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Cullen Baker

Cullen Montgomery Baker (June 23, 1835 – January 1869) was a Tennessee-born desperado whose gang terrorized Union soldiers and civilians in Northeast Texas, Southwest Arkansas, and Northwest Louisiana during the early days of the American Old West. His gang is alleged to have killed hundreds of people in the years following the American Civil War, though these numbers are probably inaccurate, and the actual number is between fifty and sixty.

Baker was notorious for his fiery temper and for fighting in saloon brawls. During one fight, he was knocked unconscious by a man named Morgan Culp, who hit him in the head with a tomahawk. This seemed to have shocked him into behaving, and it calmed his temper at least for a while. Baker has also been described as a gunfighter, though his preferred weapon was a double-barreled shotgun.

Early life
Baker was born in Weakley County, Tennessee, a son of John Baker and his wife. Soon afterward his family moved to Clarksville, Arkansas, and as Cullen matured he spent much of his time in the saloons and bars of what are now Lafayette and Miller Counties. His father was an honest farmer and owned cattle as well as working in the fields. Even when young, Cullen is said to have had a quick temper, which was further revealed as he got older, as he drank heavily and often.

On January 11, 1854, in Cass County, Texas, Baker married Martha Jane Petty, the daughter of Hubbard and Nancy Petty, and for a time he settled. However, eight months into his marriage, while out drinking with friends, he became involved in a verbal altercation with a youth named Stallcup. Baker became enraged, grabbed a whip, and beat the boy to near death. There were several witnesses to the incident, and Baker was soon charged with the crime. One of the witnesses, Wesley Bailey, was confronted by Baker at Bailey's home. Baker shot him in both legs with a shotgun, then left him lying in front of his house. Bailey died a few days later. Before he could be arrested for the murder, Baker fled to Arkansas, where he stayed with an uncle.

On May 24, 1857, Martha Jane Baker gave birth to a baby girl, Louisa Jane. On June 2, 1860, Martha Jane died. Cullen Baker then returned to Texas, where he left his daughter with his in-laws.

Baker returned to Arkansas, but word of his crimes had spread, and a local woman named Beth Warthom was openly critical of him. He took several hickory switches to her house and threatened to beat her. Her husband, David Warthom, began to fight with Baker, and overwhelmed him in front of the house. Beth screamed, and as her husband looked her way, he was stabbed once with a knife Baker had in his possession. Warthom died on the spot. Baker fled back to Texas, and in July 1862, he married his second wife Martha Foster, who was unaware that he was wanted for murder. She was a daughter of William and Elizabeth Young Foster.

American Civil War and after
Baker served with the Confederate Army during the American Civil War, joining shortly after his second marriage. It is claimed he shot and killed at least three African Americans, killing a black woman in an immigrant train and later shooting a black boy six times with a pistol after taking the Oath of Allegiance and becoming an overseer of Freemen. By 1864 he had either been discharged or deserted, and he joined a group called the "Independent Rangers", loosely associated with the Confederate Home Guard. It was intended to pursue and capture deserters from the Confederate Army, but more often than not took advantage of most of the men being away at war, leaving mostly elderly men, women and children. This left the door open for acts of intimidation, rape, theft and violence for groups of well-armed men like the "Independent Rangers". Shortly after Baker joined the "Independent Rangers" they began an ongoing feud with another band called the "Mountain Boomers", but by the end of that year the "Boomers" had been driven out or forced to disperse due to several of their members having been killed by the "Rangers".

In November 1864, Baker led a group of "Rangers" to intercept a band of Arkansas settlers, mostly older men, women and children, who had fled Perry County, Arkansas for a better life out west. Baker allegedly considered this "un-patriotic", but more likely than not his motives were simple robbery. The "Rangers" caught up with these fleeing settlers as they were crossing the Saline River somewhere in the Ouachita Mountains, but when the settlers refused to return Baker drew his pistol and shot and killed the group's leader. With assurances from Baker that he would not kill anyone else, the remaining settlers returned to Baker's side of the river, where he quickly led his "Rangers" in shooting and killing nine other men. The event became known locally as the "Massacre of Saline".

By that stage of the war the Union Army occupied most of Arkansas, with several troops under the command of Captain F. S. Dodge enforcing the law in the area of Lafayette County. Most of these Union troops were African American and despised by Baker. Toward the end of 1864 Baker was in a saloon in the small town of Spanish Bluff, Bowie County, Texas, when he was approached by four African-American Union soldiers and asked for identification. Baker turned to face them with his pistol drawn, shooting and killing one sergeant and the three other soldiers.

After the war ended, Baker organized a gang with outlaw Lee Rames, which operated out of the Sulphur River bottoms near Brightstar, Arkansas, committing acts of robbery and murder. Authorities credit Baker officially with killing at least 30 people, though many of these no doubt were killed by his fellow gang members. Unlike the romanticized versions of his exploits, the reality was that he killed most of his victims from ambush or in the back, and many with a shotgun, and he almost always had his victims outnumbered. Like many of the ex-Confederates who became criminals after the war, Baker was regarded as a hero by some because he opposed the Federal occupation, but his record shows a merciless killer who killed anyone who angered him, regardless of their loyalties.

In March 1866, Baker traveled back to Texas. Now on the run from Union authorities, he went on a killing spree during which he killed two men, W. G. Kirkman and John Salmons. Salmons had previously killed one of Baker's gang members, Seth Rames, brother to gang member Lee Rames. Baker also killed a local man named George W. Barron, who had previously taken part as a member of a posse hunting Baker. The gang was active in the areas of Queen City, Texas and Texarkana, Arkansas during this time.

On June 1, 1867, having returned to Cass County, Baker entered the Rowden general store where he found the store kept by Mrs. Rowden, after which he simply helped himself to whatever he wanted and left without paying. When the store's owner, John Rowden, discovered this he armed himself with a shotgun and rode out to Baker's house. He demanded that Baker pay him, to which Baker replied that he would come back to the store in a few days with the money. On June 5, 1867, Baker returned, but instead of paying his debt stood in front of the store yelling for Mr. Rowden to come out and face him. Rowden armed himself with a shotgun and stepped out only to be shot in the chest and killed by Baker. Baker fled back into Arkansas, and a few days later he was confronted by a U.S. Army sergeant and one private as he boarded a ferry. When he was accused of being Cullen Baker, after having told them his name was Johnson, Baker went for his gun, as did the sergeant. Baker shot the sergeant four times, killing him, with the private fleeing on horseback and reporting the murder to a Captain Kirkham. Following this murder, Baker was pursued relentlessly by U.S. forces in the area.

While in New Boston, Texas, on July 25, 1867, Baker became involved in an argument with several U.S. Army soldiers. A shootout ensued and Baker was shot in the arm, though he killed Private Albert E. Titus of the U.S. 20th Infantry Regiment. This resulted in a $1,000 reward being placed on Baker for his capture or death.

He returned to Arkansas, and while in a saloon in Brightstar he agreed to join a mob intending to raid the farm of a local farmer named Howell Smith. Smith had hired several recently freed slaves, which was considered inappropriate by much of the local population. During the raid, one of Smith's daughters was stabbed and another clubbed, and a black man was shot and killed. Smith resisted and a shootout ensued, resulting in several mob members being wounded, including Baker being shot in the leg.

On October 24, 1868, Baker and his gang were reported to have been involved in the killings of Major P. J. Andrews, Lt. H. F. Willis, and an unnamed negro, as well as the wounding of Sheriff Standel of Little Rock, Arkansas.

Death
Although Baker was feared by his own men, Lee Rames, who was recognized as the co-leader and co-founder of Baker's gang, also had a substantial and deadly reputation. Rames began to doubt Baker's leadership, and believed that eventually Baker would lead the entire gang to its downfall. Rames defied Baker and Baker backed down, leading to the gang breaking up. All but one gang member, "Dummy" Kirby, sided with Rames.

Baker and Kirby rode to Bloomburg, Texas and the home of Baker's in-laws in January 1869. It was there that Cullen Baker and "Dummy" Kirby were killed. The exact circumstances of their deaths, however, remain unclear. There are at least two conflicting accounts:

 * First version: Unknown to Baker, his wife Martha Foster's father and friends had laced a bottle of whiskey and some food with strychnine. Kirby and Baker drank and ate it, and both died from poisoning. Their bodies were then shot several times by Foster and some friends.

 * Second version: A local schoolteacher named Thomas Orr had become involved romantically with Baker's second wife Martha, and led a small band of men who ambushed Baker and Kirby at the Foster home, shooting and killing them near to the chimney of the house. It is known that a schoolteacher named Thomas Orr was a friend of the in-laws who took part in the killing of Baker; whether the story of the affair is true is unknown.

What both versions share is the outcome. Baker and Kirby were killed at the Foster home, with both shot numerous times, and then the bodies were dragged through the town of Bloomburg. The bodies were taken to the U.S. Army outpost near Jefferson, where they were placed on public display. Baker is buried in Oakwood Cemetery in Jefferson, Texas.

The town of Bloomburg, Texas continues to commemorate the event with the annual Cullen Baker Country Fair, held the first weekend in November. Proceeds benefit the Bloomburg City’s efforts to build a city park and revive tourism since the COVID-19 pandemic.

Possible eyewitness to Baker's death
A reference to Cullen (Col) Baker is made by former slave Doc Quinn in the Slave Narratives: a Folk History of Slavery in the United States - From Interviews with Former Slaves - Arkansas Narratives, Part 6. Doc Quinn provides a somewhat different perspective on Cullen Baker throughout. The statements of Doc Quinn are recorded as follows:

"He wuz mah frien' as long as he lib, and he wuz a good frien' ob de South 'cause he saved lots ob white folks frum de wrath ob de mean niggers." (sic)

Doc Quinn provides an account of Cullen Baker's death at which he claims to have been present:

"I saw Colonel Baker killed. We had just arrived at his father-in-law's house and I wuz in the horse lot, about 50 yards from de house, when Joe Davis. Thomas Orr and some more men rode up."

"De Colonel wuz standin' by de chimney an did not see dem come aroun' de house. Dey killed him befo' he knew dey wuz aroun'."

Whilst Doc Quinn refers to Cullen Baker as "Colonel" Baker, the text from which Doc Quinn is quoted has the following inclusion, presumably included by the editor of the publication to clarify any confusion: "Note: The Col. Baker referred to was Cullen Baker, the leader of a ruthless gang of bushwhackers that operated in this [Texarkana, Arkansas] section shortly after the Civil War."

