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Phantom Stranger

The Phantom Stranger is a superhero appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics, of unspecified paranormal origins, who battles mysterious and occult forces, sometimes under their Vertigo imprint. The character first appeared in an eponymous comics anthology published in August/September 1952.

The Phantom Stranger made his first live-action appearance in the 2019 DC Universe television series Swamp Thing, portrayed by Macon Blair.

Volume 1
The Phantom Stranger first appeared in an eponymous six-issue comics anthology published in 1952 and was created by John Broome and Carmine Infantino.

Volume 2
After an appearance in Showcase #80 (February 1969), he received another series beginning May–June 1969 that lasted until February–March 1976. The Showcase appearance and the first three issues of Phantom Stranger consisted of reprints from both the 1950s title and the "Dr. 13: Ghost-Breaker" feature from the last nine issues of Star Spangled Comics at the same time, with new, brief framing sequences. These had Dr. Thirteen, certain that the Phantom Stranger was an impostor, determined to expose him.

Beginning with issue #4 (November-December 1969), the series began featuring all-new material, with stories produced by Robert Kanigher, Len Wein, Jim Aparo, Neal Adams, Tony DeZuniga and others. In these stories, while the Stranger's past remained a mystery, the writers added a semi-regular cast of characters for him. A demonic sorceress named Tala would become his archenemy; an alchemist/sorcerer named Tannarak was first an enemy and would later assist him against the Dark Circle; and a blind psychic named Cassandra Craft would assist him. The stories hinted at a romantic attraction between the Stranger and Craft, but he eventually left her, deciding she could not be part of his life, convincing her he had been killed in their final battle against the Dark Circle. She eventually learned differently and turned up occasionally. Doctor Thirteen, dropped along with the reprints, was given a back-up series here as of #12 (March-April 1971) which morphed into "The Spawn of Frankenstein" in #23 (January-February 1973).

The second volume originally ended with the forty-first issue in November 1975, cover dated March 1976. In January 2010, a forty-second issue was added to the second series during the Blackest Night event, effectively a one-shot.

Saga of the Swamp Thing
A backup series in Saga of the Swamp Thing #1-13 featured The Phantom Stranger. Most of those short stories were written by Mike W. Barr; one was written by Paul Levitz. These were mostly morality tales in the style of The Phantom Stranger vol. 2, without connections to the character's Bronze Age continuity with Batman or the Justice League. One two-part story explicitly connected with the continuity of vol. 2, continuing the story of Tannarak.

After the backup series ended with #13, the Stranger appeared in the main story of Saga of the Swamp Thing #14. After Saga of the Swamp Thing became Swamp Thing volume 2 written by Alan Moore, the Stranger became an occasional recurring character, as Swamp Thing became more involved with the afterlife and the mystical world.

Volume 3
The Stranger also starred in a miniseries in 1987. This series portrayed him as an agent of the Lords of Order. They temporarily stripped the Stranger of his powers, due to his desire to continue a battle against the Lords of Chaos. This went against the wishes of the Lords of Order, who had believed a victory by darkness over light was necessary and preordained. This series featured Eclipso as an agent of Chaos.

Action Comics Weekly
During the period 1988-89 when Action Comics became the anthology Action Comics Weekly, one rotating strip featured The Phantom Stranger. It explicitly continued the continuity of The Phantom Stranger Volume 2.

The story of Volume 2 and the Action Comics Weekly strip was resolved in Neil Gaiman's proposed story concluding the whole of Action Comics Weekly. This was published years later as the non-canonical in Green Lantern/Superman: Legend of the Green Flame. In this story, the Stranger claims that he belongs to no group, including the servants of the Lords of Order. The Lords of Order threaten to strip him of his powers, and he leaves, claiming that he shall continue to wander.

Volume 4
The Phantom Stranger received a new ongoing series in September 2012 written by Dan DiDio and drawn by Brent Anderson. This series was retitled as Trinity of Sin: The Phantom Stranger as of issue #9 (Aug. 2013) and cancelled as of #22 (Oct. 2014).

Justice League membership status
The Phantom Stranger is better known for his role as a supernatural assistant to other heroes, such as the Justice League. His status as either a full, reserve, or honorary member of the League is debatable. After a vote of the majority of the team in Justice League of America #103, they offered him membership, with Superman declaring the Stranger "a member" without qualification, though he left before accepting. This issue was part of an unofficial metafictional crossover with Marvel Comics, spanning titles from both of the major comics companies. Beginning in Marvel's Amazing Adventures #16 (by Steve Englehart with art by Bob Brown and Frank McLaughlin), the story continued in DC's Justice League of America #103 (by Len Wein, Dick Dillin and Dick Giordano), and is concluded in Thor #207 (by Gerry Conway and penciler John Buscema). Each comic featured writers Steve Englehart, Gerry Conway, and Len Wein, as well as Wein's first wife Glynis, interacting with Marvel or DC characters at the Rutland Halloween Parade in Rutland, Vermont. The Phantom Stranger has at least twice asserted his membership status when other Leaguers challenged his input, during the vote on the League's re-admission of Wonder Woman and during the crossover with The Avengers. In contrast, many in-story accounts of League membership fail to include the Stranger; when Zatanna was admitted as a member, Superman and Hawkman clarified that the 12-member limit in the League's charter had been rewritten previously to admit Hawkgirl as the 13th. Writer Len Wein commented on the Phantom Stranger's relationship with the JLA in a 2012 interview stating that the character "only sort of joined. He was offered membership but vanished, as per usual, without actually accepting the offer. Over the years, other writers have just assumed [he] was a member, but in my world, he never really said yes".

Origin
Unusually for a comic book character of such longevity, nothing in the way of personal data about the Phantom Stranger—his real name, his true nature, or his origins—has ever been revealed. In 1987, DC produced a special issue of Secret Origins (Vol. 2, #10) that postulated four possible origins:
 * 1) In a variation of the Wandering Jew story, he was a man named Isaac with a wife (Rebecca) and a young son in Bethlehem during the time of Jesus' childhood. When King Herod heard that there was born a child who would be king of the Jews, he orders the Massacre of the Innocents to kill the Christ Child. Among the people killed were Isaac's wife and son. Blind with anger, he spends the next 30 years raging against Jesus. During the Passion of Jesus, Isaac bribes a guard to let him take his place and participate in the flagellation of Christ. Jesus condemns Isaac to "tarry in this world - until I come again". Centuries after the crucifixion, Isaac repents. He has spent his life helping mankind ever since, evidently finding the task so agreeably fulfilling that in the present day (i.e., the late 1980s) he politely declines an offer from God to release him from his penance.
 * 2) The Stranger was a man in Biblical times who was spared God's wrath by an angel. Questioning God's actions, he commits suicide. The angel forbids his spirit from entering the afterlife, reanimates his body and condemns him to walk the world forever as part of humanity, but also forever separated from it. The angel also erases all of the man's memories of his past life. He then discovers his divine charge: to turn humanity away from evil, one soul at a time. Some versions of this story imply that the angel was the incarnation of the Spectre of that time period.
 * 3) The Phantom Stranger is a being caught in a time loop. Near the end of the universe, the Phantom Stranger approaches a group of scientists who are trying to transfer energy from the Big Bang to extend the life of the universe. The Phantom Stranger realizes that one of the scientists is in reality an Avatar of Anti-Life, and that their efforts will prevent the universe from ever existing. The story concludes with the Phantom Stranger passing a portion of himself to a scientist, who dives through the portal to the Big Bang, intercepts the beam that would have drained the Big Bang, and becomes the Phantom Stranger, completing the cycle.
 * 4) The Phantom Stranger was a fallen angel who sided with neither Heaven nor Hell during Lucifer's rebellion and thus was condemned to walk the Earth alone for all time. In the comic book miniseries The Trenchcoat Brigade, John Constantine sees that the fourth origin story is essentially correct. Vertigo Visions: Phantom Stranger #1 by Alisa Kwitney and Guy Davis builds upon Alan Moore's fallen angel story from Secret Origins and adds the story of a woman called Naamah, who was condemned to Hell for loving an angel. This angel is strongly hinted to have become the Phantom Stranger.

Another possible origin was hinted at in The Kingdom (the sequel to Kingdom Come) in which it was implied that Jonathan Kent, the future son of Superman and Wonder Woman, might grow up to be the Phantom Stranger. This also tied some of his abilities into the Hypertime concept, giving him the innate ability to enter alternate timelines and to exist in the spaces between them. The story ultimately revealed this to be a red herring. The character in question had been deliberately drawn in shadows to suggest that he was the Stranger, but when Wonder Woman finally saw his face, she said that she now realized he was not the Stranger they knew.

His appearances in titles featuring Doctor Fate state that the Stranger was a servant of the Lords of Order during the Ninth Age of Magic (at least). This may be a later development unrelated to his actual origin.

The one-shot Vertigo Visions: The Phantom Stranger (1993) written by Alisa Kwitney suggests another origin for the Stranger, drawing on Jewish Talmudic and Kabbalistic stories: that he was an angel who sinned by impregnating the demon Naamah ; their child was the demon Asmodeus. The story does appear to be in continuity with Vertigo's Sandman series, but the continuity status of the Vertigo line relative to the mainline DC Comics Universe was unclear and inconsistent in this era.

In Phantom Stranger (vol. 4) #0 (2012), the Phantom Stranger is Judas Iscariot. He is judged by the Circle of Eternity, who are implied to be proxies for a higher power. The Stranger is condemned to walk the Earth forever as an agent of God. He wears a necklace made of the 30 pieces of silver which he took as payment for betraying Jesus. When the Stranger facilitates the transformation of Jim Corrigan into the Spectre, one of the coins falls from the necklace and crumbles, bringing him one step closer to redemption.

Depictions by different writers
In his earliest appearances, the Phantom Stranger would prove supernatural events to be hoaxes perpetrated by criminals. He would directly confront the villains, and displayed no supernatural abilities apart perhaps from his uncanny ability to appear where and when he is needed and to disappear just as mysteriously, with nobody seeing him coming or going. In later stories, the supernatural events were real and the Phantom Stranger was given unspecified supernatural powers of his own to defeat them. For example, he was able to control a smoke-based sedative with a gesture, claiming that smoke itself is his ally.

In his second comic book series, the Phantom Stranger became a truly supernatural hero.

The Phantom Stranger played a major part in Neil Gaiman's The Books of Magic, taking protagonist Tim Hunter through time to show him the history and nature of magic. He has assisted the Justice League on numerous occasions, even being formally elected to the group in Justice League of America #103, although he did not acknowledge his membership until Justice League of America #143. The Stranger also had his own limited series, where, lacking much of his power, he tries to foil Eclipso's plan to cause a nuclear war.

