text:
French India

French India, formally the Établissements français dans l'Inde (French Settlements in India), was a French colony comprising five geographically separated enclaves on the Indian subcontinent that had initially been factories of the French East India Company. They were de facto incorporated into the Republic of India in 1950 and 1954. The enclaves were Pondichéry, Karikal, Yanam on the Coromandel Coast, Mahé on the Malabar Coast and Chandernagor in Bengal. The French also possessed several loges ('lodges', tiny subsidiary trading stations) inside other towns, but after 1816, the British denied all French claims to these, which were not reoccupied.

By 1950, the total area measured 510 km2, of which 293 km2 belonged to the territory of Pondichéry. In 1936, the population of the colony totalled 298,851 inhabitants, of which 63% (187,870) lived in the territory of Pondichéry.

Background

France was the last of the major European maritime powers of the 17th century to enter the East India trade. Six decades after the foundation of the English and Dutch East India companies (in 1600 and 1602 respectively), and at a time when both companies were multiplying factories (trading posts) on the shores of India, the French still did not have a viable trading company or a single permanent establishment in the East.

Seeking to explain France's late entrance in the East India trade, historians cite geopolitical circumstances such as the inland position of the French capital, France's numerous internal customs barriers, and parochial perspectives of merchants on France's Atlantic coast, who had little appetite for the large-scale investment required to develop a viable trading enterprise with the distant East Indies.

Initial marine voyages to India (16th century)
The first French commercial venture to India is believed to have taken place in the first half of the 16th century, in the reign of King Francis I, when two ships were fitted out by some merchants of Rouen to trade in eastern seas; they sailed from Le Havre and were never heard of again. In 1604, a company was granted letters patent by King Henry IV, but the project failed. Fresh letters patent were issued in 1615, and two ships went to India, only one returning.

La Compagnie française des Indes orientales (French East India Company) was formed under the auspices of Cardinal Richelieu (1642) and reconstructed under Jean-Baptiste Colbert (1664) when he sent an expedition to Madagascar.

First factory in India (1668)
In 1667, the French India Company sent out another expedition, under the command of François Caron (who was accompanied by a Persian named Marcara), which reached Surat in 1668 and established the first French factory in India.

French expansion in India (1669-1672)
In 1669, Marcara succeeded in establishing another French factory at Masulipatam. In 1672, the French captured Fort Saint Thomas, but they were driven out by the Dutch after a long and costly siege. Chandernagore (present-day Chandannagar) was established in 1692, with the permission of Nawab Shaista Khan, the Mughal governor of Bengal. In 1673, the French acquired the area of Pondicherry from the qiladar of Valikondapuram under the Sultan of Bijapur, and thus the foundation of Pondichéry was laid. By 1720, the French had lost their factories at Surat, Masulipatam and Bantam to the British East India Company.

Establishment of colony at Pondichéry (1673)
On 4 February 1673, Bellanger de l'Espinay, a French officer, took up residence in the Danish Lodge in Pondichéry, thereby commencing the French administration of Pondichéry. In 1674, François Martin, the first Governor, initiated ambitious projects to transform Pondichéry from a small fishing village into a flourishing port-town. However, the French found themselves in continual conflict with the Dutch and the English. In 1693, the Dutch captured Pondichéry and augmented the fortifications. The French regained the town in 1699 through the Treaty of Ryswick, signed on 20 September 1697.

Establishment of colonies at Yanon (1723) and Karaikal (1739)
From their arrival until 1741, the objectives of the French, like those of the British, were purely commercial. During this period, the French East India Company peacefully acquired Yanam (about 840 km north-east of Pondichéry on Andhra Coast) in 1723, Mahe on Malabar Coast in 1725 and Karaikal (about 150 km south of Pondichéry) in 1739. In the early 18th century, the town of Pondichéry was laid out on a grid pattern and grew considerably. Able governors like Pierre Christophe Le Noir (1726–1735) and Pierre Benoît Dumas (1735–1741) expanded the Pondichéry area and made it a large and rich town.

Ambition of establishment of French territorial empire in India and defeat (1741–1754)
Soon after his arrival in 1741, the most famous governor of French India, Joseph François Dupleix, began to hold the ambition of a French territorial empire in India in spite of the pronounced uninterested attitude of his distant superiors and of the French government, which didn't want to provoke the British. Dupleix's ambition clashed with British interests in India and a period of military skirmishes and political intrigues began and continued even in rare periods when France and Great Britain were officially at peace. Under the command of the Marquis de Bussy-Castelnau, Dupleix's army successfully controlled the area between Hyderabad and Cape Comorin. However, Robert Clive, a British officer, arrived in India in 1744, and dashed the hopes of Dupleix to create a French empire in India.

After a defeat and failed peace talks, Dupleix was summarily dismissed and recalled to France in 1754.

French vs British intrigues (1754–1871)
In spite of a treaty between the British and French agreeing not to interfere in regional Indian affairs, their colonial intrigues continued. The French expanded their influence at the court of the Nawab of Bengal and increased their trading activity in Bengal. In 1756, the French encouraged the Nawab (Siraj ud-Daulah) to attack and take the British Fort William in Calcutta. This led to the Battle of Plassey in 1757, where the British decisively defeated the Nawab and his French allies, resulting in the extension of British power over the entire province of Bengal.

Subsequently, France sent Lally-Tollendal to recover the lost French possessions and drive the British out of India. Lally arrived in Pondichéry in 1758, had some initial success and razed Fort St. David in Cuddalore District to the ground in 1758, but strategic mistakes by Lally led to the loss of the Hyderabad region, the Battle of Wandiwash and the siege of Pondicherry in 1760. In 1761, the British razed Pondichéry to the ground in revenge for the French depredations; it lay in ruins for four years. The French had lost their hold now in South India too.

In 1765, Pondichéry was returned to France in accordance with a 1763 peace treaty with Britain. Governor Jean Law de Lauriston set to rebuild the town on its former layout and after five months 200 European and 2000 Tamil houses had been erected. In 1769, the French East India Company, unable to support itself financially, was abolished by the French Crown, which assumed administration of the French possessions in India. During the next 50 years, Pondichéry changed hands between France and Britain with the regularity of their wars and peace treaties.

In 1816, after the conclusion of the Napoleonic Wars, the five establishments of Pondichéry, Chandernagore, Karaikal, Mahe and Yanam and the lodges at Machilipatnam, Kozhikode and Surat were returned to France. Pondichéry had lost much of its former glory, and Chandernagore dwindled into an insignificant outpost to the north of the rapidly growing British metropolis of Calcutta. Successive governors tried, with mixed results, to improve infrastructure, industry, law and education over the next 138 years.

By a decree of 25 January 1871, French India was to have an elective general council (conseil général) and elective local councils (conseil local). The results of this measure were not very satisfactory, and the qualifications for and the classes of the franchise were modified. The governor resided at Pondichéry and was assisted by a council. There were two Tribunaux d'instance (Tribunals of first instance) (at Pondichéry and Karikal) one Cour d'appel (Court of Appeal) (at Pondichéry) and five Juges de paix (Justices of the Peace). Agricultural production consisted of rice, peanuts, tobacco, betel nuts and vegetables.

Independence movement (18th–20th century) and merger with India (1954)
The Independence of India on 15 August 1947 gave impetus to the union of France's Indian possessions with former British India. The lodges in Machilipatnam, Kozhikode and Surat were ceded to India on 6 October 1947. An agreement between France and India in 1948 agreed to an election in France's remaining Indian possessions to choose their political future. Governance of Chandernagore was ceded to India on 2 May 1950; it was then merged with West Bengal state on 2 October 1954. On 1 November 1954, the four enclaves of Pondichéry, Yanam, Mahe– and Karikal were de facto transferred to the Indian Union and became the Union Territory of Puducherry. The de jure union of French India with India did not take place until 1962 when the French Parliament in Paris ratified the treaty with India.