Louis L'Amour, author of many western novels, wrote about Cullen Baker in several of his books. Baker only starred in one of these, however, that being The First Fast Draw, a highly fictionalized account of Baker's origin and subsequent years. Other books by L'Amour that reference Baker include Lando, one of L'Amour's many novels about a feuding Tennessee family. Baker was also the subject of the book Cullen Baker; Reconstruction Desperado, authored by Barry A. Crouch and Donally E. Brice.

title: Cullen Baker


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Talk:Firewood

Merge
See Talk:Wood heat for comments about merging. Securiger 04:55, 11 Aug 2004 (UTC)

(Untitled)
For more information on the sale of firewood in Canada: http://www.ic.gc.ca/eic/site/mc-mc.nsf/eng/lm03963.html    Woodcutter01  — Preceding unsigned comment added by Woodcutter01 (talk • contribs) 15:06, 24 October 2011 (UTC)

"Today firewood is usually obtained from timber or trees unsuitable or unwanted for building or construction." Not true. Maybe true for the US, but not likely even here. Firewood is cut by woodlot owners for many reasons. Internationally firewood may be any piece that can be gathered.

" In the United States, firewood is sold by the cord, and is therefore also called cordwood." Why is the United States the focus of the article if firewood is the main source of heating and cooking fuel for at least 25 percent of the world population. This article is centered on the US and needs to be broadened in scope and coverage.

Someone please add more sophistication and geographic coverage to this. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 74.78.122.238 (talk) 21:30, 21 March 2008 (UTC)

I endorse this comment. The article in French is, to my mind, more useful. The Lawless One (talk) 12:48, 1 June 2011 (UTC)

 * "Cords" of wood are used in the UK, and I think Europe too. The point about a cord of wood is that it's a very simple measure - the overall size of the stack, rather than an impractical attempt to measure or weigh the exact volume of timber. Andy Dingley (talk) 20:35, 17 December 2010 (UTC)

This page should be linked/merged with http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood_fuel —Preceding unsigned comment added by 141.243.60.12 (talk) 06:15, 5 December 2008 (UTC)

 * Wood fuel is broader than firewood, as it also includes industrial-scale biomass and post-production waste burning of sawdust. Andy Dingley (talk) 20:35, 17 December 2010 (UTC)

Urban Myth
A German speaker was quoted on a Hearth.com forum. "The name Holz Hausen doesn’t exist! A Holz Haus would be a house built out of wood. A Holz Haufen is just wood thrown into a pile. The right word for this structures is Holz Miete and they don’t have a center pole."

I would like to see some data and a defination of "dry wood". Generally speaking, humidity, air movement and wood surface area are the variables that dry wood. Guess the claim in 3 months could happen in a dry windy climate environment in the middle of the summer.--Rcollman (talk) 01:50, 19 January 2009 (UTC)
 * To your first point: A picture search for "American Holz Hausen" reveals several pictures of round wood stacks (for storage), which is what the article says. "Holz Hausen" is apparently an American idiom, with merely a German etymology. It should not be understood or treated as a German phrase. Yes, the German "Holzhaufen" would be = "pile of wood" and "Holzhaus" would be = "timber house", but here apparently some words escaped their original meaning or were misattributed/mistranslated. They became loan words and received their own meaning in English. It happens. Language lives. Definitions change. And that's not an "Urban Myth". --145.40.208.28 (talk) 20:15, 3 September 2022 (UTC)

Major edit
I decided to jump in with a major edit because I agree with the comment that this page was all about the United States. I burn wood in New England to heat my house and have lived in a few different cultures around the world where firewood was used for staying warm, cooking and ceremonial purposes. I got rid of the "how to", which are nice ideas but not always factual. Other should feel free to edit my edits. --69.205.10.60 (talk) 13:35, 19 January 2009 (UTC)

Major edit
Your article on Holz Hausen's is perpetuating a myth, in that they accelerate seasoning of firewood over standard wood ricks or rows. Yes, they are sturdy, store large volumes of wood and look great, but they do not accelerate wood seasoning - on the contrary, wood ricks / rows are superior to HH's for faster seasoning of firewood.

The referenced site claiming this has no proof of such a claim - I did a scientific experiment and published the results dis-proving or busting this myth, which can be seen here:

http://soede.net/soede/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=485&Itemid=29

The full experiment can be seen here:

http://soede.net/soede/index.php?option=com_content&task=category&sectionid=5&id=14&Itemid=29

Regards,

David Soede aka Apprentice_GM — Preceding unsigned comment added by 180.222.196.4 (talk) 23:17, 31 August 2011 (UTC)

Ideas
I burn wood and I can recognize this article could be greatly expanded. I do not have time but I wanted to leave some ideas here. The German Wikipedia article is a good model. Theses topics are probably mentioned elsewhere but the historical progression of burning firewood was a fire ring, fireplace (of different types), wood stove, wood boiler. The invention of the chimney dramatically changed how houses were used and built. A comparison of energy values can be greatly expanded. Efficiency could be discussed? Kiln dried firewood is not discussed. The topic of the spread of invasive species should be given more weight. Methods of igniting wood could be mentioned. Qualities of certain species like ash being better to burn as a green wood than say red oak (seasoned wood is always better but not always available).Jim Derby (talk) 01:14, 8 January 2013 (UTC)

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Waste terminology
,, This should be discussed here. On my part, my opinion is that "waste" of one process can be useful for another use. I have no problem with this terminology. Invasive Spices (talk) 24 November 2021 (UTC)

The Nigeria section looks like a large language model output
It's speech style matches that of common language models like GPT4 and it's tone looks out of place compared to the rest of the page. 2001:56A:F8F2:E200:FCC6:51A1:DBE0:9077 (talk) 19:58, 3 June 2024 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Firewood


text:
Postage stamps and postal history of the Orange Free State

The Orange Free State was an independent Boer republic in southern Africa during the second half of the 19th century.

The Orange Free State was annexed to the British Crown and renamed the Orange River Colony on 28 May 1900. In 1910 this colony along with Cape of Good Hope, Natal and Transvaal formed the Union of South Africa.

Postage stamps
The first Orange Free State stamps were issued in 1868. The sole design used was an orange tree, with the inscription "Oranje Vrij Staat" in the margin. The stamps were typographed by De La Rue and Company, and came in denominations from one penny to five shillings, in various colours. Periodic shortages forced the use of overprints, in 1877, 1881, 1882, 1888, 1890, 1892, 1896, and 1897. The stamps of the republic are generally common today, but some of the overprints are scarce. Many kinds of overprint errors are known (inverted, double, etc.), and some of them command high prices.

In 1900, the British occupied the Republic and the previous stamps were overprinted "V.R.I." (Victoria Regina Imperatrix, Latin for Victoria, Queen and Empress) and the same value of the original stamps. The colony was renamed in August 1900 and used Cape of Good Hope stamps overprinted with the new name "ORANGE/RIVER/COLONY." In 1902 a single 6d stamp was overprinted as the original occupation issues but with "E.R.I." (Edward Rex Imperator, for Edward VII) instead of "V.R.I.". In 1903 a set was issued portraying King Edward VII, a springbok and a gnu. This set was printed again in 1905-1909, and is the last set of the colony.

Revenue stamps

A variety of revenue stamps were issued both for the Orange Free State and the Orange River Colony. The Orange Free State revenues were also postally used.


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Gypsy Boots

Gypsy Boots (August 19, 1915 – August 8, 2004), born Robert Bootzin (also known as Boots Bootzin), was an American fitness pioneer, actor and writer. He is credited with laying the foundation for the acceptance by mainstream America of "alternative" lifestyles incorporating elements such as yoga and health food. He is also known for his vegetarian guide Bare Feet and Good Things to Eat and his memoir The Gypsy in Me.

Life and career
Bootzin was born in San Francisco, California, to Russian Jewish immigrants. His father, Max, worked as a broom salesman. His mother, Mushka, raised Bootzin and his four siblings in a vegetarian household, while also leading the family on hikes in the hills, performing Russian folk dances and feeding the homeless with her home-baked black bread.

Bootzin's older brother, John, died of tuberculosis as a young man; this led to Bootzin's decision to grow his hair long and pursue healthful, natural living.

By 1933, he had dropped out of high school and left home to wander California with a group of self-styled vagabonds. In the 1940s, Bootzin, along with ten to fifteen other "tribesmen," lived off the land in Tahquitz Canyon near Palm Springs, slept in caves and trees, and bathed in waterfalls. Decades ahead of the Hippie movement, Bootzin and his companions had long hair and beards, lived a carefree existence, and were seasonal fruit pickers. The group became known as "Nature Boys." A combination of the philosophy of the Nature Boys and growing counterculture of the 1950s and 1960s in California may have been responsible for the emergence of California spirituality in the 1960s.

The 1948 Nat King Cole hit "Nature Boy" was inspired by Bootzin and his fellow "tribesmen" and was composed by eden ahbez.

In 1958, Bootzin married Lois Bloemker, a conservative, academic woman from Fort Wayne, Indiana, and settled in the Los Feliz – East Hollywood area (Cumberland Ave). They had three children: Daniel, Alex and Freddie (who died in 2001). The two divorced in the late 1990s.

His health food store "Health Hut" was one of the first of its kind (if not the first) in the world and was patronized by dozens of Hollywood celebrities in the early 1960s. The original Health Hut, located on Beverly Blvd. just west of La Cienega Blvd., had an authentic "tiki" style to it, being made with leaves and bamboo.

Bootzin personally advocated never eating meat, drinking alcohol, or smoking tobacco. He was an early believer in the health properties of organic foods. One of these organic foods was garlic—and he later became a spokesperson for the "Kyolic" variety. He also did work for a Sonoma cheese factory. He would often have a garlic-spiced cheese, "Sonoma Jack", at his booth at health festivals and fairs in Sonoma Valley, along with his all-natural, sugar-free "Boots Bars", wheat grass, spirulina, and kyolic garlic, as well as "honey-sweet" Medjool dates from his grove.

His childhood vegetarian lifestyle was something Bootzin continued with his own family, as his son Daniel Bootzin corroborated:

"When friends came over, Bootzin said his parents offered the guests fresh carrot juice, a novelty in the 1960s."

Bootzin died in Camarillo, California, just 11 days short of his 90th birthday. He was survived by his former wife, Lois Bootzin, a Lutheran, two of his sons (Daniel and Alexander), three grandchildren, and a sister. His son Freddie died in 2001.

