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Talk:Thermodynamic equilibrium

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1.What the formula for specific heat capacity????

see Heat capacity, Specific heat capacity

2.What the formula for specific latent heat of vaporization and specific latent heat of fusion?

see Latent heat, Heat of fusion, Heat of vaporization.

Please show some examples that can prove the formula are correct.

''Please help us improve articles. If this article Thermodynamic equilibrium would be improved by the above links, please add those links to the article. --DavidCary 13:11, 23 September 2005 (UTC)''

'Local t. e.' Anybody got a reference for that? It's not what my understanding is.GangofOne 06:28, 15 August 2005 (UTC)

The first paragraph is general but good. I have a problem with LTE, namely the field to which these considerations apply need be mentioned (heat transfer?). Local thermodynamic equilibrium can mean many other tings, for instance it is an hypothesis on which calculations of collective diffusive processes are often based (not only radiation heat), and the basis for the Onsager approachuser:ThorinMuglindir

The definition of TE should include the word "isolated" somewhere - otherwise we could be talking about a non-equilibrium stationary state, for example a material with a constant flow of heat through it. The zeroth law then needs to say that the systems in equilibrium need to be in contact with each other, but otherwise isolated. The LTE is too specific - it should say that parts of the system are approximately equilibrium states, but not in equilibrium with each other, for example if the temperature varies with position. Carl Dettmann, Bristol 24 October 2005.

Global thermodynamic equilibrium means that the values of intensive parameters are homogeneous throughout the whole system Temperature certainly and pressure maybe, but density by no means (e.g. water at the triple point). --Art Carlson 17:23, 25 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Art, you are certainly right, that statement is too far-encompassing. Density doesn't work because it is not a quantity linked to the exchange of some extensive quantity (like pressure is linked to the exchange of volume, and temperature is linked to the exchange of heat). Otherwise on another notice sometimes the intensive parameter that controls equilibrium is not always something simple as (just) P. For example, in the presence of a gravity field, equilibrium is reached not when P is constant, but rather when $$P - \rho g z$$ is constant over the system. It seems the text needs to be more careful, though I need a bit of thinking in order to explain these subtleties as simply as possible. The rewriting from what I left is great.ThorinMuglindir 21:17, 25 October 2005 (UTC)
 * OK I made a more careful rewriting of that part.ThorinMuglindir 22:57, 29 October 2005 (UTC)
 * On a similar notice I reworded slightly the part about the glass of water at the end. An out-of-equilibrium state can be maintained in a system, not only "artificially maintained" as I had written. For example, the sun maintains a certain amount of non-equilibrieum on the surface of earth, but this is not "artifical."ThorinMuglindir 21:28, 30 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Two points:
 * Density gradients are linked to the exchange of mass, through the process of diffusion
 * diffusion of molecules will sometimes happen according to the gradient of density (like within a gas, if gravity is negligible), but not always (like at a liquid vapor interface). I believe that most generally, diffusion of a certain species will happen according to the gradient of chemical potential of that species: that's $$\mu$$ in thermodynamics equations and $$\mu_j$$ in statistical mechanics (grand-canonical ensemble).

 * What is the equilibrium nature of water at the triple point, in the absence of gravity and boundaries? Would there be a tendency as time goes by to form large scale density variations, like water/ice planets, or would it be a big cloud of small ice crystals and water droplets? If so, how small? PAR 22:05, 30 October 2005 (UTC)
 * If the system is not submitted to external gravity, but gravity between components of the system would remain, there would be a tendancy to form ice and water planets (or planets made of both more probably), though that would be only for very large systems. If gravity is totally suppressed, or for a smaller system, capillarity would prevent water drops from divinding when they are below a certain size. Sometimes two water drop would collide each other and merge. Big droplets would have a tendancy to divide, but would this process eventually eliminate all water masses above a certain size before they have time to form by random merging? I can't answer to this last question.ThorinMuglindir 23:58, 30 October 2005 (UTC)
 * That makes sense, except the part about large droplets having a tendency to divide. What's the force causing the division, just the random accumulation of angular momentum? PAR 02:47, 31 October 2005 (UTC)

Shouldn't the relation of thermodynamic equilibrium to entropy (specifically, the fact that entropy is maximized at equilibrium) be mentioned in here somewhere? I'm not knowledgeable enough about the technical details to add it myself, but I thought it was pretty important. Hypnosifl 21:50, 19 October 2006 (UTC)

Steady state versus uniform conditions
It would seem the article needs to make a clearer distinction between the concepts of a "uniform" medium versus a system in steady state, the latter allowing spatial but not temporal dis-uniformity. I can take a stab at some of this in the thermal context. Rnestle 18:31, 22 February 2007 (UTC)

 * There's another state - equilibrium, which may not be uniform but will be steady state. This article should confine itself to the equilibrium state, with mention of other possibilities which should be developed in their own article. PAR 20:25, 22 February 2007 (UTC)

 * As far as other articles, shouldn't we have an article called Thermal equilibrium? presently that link just takes one to the present article. Rnestle 21:40, 22 February 2007 (UTC)

=Definition?= I'm a little confused about the wording and inferences implied in the definition. Can ANY system EVER be said to actually be in 100% equilibrium or 100% isolated from its environment or surroundings. i.e. will ΔS ever actually equal 0 or does it just 'approach' it?

—Preceding unsigned comment added by Nomdelapaix (talk • contribs) 12:15, 9 April 2010 (UTC)

 * You are right. No physically real system can be in strictly exact thermodynamic equilibrium. One studies approximations to it, and they are useful for theoretical studies, and for practical measurements. Practically all real physical systems involve transport of matter or energy or both, and are thus not strictly exactly in thermodynamic equilibrium.Chjoaygame (talk) 21:53, 28 November 2011 (UTC)

Thermal dispersion?
What the heck is thermal dispersion? I am removing it from the article as it means nothing to me. --Drozdyuk (talk) 14:44, 14 July 2010 (UTC)

Furthermore I removed the reference to C.Michael Hogan et al., 1973, as I was not able to find it immediately, and there is not journal, publisher or any other indication as to the origin of the reference. --Drozdyuk (talk) 14:47, 14 July 2010 (UTC)

 * Agreed, the reference was too ambiguous for any one to find it. I believe the term that the previous author was looking for was "thermal diffusion", but perhaps by the term "dispersion" he was trying to to be inclusive of advective effects.  However, there is still a serious problem with this section in that the river example contradicts the previous statement "in an equilibrium state, there are no unbalanced potentials (or driving forces) with the system." The river, while not time variant, has temperature gradients (i.e. potentials) driving heat flows via Fourier's Law and is encountering thermodynamic irreversablity.  I think this section is confusing "equilibrium" with "steady".  Even so, the river analogy has complications in that the flow is only valid in the Eulerian frame of reference and that real rivers are turbulent and hence stationary (invariant statistics with respect to time) rather than steady (invariant spacial distribution of state variables).  Not sure what your background is Drozdyuk, so I apologize if I lost you with any of the aforementioned terminology.  In any case, I wish to look at some text books for reference next week for a solid reference on the meaning of the term "thermal equilibrium".  I think the truth is that it is often causally used in situations that really don't stand up to rigorous scrutiny because they depend on the frame of reference and a good article needs to discuss the distinction in a manner that people can understand.  —Preceding unsigned comment added by Bdentremont (talk • contribs) 04:29, 15 July 2010 (UTC)

Definition of Thermal equilibrium
TThe current article (08/10/10) states:

"Thermal equilibrium is achieved when two systems in thermal contact with each other cease to exchange energy by heat"

I believe is more proper to state that

"Thermal equilibrium is achieved when there is no longer a net change of heat exchange between two systems in thermal contact with each other"

in the same sense as when a chemical reaction reaches equilibrium. My point is that heat exchange never "ceases," but that the rate of heat exchange between AB and BA are the same. I don't think my version expresses this idea fully, Can someone paraphrase properly?

