text:
Talk:Golf club

Initial comments
Terminology.. or is it kidology? I keep seeing the term oversize when referring to clubs. As a 6ft 4inch giant I am interested in clubs that are oversize ..i.e. longer - but the term oversize seems to be splashed around as marketing speak to cover large head size can an explanation of the term be added?Pete Yates (86.141.74.91 19:09, 8 February 2007 (UTC))

As a non golfer i have found these pages useful. However a defn of a Niblick and a Mashie would be useful, as would help understanding "sweet spots" shaft stiffness and why the cc of a wood head is important. Rich Farmbrough 21:23, 15 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Hi, could some one who knows about these things add in a treatise on perimeter weighting and blade clubs - and explain the diffference between the two types of golf clubs. also a discussion about the different types of putters out there: from the heel-toe to the various others (i forget their names) would be very helpful.-Ben

This article contradicts itself
The fourth paragraph starts out: "A typical set of clubs generally consisted of 3 woods, 2 wedges, a putter, and 8 irons, numbered 3-9, and a pitching wedge." That totals 15. The opening sentence says "A golfer is allowed to carry up to fourteen clubs." If these are both true, then we must assume that the typical golfer carries more clubs than is allowed. This is why I stay off golf courses, to stay away from all those cheaters, not because of any deficiency in my game ;-)  Chris the speller 15:06, 22 April 2006 (UTC)

 * OK, I gave everyone a chance to fix the glaring error, but ended up fixing it myself. Chris the speller 01:51, 7 May 2006 (UTC)

 * The original wording was a little vague, but it really IS 14 clubs. 3 woods, 2 wedges, a putter = 6.  plus 8 irons: 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, PW.  I'll fix it back.

As a completely novice golfer living in a very remote area, I have found it almost impossible to get good advice about what to look for when buying my first set of clubs. What is the difference btween mens and womens clubs, what is included in a basic set, how much does a persons height/weight affect their choices etc. can anybody out there explain things reasonably clearly? _____

I keep 17 clubs in my bag for normal play/practice. 1-9, pw,gw,sw,lw - Drv, 3hyb and 4hyb. When entering a tournament or engaging in some type of match play I pull three clubs from my bag. Sometimes 1,2&3 irons. I have even played all irons and left Drv 3 & 4 Hybrids out. Depends on course and wind conditions. The driving range does not provide the real experience you need with a club to trust it in a clutch situation. My playing partners know I am over during "fun rounds" and know I play only 14 during the real deal.

Hybrids
Should hybrids be considered a type of golf club or a sub-type of the wood type? Just like wedges are sub types of irons.

_____

Hybrids are half iron - half wood... and I mean purpose or usage of club not the materials used in construction. It is therefor neither a sub-type of wood nor iron but something new evolved from the two.

__________

I agree that this article contradicts itself. When describing Forge Clubs vs. Casted Clubs, in one paragraph it says that casted irons are preferred by low-handicappers and forged are preferred by high-handicappers. In another paragraph, it's said that forged clubs have more workability. Workability is a characteristic that is desired by low-handicappers, who according to this article prefer cast irons.

---

Low handicappers may prefer forged irons for their better feel, but this is by no means a standard. Some pro's still play cast iron cavity backs because they provide some extra forgiveness. The forging process doesn't create more workability and the casting doesn't make a club more forgiving - that's done by varying clubhead design.

It is, however, easier to create large cavities by casting. Try hammering a large cavity in the back of a molten piece of metal without totally messing it up. A muscle back cast iron won't be easier to hit than a forged muscle back. It's just that if you're good enough to hit a muscle back properly, you'll most like want that extra feel that comes with forging. So many companies use casting for their game improvement irons and forgings for their players irons, hence the belief that better players prefer forged irons and higher handicappers prefer cast irons. Which is wrong - if you are a great ball striker but have a terrible short game, you might prefer forgings and still have a high handicap, and vice-versa. Now someone correct the article.

why dont YOU correct it and stop spamming this page with your golf related crap. Tell it to someone who wants to hear, this isnt a forum.

Removed "trigraph" reference.
I couldn't find ANYTHING on google about trigraph shafts or triangle shafts, outside of wikipedia or articles that directly copied it. Therefore it's now gone.

Removed reference to "Bennett Club".
I have neither heard of nor could find a single reference to any golf club called a "Bennett Club" (checked Google and Yahoo). Even if it were to exist, it would not be a standard name for a golf club. Also, the paragraph was unecessary and only an attempt at humor, given it's reference to someone missing a bus and screaming after it. It has been removed. Thunderstorm144 20:08, 29 August 2006 (UTC)

Cleveland golf bad link
The wiki link for Cleveland Golf should be http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleveland_Golf

I don't know how to change it. Do the honors? —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 162.129.251.17 (talk) 17:05, 24 April 2007 (UTC).

Putters
Should something be mentioned about long putters and belly putters?Vince220 22:03, 8 August 2007 (UTC)

Article is too long?
This article is getting a bit long. There is lots of information here, but I'm not sure that an article on general golf equipment should go into as much detail as it does. That being said, the information seems to be very good and for the most part correct (Thanks, Liko81!). So, I propose that the article be split into articles such as Wood (golf), Iron (golf), Shaft (golf), etc. I'd hate to see this information go to waste (either by being reverted or by getting lost in the depth of this article), but I do think that this article's scope is currently too broad. Regards, Rahzel 22:41, 17 October 2007 (UTC)

-- I have to admit the article's getting there. What if this article is generalized to contain only summary information about the construction and function of a golf club that applies to all clubs (which would reduce the article to a third of its current length at least), then create iron (golf), wood (golf), and putter (golf) articles with the specifics of design, construction and purpose for each class. This article will then only need a short paragraph with the barest summary of the class of club and a reference to the main article for each class. The more specialized variations of club (wedges, belly putters) can be sections of their parent type. While players know that hybrids are really a class unto themselves, there isn't a lot of information in the article about them, so I'm hesitant to give them their own article. I think overall their design has more directly in common with woods, so my vote is that "hybrid clubs" becomes a section in the wood (golf) article.Liko81 13:22, 18 October 2007 (UTC)
 * I would agree with this solution. I would even go so far as to say that creating an individual article on Hybrids would not be a bad idea--we could certainly fill it with plenty of information (history of hybrids, similarities and differences to irons/woods, etc).  But I could go along with putting hybrids in with the woods article, as well.  Let's see if anyone else chimes in with opinions, but I think all this sounds pretty reasonable!  Regards, Rahzel 14:43, 18 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Looks like no one else has any bright ideas. If you think you can find enough information on hybrids for it to become its own article, the resulting structure would be more normalized. I will leave that article to you and work on developing irons and woods. Liko81 13:44, 22 October 2007 (UTC)
 * The golf types should have their own articles, while you keep golf club construction and characteristics in the main article. Very simple. JAF1970 17:08, 22 October 2007 (UTC)

Requested move

 * The following discussion is an archived discussion of the proposal. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the proposal was no consensus. JPG-GR (talk) 00:12, 29 April 2008 (UTC)

All the (50?) links to golf club that were intended to be to a non-existent article about golf country clubs should be moved to country club leaving this article only about the equipment, which should be renamed Golf club. I think that when people were say writing about Winged Foot Golf Club and they wrote, Winged Foot Golf Club is a 36-hole golf club they saw the link turn blue and never checked to see that it went to a disambiguation page instead... Come on folks, always check where a link goes! 199.125.109.58 (talk) 06:17, 23 April 2008 (UTC)

 * Oppose the move. Neither the institution nor the piece of equipment is overwhelmingly the common useage. Andrewa (talk) 12:40, 23 April 2008 (UTC)
 * There is not even an article about the institution, other than a one line poorly crafted/erroneously worded stub that was recently created. I'm not sure how you can even consider there to be any comparison between the two. 199.125.109.58 (talk) 20:00, 23 April 2008 (UTC)
 * I admit I'm a bit surprised that the golf club (institution) article is so recent and basic, but it's a start, and there's no reason we shouldn't have one, as we have for yacht club for example. Andrewa (talk) 02:03, 24 April 2008 (UTC)

 * Strong support. I'm not sure why this is even debated. The fact that we have no other article named golf club is an indication of the primary usage. The other kind of golf club is covered by country club and golf course, and the fact that so many erroneous links were made - and it's not as if we're breaking them, they never went to the right place - is not an argument against moving. The way, the truth, and the light (talk) 13:59, 23 April 2008 (UTC)
 * That's a good point - in fixing the links, some were moved to country club and some to golf course, as appropriate. I left the Winged Foot article as an example of what was done wrong. The rest have been fixed. 199.125.109.58 (talk) 20:04, 23 April 2008 (UTC)

 * Oppose per Naming conventions (precision). To me, 'the fact that so many erroneous links were made' indicates the term is ambiguous . --Kusunose 00:34, 24 April 2008 (UTC)
 * The word baseball is ambiguous, but no one would think of using it as a disambiguation page. Same for football, or basketball. It is the responsibility of editors to check to see if a link goes where they think it goes. There weren't that many links that got changed. There were more links to golf club which referred to golf club (equipment) and were not changed, in anticipation of the article being moved. Giving odd names to articles will not help. This article is clearly the primary use of the term golf club - after all it has already been split into four subarticles. 199.125.109.58 (talk) 01:21, 24 April 2008 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the proposal. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

Under "Club Types" heading, why are there two sub-headings labeled "Wedges"?
It seems like they should be combined, or one eliminated. Usuallylogical (talk) 00:21, 29 August 2008 (UTC)

Archaic names
The Club names and attributes section has a lot of redundancies with earlier sections, the distances don't add much, and the misuse of archaic names of clubs is totally unacceptable. The spoon, mashie, and niblick deserve mention in this article, but in a history of golf clubs section, not here. I'm deleting this section, and will write the club history section soon. Eaglebreath (talk) 07:36, 18 November 2008 (UTC)