The myth of "our immense empire in India"
From the mid-19th century onward there developed in France the belief that the five tiny settlements recovered from Britain after the Napoleonic Wars were remnants of the "immense empire" acquired by Dupleix in the 18th century. "Our immense empire of India was reduced to five settlements" wrote French economist and colonial expansion promoter Pierre Paul Leroy-Beaulieu in 1886. An atlas published in the 1930s described those five settlements as "remnants of the great colonial empire that France had created in India in the 18th century". More recently, a historian of French India post-1816 described them as "debris of an empire" and the "last remnants of an immense empire forever lost". However, France never held much more than the five settlements recovered in 1816. The historian of French India and archivist Alfred Martineau, who was also governor of French India, pointed out that the authority granted to Dupleix over the Carnatic in 1750 should not be construed as a transfer of sovereignty, as wrote most historians, given that Dupleix only became so to speak the lieutenant of the Indian subah, who could withdraw his power delegation at his convenience. Philippe Haudrère, historian of the French East India Company, also wrote that Dupleix controlled those territories through a complex system of treaties and alliances, a system almost feudal in nature, territories guarded by garrisons with French commanders, but neither annexed nor transformed into protectorates.

List of French settlements in India
French establishments in the Indian peninsula as of 1839 were:

 * 1) On the Coramandel coast,
 * 2) * Pondichéry and its territory comprising districts of Pondichéry, Villenour and Bahour;
 * 3) * Karikal and its dependent maganams, or districts.
 * 4) On the coast of Andhra Pradesh,
 * 5) * Yanaon and its territory comprising dependent aldées or villages;
 * 6) * The Masulipatam lodge and a garden named Francepeth.
 * 7) On the Malabar coast,
 * 8) * Mahé and its territory;
 * 9) * The Calicut lodge.
 * 10) In Bengal,
 * 11) * Chandernagore and its territory;
 * 12) * The five lodges of Cassimbazar, Jougdia, Dacca, Balasore and Patna.
 * 13) In Gujarat,
 * 14) * Surat factory.

Under the French East India Company's regime, the name 'lodge' was given to factories or insulated establishments consisting of a home and adjacent ground where France had the right to fly its flag and establish trading posts.

Commissioners

 * François Caron, 1668–1672
 * François Baron, 1672–1681
 * François Martin, 1681 – November 1693
 * Dutch occupation, September 1693 – September 1699 — Treaty of Ryswick (1697)

Governors
In the days of the French East India Company, the title of the top official was most of the time Governor of Pondicherry and General Commander of the French settlements in the East Indies (Gouverneur de Pondichéry et commandant général des établissements français aux Indes orientales). After 1816, it was Governor of French establishments in India (Gouverneur des établissements français de l'Inde').
 * François Martin, September 1699 – 31 December 1706
 * Pierre Dulivier (Acting), January 1707 – July 1708
 * Guillaume André d'Hébert, 1708–1712
 * Pierre Dulivier, 1713–1715
 * Guillaume André d'Hébert, 1715–1718
 * Pierre André Prévost de La Prévostière, August 1718 – 11 October 1721
 * Pierre Christoph Le Noir (Acting), 1721–1723
 * Joseph Beauvollier de Courchant, 1723–1726
 * Pierre Christoph Le Noir, 1727–1734
 * Pierre Benoît Dumas, 1735–1741
 * Joseph François Dupleix, 14 January 1742 – 15 October 1754
 * Charles Godeheu, Le commissaire (Acting), 15 October 1754 – 1754
 * Georges Duval de Leyrit, 1756–1758
 * Thomas Arthur, comte de Lally, 1758 – January 1761
 * First British occupation, January 15, 1761 – June 25, 1765 — Treaty of Paris (1763)
 * Jean Law de Lauriston, 1765–1766
 * Antoine Boyellau (Acting), 1766–1767
 * Jean Law de Lauriston, 1767 – January 1777Chandernagor Government House.jpg Government House]]
 * Second British occupation, 1778 – 1783 – Treaty of Paris (1783)
 * Guillaume de Bellecombe, seigneur de Teirac, January 1777 – 1778
 * Charles Joseph Pâtissier, Marquis de Bussy-Castelnau, 1783–1785
 * François, Vicomte de Souillac, 1785
 * David Charpentier de Cossigny, October 1785 – 1787
 * Thomas, comte de Conway, October 1787 – 1789
 * Camille Charles Leclerc, chevalier de Fresne, 1789–1792
 * Dominique Prosper de Chermont, November 1792 – 1793
 * L. Leroux de Touffreville, 1793
 * Third British occupation, 23 August 1793 – 18 June 1802 — Treaty of Amiens (1802)
 * Charles Matthieu Isidore, Comte Decaen, 18 June 1802 – August 1803
 * Louis François Binot, 1803
 * Fourth British occupation, August 1803 – 26 September 1816 — Treaty of Paris (1814)
 * André Julien Comte Dupuy, 26 September 1816 – October 1825
 * Joseph Cordier, Marie Emmanuel (Acting), October 1825 – 19 June 1826
 * Eugène Desbassayns de Richemont, 1826 – 2 August 1828
 * Joseph Cordier, Marie Emmanuel (Acting), 2 August 1828 – 11 April 1829
 * Auguste Jacques Nicolas Peureux de Mélay, 11 April 1829 – 3 May 1835
 * Hubert Jean Victor, Marquis de Saint-Simon, 3 May 1835 – April 1840
 * Paul de Nourquer du Camper, April 1840 – 1844
 * Louis Pujol, 1844–1849
 * Hyacinthe Marie de Lalande de Calan, 1849–1850
 * Philippe Achille Bédier, 1851–1852
 * Raymond de Saint-Maur, August 1852 – April 1857
 * Alexandre Durand d'Ubraye, April 1857 – January 1863
 * Napoléon Joseph Louis Bontemps, January 1863 – June 1871
 * Antoine-Léonce Michaux, June 1871 – November 1871
 * Pierre Aristide Faron, November 1871 – 1875
 * Adolph Joseph Antoine Trillard, 1875–1878
 * Léonce Laugier, February 1879 – April 1881
 * Théodore Drouhet, 1881 – October 1884
 * Étienne Richaud, October 1884 – 1886
 * Édouard Manès, 1886–1888
 * Georges Jules Piquet, 1888–1889
 * Louis Hippolyte Marie Nouet, 1889–1891
 * Léon Émile Clément-Thomas, 1891–1896
 * Louis Jean Girod, 1896 – February 1898
 * François Pierre Rodier, February 1898 – 11 January 1902
 * Louis Pelletan (Acting), 11 January 1902
 * Victor Louis Marie Lanrezac, 1902–1904
 * Philema Lemaire, August 1904 – April 1905
 * Joseph Pascal François, April 1905 – October 1906
 * Gabriel Louis Angoulvant, October 1906 – 3 December 1907
 * Adrien Jules Jean Bonhoure, 1908–1909
 * Ernest Fernand Lévecque, 1909 – 9 July 1910
 * Alfred Albert Martineau, 9 July 1910 – July 1911
 * Pierre Louis Alfred Duprat, July 1911 – November 1913
 * Alfred Albert Martineau, November 1913 – 29 June 1918
 * Pierre Étienne Clayssen (Acting), 29 June 1918 – 21 February 1919
 * Louis Martial Innocent Gerbinis, 21 February 1919 – 11 February 1926
 * Henri Léo Eugène Lagroua (Acting), 11 February 1926 – 5 August 1926
 * Pierre Jean Henri Didelot, 1926–1928
 * Robert Paul Marie de Guise, 1928–1931
 * François Adrien Juvanon, 1931–1934
 * Léon Solomiac, August 1934 – 1936
 * Horace Valentin Crocicchia, 1936–1938
 * Louis Alexis Étienne Bonvin, 26 September 1938 – 1945
 * Nicolas Ernest Marie Maurice Jeandin, 1945–1946
 * Charles François Marie Baron, 20 March 1946 – 20 August 1947

French India became an Overseas territory (territoire d'outre-mer) of France in 1946.

Commissioners

 * Charles François Marie Baron, 20 August 1947 – May 1949
 * Charles Chambon, May 1949 – 31 July 1950
 * André Ménard, 31 July 1950 – October 1954
 * Georges Escargueil, October 1954 – 1 November 1954

French India de facto transferred to the Republic of India in 1954.