During Kevin Smith's relaunch of Green Arrow, he prevented Hal Jordan from uniting the resurrected body of Oliver Queen with his soul in Heaven. This earned him Jordan's wrath; indeed, the Spectre threatened to judge the Stranger to see whether God had "punished" him properly by refusing him access to Heaven itself. Nonetheless, the Phantom Stranger assisted Hal Jordan during his tenure as the Spectre on numerous occasions as well, most notably in a short stint babysitting Hal's niece, Helen.

In 2005's Day of Vengeance, the Phantom Stranger had been turned into a mouse by the Spectre. Upon the Spectre's confrontation and battle with the Stranger, the Stranger states: "You can't kill me. I doubt that the Universe would allow it". He was still able to advise Detective Chimp, however, who sheltered him in his hat while he regained his powers. He changed back using recovered energies in Day of Vengeance #6 and aided the Shadowpact, allowing them to see the battle between the Spectre and Shazam. The series makes a point that the supernatural community generally regards the Phantom Stranger as invincible. The first reaction of some characters to the Spectre's assault on magic is simply to presume that the Stranger will take care of it. Other stories have shown the Stranger to be nearly as powerful as the Spectre.

In Day of Vengeance: Infinite Crisis Special #1, the Phantom Stranger works with Nabu, Doctor Occult, Zatanna, the Shadowpact, and other mystics to re-form the Rock of Eternity and help defeat the maddened Spectre.

The Phantom Stranger's relationships with the other mystic heroes are usually a bit tense. The Stranger has no qualms gathering various forces to combat a certain evil (the Sentinels of Magic, but also other loose outfits), often invading those people's personal lives. However, he does not usually extend them that same courtesy. The Phantom Stranger has resisted such people as Doctor Fate (notably Hector Hall) in this, although Doctor Fate is, in almost any incarnation, an ally of the Stranger. Despite this, he does get along well with Zatanna; in Justice League of America #6, he appeared by her side to help remove the influence of Faust on the Red Tornado, and in the Justice series he seems to have a fatherly affection for her, calling her "my dear".

Since he is ultimately an unpredictable force, others often meet the Phantom Stranger's appearance with distrust. Nonetheless, most heroes will follow him, seeing not only his immense power, but also knowing that the Stranger is, in the end, a force for good. He has generally shown to side with humanity first in many supernatural-based problems, such as when he aided Superman in a confrontation with the magician Arion, who attempted to force Superman to retire in the belief that Superman and other alien heroes would hold back the 'darkness' that would make civilization—Arion describing human history as existing in a cycle that would allow humanity to develop to a certain point before they collapsed and had to start again—for so long that it would destroy humanity when it came. Although the Stranger acknowledged that the future Arion had foreseen, where Earth was completely destroyed by the mysterious and powerful Khyber due to Superman delaying him for so long that he only struck at his peak, was possible, he also told Superman to keep fighting to find another way as the cost in souls and experience if Arion succeeded would be too great. A notable exception to the heroes who will work with the Stranger is Madame Xanadu, who has refused to join the Stranger on a few occasions, although she is a member of his Sentinels of Magic. Eventually, it was revealed that Madame Xanadu's hatred for the Phantom Stranger stems from his involvement in the events costing young Nimue her powers and heritage, and turning the young fey into the immortal yet powerless clairvoyant.

The Stranger also holds a unique relationship with the Spectre, as the two forces often come into conflict. He was responsible for gathering a group of mystic heroes to combat the Spectre, when its human host Jim Corrigan seemingly lost control of the Spectre (it was during this time that they destroyed the country of Vlatava). The Phantom Stranger participated in Jim Corrigan's funeral, when Corrigan's soul finally earned its rest and left the Spectre. The Stranger subsequently became one of the forces that stood against the Spectre when it went on a rampage without its human host, until the soul of Hal Jordan bonded with it. The Stranger occasionally took on an advisory role for this new Spectre. In Infinite Crisis #6, aware that the Spectre now has yet another new host, the Phantom Stranger gathered a large group of magic wielders in an unsuccessful attempt to solicit the Spectre's assistance in the Crisis.

In the Madame Xanadu series, the first encounter between the then-young and innocent Nimue, as Xanadu was known in the Arthurian Age, and the Phantom Stranger himself is told. There, Nimue acknowledges his unearthly nature, describing him as "Ageless and yet so...uneasy", and claiming, "You're not human! Nor are you of the Ancient Folk! Nor fey creature. Nor...nor demon..." Before Nimue is able to grasp his nature, the Stranger goes away, claiming to be "compelled to counsel and yet forbidden to interfere in the course of history".

In the pages of Shadowpact, the Phantom Stranger has adopted the role of narrator. He is shown to be aware of the mystical happenings, not only on Earth, but across several dimensions; once again he is shown to be unable to interfere, no matter how dire the danger that he is aware of may be.

Blackest Night
In Blackest Night #2, Black Hand refers to the Phantom Stranger as neither dead nor alive, meaning he cannot be killed, resurrected or raised as a Black Lantern. The Stranger watches as a black power ring attaches itself to Crispus Allen's body, turning him into a Black Lantern, and sealing the Spectre within him. In the tie-in one-shot revival of Phantom Stranger #42, the Stranger, with the help of Blue Devil, attempts to fight the Black Lantern Spectre, but fails. The two then travel to Nanda Parbat, where the Stranger helps Deadman remove the black ring from his body. The Stranger has the body brought into Nanda Parbat and placed under guard, stating that it is of "singular importance".

The New 52
In DC Comics - The New 52 FCBD Special Edition #1 as part of The New 52 (a reboot of the DC Comics universe), the Phantom Stranger was implied to be Judas Iscariot and part of the Trinity of Sin with Pandora and the Question. While not named explicitly, the necklace he wears is presumed to be made from the 30 pieces of silver that he received for his betrayal of Jesus Christ. His hair and eyes become totally white from the experience.

Phantom Stranger (vol. 4) #0 confirmed that Phantom Stranger was once known as Judas Iscariot, the man who betrayed Jesus. In this origin tale he is about to hang himself when his suicide attempt is stopped by a mysterious group of individuals. He is subsequently judged along with Pandora of Pandora's Box fame and another man who was turned into the Question. Thousands of years later, he is guided to help desperate former detective Jim Corrigan find his kidnapped girlfriend. He leads him to the abandoned warehouse where she has been kept, but this turns out to be a trap. Corrigan is killed by the kidnappers, then transforms into the Spectre and accuses the Stranger of betraying him. As the Spectre is about to attack the Stranger, a mysterious Voice sends him off to inflict his wrath on the more deserving. As payment for what occurred with Corrigan, one coin drops off the necklace he was cursed with (made of the 30 pieces of silver he betrayed Jesus for) and the Stranger realizes he has more encounters ahead of him before he is forgiven.

Pandora meets the Phantom Stranger and tells him she needs his help to find the person who can open her box. He refuses, reminding her of the last time the box was opened, when the sins of the world were unleashed. To this, she responds that she only wants to save everyone from what she unleashed. John Constantine tries to con the Phantom Stranger to join the Justice League Dark by promising to return one of the 30 silver coins bound to him through his punishment. The Phantom Stranger rejects the offer, but Constantine feels he will eventually come around and be on the Justice League Dark's side. The Question manipulates Doctor Thirteen to impale the Phantom Stranger with the Spear of Destiny. The Phantom Stranger is left on the door to the House of Mystery, and the Justice League Dark attempt to revive him, summoning the Nightmare Nurse. Once they do revive him, the Phantom Stranger states that they are all in his debt and asks the Justice League Dark (specifically Zatanna) to help him enter Hell to save his family. Zauriel warns the Phantom Stranger that he is never allowed to enter Heaven again, having gone to Hell to try to save his family. Zauriel also states to the Phantom Stranger that if he tries, he will be erased from time and history forever.

Powers and abilities
The natures of these are as mysterious as the Stranger himself, who seems to be effectively immortal, never aging. The Phantom Stranger has demonstrated enormous powers and capabilities, the exact origin of which is undetermined. He can travel enormous distances in a very short period of time, such as to the JLA Watchtower and Apokolips, as well as to mystical dimensions, such as Heaven, Hell and the realm occupied by the Quintessence (although he is forbidden from entering Heaven directly). He can fire energy bolts of great force, travel through time, dispel magic, reveal illusions, and survive in space without any type of life support system; on one occasion, he created a mystical shield that protected Superman from any spells cast against him directly in preparation for Superman's upcoming confrontation with Arion. The limits of his power have not been defined. In many cases, despite his obvious capabilities, he claims he is not allowed to end a crisis directly, only to guide others to take the necessary actions (this restriction allows the Stranger to guest-star in virtually any title without becoming a deus ex machina, whose actions would immediately end the story).

The Phantom Stranger's greatest and most well-known power is his mysterious omniscience; he seems to know nearly everything about any character and situation he encounters in the DC Universe, and in the JLA/Avengers crossover, this extends to the Marvel Universe as well for the sake of the story; this is, however, disproved in Swamp Thing Annual #2. This allows him to provide helpful advice and assistance to others. He claims that "nothing remains hidden to [him]". His knowledge has even allowed him to come to the aid of DC Universe characters trapped out of their own times. In Animal Man #19, Animal Man had found himself trapped in the 1960s in a ghost-like state in between reality and non-reality. He wandered listlessly, until the Stranger met him and offered a helping hand. The Stranger was already aware of Animal Man's current state of despair, and even knew that he was from the future (i.e. the late 1980s). In Swamp Thing Annual #2, the Stranger was not completely aware of all the details of Alec Holland's transformation into the Swamp Thing; he knew enough to be aware of the swamp creature's existence and life, but was still surprised when he encountered the shade of Alex Holland in Heaven, as he had assumed the creature and Holland to be one and the same.

The Phantom Stranger is one of the few true immortals of the DC Universe, actually incapable of being killed. When attacked by the Spectre in the Day of Vengeance story, the Stranger expresses doubt that even the Spectre could kill him, mysteriously adding that "I doubt the Universe would allow it". The Spectre resorted to transforming the Stranger into a harmless mouse, as killing the Phantom Stranger was indeed beyond even the Spectre's power.

Although the Phantom Stranger does not wear a mask, the shadow of his fedora almost constantly cloaks his eyes. When shown unhatted in the Madame Xanadu miniseries, set in the Arthurian age where the Stranger's disguise was a simple cloak, his eyes appear completely white - devoid of irises and pupils - and sunk in a gaunt, sad visage.

Other versions

 * In DC: The New Frontier #6, the Phantom Stranger calls several magic-based heroes to a banquet on the Moon, where he counsels them not to interfere in the new heroes' battle with the Center.
 * In Scooby-Doo! Team-Up #13, the Phantom Stranger and Deadman recruit Scooby-Doo and Mystery Inc. to solve a mass kidnapping of supernatural beings.