Questionable physics
"These shafts offer the same flex throughout most of the shaft, in order to attain the "whip" required to propel the ball properly..." Show me the physics behind this sentence! Since golf swing is a constantly accelerating movement through the impact zone there cannot be any whip-like effect. Right? --192.100.124.218 (talk) 12:27, 4 March 2009 (UTC)

grooves do not impart backspin to the ball, it is friction between the ball and clubface which does this. in fact, a grooveless sandblasted wedge can provide greater spin under dry conditions. what the grooves do is to take in liquified grass and mud which is trapped between the ball and clubface at impact, thus maintaining direct contact between the two. this is essentially the same as the treads in a car tyre channelling water away - note that slick tyres are used in races under dry conditions, as they maximise surface area and therefore friction (or grip)93.147.34.155 (talk) 22:10, 18 April 2009 (UTC)

Requested move ('11)

 * The following discussion is an archived discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: page moved per discussion. No article is located at Golf club (institution), and disambiguation is possible via hatnote, so no extra clicks are added for readers seeking Country club. - GTBacchus(talk) 04:29, 23 August 2011 (UTC)

Golf club (equipment) → Golf club – Primary topic. Page views: (equipment) 31,890, (partial topic match) 7,352. A hat note ought to clear up the disambiguation. Marcus  Qwertyus   09:14, 15 August 2011 (UTC)

 * Disagree. I not believe that either Golf Club (an organisation or location for playing golf) or Golf Club (playing equipment) have primacy over the other. In normal use they are distinguished by context - "my golf clubs are at the golf club".WhaleyTim (talk) 10:38, 15 August 2011 (UTC)

 * Support; Golf club (institution) isn't even an article (it's a redirect), making a disambiguation page wholly unnecessary. Just make this the primary topic and have a prominent hatnote to Country club.  Powers T 17:12, 15 August 2011 (UTC)
 * Support. Clear primary topic, as shown by the stats above. Jenks24 (talk) 09:28, 18 August 2011 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

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"Putting wedge" listed at Redirects for discussion
An editor has identified a potential problem with the redirect Putting wedge and has thus listed it for discussion. This discussion will occur at Redirects for discussion/Log/2022 April 4 until a consensus is reached, and readers of this page are welcome to contribute to the discussion. Steel1943 (talk) 20:25, 4 April 2022 (UTC)

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What is golf
what is a golf club 190.108.215.230 (talk) 02:46, 22 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Golf club


text:
Asirgarh Fort

Asirgarh Fort is an Indian fortress (qila) situated in the Satpura Range about 20 km north of the city of Burhanpur, in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. The Asirgarh fort is said to have been built by a king named Asa Ahir in the early 15th century. Because the fortress commands a pass through the Satpuras connecting the valleys of the Narmada and Tapti rivers, one of the most important routes from northern India to the Deccan, it was known as the "key to the Deccan".

History
The Asirgarh fort is said to have been built by a king named Asa Ahir in the early 15th century. He was murdered by Sultan Nasir Khan of Khandesh and was considered as one of the seven unconquerable forts of India. Faroqis ruled over Khandesh from Asirgarh for more than two centuries.

Nasir Khan's descendant Sultan Bahadur Shah (1596–1600) declared his independence and refused to pay homage to the Mughal emperor Akbar and his son Daniyal. Akbar marched towards Burhanpur in 1599 and occupied the city. Akbar then besieged Asirgarh fort and captured it on 17 January 1601 by tricking Bahadur Shah.

During the Second Anglo-Maratha War, on 18October 1803, Company forces took the pettah of Asigarh with a loss of two killed and five wounded. The fort's garrison subsequently surrendered on the 21st after the attackers had erected a battery.

Toward the end of the Third Anglo-Maratha War in early 1819, most Maratha forts had been captured by the British, with the lone holdout being Asirgarh Fort, which was under the command of qiladar Jeswant Rao Lar. In March of that year, a massive British contingent laid siege to Asirgarh, capturing and occupying the town next to the fort to serve as a temporary base of operations. The 1,200-strong garrison was subject to constant artillery bombardments before the British launched an assault, which led to the fort's capture on 9 April. With the capture of Asirgarh Fort, the British victory in the conflict was complete and all military operations ceased.

Architecture
The architecture of the fort is mainly influenced by the Indian architecture, some parts also show Faroqi and Mughal architecture, an amalgamation of Islamic, Persian, Turkish and Indian styles. There are three man made ponds to provide a water supply.

There is a temple known as Gupteshwar Mahadev Mandir, dedicated to the Hindu deity Shiva. There is a local legend that Ashwatthama, a character in the Indian epic Mahābhārata, used to come to this temple to worship and offer flowers each morning to Lord Shiva.

There is a ruined mosque of faroqi era with minarets known as Asir Masjid inside the Fort. Apart from the Hindu and Muslim architecture, some ruins are of British origin and there are also British graves. This fort has been deserted following the departure of the British.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Asirgarh Fort


text:
Britannia Royal Naval College

Britannia Royal Naval College (BRNC), is the naval academy of the United Kingdom and the initial officer training establishment of the Royal Navy. It is located on a hill overlooking the port of Dartmouth, Devon, England. Royal Naval officer training has taken place in Dartmouth since 1863. The buildings of the current campus were completed in 1905. Earlier students lived in two wooden hulks moored in the River Dart. Since 1998, BRNC has been the sole centre for Royal Naval officer training.

History
The training of naval officers at Dartmouth dates from 1863, when the wooden hulk HMS Britannia (1820) was moved from Portland and moored in the River Dart to serve as a base. In 1864, after an influx of new recruits, Britannia was supplemented by HMS Hindostan (1841). Prior to this, a Royal Naval Academy (later Royal Naval College) had operated for more than a century from 1733 to 1837 at Portsmouth, a major naval installation. The original Britannia was replaced by the HMS Prince of Wales (1860) in 1869, which was renamed Britannia.

The foundation stone for a new building at the college was laid by King Edward VII in March 1902. Sir Aston Webb designed the shore-based college at Dartmouth, which was built by Higgs and Hill and practically completed in 1905.

From September 1903, officer cadets first entered the Royal Naval College, Osborne, then after two years transferred to Dartmouth, and the first such intake was in September 1905. The Britannia training establishment was closed at the same time. The cadets under instruction were embarked on two cruisers to complete their programme under the old system. The headquarters of the cruisers was established at Bermuda, where suitable arrangements had been made to house the cadets. The cadets entered in September under the old system, and those entered in January 1906 (the last to be so entered), were received at the Royal Naval College, Dartmouth, where they were instructed, as far as possible, side by side with the cadets transferred from Osborne.

The college was originally known as the Royal Naval College, Dartmouth (RNC). As a Royal Naval shore establishment, it was later known also by the ship name HMS Britannia (a battleship called HMS Britannia (1904) operated from 1904 to 1918). The college was renamed HMS Dartmouth in 1953, when the name Britannia was given to the newly launched royal yacht HMY Britannia. The training ship moored in the River Dart at Sandquay, a Sandown class minehunter formerly known as HMS Cromer (M103), continues to bear the name Hindostan.

Cadets originally joined the Royal Naval College, Osborne, at the age of 13 for two years' study and work before joining Dartmouth. The Royal Naval College, Osborne closed in 1921.

During the Second World War, after six Focke-Wulf aircraft bombed the College in September 1942, students and staff moved activities to Eaton Hall in Cheshire until the autumn of 1946. Two bombs had penetrated the College's main block, causing damage to the quarterdeck and surrounding rooms.

Britannia Royal Naval College became the sole naval college in the United Kingdom following the closures of the Royal Naval Engineering College, Manadon, in 1994 and of the Royal Naval College, Greenwich, in 1998.

In 2020, a group of Junior Rates were trained at BRNC to help alleviate added pressure on HMS Raleigh, after a surge in recruitment. On 13 August 2020, a troop of 34 Ratings and 130 officers passed out simultaneously for the first time in the history of the Royal Navy. They were followed by a second class of Junior Rates who passed out on 17 December 2020.

Entry
Prospective cadets entrants must meet a minimum academic requirement. They then proceed to the Admiralty Interview Board, where they are tested mentally and physically. Several mental aptitude tests are administered, along with a basic physical fitness test and a medical examination. Officer cadets, as they are known until passing out from the college, can join between the ages of 18 and 39. While most cadets join BRNC after finishing university, some join directly from secondary school. The commissioning course is 30 weeks, with Warfare Officers and Aircrew spending a further 19 weeks studying academics at the college. A large contingent of international and Commonwealth students are part of the student body. The Royal Fleet Auxiliary sends its officer cadets to BRNC for a 10-week initial officer training course, before they start at a maritime college.

Ofsted criticism
An Ofsted report on BRNC in 2023 described the college as being filled with "rot and mould". Inspectors also cited unsafe structures, ill-fitting equipment, staff shortages and medical inspection delays. Inspectors noted how windows in some dormitories were boarded over due to rot while "mould is growing on window frames and ceilings".

Dartmouth was rated by Ofsted as inadequate. Amanda Spielman, Ofsted's Chief Inspector, said Dartmouth received the rating due to the poor state of the college's infrastructure which was due to "a lack of investment over many decades".

Royal cadets
King George V and King George VI were naval cadets at Dartmouth. The first "significant encounter" between Prince Philip of Greece and the then Princess Elizabeth took place at Dartmouth in July 1939, where Philip was a naval cadet. Charles III and the Duke of York also attended Dartmouth. The Prince of Wales spent a brief period at the College after leaving Sandhurst as part of his training with all three of Britain's Armed Forces.

Sheikh Mubarak Ali Yousuf Suoud Al-Sabah, a member of the Royal Family of Kuwait, attended the Royal Navy Young Officer Course at Britannia Royal Naval College in 2002. Sheikh Isa bin Salman bin Hamad Al Khalifa, the eldest son of the Crown Prince of Bahrain, also underwent training at BRNC (including time at sea in RN warships) from 2014 to 2015, prior to commencing active service in the Royal Bahrain Naval Force.

