attack away from more vital organs and toward that spot on the wings. Bigger eyespots have also been shown to deter predators from attacking completely.  Menelaus specifically has an eyespot that is $6.8 mm$ in diameter on its ventral wings that it uses to help avoid predation.

Wing structure
The wings of Morpho menelaus are a prime example of iridescent blue coloration in the insect world. The bright and iridescent colors of other butterflies are typically caused by optical interference, but the iridescent blue color of butterflies in the family Morphidae results from the microstructures of the wings. Scientists use SEM, scanning electronic microscope, and spectroscopy, to understand the wings in greater detail.

Structural components
Each wing is covered in multi-layered scales, which are responsible for the coloration of the wings. The wing colors vary with viewing angle, a phenomenon referred to as structural color. In the female, the dorsal side is more camouflaged while the male presents with a vibrant blue. In the male, the outer layer of the cover scales are long and narrow ($250 um$), $2 um$ apart, and parallel to the wing plane. The dimensions of the cover scales in other species of the subfamily Morphinae vary greatly, but all are pigment-less and lowly iridescent. The inner layer, called ground scales, are pigmented, iridescent, do not overlap, and are responsible for the blue coloration. They consist of alternating layers of chitin and air, each having its own refractive indexes. The wings of the genus Morpho are noteworthy for their diversity of function, including being hydrophobic, lightweight, sturdy, thermally regulated, and bright blue iridescent. These unique characteristics originate from the photonic nanostructures in the ridges of the scales. There has been increasing interest in the bioengineering community into understanding the structural components of the wing which can have potential applications in creating structural-color devices and selective gas-sensors.

Iridescence
Iridescence is the phenomenon when light interacts with a particular surface, and at differing angles of illumination and observation the color begins to gradually change. The Morpho Menelaus ' characteristic iridescent wings has a unique wing structure. The ground scales are covered by a set of longitudinal ridges, and within the ridges are layers of lamella. Because the size of the microstructure is the same as the wavelength of light, the layers in the wings react strongly with visible light. The ground and cover scales have an observable "Christmas-tree" structure which is responsible for the diffraction or bending of light pattern of the wings which results in the characteristic iridescence blue color.

Within the ground scales are layers of lamella. The upper lamina is closely marked with longitudinal ridges. The ridges themselves consist of individual lamellae (6–12) which overlap like shingles on a roof. The inter-spacings of the lamella layers is around $80 nm$, but there are variations in the thickness of each lamella. A network of netted trabeculae separates neighboring lamellae.

Hydrophobic surface
A superhydrophobic surface is when water is dropped, a spherical ball forms and rolls off the surface. Any dirt or dust that is on the surface will be removed along with the water drop forming. The wings of Morpho menelaus have attracted potential research interest because of its self-cleaning property. The microstructure of the wing plays an important role in this unique feature.

Collections
Morpho menelaus is unique because of its iridescent blue color and large wingspan. They are one of the most familiar and recognizable neotropical insects. Over the past century, there has been an accumulation of these butterflies in both private and museum collections, and they are considered highly valuable among collectors, artists, and designers for their beautiful coloration and are widely hunted or bred for decorative purposes. Because of the popularity of collecting and rearing Morpho species for sale, there is a wide discrepancy in its taxonomic understanding among collectors.

title: Morpho menelaus


text: Category:Osceola County, Florida

title: Category:Osceola County, Florida


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Minister Mentor

Minister Mentor was a position in the Cabinet of Singapore created in 2004 as part of a transition in political leadership. The only person to hold the post, between 2004 and 2011, was Lee Kuan Yew.

Background
On 12 August 2004, when Lee Hsien Loong succeeded Goh Chok Tong as the prime minister of Singapore, he announced the position of Minister Mentor, as part of a transition of political leadership, when naming his Cabinet.

Prior to Lee Kuan Yew's appointment as Minister Mentor, he was Senior Minister between 1990 and 2004 under Goh Chok Tong's Cabinet. Goh was subsequently appointed Senior Minister under Lee Hsien Loong's Cabinet when he stepped down as prime minister.

On 14 May 2011, following the general election that took place seven days earlier, Lee Kuan Yew and Goh Chok Tong announced their retirement from the Cabinet, but continued to serve as Members of Parliament (MPs) on the backbenches until Lee's death in 2015 and Goh's retirement from politics in 2020 respectively.

title: Minister Mentor