High Commissioners
The first High Commissioner, Kewal Singh was appointed immediately after the Kizhoor referendum on 21 October 1954 as per Foreign Jurisdiction Act, 1947. The Chief Commissioner had the powers of the former French commissioner, but was under the direct control of the Union Government.

The list of Chief Commissioners is given below

title: French India


text:
Doomben railway station

Doomben railway station is the terminal station of the Doomben line in Queensland, Australia. It serves the Brisbane suburb of Ascot adjacent to Doomben Racecourse.

History
The Pinkenba line opened on 1 April 1897 to Pinkenba. A station for Doomben Racecourse was opened in 1909 alongside the Nudgee Road level crossing, and in 1976 a new station named Whinstanes-Doomben opened slightly farther east; Whinstanes was the name of the industrial branch line that crosses Kingsford Smith Drive to the Hamilton Cold Stores. The original Doomben station was closed.

The new station was renamed Doomben when the line was electrified on 6 February 1988. All passenger services on the line were suspended on 27 September 1993 as part of a statewide rationalisation of the rail network with the closing or suspending of under-utilised or unprofitable rail lines. Trains continued to serve Doomben when major race events were held.

Passenger services resumed on 27 January 1998, with Doomben becoming the terminal station with bus connections to the other abandoned stations.

Services
Doomben is the terminus for all stops services to and from Roma Street, Park Road and Cleveland.

Transport links
Transport for Brisbane operate two bus routes from Doomben station:
 * 301 Toombul to Cultural Centre
 * 303: to Myrtletown via Pinkenba

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Doomben railway station


text:
Joanny-Philippe Lagrula

Joanny-Philippe Lagrula (1870–1941) was a French astronomer. He was sometimes referred to as Philippe Lagrula.

In 1901, he wrote his thesis at the University of Lyon. At the time, occultations of the Pleiades by the Moon were important for measuring the correspondence of the Moon's actual position with that predicted by theory.

He worked at the Observatory of Lyon, France. On August 1, 1906, he became director of the Quito Astronomical Observatory for a few years. He then worked at Nice Observatory until 1924, when he joined the staff of Algiers Observatory. He was director of Algiers Observatory from 1931 to 1938, replacing François Gonnessiat who retired. His career path mirrored that of Gonnessiat, who had also worked at Lyon, and at the observatories in Quito and Algiers.

At Algiers, one of the staff members working with him was Jean-Louis Lagrula; this may have been his son.

He discovered one asteroid. The asteroid 1412 Lagrula is named after him.

title: Joanny-Philippe Lagrula


text:
Between the Covers (radio program)

Between the Covers was a program on the Radio One network of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Formerly heard weekdays at 10:40 p.m. (11:10 p.m. in Newfoundland), following The Arts Tonight, the program no longer airs on Radio One's terrestrial network, although it is still in production as a weekly podcast and continues to air on CBC Radio's Sirius Satellite Radio channel.

The show's content is a series of ongoing book and poetry readings. The show is hosted by Lisa Christiansen, who is also a host at CBC Radio 3.

title: Between the Covers (radio program)


text: Category:Armenian composers

title: Category:Armenian composers


text:
Northern Lights (radio show)

Northern Lights was a music program on the Radio One and Radio 2 networks of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, hosted by Andrea Ratuski of CBC Winnipeg. Airing weeknights at 11:00 p.m. or 11:30 p.m. Newfoundland on Radio One and at 4:00 a.m. or 4:40 a.m. Newfoundland on Radio Two, the program featured two hours of essentially continuous classical music recordings.

In the CBC's programming changes of 2007, Northern Lights was discontinued, and was replaced by Nightstream on Radio Two.

title: Northern Lights (radio show)


text:
Cottage Life (TV channel)

Cottage Life is a Canadian English language discretionary specialty channel owned by Blue Ant Media. Operated as a brand extension spin-off of the magazine of the same name, the network originally aired a variety of programming focusing on the cottage and rural lifestyle genre within the core themes of DIY and design, food and entertaining, real estate, and outdoor living. It now primarily airs a limited slate of reality and engineering-focused programming.

The network originally launched in 2001 as Country Canada, which primarily focused on programming of interest to rural Canadians, including news and lifestyle programming. After the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation bought out Corus Entertainment's stake in Country Canada, the network began to transition towards marketing itself as a companion to CBC Television, reduced the amount of rural-themed programming it aired in favour of entertainment programs and CBC Sports overflow, and eventually re-branded itself as Bold in 2008. In the midst of budget cuts at the CBC, Bold was sold to its current owners, Blue Ant Media, in April 2012; on September 4, 2013, Bold was re-launched by Blue Ant Media as Cottage Life.

History
In November 2000, a joint venture between Corus Entertainment (70%) and the CBC (30%) was granted a television broadcasting licence by the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) to launch a channel called Land and Sea, presumably the name taken from the CBC original series Land and Sea. The newly licensed channel was described as "a national English-language Category 1 specialty television service for rural Canadian families, with a focus on adults 25-54. The service will provide information, interaction and entertainment from a rural perspective."

The channel was launched on September 4, 2001 as Country Canada; based on the CBC Television series Country Canada. The channel held true to its CRTC-mandated nature of service by focusing on rural news, information, lifestyle, and entertainment programming suitable for the whole family. Such programs that were broadcast on the channel included CountryLine, a call-in talk show discussing various topics of interest to rural Canadians; CBC News: CountryWide, a national news program with both a morning and evening edition focusing on national news stories; Northern Exposure; All Creatures Great and Small; and the television rendition of Harrowsmith Country Life. In July 2002, the CBC announced it would purchase Corus' interest in the service, which was approved by the CRTC on October 24 of that year. The CBC took control of the service on November 1, 2002 and rebranded the service with a new logo and name, CBC Country Canada.

After the change in ownership, the CBC initially relied heavily on CBC Television programming to fill the channel's schedule, with a particular focus on news programs. This transition was the first step in the channel moving away from its mandate to focus solely on rural programming, instead, shifting towards a focus on general interest Canadian programming. New programming added to the schedule included all 14 30-minute regional editions of Canada Now, Venture, CBC News: Politics, amateur sports programming from CBC Sports, CBC News: Saturday Report, and Cross Country Checkup.

After the initial change in programming after the rebranding, news, although still present on the channel, became less significant as the channel began to air more lifestyle, entertainment, and documentary programming such as Food Chain, an original program discussing various aspects of food; Greatdocs.ca, a series of various Canadian-made documentaries; Johnny Canuck Cinema, a series of various Canadian films; An American in Canada; and London's Burning.

Eventually, beginning in 2005, with the change in programming to focus more on general Canadian programming rather than solely rural-programming, the channel began to continuously promoted itself and its programs as a channel, according to its website, dedicated to "celebrating Canada, its land, people, regions and passions". This shift included an increase in dramatic television series from Canada and Britain that had little to no relation to the rural lifestyle, and an increase in amateur sports coverage including alpine skiing, curling, snowboarding, Toronto FC, and Canada national team soccer, among others. In further continuation with this shift, in early 2007, CBC Country Canada began to no longer promote itself as a rural lifestyle service, rather as a secondary general entertainment service to the CBC, touting, according to its website "the new home of exclusive dramas and world championship sports, from home and around the world. From provocative documentaries to a new series of investigative thrillers, CBC Country Canada has something for everyone." Programs at this point in time included such series as Vincent, Sensitive Skin, Monkey Dust, This Is Wonderland, and 72 Hours: True Crime.

On March 27, 2008 at 12:01 a.m. EST, CBC Country Canada was rebranded as bold to better reflect the programming direction CBC Country Canada was moving in, and to focus its programming on drama, comedy, the arts, and sports rather than an informational and lifestyle service for rural Canadians.

In time for its companion coverage of the 2010 FIFA World Cup, a high-definition feed launched on June 3, 2010.

Nature of service dispute
Prior to rebranding the service as bold, the CBC informed the CRTC in October 2007 of its intentions and new programming directive for the service. Following this correspondence, the CBC and the CRTC exchanged correspondence back and forth in an effort to clarify how the change in programming for bold met the nature of service bold was intended to meet when it was originally licensed in 2000. The CRTC ultimately was not satisfied with the CBC's argument and called a public hearing into the matter in June 2009.