Commanders of the college
List below based on listing compiled by historian Colin Mackie; additional references are given in the list.
 * Captain William E. Goodenough: May 1905 – August 1907
 * Captain Trevylyan D. W. Napier: August 1907 – July 1910
 * Captain Hugh Evan-Thomas: July 1910 – July 1912
 * Captain the Hon. Victor A. Stanley: July 1912 – ? 1914
 * Rear-Admiral Trevylyan D. W. Napier: September–December 1914
 * Captain Edmond Hyde Parker: ? 1914 – February 1915
 * Captain Norman C. Palmer: February 1915 – May 1916
 * Rear-Admiral William G. E. Ruck Keene: May 1916 – January 1919
 * Captain Eustace la T. Leatham: February 1919 – February 1921
 * Captain Francis A. Marten: February 1921 – January 1923
 * Captain the Hon. Herbert Meade: January 1923 – February 1926
 * Captain Martin E. Dunbar-Nasmith: February 1926 – February 1929
 * Captain Sidney J. Meyrick: February 1929 – December 1931
 * Captain Norman A. Wodehouse: December 1931 – December 1934
 * Captain Reginald V. Holt: December 1934 – December 1936
 * Captain Frederick H. G. Dalrymple-Hamilton: December 1936 – November 1939
 * Captain Robert L. B. Cunliffe: December 1939 – April 1942
 * Captain Edward A. Aylmer: April 1942 – December 1943
 * Captain Gerald H. Warner: December 1943–?
 * Captain Peveril B. R. W. William-Powlett: January 1946 – February 1948
 * Captain Hugh W. Faulkner: February 1948 – August 1949
 * Captain Norman V. Dickinson: August 1949 – April 1951
 * Captain Richard T. White: April 1951 – August 1953
 * Captain William G. Crawford: August 1953 – April 1956
 * Captain William J. Munn: April 1956 – August 1958
 * Captain Frank H. E. Hopkins: August 1958 – August 1960
 * Captain Horace R. Law: August 1960 – December 1961
 * Captain W. John Parker: December 1961 – September 1963
 * Captain John E. L. Martin: September 1963 – August 1966
 * Captain Ian W. Jamieson: August 1966 – April 1968
 * Captain David Williams: April 1968 – September 1970
 * Captain A. Gordon Tait: September 1970 – August 1972
 * Captain John M. Forbes: August 1972 – September 1974
 * Captain Michael A. Higgs: September 1974 – September 1976
 * Captain Paul W. Greening: September 1976 – October 1978
 * Captain Nicholas J. S. Hunt: October 1978 – June 1980
 * Captain J. Julian R. Oswald: June 1980 – June 1982
 * Captain Timothy M. Bevan: June 1982 – September 1984
 * Captain George M. Tullis: September 1984 – 1987
 * Captain John R. Brigstocke: 1987–89
 * Captain J. Robert Shiffner: 1989–91
 * Captain Richard G. Hastilow: 1991–93
 * Captain Simon Moore: 1993–95
 * Captain (later Commodore) Anthony P. Masterton-Smith: 1995 – January 1998
 * Commodore Roy A. G. Clare: January 1998 – 1999
 * Commodore Mark W. G. Kerr: 1999–2002
 * Commodore C. Anthony Johnstone-Burt: 2002–04
 * Commodore Richard J. Ibbotson: 2004–05
 * Commodore Timothy Harris: 2005 – April 2007
 * Commodore Martin B. Alabaster: April 2007 – September 2008
 * Commodore Jake K. Moores: September 2008 – March 2011
 * Commodore Simon P. Williams: March 2011 – September 2012
 * Captain Jerry Kyd: September 2012 – February 2014
 * Captain Henry Duffy: February 2014 – September 2016
 * Captain Jolyon Woodard: September 2016 – September 2019
 * Captain Roger Readwin: September 2019 – May 2022
 * Captain Sarah Oakley: May 2022 – Dec 2023
 * Captain Andrew Bray: Dec 2023 - Present

title: Britannia Royal Naval College


text:
U.S. Route 331

U.S. Route 331 (US 331) is a spur of U.S. Route 31. It currently runs for 150 mi from Santa Rosa Beach, Florida east of Fort Walton Beach at US 98 to Montgomery, Alabama at US 80 and US 82. Unlike US 131, US 231, and US 431, US 331 never intersects with its "parent" route, US 31; however, the two routes do come within 4 mi of each other in Montgomery.

Florida
U.S. Route 331 begins at U.S. Route 98 in Santa Rosa Beach. From there it runs north towards a long concrete slab bridge over Choctawhatchee Bay.

The bridge ends at Wheeler Point, and the road makes a sharp curve to the northeast where it encounters an intersection with County Road 3280 (CR 3280), and then turns straight north again. Running along the eastern edge of Mallet Bayou, and LaGrange Bayou, the road makes a less drastic northeastern curve at the bridge over Ramsey Branch, and it eventually intersects State Road 20 (SR 20) on the eastern edge of Freeport.

From that point it runs along the eastern edge of Eglin Air Force Base, which includes the Eglin Wildlife Management Area. This territory ends across the street from the intersection of Edgewood Circle. After the intersection with Indian Creek Ranch Road, US 331/SR 83 makes a slight northwest curve to meet the southern end of County Road 278 (Coy Burgess Loop). The road runs straight north from there and becomes a four-lane divided highway as it approaches the north end of CR 278 just south of the interchange with Interstate 10 (I-10) at exit 85. Immediately afterwards, US 331/SR 83 enters the city of DeFuniak Springs.

Within the city, US 331/SR 83 remains a divided highway running in the same trajectory, where the only intersection of any level of importance is CR 280(Bob Sikes Road). After the intersection with Myrtle Avenue, it takes another slight curve to the northeast. Two more local intersections will be encountered before the road runs beneath a bridge for the CSX P&A Subdivision, and a parallel bridge with Baldwin Avenue just before the intersection with U.S. Route 90, where both U.S. Route 331 and SR 83 split into two separate concurrencies; US 331 turns left while SR 83 turns right. US 90/331 curves northwest where it encounters the western terminus of Baldwin Avenue, the very city street it crosses under on the north side of the P&A Subdivision. After this it runs along the same railroad line where it encounters the DeFuniak Springs Country Club, but at the eastern edge of DeFuniak Springs Airport, the concurrency ends as US 90 heads west towards Pensacola, while US 331 turns north onto the two-lane hidden SR 187.

The newly independent US 331 runs straight north for one mile. Shortly after the intersection of Walton Road, US 331 curves slightly to the northwest. This trajectory continues for 1.7 miles until it curves more to the northwest just before the intersection with the western terminus of Sunrise Road which leads to CR 1883. From that point it runs north of Holly Lake and then King Lake, and soon after this serves as the northern terminus of a local street named King Lane Road which leads to a local campground. Continuing in the same direction, the road passes more local dead end streets before crossing a bridge over Gum Creek. then climbs a small hill as it passes by an abandoned farm field and later a dirt road named Andrews Road before approaching the western terminus of CR 192, which also shares an intersection with Doctor Nelson Road.

Entering Liberty the road descends slightly into a minimal valley and begins to curve more westerly after passing by the First Baptist Church, then crosses a bridge over Middle Creek. After the bridge it passes a local dirt road named Harrison Drive. Most of the road is surrounded by forestland, but the woods on the southwest side are thinner because the obstruct some local farmland, interrupted by the clearing for another church on the southwest side of the road. Next door is a local gas station and convenience store, which is across the street from one of three private houses on the northeast corner of the west end of County Road 1084. One more church can be found on the southwest side of the road before it crosses over another bridge over Big Swamp Creek, and another bridge over the Bee Branch between South Hall Road and Williams Road before it starts to curve back to the northwest. The road maintains the same relative trajectory as it passes some farmland and local dead end streets, After passing under a power line right-of-way, US 331 encounters the first intersection and south end of a concurrency with County Road 2, a former segment of State Road 2. Just north of that intersection on the opposite side is the eastern terminus of County Road 2A. Later the road curves around another pond into another angle further to the northwest. The telephone poles along the east side of the street veer off into the woods along a former segment of the road just south of the end of the concurrency with CR 2, after which the road turns straight north. However the straight trajectory doesn't last as long as one might expect as the road curves slightly to the right south of the shared intersection with South Suttles Road and the abandoned Pittman Road and then runs between two ponds before curving back to the left in order to cross a bridge over Long Creek. North of the bridge, it enters Gordon, where it encounters two county roads along the east side, specifically the western terminus of County Road 0605 (Jackson Still Cutoff) and then the southern terminus of County Road 285 which leads to Britton Hill, the highest natural point in the State of Florida.

The road enters the Town of Paxton along some farm fields on both sides of the road, and the first intersection is a private driveway leading northeast to a house on the other side of Quiet Lake. The next intersection is a dirt road to the southwest named Wain Huckabee Road. Only when it approaches a water tower on the grounds of the Ellis Agricultural Field Airport does US 331 get close to a moderately important intersection, specifically the intersection of County Road 147 (Webster Lane), which despite being an odd-numbered route spans west to east from SR 85 west of Paxton to CR 285 north of Britton Hill. Despite being in an incorporated community, the surroundings of US 331 remain relatively agricultural with exceptions of farm-related businesses, and some random schools, churches, residences, local stores, and even the Town Hall, the vicinity of which actually contains a center left-turn lane. US 331 actually begins to curve straight north again between the intersections of South end of Vann Circle and Clear Springs Road and the north end of Vann Circle where it will remain throughout the rest of the state. The last two intersections in Florida are with another loop street, albeit a deformed one named Geohagan Circle. US 331 crosses the Florida-Alabama State line entering Florala, where SR 187 terminates, Alabama State Route 9 begins, and the road itself momentarily becomes a four-lane undivided highway.

Alabama
Once crossing the state line, US 331 immediately enters Florala, where it starts a concurrency with Alabama State Route 54 (SR 54) on the east side of town. The highway continues into downtown Florala, where SR 55 joins the concurrency (this intersection serves as a terminus for SR 54).

US 331 continues northward to Opp, where it becomes concurrent with US 84 as a bypass around the eastern side of town. A business route of US 331 continues northward through town and rejoins US 331 north of Opp, just after US 84 leaves the concurrency with US 331. The highway then continues northward and enters Crenshaw County. It keeps north and into the town of Brantley, where US 29 forms a concurrency with US 331.

The highways continue north into Luverne, where US 29 turns northeast and US 331 turns northwest as they leave town. US 331 soon turns back to the north and passes through several small communities before entering Montgomery County. It passes through several more small communities before entering the southern part of the city of Montgomery. It then intersects the southern bypass of the city (US 80 and US 82). This intersection serves as the northern terminus for US 331.

History
The original version of US 331 traveled along what is now U.S. Route 29 south of Flomaton, Alabama between 1926 and 1936. The current version was revived in 1953.

Beginning in 1956, signs for U.S. Highways in Florida had different colors for each highway. The shield for US 331 was green with white lettering and outline, until the state was forced by the federal government to conform to standards that required consistent black-and-white signs in 1993.

