text:
Po Leung Kuk

The Po Leung Kuk, founded as the Society for the Protection of Women and Children, is a charitable organisation in Hong Kong that provides support for orphaned children, education and other services.

History
In the late 19th century, abduction and trafficking of women and children were widespread in Hong Kong, under the mui tsai system. On 8 November 1878, a group of local Chinese (Lo Lai-ping, Shi Shang-kai, Fung Ming-shan and Tse Tat-shing) presented a petition to the governor of Hong Kong, John Pope Hennessy, to set up the Po Leung Kuk to rescue the kidnapped victims, and the society was officially opened in August 1882.

The stated objective of the Kuk, as it is informally known, is to care for the young and protect the innocent. In the early days, it was primarily engaged in suppressing abduction of women and children and providing shelters and education for such victims. There were some difficulties with the colonial government, as a result of cultural differences, but the overall intention of improving the lot of unfortunates was earnestly pursued. However, it has been suggested that the arrangements the Kuk provided had the convenient effect of maintaining a supply of servants and potential concubines for the wealthy Chinese families of Hong Kong, in a "peculiarly Chinese form of patriarchy".

Today the Po Leung Kuk has over 300 units providing a wide spectrum of services, including social services (including medical services), educational services, recycling centers, recreational services and cultural services.

Services
The Kuk currently runs more than 300 units throughout Hong Kong, providing welfare, educational, cultural and recreational services.

It is now known mostly for running schools in the region, with PLK Vicwood KT Chong Sixth Form College being their most widely known school.

title: Po Leung Kuk


text:
Charles Caldwell Ryrie

Charles Caldwell Ryrie (March 2, 1925 – February 16, 2016) was an American Bible scholar and Christian theologian. He served as professor of systematic theology and dean of doctoral studies at Dallas Theological Seminary and as president and professor at what is now Cairn University. After his retirement from Dallas Theological Seminary he also taught courses for Tyndale Theological Seminary. He is considered one of the most influential American theologians of the 20th century. He was the editor of The Ryrie Study Bible by Moody Publishers, containing more than 10,000 of Ryrie's explanatory notes. First published in 1978, it has sold more than 2 million copies. He was a notable proponent of classic dispensationalism.

Early life, education, and family
Ryrie was born to John Alexander and Elizabeth Caldwell Ryrie in St. Louis, Missouri, and grew up in Alton, Illinois. His paternal grandfather, John Alexander Ryrie Sr. (1827-1904), served as a correspondent in the late 1870's of the earliest known Plymouth Brethren meeting in the United States, which was started in Alton by Scottish settlers in 1849. After graduating from high school in 1942, Charles attended The Stony Brook School on Long Island for one semester, where he became acquainted with headmaster Frank E. Gaebelein.

Ryrie attended Haverford College, intending on following his father into a banking career. However, during his junior year, while meeting with Dallas Theological Seminary founder Lewis Sperry Chafer, Ryrie dedicated his life to Christian ministry, and left Haverford to study theology at Dallas Theological Seminary. Haverford conferred his BA (1946) on the basis of his studies at Dallas. A year later, he earned his Th.M. (1947), and two years following that his Th.D. (1949). He went on to complete his Doctor of Philosophy (1954) at the University of Edinburgh. He also earned a Litt.D. from Liberty Baptist Theological Seminary, now Liberty University School of Divinity.

In 1987, Ryrie's wife divorced him. Believing that the Bible did not allow divorced persons to remarry, he determined to live the rest of his life as a single man, despite his wife's subsequent remarriage.

Dr. Ryrie was the father of three children and grandfather of three grandchildren.

Academic career
Ryrie began his academic career by teaching one summer for Midwest Bible and Missionary Institute (which would eventually become a part of Calvary Bible College). Ryrie joined the faculty of Westmont College in 1948 and eventually became dean of men and chairman of the Department of Biblical Studies and Philosophy. He returned to Dallas Theological Seminary in 1953 to teach systematic theology, but left for several years to serve as president of Philadelphia College of the Bible (now Cairn University), from 1958 to 1962. He was also an adjunct faculty member from Fall 1991 through Fall 2001. Upon returning to Dallas once again, he became dean of doctoral studies until his retirement in 1983. Ryrie has written 32 books which have sold more than 1.5 million copies. Additionally, his study bible has sold more than 2.6 million copies.

Ryrie was an avid collector of quality rare Bibles and Bible manuscripts. On December 5, 2016, his collection was sold by Sothebys for 7.3 Million USD. A 15th century copy of a Wycliffe's Bible New Testament sold for $1,620,500 at auction.

Theology
Charles Ryrie taught Free Grace theology, the belief that only fiduciary faith in Jesus Christ is needed for salvation. Ryrie wrote a book "So Great Salvation: What It Means to Believe in Jesus Christ", in which he criticized the Lordship salvation view of salvation. Ryrie defended the view that the word "metanoia" (repentance) refers to a change of mind, being a synonym for faith instead of a turning from sin. Charles Ryrie agreed with some of the points in Calvinism, holding to total depravity and unconditional election, though he taught that the atonement was universal. Ryrie was a dispensationalist, holding to a pretribulation rapture.

Ryrie agreed with the doctrine of divine simplicity, saying it underscores God's self-existence. Ryrie rejected Monothelitism, Apollinarianism and held to Trinitarian theology.

Charles Caldwell Ryrie taught that when attending church, men should remove their caps and that women should wear a headcovering (veil), as he said that Saint Paul's command in was "based on theology (headship v.3), the order of creation (v.7-9), and the presence of angels in the meeting (v.10)."

Death
Ryrie died on February 16, 2016, in Dallas, Texas.