Prior to the hearing, the CBC contacted the CRTC to inform them that they did not contest the CRTC's view that the service did not meet the requirements of its nature of service and informed the CRTC that it would like to file an application to modify Bold's nature of service to state it is "a national English-language Category 1 specialty television service for rural Canadians. The service will provide information, interaction and entertainment."

During the separate hearing for the application to modify Bold's nature of service at a later date, the CRTC examined the request and found several issues with the change in nature of service, primarily being that it would allow the service to morph into a general interest service instead of a niche service for rural Canadians, since it would not require the channel to be from "a rural perspective", implying a service defined as "for rural Canadians" would be too broad in nature. Subsequently, the CRTC denied its application and required the CBC to inform the CRTC within 30 days of a new programming proposal to ensure its meets the channel's nature of service.

In response to this decision, the CBC filed yet another application to amend Bold's nature of service, this time reading as "a national English-language Category A specialty television service with a focus on adults 25-54. The service will provide information, interaction and entertainment programming dedicated to reflecting Canada's various regions, including Canada's rural and non-urban regions, to national and regional audiences. The mandate of the service will be to reflect in its programming the unique tapestry of Canada's regions, including programming that reflects the living realities of rural Canadians." Within this application, the CBC also requested to define rural Canadians using Statistics Canada definition, reading as "individuals from rural non-metro adjacent areas, rural metro adjacent areas and rural northern areas."

Although the CRTC raised some concerns over the proposed schedule the CBC submitted as part of this application, the CRTC ultimately approved the application and was satisfied with the changes, stating that the new definition of rural Canadians was more appropriate since it reflected their geographical location, rather than their occupations as the previous nature of service defined; and to ensure the programming reflected Canada's various regions, as per the new nature of service, the CRTC added a definition of such programming.

Blue Ant Media purchase
On April 4, 2012, the CBC announced, in the wake of a $115 million government funding budget cut to be phased in over the next 3 years, that it would sell Bold as a measure to cope with the budget shortfall since the service's licence conditions no longer fit the CBC's strategy nor complement the other programming streams. On August 17, 2012, Blue Ant Media announced that it would purchase the channel for an undisclosed amount, later revealed at $10 million. As a federal crown corporation asset owned by the CBC, the deal also required approval from the Governor-in-Council, which was approved in February 2013. On November 17, 2012, the CRTC approved the sale of Bold to Blue Ant Media. As a condition of the acquisition, Blue Ant stated that it would fund the production of programming that reflects Canada's rural and non-urban regions.

Rebranding as Cottage Life
In July 2011, Blue Ant Media purchased a 15% interest in Quarto Communications, with its intentions of launching several television channels based upon Quarto's magazine brands, in particular, Cottage Life. Later, in November 2011, Quarto was granted a license for a Category B service known as Cottage Life Television, which would be focused on programming dealing with cottage communities and lifestyles. Four months after it announced its intentions to purchase Bold, Blue Ant would later purchase the remaining shares in Quarto Communication and rename the company Cottage Life Media.

In April 2013, Blue Ant announced it would launch Cottage Life in the fall of 2013; it was speculated that the company would re-launch Bold as a Cottage Life channel, primarily because the rural-based nature of service complimented the subject matter that Cottage Life covered and bold had existing carriage deals on the majority of all digital television service providers in Canada due to its Category A status. However, Blue Ant did not confirm any rumours or its intentions for the channel.

Although still with no public announcement of the channel's re-branding from Blue Ant Media, it was indirectly confirmed through various television service providers (i.e., announcements on the respective TV provider's websites, statements confirming Cottage Life's television placement on the dial would be that of Bold's, etc.) that bold would be re-branded as Cottage Life on September 4, 2013. It was confirmed on August 22, 2013 by Blue Ant Media that bold would be rebranded on September 4 via a press release.

title: Cottage Life (TV channel)


text:
Antler (poet)

Antler (born Brad Burdick; 1946 in Wauwatosa, Wisconsin, U.S.) is an American poet who lives in Wisconsin.

Among other honors, Antler received the Whitman Prize from the Walt Whitman Association, given to the poet "whose contribution best reveals the continuing presence of Walt Whitman in American poetry," in 1985. Antler also was awarded the Witter Bynner prize in 1987. Antler was the poet laureate of the city of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, for 2002 and 2003. He is also an advocate for wilderness protection.

Education and career
Antler received a bachelor's degree in anthropology from the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee in 1970. Later he completed a master's degree in English from the same university after spending some time at the noted Iowa Writers' Workshop at the University of Iowa. During the 1970s he also worked at various factory and other jobs just long enough to get money to support his poetry writing and time spent in wilderness areas across the United States.

Antler's first major work, the long poem Factory, was published by Lawrence Ferlinghetti's City Lights Bookstore in 1980. Allen Ginsberg declared him as "one of Whitman's `poets and orators to come'". The collection Last Words appeared in 1986 from Ballantine Books, and Antler: The Selected Poems was published in 2000 by Soft Skull Press. He has also published several chapbooks and has contributed to numerous local, national, and international journals and anthologies.

Writing style
His work reflects the influences of Walt Whitman, Allen Ginsberg, and the American traditions of transcendentalism and environmentalism. He celebrates the wilderness, often comparing urban, industrial life unfavorably with natural phenomena. His frank, sometimes earthy poems frequently exhibit sexual and spiritual energy entwined with the wonder of the natural world.

Books

 * Factory - (1980) City Lights
 * Last Words - (1986) Ballantine
 * Antler: The Selected Poems - (2000) Soft Skull Press
 * Touch Each Other - (2013) FootHills Publishing

Awards

 * Whitman Award from the Whitman Society of Camden, New Jersey
 * Witter Bynner Prize from the Academy & Institute of Arts and Letters in New York

title: Antler (poet)


text:
Mark B. Wise

Mark Brian Wise (born November 9, 1953, in Montreal, Quebec) is a Canadian-American theoretical physicist. He has conducted research in elementary particle physics and cosmology. He is best known for his role in the development of heavy quark effective theory (HQET), a mathematical formalism that has allowed physicists to make predictions about otherwise intractable problems in the theory of the strong nuclear interactions. He has also published work on mathematical models for finance and risk assessment.

Biography
Wise was born in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. He was educated at the University of Toronto (B.S., 1976; M.S., 1977) and Stanford University (Ph.D., 1980). While still a student, he co-authored a book on mathematical methods in physics with Toronto professor Lynn Trainor. With Fred Gilman, his graduate advisor at Stanford, Wise wrote several highly influential papers on experimental predictions of the quark model. Wise was a junior fellow at the Harvard Society of Fellows from 1980 to 1983. He has been at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) since then.

Wise is currently the John A. McCone Professor of High Energy Physics at Caltech, a fellow of the American Physical Society (2003), and a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and of the National Academy of Sciences. From 1984 to 1987 he was a fellow of the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation. He shared the 2001 Sakurai Prize for Theoretical Particle Physics with Nathan Isgur and Mikhail Voloshin, "for the construction of the heavy quark mass expansion and the discovery of the heavy quark symmetry in quantum chromodynamics, which led to a quantitative theory of the decays of c and b flavored hadrons."

He has supervised over three dozen graduate students.

Wise was the science consultant for Iron Man 2.

Works

 * From Physical Concept to Mathematical Structure: an Introduction to Theoretical Physics, with Lynn E.H. Trainor (1979)
 * Heavy Quark Physics, with Aneesh V. Manohar (2000)

title: Mark B. Wise


text:
User talk:Â™€Joy

Italic textJoy's waiting for your question for any kinds,I'd glad to give any idea of mine

title: User talk:Â™€Joy


text:
Glenn Cunningham (athlete)

Glenn Vernice Cunningham (August 4, 1909 – March 10, 1988) was an American middle-distance runner, and was considered the greatest American miler of all time. He received the James E. Sullivan Award as the top amateur athlete in the United States in 1933.