Television

 * The Phantom Stranger appears in the Batman: The Brave and the Bold episode "Chill of the Night!", voiced by Kevin Conroy.
 * The Phantom Stranger appears in Swamp Thing, portrayed by Macon Blair.
 * The Phantom Stranger appears in Young Justice, voiced by D. B. Woodside. Due to the Lords of Chaos seeing Klarion as too tame, they send Child to replace him. However, Phantom Stranger sets things up so Vandal Savage can speak to the Lords of Chaos and Order; leading to Child's defeat and allowing Klarion and Nabu to resume their rivalry.

Film
The Phantom Stranger appears in DC Showcase: The Phantom Stranger, voiced by Peter Serafinowicz.

Video games

 * The Phantom Stranger appears as a non-playable character in DC Universe Online.
 * The Phantom Stranger appears as a character summon in Scribblenauts Unmasked: A DC Comics Adventure.
 * The Phantom Stranger appears as a non-playable character in DC Legends.

Music
The song "Return of the Phantom Stranger" appears on Rob Zombie's Hellbilly Deluxe (1998) album.

Miscellaneous

 * Bruce Timm had intended to utilize the Phantom Stranger in the DC Animated Universe, but was not allowed to do so. Despite this, Timm's design for the character appears in Batman: Gotham Adventures #33, Justice League Adventures #31, and Justice League Unlimited #14 and #28.
 * The Phantom Stranger appears in the novel DC Universe: Trail of Time, by Jeff Mariotte.

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title: Phantom Stranger


text: Category:Lake County, Minnesota

title: Category:Lake County, Minnesota


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Kestrel engine

Engines named Kestrel include:

 * Aircraft piston engine, built by Rolls-Royce
 * Rocket engine built by SpaceX

title: Kestrel engine


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Lady-in-waiting

A lady-in-waiting (alternatively written lady in waiting) or court lady is a female personal assistant at a court, attending on a royal woman or a high-ranking noblewoman. Historically, in Europe, a lady-in-waiting was often a noblewoman but of lower rank than the woman to whom she attended. Although she may either have received a retainer or may not have received compensation for the service she rendered, a lady-in-waiting was considered more of a secretary, courtier, or companion to her mistress than a servant.

In some other parts of the world, the lady-in-waiting, often referred to as palace woman, was in practice a servant or a slave rather than a high-ranking woman, but still had about the same tasks, functioning as companion and secretary to her mistress. In courts where polygamy was practiced, a court lady was formally available to the monarch for sexual services, and she could become his wife, consort, courtesan, or concubine.

Lady-in-waiting or court lady is often a generic term for women whose relative rank, title, and official functions varied, although such distinctions were also often honorary. A royal woman may or may not be free to select her ladies, and, even when she has such freedom, her choices are usually heavily influenced by the sovereign, her parents, her husband, or the sovereign's ministers (for example, in the Bedchamber crisis).

History
In Europe, the development of the office of lady-in-waiting is connected to that of the development of a royal court. During the Carolingian Empire, in the 9th century, Hincmar describes the royal household of Charles the Bald in the De Ordine Palatii, from 882, in which he states that court officials took orders from the queen as well as the king. Merovingian Queens are assumed to have had their personal servants, and in the 9th century it is confirmed that Carolingian Queens had an entourage of guards from the nobility as a sign of their dignity, and some officials are stated to belong to the queen rather than the king.

In the late 12th century, the Queens of France are confirmed to have had their own household, and noblewomen are mentioned as ladies-in-waiting. During the Middle Ages, however, the household of a European queen consort was normally small, and the number of actually employed ladies-in-waiting, rather than wives of noblemen accompanying their husbands to court, was very small: in 1286, the Queen of France had only five ladies-in-waiting in her employment, and it was not until 1316 that her household was separated from that of the royal children.

The role of ladies-in-waiting in Europe changed dramatically during the age of the Renaissance, when a new ceremonial court life, where women played a significant part, developed as representation of power in the courts of Italy, and spread to Burgundy, from Burgundy to France, and to the rest of the courts of Europe. The court of the Duchy of Burgundy was the most elaborate in Europe in the 15th century and became an example for France when the French royal court expanded in the late 15th century and introduced new offices for both men and women to be able to answer to the new renaissance ideal.

From small circle of married Femmes and unmarried Filles, with a relatively humble place in the background during the Middle Ages, the number of French ladies-in-waiting were rapidly expanded, divided into an advanced hierarchy with several offices and given an important and public role to play in the new ceremonial court life in early 16th century France. This example was followed by other courts in Europe, when Courts expanded and became more ceremonial during the 16th century, and the offices, numbers and visibility of women expanded in the early modern age.

During the late 19th century and the early 20th century, however, most European courts started to reduce their court staff, often due to new economic and political circumstances which made court representation more questionable.

Duties
The duties of ladies-in-waiting varied from court to court, but functions historically discharged by ladies-in-waiting included proficiency in the etiquette, languages, dances, horse riding, music making, and painting prevalent at court; keeping her mistress abreast of activities and personages at court; care of the rooms and wardrobe of her mistress; secretarial tasks; supervision of servants, budget and purchases; reading correspondence to her mistress and writing on her behalf; and discreetly relaying messages upon command.

Austria
In the late Middle Ages, when the court of the Emperor no longer moved around constantly, the household of the Empress, as well as the equivalent household of the German princely consorts, started to develop a less fluid and more strict organisation with set court offices.

The court model of the Duchy of Burgundy, as well as the Spanish court model, came to influence the organisation of the Austrian imperial court during the 16th century, when the Burgundian Netherlands, Spain and Austria were united through the House of Habsburg. In the early and mid-16th century, the female courtiers kept by female Habsburgs in the Netherlands and Austria was composed of one Hofmesterees (Court Mistress) or Dame d'honneur who served as the principal lady-in-waiting; one Hofdame or Mere de Filles, who was second in rank and deputy of the Hofmesterees, as well as being in charge of the Eredames (Maids of Honour), also known as Demoiselle d'honneur, Fille d'honneur or Junckfrauen depending on language (Dutch, French and Austrian German respectively), and finally the Kamenisters (Chamber Maids). However, during the tenure of Maria of Austria, Holy Roman Empress in the mid-16th century, the court of the Empress was organised in accordance with the Spanish court model, and after she left Austria, there was no further household of an Empress until the 1610s. This resulted in a mix of Burgundian and Spanish customs when the Austrian court model was created.

In 1619, a set organisation was finally established for the Austrian imperial court, which came to be the characteristic organisation of the Austrian-Habsburg court roughly kept from this point onward. The first rank of the female courtiers was the Obersthofmeisterin (Mistress of the Robes), who was second in rank after the Empress herself, and responsible for all the female courtiers. Second rank belonged to the Ayas, essentially governesses of the imperial children and heads of the children's court. Third in rank was the Fräuleinhofmeisterin, who was the replacement of the Obersthofmeisterin when necessary, but otherwise had the responsibility of the unmarried female courtiers, their conduct and service. The rest of the female noble courtiers consisted of the Hoffräulein (Maid of Honour), unmarried women from the nobility who normally served temporarily until marriage. The Hoffräulein could sometimes be promoted to Kammerfräulein (Maid of Honour of the Chamber). The Austrian court model was the role model for the princely courts in Germany. The German court model in turn became the role model of the early modern Scandinavian Courts of Denmark and Sweden.

Belgium
The Kingdom of Belgium was founded in 1830, after which a royal court was founded, and ladies-in-waiting were appointed for Louise of Orléans when she became the first queen of Belgium in 1832. The female officeholders of the Queen's household were created after the French model and composed of one Dame d'honneur, followed by several ladies-in-waiting with the title Dame du Palais, in turn ranking above the Première femme de chambre and the Femme de chambre.

The ladies-in-waiting have historically been chosen by the queen herself from the noblewomen of the Catholic Noble Houses of Belgium. The chief functions at court were undertaken by members of the higher nobility, involving much contact with the royal ladies. Belgian princesses were assigned a lady upon their 18th birthdays. Princess Clementine was given a Dame by her father, a symbolic acknowledgement of adulthood. When the queen entertains, the ladies welcome guests and assist the hostess in sustaining conversation.

Cambodia
In Cambodia, the term ladies-in-waiting refers to high ranking female servants who served food and drink, fanned and massaged, and sometimes provided sexual services to the King. Conventionally, these women could work their way up from maids to ladies-in-waiting, concubines, or even queen. Srey Snom (ស្រីស្នំ) is the Cambodian term for the Khmer lady-in-waiting.

The six favorite court ladies of King Sisowath of Cambodia were probably initially drawn from the ranks of classical royal dancers of the lower class. He was noted for having the most classical dancers as concubines. The imperial celestial dancer, Apsara, was one of these. This practice of drawing from the ranks of royal dancers began in the Golden Age of the Khmer Kingdom.

Canada
Several Canadian ladies-in-waiting have also been appointed to the Royal Household of Canada. Canadian ladies-in-waiting are typically appointed in order to assist the Monarch of Canada when carrying out official duties in Canada and royal tours in the country. Five Canadian ladies-in-waiting were made Lieutenants of the Royal Victorian Order.

Han
The ladies-in-waiting in China, referred to as palace women, palace ladies or court ladies, were all formally, if not always in practice, a part of the Emperor's harem, regardless of their task, and could be promoted by him to the rank of official concubine, consort, or even empress.

The Emperors of the Han dynasty (202 BC–220 AD) are reported to have had a harem of thousands of 'palace women', although the actual numbers are unconfirmed.

Song
At least during the Song dynasty (960–1279), palace women were divided in three groups: imperial women (consisting of concubines and consorts), imperial daughters (consisting of daughters and sisters of the Emperor), and the female officials and assistants, who performed a wide range of tasks and could potentially be promoted to the rank of concubine or consort.

Women from official elite families could be chosen to become Empress, consort or concubine immediately upon their entrance in the palace, but the Emperor could also promote any female court official to that post, as they were officially all members of his harem.

The female court officials and attendants were normally selected from trusted families and then educated for their task.

Ming
During the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), palace women were sorted into roughly the same three categories as in the Song Dynasty. However, female officials and assistants in the Ming Dynasty were organized into six established government groups, called the Six Bureaus: the Bureau of General Affairs, Bureau of Handicrafts, Bureau of Ceremonies, Bureau of Apartments, Bureau of Apparel, and Bureau of Foodstuffs. These groups were all overseen by the Office of Staff Surveillance, headed by a female official.

Women workers in the imperial palace were distinguished as either permanent or temporary staff. Permanent palace staff included educated and literate female officials serving in the Six Bureaus, and wet nurses caring for imperial heirs or other palace children. These women received great wealth and social acclaim if their jobs were performed well. Seasonal or temporary palace women included midwives, female physicians, and indentured contractors (these were usually women serving as maids to consorts, entertainers, sewing tutors, or sedan-chair bearers). These women were recruited into the palace when necessary and then released following the termination of their predetermined period of service.