Until 2007, US 331/SR 83 turned left at State Road 20 in Florida in a short concurrency until it reached Madison Street, then traveled north past Owl's Head Road just south of Eglin Air Force Base.

title: U.S. Route 331


text:
Irresistible grace

Irresistible grace (also called effectual grace, effectual calling, or efficacious grace) is a doctrine in Christian theology particularly associated with Calvinism, which teaches that the saving grace of God is effectually applied to those whom he has determined to save (the elect) and, in God's timing, overcomes their resistance to obeying the call of the gospel, bringing them to faith in Christ. It is to be distinguished from prevenient grace, particularly associated with Arminianism, which teaches that the offer of salvation through grace does not act irresistibly in a purely cause-effect, deterministic method, but rather in an influence-and-response fashion that can be both freely accepted and freely denied.

The doctrine
Some claim that fourth-century Church Father Augustine of Hippo taught that God grants those whom he chooses for salvation the gift of persevering grace, and that they could not conceivably fall away. This doctrine gave rise to the doctrine of irresistible grace (gratia irresistibilis), though the term was not used during Augustine's lifetime.

According to Calvinism, those who obtain salvation do so, not by their own "free" will, but because of the sovereign grace of God. That is, men yield to grace, not finally because their consciences were more tender or their faith more tenacious than that of other men. Rather, the willingness and ability to do God's will are evidence of God's own faithfulness to save men from the power and the penalty of sin, and since man is dead in sin and a slave to it, he cannot decide or be wooed to follow after God: God must powerfully intervene by giving him life and irresistibly drawing the sinner to himself. In short, Calvinism argues that regeneration must precede faith. In contrast, Arminianism argues that God’s grace through Jesus Christ stirs up a willingness to know God and respond to the gospel before regeneration; it is how God intervenes that separates Calvinism from Arminianism.

Calvin says of this intervention that "it is not violent, so as to compel men by external force; but still it is a powerful impulse of the Holy Spirit, which makes men willing who formerly were unwilling and reluctant." Despite the denial by Calvin and within the Calvinist confessions John Gill says that "this act of drawing is an act of power, yet not of force; God in drawing of unwilling, makes willing in the day of His power: He enlightens the understanding, bends the will, gives an heart of flesh, sweetly allures by the power of His grace, and engages the soul to come to Christ, and give up itself to Him; he draws with the bands of love. Drawing, though it supposes power and influence, yet not always coaction and force: music draws the ear, love the heart, and pleasure the mind."

Arminian
Christians associated with Arminianism, such as John Wesley and part of the Methodist movement, reject this Calvinist doctrine. They believe that as Adam and Eve were free to choose between right and wrong, humanity is able, as a result of the prevenient or preceding grace of God through Jesus Christ, to choose to turn from sin to righteousness and believe on Jesus Christ who draws all of humanity to himself. And I, if I be lifted up from the earth, will draw all men unto me.undefined In this view, (1) after God's universal dispensation of grace to mankind, the will of man, which was formerly adverse to God and unable to obey, can now choose to obey through the work of Christ; and (2) although God's grace is a strong initial catalyst to effect salvation, it is not irresistible but may be ultimately resisted and rejected by a human being.

Both Calvinism and Arminianism agree that the question of the resistibility of grace is inexorably bound up with the theological system's view of the sovereignty of God. The fundamental question is whether God can allow individuals to accept or reject his grace and yet remain sovereign. If so, then grace can be resistible. If not, then grace must be irresistible.

This different understanding of sovereignty is often attributed to an improper understanding of total depravity. However, both Calvin and Arminius taught total depravity. Total depravity is expressly affirmed in Article III of the Five articles of Remonstrance. Nevertheless, Calvinist Charles Hodge says, "The (Arminian) and (Roman Catholic) doctrine is true, if the other parts of their doctrinal system are true; and it is false if that system be erroneous. If the (Calvinistic) doctrine concerning the natural state of man since the fall, and the sovereignty of God in election, be Scriptural, then it is certain that sufficient grace does not become efficacious from the cooperation of the human will." Hodge's argument follows Calvinist teaching which denies that the work of Jesus Christ empowers humanity to respond to the gospel before regeneration.

Calvinism's rejection of prevenient grace leaves humanity in a state of Total Depravity which requires regeneration of an individual before that individual is capable to believe or repent. John the Baptist called all to his baptism for the remission of sinsundefined and multitudes responded without regeneration.undefined The New Testament regularly calls individuals to repent and believe with no indication that they had been previously regenerated. The Apostle Peter called the Jews to repent and be converted.undefined Jesus promised that the Holy Spirit would convict the world of sin.undefined Calvinism's response is found in Limited Atonement. So as a result of the Calvinist understanding of God's sovereignty, one must conclude that God's election does not depend upon any human response, necessitating a belief in (1) both Total Depravity and Unconditional Election, (2) Irresistible Grace rather than Prevenient Grace, and (3) Limited Atonement; if any of these beliefs are rejected, this logic fails.

Lutheran
Like Calvinists, Lutherans view the work of salvation as monergistic in which an unconverted or unrepentant person always resists and rejects God and his ways. Even during conversion, the Formula of Concord says, humans resist "the Word and will of God, until God awakens him from the death of sin, enlightens and renews him." Furthermore, they both see the preaching of the gospel as a means of grace by which God offers salvation.

Calvinists distinguish between a resistible, outward call to salvation given to all who hear the free offer of the gospel, and an efficacious, inward work by the Holy Spirit. Every person is unwilling to follow the outward call to salvation until, as the Westminster Confession puts it, "being quickened and renewed by the Holy Spirit, he is thereby enabled to answer this call, and to embrace the grace offered and conveyed by it." Once inwardly renewed, every person freely follows God and his ways as "not only the obligatory but the preferable good," and hence that special renewing grace is always effective.

Contrary to the Calvinist position, Lutherans hold that whenever the Holy Spirit works outwardly through the Word and sacraments, it always acts inwardly through them as well. Unlike Calvinists, Lutherans believe the Holy Spirit always works efficaciously. The Word heard by those that resist it is just as efficacious as the Word preached to those that convert. The Formula of Concord teaches that when humans reject the calling of the Holy Spirit, it is not a result of the Word being less efficacious. Instead, contempt for the means of grace is the result of "the perverse will of man, which rejects or perverts the means and instrument of the Holy Ghost, which God offers him through the call, and resists the Holy Ghost, who wishes to be efficacious, and works through the Word..."

Lutherans are certain that the work of the Holy Spirit does not occur merely alongside the means of grace to regenerate, but instead is an integral part of them, always working through them wherever they are found. Lutherans teach that the Holy Spirit limits itself to working only through the means of grace and nowhere else, so that those who reject the means of grace are simultaneously resisting and rejecting the Holy Spirit and the grace it brings.

Biblical passages related to the doctrine
The statement of St. Paul is said to confirm that those whom God effectually calls necessarily come to full salvation: "(T)hose whom (God) predestined He also called, and those whom He called He also justified, and those whom He justified He also glorified" (Romans 8:28, 30). Of course, this confirmation depends upon the belief that when God elected certain individuals for salvation, He either did not know or did not consider who would respond and obey, though the Apostle Peter refers to the "Elect according to the foreknowledge of God the Father, through sanctification of the Spirit, unto obedience and sprinkling of the blood of Jesus Christ".undefined

Calvinists also rely upon several verses from the sixth chapter of the Gospel of John, which contains a record of Jesus' teaching on humanity's abilities and God's activities in salvation, as the central proof text for the Calvinist doctrine:

 * John 6:37, 39: "All that the Father gives me will come to me.... And this is the will of Him who sent me, that I should lose nothing of all that He has given me, but raise it up on the last day."[ESV]
 * John 6:44–45: "No one can come to me unless the Father who sent me draws him.... Everyone who has heard and learned from the Father comes to me."[ESV]
 * John 6:65: "(N)o one can come to me unless it is granted him by the Father."[ESV]

Proponents of Arminianism argue that the word "draw" (Greek: ἕλκω, helkô) as used in John 6:44 does not require the sense of "drag", though Calvinists teach this is the word's usual meaning (as in Jn. 18:10; 21:6; 21:11; Acts 16:19; 21:30; Jas. 2:6). They point to John 12:32 as an example: "And I, when I am lifted up from the earth, will draw all people to myself." Many Arminians interpret this to mean that Jesus draws all people to Himself, but the draw only enables people to come to Him, since, if the call was truly irresistible, then all must come to Christ and be saved. They may also note that in the Septuagint version of Jeremiah 38:13, when Jeremiah is lifted out of the pit where he was left to die, this Greek verb is used for the action which his rescuers performed after he voluntarily secured the ropes under his armpits, and that this rescue was performed in cooperation with Jeremiah's wishes and would have failed if he did not cooperate. Therefore, they may argue, even if the semantics of "draw" are understood in the usual sense, this should only be taken to indicate the source of the power, not the question of whether the person being drawn responds to the drawing, or to indicate that the drawing is done irrespective of their will.

Calvinists argue that (1) the word "draw" should be understood according to its usual semantics in both John 6:44 and 12:32; (2) the word "all" (translated "all people" in verse 12:32) should be taken in the sense of "all kinds of people" rather than "every individual"; and thus (3) the former verse refers to an irresistible internal call to salvation and the latter to the opening of the Kingdom of God to the Gentiles, not a universal, resistible internal call. The argument requires acceptance of either the doctrine of Limited Atonement or universalism, since John 12:32 states that "Jesus will draw all". Some have asserted on this basis that the text of John 6:44 can entail either universalism or Calvinism (inclusive of Limited Atonement), but not Arminianism.