Appearances
Bootzin received national exposure in 1955 when he appeared as a contestant on Groucho Marx's network TV show You Bet Your Life (September 30, 1955, Season 5 Episode 3). Introduced as "Robert Bootzin," he cheerfully espoused his philosophy of clean living, exercise, and healthy eating. Even though he was over 40, he acted like a gangling, goofy, but polite teenager, causing mildly sensational reactions from the audience. When asked by Groucho to demonstrate how he sold figs, he stepped toward the edge of the stage, shouted an attention-getting sales pitch for a few seconds, and then performed a perfect pratfall (the type where one falls sideways after swinging one leg to knock the other one out from underneath). In the game portion of the show, he spelled the word intelligible incorrectly before his partner overruled him. Groucho, who usually displayed little tolerance for extremists, admired Bootzin's rugged individualism and said so, on camera. He also seemed to appreciate the perfect execution of one of vaudeville's classic bits.

His wife appeared on the same programme a few years later with a man who worked as an organ grinder with 13 children who had a monkey that looked and walked like Groucho. She appeared very conservative and polite and nothing like her former husband's appearance, who was as described above. She recalled how she met him while she practiced her ballet on a beach. Bootzin was standing on his head. She found his antics interesting enough to approach him, and the relationship developed from there. Her connection with him was not mentioned on the show and, perhaps because of the organ grinder, may have been overlooked due to time and Groucho's interest in the monkey act.

Bootzin made personal appearances with the Spike Jones musical-comedy troupe, speaking about health foods. He was a regular guest on American television talk shows in the 1960s, appearing 25 times on The Steve Allen Show. On the Allen show he would often play up his role as a health advocate by swinging from a vine on stage as a "Nature Boy", and persuade Steve to drink one of "Gypsy Boots'" concocted fruit health drinks. He referred to this drink as a "smoothie", giving credence to Gypsy Boots as one of the originators of the popular style of blended natural fruit health drinks. He also made frequent appearances on George Putnam's Talk Back, which came at the tail end of the popular KTLA George Putnam News in Los Angeles, California.

He released a record album, Unpredictable, on Sidewalk Records in 1968.

Gypsy loved to participate in parades, including the annual, wildly creative and noncommercial Santa Barbara Summer Solstice Parade. Boots appeared at the Annual Calabasas Pumpkin Festival in 1973. Even in his late 80s he would energetically dance, make music, and holler all the way up the parade route for a couple of miles. He would show up for weekly farmers' markets in his wildly painted van promoting kyolic garlic, and would always be a showman with the gift of gab, giving out free garlic samples. Bootzin also participated in several Fourth of July parades in the town of Sonoma, California, in the late 1990s and/or early 2000s, throwing a football to a fellow participant.

Bootzin was an avid fan of the USC Trojans football team and was known for eccentric clothes and an ever-present cowbell. He also regularly attended Los Angeles Dodgers, Lakers and Raiders games with spirited cheers, noisemakers and streamers. At age 86, he was still able to throw an American football at least 40 yards.

In movies, Bootzin appears sitting in the diner scene in Michael Douglas's film The Game. Other movie appearances include Mondo Hollywood, A Swingin' Summer, and Confessions of Tom Harris, and he can be seen quite frequently at the Monterey Pop Festival in 1967. Bootzin also appeared as a guest emcee at the Newport Pop Festival in August 1968. The Newport Pop was the first festival to draw over 100,000 in attendance. Bootzin also helped with the promotion of the two-day event at the Orange County Fairgrounds. Bootzin enjoyed mingling with the performers, including Sonny and Cher, The Jefferson Airplane, The Grateful Dead, Tiny Tim, Eric Burdon and the Animals, Canned Heat, and a dozen other great acts of the day.

Bootzin's son, Dan, appeared on Dan Harmon's "Harmontown" podcast with his wife Beth, discussing the status of their beloved eucalyptus trees.

Bootzin was warmly remembered by comedian Billy Saluga (whose comic character was named Raymond J. Johnson, Jr.: "You can call me Ray! Or you can call me Jay!") on the December 11, 2017, episode of Gilbert Gottfried's Amazing Colossal Podcast.

Books

 * Bare Feet and Good Things to Eat (1965)
 * The Gypsy in Me (1993)

title: Gypsy Boots


text:
Postage stamps and postal history of the Caroline Islands

Early mail sent to and from the Caroline Islands was occasional and dependent on visiting ships.

German control
The Spanish authorities issued no postage stamps or postmarks for the islands. Germany rapidly set up a postal system once awarded the islands; having received the Carolines on 1 June 1899 as part of the German-Spanish Treaty (1899), on 12 October German stamps overprinted "Karolinen" were issued. At first, the overprint was angled at 48 degrees, then a few months later the angle of the text was changed to 56 degrees. Few examples of these, at either angle, survive today, especially in cancelled condition.

By 1900, Yap and Ponape were stops on a regular mail run between German New Guinea and Hong Kong. Initially, the service was operated by the Reich Mail Steamer Lines, with the help of government subsidies, then in 1902 the Jaluit Company took over.

These stamps are the subject of a fictional discussion between Erwin Rommel and one of the other characters in the movie Raid on Rommel

Yacht stamps

In January 1901, Germany issued its Yacht stamps with a common design for all of Germany's colonies, featuring the Kaiser's yacht Hohenzollern. The issues for the Carolines featured the inscription "KAROLINEN", all with mark and pfennig denominations. Many unused copies of the low values still exist today, left over after the Japanese occupation, but as one might expect from the short period of German rule and the very small numbers of letter-writers living in the Carolines, genuinely used stamps are uncommon, typically priced 5-20 times higher than unused.

In 1905 the stock of 5pf stamps was destroyed in a typhoon, and 10pf stamps were bisected. Another shortage in 1910 resulted in bisects of 20pf stamps, and 3pf stamps surcharged to 5pf.

Japanese occupation
Japan occupied the islands in October 1914, after which Japanese stamps were used until the end of World War II. Germany printed Yacht stamps for the Carolines as late as 1919, on paper with lozenge watermarks, but none were ever used on mail.

The islands became part of the U.S. Trust Territory of the Pacific in 1944 and used U.S. stamps until 1983.


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Postage stamps and postal history of Tanganyika

This is a survey of the postage stamps and postal history of Tanganyika under British mandate.

First stamps
The first postage stamps of Tanganyika were stamps of the East Africa and Uganda Protectorates overprinted " G.E.A. " (for German East Africa), used in 1921 and 1922. These are superficially identical to the last occupation issues of German East Africa, but the presence of the "Crown and Script CA" watermark shows they were issued after the civil administration took over from the military, and are thus properly considered the first issues of Tanganyika.

Later issues
In 1922, the government issued a series of 19 stamps inscribed " TANGANYIKA ", featuring the head of a giraffe, denominated in cents, shillings and pounds (100 cents to a shilling, 20 shillings to a pound), with several colour changes in 1925. The changes were because there were many power changes, with each leader wanting a different color.

This was followed in 1927 by a second series of 16 values in a more conventional design with a profile of King George V and inscribed " MANDATED TERRITORY OF TANGANYIKA ".

In 1927, Tanganyika entered the Customs Union of Kenya and Uganda, as well as the East African Postal Union. Between 1935 and 1963, stamps of the combined postal administration (East African Posts and Telecommunications Administration) inscribed "Kenya, Uganda, Tanganyika" were in use.

Independence
Shortly after independence in 1961, the new state of Tanganyika issued a series of commemorative stamps inscribed " TANGANYIKA ".

This was followed by a final commemorative issue on December 9, 1962, with four stamps inscribed " JAMHURI YA TANGANYIKA " ("Republic of Tanganyika") to commemorate the founding of the republic.

Tanganyika ceased to exist as a nation in 1964, when it was loosely united with Zanzibar, to form the nation of Tanzania. Stamps of the East African postal administration remained valid until well after the formation of Tanzania.


text:
Battle of Kosovo (disambiguation)

Battle of Kosovo may refer to:
 * Battle of Kosovo (1369)
 * Battle of Kosovo (1389)
 * Battle of Tripolje (1402)
 * Battle of Kosovo (1448)
 * Battle of Kosovo (1831)
 * Battle of Kosovo (1915)
 * Kosovo Operation (1944)
 * Insurgency in Kosovo (1995–1998)
 * Kosovo War (1999)
 * Battle of Kosovo (film)

title: Battle of Kosovo (disambiguation)


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Talk:Noncommutative quantum field theory

The noncommutative spacetime of this article is NOT the only possible choice for noncommutative quantum field theory! Phys 05:05, 11 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Other forms of non-commutative QFTs
You're right, I wrote the original version of this article but feel I'm not qualified to write about other versions of NCQFTs, I've made a minor edit to include your point but feel free to expand the article.


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Jan Smithers

Jan Smithers (born 1949 or 1950) is a former American actress, model and singer. She is best known for playing Bailey Quarters on the CBS sitcom WKRP in Cincinnati (1978–1982).

Early life
Smithers grew up in a middle-class family in Los Angeles, California. Her father was a lawyer, while her mother was a stay-at-home mom. She has three sisters, however her eldest sister died in a car accident at age 21.

Smithers first reached the public eye as a teenager when, at 16, she was profiled and featured on the March 21, 1966 cover of Newsweek seated on the back of a motorcycle. She received offers from Hollywood agents as a result of that appearance.

Smithers graduated from the Taft High School in Woodland Hills, California. She attended the Chouinard Art Institute which is now known as the California Institute of the Arts.

Career
Smithers made her mark as a successful model before embarking on an acting career. She appeared in many magazine spreads and caught the attention of industry insiders with her talent and natural beauty.

Jan Smithers, in her early 20s, won a role in the 1974 feature film, Where the Lilies Bloom, about a household of children surviving in the Appalachian Mountains. In 1978 she got her biggest break, landing a role on the situation comedy, WKRP in Cincinnati playing Bailey Quarters.

Personal life
She was the co-lead singer of the early 1970s band Hot Cup of Friends which featured Christopher Mancini (the son of Henry Mancini).

Smithers's first marriage was to Kipp Whitman from 1971 to 1972. From 1986 to 1995, she was married to actor James Brolin and was stepmother to his two children from a previous marriage; together they have one daughter, Molly Elizabeth. Smithers filed for divorce from Brolin in 1995.

After living in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada "for a few years", she returned to California. In June 2014, Smithers attended a reunion of surviving WKRP in Cincinnati cast members hosted by the Paley Center for Media.

title: Jan Smithers


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Amata Kabua

Amata Kabua (November 17, 1928 – December 19, 1996) was the first President of the Marshall Islands from 1979 until his death in 1996 (five consecutive terms).