Throughout the Ming dynasty, there was frequent movement between the palace service industry and the low levels of the Imperial Harem. Although Emperors frequently selected minor consorts from Imperial serving women, few selected women ever reached the higher ranks of the consort structure or gained significant prominence.

As the Ming dynasty progressed, living and working conditions for palace women began to deteriorate. Lower-ranked serving women working in the Imperial palace were often underpaid and unable to buy food, leaving them to support themselves by selling embroidery at the market outside the palace via eunuchs. Overall, living conditions and punishments for misbehaving eventually grew so bad that there was an assassination attempt against the Jiajing Emperor by a group of serving women. Led by palace maid Yang Jinying in 1542, the failed assassination attempt involved several maids sneaking into the Emperor's bedchamber as he slept, to strangle him with a curtain cord. The attempt ultimately failed, and all the women involved were put to death, although this type of violent revolt by serving women had never been seen before in the Ming Dynasty.

Due to slanderous literary propaganda written and spread by male officials and Confucian authors, higher-class female officials also saw their power begin to weaken throughout the Ming dynasty. These prominent government men began to disparage having educated women in government and state roles in response to the influence Imperial women had held over the nation in the past. This prompted a gradual overtaking of female official roles by palace eunuchs that continued throughout the remainder of the Dynasty.

Qing
The system of palace women continued mostly unchanged during the Qing dynasty (1644–1912), when a class of imperial women acting as consorts or concubines, who had not previously held other roles, existed. However, female court attendants were also all available for promotion to concubinage or the position of consort by the Emperor. During the Qing dynasty, imperial women were selected from among the teenage daughters of the Manchu official banner families, who were drafted to an inspection before they could marry. Similarly, palace maids were drafted from lower official and banner classes before they could marry. After their selection, palace maids were educated as personal attendants to consorts, female officials within court rituals or other tasks, and were also available for the Emperor to promote to consort or concubine. Below the palace maids were the maidservants, who were selected the same way by a draft among the daughters of soldiers.

Denmark
The early modern Danish court was organized according to the German court model, in turn inspired by the Austrian imperial court model, from the 16th century onward. The highest rank female courtier to a female royal was the Hofmesterinde (Court Mistress) or, from 1694/98 onward, Overhofmesterinde (Chief Court Mistress), equivalent to the Mistress of the Robes, normally an elder widow, who supervised the rest of the ladies-in-waiting. The rest of the female courtiers were mainly Kammerfrøken (Senior Maid of Honour), followed by a group of Hofdame (Court Lady) and the Hoffrøken (Maid of Honour). They were followed by the non-noble female court employees not ranking as ladies-in-waiting, such as the chambermaids.

This hierarchy was roughly in place from the 16th century until the death of King Christian IX of Denmark in 1906. During the 20th century, most of these titles came of use, and all ladies-in-waiting at the royal Danish court are now referred to as Hofdame (Court Lady).

France

The Queen of France is confirmed to have had a separate household in the late 12th century, and an ordinance from 1286 notes that Joan I of Navarre, Queen of France, had a group of five ladies (Dames) and maids-in-waiting (Damoiselles). In the 1480s, the French ladies-in-waiting were divided into Femmes Mariées (married ladies-in-waiting) and Filles d'honneur (Maids of Honour). However, the Queen's household and the number of female courtiers during the Middle Ages was very small in France, as in most European courts.

It was not until the end of the 15th century and early 16th century that emulation of the new courts of the Italian Renaissance made ladies-in-waiting fashionable in official court ceremonies and representation, and female court offices became more developed and numerous in the French court as well as in other European courts. The introduction of ladies-in-waiting increased in great numbers at the French court at this time: from a mere five in 1286 and still only 23 in 1490, to 39 in 1498 and roughly 54 during the 16th century. This expansion of female presence at court has been attributed to both Anne of Brittany, who encouraged all male courtiers to send their daughters to her, and to Francis I of France, who was criticized for bringing to court "the constant presence" of large crowds of women, who gossiped and interfered in state affairs. Francis I once said: "a court without ladies is a court without a court".

 * The first ranked female courtier in the French royal court was the Surintendante de la Maison de la Reine (Mistress of the Robes) to the queen. The Surintendante and the Governess of the Children of France were the only female office holders in France to give an oath of loyalty to the King himself. This office was created in 1619, and was vacant from the death of Marie Anne de Bourbon, in 1741, until the appointment of Marie Louise of Savoy-Carignan, Princesse de Lamballe, in 1775.
 * The second highest rank was that of the Première dame d'honneur, who could act as the stand-in of the Surintendante and had roughly the same tasks, hiring and supervising the female courtiers and the Queen's daily routine and expenditure. This post was created in 1523 and had originally been the highest female court office.
 * The third rank belonged to the Dame d'atour, who formally supervised the Queen's wardrobe and jewelry and the dressing of the queen. This post was created in 1534.
 * The fourth rank was that of the dames, from 1523 named Dame d'honneur, composed of ladies-in-waiting whose task was simply to serve as companions and attending and assisting with court functions. The position was abolished in 1674, and replaced by the Dame du palais, 12 married noblewomen with the same tasks.
 * The fifth rank was the Filles d'honneur or Demoiselles d'honneur (Maids of Honour), unmarried daughters of the nobility, who had the same tasks as the dames, but were mainly placed at court to learn etiquette and look for a spouse. They were supervised by the Gouvernante and the Sous-gouvernante. The Filles were from 1531 supervised by the Gouvernante de Filles, a lady-in-waiting who had the task to chaperone them: this post was divided into several from 1547 onward. The position of Filles d'honneur was abolished in 1674.
 * The sixth rank was the Première femme de chambre, who in turn outranked the remaining Femme de Chambres and Lavandières. The Premiere femme de chambre had the keys to the Queen's rooms and could recommend and deny audiences to her, which in practice made her position very powerful at court.

During the First Empire, the principal lady-in-waiting of the Empress was the Dame d'honneur, followed by between 20 and 36 Dames du Palais. During the Bourbon Restoration, Marie Thérèse of France restored the pre-revolutionary court hierarchy. During the Second Empire, the female courtiers of the Empress were composed of the first rank, Grand Maitresse, and the second rank, Dame d'honneur, followed by six (later twelve) Dames du Palais.

Germany
The early modern princely courts in Germany were modeled after the Austrian imperial court model. This court model divided the ladies-in-waiting in a chief lady-in-waiting named Oberhofmeisterin (a widowed or married elder woman) who supervised the Hoffräulein (Maids of Honour), of which one or two could be promoted to the middle rank of Kammerfräulein (Maid of Honour of the Chamber). The German princely courts in turn became the role model of the Scandinavian courts of Denmark and Sweden in the 16th century.

After the end of the German Holy Roman Empire in 1806, and the establishment of several minor Kingdoms in Germany, the post of Staatsdame (married ladies-in-waiting) were introduced in many German princely and royal courts. At the imperial German court, the ladies-in-waiting were composed of one Oberhofmeisterin in charge of several Hofstaatsdamen or Palastdamen.

Greece
During the Byzantine Empire, the Byzantine Empress was attended by a female court (the Sekreton Tōn Gynaikōn), which consisted mostly of the wives of high-ranking male court officials, who simply used the feminine versions of their husbands' titles. The only specifically female dignity was that of the Zoste patrikia, the chief lady-in-waiting and female attendant of the Empress, who was the head of the women's court and often a relative of the Empress; this title existed at least since the 9th century.

The Kingdom of Greece was established in 1832 and its first queen, Amalia of Oldenburg, organized the ladies-in-waiting of its first royal court with one 'Grande Maitresse ', followed by the second rank 'Dame d'honneur', and the third rank 'Dame de Palais'.

Naples and the Two Sicilies
Prior to the unification, the greatest of the Italian states was the Kingdom of Naples, later called Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. In 1842, the ladies-in-waiting of the Queen of the Two Sicilies were composed of one Dama di Onore (Lady of Honor, ranked just below the Cavaliere di Onore), three Dama di Compagnia (Lady Companions, ranked below the Cavalerizzo), and a large number of Dame di Corte (Court Ladies).

Kingdom of Italy
In 1861, the Italian Peninsula was united in to the Kingdom of Italy. The ladies-in-waiting of the Queen of Italy were headed by the Dama d'Onore, followed by the Dame di Corte, and finally the Dame di Palazzo. The Dama d'Onore was nominally the chief lady-in-waiting, but in practice often limited her service to state occasions; the Dame di Corte was the regular lady-in-waiting who personally attended to the queen, while the Dame di Palazzo were honorary courtiers attached to the royal palaces in particular cities, such as Florence, Turin, and so forth, and only served temporary when the queen visited the city in question: among these, only the Dame di Palazzo attached to the royal palace of the capital of Rome served more than temporary.

Japan
In Japan, the imperial court offices was normally reserved for members of the court aristocracy and the ladies-in-waiting or 'palace attendants' were commonly educated members of the nobility.

During the Heian period (794–1185) women could hold court offices of substantial responsibility, managing the affairs of the Emperor. Female palace attendants were employed by the Imperial Bureau of Palace Attendants from among the court aristocracy, but were required to have sufficient education in Chinese classics to be accepted.

During the Sengoku period (1467–1603), the highest rank of a lady-in-waiting was the 'Female Assistant to the Major Counselor', who ran the affairs of the daily life of the Imperial Household. The second rank was Female Palace Attendant, who acted as intermediary between the Emperor and those seeking an audience and issued his wishes in writing. Ladies-in-waiting acted as imperial secretaries and noted the events at court, visitors and gifts in the official court journals.

In contrast to China, female palace attendants managed the palace of the imperial harem rather than eunuchs, and could hold high court offices in the Emperor's personal household.

Female palace attendants were divided into two classes, which in turn had several ranks, signifying their task. The first class consisted of the nyokan, or ladies-in-waiting who held court offices: naishi-kami (shoji) naishi-suke (tenji) and naishi-no-jo (shoji). The second class were the female palace attendants: myobu, osashi, osue and nyoju. The ladies-in-waiting worked as personal assistants, tending to the Emperor's wardrobe, assisting the emperor's baths, serving meals, performing and attending court rituals. Ladies-in-waiting could be appointed as concubines, consorts or even Empresses by the Emperor or the heir to the throne. The function of a lady-in-waiting as potential concubine was abolished in 1924.

Korea
Gungnyeo (literally 'palace women') is a term that refers to women who worked in the palace and waited upon the king and other members of the royal family. It is short for Gungjung Yeogwan, which translates to 'woman officer of the royal court'.