Arminian William Barclay argues that "man's resistance can defeat the pull of God" mentioned in John 6:44, but commentator Leon Morris contends that "(n)ot one of (Barclay's) examples of the verb ('draw') shows the resistance as successful. Indeed we can go further. There is not one example in the New Testament of the use of this verb where the resistance is successful. Always the drawing power is triumphant, as here." Such arguments invite the criticism that Calvinists teach salvation by decree of God rather than justification by faith alone, that they "so zealously sought to guard the free grace of God in salvation that they denied faith any involvement at all in the actual justification of sinners." But even if the drawing power is always triumphant, the ability to resist does not depend upon the meaning of the word "draw" in John 12:32, but on the question what the "draw" is intended to accomplish. Calvinism assumes that persons who Jesus "draws" will be regenerated. Arminianism states that all are drawn to Jesus to be given an enabling grace. "Jesus does not define what 'His drawing' will accomplish in John 12, only that He will do it." Even if the semantics of "draw" are understood in the manner Calvinist's urge, this should only be taken to indicate the sufficiency of the power to draw (they were "not able to draw" as in John 21:6, or they were able to do so as in John 21:11), rather than to define what God does to those He draws. Arminians reject the Calvinist teaching that God draws for the purpose of forced regeneration irrespective of their wishes. Rather Arminians believe God draws all persons to provide all with an ability or enabling to believe, as prevenient grace teaches.

History of the doctrine
In the Catholic Church, debates concerning the respective role of efficacious grace and free will led to the establishment of the Congregatio de Auxiliis at the end of the 16th century by the Pope Clement VIII. The Dominicans insisted on the role of the efficacious grace, but the Jesuits embraced Molinism, which postulated greater liberty in the will. These debates also led to the famous formulary controversy in France which pitted the Jansenists against the Jesuits.

The doctrine is one of the so-called Five points of Calvinism that were defined at the Synod of Dort during the Quinquarticular Controversy with the Arminian Remonstrants, who objected to the general predestinarian scheme of Calvinism, rejecting its denial of free will and its condemnation of the "majority of humanity for the sole purpose of torturing them in hell for all of eternity, and that they never had a choice". In Calvinist churches, the doctrine is most often mentioned in comparisons with other salvific schemes and their respective doctrines about the state of mankind after the Fall, and it is not a common topic for sermons or studies otherwise.

Pro

 * "Of Effectual Calling" from John Gill's Body of Doctrinal Divinity
 * "Concerning Efficacious Grace" by Jonathan Edwards
 * "Efficacious Grace", section 3.14.4 from Charles Hodge's Systematic Theology
 * "On Regeneration", a sermon by Charles Spurgeon
 * "Irresistible Grace" by John Murray
 * "Efficacious Grace", chapter 13 from Loraine Boettner's The Reformed Doctrine of Predestination
 * "Regeneration Precedes Faith" by R. C. Sproul
 * "Irresistible Grace" by John Piper
 * Many articles on irresistible grace by various authors

Con

 * Irresistible grace, WELS Topical Q&A (Confessional Lutheran perspective)
 * Sermon #58: "On Predestination" by John Wesley
 * Sermon #128: "Free Grace" by John Wesley
 * Irresistible Grace
 * Prevenient Grace by Gregory Neal
 * Calvinism and John 6: An Exegetical Response by Steve Witzki
 * Free Grace or Forced Grace? by Steve Witski

title: Irresistible grace


text:
Talk:Cricket/Archive 2

This is a temporary page I have created till I finish working on the cricket article. Please do not edit the temp page. Use this space to suggest modifications. ¶ nichalp | [[User talk:nichalp| Talk ]] 19:35, Aug 9, 2004 (UTC)

ODI history tweak
A good start. I'd suggest some changes to this:

 * A metamorphous of sorts occurred in 1961, when the regulations of the sport were unofficially tweaked so that a match produced an expedited result. This gained widespread popularity and resulted in the birth of one-day international (ODI) matches in 1971. The new avatar was quickly adopted by the governing International Cricket Council in 1971 and the first ODI Cricket World Cup was held in 1975. Since then, at the expense of Test cricket, ODI matches gained mass spectatorship much to the consternation of cricket purists.

"Metamorphosis" is misleading, as it implies a change from the old into the new, rather than expansion to a new form. And "avatar" is a bit esoteric. Also, "purists" is not NPOV - some would claim people who don't like ODIs are old fuddy-duddies. I'd rewrite as:

 * Cricket entered a new era in 1961, when regulations of the sport were tweaked to add a new style of match, that produced a result in a single day's play. This gained widespread popularity and resulted in the birth of one-day international (ODI) matches in 1971. This new form of cricket was quickly adopted by the governing International Cricket Council in 1971 and the first ODI Cricket World Cup was held in 1975. Since then, at the expense of Test cricket, ODI matches have gained massive popularity, much to the consternation of fans who prefer the longer form of the game. As of the early 2000s, however, Test cricket is making a growing resurgence in popularity.

--dmmaus 21:35, 9 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Links
An excellent start. Couple of linking niggles: and I prefer dmmaus's text above, but -- ALoan (Talk) 00:41, 10 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * please refer to 12th century not pipe link as 12th c. - I think this style of piped link is non-standard
 * Edward I is a redirect to Edward I of England so a pipe would be best here - Edward I - and I don't think the "King" is necessary before it
 * I'm not sure the reference to "tweaking" the rules is entirely appropriate - there are just different rules for the new form of the game, as there are for any other form of the game.

11 August
Dmmaus: I'll go with some of your changes. I don't think avatar is esoteric, In my opinion I feel that it fits neatly here. I haven't explained that test cricket lasts for 5 days, that's why I mentioned an expedited result. Since test cricket is the only sport I know of that lasts so long, it would be difficult to explain why it goes on for so long right at the start. Rather, I would mention it later on.

ALoan: Yeah, I'll make the necessary changes in my local file on the niggles. As far as the difference between Tests and ODI cricket, there isn't much to choose by way of rules -- strategies yes, but if you have any objection to the word 'tweaking' please let me know an alternative apposite phrase.

I need to clarify this:
 * 1) One umpire is known as the Square-Leg Umpire, the other is known as?
 * 2) Are there any fielding restriction concerning off side and on sides?
 * 3) After the 15 over limit is up, how many fielders must be inside the 30 yrd circle and how many can be standing at the boundary (I think upto 5)

Please review the new changes. (I know the 'out' bookmark does not work as yet and the picture is absent.) The changes that I have accepted will be made in my local file, not here, and will be added the next day.

Pictures needed:
 * 1) Batsman
 * 2) Ball, bat etc.
 * 3) A closeup pic of a match in progress.

¶ nichalp | [[User talk:nichalp| Talk ]] 19:27, Aug 10, 2004 (UTC)

 * Two things: (1) I think the structure of what you are doing is excellent. This is a much more logical layout of the material than the present page, and it looks like you're proceeding well. (2) I have so many comments about specific things like wording and grammar and so on, that I think the easiest thing is for you to complete your rewrite, and then allow people to copyedit it into better shape. Most notably, I think you're tending to use complicated words (dexter, sinister) where simple ones alone would be just fine (right, left). But please, keep up the good work! --dmmaus 21:32, 10 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * I ought say that I wholeheartedly agree with dmmaus - you are doing an excellent job - well done! - but the new article will need a good copyedit/proofread when you are finished to give it a final polish (trusting that that won't compromise its much more logical structure and fluid phrasing). -- ALoan (Talk) 10:22, 11 Aug 2004 (UTC)

12 August
Thanks :). I have finished the basic editing of the page. Please feel free to correct the grammar and spellings if necessary. Please discuss any major changes instead of changing the text. I have carefully tried to maintain the flow of thought so that there is no information overload and is as fluid as possible (pretty difficult task). I have also uploaded some images as you can see (made in MS word). It may look fudgy and drab, but something is better than nothing.

 * Ok, I need you'll guys to help me out. I cannot proof-read (I'll go insane). Also please correct the See also and Main article. Some are bulleted and some are not. I think it needs consistency. Both the tables I have created are horrible and corrections are needed in its syntax. The tests vs. ODI section can be moved lower down too. In the meantime I will be filling up the new red links.

I suggest that we keep this page for another 3 days, invite people to proof-read & suggest changes, remove the chinks, then only update the main page. ¶ nichalp | [[User talk:nichalp| Talk ]] 19:40, Aug 11, 2004 (UTC)

I've done a big copyedit. I was fairly aggressive in changing sentences, but I've left the structure intact. (I believe "major changes" means things like removing entire sections and rearranging stuff.) The structure is excellent, and I think a bit more polishing of the details will see this be much better than the current page. I've edited more heavily towards the beginning - I got a bit tired near the end and would like to see some more refinement there. One thing in particular I'd like to see is some earlier clarification that Tests and ODIs (which are the main thrust of the article, and that's fine) are not the only form of cricket - at the moment that information is only presented right near the end. I tried to fit it in near the top, but didn't see a good place for it. Anyway, great work nichalp! --dmmaus 01:10, 12 Aug 2004 (UTC)

A few comments: -- Emsworth 01:25, 12 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * In re "Bowling end umpire": I thought the correct form was "bowler's end umpire."
 * "Retired hurt/ Retired out": I've also heard of the terminology "Retired not out" for the former; which is official?
 * Bouncers: The rule was formerly 2 per over per batsman in tests. Has this been changed to 2 per batsman?
 * Should we not put "Dismissal of a batsman" and "Scoring runs" under "Play of the game"?

--dmmaus 04:37, 12 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Mmmm, yes... I think "Scoring Runs" should be merged into "Batting" and "Dismissal of a batsman" into "Bowling", both under "Play of the game"; and move "Tests vs ODIs" below the entire "Play of the game" section, in fact right down to inside the "Forms of the game" section, perhaps even remove it entirely and let the individual Test and ODI articles deal with the differences. That removes the bouncer issue, for one - which is really a playing condition, not a Law, anyway. That would make the article structure flow better I think.
 * "bowling end"/"bowler's end" - I don't think it matters much. It's an informal term - the Laws only refer to "the umpire at the bowler's end" and "the umpire at the striker's end". Perhaps "bowler's end" is more usual.
 * "Retired not out" is the term used in the Laws, but "retired hurt" is much more common in everyday usage.

 * I've added my 2d of copyedit. Nichalp's structure is great - it flows much better than the current page.  And I thought the diagrams were fine - perhaps I am not a diagram person!  My main concern is to make sure that the current content that is not replicated here is copied somewhere - I presume that this will happen when the new pages' red links are filled in?