Publications
Two of his books (The Miracles of Our Lord and So Great Salvation) garnered the Gold Medallion Book Award. Other publications include:
 * Dispensationalism Today, 1965; The Moody Bible Institute of Chicago.
 * A Survey of Bible Doctrine Moody Press, 1972 (First Edition), 1989 (11th Edition) ISBN 0-8024-8438-7 NOTE: This title is also available in electronic version for use with, and sold by: Logos Bible Software.
 * The Grace of God Moody Press, 1963 (First Edition), 1970 (Second Edition), 1975 (Third Edition) ISBN 0-8024-32506, ISBN 978-0-80-243250-6
 * Ryrie's Concise Guide to the Bible, Here's Life Publishers, 1983 ISBN 0-685-09716-1 [Paperback] NOTE: This title is also available in electronic version for use with, and sold by: Logos Bible Software.
 * Basic Theology, Moody Press, 1986, ISBN 0-89693-814-X
 * Balancing the Christian Life, Moody Press, 1994 ISBN 0-8024-0887-7
 * Biblical Answers to Tough Questions, Tyndale Seminary Press, 2008.
 * Biblical Theology of the New Testament, Moody Press, 1959.
 * Come Quickly Lord Jesus: What You Need to Know About the Rapture, Harvest House Publishers, 1996.
 * Dispensationalism, Moody Press, 1995 ISBN 0-8024-2187-3
 * Neo-Orthodoxy: What It Is and What It Does, Moody Press, 1956.
 * Revelation, Chicago: Moody Press, 1968.
 * Ryrie's Practical Guide to Communicating Bible Doctrine, Broadman & Holman Publishers, 2005 ISBN 0-8054-4063-1
 * So Great Salvation: What It Means to Believe in Jesus Christ, Moody Press, 1997 ISBN 0-8024-7818-2
 * The Acts of the Apostles, Moody Press, 1961.
 * The Basis of the Premillennial Faith, ECS Ministries, 2005.
 * The Best Is Yet to Come, Moody Press, 1981.
 * The Holy Spirit Moody Press 1965 ISBN 0-8024-3565-3
 * The Miracles of Our Lord, ECS Ministries, 2005.
 * The Role of Women in the Church, B & H Publishing Group, 2011.
 * The Ryrie Study Bible Moody Press 1986, 1994 ISBN 978-0-8024-8902-9
 * What You Should Know About Inerrancy, Moody Press, 1981.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Charles Caldwell Ryrie


text:
Talk:Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz

Page was moved
Stanislaw Witkiewicz page was moved to Stanislaw Ignacy Witkiewicz. Stanisław Witkiewicz was father of Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz a.k.a. Witkacy. They Both were writers and painters, with the same name, so the confusion was rather inevitable. Rafał Pocztarski 11:42, 8 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Photographer?
Was Witkiewicz only incidentally a photographer, or was photography something he pursued? -- Hoary 08:45, 7 May 2007 (UTC)

There are various books cataloguing just his photographs. See also NY Times review of a touring exhibition of his photographic works which quotes his attitude to photographic sessions. AllyD 09:04, 7 May 2007 (UTC)

Thank you for the very illuminating answer. I've rated the article as a "stub" for the "History of Photography"; this is a very modest rating, of course, and I want to emphasize that it's a rating for the article's coverage of SIW's photography, and not a rating for the article as a whole. -- Hoary 09:13, 7 May 2007 (UTC)

WikiProject class rating
This article was automatically assessed because at least one WikiProject had rated the article as start, and the rating on other projects was brought up to start class. BetacommandBot 04:28, 10 November 2007 (UTC)

Suicide Pact

 * "Witkiewicz lied to his lover, saying that he would give her poison while he was to cut his veins. However, he had not given her poison, but himself took Veronal and slit his wrists. She woke up later to find him dead."

First, I think one of these masculine pronouns should be feminine, because otherwise it's confusing and somewhat ungrammatical. But more importantly, I question this account of his suicide and lover's failed suicide. This account makes it seem like he tricked his lover into living. In contrast, the Polish wikipedia entry says:

 * "Witkiewicz popełnił samobójstwo, podcinając sobie tętnicę szyjną i zażywając weronal. Towarzysząca mu Czesława Oknińska również próbowała odebrać sobie życie, lecz pomimo zażycia dużej dawki lekarstwa została odratowana."

which translates to:

 * "Witkiewicz committed suicide, cutting the veins in his wrists and consuming Veronal. His lover Czesława Oknińska tried to take her life at the same time, but despite having consumed a large dose of the medicine she was rescued."

So the Polish wikipedia accounting indicates they both consumed Veronal, but his lover didn't consume a fatal dose. No mention of an intentional trick by Witkiewicz. Since neither version has a citation that describes the suicide pact in detail, I don't know which version to believe, but this discrepancy should be resolved. Does anyone have more information? -Krasnoludek (talk) 17:01, 22 November 2009 (UTC)

 * This Google Books result has an excerpt from Czesława's journal implying that they drank boiled drug tablets from the same pot, but that Witkiewicz had also consumed ephedrine. There's no mention of any trickery, so I'm going to remove that part (and add the journal as a citation, since it's right on point). — Gavia immer (talk) 17:31, 22 November 2009 (UTC)
 * I've changed it. Thank you for noticing that large problem, and please feel free to bring up any other problems with the article that you notice. — Gavia immer (talk) 17:58, 22 November 2009 (UTC)
 * Thanks! That was an excellent reference. I've expanded the suicide slightly and added more specifics to the location of death and political circumstances surrounding it. -Krasnoludek (talk) 22:30, 22 November 2009 (UTC)

Images currently at bottom
I don't work on articles about visual artists much, so am not familiar with the guidelines on incorporating their work (and am not finding any help with quick searches), but dumping images at the bottom of the article seems wrong. If they cannot be incorporated into the article directly, isn't there some sort of semi-standardized way of incorporating them in their own section? --Ronz (talk) 18:45, 15 May 2015 (UTC)

External links modified
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Filozof problematyczny
http://bazhum.muzhp.pl/media//files/Kultura_i_Edukacja/Kultura_i_Edukacja-r2007-t-n3/Kultura_i_Edukacja-r2007-t-n3-s49-61/Kultura_i_Edukacja-r2007-t-n3-s49-61.pdf Xx236 (talk) 10:10, 10 September 2019 (UTC)
 * If you would like to make additions or changes to the article, please feel free to place them here in Polish, with sources, and I will be glad to try rendering them into English for insertion by you into the article.
 * Thanks.
 * Nihil novi (talk) 02:29, 11 September 2019 (UTC)