 * I think an even better definition would be "when the net energy exchange rate by heat between two system is zero". But I'd like to dig what textbooks say, before. -- Cycl o pia talk  00:44, 11 August 2010 (UTC)

Global stationarity
I feel that the phrase "global stationarity" is too technical for this article. I "think" I understand what it means, but I am very sure that the average reader won't. Q Science (talk) 16:36, 14 November 2010 (UTC)

Equilibrium Temperature? (of planets. Copied from Kepler 11.)
This chart is copied straight out of the article for Gliese 581 g. Does anyone else think it would be a good idea to make it a standard chart for all extra-solar planets that are compared to Earth? With the relevent values swapped in of course. 24.79.40.48 (talk) 17:05, 26 November 2011 (UTC)

break

 * Possibly. I'd definitely find it useful in visualizing the planets more accurately. I'll request more input by notifying WikiProject Astronomy, see if this can get any extra opinions. --Starstriker7(Talk) 19:11, 26 November 2011 (UTC)

 * No, many exo-planets are Super-Jupiter or Neptune sized, comparing those to Jupiter or Neptune would be better. Large Super-Jupiters should be compared to the smallest theoretical brown dwarf and Jupiter, smaller ones ( <5MJ ) can drop the brown dwarf comparison. 70.24.248.23 (talk) 23:11, 26 November 2011 (UTC)

 * That's why I mentioned, with relevent values swapped in. I know for example Jupiter has a suface temperature, core temperature, and equilibrium temperature. I don't see the problem with swapping the gas giant values in. I think the main point would be the comparison of equilibrium temperatures, which is mainly influenced by distance. The irradiance of each planet would be good also but no one does a comparison of those, the equilibrium temperature is the closest thing. 24.79.40.48 (talk) 15:35, 28 November 2011 (UTC)

 * Remember that thermodynamic equilibrium is a laboratory and theoretical thing, not found in general in nature, useful for basic theoretical studies, but not directly in practical applications. Thermodynamic equilibrium is a special kind of equilibrium, in which there is zero transport of everything. The kinds of equilibrium that pertain to planets involve massive transport of energy and matter, and are thus quite far from thermodynamic equilibrium.Chjoaygame (talk) 21:48, 28 November 2011 (UTC)
 * ♦ What I will remember is your suggestion that a great many Astrophysicists, using Equlibrium Temperature, are out to lunch. 24.79.40.48 (talk) 03:25, 15 December 2011 (UTC)
 * That chart is nonsense. For instance, the Earth's "Global equilibrium temperature" is close to 5°C, not -18°C (which includes the albedo of clouds, ice, and the like). If the albedo is included for Venus (in order to make a fair comparison), the surface temperature should be 184.2K (-89°C), not 34°C. The greenhouse stuff is also nonsense, as is the claim that Venus is almost tidally locked (? - not really). Note: that chart was created by user:GabrielVelasquez the day before he was permanently blocked. I suggest that everything written by that person needs a real close look. Q Science (talk) 04:35, 29 November 2011 (UTC)

 * Apart from the above criticism of the content of the chart, I would add that the chart would not be appropriate for this article on thermodynamic equilibrium even if it were not nonsense.Chjoaygame (talk) 22:43, 29 November 2011 (UTC)

I find these comments silly since the chart is already in several articles for extrasolar planets, there is no need to dismiss it based on a hatred of a particular user. In fact I would go as far as to say the criticism is very irrational since almost every popular article on an extrasolar planet refers to its Equilibrium Temperature. If scientist keep referring to this ( and it is -18°C for Earth) in many articles for extrasolar planets, then where is the article for this idea??? Maybe this thing that scientist keep refering to needs its own article, instead of being directed back here,?? 24.79.40.48 (talk) 03:30, 15 December 2011 (UTC) ►List of 41 planet articles refering to Equilibrium Temperature 24.79.40.48 (talk) 07:14, 10 January 2012 (UTC)

 * I agree with Chjoaygame: this chart is completely inappropriate to this article, and even this talk page is not the place to discuss the usefulness of producing a standard chart. For a proper discussion, move it to someplace where editors with a suitable knowledge of the area will be involved. Quondum talkcontr 08:11, 15 December 2011 (UTC)

 * It seems that my above remarks are not making sense to some editors. Please let me try again. Equilibrium is a widely used word, with many meanings. Thermodynamic equilibrium is a term of art in thermodynamics, a specifically defined kind of equilibrium, indeed a kind that practically never occurs exactly as defined; it can be approximated in laboratory experiments. Thermodynamic equilibrium explicitly forbids flow of any kind, while the energy budgets of planets are all about significantly large flows of energy, the very denial of thermodynamic equilibrium. The question here is not as to the content of the table but as to the content of an article on thermodynamic equilibrium. I have not studied the table in question here, but it does not need study to say that the present Wikipedia article on thermodynamic equilibrium is not its natural home. Without prejudice as to the value of the table for elsewhere in the Wikipedia, the table has no place here.Chjoaygame (talk) 18:38, 15 December 2011 (UTC)
 * Note, it would be courteous to state the actual question when starting an RFC. I infer it's whether to include the above chart? No, it refers to a different kind of equilibrium. Nobody Ent (Gerardw) 22:03, 16 December 2011 (UTC)

I have removed the text-wrap code and displayed the references. Notice that 2 of the references don't go anywhere. Also, that most of the data in the table is not referenced. Q Science (talk) 07:57, 17 December 2011 (UTC)
 * ♦ How convenient for your argument that they don't work here, but they work fine where the chart was copied from: Original Chart 24.79.40.48 (talk) 07:11, 19 December 2011 (UTC)
 * Then please fix them here. After all, you are the one who added the chart here. Q Science (talk) 07:47, 20 December 2011 (UTC)
 * ♦ Again, Maybe this thing that scientist keep refering to needs its own article! instead of being redirected back here. 24.79.40.48 (talk) 07:14, 19 December 2011 (UTC) ♦ Regardless of anyone understanding your comments about Thermodynamic Equilibrium or not, by default the relevant and important point you are both missing is that mentions of equilibrium temperature in articles about extrasolar planets do link to this Thermodynamic Equilibrium Article. All mentions in all articles. Any mention in any article of Equilibrium Temperature, here, Hello? If you are correct then correct all the redirects of Equilibrium Temperature. 24.79.40.48 (talk) 07:23, 19 December 2011 (UTC)
 * Perhaps you've not noticed that Thermodynamic equilibrium and Thermal equilibrium are distinct articles, and more importantly, distinct concepts. The relevant links in the Equilibrium temperature article appear to be correct as they are; the links to this article are only to point out that the two should not be confused. — Quondum tc 07:57, 19 December 2011 (UTC)
 * A very deceptive and rude statement given that the second article was just created out of the first as a result of this discussion here.24.79.40.48 (talk) 07:27, 10 January 2012 (UTC)

This chart/table definitely does not belong to this article or the thermal equilibrium article. If it is placed here, by similar argument, so should be tables and values for equilibrium temperatures of laptop computers, electric bulb, human body, stars, etc. Nothing special about temperatures of planets! This article is about the concept from physics, not a database of temperature values for different bodies. - Subh83 (talk | contribs) 21:20, 19 December 2011 (UTC)

Comment from uninvolved editor with interest in both areas, and some expertise in one (thermo and astro) This chart is almost completely irrelevant to this article. There's a rock in my back garden that is currently at 302K. So what? Greglocock (talk) 06:04, 20 December 2011 (UTC)
 * Nonsense, that you would compare a rock in your back yard to an extra solar planet and make the later as worthless says a lot about your reasoning, Any planet near the Habitable zone of the parent star is going to refer the concept of Equilibrium temperature in its article, bet on it! There are three or four such article that have this chart in them already. 24.79.40.48 (talk) 22:23, 8 January 2012 (UTC) ►List of 41 planet articles refering to Equilibrium Temperature24.79.40.48 (talk) 07:19, 10 January 2012 (UTC)