Gungnyeo consisted of the ladies-in-waiting—both high-ranking court ladies and the ordinary maids (known as nain) responsible for most of the labour work—who were divided into ranks from 9 to 5 (the ranks from 4 to 1 were the official concubines of the king), with two levels each (senior and junior), the highest attainable rank being sanggung (senior 5th), as well as other types of working women who were not included in the classification, such as musuri (women from the lowest class who did odd jobs, such as drawing water and distributing firewood), gaksimi (also known as bija and bangja, who were personal servants of a sanggung), sonnim (literally translated to 'guest', were maids brought in the palace to work for the royal concubines, most of the time connected to the families of the concubines) and uinyeo (selected from public female slaves, they worked at the royal infirmary or public clinics, and practiced simple medicine skills).

Generally, the ladies-in-waiting were chosen from among the young girls of the sangmin (commoners) and the private female slaves of the sadaebu (governing class). Later, the candidates were also picked from among the government slaves, together with the daughters of noblemen's concubines (who were former courtesans or slaves). The appointment process was different for nain associated with the inner quarters for the king and queen, who were recruited by the high ranked court ladies themselves, through recommendations and connections. The nain for the departments with specific skills such as sewing and embroidery were from the jungin (middle class), with the lowest class of gungnyeo coming from the cheonmin (vulgar commoners).

They could be as young as 4 when entering the palace, and after learning court language and etiquette, they could be elevated to a nain. When they had served the court for more than 15 years, they would eventually be promoted to higher ranks, however they were eligible for the rank of sanggung only after a minimum of 35 years of work.

Ladies-in-waiting could become concubines if the king favored them. They would be elevated to the highest rank (senior 5th) and would be known as seungeun sanggung (or 'favored/special court lady'). If they gave birth to a son, they would become members of the royal family, after being promoted to sug-won (junior 4th) and until the 18th century, they could advance as high as becoming queen (the most notable example being Jang Ok-jeong, a concubine of Sukjong of Joseon and mother of Gyeongjong of Joseon).

The Netherlands
The court of the Duchy of Burgundy, which was situated in the Netherlands in the 15th century, was famous for its elaborate ceremonial court life and became a role model for several other courts of Europe. The Burgundian court model came to be the role model for the Austrian imperial court during the 16th century, when the Burgundian Netherlands and Austria were united through the Habsburg dynasty.

In the 16th century, the ladies-in-waiting in the courts of the Habsburg governors of the Netherlands, Margaret of Austria and Mary of Hungary, were composed of one Hofmeesteres (Court Mistress) or Dame d'honneur who served as the principal lady-in-waiting; one Hofdame or Mere de Filles, who was second in rank and deputy of the Hofmeesteres as well as being in charge of the Eredames (Maids of Honour), also known as Demoiselle d'honneur, Fille d'honneur or Junckfrauen, and finally the Kameniersters (Chamber Maids), all with different titles depending on language in the multilingual area of the Netherlands.

The Kingdom of the Netherlands was founded in 1815, signifying the organisation of a royal court. In the 19th century, the ladies-in-waiting of the Dutch court were headed by the Grootmeesteres (Grand Mistress, equivalent to Mistress of the Robes), of second rank were the Dames du Palais (married ladies-in-waiting), followed by the third rank Hofdames (Court Ladies, equivalent to Maids of Honour).

Beatrix of the Netherlands had a total of seven Hofdames. They accompanied the queen and the other female members of the Royal House during visits and receptions at the royal court. The monarch paid for their expenses, but they did not receive any salary. Not all of these ladies were members of the Dutch aristocracy, but each had a "notable" husband. Excellent social behavior and discretion were the most important recommendations for becoming a Hofdame. In 2012, the Hofdames were Letje van Karnebeek-van Lede, Lieke Gaarlandt-van Voorst van Beest, Julie Jeekel-Thate, Miente Boellaard-Stheeman, Jonkvrouwe Reina de Blocq van Scheltinga, Elizabeth Baroness van Wassenaer-Mersmans and Bibi Baroness van Zuylen van Nijevelt, Jonkvrouwe den Beer Poortugael. Queen Maxima reduced the number of Hofdames to three, hers being: Lieke Gaarlandt-van Voorst van Beest, Pien van Karnebeek-Thijssen and Annemijn Crince le Roy-van Munster van Heuven. After their voluntary retirement, Hofdames were appointed to the honorary royal household. The honorary royal household still distinguishes between Dames du Palais and Hofdames, but the category Dames du Palais is slated for discontinuation.

The Grootmeesteres (Grandmistress) is the highest-ranking lady at the royal court. From 1984 until 2014, the position was held by Martine van Loon-Labouchere, descendant of the famous banker family, a former diplomat and the widow of Jonkheer Maurits van Loon of the famous Amsterdam canal estate. The current Grootmeesteres is Bibi Countess van Zuylen van Nijevelt-den Beer Poortugael (lady-in-waiting between 2011 and 2014).

Nigeria
A number of tribes and cultural areas in the African continent, such as the Lobedu people of Southern Africa, had a similar custom of ladies-in-waiting in historic times.

As a further example, within certain pre-colonial states of the Bini and Yoruba peoples in Nigeria, the queen mothers and high priestesses were considered "ritually male" due to their social eminence. As a result of this fact, they were often attended to by women who belonged to their harems in much the same way as their actually male counterparts were served by women who belonged to theirs. Although these women effectively functioned as ladies-in-waiting, were often members of powerful families of the local nobility in their own right, and were not usually used for sexual purposes, they were nonetheless referred to as their principals' "wives".

Norway
During the Danish–Norwegian union, from 1380 until 1814, the Danish royal court in Copenhagen was counted as the Norwegian royal court, and thus there was no royal court present in Norway during this period. During the union between Norway and Sweden from 1814 to 1905, there were Norwegian courtiers who served during the Swedish royal family's visits to Norway. The female courtiers were appointed according to the Swedish court model, that is to say the class of Hovfröken (Maid of Honour), Kammarfröken (Chief Maid of Honour) and Statsfru (Lady of the Bedchamber), all supervised by the Overhoffmesterinne (Mistress of the Robes): these posts were first appointed in 1817. When the union between Sweden and Norway was dissolved in 1905, a permanent Norwegian royal court was established.

Ottoman Empire
In the Ottoman Empire, the word lady-in-waiting or court lady has often been used to describe those women of the Imperial Harem who functioned as servants, secretaries, and companions of the consorts (concubines), daughters, sisters and mothers of the Ottoman Sultan. These women originally came to the Harem as slaves, captured through the Crimean slave trade, the Barbary slave trade and the White slave trade. When they entered the Harem, they were given the position of Cariye and were all formally available as concubines to the Sultan, but if they were not chosen to share his bed, they served in a position similar to lady-in-waiting, serving the mother, concubines, sisters, and daughters of the Sultan.

The (enslaved) ladies-in-waiting of the Ottoman Imperial harem were collectively known as kalfa, of different ranks. Each royal and royal concubine had their own household staff of kalfa; a kalfa serving as the servant of the sultan himself was titled Hünkar Kalfalari. A Hazinedar or Hazinedar Usta was a kalfa with special assignments rather than just an ordinary attendant, and was ranked under the Hazinedar Usta. All kalfa belonging to the same household within the court were ranked under their Daire Kalfasi, who was the supervisor of the kalfa's belonging to a specific royal person. All Daire Kalfasi of the harem were rankend under the Büyük Kalfa, who in turn was the supervisor of all the Daire Kalfasi of the court. The highest ranked kalfa was the Saray Ustas, who supervised all the kalfa of the entire court (harem).

Poland
In early modern Poland, the queen's ladies-in-waiting were collectively referred to as the fraucimer. The queen's household mirrored that of the king, but was smaller. The queen's male courtiers were supervised by the Ochmistrz, a nobleman, and the women of her court were supervised by the chief lady-in-waiting, the Ochmistrzyni (magister curiae). The Ochmistrzyni was defined as a state office and it was the only state office in Poland prior to the partition of Poland which was held by a woman. She was always to be a noblewoman married to a nobleman of senatorial rank. The Ochmistrzyni supervised a large number of unmarried ladies-in-waiting, maids of honour. The queen's court was a larger version of the courts of the Polish magnate noblewomen, and it was the custom in the Polish nobility to send their teenage daughters to be educated as ladies-in-waiting in the household of another noblewoman or preferably the queen herself in order to receive an education and find someone to marry.

Portugal
The royal court of Portugal was influenced by the Spanish court model, after Portugal became independent of Spain and created its own royal court in 1640.

The court register of 1896 noted the Camareira-mór as the senior of all the ladies-in-waiting of the Portuguese court, followed by the Dama Camarista Mulher do mordomo mór de S. a Rainha, and the Dama honoraria Mulher do mestre sala. All three positions were at that date occupied by one person. The fourth rank was the Dona camarista (there were five in 1896), and the lowest rank of ladies-in-waiting was the Dona honoraira, of which there were 21 in 1896.

Russia
In the Court of Muscovite Russia, the offices of ladies-in-waiting to the tsarina were normally divided among the boyarinas (widows or wives of boyars), often from the family and relatives of the tsarina. The first rank among the offices of the ladies-in-waiting was the tsarina's treasurer. The second was the group of companions. The third were the royal nurses to the princes and princesses (where the nurses of the male children outranked); among the nurses, the most significant post was that of the mamok, the head royal governess, who was normally selected from elder widows, often relatives to the tsar or tsarina. All offices were appointed by royal decree. The group of ladies-in-waiting were collectively above the rank of the svetlichnaya (the tsarina's sewing women), the postelnitsy (the tsarina's chamber women and washing women) and the officials who handled the affairs of the staff.

In 1722, this system was abolished and the Russian imperial court was reorganized in accordance with the reforms of Peter the Great to westernize Russia, and the old court offices of the tsarina were replaced with court offices inspired by the German model.

Spain
The royal court of Castile included a group of ladies-in-waiting for the queen named Camarera in the late 13th century and early 14th century, but it was not until the 15th century that a set organisation of the ladies-in-waiting is confirmed. This characteristic organisation of the Spanish ladies-in-waiting, roughly established during the reign of Isabella I of Castile (r. 1474–1504), was kept by Isabella of Portugal, Holy Roman Empress and Queen of Spain, during the 16th century, and became the standard Spanish court model for ladies-in-waiting.

 * The highest rank female courtier was the Camarera Mayor de Palacio (Mistress of the Robes). This office is confirmed from the 1410s.
 * The second rank was shared by the Ayas (royal governess), and the Guardas (chaperones).
 * The third rank was the Dueñas de Honor, the married ladies-in-waiting, who were responsible for not only the unmarried Damas or Meninas (Maids of honour), but also for the female slaves and dwarfs, who were classified as courtiers and ranked before the Mozas (maids) and Lavanderas (washer women).