 * I broadly agree with most of Emsworth's comments and dmmaus's replies:
 * yes, but both terms are used
 * "retired not out" is the official term but "retired hurt" is the term that virtually everyone uses in practice
 * Still two per batsman per over, I think
 * Yes, provided it does not unbalance that section too much.
 * -- ALoan (Talk) 10:12, 12 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Okay, then I propose the following structure: -- Emsworth 18:38, 12 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * 1) History
 * 2) Objective
 * 3) Playing field
 * 4) Pitch
 * 5) Wickets
 * 6) Creases
 * 7) Field placements
 * 8) Players - mention different roles (batsman, bowler, keeper, fielder, runner, sub, captain)
 * 9) Officials
 * 10) Play of the game - include some info now in the section "match structure"
 * 11) The toss
 * 12) Innings and overs - include brief explanation of test/ ODI diff.
 * 13) Batting - include extras, penalty runs
 * 14) Bowling - include info on dismissal of batsmen, also method of bowling; no-balls/ wides
 * 15) Fielding and keeping - include info on fielding restrictions; rules on keeper's movement, etc.
 * 16) Victory - include info now in the section "Victory margin"
 * 17) International structure - ICC, Australia's dominance, etc.
 * 18) Forms of cricket - ''more detail on test/ ODI diff.
 * 19) See also/ References/ Links, etc.

Why is this article here?
Why isn't this at Cricket (sport)/temp? RickK 20:05, Aug 12, 2004 (UTC)

 * Good point - see my recent comment on Talk:Cricket. -- ALoan (Talk) 20:11, 12 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * Although it is a faux pas, the page will be having a short life, so no harm done. ¶ nichalp | [[User talk:nichalp| Talk ]] 20:18, Aug 12, 2004 (UTC)

13 Aug
Glad to see that the loose bricks have been cemented. Here are some reverts that I have carried out:
 * 1) The pitch is predominantly clay - Many pitches in India lack any sort of grass -- I've corrected that.
 * 2) ODI cricket in the beginning. I have edited to expedited result. Reason: A person without any knowledge of this sport would be puzzled as to why the match finishes "in a day" as all other sports finish in a day. I've changed it so that that person gets a basic idea that a ODI match finshes a lot quicker than a test match. The duration of the two are mentioned later.
 * 3) Origin of the name deserves a seperate heading for clarity or the history will look too bulky.

The left aligned images look hideous. Please change it. I have included some text on batting strategy in the batting talk page. I need it to be merged. I will also be filling the remainder of the red links tomorrow. ¶ nichalp | [[User talk:nichalp| Talk ]] 20:16, Aug 12, 2004 (UTC)

Reverts 1 and 2 are okay. I disagree about the "Origin of the name" section being separate. I now think it should be removed completely, since it's covered in detail in the main History of cricket article, and a separate section for it is really tangential to the point of this article and adds overall bulk. I also like Emsworth's suggested restructure of the sections, listed above, which addresses the concerns I had in my last message. --dmmaus 23:02, 12 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Oh, and as for the left-aligned images - they look better that way than staggered next of each other at the right. The problem is there are too many images used in a short space of text. It might be better to combine some of the images into one: the pitch and wicket for example. Or else make the thumbnails smaller. --dmmaus 23:05, 12 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Might I ask what the source of the images is? If this article is to become a featured article, and even otherwise, images need to indicate their sources and licences or copyright status. -- Emsworth 01:13, 13 Aug 2004 (UTC)

15 August
The images are GFDL, created by me, although I have not explicitly stated due to lack of available time. I think the name origins should be there as it tells us on how the sport originated. The history article has the detailed explaination no doubt, but all matter relevent to the sport should have a separate sub heading. I agree with the point about the left aligned images, but the current image of the wicket, squeezes the sub heading which looks awful.

I need copyediting of the new pages I have created.
 * 1) runs
 * 2) end of an innings
 * 3) bowling strategy
 * 4) fielding strategy
 * 5) captain
 * 6) runner
 * 7) retired hurt
 * 8) types of bowlers
 * 9) scoring runs in cricket

I will also be adding to the toss article. PS. I may not be online tomorrow. ¶ nichalp | [[User talk:nichalp| Talk ]] 19:48, Aug 14, 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Cricket/Archive 2


text:
U.S. Route 431

U.S. Route 431 (US 431) is a spur of U.S. Route 31. It currently travels for approximately 556 mi from US 231/Alabama State Route 210 and US 231 Business (US 231 Bus.) and US 431 Bus. in Dothan, Alabama, to Owensboro, Kentucky, at US 60 and Kentucky Route 2831. The major cities US 431 connects to (from south to north) are Dothan and Huntsville, Alabama, Franklin and Nashville, Tennessee, and Owensboro, Kentucky.

Alabama
U.S. 431 is paired with unsigned State Route1 throughout almost all of Alabama, with the exception of Dothan, where it is paired with signed State Route 210 around the eastern portion of the bypass named Ross Clark Circle. There is also a business route through downtown Dothan signed as Business US 431 and locally known as Reeves Street which runs into Business US 231. The two routes are signed concurrently through downtown and known locally as N. Oates Street north of Main Street (Business US 84) and S. Oates Street south of Main Street. The southern terminus of US 431 is at the intersection of US 231 and the business spurs on the south side of Ross Clark Circle. Along with US 84 and US 231, all three routes form the Ross Clark Circle, which is also a beltway around Dothan while their business routes go through the city, though the beltway is not officially designated as such.

The route takes a rather meandering path through southeast Alabama. It heads in a northeast direction to pass through Phenix City near the Georgia state line, then cuts back to the west to pass through Opelika; the portion between Phenix City and Opelika is concurrent with U.S. Route 280. From Opelika, US 431 swings back and forth between northwest and northeast as it works its way through the southern extent of the Appalachian Mountains, then turning northwest to pass through Talladega National Forest, arriving at a junction with Interstate 20 a few miles east of Oxford. The combined routes travel westward from Exit 191 into Oxford, where US 431 splits off at Exit 188 and heads northward through Oxford and the adjacent city of Anniston; through this section the route is named Veterans Memorial Parkway.

From Anniston, US 431 heads northwards towards Gadsden. In East Gadsden, it combines with U.S. Route 278; the combined route passes westward through Gadsden and Attalla before splitting just northwest of Attalla. This route is named Meighan Boulevard in Gadsden and Fifth Avenue in Attalla until reaching US 11. In downtown Attalla, the route shares a brief wrong-way concurrency with US 11. West of Attalla, US 431 again turns to the northwest. At Guntersville, it joins with Alabama State Route 79. Through downtown Guntersville the route is divided into two separate one-way streets; the northbound street is named Blount Avenue, and the southbound street is Gunter Avenue. At the northern edge of Guntersville, the split streets combine and the joint route crosses the Tennessee River via the George S. Houston Bridge, before US 431 splits off and again heads in a northwest direction.

At Huntsville, US 431 passes over Monte Sano Mountain and through Huntsville's medical district before reaching Memorial Parkway; this portion of the route forms a portion of Governors Drive. At the Parkway, the route joins with U.S. Route 231; the combined routes then travel northward to the Tennessee state line.

Tennessee

A few miles north of the state line, in Fayetteville, US 231 and 431 split again, with 431 heading northwest in combination with State Route 50. In the town of Petersburg, the combined route briefly joins with State Route 129; the trio head a few miles northwest before SR-129 splits off to the west. From here, US 431/SR 50 travels through mountainous and largely undeveloped territory in south central Tennessee until arriving in Lewisburg. On the east side of Lewisburg, it joins with U.S. Route 31A; the combined routes form part of a bypass around the eastern side of Lewisburg. This portion is named Ellington Parkway, and it forms brief unions with State Routes 272 and 11, plus a longer-lasting combination with State Route 106. Meanwhile, SR 50 splits off to travel through downtown Lewisburg, rejoining US 431 on the north side of town.

On the north side of Lewisburg, US 31A splits off, and then a few miles later SR-50 splits off, while US 431 and SR-106 jointly continue north. The route pair, variously known through this section as Lewisburg Pike or Franklin Pike, eventually passes underneath Interstate 65 to enter the town of Franklin. Continuing north, the route pair passes through the exclusive Nashville subdivision of Brentwood before entering Nashville proper. The route skirts the campus of Vanderbilt University before entering downtown Nashville from the southwest. Crossing under Interstate 40 (where SR-106 ends), the route follows Broadway to its intersection with Rosa L. Parks Boulevard. Here the route makes a left turn towards the northwest, joining with U.S. Route 31 and U.S. Route 41 and several state routes. The route snakes around the state capitol and crosses the Cumberland River going northwest as James Robertson Parkway. In east Nashville, the route crosses under Interstate 24, then follows Spring Street and then Dickerson Pike northward.

At Whites Creek Pike, US 431 splits off from the other routes, heading westward back across north Nashville and then north out of Nashville. In combination with State Route 65, it heads to Springfield, where it again joins with US-41 and SR-11. The combined routes pass north through Springfield, and then US-431/SR-65 split off and head north to the Kentucky state line.

Kentucky

U.S. 431 enters Kentucky south of Adairville, where it runs north into Russellville. It continues through Russellville northbound where many new re-construction projects have widened it to a four-lane highway. U.S. 431 continues its northward journey passing through many small towns when it enters Drakesboro, after which it follows most of its original route into Central City. In Central City, U.S. 431 has a cloverleaf intersection (a former toll plaza when the parkway was toll) with the Western Kentucky Parkway. The route continues north and intersects with U.S. 62 where it then parallels the route in a westerly direction to a western bypass around the central business district of Central City, in which city it is named in honor of the Everly Brothers, locally-born prominent singers. U.S. 431 turns north at the Kentucky Route 189 and U.S. 62 bypass and continues on through many small farming communities of Muhlenberg and McLean counties. After bisecting many rural rolling hills and farms of the Western Coal Fields as well as crossing through river lowlands of the Ohio Valley on its journey to Daviess County, it enters the city of Owensboro as a four-lane highway and one of the main arterial roads into the city. Many shopping centers line its outer reaches in Owensboro.

As of mid-2010, U.S. 431 now officially terminates at the former US 60 By-Pass (Wendell H. Ford Expressway) on Owensboro's south side, following AASHTO's approval of Kentucky's renumbering of the US 60 By-Pass as simply U.S. 60. The former route of U.S. 60 through downtown Owensboro (Second and Fourth streets) is to be turned over to the city and made more "pedestrian-friendly" as part of the city's latest downtown revitalization plan.

In early 2011, the Kentucky Transportation Cabinet renumbered the former section of U.S. 431 from US 60 to Fifth Street in Owensboro as Kentucky Route 2831.