Early life
Cunningham was born in Atlanta, Kansas and grew up in Elkhart, Kansas. When he was eight years old, his legs were very badly burned in an explosion caused by his brother accidentally putting gasoline instead of kerosene in the can at his school. His brother Floyd, 13, died in the fire. When the doctors recommended amputating Glenn's legs, he was so distressed his parents would not allow it. The doctors predicted he might never walk normally again. He had lost all the flesh on his knees and shins and all the toes on his left foot. Also, his transverse arch was practically destroyed. However, his great determination, coupled with hours upon hours of a new type of therapy, enabled him to gradually regain the ability to walk and to proceed to run. It was in the early summer of 1919 when he first tried to walk again, roughly two years after the accident. He had a positive attitude as well as a strong religious faith. His favorite Bible verse was Isaiah 40:31: "But those who wait on the Lord shall renew their strength; they shall mount up with wings like eagles, they shall run and not be weary, they shall walk and not be faint."

Accomplishments
Cunningham competed in the 1500 m event at the 1932 and 1936 Summer Olympics and finished fourth and second, respectively. While on the ship, traveling from the U.S. to Germany in 1936, he was voted "Most Popular Athlete" by his fellow Olympians.

Cunningham won the Sullivan medal in 1933 for his achievements in middle-distance running. In 1934, he set the world record for the mile run at 4:06.8, which stood for three years. He also set world records in the 800 m in 1936 and in the indoor mile in 1938. Also in 1938, Cunningham set a personal best time in the mile run at 4:04.4 testing Dartmouth College's Alumni Gymnasium indoor track, engineered to allow faster times than most indoor facilities. This time was not accepted as a world record, however, because Dartmouth had provided Cunningham pacing runners, which was against the rules at the time.

Cunningham's unachieved goal was a four-minute mile, a goal attempted and unmet by many other runners. Several theorists proclaimed it was impossible physiologically for humans. Some athletes tried running steady and fast-paced the whole time. Others tried to go steady for the first half then give it all they had. Glenn worried about the strength of his legs burned in his youth, so he started slow – running in the pack. He would be fresher in the second half – and would almost be sprinting the last 100 yards to the finish.

Cunningham has a park named after him in his hometown of Elkhart, Kansas. The mile run at the Kansas Relays is named in his honor. In 1974 he was inducted into the National Track and Field Hall of Fame. In 2012, Cunningham was posthumously inducted in to the National Distance Running Hall of Fame.

Retirement
Cunningham earned a master's degree from the University of Iowa and a PhD from New York University. After retiring from competitions in 1940 he served as director of physical education at Cornell College in Iowa for four years. Later he opened the Glenn Cunningham Youth Ranch in Kansas, where he and his wife helped 10,000 needy and abused children.

title: Glenn Cunningham (athlete)


text:
Extrusion

Extrusion is a process used to create objects of a fixed cross-sectional profile by pushing material through a die of the desired cross-section. Its two main advantages over other manufacturing processes are its ability to create very complex cross-sections; and to work materials that are brittle, because the material encounters only compressive and shear stresses. It also creates excellent surface finish and gives considerable freedom of form in the design process.

Drawing is a similar process, using the tensile strength of the material to pull it through the die. It limits the amount of change that can be performed in one step, so it is limited to simpler shapes, and multiple stages are usually needed. Drawing is the main way to produce wire. Metal bars and tubes are also often drawn.

Extrusion may be continuous (theoretically producing indefinitely long material) or semi-continuous (producing many pieces). It can be done with hot or cold material. Commonly extruded materials include metals, polymers, ceramics, concrete, modelling clay, and foodstuffs. Products of extrusion are generally called extrudates. Also referred to as "hole flanging", hollow cavities within extruded material cannot be produced using a simple flat extrusion die, because there would be no way to support the centre barrier of the die. Instead, the die assumes the shape of a block with depth, beginning first with a shape profile that supports the center section. The die shape then internally changes along its length into the final shape, with the suspended center pieces supported from the back of the die. The material flows around the supports and fuses to create the desired closed shape.

The extrusion of metals can also increase their strength.

History
In 1797, Joseph Bramah patented the first extrusion process for making pipe out of soft metals. It involved preheating the metal and then forcing it through a die via a hand-driven plunger. In 1820 Thomas Burr implemented that process for lead pipe, with a hydraulic press (also invented by Joseph Bramah). At that time the process was called "squirting". In 1894, Alexander Dick expanded the extrusion process to copper and brass alloys.

Types of extrusions
The process begins by heating the stock material (for hot or warm extrusion). It is then loaded into the container in the press. A dummy block is placed behind it where the ram then presses on the material to push it out of the die. Afterward the extrusion is stretched in order to straighten it. If better properties are required then it may be heat treated or cold worked.

The extrusion ratio is defined as the starting cross-sectional area divided by the cross-sectional area of the final extrusion. One of the main advantages of the extrusion process is that this ratio can be very large while still producing quality parts.

Hot extrusion
Hot extrusion is a hot working process, which means it is done above the material's recrystallization temperature to keep the material from work hardening and to make it easier to push the material through the die. Most hot extrusions are done on horizontal hydraulic presses that range from 230 to 11000 metric ton. Pressures range from 30 to 700 MPa, therefore lubrication is required, which can be oil or graphite for lower temperature extrusions, or glass powder for higher temperature extrusions. The biggest disadvantage of this process is its cost for machinery and its upkeep.

The extrusion process is generally economical when producing between several kilograms (pounds) and many tons, depending on the material being extruded. There is a crossover point where roll forming becomes more economical. For instance, some steels become more economical to roll if producing more than 20,000 kg (50,000 lb).

Cold extrusion
Cold extrusion is done at room temperature or near room temperature. The advantages of this over hot extrusion are the lack of oxidation, higher strength due to cold working, closer tolerances, better surface finish, and fast extrusion speeds if the material is subject to hot shortness.

Materials that are commonly cold extruded include: lead, tin, aluminium, copper, zirconium, titanium, molybdenum, beryllium, vanadium, niobium, and steel.

Examples of products produced by this process are: collapsible tubes, fire extinguisher cases, shock absorber cylinders and gear blanks.

Warm extrusion
In March 1956, a US patent was filed for "process for warm extrusion of metal". Patent US3156043 A outlines that a number of important advantages can be achieved with warm extrusion of both ferrous and non-ferrous metals and alloys if a billet to be extruded is changed in its physical properties in response to physical forces by being heated to a temperature below the critical melting point. Warm extrusion is done above room temperature, but below the recrystallization temperature of the material the temperatures ranges from 800 to 1,800 °F (424 to 975 °C). It is usually used to achieve the proper balance of required forces, ductility and final extrusion properties.

Friction extrusion
Friction extrusion was invented at the Welding Institute in the UK and patented in 1991. It was originally intended primarily as a method for production of homogeneous microstructures and particle distributions in metal matrix composite materials. Friction extrusion differs from conventional extrusion in that the charge (billet or other precursor) rotates relative to the extrusion die. An extrusion force is applied so as to push the charge against the die. In practice either the die or the charge may rotate or they may be counter-rotating. The relative rotary motion between the charge and the die has several significant effects on the process. First, the relative motion in the plane of rotation leads to large shear stresses, hence, plastic deformation in the layer of charge in contact with and near the die. This plastic deformation is dissipated by recovery and recrystallization processes leading to substantial heating of the deforming charge. Because of the deformation heating, friction extrusion does not generally require preheating of the charge by auxiliary means potentially resulting in a more energy efficient process. Second, the substantial level of plastic deformation in the region of relative rotary motion can promote solid state welding of powders or other finely divided precursors, such as flakes and chips, effectively consolidating the charge (friction consolidation) prior to extrusion.

Micro-extrusion
Microextrusion is a microforming extrusion process performed at the submillimetre range. Like extrusion, metal is pushed through a die orifice, but the resulting product's cross section can fit through a 1 mm square. Several microextrusion processes have been developed since microforming was envisioned in 1990. Forward (ram and billet move in the same direction) and backward (ram and billet move in the opposite direction) microextrusion were first introduced, with forward rod-backward cup and double cup extrusion methods developing later. Regardless of method, one of the greatest challenges of creating a successful microextrusion machine is the manufacture of the die and ram. "The small size of the die and ram, along with the stringent accuracy requirement, needs suitable manufacturing processes." Additionally, as Fu and Chan pointed out in a 2013 state-of-the-art technology review, several issues must still be resolved before microextrusion and other microforming technologies can be implemented more widely, including deformation load and defects, forming system stability, mechanical properties, and other size-related effects on the crystallite (grain) structure and boundaries.