Sweden
The early modern Swedish court, as well as the Danish equivalent, were re-organized in the early 16th century according to the German court model, in turn inspired by the Austrian imperial court model. This model roughly organized the female noble courtiers in the class of the unmarried Hovfröken (Maid of Honour, until 1719 Hovjungfru) which could be promoted to Kammarfröken (Chief Maid of Honour, until 1719 Kammarjungfru). They were supervised by the Hovmästarinna (Court Mistress, equivalent to Mistress of the Robes), normally a married or widowed elder noblewoman. Under this class of female noble courtiers, were the non-noble female servants. They were headed by the normally married Kammarfru (Mistress of the Chamber, roughly equivalent to a Lady's Maid), often of burgher background, who supervised the group of Kammarpiga (Chamber Maids).

From the reign of Queen Christina, the Hovmästarinna was supervised by the Överhovmästarinna (Chief Court Mistress). In 1774, the post of Statsfru (Mistress of the State) was introduced, which was the title for the group of married ladies-in-waiting with a rank between the Hovmästarinna and the Kammarfröken. The Swedish court staff was reduced in size in 1873. The new court protocols of 1911 and 1954 continued this reduction, and many court posts were abolished or no longer filled.

With the exception of the Statsfru and the Överhovmästarinna, none of the titles above are in use today. At the death of Queen Louise in 1965, her Överhovmästarinna was employed by the King. From 1994, the Överhovmästarinna is the head of the court of the King rather than the Queen, while the court of the Queen is headed by the Statsfru. There is now only one Statsfru, and the other ladies-in-waiting are simply referred to as Hovdam (Court Lady). Queen Silvia of Sweden has only three Hovdamer (Court Ladies). Her chief lady-in-waiting is the Statsfru.

United Kingdom
In the Royal Households of the United Kingdom, a lady-in-waiting is a woman attending a female member of the royal family. Ladies-in-waiting are routinely appointed by junior female members of the royal family, to accompany them on public engagements and provide other support and assistance.

On more formal occasions ladies in waiting wear a badge of office, which usually takes the form of a jewelled or enamelled monogram of the relevant member of the royal family beneath the appropriate crown or coronet, suspended from a coloured ribbon.

Prior to the Accession of Charles III, a woman attending on a queen (whether queen regnant, queen consort or queen dowager) was also often referred to as a lady-in-waiting (including in official notices), although she would more formally be called either a woman of the bedchamber or a lady of the bedchamber (depending on which of these offices she held). The senior lady of a queen's household was the mistress of the robes, who (as well as being in attendance herself on occasion) was responsible for arranging all the duties of the queen's ladies in waiting.

Queen Elizabeth II
During the reign of Queen Elizabeth II, one of the women of the bedchamber was always in daily attendance; each served for a fortnight at a time, in rotation. In the Court Circular the phrase 'Lady in Waiting to the Queen' referred to the women on duty at a given time.

The ladies of the bedchamber were not in daily attendance, but were called upon for the more important public occasions and events. Two ladies-in-waiting used to accompany the Queen on overseas tours, one of whom was usually a Lady of the Bedchamber. For many years the Queen was always attended by three ladies-in-waiting at the State Opening of Parliament (the Mistress of the Robes, a Lady of the Bedchamber and a Woman of the Bedchamber), but in 1998 the number attending was reduced to two.

Towards the end of her reign, the ladies-in-waiting to Queen Elizabeth II were:

Mistress of the Robes
 * The Duchess of Grafton served as Mistress of the Robes to Elizabeth II from 1967 until her death on 3 December 2021 (after which the position remained vacant).

Ladies of the Bedchamber
 * The Countess of Airlie was appointed in 1973 and served throughout the rest of Elizabeth II's reign.
 * The Lady Farnham served from 1987 until her death in 2021.

Women of the Bedchamber
 * The Hon. Dame Mary Morrison was appointed in 1960 and served throughout the rest of Elizabeth II's reign.
 * Lady Susan Hussey was also appointed in 1960, and served throughout the rest of Elizabeth II's reign.
 * The Lady Elton was appointed in 1987 and served throughout the rest of Elizabeth II's reign.
 * Dame Philippa de Pass was appointed as an Extra Woman of the Bedchamber in 1987 and served throughout the rest of Elizabeth II's reign.
 * The Hon. Dame Annabel Whitehead was appointed in 2002 and served throughout the rest of Elizabeth II's reign.
 * Dame Jennifer Gordon-Lennox was also appointed in 2002, and served throughout the rest of Elizabeth II's reign.

Extra ladies-in-waiting
 * Lady Elizabeth Leeming (née Bowes-Lyon), a cousin of Elizabeth II.
 * Mrs. Simon Rhodes, daughter-in-law of The Hon. Margaret Rhodes (a cousin of Elizabeth II and former Woman of the Bedchamber to Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother).

After the death of Elizabeth II and the accession of Charles III, it was announced that the King would be retaining the late Queen's ladies-in-waiting, with their titles changing to "Ladies of the Household". They will help with hosting events at Buckingham Palace.

Queen Camilla
In November 2022, it was announced that Queen Camilla would end the tradition of having ladies-in-waiting. Instead, she would be helped by "Queen's companions". Their role would be informal and they would not be involved in tasks such as replying to letters or developing schedules.

her companions were:
 * The Marchioness of Lansdowne
 * The Baroness Chisholm of Owlpen
 * The Lady Brooke
 * Lady Sarah Keswick
 * Annabel Elliot
 * Jane von Westenholz
 * Sarah Troughton

Historic
In the Middle Ages, Margaret of France is noted to have had seven ladies-in-waiting: three married ones, who were called Domina, and four unmarried maids of honour, but no principal lady-in-waiting is mentioned, and until the 15th century, the majority of the officeholders of the Queen's household were still male.

As late as in the mid-15th century, Elizabeth Woodville had only five ladies-in-waiting, but in the late 15th century and early 16th century, ladies-in-waiting were given a more dominant place at the English court, in parallel with developments in France and the continental courts. The court life of the Duchy of Burgundy served as an example when Edward IV created the Black Book of the Household in 1478, and the organisation of the English royal household was essentially set from that point onward.

Elizabeth of York had numerous ladies-in-waiting, which was reported by the Spanish ambassador, Rodrigo de Puebla, as something unusual and astonishing: "the Queen has thirty-two ladies, very magnificent and in splendid style". She reportedly had 36 ladies-in-waiting, 18 of them noblewomen; in 1502, a more complete account summarised them as 16 'gentlewomen', seven maids of honour and three 'chamberers-women', who attended to her in the bedchamber. Aside from the women formally employed as ladies-in-waiting, the Queen's female retinue in reality also consisted of the daughters and the ladies-in-waiting of her ladies-in-waiting, who also resided in the Queen's household.

The duties of ladies-in-waiting at the Tudor court were to act as companions for the queen, both in public and in private. They had to accompany her wherever she went, to entertain her with music, dance or singing and to dress, bathe and help her use the toilet, since a royal person, by the standards of the day, was not supposed to do anything for herself, but was always to be waited upon in all daily tasks as a sign of their status.

Ladies-in-waiting were appointed because of their social status as members of the nobility, on the recommendation of court officials, or other prominent citizens, and because they were expected to be supporters of the royal family due to their own family relationships. When the queen was not a foreigner, her own relations were often appointed as they were presumed to be trustworthy and loyal. Margaret Lee was a lady of the privy chamber to Anne Boleyn, just as Elizabeth Seymour was to Jane Seymour.

The organisation of the queen's ladies-in-waiting was set in the period of the Tudor court. The ladies-in-waiting were headed by the mistress of the robes, followed in rank by the first lady of the bedchamber, who supervised the group of ladies of the bedchamber (typically wives or widows of peers above the rank of earl), in turn followed by the group of women of the bedchamber (usually the daughters of peers) and finally the group of maids of honour, whose service entitled them to the style of The Honourable for life.

The system had formally remained roughly the same since the Tudor period. However, in practice, many offices have since then been left vacant. For example, in recent times, maids of honour have only been appointed for coronations.

Notable examples
''This is a list of particularly well known and famous ladies-in-waiting of each nation listed. More can be found in their respective category.''

Austria

 * Countess Sophie Chotek von Chotkow und Wognin, later Duchess of Hohenberg (1868–1914)

Canada

 * Margaret Southern (b. 1931)

Denmark

 * Louise Scheel von Plessen (1725–1799)

England and Scotland

 * Catherine Douglas (fl. 1497)
 * Elizabeth Woodville (possibly; 1437–1492)
 * Lady Mary Boleyn (с. 1499/1500–1543)
 * Four of Henry VIII's queens consort:
 * Lady Anne Boleyn (c. 1501/07–1536)
 * Jane Seymour (c. 1508–1537)
 * Catherine Howard (с. 1523–1542)
 * Catherine Parr (1512–1548)
 * Jane Boleyn, Viscountess Rochford (c. 1505–1542)
 * Katherine Ashley (c. 1502–1565)
 * Jane Dormer, later Duchess of Feria (1538–1612)
 * Mary Fleming (1542–1581); one of the Four Marys
 * Lettice Knollys (1543–1634)
 * Sarah Churchill, Duchess of Marlborough (1660–1744)
 * Ivy Gordon-Lennox, later Duchess of Portland (1887–1982)
 * Ruth Roche, Baroness Fermoy (1908–1993)
 * Lady Pamela Mountbatten (b. 1929)
 * Jane Loftus, Marchioness of Ely (1821–1890)
 * Lady Sarah McCorquodale (b. 1955)

France

 * Françoise de Brézé, Countess of Maulévrier (1515–1577); Regent of Sedan from 1553 to 1559
 * Jacqueline de Longwy, Countess of Bar-sur-Sein (before 1520–1561)
 * Henriette of Cleves, 4th Duchess of Nevers (1542–1601); one of France's chief creditors until her death
 * Marie Thérèse Louise of Savoy, Princess of Lamballe (1749–1792)
 * Yolande de Polastron (1749–1793)
 * Louise-Élisabeth de Croÿ, Marchioness of Tourzel (1749–1832)

Germany

 * Marie Luise von Degenfeld (1634–1677); at the court of The Palatinate in Heidelberg
 * Maria Charlotte von Schafftenberg (1699–1780); at the court of the Electorate of Saxony in Dresden
 * Sophie Caroline von Camas (1686–1766); at the court of the Prussia in Berlin
 * Baroness Maria Caroline Charlotte von Ingenheim (1704–1749); at the court of Bavaria in Munich
 * Eleonore von Schlieben (1720–1755); at the court of Prussia
 * Sophie Marie von Voß (1729–1814); at the court of Prussia
 * Charlotte von Stein (1742–1827); at the court of Saxe-Weimar
 * Luise von Göchhausen (1752–1807); at the court of Saxe-Weimar
 * Karoline Friederike von Berg (1760–1826); at the court of Prussia
 * Gabriele von Bülow (1802–1887); chief lady-in-waiting at the court of Prussia
 * Rosalie von Rauch, later Countess of Hohenau (1820–1879); at the court of Prussia