Background
Amata Kabua was a scion of Marshallese Royalty. Amata Kabua is the son of high chiefess Tarjikit of the Eastern (Ratak chain) and rumoured to be a Japanese administrator by his political opponents. This was disputed by his father Lejolan Kabua. However, by Marshallese custom of "kujen loje" (nobleman of birth), High Chief Lojelañ of the Ralik (Western) chain claimed Amata as his own in the same manner Loeak the Great adopted Lajore and Litilinej, probably because Laelan of Arno who is Dorothy Kabua's father was Kabua's biological child however, under "kujen loje", Laelan of Arno was adopted by Takto just as Laelan Kabua of the Erroja clan was adopted by Kabua (Lebon) under the same tradition as was Leit who was claimed by Iroij Bwio Jiba. Ironically, the "kujen loe" concept applied to Albert Loeak who was not the biological son of Lobokkij Loeak despite what many are led to believe as it also applied to Imata Kabua, Manini Kabua, Anjojo Kabua, Mike Kabua, Kabua Kabua, Laelan Kabua, Anjua Loeak, etc. but despite Amata's political visibility, he is more referenced, it is possible that racism is to blame as is political jealousy which is common in Marshallese politics.

Amata's father Chief (Iroij) Lejolañ Kabua was the son of Paramount Chief Iroij Bwio Jeimata Kabua of Northern Ralik (Western) Chain. Jeimata Kabua was the son of King Kabua the Great (nicknamed King John) with Leroij Bwio LiWodin. Kabua is also known as King John, who, on behalf of his father Iroij Bwio Jiba, led diplomatic relations between Germany and the Marshall Islands in 1885 through the Treaty of Friendship.

Amata Kabua's mother, Leroij Dorothy Tarjikit, was a paramount chieftain of Majuro with royal connections to the Rimwejoor and Raano clans who ruled the entire Ratak (eastern) chain but later lost Mejit. Tarjikit was regarded as a pure-blooded royal in equal rank to Jeimata Kabua and his father Kabua the Great because of her Bwio status. Tarjikit's father was a paramount chieftain named Laelañ of the Rimwejoor Clan in Arno and her mother was Leroij Bwio Maria of the Raano Clan of Majuro. Tarjikit's father High Chief Laelañ of the Ratak/Eastern chain is not to be confused with Bwirak Laelañ from the Erroja clan who was the stepson of Kabua the Great as liBwirak Neimekua was already pregnant with son Laelan Kabua when entering the Kabua household. The rule of incest was prevalent within this family and it was a key marriage alliance structure that allowed continued dominance through familial loyalties under the plain basis of existential circumstance. Jeimata's parents Leroij Pwieo Worin and Iroij Bwio Kabua were first cousins as were Tarjikit's parents Laelañ and Maria. And by extension, Tarjikit and Lejolan were first cousins also.

While Kabua the Great welcomed the Protestant missionaries safely on Ebon by offering his protection in 1850s under the guidance of his uncle Kaibuke thereby solidifying a royal connection to the Protestant faith, Tarjikit helped found the Catholic church in the Capital of the Marshall Islands thereby solidifying a royal connection to the Catholic faith.

Tarjikit was also the first indigenous Micronesian of the Trust Territory ever to attend a United Nations Trusteeship Council meeting in 1953 with her son Amata as interpreter. While Amata's mother became the first indigenous Micronesian to visit the United Nations, his father Lejolañ was the first Marshallese to visit the White House when he met with President Lyndon B. Johnson.

Career

Amata began his career as a school teacher then as a Superintendent to Schools along with Chief Clerk for the House of Iroij in the 1950s. He was elected to the Council of Micronesia as a Representative and later as Senator to the Congress of Micronesia in 1963 where he also served one term as president for the Congress of Micronesia. Amata Kabua was the first president of the Marshall Islands in 1979 when its first constitution was implemented. That day was his 51st birthday. After his older brother Joba Kabua died in 1982, Amata Kabua inherited the Iroijlaplap title for Majuro Atoll in the domain of Kaibuke Tobinwa and certain parts of the Ralik Chain of the Marshall Islands in the domain of Jeimata Kabua. He later became the first president of the Marshall Islands when the nation received full independence in free association with the United States through the compact. He had been a principal participant in the negotiations to gain independence for the Marshall Islands and is regarded as the founding father of the modern nation by Marshallese. He wrote the words for the national anthem, "Forever Marshall Islands".

Amata Kabua was the son of a paramount chief of the Ralik Chain and a paramount chieftain of the Ratak Chain. He died in office after a long illness, on December 19, 1996, in Hawaii. He chose to be buried in his family property in Long Island going against royal burial traditions of Ralik & Ratak Chains as his Ralik family wanted him to be buried in the royal cemetery in Bouj, Ailinglaplap while his Majuro Kin wanted him to be buried in the royal cemetery in Laura. He chose to be buried in his family property in Long Island so his wife Emlain Kabua who is a commoner of the Ijidrik clan can be buried next to him because as a commoner, she will never be allowed to be buried in the royal cemetery in Laura, but her great-grandmother Limurelok (Kabua's wife) was buried in Bouj, Ailinglaplap in the Kabua cemetery. (Amata's older brother Joba Kabua also permitted his wife Jauni to be buried in the royal cemetery in Laura. However, due to certain restrictions, Jauni was not allowed her own space and thus shared the same burial spot with Joba Kabua having been buried on top of each other).

title: Amata Kabua


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Bill Doolin

William Doolin (1858–August 24, 1896) was an American bandit outlaw and founder of the Wild Bunch, sometimes known as the Doolin-Dalton Gang. Like the earlier Dalton Gang alone, it specialized in robbing banks, trains, and stagecoaches in Arkansas, Kansas, Indiana, and Oklahoma during the 1890s.

Early life
Doolin was born in 1858 in Johnson County, Arkansas, to Michael Doolin and the former Artemina Beller. Doolin left home in 1881 to become a cowboy in Indian Territory, where he worked for cattleman Oscar Halsell, a Texas native. During this time, Doolin worked with other cowboy and outlaw names of the day, including George Newcomb (known as "Bitter Creek"), Charley Pierce, Bill Power, Dick Broadwell, Bill "Tulsa Jack" Blake, Dan "Dynamite Dick" Clifton, and the better-known Emmett Dalton.

Doolin's first encounter with the law came on July 4, 1891, in Coffeyville in southeastern Kansas. Doolin and some friends were drunk in public, and lawmen attempted to confiscate their alcohol. A shootout ensued, and two of the lawmen were wounded. Doolin escaped capture by fleeing.

Dalton Gang
Shortly thereafter, Doolin became a member of the Dalton Gang. On October 5, 1892, the Dalton Gang tried to rob two banks simultaneously in Coffeyville. It was an utter failure. Coffeyville residents and lawmen rallied in a shootout against the outlaws, resulting in four of the five gang members being killed. Emmett Dalton was captured and convicted at trial, and imprisoned. Historians have speculated that a sixth gang member was in town, holding the horses in an alley, and escaped. The sixth man has never been identified. Some speculate that he may have been Bill Doolin.

Wild Bunch
In late 1892, Doolin formed his own gang, the Wild Bunch. On November 1, 1892, the gang robbed a bank in Spearville, Kansas. After the robbery, the gang fled with gang member Oliver Yantis to Oklahoma Territory, where they hid out at the house of Yantis's sister. Less than a month later, the gang was tracked to that location. In a shootout, Yantis was killed, but the rest of the gang escaped.

Two teenaged girls, known as Little Britches and Cattle Annie, also followed the gang as bandits. They warned the men whenever law-enforcement officers were in pursuit. Sources indicate that Doolin gave bandit Jennie Stevens her nickname of Little Britches.

Following the Spearville robbery, the gang embarked on a spree of successful bank and train robberies. In March 1893, Doolin married Edith Ellsworth in Ingalls, Oklahoma. Shortly thereafter, Doolin and his gang robbed a train near Cimarron, Kansas. During a shootout with lawmen, Doolin was shot and seriously wounded in the foot. He retreated to Ingalls.

On September 1, 1893, 14 deputy U.S. marshals entered Ingalls to apprehend the gang. The armed confrontation became known as the Battle of Ingalls. During the shootout, three marshals and two bystanders were killed, one bystander was wounded, three of the gang members were wounded, and gang member "Arkansas Tom Jones" was wounded and captured. Doolin shot and killed Deputy Marshal Richard Speed during that shootout.

For a time, the Wild Bunch was the most powerful outlaw group in the Old West. Because of the relentless pursuit by the deputy marshals known as the Three Guardsmen (lawmen Bill Tilghman, Chris Madsen, and Heck Thomas), by the end of 1894, they had either captured or killed many of the gang. In late 1894, gang member Bill Dalton was killed by U.S. marshals. Rewards were offered for the capture or death of remaining gang members, a lure that sometimes turned friends into foes to collect the money. On May 1, 1895, gang members Charlie Pierce and George "Bittercreek" Newcomb were shot and killed by bounty hunters known as the Dunn brothers. They were the older brothers of Rose Dunn, the teenaged girlfriend of Newcomb. Allegedly, she had betrayed Newcomb, but her brothers may have trailed her to the outlaws' hideout.

Doolin fled to New Mexico Territory, where he hid with outlaw Richard "Little Dick" West during the summer of 1895. In late 1895, Doolin and his wife hid out near Burden, Kansas. They went over the border to visit the resort community of Eureka Springs in northwestern Arkansas. There, Doolin soaked in the sulfur springs in the bathhouses; the waters relieved the rheumatism in his foot that set in after an earlier gunshot. In early 1896, Doolin was captured in a bathhouse by deputy marshal Bill Tilghman.

Doolin escaped from jail on July 5, and took refuge with his wife in Lawson in the Oklahoma Territory. There, on August 24, Doolin was killed by a shotgun blast in a confrontation with Deputy U.S. Marshal Heck Thomas.

Bill Doolin is buried next to outlaw Elmer McCurdy, in the Boot Hill section of Summit View Cemetery in Guthrie, Oklahoma.

By the end of 1898, all of the remaining former Wild Bunch gang were dead, having been killed in various shootouts with lawmen. Heck Thomas had tracked most of them; the remainder were tracked down and eliminated by lawmen Madsen and Tilghman, or other posses.