A small portion of U.S. 431 is famous for a unique reason. U.S. 431 crosses the Green River in McLean County, Kentucky. It is at that crossing in the city of Livermore that U.S. 431 crosses two rivers and also crosses into Ohio County before completing the river crossing back in McLean County. This is the only known crossing of this type in the United States: a road starts in one county, crosses two separate rivers, crosses a sliver of land within another county, and then terminates the bridge crossing in the original county it started in. This special feature is marked by a state historical marker on both approach ends of the bridge.

Original U.S. Route 241
U.S. Route 241 (US 241) was formed in 1930. It went from US 231 in Dothan, Alabama to US 41 in Murfreesboro, Tennessee. The route of the highway went north from Phenix City to Opelika. From there, it traveled north through Alexander City, Goodwater, Sylacauga, and Talladega before entering Oxford. It also went north through Anniston, Gadsden, Boaz, Albertville and Guntersville (on what is now SR 205). It then went through New Hope, and Owens Cross Roads (on a road currently named "Old Highway 431") before reaching its former northern terminus in Huntsville. Around 1952, the terminus was truncated and the route was extended north, entering Tennessee and went through Fayetteville and ended up in Shelbyville.

In 1953, US 241 was decommissioned. However, since US 431 was being extended northward from Alabama and into Tennessee and Kentucky. The lost section from Oxford to Huntsville gained the US 431 designation. The route was then later redesignated along SR 37 route, through Opelika, Alexander, Goodwater, Sylacauga, and Talladega. However, the Sylacauga to Opelika section of the original highway did gain the US 280 designation. From Opelika to Phenix City, the final section of the decommissioned US 241 gained the US 431 designation.

Kentucky Route
US 431 from South Carrollton to Owensboro was originally signed as Kentucky Route 75 (KY 75) from its 1929 establishment until US 431 replaced the designation in 1953. KY 81 was also once designated to travel on US 431's course from South Carrollton to the Tennessee state line until 1953. In Central City, the highway was rerouted from its original alignment to the former Kentucky Route 189 bypass. The original alignment is now designated as Kentucky Route 1031. In the city of Russellville, the original alignment was redesignated to Kentucky Route 3519 in the mid-2000s and US 431 was rerouted onto the northwest quadrant of the Russellville Bypass.

Major intersections

 * Alabama
 * in Dothan
 * in Dothan. The highways travel concurrently through Dothan.
 * in Eufaula. The highways travel concurrently through Eufaula.
 * in Phenix City. The highways travel concurrently to Opelika.
 * in Phenix City. The highways travel concurrently through Phenix City.
 * in Opelika
 * east of Oxford. The highways travel concurrently into Oxford.
 * in Oxford
 * in Gadsden. The highways travel concurrently to northwest of Attalla.
 * in Gadsden
 * in Attalla
 * in Attalla. The highways travel concurrently through Attalla.
 * in Huntsville. The highways travel concurrently to Fayetteville, Tennessee.
 * in Huntsville
 * in Huntsville. The highways travel concurrently through Huntsville.

 * Tennessee
 * in Fayetteville
 * in Franklin. The highways travel concurrently through Franklin.
 * in Nashville
 * in Nashville. The highways travel concurrently through Nashville.
 * in Nashville. The highways travel concurrently through Nashville.
 * in Nashville. US 31/US 41/US 431 travels concurrently through Nashville.
 * in Nashville
 * in Nashville. US 31W/US 431 travels concurrently through Nashville.
 * in Nashville
 * in Nashville
 * in Springfield. The highways travel concurrently through Springfield.

 * Kentucky
 * in Russellville
 * in Russellville. The highways travel concurrently through Russellville.
 * in Central City
 * in Central City
 * in Owensboro

title: U.S. Route 431


text:
Funnelbeaker culture

The Funnel(-neck-)beaker culture, in short TRB or TBK (Trichter(-rand-)becherkultur, Trechterbekercultuur; Tragtbægerkultur; c. 4300–2800 BCE), was an archaeological culture in north-central Europe. It developed as a technological merger of local neolithic and mesolithic techno-complexes between the lower Elbe and middle Vistula rivers. These predecessors were the (Danubian) Lengyel-influenced Stroke-ornamented ware culture (STK) groups/Late Lengyel and Baden-Boleráz in the southeast, Rössen groups in the southwest and the Ertebølle-Ellerbek groups in the north. The TRB introduced farming and husbandry as major food sources to the pottery-using hunter-gatherers north of this line.

The TRB techno-complex is divided into a northern group including modern northern Germany and southern Scandinavia (TRB-N, roughly the area that previously belonged to the Ertebølle-Ellerbek complex), a western group in the Netherlands between the Zuiderzee and lower Elbe that originated in the Swifterbant culture, an eastern group centered on the Vistula catchment, roughly ranging from Oder to Bug, and south-central groups (TRB-MES, Altmark) around the middle and upper Elbe and Saale. Especially in the southern and eastern groups, local sequences of variants emerged. In the late 4th millennium BCE, the Globular Amphora culture (GAC) replaced most of the eastern and subsequently also the southern TRB groups, reducing the TRB area to modern northern Germany and southern Scandinavia.

The younger TRB in these areas was superseded by the Single Grave culture (EGK) at about 2800 BCE. The north-central European megaliths were built primarily during the TRB era.

Nomenclature
The Funnelbeaker culture is named for its characteristic ceramics, beakers and amphorae with funnel-shaped tops, which were found in dolmen burials.

History

The Funnelbeaker culture emerged in northern modern-day Germany c. 4100 BCE. Archaeological evidence strongly suggests that it originated through a migration of colonists from the Michelsberg culture of Central Europe. The Michelsberg culture is archaeologically and genetically strongly differentiated from the preceding post-Linear Pottery cultures of Central Europe, being distinguished by increased levels of hunter-gatherer ancestry. Its people were probably descended from farmers migrating into Central Europe out of Iberia and modern-day France, who in turn were descended from farmers of the Cardial Ware cultures who had migrated westwards from the Balkans along the Mediterranean coast. Connections between the Funnelbeakers and these farmers of the Atlantic coast is supported by genetic evidence.

After its establishment, the Funnelbeaker culture rapidly spread into southern Scandinavia and Poland, in what appears to have been a well-organized colonizing venture. In southern Scandinavia it replaced the Ertebølle culture, which had maintained a Mesolithic lifestyle for about 1500 years after farming arrived in Central Europe. The emergence of the Neolithic British Isles through maritime colonization by Michelsberg-related groups occurred almost at the same time as the expansion of the Funnelbeaker culture into Scandinavia, suggesting that these events may be connected. Although they were largely of Early European Farmer (EEF) descent, people of the Funnelbeaker culture had a relatively high amount of hunter-gatherer admixture, particularly in Scandinavia, suggesting that hunter-gatherer populations were partially incorporated into it during its expansion into this region. People of the Funnelbeaker culture often had between 30% and 50% hunter-gatherer ancestry depending on the region.

During later phases of the Neolithic, the Funnelbeaker culture re-expanded out of Scandinavia southwards into Central Europe, establishing several regional varieties. This expansion appears to have been accompanied by significant human migration. The southward expansion of the Funnelbeaker culture was accompanied by a substantial increase in hunter-gatherer lineages in Central Europe. The Funnelbeaker communities in Central Europe which emerged were probably quite genetically and ethnically mixed, and archaeological evidence suggests that they were relatively violent.

From the middle of the 4th millennium BCE, the Funnelbeaker culture was gradually replaced by the Globular Amphora culture on its southeastern fringes, and began to decline in Scandinavia.

In the early 3rd millennium BCE, the Corded Ware culture appeared in Northern Europe. Its peoples were of marked steppe-related ancestry and traced their origins in cultures further east. This period is distinguished by the construction of numerous defensive palisades in Funnelbeaker territory, which may be a sign of violent conflict between the Funnelbeakers, Corded Ware, and Pitted Ware. By 2650 BCE, the Funnelbeaker culture had been replaced by the Corded Ware culture. Genetic studies suggest that Funnelbeaker women were incorporated into the Corded Ware culture through intermixing with incoming Corded Ware males, and that people of the Corded Ware culture continued to use Funnelbeaker megaliths as burial grounds. Subsequent cultures of Late Neolithic, Bronze Age, and Iron Age Central Europe display strong maternal genetic affinity with the Funnelbeaker culture.

Distribution
The TRB ranges from the Elbe catchment in Germany and Bohemia with a western extension into the Netherlands, to southern Scandinavia (Denmark up to Uppland in Sweden and the Oslofjord in Norway) in the north, and to the Vistula catchment in Poland and the area between Dnister and Western Bug headwaters in Ukraine in the east.

Variants of the Funnelbeaker culture in or near the Elbe catchment area include the Tiefstich pottery group in northern Germany as well as the cultures of the Baalberge group (TRB-MES II and III; MES = Mittelelbe-Saale), the Salzmünde and Walternienburg and Bernburg (all TRB-MES IV) whose centres were in Saxony-Anhalt.

Settlements
With the exception of some inland settlements such as the Alvastra pile-dwelling, the settlements are located near those of the previous Ertebølle culture on the coast. It was characterized by single-family daubed houses c. 12 m x 6 m.

Economy
The Funnelbeaker culture was dominated by animal husbandry of sheep, cattle, pigs and goats, but there was also hunting and fishing. Primitive wheat and barley was grown on small patches that were fast depleted, due to which the population frequently moved small distances. There was also mining (in the Malmö region) and collection of flintstone (Świętokrzyskie Mountains), which was traded into regions lacking the stone, such as the Scandinavian hinterland. The culture used copper from Silesia, especially daggers and axes.

Technology
The Funnelbeaker Culture preserves the oldest dated evidence of wheeled vehicles in middle Europe. One example is the engraving on a ceramic tureen from Bronocice in Poland on the northern edge of the Beskidy Mountains (northern Carpathian ring), which is indirectly dated to the time span from 3636 to 3373 BCE and is the oldest evidence for covered carriages in Central Europe. They were drawn by cattle, presumably oxen whose remains were found with the pot. Today it is housed in the Archaeological Museum of Cracow (Muzeum Archeologiczne w Krakowie), Poland.