 * Dear Editor 24.79.40.48, the question for the present purpose is not (1) whether or not the table is valuable or correct or interesting or important for climate science. The question for the present purpose is (2) whether it is relevant to the subject of the present article on Thermodynamic equilibrium; this question (2) is not affected by the question (1). Editors need to understand the articles to which they contribute. The article on Thermodynamic equilibrium is about a theoretical area of physics that is mostly concerned with small homogeneous systems and with strictly cyclic processes. By the criteria of the present article, planetary processes are far from thermodynamic equilibrium and discussion of them is therefore far from the concern of the present article. I have therefore tried to change the target of the re-direct from Equilibrium temperature to Climate model in order to satisfy your desire for a re-direct, as you will see below. But another editor insists that this is not acceptable, and I do not have time or inclination to struggle over it. However that re-direct problem is dealt with, it remains the case that a table about planetary equilibrium temperature is not suitable for an article on Thermodynamic equilibrium, no matter how excellent and valid and valuable might be that table might be from the point of view of studies of climate and planetary temperature. You may wish to verify this for yourself by studying the article on Thermodynamic equilibrium.Chjoaygame (talk) 04:10, 9 January 2012 (UTC)

redirect
For the redirect from the source Equilibrium temperature, I have changed the target from Thermodynamic equilibrium to Climate model. This may not be the best solution, but it may be a start to finding a better one.Chjoaygame (talk) 21:21, 24 December 2011 (UTC)
 * It should redirect to Thermal equilibrium. Equilibrium temperature has nothing to do in specific with the climate. It is a general concept in physics. There is an equilibrium temperature for your refrigerator as well. I am changing the redirection accordingly. - Subh83 (talk | contribs) 00:19, 25 December 2011 (UTC)

 * It is contrary to Wikipedia policy or ill-mannered of you to refer to my refrigerator, because it deliberately and quite unnecessarily makes it personal.

 * Your comment just above is an assertion of your unsourced opinion, which you may wish to back up with some reliable sourcing, if you wish it to be taken as more than your opinion. The phrase 'equilibrium temperature' is conveniently used occasionally in general physics, but, contrary to the implication of your comment, it is not a specially defined technical term. On the other hand it does have a usage in present day climate science that is more than a mere occasional phrase.

 * I think the best solution would be simply to delete the redirect item Equilibrium temperature. I thought this at first, then changed my mind when I thought of the usage in present-day climate science, but now you have led me to revert to my initial response, to delete the redirect item.

 * If one wants to keep the redirect item Equilibrium temperature, one should present a properly supported reason. I am not denying the occasional use of the term in ordinary physics, but I am saying that it is just an occasionally convenient phrase, not a specially defined term of physics, and as such does not deserve a Wikipedia entry of its own, not even a redirect. For this reason I would oppose retaining the redirect item if the redirect is to thermal equilibrium or to thermodynamics.

 * I think that most people who Google 'equilibrium temperature' or try to find it in Wikipedia will be coming from a climate science perspective, indeed from the very climate science perspective to which the redirect pointed just before you changed it. The webpage provides an example of the special use of the term in present-day climatology, though by itself it does not qualify, I think, as a reliable source. An example that might perhaps just do as a reliable source would be the usage "... where $T_{0}$ is the equilibrium temperature before the forcing ..." from Wallace, J.M., Hobbs, P.V. (2006), Atmospheric Science. An Introductory Survey, second edition, Elsevier, Amsterdam, ISBN 978–0–12–732951–2, page 446. A near-miss is "T = Te = 255 K, which is referred to as the radiative equilibrium or skin temperature of earth" from Dickinson, R.E. (1982),"Modelling climate changes due to carbon dioxide increases", pages 103-133 of Carbon Dioxide Review, 1982, Oxford University Press, Oxford UK, ISBN 0198553684, page 105. The climatologic specific usage is real but not very heavy, and hardly justifies a Wikipedia redirect for itself.

 * I repeat, my preference is now to delete the redirect item Equilibrium temperature altogether.Chjoaygame (talk) 10:39, 25 December 2011 (UTC)

 * User:Chjoaygame: Please provide reference to the relevant Wikipedia policy that forbids use of refrigerator as example. As for the rest of the discussion, please move it to Talk:Equilibrium_temperature. - Subh83 (talk | contribs) 19:53, 26 December 2011 (UTC)

 * Thank you for this. I was not referring to use of a refrigerator as an example, but to its being made my personal one. Further comments from me at Talk:Equilibrium temperature. I intend not to dispute this matter further, but to leave your edit as you made it there.Chjoaygame (talk) 00:20, 27 December 2011 (UTC)

the table now put into the article on thermal equilibrium
The table in question has now been newly put into the article on Thermal equilibrium. I am not impressed that it should be there and I am here asking editors with relevant interests to look at its being there, and to make their comments on that question in the talk page there.Chjoaygame (talk) 08:03, 10 January 2012 (UTC)

I would say that I think the reason the table was newly put there is that the redirect of Equilibrium temperature has target Thermal equilibrium at the insistence of another editor, when I think the better redirect (if the entry 'Thermal equilibrium' is not deleted as I would prefer) would be to Climate model as noted above. Perhaps even another redirect target would be better?Chjoaygame (talk) 02:48, 10 January 2012 (UTC)

lead comment on information
The lead is a summary of the article. There is no mention of information in the body of the article and therefore no reason to mention it in the lead. Information is not a concept of classical thermodynamics, and the body of this article is probably not the place to introduce it. This comment does not deny that information is relevant to thermodynamics, but says that this was not the way to express such relevance.Chjoaygame (talk) 03:46, 2 March 2012 (UTC)

Entropy
This article mentions entropy only in the overview, this important thermodynamic concept is neither explained nor referenced in the rest of the article. Since the maximisation of entropy is fundamental to the concept of thermal equilibrium I suggest that this deficiency be remedied as soon as possible. --Damorbel (talk) 09:09, 31 December 2012 (UTC)

This whole article is fit only for deletion
This article is:- 1/ subtantialy unsourced. Most of the material is WP:POV, e.g. the section Local and global equilibrium and the section Types of equilibrium The reason for the given links is unclear, either based on the contributors interpretation of what the link is about or to text books with no mentioned merit i.e. it contains the authors POV, without technical content.

2/ Very unclear. The opening statement:-
 * Equilibrium means a state of balance. In a state of thermodynamic equilibrium, there are no net flows of matter or of energy, no phase changes, and no unbalanced potentials (or driving forces), within the system. A system that is in thermodynamic equilibrium experiences no changes when it is isolated from its surroundings.

does not even contain the essential feature of equilibrium - that of uniform temperature. The writer is trying very hard to include systems that are not in equilibrium; read this section on uniform temperature where you will find the contributors opinion:-
 * Planck was setting aside surface effects and external fields and anisotropic crystals. Though referring to temperature, Planck did not there explicitly refer to the concept of thermodynamic equilibrium. In contrast, Carathéodory's scheme of presentation postulates the concept of thermodynamic equilibrium, though not explicitly postulating the existence of a temperature to define it.

Interesting stuff, fine for the opening of a high school paper but not for an encyclopaedia.

3/ The writer of this material contributes to another article Thermal Equilibrium with sections such as Distinctions between thermal and thermodynamic equilibria and http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_equilibrium#Theoretical foundations. In these sections the writer repeats much that is contained in this one without observable justification.

4/ Both of these articles should be rewritten with the contents substantially acceptable to a number of contributors.--Damorbel (talk) 14:16, 2 January 2013 (UTC)

 * So fix it, but all what you just stated can be fixed by editing, so deletion is not an option. AfD is not cleanup. -- Cycl o pia talk  14:52, 2 January 2013 (UTC)

 * When two articles are virtually indistinguishable one of them should go!

 * I am extremely reluctant to edit when currently there is a very active editor who seldom responds to article discussion points in the talk pages. If you want to see what I mean, look here - very many edits; and here - very few talk contribs. --Damorbel (talk) 15:58, 2 January 2013 (UTC)

Does Equilibrium Exist?
Earth scientists believe so, from geochemists sampling water to petrologists sampling rocks. Equilibrium is a relationship. Its existence is sought by simplifying the variables in those relationships (necessary and sufficient) to three classes: extensities, densities, and intensities. (The last two are intensive variables.) These, with phases, can be observed or measured to our satisfaction. If the equations are satisfied to the accuracy of our current instruments, the system is is equilibrium--by definition. Predictions will be reliable to our instruments' accuracies.