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The following Wikimedia Commons files used on this page have been nominated for speedy deletion: You can see the reasons for deletion at the file description pages linked above. —Community Tech bot (talk) 16:25, 24 November 2019 (UTC)
 * Defrank Crumb Madman&theNun.jpg
 * The Water Hen - NYC, 1983.jpg
 * The Water Hen Lamplighter small.jpg

Commons files used on this page have been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons files used on this page have been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the nomination page. —Community Tech bot (talk) 19:55, 26 November 2019 (UTC)
 * Defrank Crumb Madman&theNun.jpg
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title: Talk:Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz


text:
LSM

LSM may refer to:

Science

 * Laboratoire Souterrain de Modane (Modane Underground Laboratory), a particle physics laboratory in France
 * Lanthanum strontium manganite, a crystal used as a cathode material
 * Laser scanning microscopy, a microscopy technique used in biology and nano-crystal imaging
 * Least squares method, a method in regression analysis
 * LSm, a family of RNA-binding proteins
 * LSM-775, a psychedelic drug similar to LSD, although less potent

Sports

 * Liga Super Malaysia (Malaysia Super League), a top-tier association football league in Malaysia
 * Long-stick midfielder, a player position in field lacrosse

Technology

 * Land Surface Model (LSM version 1.0), a unidimensional computational model
 * Latent semantic mapping, for modelling data relationships
 * Level-set method, for numerical analysis of interfaces and shapes
 * Linear scheduling method, a project scheduling method for repetitive activities
 * Linear synchronous motor, an electric motor
 * Linux Security Modules, a modular framework for security checks in Linux
 * Linux Software Map, file format
 * Liquid state machine, a type of neural network
 * Live Slow Motion Multicam (LSM), instant-replay software developed by EVS
 * Log-structured merge-tree, a data structure

Education

 * Lourdes School of Mandaluyong, Philippines
 * Louvain School of Management, Belgium

Organizations

 * Law Society of Manitoba
 * Lesbian Sex Mafia, a female support group and BDSM organization
 * Little St Mary's, an Anglo-Catholic parish in Cambridge
 * Living Stream Ministry, religious publisher
 * Lutheran Student Movement – USA

Other uses

 * A US Navy hull classification symbol: Landing ship medium (LSM)
 * Libre Software Meeting, an annual free software event in France
 * San Martín Line (Linea San Martín), commuter rail line in Buenos Aires
 * Local store marketing, a marketing term
 * Mexican Sign Language (Lengua de Señas Mexicana)
 * Latvijas Sabiedriskais medijs (Latvian Public Broadcasting), a publicly funded radio and television organization in Latvia
 * Living Standards Measure, a classification of Standard of living in South Africa

title: LSM


text:
Talk:Stanisław Witkiewicz

Page was moved
Stanislaw Witkiewicz page was moved to Stanislaw Ignacy Witkiewicz. Stanisław Witkiewicz was father of Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz a.k.a. Witkacy. They Both were writers and painters, with the same name, so the confusion was rather inevitable. Rafał Pocztarski 11:42, 8 Aug 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Stanisław Witkiewicz


text:
Talk:Hall

Origin
"In German speaking areas, Hall can also be a town name, where the name refers to the halls where the salt was extracted from saline solutions."
 * To my knowledge the place name part "hall" is of celtic origin and directly refers to salt (or salt mining) in some way and does not come from a meaning of "cavern" or buildings of a salt processing plant or whatever.
 * E.g. there are numerous other places in Austria whose names indicate a former connection with salt mining/trade (?) in the Alps, like Bad Hall, Hallein and the famous town of Hallstatt that gave it's name to a bronze age culture. --Samwz 11:28, 8 Aug 2004 (UTC)

There are Halls all over England
"Deriving from the above, a hall is the term used for a country house in midland and northern England." There are country-house Halls all over England, not just in the midlands or north. So I'm changing it to: "Deriving from the above, a hall is often the term used for an English country house." For all I know, there may be some in Wales, Scotland, or Northern Ireland also.

 * Humour me. Provide links to all those country houses in Britain outside the Midlands and North of England, in which the Wikipedia title includes the word 'hall'. A Quick look in Category:Historic houses in England yields four of which two are in Greater London. Category:Historic houses in Wales adds one more and even extending the search to all the UK adds no more. (RJP 22:12, 17 June 2006 (UTC))

Sports Hall
Should sports halls be mentioned somewhere. This artical is so confusing i wouldnt know where to add it. What if the page were to have a definition of a hall, and then types of halls underneath that? I dunno - Opinions?? Caspar 17:46, 11 January 2007 (UTC)

Community Halls
I'd like to create a new article for Community Halls. Thoughts?Oldsoul 07:34, 31 January 2007 (UTC)

Tone
The tone of this article is not in keeping with that of similar articles in the English language Wikipedia; it is unnecessarily pretentious and pseudo-formal. I altered some things, but frankly am too vexed to do much additionally other than parrot its fripperies in my comment here; thus I will stop. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 64.143.221.84 (talk) 20:39, 17 January 2008 (UTC)

Huh?
This is one of the most poorly organized articles I've read since discovering Wikipedia several years ago. It should either be deleted entirely or revamped entirely. Caeruleancentaur (talk) 17:10, 30 June 2009 (UTC)
 * I agree, this page makes no logical sense how it's organized. I'd suggest that the contents of Hall (disambiguation should be moved here, and the meaningful content of this article should be split into multiple relevant articles, one of them being Hall (architecture. All this page does is talk about what a hall can mean, which is already covered by Hall (disambiguation), Hall (concept), and the entry for hall in wiktionary.Apollo1758 (talk) 22:35, 17 August 2009 (UTC)
 * I agree.