At Flintbek in northern Germany cart tracks dating from c. 3400 BCE were discovered underneath a megalithic long barrow. This is the earliest known direct evidence for wheeled vehicles in the world (i.e. not models or images).

Graves

Houses were centered on a monumental grave, a symbol of social cohesion. Burial practices were varied depending on region and changed over time. Inhumation seems to have been the rule.

The oldest graves consisted of wooden chambered cairns inside long barrows, but were later made in the form of passage graves and dolmens. Originally, the structures were probably covered with a mound of earth and the entrance was blocked by a stone.

The Funnelbeaker culture marks the appearance of megalithic tombs at the coasts of the Baltic and of the North sea, an example of which are the Sieben Steinhäuser in northern Germany. The megalithic structures of Ireland, France and Portugal are somewhat older and have been connected to earlier archeological cultures of those areas. At graves, the people sacrificed ceramic vessels that contained food along with amber jewelry and flint-axes.

Religion
Flint-axes and vessels were also deposited in streams and lakes near the farmlands, and virtually all of Sweden's 10,000 flint axes that have been found from this culture were probably sacrificed in water. They also constructed large cult centres surrounded by pales, earthworks and moats. The largest one is found at Sarup on Fyn. It comprises 85,000 m2 and is estimated to have taken 8000 workdays. Another cult centre at Stävie near Lund comprises 30,000 m2.

Ethnicity
In the context of the Kurgan hypothesis (or steppe hypothesis), the culture is seen as non-Indo-European, representing a culture of Neolithic origin, as opposed to the Indo-European-language-speaking peoples (see Yamna culture) who later intruded from the east.

Marija Gimbutas postulated that the political relationship between the aboriginal and intrusive cultures resulted in quick and smooth cultural morphosis into the Corded Ware culture.

In the past, a number of other archaeologists proposed that the Corded Ware culture was a purely local development of the Funnelbeaker culture, but genetic evidence has since demonstrated that this was not the case.

Genetics
All genetic finds in the following are assigned to the Funnelbeaker (TrB) culture.

examined 3 skeletons from Gökhem, Sweden which belonged to the maternal haplogroups H, J and T.

examined another skeleton from Gökhem, Sweden. He was found to be a carrier of the maternal haplogroup H. He was mostly genetically similar to modern Southern Europeans, while people of the Pitted Ware culture and other hunter-gatherers examined were found to be most genetically similar to modern Northern Europeans.

found that the Funnelbeaker culture of Scandinavia had a higher amount of hunter-gatherer maternal lineages than other cultures of Middle Neolithic Europe. They also found that the emergence of the Bernburg culture, a late variant of the Funnelbeaker culture in Central Europe, was accompanied by a genetic shift towards the population of Northern Europe, which was detected by significantly increased amount of hunter-gatherer lineages.

again examined 3 skeletons from Gökhem, Sweden c. 5050-4750 BCE. The 3 samples belonged to the maternal haplogroups H1c, K1e and H24. The study found hunter-gatherer admixture among the Funnelbeakers, but no evidence of Funnebeaker admixture among the Pitted Ware.

examined 9 skeletons from Resmo, Sweden and Gökhem, Sweden c. 3300-2600 BCE. The 8 samples of mtDNA extracted belonged to various subtypes of maternal haplogroup J, H/R, N, K and T. The examined Funnelbeakers were closely related to Central European farmers, and different from people of the contemporary Pitted Ware culture. The striking diversity of the maternal lineages suggested that maternal kinship was of little importance in Funnelbeaker society. The evidence suggested that the Neolithization of Scandinavia was accompanied by significant human migration.

analysed 3 skeletons of the Baalberge group of the Funnelbeaker culture. Two samples belonged to Y-haplogroup I and R1b1a, while the 3 samples of mtDNA belonged to haplogroup H1e1a, HV and T2e1. A male of the Salzmünde/Bernburg groups of the Funnelbeaker culture buried in Esperstedt, c. 3360-3086 BCE carried the Y-haplogroup I2a1b1a1 and the maternal haplogroup T2b.

examined 3 skeletons ascribed to the Salzmünde group of the Funnelbeaker culture. The 2 samples belonged to Y-haplogroup G2a2a1 and IJK, while the 3 samples of mtDNA extracted belonged to haplogroup H2 (2 samples) and U3a1.

examined an early Funnelbeaker female skeleton from Kvärlöv, Sweden ca. 3945–3647 BCE. She carried maternal haplogroup T2b. She was closely related to people of the Linear Pottery culture, but with increased level of hunter-gatherer admixture, which is comparable to other Middle Neolithic and Chalcolithic farmers of Europe. Genetic continuity with later Funnelbeaker samples was detected. Her hunter-gatherer admixture appeared to have been derived from a Western Hunter-Gatherer (WHG) or Baltic Hunter-Gatherer source rather than a Scandinavian Hunter-Gatherer (SHG) source. Slight traces of Funnelbeaker ancestry was detected among the Pitted Ware culture (PWC).

examined 9 skeletons from a megalith in Ansarve on the island of Gotland, Sweden c. 3500-2580 BCE. The 4 samples Y-haplogroups I2a1b1a1 (3 samples) and I2a1b, while the 9 samples of mtDNA belonged to the maternal haplogroups K1a, K1a2b, T2b8, J1c5, HV0a, J1c8a and K2b1a (2 samples). They were found to be mostly of Early European Farmer (EEF) descent, but with significant hunter-gatherer ancestry, which appeared to be primarily male-derived. Their paternal lineage I is of hunter-gatherer origin, and people examined from contemporary megaliths in other parts of western Europe also belonged to this lineage. The uniformity of the paternal lineages suggested that these peoples belonged to a patrilineal and socially stratified society. They were found to be more closely related peoples of Neolithic Britain than peoples of Neolithic Central Europe, suggesting that they derived much of their ancestry from people who migrated along the European Atlantic coast.

examined 2 skeletons from Rössberga, Östergötland, Sweden c. 3330-2920 BCE. The 1 sample Y-haplogroup IJ-M429*, while the 2 samples of mtDNA extracted belonged to haplogroup J1c5 and U3a’c. They were found to be genetically related to Central European farmers of the Middle Neolithic, and were clearly differentiated from people of the contemporary Pitted Ware culture and the succeeding Battle Axe culture. People buried in Funnelbeaker megaliths during the time of the Battle Axe culture were found to be most closely related to Battle Axe people. Traces of Funnelbeaker admixture was however detected among the Battle Axe people. The evidence suggested that the Battle Axe culture entered Scandinavia through a migration from Eastern Europe, after which Battle Axe males mixed with Funnelbeaker females.

found that the Funnelbeaker culture was mostly of Early European Farmer (EEF) ancestry. Among Funnelbeakers in Scandinavia, hunter-gatherer ancestry was estimated to be at about 50%, while in Central Europe it was at about 40%, with the remaining being EEF. Samples from the latest phases of the Funnelbeaker culture contained higher amounts of hunter-gatherer ancestry. The hunter-gatherers of the Pitted Ware culture, who displaced the Funnelbeakers throughout the coasts of southern Scandinavia, were found to carry slight amount of Funnelbeaker admixture.

A 2024 study found that the Funnelbeaker culture population was of Neolithic Anatolian origin and replaced the previous hunter-gatherer population without much geneflow. The Neolithic Funnelbeaker population persisted for around 1,000 years until people with Steppe-derived ancestry started to arrive from Eastern Europe.

title: Funnelbeaker culture


text:
Neutral good

In economics, neutral goods refers either to goods whose demand is independent of income, or those that have no change on the consumer's utility when consumed.

Under the first definition, neutral goods have substitution effects but not income effects. Examples of this include prescription medicines such as insulin for diabetics. An individual's income may vary, but their consumption of vital medicines remains constant.

The second definition says that a good is neutral if the consumer is ambivalent towards its consumption. That is, the consumption of that good neither increases nor decreases the consumer's utility. For example, if a consumer likes texting, but is neutral about the data package on his phone contract, then increasing the data allowance does not alter his utility. An indifference curve—constructed with data allowance on the Y axis and text allowance is on the X axis forms a vertical line.

title: Neutral good


text: File:Right.railswitch.jpg

title: File:Right.railswitch.jpg


text:
Ludics

In proof theory, ludics is an analysis of the principles governing inference rules of mathematical logic. Key features of ludics include notion of compound connectives, using a technique known as focusing or focalisation (invented by the computer scientist Jean-Marc Andreoli), and its use of locations or loci over a base instead of propositions.

More precisely, ludics tries to retrieve known logical connectives and proof behaviours by following the paradigm of interactive computation, similarly to what is done in game semantics to which it is closely related. By abstracting the notion of formulae and focusing on their concrete uses—that is distinct occurrences—it provides an abstract syntax for computer science, as loci can be seen as pointers on memory.

The primary achievement of ludics is the discovery of a relationship between two natural, but distinct notions of type, or proposition.

The first view, which might be termed the proof-theoretic or Gentzen-style interpretation of propositions, says that the meaning of a proposition arises from its introduction and elimination rules. Focalization refines this viewpoint by distinguishing between positive propositions, whose meaning arises from their introduction rules, and negative propositions, whose meaning arises from their elimination rules. In focused calculi, it is possible to define positive connectives by giving only their introduction rules, with the shape of the elimination rules being forced by this choice. (Symmetrically, negative connectives can be defined in focused calculi by giving only the elimination rules, with the introduction rules forced by this choice.)

The second view, which might be termed the computational or Brouwer–Heyting–Kolmogorov interpretation of propositions, takes the view that we fix a computational system up front, and then give a realizability interpretation of propositions to give them constructive content. For example, a realizer for the proposition "A implies B" is a computable function that takes a realizer for A, and uses it to compute a realizer for B. Realizability models characterize realizers for propositions in terms of their visible behavior, and not in terms of their internal structure.

Girard shows that for second-order affine linear logic, given a computational system with nontermination and error stops as effects, realizability and focalization give the same meaning to types.

Ludics was proposed by the logician Jean-Yves Girard. His paper introducing ludics, Locus solum: from the rules of logic to the logic of rules, has some features that may be seen as eccentric for a publication in mathematical logic (such as illustrations of skunks). It has to be noted that the intent of these features is to enforce the point of view of Jean-Yves Girard at the time of its writing. And, thus, it offers to readers the possibility to understand ludics independently of their backgrounds.

title: Ludics