If we perturb the system when studying it, The Gibbs-Duhem equations predict that the system will respond in a manner that ameliorates these perturbations by buffering. This amelioration is also continuous, during phase changes, while experiencing a continuous flux of extensities; but if the generation of responses by internal reactions is much faster than the fluxes, the equilibrium relations will exist at every measurable point.

Practically, if two adjacent assemblages of minerals (differing in bulk composition) have densities that predict the same intensities, induction suggests they were in equilibrium. The system will be in equilibrium with respect to space (local equilibrium) and to time (quasi-static equilibrium [a most unhappy term]). It is the intensities that need be continuous (T, p, mu), not densities (specific entropy, concentrations).

So yes, geologists think there is an equilibrium even when any or all walls are relaxed. Those descriptions quoted in the article gave at least sufficient conditions; but most tried to strive for necessary conditions as well. (The connection with efficiency, asked above, was somewhat lost when switching to a theory of states rather than phenomena; but the relations sought above are the systems' characteristic functions and their derivatives.) Geologist (talk) 06:04, 4 January 2014 (UTC)

undid good faith edit; why
I undid what was probably a good faith edit, unfortunately unsigned with a user name.

The undone edit intended to say that an externally maintained force field can produce temperature inhomogeneity in a body that is in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium.

There is in reliable sources unanimity that such is not so.

Nevertheless, it keeps being proposed by occasional users that it is so.

I think perhaps one reason why such users repeat the mistake might be that they see temperature inhomogeneity in non-equilibrium steady states in a gravitational field, and they fail to recognize that the difference between thermodynamic equilibrium and a non-equilibrium steady state is profound and far reaching. It invalidates their proposal. To understand this further, users should study the reliable sources, of which nine are currently listed in the article in the second paragraph of the subsection Uniform temperature of the section Characteristics of a state of internal thermodynamic equilibrium of the article.Chjoaygame (talk) 15:06, 13 November 2014 (UTC)

undid good faith edit; why
I undid this good-faith edit. Thinking of the universe as a thermodynamic system is trying to stretch thermodynamics far beyond its scope. There are references to this effect in the article on Heat death of the universe. That topic is only of historic interest. It was conceived before the discovery of the general theory of relativity and the concept of black holes. Clausius poetically wrote of the entropy of the universe and suchlike, but that was fancy, not science. It doesn't fit here.Chjoaygame (talk) 18:42, 5 February 2016 (UTC)

Introduction
Does anyone else think the introduction could use some work to help lay readers? I might begin by describing it in terms of heat transfer and then explain that it's axiomatic.

title: Talk:Thermodynamic equilibrium


text:
List of heads of government of British Cameroons

This is a list of heads of government of British Cameroons

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Key System

The Key System (or Key Route) was a privately owned company that provided mass transit in the cities of Oakland, Berkeley, Alameda, Emeryville, Piedmont, San Leandro, Richmond, Albany, and El Cerrito in the eastern San Francisco Bay Area from 1903 until 1960, when it was sold to a newly formed public agency, AC Transit. The Key System consisted of local streetcar and bus lines in the East Bay, and commuter rail and bus lines connecting the East Bay to San Francisco by a ferry pier on San Francisco Bay, later via the lower deck of the Bay Bridge. At its height during the 1940s, the Key System had over 66 mi of track. The local streetcars were discontinued in 1948 and the commuter trains to San Francisco were discontinued in 1958. The Key System's territory is today served by BART and AC Transit bus service.

Early years
The system began as a consolidation of several streetcar lines assembled in the late 1890s and early 1900s by Francis Marion "Borax" Smith and his business interests. After having made a fortune in Borax and gained his nickname, "Borax", the entrepreneur turned to real estate and electric traction for streetcars. The Key System was founded as the San Francisco, Oakland, and San Jose Railway (SFOSJR), incorporated in 1902. After consolidating local lines under one company, Smith sought to compete with the Southern Pacific commuter ferry market as well as develop new streetcar suburbs in the East Bay. The troubled California & Nevada Railroad had begun construction of a ferry pier in Oakland, but its plans were never realized. Smith purchased the railroad in order to gain access to its right of way and waterfront operations, as well as use the abandoned pier as a starting point for his own passenger mole.

Transbay service began on October 26, 1903, with a four-car train carrying 250 passengers, departing downtown Berkeley for the ferry to San Francisco. Before the end of 1903, Frank C. Havens, the general manager of the SFOSJR, devised the idea of using a stylized map on which the system's routes resembled an old-fashioned key, with three "handle loops" that covered the cities of Berkeley, Piedmont (initially, "Claremont" shared the Piedmont loop) and Oakland, and a "shaft" in the form of the Key pier, the "teeth" representing the ferry berths at the end of the pier. The company touted its 'key route', which led to the adoption of the name "Key System".

In 1908, the SFOSJR changed its name to the San Francisco, Oakland & San Jose Consolidated Railway; it changed to the San Francisco-Oakland Terminal Railway in 1912. Smith was ousted from the company in 1913. After it went bankrupt in December 1923, it was re-organized as the Key System Transit Co., adopting a marketing concept as the name of the company.

Following the Great Crash of 1929, a holding company called the Railway Equipment & Realty Co. was created, with the subsidiary Key System Ltd running the commuter trains. In 1938, the name became the Key System.

During World War II, the Key System built and operated the Shipyard Railway between a transfer station in Emeryville and the Kaiser Shipyards in Richmond.

National City Lines era
National City Lines acquired 64% of the stock in the system in 1946.

The same year E. Jay Quinby hand published a document exposing the ownership of National City Lines (General Motors, Firestone Tire, and Phillips Petroleum). He addressed the publication to The Mayors; The City Manager; The City Transit Engineer; The members of The Committee on Mass-Transportation and The Tax-Payers and The Riding Citizens of Your Community. In it he wrote "This is an urgent warning to each and every one of you that there is a careful, deliberately planned campaign to swindle you out of your most important and valuable public utilities–your Electric Railway System".

The new owners made a number of rapid changes. In 1946 they cut back the A-1 train route and then the express trains in 1947. The company increased fares in 1946 and then in both January and November 1947. During the period there were many complaints of overcrowding.

On April9, 1947, nine corporations and seven individuals (constituting officers and directors of certain of the corporate defendants) were indicted in the Federal District Court of Southern California on two counts: 'conspiring to acquire control of a number of transit companies, forming a transportation monopoly' and 'Conspiring to monopolize sales of buses and supplies to companies owned by National City Lines'. They were convicted of conspiring to monopolize sales of buses and supplies. They were acquitted of conspiring to monopolize the ownership of these companies.

In 1948 National City Lines proposed a plan to convert all the streetcars to buses. They placed an advertisement in the local papers explaining their plan to 'modernize' and 'motorize' Line 14. The Oakland City Council opposed the plan by 5–3. The Public Utilities Commission (PUC) supported the plan which included large fare increases. In October 1948, 700 people signed a petition with the PUC "against the Key System, seeking restoration of the bus service on the #70 Chabot Bus line". The city councils of Oakland, Berkeley and San Leandro opposed the removal of street cars. The traffic planners supported removal of the streetcar lines to facilitate movement of automobiles. Local governments in the East Bay attempted to purchase the Key System, but were unsuccessful.

Streetcars were converted to buses during November/December 1948.

In 1949 National City Lines, General Motors and others were convicted of conspiring to monopolize the sale of buses and related products to their subsidiary transit companies throughout the U.S.

Between 1946 and 1954 transbay fares increased from 20¢ to 50¢ ($ to $ adjusted for inflation). Fares in this period were used to operate and for 'motorisation' which included streetcar track removal, repaving, purchase of new buses and the construction of bus maintenance facilities. Transbay ridership fell from 22.2million in 1946 to 9.8million in 1952.

The Key System's famed commuter train system was dismantled in 1958 after many years of declining ridership as well by the corrupt monopolistic efforts of National City Lines. The last run was on April20, 1958. In 1960, the newly formed publicly owned AC Transit took over the Key System's facilities.

Most of the rolling stock was scrapped, with some sold to Buenos Aires, Argentina. Several streetcars, interurbans and bridge units were salvaged for collections in the United States. Of the large bridge units, three are at the Western Railway Museum near Rio Vista, California while another is at the Orange Empire Railway Museum in southern California.