Hall vs. Corridor
This article appears to describe the large rooms known as halls, rather than the passages between rooms also known as corridors. Yet it is the redirect of hallway and is linked from Corridor with the description "a passageway whose purpose is to provide access between rooms inside a building." I have no knowledge of architecture or its history but this appears to be an error. Does anyone object to my disambiguating the terms? Czrisher (talk) 13:57, 13 July 2018 (UTC)
 * Several years later, hallway is now a separate article. power~enwiki ( π, ν ) 05:49, 10 March 2021 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for speedy deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for speedy deletion: You can see the reason for deletion at the file description page linked above. —Community Tech bot (talk) 23:22, 7 May 2020 (UTC)
 * Marwar Hall.jpg

"Dead-end- corridor" listed at Redirects for discussion
An editor has identified a potential problem with the redirect Dead-end- corridor and has thus listed it for discussion. This discussion will occur at Redirects for discussion/Log/2022 May 4 until a consensus is reached, and readers of this page are welcome to contribute to the discussion. Steel1943 (talk) 18:45, 4 May 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Hall


text:
Bunkyo University

Bunkyo University (文教大学) is a private university located in Shinagawa, Tokyo, Japan, with campuses in Saitama and Kanagawa Prefecture.

The kanji of the word "Bunkyo" mean education and learning. The university offers courses mainly in education and research of the cultural and social sciences, and is well known for its teacher training. Previously the school was a girls' school called Rissho Women's University; when it became coeducational in 1976 its name was changed to Bunkyo University.

The university is an establishment of the Legal Educational Foundation, Bunkyo University Institute. There are two campuses: the Koshigaya Campus located in the city of Koshigaya, Saitama; and the Shonan Campus located in the city of Chigasaki, Kanagawa. Dormitories for both campuses are located in Kiyosato, Takane-town, Kitakoma district, Yamanashi Prefecture.

History
In 1966, Rissho Women's University was established at the Koshigaya Campus in Koshigaya-city, Saitama-prefecture, Japan. The name was changed to Bunkyo University in 1976 and began educating male and female students the next year. The Rissho Institute Legal Educational Foundation, which established the university, changed its name to the Bunkyo University Institute Legal Education Foundation in 1983. The Shonan Campus was established in the city of Chigasaki, Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan in 1985.

Timeline

 * 1927 Rissho Kindergarten and Rissho Needlework School for Girls founded.
 * 1928 Rissho Women's Vocational School founded.
 * 1932 Rissho Institute High School for Girls founded.
 * 1953 Rissho Institute Women's Junior College founded.
 * 1966 Rissho Women's University founded; Koshigaya campus opened. Faculty of Home Economics Study established.
 * 1969 Faculty of Education established.
 * 1976 Faculty of Human Sciences established. University's name changed to Bunkyo University.
 * 1977 Bunkyo University becomes coeducational.
 * 1980 Faculty of Information and Communications established. Faculty of Home Economics Study eliminated.
 * 1985 Shonan campus opened.
 * 1987 Faculty of Language and Literature established.
 * 1990 Faculty of International Study established.
 * 1992 Special Postgraduate Course in education established.
 * 1993 Bunkyo University Graduate School founded; School of Human Sciences (Master's Program) established. Special department course (foreign student program) established.
 * 1999 School of Language and Culture (Master's Program) established in graduate school.
 * 2000 Doctorate program added to School of Human Sciences in graduate school.
 * 2005 School of Information Study established in graduate school.

Campus

 * Koshigaya Campus (South-Ogishima, Koshigaya-city, Saitama Prefecture, Japan)
 * Faculties: Faculty of Education, Faculty of Human Sciences, Faculty of Language and Literature
 * Graduate Schools: School of Human Sciences, School of Language and Culture
 * Special Postgraduate Course: Education Major
 * Special Department Course: Foreign Student Department
 * Research Institute: Institute of Clinical Counseling, Institute of Language and Culture, Institute of Living Science, Institute of Educational Research
 * Centers: Lifelong Learning Center, Information Center, Health Center
 * Shonan Campus (Namegaya, Chigasaki-city, Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan)
 * Faculties: Faculty of Information and Communications, Faculty of International Studies
 * Graduate Schools: None
 * Special Postgraduate Course: None
 * Special Department Course: None
 * Research Institute: Shonan Research Institute
 * Centers: Information Center, Health Center

 * Bunkyo University Women's College is side by side with Bunkyo University in the Shonan campus.

Others

 * Bunkyo University Secretariat Headquarters (Hatanodai, Shinagawa, Tokyo, Japan)
 * Centers: International Exchange Center, Entrance Center

 * The headquarters of the university secretariat for the Bunkyo University Institute Legal Educational Foundation are located at this site. The secretariat, the attached junior high school, the attached senior high school, and the Bunkyo University Institute's kindergarten are all located at this campus.

 * Bunkyo University Institute's Mountain Yatsugatake Dormitory (Kiyosato, Takane-town, Kitakoma-district, Yamanashi-prefecture, Japan)

 * The common dormitory for all schools of the Bunkyo University Institute Legal Education Foundation is located in Kiyosato.

Organization of Education and Research
Bunkyo University's main academic focus is the social sciences. Academic offerings include courses in pedagogy/education studies, human science/human studies, literature and linguistics/language studies, informatics/information studies and communication studies, and international studies. Bunkyo University is a comprehensive university, and there are five faculties, twelve departments/courses, two graduate courses, three special postgraduate courses and one special department course. Bunkyo offers no courses in the natural sciences.