In popular media

 * Burt Lancaster portrayed Doolin in the film Cattle Annie and Little Britches (1981). Lancaster was 65 during the shooting of the film, but was playing Doolin in his 30s.
 * In the film Return of the Bad Men (1948), Robert Armstrong plays Doolin as the leader of a gang more powerful than the Wild Bunch. This fictional account added the Sundance Kid, Billy the Kid, and two of the Younger brothers to the known members of Doolin's gang. Randolph Scott, as Marshal Vance Cordrell, is a fictional composite of the many lawmen who pursued Doolin.
 * Randolph Scott portrayed Bill Doolin in the film The Doolins of Oklahoma (1949)
 * War hero Audie Murphy played a fictionalized Bill Doolin in the film The Cimarron Kid (1952).
 * Leo Gordon portrayed Doolin in a 1954 episode of Jim Davis's syndicated television series, Stories of the Century. The dramatization concludes with Doolin being shot to death after an earlier escape. Heck Thomas in Stories of the Century is referred to as Deputy Marshal Gleason, played by Kenneth MacDonald.
 * In the TV movie You Know My Name, Marshal Bill Tilghman, played by Sam Elliott, tells his sons how he arrested Doolin, who is played by James Baker.
 * The Eagles album Desperado contains two tracks titled "Doolin-Dalton" and one named "Bitter Creek". The album is loosely themed around the Dalton Gang.

title: Bill Doolin


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General-purpose programming language

In computer software, a general-purpose programming language (GPL) is a programming language for building software in a wide variety of application domains. Conversely, a domain-specific programming language (DSL) is used within a specific area. For example, Python is a GPL, while SQL is a DSL for querying relational databases.

History
Early programming languages were designed for scientific computing (numerical calculations) or commercial data processing, as was computer hardware. Scientific languages such as Fortran and Algol supported floating-point calculations and multidimensional arrays, while business languages such as COBOL supported fixed-field file formats and data records. Much less widely used were specialized languages such as IPL-V and LISP for symbolic list processing; COMIT for string manipulation; APT for numerically controlled machines. Systems programming requiring pointer manipulation was typically done in assembly language, though JOVIAL was used for some military applications.

IBM's System/360, announced in 1964, was designed as a unified hardware architecture supporting both scientific and commercial applications, and IBM developed PL/I for it as a single, general-purpose language that supported scientific, commercial, and systems programming. Indeed, a subset of PL/I was used as the standard systems programming language for the Multics operating system.

Since PL/I, the distinction between scientific and commercial programming languages has diminished, with most languages supporting the basic features required by both, and much of the special file format handling delegated to specialized database management systems.

Many specialized languages were also developed starting in the 1960s: GPSS and Simula for discrete event simulation; MAD, BASIC, Logo, and Pascal for teaching programming; C for systems programming; JOSS and APL\360 for interactive programming.

GPL vs. DSL
The distinction between general-purpose programming languages and domain-specific programming languages is not always clear. A programming language may be created for a specific task, but used beyond that original domain and thus be considered a general purpose programming language. For example, COBOL, Fortran, and Lisp were created as DSLs (for business processing, numeric computation, and symbolic processing), but became GPL's over time. Inversely, a language may be designed for general use but only applied in a specific area in practice. A programming language that is well suited for a problem, whether it be general-purpose language or DSL, should minimize the level of detail required while still being expressive enough in the problem domain. As the name suggests, general-purpose language is "general" in that it cannot provide support for domain-specific notation while DSLs can be designed in diverse problem domains to handle this problem. General-purpose languages are preferred to DSLs when an application domain is not well understood enough to warrant its own language. In this case, a general-purpose language with an appropriate library of data types and functions for the domain may be used instead. While DSLs are usually smaller than GPL in that they offer a smaller range of notations of abstractions, some DSLs actually contain an entire GPL as a sublanguage. In these instances, the DSLs are able to offer domain-specific expressive power along with the expressive power of GPL.

General Purpose programming languages are all Turing complete, meaning that they can theoretically solve any computational problem. Domain-specific languages are often similarly Turing complete but are not exclusively so.

Advantages and disadvantages
General-purpose programming languages are more commonly used by programmers. According to a study, C, Python, and Java were the most commonly used programming languages in 2021. One argument in favor of using general-purpose programming languages over domain-specific languages is that more people will be familiar with these languages, overcoming the need to learn a new language.

Additionally, for many tasks (e.g., statistical analysis, machine learning, etc.) there are libraries that are extensively tested and optimized. Theoretically, the presence of these libraries should bridge the gap between general-purpose and domain-specific languages.

An empirical study in 2010 sought to measure problem-solving and productivity between GPLs and DSLs by giving users problems who were familiar with the GPL (C#) and unfamiliar with the DSL (XAML). Ultimately, users of this specific domain-specific language performed better by a factor of 15%, even though they were more familiar with GPL, warranting further research.

C
The predecessor to C, B, was developed largely for a specific purpose: systems programming. By contrast, C has found use in a variety of computational domains, such as operating systems, device drivers, application software, and embedded systems.

C is suitable for use in a variety of areas because of its generality. It provides economy of expression, flow control, data structures, and a rich set of operators, but does not constrain its users to use it in any one context. As a result, though it was first used by its creators to rewrite the kernel of the Unix operating system, it was easily adapted for use in application development, embedded systems (e.g., microprocessor programming), video games (e.g., Doom), and so on. Today, C remains one of the most popular and widely-used programming languages.

C++
Conceived as an extension to C, C++ introduced object-oriented features, as well as other conveniences like references, operator overloading, and default arguments. Like C, C++'s generality allowed it to be used in a wide range of areas. While its C++'s core area of application is in systems programming (because of C++'s ability to grant access to low-level architecture), it has been used extensively to build desktop applications, video games, databases, financial systems, and much more. Major software and finance companies, such as Microsoft, Apple, Bloomberg, and Morgan Stanley, still widely use C++ in their internal and external applications.

Python
Python was conceived as a language that emphasized code readability and extensibility. The former allowed non-software engineers to easily learn and write computer programs, while the latter allowed domain specialists to easily create libraries suited to their own use cases. For these reasons, Python has been used across a wide range of domains.

Below are some of the areas where Python is used:

 * Web Development: Frameworks like Django and Flask have allowed web developers to create robust web servers that can also take advantage of the wider Python ecosystem.
 * Science and Academia: Scientific and data libraries, like SciPy and Pandas, have enabled Python's use in scientific research.
 * Machine Learning: Libraries like scikit-learn and Tensorflow have increased the accessibility of machine learning to developers.
 * General Software Development: Developing user applications, web scraping programs, games, and other general software.

List
The following are some general-purpose programming languages:

 * C
 * C++
 * C#
 * Clojure
 * Crystal
 * D
 * Dart
 * Delphi
 * Elixir
 * Erlang
 * F#
 * Go
 * Harbour
 * Haskell
 * Java
 * JavaScript
 * Julia
 * Kotlin
 * Lua
 * Modula-2
 * Oberon
 * Objective-C
 * OCaml
 * Perl
 * PHP
 * Pike
 * PL/I
 * Python
 * Racket
 * Ruby
 * Rust
 * Scala
 * Swift
 * Tcl
 * V
 * Visual Basic
 * Visual Basic .NET
 * Zig

title: General-purpose programming language


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User talk:Mikcohen

Welcome!
Hi,, Welcome  to Wikipedia! I hope you like this place — I sure do — and want to stay. Before getting too in-depth, you may want to read about the five pillars of Wikipedia. If you need help on how to title new articles check out the naming conventions, and for help on formatting the pages visit the manual of style. If you need help look at Help and the FAQ, plus if you can't find your answer there, check the Village Pump (for Wikipedia related questions) or the Reference Desk (for general questions)! There's still more help at the Tutorial and Policy Library. Plus, don't forget to visit the Community Portal. And if you have any more questions after that, feel free to post them on my user talk page. ---

Additional tips
Here's some extra tips to help you get around in the 'pedia!
 * If you want to play around with your new Wiki skills the Sandbox is for you.
 * You can sign your name using three tildes, like . If you use four, you can add a datestamp too.
 * You may want to add yourself to the new user log.
 * If you ever think a page or image should be deleted, please list it at the votes for deletion page. There is also a votes for undeletion page if you want to retrieve something that you think should not have been deleted.
 * If you're still entirely confused, or would like to get a better grasp of your wikipedia skills, and you have an IRC client (or don't mind getting one), check out the Bootcamp. It's not what it sounds like, but it is fun and can help you with your editing skills.
 * If you're bored and want to find something to do, try the Random page button in the sidebar, or check out the Open Task message in the Community Portal.

Alstonia
Hi. Thanks for helping out on wikipedia. Your contributions are greatly appreciated. The reason I put the cleanup message on Alstonia was because its content to external links ratio was very low. Normally the external links for an article should just be a small section with links to related articles, insight, etc. The links that you put seemed appropriate, but when writing an article, it's preferable that you harvest information from those websites, and compile them in an article. However, make sure you don't _copy_ any information, or else it would be considered a copyright violation. If you don't have much time, then it's understandable, and you don't have to worry much about perfection. Just do the best you can, and if it still needs work, list it on Cleanup. -Frazzydee 05:00, 15 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Stub, substub
I see that you are creating new pages with just external links. It is much better to put at least some information about the genus in the article. Then mention below. This way, this will noted by someone else, who will step in and try to add some positive contribution to the article that you started. It is also always good to familiarize yourself with the 'rules' on the page WikiProject Tree of Life and the discussion pages as well. As to the taxoboxes, we are just in a phase converting them from Html-tables into templates. Best thing you can do here is 'copy and paste' and adjust the names to your article. Then, as user Frazzydee explains here just above, try to make an article and keep the external links to a minimum. Or try to reword the content of the external links into you own page under a subtitle such as 'Medicinal Uses'. Anyway, keep up the good works. We all had to learn. JoJan 05:41, 15 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Hi, I removed the links from pellitory because they seemed likely to lead to dictionary type definitions, which should be in Wiktionary, rather than proper articles. My apologies if I made a wrong call on that, jimfbleak 05:20, 19 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Links at Fir
I've removed these again, as they don't deal with firs at all. I have placed them as relevant at Tsuga and Black Spruce, though I don't really like them, as they use such woefully inaccurate scientific nomenclature and bad capitalisation, they won't help anyone and only serve to confuse. If you know the person(s) responsible for these websites, it would help if you could persuade them to correct their nomenclature ("Abies Canadensis" = Tsuga canadensis; "Abies Nigra" = Picea mariana; note also species names are always lower case). - MPF 09:22, 19 Aug 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Mikcohen


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Postage stamps and postal history of British Guiana

A privately run packet service for mail existed in British Guiana in 1796, and continued for a number of years. Postage stamps of Britain were used in those days at Georgetown (Demerara) and Berbice. The first adhesive stamps produced by British Guiana were issued in 1850.