System details
The initial connection across the Bay to San Francisco was by ferryboat via a causeway and pier ("mole"), extending from the end of Yerba Buena Avenue in Oakland, California, westward 16,000 feet (4,900 m) to a ferry terminal near Yerba Buena Island. Filling for the causeway had been started by a short-lived narrow-gauge railroad company in the late 19th century, the California and Nevada Railroad. "Borax" Smith acquired the causeway from the California and Nevada upon its bankruptcy.

On December 4, 1924, six people were killed in a train collision on the mole. On May 6, 1933, a major fire erupted on the pier end of the mole, consuming the ferry terminal building as well as gutting the ferryboat Peralta. The pier was subsequently reconstructed further south and a new terminal building erected.

The Key System operated a fleet of ferries between the Key Route Pier and the San Francisco Ferry Building until January 15, 1939, when a new dual track opened on the south side of the lower deck of the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge, bringing Key System trains to the then-new Transbay Terminal in San Francisco's downtown. The bridge railway and Transbay Terminal were shared with the Southern Pacific's Interurban Electric and the Western Pacific's Sacramento Northern railroads.

The Key System's first trains were composed of standard wooden railroad passenger cars, complete with clerestory roofs. Atop each of these, a pair of pantographs, invented and manufactured by the Key System's own shops, were installed to collect current from overhead wires to power a pair of electric motors on each car, one on each truck (bogie).

The design of rolling stock changed over the years. Wood gave way to steel, and, instead of doors at each end, center doors were adopted.

The later rolling stock consisted of specially designed "bridge units" for use on the new bridge, articulated cars sharing a common central truck and including central passenger entries in each car, a forerunner of the design of most light rail vehicles today. Several of these pairs were connected to make up a train. Power pickup was via pantograph from overhead catenary wires, except on the Bay Bridge where a third rail pickup was used. The Key's trains ran on 600 volt direct current, compared to the 1200 volts used by the SP commuter trains. The cars had an enclosed operator's cab in the right front, with passenger seats extending to the very front of the vehicle, a favorite seat for many children, with dramatic views of the tracks ahead.

The exterior color of the cars was orange and silver. Interior upholstery was woven reed seat covers in one of the articulated sections, and leather in the other, the smoking section. The flooring was linoleum. During WWII, the roofs were painted gray for aerial camouflage. After acquisition by National City Lines, all Key vehicles including the bridge units were re-painted in that company's standard colors, yellow and green.

Transbay rail lines

Until the Bay Bridge railway began operation, Key commuter trains had no letter designation. They were generally referred to by the principal street or district they served, though the Key System did not have any formal naming scheme outside of letter designations. D was reserved for a proposed line into Montclair alongside the Sacramento Northern interurban railway. Shortly after opening of the Bay Bridge to train traffic, the Key System continued to use its pier for special service trains for ferry service to the 1939 Golden Gate International Exposition on Treasure Island— these were given the special designation "X". The service was discontinued at the end of the first year of the Exposition and not revived for the 1940 season.

On September 13, 1942, a stop was opened at Yerba Buena Island to serve expanded wartime needs on adjacent Treasure Island. It remained after the war until the end of all rail service on the Key System.

The A, B, C, E and F lines were the last Key System rail lines. Train service ended on April 20, 1958, replaced by buses using the same letter designations. AC Transit preserved the letter-designated routes when it took over the Key System two years later, and are still in use; AC Transit's B, C, E, F, G and H lines follow roughly the corresponding Key routes and neighborhoods.

East Bay Street railways
The Key System's streetcars operated as a separate division under the name "Oakland Traction Company", later changed to "East Bay Street Railways. Ltd", and finally to "East Bay Transit Co.", reflecting the increasing use of buses. The numbering of the streetcar lines changed several times over the years. The Key System's streetcars operated out of several carbarns. The Central Carhouse was on the east side of Lake Merritt on Third Avenue. The Western Carhouse was located at 51st and Telegraph Avenue in the Temescal District of Oakland. The Elmhurst Carhouse was in the east Oakland district of Elmhurst, on East 14th (International Blvd.) between 94th and 96th Avenues. The Northern Carhouse was in Richmond where today's AC Transit has a bus yard. In the early years of operation, these were supplemented by a number of smaller carbarns scattered throughout the East Bay area, many of them inherited from the pre-Key companies acquired by "Borax" Smith. The Key streetcars were originally painted dark green and cream white, then orange. They were re-painted in the green and yellow scheme of National City Lines after NCL acquired the Key System.

The Key System had ordered 40 trolley coaches from ACF-Brill in 1945 to convert the East Bay trolley lines. The new NCL management canceled the Key's trackless program in 1946 before wire changes were made, and diverted the order (some units of which had already been painted for the Key and delivered to Oakland) to its own Los Angeles Transit Lines, where they ran until 1963. The last Key streetcars ran on November 28, 1948, replaced by buses.

Related rail systems

 * The Key System organized its freight business in 1929 as the Key Terminal Railway, Ltd. In 1938, the name was changed to the Oakland Terminal Railroad, Ltd. In 1943 the Oakland Terminal Railroad was jointly purchased by the Western Pacific Railroad and the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway and is now known as the Oakland Terminal Railway.
 * The Eastshore and Suburban Railway (E&SR) was a formerly independent unit of the Key System which ran streetcar trains in Richmond, San Pablo, and El Cerrito. Service to Oakland required a transfer to Oakland Traction Company trains at the County Line station and service to San Francisco required an additional transfer.
 * See also the East Bay Electric Lines; another transbay commuter rail system operated by the Southern Pacific in the East Bay until 1941.
 * See also the Sacramento Northern Railroad, an interurban system running from Chico through Sacramento to Oakland which also used some of the Key System's trackage as well as the Key System's ferry pier, and later ran to the Transbay Terminal until 1941.

Other properties
From the beginning, the Key System had been conceived as a dual real estate and transportation system. "Borax" Smith and his partner Frank C. Havens first established a company called the "Realty Syndicate" which acquired large tracts of undeveloped land throughout the East Bay. The Realty Syndicate also built two large hotels, each served by a San Francisco-bound train, the Claremont and the Key Route Inn, and a popular amusement park in Oakland called Idora Park. Streetcar lines were also routed to serve all these properties, thereby enhancing their value. In its early years, the Key System was actually a subsidiary of the Realty Syndicate. Berkeley's numerous paths, lanes, walks and steps, were put in place in many of the newly developed neighborhoods, often in the middle of a city block, so that commuters could walk more directly to the new train system. Berkeley's pathways are still maintained by local groups.

Legacy
Signs of the system still remain:

 * The south wall of the lower level (today's eastbound lanes) of the Yerba Buena Tunnel, connecting the two spans of the Bay Bridge, still contains the as-built "deadman holes", regularly spaced refuge bays into which railway workers could duck whenever a train came along.
 * The eastern end of the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge sits on landfill which was added to the northern edge of the causeway which carried the Key System railbed to the ferry piers.
 * The tunnel that Key System trains used to cross under the Southern Pacific (now Union Pacific and Amtrak) tracks to the mole and later the Bay Bridge still exists. It is visible from the Alexander Zuckerman Bike Path, the ramps of the Macarthur Maze, and at the southwest end of the Target store property in Emeryville, a locale that was once part of the Key System yards and shops.
 * A stretch of road in Albany that was built with a wide median for a planned extension (never constructed) of the "G" Westbrae line is named Key Route Boulevard.
 * The Claremont Hotel, built by a Key System affiliate company, The Realty Syndicate, survives as the Claremont Resort. It was the terminus of the "E" transbay line.
 * The Realty Syndicate Building at 1440 Broadway was built in 1912 and housed "Borax" Smith and Frank C. Havens's Realty Syndicate that created the Key System. It is listed on the National Historic Register.
 * The Key System's subsequent administrative headquarters building, built as the Security Bank and Trust Company Building in 1914, exists at 1100 Broadway in downtown Oakland and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The building suffered some damage in the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake and is as of June 2020 unoccupied, although there are plans for the building to be rehabilitated by a developer constructing a larger new building adjacent to it.
 * A building which has been converted for restaurant use at 41st Street and Piedmont Avenue in Oakland is the partial remnant of what was formerly a covered stop for trains on the C-line. (The tracks followed 40th Street, crossed Howe Street and curved through the parking lot behind Piedmont Avenue shops, then merged onto Piedmont Avenue at 41st Street and headed toward Pleasant Valley Avenue.) Old photos of the Key System are on the walls of the restaurant, as well as a partial mural (painted in 2005 and partially removed in 2014) of Key System images on one of its outside walls.
 * The old Key System Piedmont shops building at Bay Place and Harrison is now a Whole Foods Market retail store. This building was originally built in 1890 as the powerhouse and car barn of the Piedmont Cable Car Co. In the 1920s, it was substantially remodeled and used as a Cadillac showroom which closed in the mid-1990s. The building sat vacant until 2003, when Whole Foods initiated a radical interior redesign while retaining and restoring much of the facade.
 * The bus yards of today's AC Transit in Emeryville and Richmond were originally the bus yards of the Key System. The Richmond yard was also previously the site of the Northern Carhouse of the Key streetcar system.
 * Several streetcars and bridge trains from the Key System are preserved at the Western Railway Museum at Rio Vista Junction in Solano County, as well as a Bridge Unit at the Southern California Railway Museum in Perris, California and a streetcar at Seashore Trolley Museum in Kennebunk, Maine.
 * One of the 0-4-0 Steam locomotives used to push the trains during power outages is on display at the Redwood Valley Railway. It had a brief stint on the currently re-constructing Virginia and Truckee Railroad in Virginia City, Nevada. Here, the mountain grades proved too taxing for the little locomotive. It was later replaced by 2–8–0 Steam locomotive No. 29.
 * Although built by the Southern Pacific Railroad, the Key System inherited the Northbrae Tunnel right-of-way, which it operated from 1942 through 1958. It was converted to street use and opened to auto traffic on December 15, 1962.
 * Located at the former Oakland Army Base site, The Interurban Electric Railway Bridge Yard Shop Building, was used as a maintenance facility for the Key System electric trains. Today, the building is now known as the Bridge Yard Building and is used as a venue for events as part of the Judge John Sutter Regional Shoreline. A substation located at the site also provided electrical power to all the Key System trains.
 * A footpath between York Drive and Ricardo Avenue, which provided access to the Holly Place stop on the C line, is still in use.
 * Abandoned tracks on Louise Street and Poplar Street in Oakland, used by the A and B lines, were rebuilt in 1958 and used for freight until 1999.

title: Key System


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List of heads of government of French Cameroon

This is a list of heads of government of French Cameroon (Cameroun).


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User:I support the Cabal 2

Note: the comment that was previously here was removed, following the Wikipedia policy which forbids personal abuse or threats. -- The Anome 09:05, 27 Jul 2004 (UTC)

title: User:I support the Cabal 2


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Phlegra (mythology)

Phlegra (Φλέγρα) is both a real and a mythical location in both Greek and Roman mythology.

Phlegra is a peninsula of Macedonia (more specifically in Chalkidike) in modern Greece; it is an ancient name for Pallene in historical Thrace, the latter as per the toponymy of the ancients; Pallene – and Phlegra – is most commonly called nowadays Kassandra, or Peninsula of Kassandra. In Greek mythology, it is the site of Zeus's overthrowing of the Giants (Gigantes) at the end of the Gigantomachy.

The Greek geographer Strabo (c.63 BC – c. 24 AD) writes: "The peninsula Pallene, on whose isthmus is situated the city formerly called Potidaea and now Cassandreia, was called Phlegra in still earlier times. It used to be inhabited by the giants of whom the myths are told, an impious and lawless tribe, whom Heracles destroyed."

- Strabo

Nevertheless, various places have been associated with the Gigantomachy. The presence of volcanic phenomena, and the frequent unearthing of the fossilized bones of large prehistoric animals throughout these locations may explain why such sites became associated with the Giants. Pindar writes that the battle occurred at Phlegra ("the place of burning"), as do other early sources. Phlegra was said to be an ancient name for Pallene, and Phlegra/Pallene was the usual birthplace of the Giants and site of the battle. Apollodorus, who placed the battle at Pallene, says the Giants were born "as some say, in Phlegrae, but according to others in Pallene". But the name Phlegra and the Gigantomachy were also often associated, by later writers, with the Phlegraean Plain, the volcanic fields, at the east of Cumae. Diodorus Siculus presents a war with multiple battles, with one at Pallene, one on the Phlegraean Fields, and one on Crete. Even when, as in Apollodorus, the battle starts at one place, individual battles between Giant and god might range farther afield, with Enceladus buried beneath Sicily, and Polybotes under the island of Nisyros (or Kos).

Strabo also refers to the Phlegraean Plain (Φλέγρας πεδίον, Phlegras pedion, or Φλεγραία πλάξ, Phlegraia plax, later Campi Flegrei ), in Campania, "which mythology has made the setting of the story of the Giants":

"This river [Liternus] flows through Venafrum and the centre of Campania. Next in order after these two cities comes Cumae [...] In earlier times, then, the city was prosperous, and so was what is called the Phlegraean Plain, which mythology has made the setting of the story of the Giants — for no other reason, it would seem, than that the land, on account of its excellence, was a thing to fight for."

- Strabo

According to the Greek geographer, the Giants who survived, were driven out by Heracles, finding refuge with their mother in Leuca (Apulia), in Italy's 'heel'. A fountain there had smelly water the locals claimed to be from the ichor of the giants. Strabo also mentions an account of Heracles battling Giants at Phanagoria, a Greek colony on the shores of the Black Sea.

title: Phlegra (mythology)


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User talk:I support the Cabal 2

Please put your tests in the sandbox. Thanks. This is your only warning. The next time you make a personal attack, you will be blocked for disruption. Comment on content, not on other contributors or people.

Why aren't the personal attacks oversighted (i.e. revisions hidden)
The title is the whole question 24.115.255.37 (talk) 23:23, 23 June 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:I support the Cabal 2


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Pasto, Colombia

Pasto, officially San Juan de Pasto ("Saint John of Pasto"), is the capital of the department of Nariño, in southern Colombia. Pasto was founded in 1537 and named after indigenous people of the area. In the 2018 census, the municipality had a population of 392,930. Pasto is located in the Atriz Valley on the Andes cordillera, at the foot of the Galeras volcano.

History
The etymology of the word Pasto can be traced to the indigenous people who inhabited the region at the arrival of the Spanish conquerors, the Pastos. However, the Atriz Valley itself was inhabited by the Quillacingas. In the 2018 Colombian census, 163,873 people self-identified as Pasto, and in the 2010 Ecuadorian census, 1,409 people self-identified as Pasto.

Pasto was founded in 1537 by the Spanish conquistador Sebastián de Belalcázar. In 1539 Lorenzo de Aldana, also a Spanish conquistador, moved the city to its current location, and established it under the name "San Juan de Pasto". A major contributor to the economy and expansion of Pasto was a man of Italian origin named Guido Bucheli.

Pasto has been an administrative, cultural and religious center of the region since colonial times. Because of this, the city is known as the theological city of Colombia. During the Independence Wars against Spain Pasto was a royalist city. Partly due to this political stance, and because of its geographical location, after independence, Pasto remained isolated for a long time from the rest of Colombia.

Geography
Most of the city lies between 2520 m and 2700 m elevation above sea level, while some settlement exceeds 3000 m on the flanks of the Galeras Volcano, which stands at 4276 m.

Climate
Under the Köppen climate classification, Pasto features an unusual altitude-influenced warm-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification Csb) that tends to possess the wet season of the southern hemisphere, for example the section of Quito that is south of the equator. Pasto has relatively consistent temperatures throughout the course of the year. Despite the fact that the city is located close to the equator, due to its high altitude, Pasto's average high temperatures typically range only between 15 and 18 °C while average low temperatures are usually between 9 and 11 °C. Pasto averages roughly 800 mm of rainfall annually.