Faculties, Departments and Courses

 * Faculty of Education
 * School Education Course
 * Japanese Language Major
 * Social Studies Major
 * Mathematics Major
 * Natural Science Major
 * Music Major
 * Fine Arts Major
 * Physical Education Major
 * Home Economics Major
 * Special Education Major
 * Psychology - Pedagogy Integrated Course
 * Childhood Major
 * Early Childhood Major
 * Faculty of Human Sciences
 * Department of Human Sciences
 * Psychology Course
 * Social Culture Course
 * Social Welfare Course
 * Health Psychology Course
 * Department of Clinical Psychology
 * Faculty of Language and Literature
 * Department of Japanese Language and Literature
 * Department of English Language and Literature
 * Department of Chinese Language and Literature
 * Faculty of Information and Communications
 * Department of Public Relations
 * Department of Business and Information
 * Department of Information Systems
 * Faculty of International Studies
 * Department of International Communications
 * Cross-Cultural Communication Course
 * Environmental Studies Course
 * Department of International Relations
 * International cooperation in Politics and Economics Course
 * International Hospitality and Business Management Course

Graduate Schools, Major

 * School of Human Sciences
 * Clinical Psychology (Master's Program and Doctoral Program)
 * Lifelong Learning Major (Master's Program)
 * School of Language and Culture
 * Language and Culture Major (Master's Program)
 * Area Culture Majors
 * Trilingual Majors

Special Postgraduate Course

 * Education Major
 * Advanced Education Specialist Program

Special Department Course

 * Foreign Student Department

Junior College
Although the junior college is not an organization of Bunkyo University, it is located on the Bunkyo University Shonan campus and is closely affiliated with Bunkyo.

 * Women's College
 * Department of Health and Nutrition

Institutions
There are institutions on the campus such as libraries, research institutes, and various centers.

Libraries
University libraries are located on each campus. The Bunkyo University Shonan library is also associated with Bunkyo University Women's College.

 * Bunkyo University Library
 * Bunkyo University's Koshigaya Library (collection of about 330,000 volumes)
 * Bunkyo University's Shonan Library (collection of about 230,000 volumes)

Research Institutes
There are three university research institutes and two graduate school research institutes. All research institutes of Bunkyo University (graduate school institutes included) are located at the Koshigaya Campus except the Shonan Research Institute at Shonan Campus.

 * University research institute
 * Institute of Clinical Counseling
 * Institute of Language and Culture
 * Graduate school research institute
 * Institute of Living Science
 * Institute of Educational Research
 * Shonan Research Institute

Center
There are various university centers. The Lifelong Learning Center is located on the Koshigaya Campus, the International Exchange Center and the Entrance Center are located in Hatanodai at the campus of the university secretariat, and Information Centers and Health Centers are located on both campuses.

 * Lifelong Learning Center
 * International Exchange Center
 * Information Center
 * Health Center
 * Entrance Center

Attached Schools
Model schools attached to the university offer a complete education from kindergarten through graduate school. The elementary school is located in Ishikawadai, and the other schools are located in Hatanodai.

 * Bunkyo University Institute Kindergarten (Hatanodai)
 * Bunkyo University Elementary School (Ishikawadai)
 * Bunkyo University Junior High School (Hatanodai)
 * Bunkyo University Senior High School (Hatanodai)

title: Bunkyo University


text:
Linux Software Map

Linux Software Map (LSM) is a standard text file format for describing Linux software. It also refers to the database constructed from these files. LSM is one of the standard methods for announcing a new software release for Linux.

File format
If a Linux program is to be distributed widely, an LSM file may be created to describe the program, normally in a file called software_package_name.lsm. This file begins with Begin4 and ends with End. It has one field on each line. The field name is separated from the value by a colon. Mandatory fields are Title, Version, Entered-date, Description, Author and Primary-site.

Example
Here is a what a blank LSM template looks like, at time of writing: Begin4 Title: Version: Entered-date: Description: Keywords: Author: Maintained-by: Primary-site: Alternate-site: Original-site: Platforms: Copying-policy: End

Database
The collective database of LSM entries can be searched in order to locate software of a particular type. This database has passed through various owners. It was created by Jeff Kopmanis, Lars Wirzenius maintained it for a while, and now the current maintainer is Aaron Schrab (with help from volunteers).

The database can be downloaded in its entirety, or one can perform limited queries using a web interface.

As of August 2022, the LSM index is still automatically updated by a e-mail robot. However, the maintainer of man-db eventually decided to stop maintaining its LSM data due to the perceived obsolescence of LSM.

title: Linux Software Map


text:
Cotton mill

A cotton mill is a building that houses spinning or weaving machinery for the production of yarn or cloth from cotton, an important product during the Industrial Revolution in the development of the factory system.

Although some were driven by animal power, most early mills were built in rural areas at fast-flowing rivers and streams, and used water wheels for power. The development of viable steam engines by Boulton and Watt from 1781 led to the growth of larger, steam-powered mills. They were built in a concentrated way in urban mill towns, such as Manchester. Together with neighbouring Salford, it had more than 50 mills by 1802.

The mechanisation of the spinning process in the early factories was instrumental in the growth of the machine tool industry, enabling the construction of larger cotton mills. Limited companies were developed to construct mills, and together with the business of the trading floors of the cotton exchange in Manchester, a vast commercial city developed. Mills generated employment demand, drawing workers from largely rural areas and expanding urban populations. They provided incomes for girls and women. Child labour was used in the mills, and the factory system led to organised labour. Poor conditions became the subject of exposés. In England, the Factory Acts were written to regulate them.

The cotton mill, originally a Lancashire phenomenon, was copied in New England and New York, and later in the southern states of America. In the 20th century, North West England lost its supremacy to the United States. In the postwar years, Japan, other Asian countries and ultimately China became dominant in cotton manufacturing.

History
In the mid-16th century Manchester was an important manufacturing centre for wool and Leigh and south towards Manchester, used flax and raw cotton imported along the Mersey and Irwell Navigation.

Key inventions
During the Industrial Revolution cotton manufacture changed from a domestic to a mechanised industry, made possible by inventions and advances in technology. The weaving process was the first to be mechanised by the invention of John Kay's flying shuttle in 1733. The manually-operated spinning jenny was developed by James Hargreaves in about 1764, and speeded up the spinning process. The roller spinning principle of Paul and Bourne became the basis of Richard Arkwright's spinning frame and water frame, patented in 1769. The principles of the spinning jenny and water frame were combined by Samuel Crompton in his spinning mule of 1779, but water power was not applied to it until 1792.

Many mills were built after Arkwright's patent expired in 1783 and, by 1788, there were about 210 mills in Great Britain. The development of cotton mills was linked to the development of the machinery they contained.