Equipment
There are many different variations of extrusion equipment. They vary by four major characteristics:

 * Movement of the extrusion with relation to the ram. If the die is held stationary and the ram moves towards it then it is called "direct extrusion". If the ram is held stationary and the die moves towards the ram it is called "indirect extrusion".
 * The position of the press, either vertical or horizontal
 * The type of drive, either hydraulic or mechanical
 * The type of load applied, either conventional (variable) or hydrostatic

A single or twin screw auger, powered by an electric motor, or a ram, driven by hydraulic pressure (often used for steel and titanium alloys), oil pressure (for aluminium), or in other specialized processes such as rollers inside a perforated drum for the production of many simultaneous streams of material.

Typical extrusion presses cost more than $100,000, whereas dies can cost up to $2,000.

Forming internal cavities

There are several methods for forming internal cavities in extrusions. One way is to use a hollow billet and then use a fixed or floating mandrel. A fixed mandrel, also known as a German type, means it is integrated into the dummy block and stem. A floating mandrel, also known as a French type, floats in slots in the dummy block and aligns itself in the die when extruding. If a solid billet is used as the feed material then it must first be pierced by the mandrel before extruding through the die. A special press is used in order to control the mandrel independently from the ram. The solid billet could also be used with a spider die, porthole die or bridge die. All of these types of dies incorporate the mandrel in the die and have "legs" that hold the mandrel in place. During extrusion the metal divides, flows around the legs, then merges, leaving weld lines in the final product.

Direct extrusion

Direct extrusion, also known as forward extrusion, is the most common extrusion process. It works by placing the billet in a heavy walled container. The billet is pushed through the die by a ram or screw. There is a reusable dummy block between the ram and the billet to keep them separated. The major disadvantage of this process is that the force required to extrude the billet is greater than that needed in the indirect extrusion process because of the frictional forces introduced by the need for the billet to travel the entire length of the container. Because of this the greatest force required is at the beginning of process and slowly decreases as the billet is used up. At the end of the billet the force greatly increases because the billet is thin and the material must flow radially to exit the die. The end of the billet (called the butt end) is not used for this reason.

Indirect extrusion
In indirect extrusion, also known as backwards extrusion, the billet and container move together while the die is stationary. The die is held in place by a "stem" which has to be longer than the container length. The maximum length of the extrusion is ultimately dictated by the column strength of the stem. Because the billet moves with the container the frictional forces are eliminated. This leads to the following advantages:
 * A 25 to 30% reduction of friction, which allows for extruding larger billets, increasing speed, and an increased ability to extrude smaller cross-sections
 * There is less of a tendency for extrusions to crack because there is no heat formed from friction
 * The container liner will last longer due to less wear
 * The billet is used more uniformly so extrusion defects and coarse grained peripherals zones are less likely.

The disadvantages are:
 * Impurities and defects on the surface of the billet affect the surface of the extrusion. These defects ruin the piece if it needs to be anodized or the aesthetics are important. In order to get around this the billets may be wire brushed, machined or chemically cleaned before being used.
 * This process is not as versatile as direct extrusions because the cross-sectional area is limited by the maximum size of the stem.

Hydrostatic extrusion
In the hydrostatic extrusion process the billet is completely surrounded by a pressurized liquid, except where the billet contacts the die. This process can be done hot, warm, or cold, however the temperature is limited by the stability of the fluid used. The process must be carried out in a sealed cylinder to contain the hydrostatic medium. The fluid can be pressurized two ways:

 * Constant-rate extrusion: A ram or plunger is used to pressurize the fluid inside the container.
 * Constant-pressure extrusion: A pump is used, possibly with a pressure intensifier, to pressurize the fluid, which is then pumped to the container.

The advantages of this process include:

 * No friction between the container and the billet reduces force requirements. This ultimately allows for faster speeds, higher reduction ratios, and lower billet temperatures.
 * Usually the ductility of the material increases when high pressures are applied
 * An even flow of material
 * Large billets and large cross-sections can be extruded
 * No billet residue is left on the container walls

The disadvantages are:

 * The billets must be prepared by tapering one end to match the die entry angle. This is needed to form a seal at the beginning of the cycle. Usually the entire billet needs to be machined to remove any surface defects.
 * Containing the fluid under high pressures can be difficult.
 * A billet remnant or a plug of a tougher material must be left at the end of the extrusion to prevent a sudden release of the extrusion fluid.

Drives
Most modern direct or indirect extrusion presses are hydraulically driven, but there are some small mechanical presses still used. Of the hydraulic presses there are two types: direct-drive oil presses and accumulator water drives.

Direct-drive oil presses are the most common because they are reliable and robust. They can deliver over 35 MPa (5,000 psi). They supply a constant pressure throughout the whole billet. The disadvantage is that they are slow, between 50 and 200 mm/s (2–8 ips).

Accumulator water drives are more expensive and larger than direct-drive oil presses, and they lose about 10% of their pressure over the stroke, but they are much faster, up to 380 mm/s (15 ips). Because of this they are used when extruding steel. They are also used on materials that must be heated to very hot temperatures for safety reasons.

Hydrostatic extrusion presses usually use castor oil at pressure up to 1,400 MPa (200 ksi). Castor oil is used because it has good lubricity and high pressure properties.

Die design
The design of an extrusion profile has a large impact on how readily it can be extruded. The maximum size for an extrusion is determined by finding the smallest circle that will fit around the cross-section, this is called the circumscribing circle. This diameter, in turn, controls the size of the die required, which ultimately determines if the part will fit in a given press. For example, a larger press can handle 60 cm diameter circumscribing circles for aluminium and 55 cm (22 in) diameter circles for steel and titanium.

The complexity of an extruded profile can be roughly quantified by calculating the shape factor, which is the amount of surface area generated per unit mass of extrusion. This affects the cost of tooling as well as the rate of production.

Thicker sections generally need an increased section size. In order for the material to flow properly legs should not be more than ten times longer than their thickness. If the cross-section is asymmetrical, adjacent sections should be as close to the same size as possible. Sharp corners should be avoided; for aluminium and magnesium the minimum radius should be 0.4 mm (1/64 in) and for steel corners should be 0.75 mm and fillets should be 3 mm. The following table lists the minimum cross-section and thickness for various materials.

Metal
Metals that are commonly extruded include:
 * Aluminium is the most commonly extruded material. Aluminium can be hot or cold extruded. If it is hot extruded it is heated to 575 to 1100 °F (300 to 600 °C). Examples of products include profiles for tracks, frames, rails, mullions, and heat sinks.
 * Brass is used to extrude corrosion free rods, automobile parts, pipe fittings, engineering parts.
 * Copper (1100 to 1825 °F (600 to 1000 °C)) pipe, wire, rods, bars, tubes, and welding electrodes. Often more than 100 ksi (690 MPa) is required to extrude copper.
 * Lead and tin (maximum 575 °F (300 °C)) pipes, wire, tubes, and cable sheathing. Molten lead may also be used in place of billets on vertical extrusion presses.
 * Magnesium (575 to 1100 °F (300 to 600 °C)) aircraft parts and nuclear industry parts. Magnesium is about as extrudable as aluminum.
 * Zinc (400 to 650 °F (200 to 350 °C)) rods, bar, tubes, hardware components, fitting, and handrails.
 * Steel (1825 to 2375 °F (1000 to 1300 °C)) rods and tracks. Usually plain carbon steel is extruded, but alloy steel and stainless steel can also be extruded.
 * Titanium (1100 to 1825 °F (600 to 1000 °C)) aircraft components including seat tracks, engine rings, and other structural parts.

Magnesium and aluminium alloys usually have a 0.75 μm RMS or better surface finish. Titanium and steel can achieve a 3 μm RMS.