Economy
In the municipality, 11.1% of establishments are dedicated to industry; 56.0% to trade; 28.9% to services and 4.1% to other activities.

In urban areas, the main economic activities are trade and service industries, as well as some small businesses, about half of which are craft manufacturing. The larger companies in Nariño are located in Pasto and are largely involved with food, beverages and furniture production. For the development of trade, mainly with the neighboring country of Ecuador, there are several shopping centers. The Pasto Chamber of Commerce was established in 1918 and according to the 2008 yearbook had 14,066 commercial establishments of which 58.5% were engaged in trade and repair of vehicles. In the rural areas, there is predominantly farming and cattle ranching, as well as a small-scale mining industry.

Water and sanitation
By means of the Pasto Sanitation Company, the urban area has a 93% provision of water and sanitation. In the rural area, 74% have mains water and 33% have plumbed sanitation.

Land access
The Pan-American Highway connects Pasto by land with the city of Popayán northwards and with Ipiales southward, 78 km away on the border with the Republic of Ecuador. The distance from Pasto to the capital of the republic, Bogotá, on the Pan-American Highway is 798 km with a travel time of about 18 hours. To the west, the city is connected to the port of Tumaco on the Pacific coast, by a paved road of 284 km, and to the east with Mocoa in Putumayo department with a road of about 145 km. For national intercity land transport, there is a terminal used by the principal transport operating companies and which is used by approximately two million passengers a year.

Air access
Antonio Nariño Airport is 35 km from the city, in the nearby town of Chachagüí, it provides domestic air connections offered by Colombian airline Avianca.

Telecommunications
Telephone and internet: Various companies like Telmex, Movistar, Virgin Mobile, Claro, Tigo, Avantel, and UNE-Orbitel provide telecommunication service in Pasto by means of Mobile phones, all companies providing UMTS cover and HSDPA. Broad band internet connection and terrestrial telephones are also provided.

Radio broadcasting: Within the city there are various FM radio broadcasting companies such as Radio University of Nariño, National Police Radio, community radio and commercial radio stations with high musical content. There are also some AM stations available of which the oldest is Radio Nariño (founded in 1937) and Radio Pasto Echos, (1941).

Television: In Pasto, there is full access to all the national TV stations such as Channel 1 (Canal Uno), Station Institutional, (Señal Institucional) and Station Columbia (Señal Colombia). In addition, there are regional programmes like Telepacífico and TelePasto. There are also local private stations like Nariño TV, TV Telmex, and CNC Global TV. and national private stations such as RCN Televisión y Caracol Televisión, and finally there are subscription stations through companies like Telmex, Movistar, Global TV, and DirecTV.

Health
The majority of the institutions that make up the health network of Nariño department are located in Pasto. These comprise 6 hospitals and 4 clinics for levels of attention 2 and 3. For levels of attention 1 there are 7 health centres and 2 health stations. In total these provide 1332 hospital beds to meet the demand of internal medicine, surgery, pediatrics, obstetrics, and basic psychiatric service.

In the city, public institutions are organized into four networks for the delivery of their services. The northern network is coordinated by the Civil Hospital including three health posts and a center. The southern network, coordinated by the Health Center of the Rose includes three health posts, a center, and a mobile unit. The southeastern network, coordinated by the Lorenzo de Aldana Health Center includes five health posts and a center. The west network coordinated by the Tamsagra Health Center includes five health centers and the Center for Zoonoses.

The main hospitals are:
 * University Hospital Department of Nariño HUDN
 * Clinic Our Lady of Fatima
 * St. Peter's Hospital Foundation
 * Children's Hospital Los Angeles
 * Our Lady of Perpetual Help Mental Hospital (women's mental health)
 * San Rafael de Pasto Hospital (male mental health)
 * Civil Hospital

Education
There are several universities with students from Pasto and from other cities in Nariño, some of them are:
 * University of Nariño
 * Universidad Mariana
 * Universidad Cooperativa de Colombia
 * Fundación Universitaria San Martin
 * Institución Universitaria Cesmag
 * Universidad Antonio Nariño
 * Universidad Nacional Abierta y a Distancia - UNAD
 * Escuela Superior de Administración Pública - ESAP
 * Corporación Universitaria Autónoma de Nariño

Carnival and arts

One of the most important events held by the city is the Blacks and Whites' Carnival (Carnaval de Negros y Blancos  in Spanish), with outstanding displays of craftsmanship in floats portraying legends and traditions, often mixed in with references to current political events in Colombia. During the carnival, the city goes wild and unleashes all the joy it has bottled up all year. It is not advisable to wear nice clothes during this festival, as during these celebrations people have fun painting each other's faces with cosmetic colors (skin safe and created for this special purpose) and throwing talcum powder and party foam. The carnival takes place between January 2 and 7 each year.

A specialty of this region is a pre-Columbian art technique called Barniz de Pasto, or Pasto Varnish in English. This uses a type of natural rubber (extracted from a tree called mopa-mopa) which is colored and then stretched over woodwork pieces; finally, the skillful artisan uses a special knife to cut and create the many beautiful designs that characterize this artistic technique.

Tourism

The main attraction in the town of Pasto is Lake Guamuez or La Cocha lake, located 27 kilometers from the city, 45 minutes by road, and 2800 meters above sea level. At the site, you can enjoy the scenery, food (especially rainbow trout), fishing and boating. In the middle of the lake, there is the Island of La Corota, a National Forest Sanctuary.

For lovers of cultural tourism, in addition to its museums mentioned above, the city offers visitors a wealth of churches among which stands out the Church of San Juan Bautista of the eighteenth century, the cathedral, the Church of Our Lady of Mercy, the Church of San Felipe, the Church of San Sebastián or "the Bakery", Temple of Christ the King, St. James, and the Church of St. Augustine.

For ecotourism, there is the Chimayoy Environmental Center, meaning in Quillacinga "go to meet with the sun." Located 4 km on the road between San Juan de Pasto in Colombia's interior is a space provided for education, tourism and environmental research, and ecological conservation, has long nature trails and diverse activities that seek methodologically integration of individuals and the community with the environment, promoting and strengthening ecological projects.

Gastronomy
The dishes that most represent the gastronomy of Pasto are the products of mixed cultures, the expression of the land's fertility and the hard work of the people. The most typical is grilled or roasted guinea pig (locally called 'cuy'). On January 7, they celebrate the festival of the guinea pig in the nearby village of Catambuco as the culmination of the "Blacks and Whites Carnival". Among the typical outstanding desserts are: "bucket ice-cream", made in a copper bucket cooled with crushed ice; 'chilacuán', a dessert made with mountain papayas; and dough-based pastries, of which 'quimbolitos' and filled pasties (empanadas de añejo) are the best known.

Some of the typical drinks are made of lulo, mora, and passion fruit. These make the base of a drink that may be strengthened by a local liquor called chapil or aguardiente.

Sports
The city has developed an extensive sports culture, both recreational and competitive. Football is one of the main sports practiced in the city since November 1909 when Leslie Osmond Spain, a British citizen who was visiting the area for commercial purposes, organised a football match in a makeshift court in the Barrio of San Andrés, and formed the first football team three months into his stay.

The city is home to Deportivo Pasto, a team founded in 1949, which was a semi-pro team until 1996 when it was promoted to the Primera B, which turned the club professional. Two years later it was promoted to the top league of Colombian professional football, the Primera A. In June 2006, the club was crowned champion of the league for the first time in its history, sending the city's residents into celebrations.

Pasto is home to many outstanding athletes, which include the race walker Luis Fernando López (medalist in the 2011 World Athletics Championships), and footballer Carlos Daniel Hidalgo (top scorer of the 2003 FIFA U-17 World Cup).

In Pasto, as in other towns of Nariño and in some regions of Ecuador, a traditional sport, very old and unparalleled in other regions of Colombia, called Chaza is practiced. Chaza is a ball game, similar to tennis or jai alai, characterized by the use of heavy wood and leather shoe called drums and played in teams on a rectangular court.