By 1774, 30,000 people in Manchester were employed using the domestic system in cotton manufacture. Handloom weaving lingered into the mid-19th century but cotton spinning in mills relying on water power and subsequently steam power using fuel from the Lancashire Coalfield began to develop before 1800. Many more people were employed by the mills.

Paul-Wyatt mills

The first cotton mills were established in the 1740s to house roller spinning machinery invented by Lewis Paul and John Wyatt. The machines were the first to spin cotton mechanically "without the intervention of human fingers". They were driven by a single non-human power source which allowed the use of larger machinery and made it possible to concentrate production into organised factories. Four mills were set up to house Paul and Wyatt's machinery in the decade following its patent in 1738: the short-lived, animal-powered Upper Priory Cotton Mill in Birmingham in 1741; Marvel's Mill in Northampton operated from 1742 until 1764 and was the first to be powered by a water wheel; Pinsley Mill in Leominster probably opened in 1744 and operated until it burned down in 1754; and a second mill in Birmingham set up by Samuel Touchet in 1744, about which little is known, but which was sufficiently successful for Touchet later to seek the lease on the mill in Northampton. The Paul-Wyatt mills spun cotton for several decades but were not very profitable, becoming the ancestors of the cotton mills that followed.

Arkwright-type mills
Richard Arkwright obtained a patent for his water frame spinning machinery in 1769. Although its technology was similar to that of Lewis Paul, John Wyatt, James Hargreaves and Thomas Highs, Arkwright's powers of organisation, business acumen and ambition established the cotton mill as a successful business model and revolutionary example of the factory system. Arkwright's first mill – powered by horses in Nottingham in 1768 – was similar to Paul and Wyatt's first Birmingham mill although by 1772 it had expanded to four storeys and employed 300 workers. In 1771, while the Nottingham mill was at an experimental stage, Arkwright and his partners started work on Cromford Mill in Derbyshire, which "was to prove a major turning point in the history of the factory system". It resembled the Paul-Wyatt water-powered mill at Northampton in many respects, but was built on a different scale, influenced by John Lombe's Old Silk Mill in Derby and Matthew Boulton's Soho Manufactory in Birmingham. Constructed as a five-storey masonry box; high, long and narrow, with ranges of windows along each side and large relatively unbroken internal spaces, it provided the basic architectural prototype that was followed by cotton mills and English industrial architecture through to the end of the 19th century.

Arkwright recruited large, highly disciplined workforces for his mills, managed credit and supplies and cultivated mass consumer markets for his products. By 1782 his annual profits exceeded £40,000, and by 1784 he had opened 10 more mills. He licensed his technology to other entrepreneurs and in 1782 boasted that his machinery was being used by "numbers of adventurers residing in the different counties of Derby, Leicester, Nottingham, Worcester, Stafford, York, Hertford and Lancashire" and by 1788 there were 143 Arkwright-type mills nationwide. The early mills were of light construction, narrow – about 9 ft wide – and low in height, with ceiling heights of only 6–8 ft. The mills were powered by water wheels and lit by daylight. Mills were made by millwrights, builders and iron founders. By the end of the 18th century there were about 900 cotton mills in Britain, of which approximately 300 were large Arkwright-type factories employing 300 to 400 workers, the rest, smaller mills using jennies or mules, were hand- or horse-driven and employed as few as 10 workers.

Early steam mills
Before 1780, only water power was available to drive large mills, but they were dependent on a constant flow of water and built in rural locations, causing problems of labour supply, transportation of materials and access to urban merchants for large mill-owners. Steam engines had been used to pump water since the invention of the atmospheric engine by Thomas Newcomen in 1712 and, starting with the engine installed at Arkwright's Haarlem Mill in Wirksworth, Derbyshire in 1780, were used to supplement the supply of water to the water wheels of cotton mills.

In 1781 James Watt registered a patent for the first rotative steam engine designed to "give motion to the wheels of mills or other machines". Concerns remained over the smoothness of the power supplied by a steam engine to cotton mills, where the regularity of the yarn produced was dependent on the regularity of the power supply, and it was not until 1785 at Papplewick, in Robinson's Mill near Nottingham that a steam engine was successfully used to drive a cotton mill directly. Boulton and Watt's engines enabled mills to be built in urban contexts and transformed the economy of Manchester, whose importance had previously been as a centre of pre-industrial spinning and weaving based on the domestic system. Manchester had no cotton mills until the opening of Arkwright's Shudehill Mill in 1783 and in 1789 Peter Drinkwater opened the Piccadilly Mill – the town's first mill to be directly powered by steam – and by 1800 Manchester had 42 mills, having eclipsed all rival textile centres to become the heart of the cotton manufacturing trade.

Water continued to be used to drive rural mills but mills, driven by steam, were built in towns alongside streams or canals to provide water for the engine. Murrays' Mills alongside the Rochdale Canal, in Ancoats were powered by 40 hp Boulton and Watt beam engines. Some were built as room and power mills, which let space to entrepreneurs. The mills, often 'L' or U-shaped, were narrow and multi-storeyed. The engine house, warehousing and the office were inside the mill, although stair towers were external. Windows were square and smaller than in later mills. The walls were of unadorned rough brick. Construction was sometimes to fireproof designs. The mills are distinguished from warehouses in that warehouses had taking-in doors on each storey with an external hoist beam. Only the larger mills have survived.

Mills of this period were from 25 to 68 m long and 11.5 m to 14 m wide. They could be eight stories high and had basements and attics. Floor height varied from 3.3 to 2.75 m on the upper stories.

Boilers were of the wagon type; chimneys were square or rectangular, attached to the mill, and in some cases part of the stair column. The steam engines were typically low-pressure single-cylinder condensing beam engines. The average power in 1835 was 48 hp. Power was transmitted by a main vertical shaft with bevel gears to the horizontal shafts. The later mills had gas lighting using gas produced on site. The mules with 250–350 spindles were placed transversely to get as much light as possible.