Hungary

 * Helene Kottanner (1400–1470); lady-in-waiting for Elisabeth of Luxembourg, she organized the abduction of the Holy Crown and nursed Elisabeth of Habsburg, who later become a Polish Queen
 * Countess Irma Sztáray de Sztára et Nagymihály (1863–1940); at the court of Empress Elisabeth "Sisi" of Austria
 * Countess Marie Festetics von Tolna (1839–1923); lady-in-waiting for Empress Elisabeth of Austria and Honorary Lady of the Order of Theresa
 * Ida Krisztina Veronika Ferenczy of Vecseszék (1839–1928); close friend and confidant of Empress Elisabeth of Austria

Japan

 * Lady Ise (875–938); poet, lover of Prince Atsuyoshi and later concubine of Emperor Uda
 * Takashina no Takako (d. 996); served at the court of Empress Junshi, later the legal wife of Fujiwara no Michitaka and regent of Emperor Ichijō
 * Uma no Naishi (949–1011); poet, she served under Empress Kishi (wife of Emperor Murakami), Fujiwara no Senshi (the imperial consort of Emperor En'yū and mother of Emperor Ichijō) and Empress Teishi (wife of Emperor Ichijō), and later became a follower of Shōnagon
 * Akazome Emon (с. 956–1041 or later); poet and writer of "Tale of Flowering Fortunes", she served at the court of Empress Shoshi
 * Murasaki Shikibu (c. 978/1031); poet and the writer of the first known novel, "The Tale of Genji", she also wrote a diary about court life after serving at the court of Empress Shoshi
 * Sei Shōnagon (c. 966–1017/1025); writer of the Pillow Book, she served at the court of Empress Teishi
 * Ise no Taifu (989–1060); poet, she served Empress Shoshi along with Murasaki Shikibu, Akazome Emon and Izumi Shikibu, and later became the nurse of Emperor Shirakawa
 * Daini no Sanmi (999–1082); daughter of Murasaki Shikibu she served at the court of Grand Empress Dowager Shoshi and was the nurse of Emperor Go-Reizei and the imperial princesses
 * Lady Sarashina (1008–after 1059); writer of Sarashina Nikki, she served Imperial Princess Yushi, the third daughter of Emperor Go-Suzaku

Korea

 * Kim Gae-si (d. 1623)
 * Royal Consort Gwi-in of the Okcheon Jo clan (d. 1652)
 * Jang Ok-jeong, Royal Noble Consort Hui of the Indong Jang clan (1659–1701)
 * Royal Noble Consort Suk of the Haeju Choe clan (1670–1718)
 * Royal Noble Consort Yeong of the Jeonui Yi clan (1696–1764)
 * Royal Noble Consort Ui of the Changnyeong Seong clan (1753–1786)
 * Imperial Consort Boknyeong Gwi-in of the Cheongju Yang clan (1882–1929)

China

 * Lu Lingxuan (d. 577); served as the wet nurse of Emperor Gao Wei
 * Sumalagu (1615–1705); palace attendant during the Qing Dynasty and close confidant of Empress Dowager Xiaozhuang
 * Wei Tuan'er (d. 693); favourite lady-in-waiting of Wu Zetian
 * Princess Der Ling (1885–1944); she was given the title of "commandery princess" while serving as the first lady-in-waiting for Empress Dowager Cixi
 * Nellie Yu Roung Ling (1889–1973); she was given the title of "commandery princess" while serving as a lady-in-waiting for Empress Dowager Cixi

Ottoman

 * Gülfem Hatun (d. 1562); supposed concubine of Sultan Suleiman I the Magnificent
 * Canfeda Hatun (d. 1600); mistress housekeeper
 * Hubbi Hatun (d. 1590); poet
 * Raziye Hatun (1525–1597); mistress of financial affairs
 * Şahinde Hanım (née Princess Kezban Marshania; c. 1895–1924); lady-in-waiting to her aunt, Nazikeda Kadın
 * Şekerpare Hatun; mistress housekeeper

Poland

 * Marie Casimire Louise de La Grange d'Arquien, later Queen of Poland (1641–1716)
 * Klara Izabella Pacowa (1631–1685)
 * Elżbieta Helena Sieniawska (1669–1729)

Russia

 * Sophia Stepanovna Razumovskaya (1746–1803); a mistress of Paul I of Russia
 * Countess Julia von Hauke, later Princess of Battenberg (1825–1895)
 * Anna Alexandrovna Vyrubova (1884–1964)

Sweden

 * Elizabeth Ribbing (1596–1662), and later her morganatic daughter, Elizabeth Carlsdotter Gyllenhielm (1622–1682)
 * Ulrika Strömfelt (1724–1780)
 * Augusta von Fersen (1754–1846)
 * Magdalena Rudenschöld (1766–1823)

Thailand

 * Princess Vibhavadi Rangsit (1920–1977)

In fiction

 * The Favourite (2018 film)

title: Lady-in-waiting


text:
Carmona, Spain

Carmona is a town of southwestern Spain, in the province of Seville; it lies 33 km north-east of Seville.

Carmona is built on a ridge overlooking the central plain of Andalusia; to the north is the Sierra Morena, with the peak of San Cristobal to the south. The city is known for its thriving trade in wine, olive oil, grain and cattle, and holds an annual fair in April.

It is ascribed both to the comarca of Campiña de Carmona and the comarca of Los Alcores.

Location
Carmona is located in the southwest of the Iberian Peninsula. It lies at about 249 metres above sea level, on a NE–SO ridge at the northeastern end of Los Alcores tableland, dominating over the meadows of the Corbones river, a left-bank tributary of the Guadalquivir.

Climate
Carmona has a Mediterranean climate with a sunny spring and typically some rain in that season. In October, the average temperature ranges from a minimum of 13 °C to a maximum of 26 °C. The city experiences a moderate level of annual precipitation and has pleasant winter temperatures.

History
Carmona was originally a Tartessian-Turdetani settlement. With the arrival of Phoenician traders from Tyre, Carmona was transformed into a city, known by them Qrt-Ḥmn, meaning "City of Hammon". Centuries later, it became a Roman stronghold of Hispania Baetica. It was known as Carmo in the time of Julius Caesar (100–44 BC). The city was further fortified during the long occupation of the Moors, who erected walls around it, and built fountains and palaces within.

Following the demise of the Caliphate of Córdoba in the early 11th century, Carmona (Qarmūna) was seized by Hammudid Berbers, and then by the also Berber Birzalid clan, becoming the head of the taifa of Carmona, a petty kingdom, which was conquered by the Abbadid taifa of Seville by 1067. An Almoravid stronghold after the Almoravid conquest of the taifa of Seville, it was finally subdued by the Almohads after a settlement. It was briefly occupied by Ibn Hamusk, before reverting to the Almohads in 1161.

In 1247, Ferdinand III of Castile captured the town, and bestowed on it the Latin motto Sicut Lucifer lucet in Aurora, sic in Wandalia Carmona ("As the Morning-star shines in the Dawn, so shines Carmona in Andalusia"). During the Late Middle Ages, the town preserved a Muslim-majority population ruled by a Christian minority. The citadel of Carmona, now in ruins, was the principal fortress of Peter the Cruel (from 1350 to 1369), and contained a spacious palace within its defences. Towards the end of the 15th century Carmona had an estimated population of about 8,000. By the dawn of the Early Modern period, Carmona's economy was agriculture-based, with the town featuring many latifundia, often entitled to non-local landowners, and a substantial fraction of non-active population.

The 19th century desamortizaciones led to the creation of a new landowning class that came to be historiographically designated as "agrarian bourgeoisie". The population boomed in the mid 20th century.

Archaeology
In June 2024, University of Cordoba recently announced the discovery of a 2,000-year-old white wine in a glass funerary urn in a tomb in Carmona. The tomb also contained the skeletal remains of two men called Hispana and Senicio, along with the remains of two other men and two women who were unnamed. Researchers noted that despite millennia passing, the tomb remained well-preserved, protecting it from floods and leaks. This preservation allowed the wine to retain its natural state.

Main sights

 * Palace of King Don Pedro, built in the 13th century by Peter I of Castile. It was damaged by an earthquake in 1504.
 * Moorish alcázar
 * Palace of Rueda
 * Palace of the Marquess of Torres
 * Seville Gate Palace
 * Baroque palaces of Alonso Bernal Escamilla, Aguilar, Domínguez, and Lasso
 * Córdoba Gate, the gate on the road to Córdoba, partly of Roman construction
 * Seville Gate, of Carthaginian origins, has the remains of later Roman additions, and was modified in the Middle Ages by the Moors and the Christians.
 * Marchena Gate, built during the Almohad domination of Spain
 * Roman Bridge
 * Remains of the Via Augusta
 * Tree-lined avenue of Alfonso XIII
 * Roman Necropolis, discovered in 1881. It is located close to the town, beside the Seville road, and contains more than nine hundred family tombs dating from the second century BC to the fourth century AD. Enclosed in subterranean chambers hewn from the rock, the tombs are often frescoed and contain a series of niches in which many of the funeral urns remain intact. Some of the larger tombs have vestibules with stone benches for funeral banquets and several retain carved family emblems.
 * The Tomb of the Elephant and the Tomb of Servilia in the necropolis
 * Roman Amphitheatre, also discovered in 1881, together with a group of tombs, all belonging to the first four centuries AD, near the original necropolis.
 * Ayuntamiento (Town Hall)
 * Cave of the Batida
 * Fountain of the Lions
 * Hospital of the Mercy and the Charity Church of Saint Bartholomew
 * Tower of the Peak
 * Market
 * Cerezo Theatre

 * Religious buildings
 * Church of San Pedro (15th century). Its tower is a medieval replica of the Giralda bell tower of the Cathedral of Seville.
 * Church of Santa Maria de la Asunción
 * Church of El Salvador (17th century), in Baroque style
 * Church of the Convent of Santa Ana
 * Church of San Blas
 * Church of San Felipe (14th century)
 * Church of Santiago
 * Convent of the Immaculate Conception
 * Convent of the Trinity
 * Convent of Las Descalzas Discalced Carmelite Nuns
 * Convent of Santa Clara (15th century), with a Mudéjar church renovated in 1664 in Baroque style
 * Hermitage of San Mateo (15th century)
 * Hermitage of Our Lady of Real or San Antón (15th century).
 * Ermita de la Virgen de Gracia (Our Lady of Grace, the patron saint of Carmona)

Gastronomy
Carmona's restaurants and bars demonstrate a variety of Spanish cuisine including tapas and other dishes. The city is known for its traditional Andalusian cooking. A pub crawl of various bars, called the Ruta de las tapas (Tapas Route) is noteworthy; it is marked with blue and white signs, and even appears in the seal of the city.