In 1950, Ugine Séjournet, of France, invented a process which uses glass as a lubricant for extruding steel. The Ugine-Sejournet, or Sejournet, process is now used for other materials that have melting temperatures higher than steel or that require a narrow range of temperatures to extrude, such as the platinum-iridium alloy used to make kilogram mass standards. The process starts by heating the materials to the extruding temperature and then rolling it in glass powder. The glass melts and forms a thin film, 20 to 30 mils (0.5 to 0.75 mm), in order to separate it from chamber walls and allow it to act as a lubricant. A thick solid glass ring that is 0.25 to 0.75 in (6 to 18 mm) thick is placed in the chamber on the die to lubricate the extrusion as it is forced through the die. A second advantage of this glass ring is its ability to insulate the heat of the billet from the die. The extrusion will have a 1 mil thick layer of glass, which can be easily removed once it cools.

Another breakthrough in lubrication is the use of phosphate coatings. With this process, in conjunction with glass lubrication, steel can be cold extruded. The phosphate coat absorbs the liquid glass to offer even better lubricating properties.

Plastic

Plastics extrusion commonly uses plastic chips or pellets, which are usually dried, to drive out moisture, in a hopper before going to the feed screw. The polymer resin is heated to molten state by a combination of heating elements and shear heating from the extrusion screw. The screw, or screws as the case with twin screw extrusion, forces the resin through a die, forming the resin into the desired shape. The extrudate is cooled and solidified as it is pulled through the die or water tank. A "caterpillar haul-off" (called a "puller" in the US) is used to provide tension on the extrusion line which is essential for overall quality of the extrudate. Pelletizers can also create this tension while pulling extruded strands in to be cut. The caterpillar haul-off must provide a consistent pull; otherwise, variation in cut lengths or distorted product will result. In some cases (such as fibre-reinforced tubes) the extrudate is pulled through a very long die, in a process called "pultrusion". The configuration of the interior screws are a driving force dependent on the application. Mixing elements or convey elements are used in various formations. Extrusion is common in the application of adding colorant to molten plastic thus creating specific custom color.

Extrusion is also a process used in fused filament deposition 3D printers, whereby the extruder is often composed of a geared motor pushing plastic filament through a nozzle.

Rubber
Rubber extrusion is a method used to make rubber items. In this process, either synthetic or natural rubber that hasn't been hardened yet is put through a machine called an extruder. This machine has a desired shaped mold and a pressurized conveyor system. The rubber gets heated and softened in the extruder, making it bendable. It then gets pushed through the mold, which gives it its final shape.

The extruder consists of two main parts: a screw that moves the rubber along the conveyor while adding other materials, and a mold where the soft rubber is squeezed into. After the rubber gets its shape from the mold, it is then vulcanized to harden it into a usable product.

This method is effective for large rubber pieces that are long and have a consistent shape, and the dies used in this process are inexpensive. It is often used to make things like rubber seals or hoses. Polymers are used in the production of plastic tubing, pipes, rods, rails, seals, and sheets or films.

Ceramic
Ceramic can also be formed into shapes via extrusion. Terracotta extrusion is used to produce pipes. Many modern bricks are also manufactured using a brick extrusion process.

Food
With the advent of industrial manufacturing, extrusion found application in food processing of instant foods and snacks, along with its already known uses in plastics and metal fabrication. The main role of extrusion was originally developed for conveying and shaping fluid forms of processed raw materials. Present day, extrusion cooking technologies and capabilities have developed into sophisticated processing functions including: mixing, conveying, shearing, separation, heating, cooling, shaping, co-extrusion, venting volatiles and moisture, encapsulation, flavor generation and sterilization. Products such as certain pastas, many breakfast cereals, premade cookie dough, some french fries, certain baby foods, dry or semi-moist pet food and ready-to-eat snacks are mostly manufactured by extrusion. It is also used to produce modified starch, and to pelletize animal feed.

Generally, high-temperature extrusion is used for the manufacture of ready-to-eat snacks, while cold extrusion is used for the manufacture of pasta and related products intended for later cooking and consumption. The processed products have low moisture and hence considerably higher shelf life, and provide variety and convenience to consumers. In the extrusion process, raw materials are first ground to the correct particle size. The dry mix is passed through a pre-conditioner, in which other ingredients may be added, and steam is injected to start the cooking process. The preconditioned mix is then passed through an extruder, where it is forced through a die and cut to the desired length. The cooking process takes place within the extruder where the product produces its own friction and heat due to the pressure generated (10–20 bar). The main independent parameters during extrusion cooking are feed rate, particle size of the raw material, barrel temperature, screw speed and moisture content. The extruding process can induce both protein denaturation and starch gelatinization, depending on inputs and parameters. Sometimes, a catalyst is used, for example, when producing texturised vegetable proteins (TVP).

Drug carriers
For use in pharmaceutical products, extrusion through nano-porous, polymeric filters is being used to produce suspensions of lipid vesicles liposomes or transfersomes with a particular size of a narrow size distribution. The anti-cancer drug Doxorubicin in liposome delivery system is formulated by extrusion, for example. Hot melt extrusion is also utilized in pharmaceutical solid oral dose processing to enable delivery of drugs with poor solubility and bioavailability. Hot melt extrusion has been shown to molecularly disperse poorly soluble drugs in a polymer carrier increasing dissolution rates and bioavailability. The process involves the application of heat, pressure and agitation to mix materials together and ‘extrude’ them through a die. Twin-screw high shear extruders blend materials and simultaneously break up particles. The resulting particle can be blended with compression aids and compressed into tablets or filled into unit dose capsules.

Biomass briquettes
The extrusion production technology of fuel briquettes is the process of extrusion screw wastes (straw, sunflower husks, buckwheat, etc.) or finely shredded wood waste (sawdust) under high pressure when heated from 160 to 350 °C. The resulting fuel briquettes do not include any of the binders, but one natural – the lignin contained in the cells of plant wastes. The temperature during compression causes melting of the surface of bricks, making it more solid, which is important for the transportation of briquettes.

Textiles
The majority of synthetic materials in textiles are manufactured with extrusion only. Fiber forming substances are used in extrusion to form various synthetic filaments. The molten materials are passed through a spinneret that helps in forming fibers.

title: Extrusion


text:
HMS Medway

Eleven ships and a shore establishment of the Royal Navy have been named HMS Medway, after the River Medway.

 * HMS Medway (1693), a 60-gun fourth rate launched in 1693, rebuilt in 1718 and hulked in 1740. She was beached in 1748 and a sheer hulk and was broken up in 1749.
 * HMS Medway (1742), a 60-gun fourth rate launched in 1742 and scuttled in 1748.
 * HMS Medway (1755), a 60-gun fourth rate launched in 1755. She was used as a receiving ship after 1787, and was renamed HMS Arundel in 1802. She was broken up in 1811.
 * HMS Medway (1756), a 6-gun storeship purchased in 1756. She was used as a dockyard craft in 1760 and was sold in 1764.
 * HMS Medway (1812), a 74-gun third rate launched in 1812. She was used as a convict ship after 1847, and was sold in 1865.
 * HMS Medway (1876), an iron-hulled screw gunboat launched in 1876 and sold in 1904.
 * HMS Medway (1916), an M-class destroyer (1913) destroyer, originally to have been named HMS Redwing. This was changed to Medora in 1915, and then Medway before her launch in 1916. She was sold in 1921.
 * HMS Medway (F25), a submarine depot ship launched in 1928 and sunk by GS U-372 in 1942.
 * HMS Medway (shore establishment), were submarine base shore establishments in the Mediterranean, listed between 1942 and 1946. A number of ships were renamed HMS Medway II whilst serving as depot ships for the establishment, including:
 * HMS Talbot, previously HMS M29 was Medway II between 1944 and 1945.
 * HMS Bagshot was Medway II between 1945 and 1946.
 * HMS Medway was the former Landing craft tank HMS LCT 1109. She was HMS Medway between 1959 and 1970 whilst serving as a submarine depot ship.
 * HMS Medway (P223) is a River-class patrol vessel, she entered service in March 2019.

title: HMS Medway


text:
Nuclear quadrupole resonance

Nuclear quadrupole resonance spectroscopy or NQR is a chemical analysis technique related to nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). Unlike NMR, NQR transitions of nuclei can be detected in the absence of a magnetic field, and for this reason NQR spectroscopy is referred to as "zero Field NMR". The NQR resonance is mediated by the interaction of the electric field gradient (EFG) with the quadrupole moment of the nuclear charge distribution. Unlike NMR, NQR is applicable only to solids and not liquids, because in liquids the electric field gradient at the nucleus averages to zero (the EFG tensor has trace zero). Because the EFG at the location of a nucleus in a given substance is determined primarily by the valence electrons involved in the particular bond with other nearby nuclei, the NQR frequency at which transitions occur is unique for a given substance. A particular NQR frequency in a compound or crystal is proportional to the product of the nuclear quadrupole moment, a property of the nucleus, and the EFG in the neighborhood of the nucleus. It is this product which is termed the nuclear quadrupole coupling constant for a given isotope in a material and can be found in tables of known NQR transitions. In NMR, an analogous but not identical phenomenon is the coupling constant, which is also the result of an internuclear interaction between nuclei in the analyte.