British Guiana is famous among philatelists for its early postage stamps, some of them considered to be among the rarest, most expensive stamps in the world. These include the unique British Guiana 1c magenta from 1856, which sold in 1980 for close to $1 million.

In June 2014 the 1856 British Guiana one-cent magenta stamp was sold at auction in New York, to an anonymous bidder, for $9.5m (£5.6m) at auction in New York, a world record.

Independence
In 1966 the country achieved independence from the United Kingdom, and changed its name to Guyana. Later stamps were issued by Guyana.

References and sources

 * References

 * Sources
 * W.A. Townsend and F.G. Howe, Postage Stamps and Postal History of British Guiana, London, Royal Philatelic Society (August 1970) ISBN 0-900631-01-5


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Postage stamps and postal history of British East Africa

This is a survey of the postage stamps and postal history of British East Africa.

Britain had interests in this area as early as 1824. Missionaries are known to have settled in the area in 1844. The Imperial British East Africa Company obtained a concession in 1887 to administer this area, from Sultan Bargash of the Sultanate of Zanzibar. The company started to experience financial difficulties in 1891. The situation was made more difficult in 1892 when Britain declared the Sultanate of Zanzibar part of the Congo Free Trade Zone and thus depriving the company of import duties. On 1 July 1895, the British government took over the administration of this area when the company was facing bankruptcy.

Pre-stamp era
The early missionaries in British East Africa sent letters by runner to forwarding agents in Zanzibar. Letters are known from as early as 1848. From 1875 mail was sent via the Indian post office which had been opened in Zanzibar.

Imperial British East Africa Company administration
The Imperial British East Africa Company was the first company holding a Royal Charter allowing operation of a postal system, for both local and international mail, to use their company name on their stamps. They were also the first to create a series of surcharged stamps with authorizing initials. Both of these led to the adoption of these practices by other countries such as the British South Africa Company and the Mozambique Company in 1892 and the surcharged Uganda typewritten stamps in 1895.

The Imperial British East Africa Company set up post offices at Mombasa and Lamu in May 1890. The first stamps issued, on 23 May 1890, were surcharges on British postage stamps with values of ½, 1 and 4 annas and 'BRITISH EAST AFRICA COMPANY'.

During an acute shortage of stamps in August and September, 1890 stamps of India were used and are known postmarked 'MOMBASA' or 'LAMU'. It is alleged that an agent of stamp dealer Whitfield King bought up all the stocks in the post offices.

The British East Africa Company issued stamps, on 14 October 1890, using a symbolic sun and crown design and inscribed 'IMPERIAL BRITISH EAST AFRICA COMPANY', all valued in annas and rupees.

Shortages, of some values, between 1891 and 1895 resulted in a variety of surcharges being produced.

British administration
On 9 July 1895 stamps of Imperial British East Africa Company were overprinted reading 'BRITISH / EAST / AFRICA' and overprints of 'British / East / Africa' on stamps of India were also issued. The protectorate joined the Universal Postal Union at this time.

In 1896 a series of stamps depicting Queen Victoria was issued, inscribed 'BRITISH EAST AFRICA', these ran short in 1897 and stamps of Zanzibar were overprinted as the stamps of India had been previously. A number of additional post offices were opened along the Uganda Railway, which was started in 1896 at Mombasa and reached Kisumu on Lake Victoria in 1902.

In 1901 the postal administration was merged with that of Uganda, and in 1904 stamps issued for the combined East Africa and Uganda Protectorates came into use.

Postal stationery
Imperial British East Africa Company Administration

All postal stationery items were inscribed 'IMPERIAL BRITISH EAST AFRICA COMPANY'. Two different sizes of registration envelopes were issued in 1891; produced by Bradbury, Wilkinson & Co. Three different sizes of pre paid 2½ annas envelopes were issued in 1893. Two postcards were made available in 1893; ½ anna and 1 anna.

British administration

In 1895 one of the sizes of Imperial British East Africa Company envelopes was overprinted 'BRITISH EAST AFRICA'. In 1896 Two different envelopes were produced by overprinting envelopes from India with 'British East Africa'; 2½ annas on 4½ annas envelope and 2 annas 6 pies. Also in 1896 2½ annas envelopes were printed by De la Rue and inscribed 'BRITISH EAST AFRICA PROTECTORATE'.

In 1895 Imperial British East Africa Company registration envelopes was overprinted 'BRITISH EAST AFRICA'. These were followed by 2 annas registration envelopes, in two different sizes, from India being overprinted 'British East Africa'. Finally, two sizes of registration envelopes, printed by De la Rue, were made available.

Four different newspaper wrappers were issued during 1896. Two were produced by overprinting Indian ½ anna and 1 anna wrappers with 'British East Africa' and two, ½ anna and 1 anna, were printed by De la Rue.

A total of eight different postcards were produced with a face value of ½ anna or 1 anna. Two were by overprinting Imperial British East Africa Company postcards, two were by overprinting Indian postcards and the remaining ones were printed by De la Rue.

References and sources

 * Notes

 * Sources
 * Rossiter, Stuart & John Flower. The Stamp Atlas. London: Macdonald, 1986. ISBN 0-356-10862-7
 * Stanley Gibbons catalogues.


text:
Lizardman (disambiguation)

Lizardman is a common name for a reptilian humanoid, especially in fantasy.

Lizardman, Lizard Man, Lizardmen, or Lizard Men may also refer to:

 * The Lizardman (performer) or Erik Sprague (b. 1972), sideshow performer noted for his extensive body modifications
 * Lizard Man of Scape Ore Swamp, a cryptid of the swamps in Lee County, South Carolina
 * Lizardman (Soulcalibur), a fictional character from the Soulcalibur series of fighting games
 * Lizard Man (Masters of the Universe), a character in He-Man and the Masters of the Universe
 * Lizardmen (Warhammer), a fictional race from the Warhammer Fantasy universe
 * Lizardfolk, a fictional race in the Dungeons & Dragons roleplaying game

title: Lizardman (disambiguation)


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Betico Croes

Gilberto François "Betico" Croes (25 January 1938 – 26 November 1986) was an Aruban political activist who was a proponent for Aruba's separation from the Netherlands Antilles. This eventually occurred in 1986, but following a car accident on 31 December 1985 (the night of status aparte), Croes lapsed into a coma and never became conscious to see his accomplishment. He is best remembered as "Libertador" (liberator) and as the father of the Aruban people.

Biography and career

Croes was born on 25 January 1938, in Santa Cruz. After finishing high school, he studied in the Netherlands at the Teacher's Training College in Hilversum and received his headmaster's certificate in 1959.

In 1967, Croes first participated in the island council of Aruba as a member of the Aruban People's Party (AVP) and was elected. He resigned on July 1970 after the AVP had decided not to give a seat to the UNA.

In February 1971, Croes founded the political party People's Electoral Movement (Movimiento Electoral di Pueblo), and was elected to the island council. In 1973, the MEP won 5 of the 8 seats for Aruba in the Estates of the Netherlands Antilles. In 1976 he was the person responsible for the Seal Flag and National Anthem of the island of Aruba. It was co-written by renowned Padu Del Caribe (Padu Lampe), and Rufo Wever, who also composed the anthem.

Background
In 1954, the Netherlands Antilles became a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands and was given self-government. Aruba is the second most populous island, however, Curaçao is the largest and most populous island. Aruba had 8 seats in the Estates of the Netherlands Antilles, Curaçao had 12 seats, Bonaire had one seat, and Saba, Sint Eustatius, and Sint Maarten shared a single seat. The Capital of the Netherlands Antilles was Willemstad, Curaçao.

Struggle for independence
In 1977, Croes organized a referendum regarding Aruba's independence. The Aruban Patriotic Party (PPA) announced a boycott of the referendum, and the Government of the Netherlands Antilles declared the referendum illegal, and announced, prior to the referendum, that it was not willing to accept the results. In the March 1977 referendum, 95% of the voters were in favor of independence.

In June 1977, Boy Rozendal of the Democratic Party of Curaçao won a clear victory in the elections in the Netherlands Antilles. No former was assigned to create a new cabinet instead Rozendal, who was an opponent of Aruban autonomy, installed his coalition without consulting the MEP. Croes announced demonstrations and a boycott of Curaçaoan products.

On 11 August 1977, a general strike shut down the island during which the riot police made multiple charges. On 18 August, the union leaders were arrested and the strike ended, however, Prime Minister Joop den Uyl of the Netherlands started a dialogue because the situation had spun out of control.

In February 1981, at the Round Table Conference, Croes formally set Aruba's Independence for 1991, however the Round Table Conference of 1983, resulted in a proposed new Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands in which Aruba would have a Status Aparte making it a constituent country within the Kingdom in 1986, and possible independence in 1996.

On 24 April 1983, Croes was shot in the stomach by police officer Libier. Libier was transferred to Bonaire in June, In November, the Public Prosecution Service decided not to charge him, because there was no proof that he had aimed at Croes.

In July 1985 the charter, as agreed in March 1983, in Aruba's Decolonization and Independence Agreement, was unanimously approved by the island council of Aruba, however, the PPA boycotted the vote. The Status Aparte would take effect on 1 January 1986.

In the 1980s Croes recommended that Aruba should target tourism in order to diversify the economy since it depended mainly on the refinery. He was also responsible for major projects for the people of Aruba, like the housing company FCCA, and the transportation company Arubus,

1985 elections and death
In November 1985, the MEP lost the election, and Henny Eman of the Aruban People's Party (AVP) would become the first Prime Minister of Aruba.

On 31 December 1985, Croes was in a traffic accident and lapsed into a coma. Croes died on 26 November 1986 in a reactivation and nursing center in Utrecht, Netherlands. His remains were flown to Aruba for burial. An estimated 40,000 people attended his funeral (Aruba had an estimated 65,000 inhabitants in 1985).

A famous quote from him is "Si mi cai na caminda, gara e bandera y sigui cu e lucha" (If I fall along the way, grab the flag and continue the battle).

Personal life
Croes had four children: two sons—Glenbert Croes and Gilberto Junior Croes and two daughters—Glendeline Croes and Guisette Croes.

Both of Croes' sons served as Ministers and Glenbert is as of 2021 in office as Minister of Labor, Integration and Energy.