Early weaving mills
The development of mills to mechanise the weaving process was more gradual partly because of the success of John Kay's 1733 invention of the flying shuttle, which increased the productivity of domestic hand loom weavers. Kay took out a patent for the application of water power to a Dutch loom in 1745 and opened a weaving factory in Keighley in 1750, but nothing is known of its success. A further attempt to mechanise the weaving process took place at Garrett Hall in Manchester in 1750 but was unsuccessful in enabling one worker to operate more than a single loom. The first feasible power loom was patented by Edmund Cartwright in 1785, although it was initially a primitive device it established the basic principle that would be used in powered weaving until the 20th century. In 1788 Cartwright opened Revolution Mill in Doncaster which was powered by a Boulton and Watt steam engine and had 108 power looms on three floors as well as spinning machinery, but it was not a commercial success and closed in 1790. A second mill using Cartwright's machinery, opened in Manchester in 1790 but was burned to the ground by hand loom weavers within two years. By 1803 there were only 2,400 power looms operating in Britain.

Early American mills
In the United States, the early horse-powered Beverly Cotton Manufactory was designed by Thomas Somers, who started construction and testing of the facility in 1787, finishing the factory's equipment in 1788. Experience from this factory led Moses Brown of Providence to request the assistance of a person skilled in water-powered spinning. Samuel Slater, an immigrant and trained textile worker from England, accepted Brown's proposal, and assisted with the design and construction of Slater Mill, built in 1790 on the Blackstone River in Pawtucket, Rhode Island. Slater evaded restrictions on emigration put in place to allow England to maintain its monopoly on cotton mills. Slater Mill resembled the Beverly Cotton Manufactory and a mill in Derbyshire in which he had worked.

United Kingdom
From 1825 the steam engine was able to power larger machines constructed from iron using improved machine tools. Mills from 1825 to 1865 were generally constructed with wooden beamed floors and lath and plaster ceilings. William Fairbairn experimented with cast iron beams and concrete floors. Mills were of red brick or sometimes local stone with a greater attention to decoration and the main gate was often highlighted with stone decoration. The stair columns were exterior to the main floors. During this period the mules got wider and the width of the bays increased. Specialised mill architects appeared. Mills of this period were tall, narrow, and wide. They were commonly built with one or two wings to form an 'L' or 'U' shape. Brunswick Mill was a 28-bay mill, 6 storeys of 16 m by 92 m. Each self-acting spinning mule had 500 spindles. Single-storey north light weaving sheds were sometimes added to the mills. The looms caused vibrations that damaged the structure of multi-storey buildings, and specialised weaving mills became common. They were single-storey sheds with an engine house and offices, and preparation and warehousing in a two-storey ancillary building.

Large mills remained the exception during this period. In 1833 the largest mill was that of McConnel and Company in Ancoats, Manchester with 1,545 workers, but in 1841 there were still only 25 mills in Lancashire with 1,000 workers or more, and the number of workers in the average mill was 193.

The Lancashire boiler was patented in 1844, and the economiser in 1845. This can be seen as a square brick structure between the boiler house and the chimney. The engines were double compound upright beam engines of the type patented by McNaught in 1845. Each room in the mill would have line shafts suitable for the type of frame, connected by belt drives or gearing.

In 1860, there were 2650 cotton mills in the Lancashire region, employing 440,000 people. The workers, 90 per cent of whom were adults and 56 per cent females, were paid a total of £11.5 million per annum. The mills used 300,000 hp of power, of which 18,500 was generated by waterpower. The mills had 30,387,467 spindles and 350,000 power looms. The industry imported 1,390,938,752 lb of raw cotton a year. It exported 2,776,218,427 yards of cotton cloth and 197343655 lbs of twist and yarn. The total value of its exports was £32,012,380.

1860 saw the end of this period of rapid growth. The Cotton Famine of 1861–1865 was a period when American long staple cotton became unavailable due to an American Civil War. After the war, the economics of the industry had changed, and a new larger mill was required.

United States
In 1814 the Boston Manufacturing Company of New England established a "fully integrated" mill on the Charles River at Waltham, Massachusetts. Despite the ban on exporting technology from the UK, one of its proprietors, Francis Cabot Lowell, had travelled to Manchester to study the mill system and memorised some of its details. In the same year, Paul Moody built the first successful power loom in the US. Moody used a system of overhead pulleys and leather belting, rather than bevel gearing, to power his machines. The group devised the Waltham System of working, which was duplicated at Lowell, Massachusetts and several other new cities throughout the state. Mill girls, some as young as ten, were paid less than men, but received a fixed wage for their 73-hour week. They lived in company-owned boarding houses, and attended churches supported by the companies.

In the 1840s George Henry Corliss of Providence, Rhode Island improved the reliability of stationary steam engines. He replaced slide valves with valves that used cams. These Corliss valves were more efficient and more reliable than their predecessors. Initially, steam engines pumped water into a nearby reservoir that powered the water wheel, but were later used as the mill's primary power source. The Corliss valve was adopted in the UK, where in 1868 more than 60 mill engines were fitted with them.

India
The large steam-powered Bowreath Cotton Mills opened at Fort Gloster near Calcutta by British interests in the 1820s, using British women to impart machine-spinning skills to the local workforce. They closed down in 1837 but reopened with Dwarkanath Tagore as a major shareholder, and by 1840 lay at the centre of a major industrial complex powered by five steam engines, that included a twist mill, foundry and a rum distillery.

United Kingdom
Just before 1870, a mill was built by a joint-stock spinning company and this financial structure led to a new wave of mill construction. The phrase Oldham Limiteds describes these companies. Family-run firms continued to build, but grouped into associations such as the Fine Spinners' and Doublers' Association. Joseph Stott of Oldham perfected a method of fireproof floor construction using steel beams supporting brick vaults that in turn supported concrete floors that would support heavier equipment. Ring frames replaced mule frames; they were heavier and larger and were placed transversely, the floors became larger (up to 130 ft wide) and higher to provide light. The bay size in a mill was defined by the positioning of machines. In an 1870 mill the bay was typically 10 ft, and the brick vaults 5 ft though there were variations.