Principle
Any nucleus with more than one unpaired nuclear particle (protons or neutrons) will have a charge distribution which results in an electric quadrupole moment. Allowed nuclear energy levels are shifted unequally due to the interaction of the nuclear charge with an electric field gradient supplied by the non-uniform distribution of electron density (e.g. from bonding electrons) and/or surrounding ions. As in the case of NMR, irradiation of the nucleus with a burst of RF electromagnetic radiation may result in absorption of some energy by the nucleus which can be viewed as a perturbation of the quadrupole energy level. Unlike the NMR case, NQR absorption takes place in the absence of an external magnetic field. Application of an external static field to a quadrupolar nucleus splits the quadrupole levels by the energy predicted from the Zeeman interaction. The technique is very sensitive to the nature and symmetry of the bonding around the nucleus. It can characterize phase transitions in solids when performed at varying temperature. Due to symmetry, the shifts become averaged to zero in the liquid phase, so NQR spectra can only be measured for solids.

Analogy with NMR
In the case of NMR, nuclei with spin ≥ 1/2 have a magnetic dipole moment so that their energies are split by a magnetic field, allowing resonance absorption of energy related to the Larmor frequency: $\omega_L = \gamma B$ where $$\gamma$$ is the gyromagnetic ratio and $$B$$ is the (normally applied) magnetic field external to the nucleus.

In the case of NQR, nuclei with spin ≥ 1, such as 14N, 17O, 35Cl and 63Cu, also have an electric quadrupole moment. The nuclear quadrupole moment is associated with non-spherical nuclear charge distributions. As such it is a measure of the degree to which the nuclear charge distribution deviates from that of a sphere; that is, the prolate or oblate shape of the nucleus. NQR is a direct observation of the interaction of the quadrupole moment with the local electric field gradient (EFG) created by the electronic structure of its environment. The NQR transition frequencies are proportional to the product of the electric quadrupole moment of the nucleus and a measure of the strength of the local EFG: $ \omega_Q \sim \frac{e^2 Q q}{\hbar} = C_q$ where q is related to the largest principal component of the EFG tensor at the nucleus. $$C_q$$ is referred to as the quadrupole coupling constant.

In principle, the NQR experimenter could apply a specified EFG in order to influence $$\omega_Q$$ just as the NMR experimenter is free to choose the Larmor frequency by adjusting the magnetic field. However, in solids, the strength of the EFG is many kV/m^2, making the application of EFG's for NQR in the manner that external magnetic fields are chosen for NMR impractical. Consequently, the NQR spectrum of a substance is specific to the substance - and NQR spectrum is a so called "chemical fingerprint." Because NQR frequencies are not chosen by the experimenter, they can be difficult to find making NQR a technically difficult technique to carry out. Since NQR is done in an environment without a static (or DC) magnetic field, it is sometimes called "zero field NMR". Many NQR transition frequencies depend strongly upon temperature.

=== Derivation of resonance frequency === Consider a nucleus with a non-zero quadrupole moment $\textbf{Q}$ and charge density $\rho(\textbf{r})$, which is surrounded by a potential $V(\textbf{r})$. This potential may be produced by the electrons as stated above, whose probability distribution might be non-isotropic in general. The potential energy in this system equals to the integral over the charge distribution $\rho(\textbf{r})$ and the potential $V(\textbf{r})$  within a domain $\mathcal{D}$ :

$$U = - \int_{\mathcal{D}}d^3r \rho(\textbf{r})V(\textbf{r})$$One can write the potential as a Taylor-expansion at the center of the considered nucleus. This method corresponds to the multipole expansion in cartesian coordinates (note that the equations below use the Einstein sum-convention):

$$V(\textbf{r}) = V(0) + \left[ \left( \frac{\partial V}{\partial x_i}\right)\Bigg\vert_0 \cdot x_i \right] + \frac{1}{2} \left[ \left( \frac{\partial^2 V}{\partial x_i x_j}\right) \Bigg\vert_0 \cdot x_i x_j \right] + ...$$

The first term involving $V(0)$ will not be relevant and can therefore be omitted. Since nuclei do not have an electric dipole moment $\textbf{p}$, which would interact with the electric field $\textbf{E} = - \mathrm{grad} V(\textbf{r})$ , the first derivatives can also be neglected. One is therefore left with all nine combinations of second derivatives. However if one deals with a homogeneous oblate or prolate nucleus the matrix $Q_{ij}$ will be diagonal and elements with $i \neq j$  vanish. This leads to a simplification because the equation for the potential energy now contains only the second derivatives in respect to the same variable:

$$U = - \frac{1}{2} \int_{\mathcal{D}}d^3r \rho(\textbf{r}) \left[ \left( \frac{\partial^2 V}{\partial x_i^2}\right) \Bigg\vert_0 \cdot x_i^2 \right] = - \frac{1}{2} \int_{\mathcal{D}}d^3r \rho(\textbf{r}) \left[ \left( \frac{\partial E_i}{\partial x_i}\right) \Bigg\vert_0 \cdot x_i^2  \right] = - \frac{1}{2} \left( \frac{\partial E_i}{\partial x_i}\right) \Bigg\vert_0 \cdot \int_{\mathcal{D}}d^3r \left[\rho(\textbf{r}) \cdot x_i^2 \right]$$The remaining terms in the integral are related to the charge distribution and hence the quadrupole moment. The formula can be simplified even further by introducing the electric field gradient $V_{ii} = \frac{\partial^2 V}{\partial x_i^2} = eq $, choosing the z-axis as the one with the maximal principal component $Q_{zz} $  and using the Laplace equation to obtain the proportionality written above. For an $I = 3/2$ nucleus one obtains with the frequency-energy relation $E = h\nu$ :

$$\nu = \frac{1}{2}\left(\frac{e^2qQ}{h}\right)$$

Applications
There are several research groups around the world currently working on ways to use NQR to detect explosives. Units designed to detect landmines and explosives concealed in luggage have been tested. A detection system consists of a radio frequency (RF) power source, a coil to produce the magnetic excitation field and a detector circuit which monitors for a RF NQR response coming from the explosive component of the object.

A fake device known as the ADE 651 claimed to exploit NQR to detect explosives but in fact could do no such thing. Nonetheless, the device was successfully sold for millions to dozens of countries, including the government of Iraq.

Another practical use for NQR is measuring the water/gas/oil coming out of an oil well in realtime. This particular technique allows local or remote monitoring of the extraction process, calculation of the well's remaining capacity and the water/detergents ratio the input pump must send to efficiently extract oil.

Due to the strong temperature dependence of the NQR frequency, it can be used as a precise temperature sensor with resolution on the order of 10−4 °C.

title: Nuclear quadrupole resonance


text:
User:Wisconsinner

Wisconnsinner lives in Wisconsin. He works in a lumber mill there.

title: User:Wisconsinner


text:
User talk:Elvis Almeida da Silva

Hello, welcome to Wikipedia. Here are some useful links in case you haven't already found them:

 * How to edit a page
 * How to write a great article
 * Naming conventions
 * Manual of Style

If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! If you feel like it, you may leave a note at the new user log too.

Tip: you can sign your name with ~

Dori | Talk 05:45, Jul 25, 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Elvis Almeida da Silva