Legacy

 * Betico Croes Day is celebrated on his birthday of 25 January as a national holiday.
 * The 18 Maart Plein in Oranjestad was renamed Plaza Betico Croes.
 * Caya G. F. Betico Croes is named after him and is the main shopping street of Oranjestad, the Aruban capital.

title: Betico Croes


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Postage stamps and postal history of Zululand

This is a survey of the postage stamps and postal history of Zululand under British rule.

The Zulu Kingdom was defeated by Britain in the Anglo-Zulu War and was annexed as a British territory in 1887. For a brief period, it operated its own postal system and had its own postage stamps.

First post office
A Natal postal agency was established in Eshowe in 1876 (closed between 1879 and 1885), but an official postal system was not started until 1 May 1888, at which time both Zululand and neighboring Natal became members of the Universal Postal Union. At first, the territory used postage stamps of Great Britain and Natal overprinted "ZULULAND".

Key type stamps
A series of ten definitive issues in the key plate style with a profile of Queen Victoria, inscribed "ZULULAND" appeared in 1894 and were in use at 21 post offices. These stamps ranged in denomination from 1/2 penny to five pounds.

Annexation
Zululand was annexed by Natal on 31 December 1897, and separate stamps were discontinued on 30 June 1898.

References and sources

 * References

 * Sources
 * Encyclopaedia of Postal Authorities
 * Rossiter, Stuart & John Flower. The Stamp Atlas. London: Macdonald, 1986. ISBN 0-356-10862-7


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Postage stamps and postal history of Kionga

The Kionga Triangle was a tiny territory on the border between German East Africa (present-day United Republic of Tanzania) and the Portuguese colony of Mozambique (present day Republic of Mozambique), originally Portuguese, but occupied by German forces in 1894, and recaptured by the Portuguese forces in 1916. The triangle was the only German territory that the post-war Treaty of Versailles awarded to Portugal.

On May 29, 1916, 100-reis postage stamps from Lourenço Marques were overprinted with "KIONGA" and one of the denominations ½c, 1c, 2½c, and 5c. These were the only stamps issued for Kionga. Most of the stock of the Marques stamps lacked gum, and in 2013, the Scott Catalogue listed the average purchase price of a high-quality set without gum at US$ 97.50. Examples with original gum will command a premium.


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Mahaveer School

Mahaveer public school is a private school in Jaipur, Rajasthan, India. It stands on a 2.68 acre (10,844 m²) plot of land allotted free of cost in 1946 by His Highness Sawai Man Singh II, the last Maharajah of Jaipur State. The school is affiliated with the Board of Secondary Education(CBSE), Rajasthan. The School has three locations.

In 2019, the school, along with other private schools in Jaipur City, was the subject of a protest by parents who were frustrated about fee hikes.

Library
The library has 64,000 books and a research centre on Jainism, in which rare ancient literature is available. Book Bank facilities are available for poor students and special facilities have been created for meritorious and weak students. They are permitted to draw as many books as they need and they are also permitted to purchase books and prepare for examination. The books are repurchased after the examinations. Newspaper and magazines in a reading room are available for teachers and students.

Assembly Hall
It can accommodate 500 children. The hall has facilities for staging dramas and plays.

Audio/visual room
The room has LCD, overhead projectors, and a recording system.

Game facilities

 * Playgrounds
 * Covered badminton court, football, hockey, volleyball, basketball grounds.

title: Mahaveer School


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Soundex

Soundex is a phonetic algorithm for indexing names by sound, as pronounced in English. The goal is for homophones to be encoded to the same representation so that they can be matched despite minor differences in spelling. The algorithm mainly encodes consonants; a vowel will not be encoded unless it is the first letter. Soundex is the most widely known of all phonetic algorithms (in part because it is a standard feature of popular database software such as IBM Db2, PostgreSQL, MySQL, SQLite, Ingres, MS SQL Server, Oracle, ClickHouse, Snowflake and SAP ASE. ) Improvements to Soundex are the basis for many modern phonetic algorithms.

History
Soundex was developed by Robert C. Russell and Margaret King Odell and patented in 1918 and 1922. A variation, American Soundex, was used in the 1930s for a retrospective analysis of the US censuses from 1890 through 1920. The Soundex code came to prominence in the 1960s when it was the subject of several articles in the Communications and Journal of the Association for Computing Machinery, and especially when described in Donald Knuth's The Art of Computer Programming.

The National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) maintains the current rule set for the official implementation of Soundex used by the U.S. government. These encoding rules are available from NARA, upon request, in the form of General Information Leaflet 55, "Using the Census Soundex".

American Soundex
The Soundex code for a name consists of a letter followed by three numerical digits: the letter is the first letter of the name, and the digits encode the remaining consonants. Consonants at a similar place of articulation share the same digit so, for example, the labial consonants B, F, P, and V are each encoded as the number 1.

The correct value can be found as follows:
 * 1) Retain the first letter of the name and drop all other occurrences of a, e, i, o, u, y, h, w.
 * 2) Replace consonants with digits as follows (after the first letter):
 * b, f, p, v → 1
 * c, g, j, k, q, s, x, z → 2
 * d, t → 3
 * 1) * l → 4
 * m, n → 5
 * 1) * r → 6
 * 2) If two or more letters with the same number are adjacent in the original name (before step 1), only retain the first letter; also two letters with the same number separated by 'h', 'w' or 'y' are coded as a single number, whereas such letters separated by a vowel are coded twice. This rule also applies to the first letter.
 * 3) If there are too few letters in the word to assign three numbers, append zeros until there are three numbers. If there are four or more numbers, retain only the first three.

Using this algorithm, both "Robert" and "Rupert" return the same string "R163" while "Rubin" yields "R150". "Ashcraft" and "Ashcroft" both yield "A261". "Tymczak" yields "T522" not "T520" (the chars 'z' and 'k' in the name are coded as 2 twice since a vowel lies in between them). "Pfister" yields "P236" not "P123" (the first two letters have the same number and are coded once as 'P'), and "Honeyman" yields "H555".

The following algorithm is followed by most SQL languages (excluding PostgreSQL):
 * 1) Save the first letter. Map all occurrences of a, e, i, o, u, y, h, w. to zero(0)
 * 2) Replace all consonants (include the first letter) with digits as in [2.] above.
 * 3) Replace all adjacent same digits with one digit, and then remove all the zero (0) digits
 * 4) If the saved letter's digit is the same as the resulting first digit, remove the digit (keep the letter).
 * 5) Append 3 zeros if result contains less than 3 digits. Remove all except the first letter and 3 digits after it (This step is the same as [4.] in explanation above).

The two algorithms above do not return the same results in all cases primarily because of the difference between when the vowels are removed. The first algorithm is used by most programming languages and the second is used by SQL. For example, "Tymczak" yields "T522" in the first algorithm, but "T520" in the algorithm used by SQL. Often, both algorithms generate the same code. As examples, both "Robert" and "Rupert" yield "R163" and "Honeyman" yields "H555". In designing an application, which combines SQL and a programming language, the architect must decide whether to do all of the Soundex encoding in the SQL server or all in the programming language. The MySQL implementation can return more than 4 characters.

Variants
A similar algorithm called "Reverse Soundex" prefixes the last letter of the name instead of the first.

The New York State Identification and Intelligence System (NYSIIS) algorithm was introduced in 1970 as an improvement to the Soundex algorithm. NYSIIS handles some multi-character n-grams and maintains relative vowel positioning, whereas Soundex does not.

Daitch–Mokotoff Soundex (D–M Soundex) was developed in 1985 by genealogist Gary Mokotoff and later improved by genealogist Randy Daitch because of problems they encountered while trying to apply the Russell Soundex to Jews with Germanic or Slavic surnames (such as Moskowitz vs. Moskovitz or Levine vs. Lewin). D–M Soundex is sometimes referred to as "Jewish Soundex" or "Eastern European Soundex", although the authors discourage the use of those names. The D–M Soundex algorithm can return as many as 32 individual phonetic encodings for a single name. Results of D-M Soundex are returned in an all-numeric format between 100000 and 999999. This algorithm is much more complex than Russell Soundex.

As a response to deficiencies in the Soundex algorithm, Lawrence Philips developed the Metaphone algorithm in 1990. Philips developed an improvement to Metaphone in 2000, which he called Double Metaphone. Double Metaphone includes a much larger encoding rule set than its predecessor, handles a subset of non-Latin characters, and returns a primary and a secondary encoding to account for different pronunciations of a single word in English. Philips created Metaphone 3 as a further revision in 2009 to provide a professional version that provides a much higher percentage of correct encodings for English words, non-English words familiar to Americans, and first and last names found in the United States. It also provides settings that allow more exact consonant and internal vowel matching to allow the programmer to focus the precision of matches more closely.

title: Soundex


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Henry Starr

Henry Starr (December 2, 1873 – February 22, 1921) was an American outlaw of the frontier and an actor of the silent film era.

Early life
Starr's parents were Mary Scott Starr and George Starr. Distantly related to Sam Starr, husband of Belle Starr, he was the last in a long line of Starr family criminals.

During Starr's childhood in Indian Territory, he spent his time around gangs in their hideouts. In 1886, Starr's father passed away. Starr's widowed mother had to watch three children after that. Later on in life, she married a man named C. N. Walker. Starr disliked him, so he left to become a cowboy at a ranch.

Criminal activity
Starr was first arrested and fined for "Introducing spirits into the territory". Starr was repeatedly arrested for crimes he did not commit. After a while, Starr thought that if he was going to be fined for those crimes, he should just commit a real crime while making a lot of money. That's when he started to rob banks.

Starr was tried for the murder of Deputy U.S. Marshal Floyd Wilson in 1893. Twice sentenced by Judge Isaac C. Parker to hang for murder, following a series of appeals and Starr's confrontation with Cherokee Bill, who was attempting a prison break, his sentence was reduced to a sentence of imprisonment for manslaughter. Starr was eventually granted a presidential pardon and released.

Starr went on to form a notorious gang that terrorized and robbed throughout northwest Arkansas around the start of the 20th century. They were on a crime spree, and the reward if Starr was caught would be $5,000.