Sport areas

 * Estadio Departamental Libertad, main stadium in the city, capacity for 20,000
 * Sergio Antonio Ruano arena
 * Arena in the Southeast Neighborhoods, (used primarily for indoor soccer, basketball and volleyball)
 * Recreational Sports Complex Obonuco, which has a skating rink, cycling track, and BMX area

title: Pasto, Colombia


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Tailspin Tommy

Tailspin Tommy was an aviation-adventure comic strip about a youthful pilot, "Tailspin" Tommy Tomkins (sometimes spelled Tompkins). Originally illustrated by Hal Forrest and initially distributed by John Neville Wheeler's Bell Syndicate and then by United Feature Syndicate, the strip had a 14-year run from May 21, 1928 to March 15, 1942.

In the wake of Charles Lindbergh's 1927 flight across the Atlantic, the public's fascination with aviation escalated. Tailspin Tommy was the first aviation-based comic strip to appear as a result of this heightened interest. The strip's 1928 launch was followed by others, notably Skyroads (1929-1942), Scorchy Smith (1930-1961), The Adventures of Smilin' Jack (1933-1973) and Flyin' Jenny (1939-1946).

Publication history
Scripted by Glenn Chaffin, a newspaper journalist and press agent, Tailspin Tommy began its run in four newspapers on May 21, 1928. By 1931, it was published in more than 250 newspapers across the country. After buying out Chaffin's interest, Forrest took over the scripting; his first credited Sunday strip ran on January 7, 1934, and his first Sunday appeared on January 22. Forrest wrote and drew the strip solo for the next three years.

In 1936, Forrest took on an assistant, Reynold Brown, who inked (uncredited) over Forrest's pencils. Tailspin Tommy is held by some to have improved with Brown's contribution.

The Sunday page had several topper strips over the course of the run: Progress of Flight (1930-1933), Four Aces (1934-1941), How to Fly (1935), War Plane Insignia (1935) and Tailspin Tommy Flying Club (1935-1941).

Characters and story
Living in Littleville, Colorado, young Tommy Tomkins had such an obsession with flying that he was given the nickname Tailspin Tommy before he ever actually went inside a plane. Although Tommy took an aero-engineering correspondence course, his real introduction to aviation happened when mail pilot Milt Howe made an emergency landing in a field near Tommy's neighborhood. Tommy watched the downward spiral of Milt's plane and ran to help. Howe rewarded Tommy with a greasemonkey job in Texas at the Three Point Airlines, where he soon became a pilot along with his girlfriend, Betty Lou Barnes, and his best buddy, Peter "Skeeter" Milligan. The trio eventually became part owners in Three Point and took off for many airborne adventures.

By 1940, Tailspin Tommy began to lose papers. A change in syndicates from Bell to United Features did little to help, and the strip ended on March 15, 1942.

Film
Tailspin Tommy flew into movie theaters throughout the 1930s. He was portrayed by Maurice Murphy in the 12-episode 1934 movie serial Tailspin Tommy. Another 12-chapter serial, Tailspin Tommy in the Great Air Mystery (1935), starred Clark Williams in the title role. John Trent portrayed Tommy in a series of hour-long features, including Mystery Plane, Stunt Pilot, Sky Patrol and Danger Flight. All were released in 1939.

Comic books and reprints
Stephen Slesinger Inc. published a series of 30 Tailspin Tommy Adventures in eight-page booklet form as a promotion with Big Thrill Chewing Gum. In 1936, C.J.H. Publications put out two issues of Tailspin Tommy Adventure Magazine. The magazines published adaptations of comic strip stories. Publication apparently ceased because the rights to the character had not been properly secured. After taking over the syndication, United Features published two Tailspin Tommy comic books, one in 1940 and one in 1946. Tailspin Tommy also saw reprints in Dell Comics' The Funnies and Popular Comics.

In 1934, Tailspin Tommy was among the strips reprinted in the first modern comic book, Famous Funnies, published by Max Gaines at Eastern Color Printing. That same year, Slesinger began publishing a series of Tailspin Tommy books in its Big Little Book line. Except where noted, beginning with Tailspin Tommy and the Island in the Sky these adaptations of the comic strip were ghostwritten by Gaylord Du Bois and illustrated by Hal Forrest:
 * Tailspin Tommy in The Famous Pay-Roll Mystery, 1933
 * Tailspin Tommy - The Dirigible Flight to the North Pole, 1934
 * Tailspin Tommy - Hunting for Pirate Gold, 1935
 * Tailspin Tommy and the Island in the Sky, 1936
 * Tailspin Tommy and the Hooded Flyer, 1937
 * Tailspin Tommy and the Sky Bandits, 1938
 * Tailspin Tommy in The Great Air Mystery (starring Noah Beery), 1938 (based on the screenplay of the serial)
 * Tailspin Tommy and the Lost Transport, 1940
 * Tailspin Tommy, The Weasel, and His Skywayman, 1941

Others:

 * Tailspin Tommy, a Big Little paperback (no subtitle), 1935
 * Tailspin Tommy in Flying Aces, from Dell Publishing, 1938

A novel by Mark Stevens, Tailspin Tommy: The Mystery of the Midnight Patrol, was published by Grosset & Dunlap in 1936

title: Tailspin Tommy


text:
Imperfect (disambiguation)

The imperfect, or past imperfective, is a verb form in linguistics.

Imperfect or imperfection or imperfectionist may also refer to:

Film and TV

 * Imperfect (2012 film), a 2012 Singaporean film
 * Imperfect (2019 film), a 2019 Indonesian film
 * An Imperfection, a 2015 Sri Lankan Canadian film
 * "Imperfection" (Star Trek: Voyager), a TV episode
 * The Imperfects, an 2022 TV series

Music

 * Imperfectly, a 1992 album by singer-songwriter Ani DiFranco
 * Imperfection, 2004 album by Real Life
 * "Imperfect", song by Joi Cardwell
 * "Imperfection", 2008 song by Glenn Hughes from First Underground Nuclear Kitchen
 * "Imperfection" (Evanescence song) from Synthesis
 * "Imperfection", 2015 song by Tinchy Stryder featuring vocals by Fuse ODG
 * "Imperfection", song by Skillet from Collide
 * "Imperfection", song by Gentleman from Aloe Blacc discography
 * "Imperfections" (song), song by Celine Dion from Courage
 * "Imperfections", song by Josh Osho from L.i.f.e
 * "Imperfections", a song by Pop Smoke from Shoot for the Stars, Aim for the Moon
 * The Imperfectionists, the backing band for Ian Stephen

Literature

 * Imperfectualism, 2020 art book created by Lorin Morgan-Richards
 * The Imperfectionists, 2010 novel by Tom Rachman
 * "The Imperfectionist", a 2013 poem by Steve Shrader; see 2013 in poetry

Other uses

 * the imperfective aspect in linguistics
 * Imperfect group, a group with no nontrivial perfect quotients
 * The Imperfects, a group of fictional supervillains from Marvel Nemesis: Rise of the Imperfects

title: Imperfect (disambiguation)


text:
Miyama, Fukui

Miyama (美山町) was a town located in Asuwa District, Fukui Prefecture, Japan.

As of 2003, the town had an estimated population of 5,044 and a density of 36.62 persons per km2. The total area was 137.73 km2.

On February 1, 2006, Miyama, along with the town of Shimizu, and the village of Koshino (both from Nyū District), was merged into the expanded city of Fukui.

title: Miyama, Fukui


text:
Asuwa District, Fukui

Asuwa (足羽郡) was a district located in Fukui Prefecture, Japan.

The time before the dissolution, the district had an estimated population of 5,044 with a density of 36.62 persons per km2. The total area was 137.73 km2.

Municipalities
Prior to its dissolution, the district consisted of only one town:

 * Miyama (美山町)

 * Notes:

History
Fukui Asuwa-gun.png:

 * yellow - areas formerly within the district borders during the early Meiji period]]

The district was first established in 1878, with a county office in Fukui Sakae-cho that governed both Asuwa and Yoshida Districts.

Recent mergers

 * On February 1, 2006 - The town of Miyama, along with the town of Shimizu and the village of Koshino (both from Nyū District) were merged into the expanded city of Fukui. Therefore, Asuwa District was dissolved as a result of this merger.

title: Asuwa District, Fukui