Typical Carmonan dishes include: sopa de picadillo (a chicken soup), pringá, chickpeas, snails, salmorejo, spinach, tagarnina (thistles), Serrano ham, partridge from the mountains, gazpacho, chickpea soup, tomato soup, potatoes, and cuajados (curdled eggs).

Sweets include: torta inglesa, hojaldres (puff pastry), rice with milk, torrija (fried toasted bread with wine, milk or honey), polvorónes (shortbread), almond cakes, chestnut stew with cinnamon, porridge sprinkled with cinnamon, and cortadillos (sweet cakes). A variety of desserts are made in the convents of the city, mainly by the nuns of Santa Clara.

A common alcoholic beverage is Anise Los Hermanos, which is distilled and packaged in Carmona; it comes in three degrees of dryness: crisp, sweet and semi.

Films
With its rich historical and artistic patrimony lending the city an especially atmospheric appearance, Carmona has been the setting of numerous films, and continues to attract movie crews. The Location Managers Guild of America, an association that coordinates shoot locations for movie and television production companies from the United States, has shown special interest in the city centre.

Gallery
File:Puerta_de_Cordoba_di_Carmona.JPG|Puerta de Cordoba File:Puerta_de_Sevilla_di_Carmona.jpg|Puerta de Sevilla File:Molino_de_la_Romera_di_Carmona.jpg|Molino de la Romera File:Iglesia_de_Santiago_di_Carmona.JPG|Iglesia de Santiago File:Iglesia_de_San_Bartolome_di_Carmona.jpg|Iglesia de San Bartolome File:Iglesia_de_San_Felipe_di_Carmona.jpg|Iglesia de San Felipe File:Capilla_de_la_Caridad_di_Carmona.JPG|Capilla de la Caridad

Notable people

 * Rodrigo González de Marmolejo (1487–1564) a Roman Catholic prelate & the first Bishop of Santiago de Chile
 * Antón García Caro (1560 - ca 1624) a Spanish jurist and politician
 * Manuel Freire de Andrade (1767–1835) a Spanish cavalry officer
 * Tomás Domínguez Romera (1848–1931) a Spanish aristocrat, landholder and politician.
 * José Arpa (1858–1952) an artist who worked in Spain, Mexico, and Texas
 * Michael Denzil Xavier Portillo (born 1953) British journalist, broadcaster and former Conservative politician; lives in Carmona.
 * Félix Gómez (born 1977) a Spanish actor.

title: Carmona, Spain


text:
Carmona

Carmona may refer to:

Angola

 * the former name of the town of Uíge

Costa Rica

 * Carmona District, Nandayure, a district in Guanacaste Province

India

 * Carmona, Goa, a village located in the Salcette district of South Goa, India

Mexico

 * Mexquitic de Carmona, a municipality in San Luis Potosí

Philippines

 * Carmona, Cavite, a component city
 * Carmona, Gandara, Samar, a barangay
 * Carmona, Makati, a barangay

Spain

 * Carmona, Spain, a town in Andalusia
 * Carmona, Cantabria, a village in the municipality of Cabuérniga

United States

 * an unincorporated area in Mercer County, Pennsylvania
 * an unincorporated area in Polk County, Texas

People

 * Carmona (surname), including a list of people with the surname Carmona

Other

 * Carmona (plant), a genus of flowering plants in the family Boraginaceae
 * Caños de Carmona, sections of a Roman aqueduct in the city of Seville, Spain

title: Carmona


text: User talk:68.237.214.128

title: User talk:68.237.214.128


text:
User talk:Npalfaro

Hello and welcome to Wikipedia! Hope you like it here, and stick around.

Here are some tips to help you get started:

 * To sign your posts (on talk pages, for example) use the '~' symbol. To insert just your name, type ~~~ (3 tildes), or, to insert your name and timestamp, use ~~~~ (4 tildes).
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 * If you need help, post a question at the Help Desk
 * Follow the Simplified Ruleset
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
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Me
Nigel Alfaro from Kalibo, Aklan, Philippines.

Wikipedians needing help on projects regarding the Philippines and anything about it, please contact me at npalfaro@gmail.com and I will do whatever I can to help.

Jologs
From User_talk:Nino_Gonzales/jologs:

 * Thanks in advance! --Nino Gonzales 03:07, 20 June 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Npalfaro


text: User talk:195.93.34.10

title: User talk:195.93.34.10


text:
Interstate 675

Interstate 675 may refer to:
 * Interstate 675 (Georgia), a connection south of Atlanta, Georgia
 * Interstate 675 (Michigan), a loop through Saginaw, Michigan
 * Interstate 675 (Ohio), a partial bypass of Dayton, Ohio

title: Interstate 675


text:
Special Intervention Group

The Special Intervention Group (Groupe d'Intervention Spécial, GIS) is a special forces group created in Algeria in 1987, initially with 400 members.

History
Since 1992, GIS forces have operated within the context of violent confrontation between the Algerian government and Islamic militants; major human rights violations against civilians have been alleged against both sides. A resulting arms embargo against Algeria initially prevented the GIS from obtaining equipment such as night-vision goggles typical for such units. However, after the September 11, 2001 attacks, western matériel vendors were allowed to sell equipment to Algeria in the name of the international War on Terrorism.

Responsibility and training
A sub-unit of the Département du Renseignement et de la Sécurité (DRS), it is responsible for counter-terrorism. It is based in Algiers and has a base at Blida, 50 km (31 miles) from Algiers. The Grouping of special intervention (GIS) made several elaborate training courses in various domains (assault, sniping, aircraft, bomb squad) to the Officers' training school of the special troops (EATS) in Algeria, without forgetting the training in the highly rated of the groups Alpha of Russia. The men of the GIS are trained in the Japanese martial arts Ju-Jitsu and the Korean martial arts Kuk Sool Won, but in a purely military aspect.

Firearms

 * Assault rifle
 * AKM
 * Steyr AUG
 * Heckler and Koch G36

 * Machine guns
 * PKM machine gun

 * SMG
 * Beretta M12
 * Heckler & Koch MP5
 * Heckler & Koch MP7

 * Sniper rifle
 * Dragunov sniper rifle
 * Remington 700

 * Shotguns
 * Franchi SPAS-12

 * Pistols
 * Glock 17
 * Beretta 92
 * Beretta 93R
 * Browning Hi Power
 * Caracal pistol

title: Special Intervention Group


text:
Vectorscope

A Vectorscope is a special type of oscilloscope used in both audio and video applications. Whereas an oscilloscope or waveform monitor normally displays a plot of signal vs. time, a vectorscope displays an X-Y plot of two signals, which can reveal details about the relationship between these two signals. Vectorscopes are highly similar in operation to oscilloscopes operated in X-Y mode; however those used in video applications have specialized graticules, and accept standard television or video signals as input (demodulating and demultiplexing the two components to be analyzed internally).

Video
In video applications, a vectorscope supplements a waveform monitor for the purpose of measuring and testing television signals, regardless of format (NTSC, PAL, SECAM or any number of digital television standards). While a waveform monitor allows a broadcast technician to measure the overall characteristics of a video signal, a vectorscope is used to visualize chrominance, which is encoded into the video signal as a subcarrier of specific frequency. The vectorscope locks exclusively to the chrominance subcarrier in the video signal (at 3.58 MHz for NTSC, or at 4.43 MHz for PAL) to drive its display. In digital applications, a vectorscope instead plots the Cb and Cr channels against each other (these are the two channels in digital formats which contain chroma information).

A vectorscope uses an overlaid circular reference display, or graticule, for visualizing chrominance signals, which is the best method of referring to the QAM scheme used to encode color into a video signal. The actual visual pattern that the incoming chrominance signal draws on the vectorscope is called the trace. Chrominance is measured using two methods—color saturation, encoded as the amplitude, or gain, of the subcarrier signal, and hue, encoded as the subcarrier's phase. The vectorscope's graticule roughly represents saturation as distance from the center of the circle, and hue as the angle, in standard position, around it. The graticule is also embellished with several elements corresponding to the various components of the standard color bars video test signal, including boxes around the circles for the colors in the main bars, and perpendicular lines corresponding to the U and V components of the chrominance signal (and additionally on an NTSC vectorscope, the I and Q components). NTSC vectorscopes have one set of boxes for the color bars, while their PAL counterparts have two sets of boxes, because the R-Y chrominance component in PAL reverses in phase on alternating lines. Another element in the graticule is a fine grid at the nine-o'clock, or -U position, used for measuring differential gain and phase.

Often two sets of bar targets are provided: one for color bars at 75% amplitude and one for color bars at 100% amplitude. The 100% bars represent the maximum amplitude (of the composite signal) that composite encoding allows for. 100% bars are not suitable for broadcast and are not broadcast-safe. 75% bars have reduced amplitude and are broadcast-safe.

Some vectorscope models have only one set of bar targets. The vectorscope can be set up for 75% or 100% bars by adjusting the gain so that the color burst vector extends to the "75%" or "100%" marking on the graticule.

The reference signal used for the vectorscope's display is the color burst that is transmitted before each line of video, which for NTSC is defined to have a phase of 180°, corresponding to the nine-o'clock position on the graticule. The actual color burst signal shows up on the vectorscope as a straight line pointing to the left from the center of the graticule. In the case of PAL, the color burst phase alternates between 135° and 225°, resulting in two vectors pointing in the half-past-ten and half-past-seven positions on the graticule, respectively. In digital (and component analog) vectorscopes, colorburst doesn't exist; hence the phase relationship between the colorburst signal and the chroma subcarrier is simply not an issue. A vectorscope for SECAM uses a demodulator similar to the one found in a SECAM receiver to retrieve the U and V colour signals since they are transmitted one at a time (Thomson 8300 Vecamscope).

On older vectorscopes that use cathode ray tubes (CRTs), the graticule was often a silk-screened overlay superimposed over the front surface of the screen. One notable exception was the Tektronix WFM601 series of instruments, which are combined waveform monitors and vectorscopes used to measure CCIR 601 television signals. The waveform-mode graticule of these instruments is implemented with a silkscreen, whereas the vectorscope graticule (consisting only of bar targets, as this family did not support composite video) was drawn on the CRT by the electron beam. Modern instruments have graticules drawn using computer graphics, and both graticule and trace are rendered on an external VGA monitor or an internal VGA-compatible LCD display.

Most modern waveform monitors include vectorscope functionality built in; and many allow the two modes to be displayed side-by-side. The combined device is typically referred to as a waveform monitor, and standalone vectorscopes are rapidly becoming obsolete.

Audio
In audio applications, a vectorscope is used to measure the difference between channels of stereo audio signals. One stereo channel drives the horizontal deflection of the display, and the other drives the vertical deflection. A monaural signal, consisting of identical left and right signals, results in a straight line with a gradient of +1. Any stereo separation is visible as a deviation from this line, creating a Lissajous figure. If a straight line appears with a gradient of −1, this indicates that the left and right channels are 180° out of phase.

title: Vectorscope