Later life
He was imprisoned again in 1915 in Arizona, wrote his autobiography, Thrilling Events, Life of Henry Starr and, released on parole. In 1919, he joined the Pan American Motion Picture Corporation and starred in a silent film, A Debtor to the Law (1919), playing a dramatized version of himself. While attempting to rob a bank in Harrison, Arkansas, on February 18, 1921, he was shot by the bank president W. J. Myers with a .38 caliber rifle, and later died of his wounds. Starr is buried at Dewey Cemetery in Dewey, Oklahoma.

title: Henry Starr


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User:RomanPark~enwiki

I am pleased to make this page on Wikipedia site and hope to contribute to WikiPedia all around the world. My name is Roman Park came from ko.wikipedia.org In addition, I am a bright. SeeAlso www.the-brights.com

Nationality : Korean ( In South Korea) Birth : 16.Oct.1974 Occupation : Sales Person in INVISTA Gender : Male Wiki Experience : 2 years from 2002 on www.no-smok.net

Because I am learning WikiPedia, therefore, your patience and kind attention to my behaviors here would be higly appreciated.

Thank you for your reading.

title: User:RomanPark~enwiki


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Postage stamps and postal history of Inhambane

As with several other districts of colonial Mozambique, the Portuguese government printed postage stamps specifically for Inhambane for several years. The first issue was for the 700th anniversary of St. Anthony of Padua in 1895, the stamps being those of Mozambique overprinted "CENTENARIO / DE / S. ANTONIO / Inhambane / MDCCCXCV". This was followed up in 1903 by a regular set featuring a portrait of King Carlos and inscribed "IMHAMBANE". The replacement of the monarchy by a republican regime in Portugal in 1910 resulted in a variety of "REPUBLICA" overprints until 1917. Subsequently, Inhambane reverted to the use of the stamps of Mozambique.


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User talk:RomanPark~enwiki

Welcome!
Hi,, Welcome  to Wikipedia! I hope you like this place — I sure do — and want to stay. Before getting too in-depth, you may want to read about the five pillars of Wikipedia. If you need help on how to title new articles check out the naming conventions, and for help on formatting the pages visit the manual of style. If you need help look at Help and the FAQ, plus if you can't find your answer there, check the Village Pump (for Wikipedia related questions) or the Reference Desk (for general questions)! There's still more help at the Tutorial and Policy Library. Plus, don't forget to visit the Community Portal. And if you have any more questions after that, feel free to post them on my user talk page. ---

Additional tips
Here's some extra tips to help you get around in the 'pedia!
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Happy Wiki-ing.
— Ilγαηερ   (Tαlκ)  05:17, 11 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Thanks
IF you ever need any help, feel free to leave a note on my talk page :D —  Ilγαηερ   (Tαlκ)  15:53, 12 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

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title: User talk:RomanPark~enwiki


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Postage stamps and postal history of Bahawalpur

This is a survey of the postage stamps and postal history of Bahawalpur.

First stamps
Bahawalpur used the postage stamps of British India until 1945. On 1 January 1945, it issued its own stamps, for official use only, a set of pictorials inscribed entirely in Arabic.

Commemorative stamps
On 1 December 1947 the state issued its first regular stamp, a commemorative stamp for the 200th anniversary of the ruling family, depicting Mohammad Bahawal Khan I, and inscribed "BAHAWALPUR". A series of 14 values appeared 1 April 1948, depicting various Nawabs and buildings. A handful of additional commemoratives ended with an October 1949 issue commemorating the 75th anniversary of the Universal Postal Union. After this the state adopted Pakistani stamps for external mail. Bahawalpur stamps continued to be valid for internal mail until 1953.


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Postage stamps and postal history of Zambezia

Although Zambezia was a part of the Portuguese East Africa Colony, the Portuguese government-issued separate postage stamps for it starting in 1894, with the standard design depicting King Charles, and likewise in 1898. A provisional issue came in 1902 to reflect changed rates, then after the revolution of 1910 there were several issues overprinted "REPUBLICA". The postal districts of Quelimane and Tete were created from parts of Zambezia in about 1913, and then stamps of Mozambique replaced stamps of Zambezia around 1920.


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Adoxa moschatellina

Adoxa moschatellina, moschatel, is a species of flowering plant in the family Adoxaceae which has a highly distinctive inflorescence. This herbaceous perennial grows in relatively sunny places in old woodland, such as the edges of streams, and in shady places in open habitats such as rock crevices in limestone pavements. It has a limited ability to spread by seed, but expands vegetatively via its long stolons. It is a widespread but generally uncommon plant which is not considered to be threatened within its natural range.

Description
Moschatel is a patch-forming perennial about 10-15 cm (6 in.) tall, with pale green foliage and a delicate appearance. It has swollen, fleshy rhizomes as well as long, slender stolons. The aerial stems are produced in early spring (typically around the end of February in England), long before the woodland canopy forms. They are slender, erect and unbranched, typically with two basal leaves on long petioles, which are almost as long as the stem, and two opposite leaves at the top, which have short petioles that are expanded towards the base. There are no stipules. The whole plant is entirely glabrous (hairless).

The basal leaves are a dull green above, silvery and succulent below, and dotted with stomata only on the undersides. The basal leaves are ternate (i.e. divided into 3 lobes) or twice ternate, and up to 5 cm long, whereas the stem leaves have 2 or 3 lobes, with blades up to 3 cm long.

At the top of the stem, on a peduncle which is at least as long as the stem itself, at flowering, is an inflorescence that is unique to this genus and highly distinctive. It consists of a cubical cluster of 5 green flowers, about 0.5 cm in diameter, with four 5-petalled flowers on the sides of the cube and one 4-petalled flower at the top. They are said to smell faintly of musk, especially "towards the evening when the dew falls." The lateral flowers each have 5 stamens (which are deeply divided so it looks as if there are 10) and 2-5 styles. The terminal flower has only 4, similarly divided, stamens. Below the corolla, the calyx consists of 3 lobes in the lateral flowers and just 2 in the terminal one.

Fruits are formed in April to May in England. Each flower can develop 2-5 fruits, which are rather dry drupes, 4.5 - 5.55 mm in diameter, partially encased by the expanded, fleshy calyx. At this time the peduncle expands and spirals, bending towards to ground to deposit the fruits close to the parent plant. Fruiting is uncommon, as reproduction is mainly vegetative, through the stolons and rhizomes.

Taxonomy
Moschatel is a highly distinctive plant, owing to its curious arrangement of flowers. For many years it had been considered the only species in its plant family, the Adoxaceae. However, in 2018 a second species of Adoxa was discovered in China and, meanwhile, cytological and genetics studies have shown that family should include the elders and viburnums.

Its name was given by Linnaeus in 1753, in Species Plantarum (p. 367) and it has received a few synonyms since then, including Moscatella adoxa (Scop., 1771) and Moschatellina fumariifolia (Bubani, 1899), but these have not stuck.

Its chromosome number is 2n = 36.

Several varieties and subspecies have been described: var. insularis (Nepomn.) S.Y. Li & Z.H. Ning occurs in eastern Russia; and subsp. cescae Peruzzi & N.G. Passal is found in southern Italy. It is a triploid (2n = 54) with smaller pollen and stomata. Other plants are, by default, subsp. moschatellina, although this name has not been formally published. It is not known to hybridise with any other species.

The word "Adoxa" comes from the Ancient Greek δόξᾰ (doxa), meaning glory or splendour and the Latin prefix a-, which means "not" or "without", and refers to its humble size and appearance. The specific epithet moschatellina and the common name moschatel come from the Latin word for musk, which refers to the scent produced by male musk deer, as it is apparently similar to the smell of the flowers.

Other common names include five-faced bishop, hollowroot, muskroot, townhall clock, tuberous crowfoot and Good Friday plant. The name hollowroot presumably comes from the way the stolons (not actually the roots) have a dark core and so have the appearance, in a cut section, of being hollow.

Distribution and status
Adoxa moschatellina has a boreal, circumpolar distribution in Europe, Asia and North America, and just extending into Morocco in North Africa. It is not established as an introduced species beyond its natural range, except possibly in Ireland. It is generally not considered to be rare or threatened: in the United States it is classified as "secure" and, while it has not been assessed internationally by the IUCN, many European countries classify it as "Least Concern".

It is widespread in most parts of Britain but not common, being generally restricted to small patches in areas of ancient woodland. It becomes scarce in the north and west, where the soils are too acid for it, and parts of eastern England where there has been little woodland cover. It is absent from Ireland except in a couple of places where it was probably introduced, deliberately or accidentally.

Habitat and ecology
Moschatel grows in woodland and scrub, typically in places with fairly light shade, such as the edges of paths or alongside streams and rivers. Its Ellenberg values in Britain are L = 4, F = 5, R = 6, N = 5, and S = 0, which show that it favours lower than average levels of light and nutrients, and higher than average moisture and alkalinity. It is found in deciduous woods under ash, pedunculate oak, sessile oak, hornbeam or beech trees, typically towards the bottom of any slope, where the soil is damper and more base-rich, amongst dog's mercury and wood anemone. This habitat is, under the British National Vegetation Classification, considered to be ash wood, W8 in the lowlands and W9 in the uplands. It is also recorded in elder scrub (W6d) along riverbanks. In the Scottish Highlands and Snowdonia, it occurs in juniper scrub (W19), and in shady nooks amongst boulders in upland heaths and pillow lavas (on Cadair Idris).

It is a spring-flowering species which dies back after flowering in May or June. The seeds are deposited on the ground close to the parent plant, thus limiting its ability to spread. This lack of dispersal capacity helps to account for it being largely restricted to ancient woodland, although it is known to establish well in new sites if transported there manually. Spread is more facilitated more by the rhizomes and stolons than by seed production.

In Scotland it is recorded as high as 1065 m on Ben Lawers, and in England up to 760 m at Knock Fell.

The rather plain flowers are pollinated by flies and nocturnal moths which do not rely on colour to pollinate plants.

Insect associations with moschatel appear to be rare. The larvae of two species of sawfly are known to feed on this plant in Britain: Paracharactus gracilicornis (Zaddach, 1859) and Sciapteryx consobrina (Klug, 1816).

In Europe, moschatel is often infected with the smut Puccinia adoxae R. Hedw. , which produces small black telia (blisters) on the stems and leaves. Puccinia albescens (Grev.) Plowr. and P. argentata (Schultz) G. Winter (syn. P. impatientis) make whitish galls as well as black telia. More rarely, it can be parasitized by Melanotaenium adoxae, which produces yellow-white blisters.

title: Adoxa moschatellina


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United States congressional delegations from South Dakota

These are tables of congressional delegations from South Dakota to the United States Senate and United States House of Representatives.

The current dean of the South Dakota delegation is Senator and Senate Minority Whip John Thune, having served in the Senate since 2005, and previously serving in the House from 1997 until 2003.