Engines were run at higher pressures and from 1875, powered horizontal shafts on each floor by means of ropes. This was a prominent change as a rope race had to be built running the height of the mill. The engine needed more space and the engine house, boiler house and economiser were external to the main mill. Mills continued to get bigger, and were sometimes paired; two mills being driven by one engine. Another change was the trend of having carding on one floor. To achieve this, the ground floor was extended outwards behind the mill often a full mill width. In a single mill, the crosswall divided the blowing room from the rest, as it was here that there was greatest risk of fire.

Mills became wider, Houldsworth Mill, Reddish (1865) was 35 m wide and accommodated 1200 spindle mules. It was of four storeys and had sixteen bays on each side of a central engine house; a double mill. The central block provided offices and warehousing. A mill had a range of ancillary buildings. Stair columns often extending above the mill and housed a water tank for the sprinkler system. The floors were higher allowing for taller windows. Accrington brick was used from 1890, decorated with yellow sandstone with moulded brick and terracotta features. Etched and stained glass was used in the offices. Mills were designed by specialist architects and architectural quality became a major consideration.

The power needed and provided to drive these mills was increasing. Beam engines were installed until the 1870s when horizontal engines took over. Abbey Mill Oldham (1876) needed 700 hp, Nile Mill (1896) needed 2500 hp. By the 1890, boilers produced 160 psi, and the triple expansion horizontals became standard. Chimneys were octagonal.

United States
Following the American Civil War, cotton mills were built in the southern states of South Carolina, Alabama, and Mississippi. These mills grew larger as cheap labour and plentiful water power made operations profitable, which meant that the cotton could be processed into fabric where it grew, saving transportation costs. The mills were usually combination mills (spinning and weaving), that were water powered and used a slow burn design technique. They used a belt and pulley drive system, and heavier ring frames rather than mules. At this point they only spun and wove coarse counts. The mills were mainly in open country and mill towns were formed to support them. New England mills found it increasingly difficult to compete, and as in Lancashire, went into gradual decline until bankrupted during the Great Depression. Cotton mills and their owners dominated the economy and politics of the Piedmont well into the 20th century.

Asia
The modern Indian mechanised textile industry was born in 1854, when a steam-powered mill was opened in Bombay by Cowasjee N. Davar. More followed: there were 10 by 1865 and 47 by 1875. By 1880 there were 58 mills in India employing 40,000 workers, with over 80% of them in the cities of Bombay and Ahmedabad. From the 1870's India's own markets for finished yarn and cloth ceased to be dominated by imports from Lancashire, and during the 1870's and 1880 s the Bombay cotton industry began to replace exports of yarn from Britain to China.

Edwardian mills (1898–1914)
The cotton industry was subject to cycles of boom and slump, which caused waves of mill building. There was an optimism that dictated that slumps had to be endured and then there would be a period of even greater prosperity. The limited companies took control of spinning, while the room and power system was the norm for the weaving sheds. One point of view in the 1880s was that vertically integrating the weaving sheds into new mills would reduce costs and lead to greater profits. This route had been followed in New England, where it was successful, but not in Lancashire. The industry peaked in 1907. There was a severe slump in 1908, which endured until 1918, but the years 1919 and 1920 were more profitable than the peak year of 1907 had been.

United Kingdom
Production peaked in 1912. The war of 1914–1918 put the Lancashire industry into reverse. The British government, starved of raw cotton, established mills in south Asia exporting the spinning technology – which was copied, and became a low-labour cost competitor. In Germany, Flanders and Brazil, mills were built to the designs of the Oldham architects. The only new mills were very large to benefit from the economies of scale. Older mills were re-equipped with rings, and machines were powered by individual electric motors.

Mills of this period were large, their decoration was lavish reflecting Edwardian taste and prosperity. Most mills were built for mules. Kent Mill Chadderton (1908) was a five-storey, 11 bay mill, 84.6m x 43.9m. It had 90,000 spindles. Ring frames were smaller and heavier than mules so the mills were narrower with fewer storeys. Pear Mill Bredbury (1912) was planned to be a 210,000 spindle double mill. Only the first mill was completed, it had 137,000 spindles. They had more stair columns than earlier mills, it had dust flues often built into the rope race. There were two or three windows per bay. Decoration was often in terracotta and the mill name displayed in white brick on the stair tower or chimney. Stott and Sons employed Byzantine styling in Broadstone Mill, Reddish. Specialist architects built new mills and then created extensions. The last steam-powered mill, Elk Mill, was built by Arthur Turner

Mules were built with 1300 spindles, but were gradually replaced by rings.

The increasingly powerful engines required more boilers with economisers and superheaters. Mills needed reservoirs to supply the boilers and condense the steam. The chimneys were round and taller. Three types of engines were used: triple expansion horizontal cross compound engines, Inverted marine type compounds which were more compact, and Manhattans with vertical and horizontal cylinders such as the 3500 hp engine at New Pear Mill. Rope drives were used exclusively. Electricity was gradually introduced firstly on group drives driving a shaft (Little Mill, 1908), and then later on individual machines.

United States
Mills constructed in South Carolina increased in size. At Rutledge Ford the Saluda River was dammed and a power plant constructed. It was completed in 1904 before the construction of a state-of-the-art textile mill in 1906. That power plant provided for 4,800 horse power. The mill contained 30,000 spindles. By 1916 a new mill was constructed, containing 70,200 spindles and 1,300 looms. The town was named Ware Shoals. Between 1904 and 1916, the population of Ware Shoals grew from 2 men employed to maintain the newly constructed power plant, to 2,000. By the 1960s the mill employed 5,000 people. It closed in 1985, due to a surge of textile imports that caused a steep decline in the company's output and earnings.

Consolidation (1918–50)
Though business revived in 1919, a shortage of building materials restricted the building of new mills, and activity was financial with the mills seeking recapitalisation. There is no clear concession on the reason for the final decline. Some say that the cotton men concentrated on making easy money ignoring the possibility of foreign competition best countered by larger mills by re-equipping the mills with more modern ring frames. Daniels and Jewkes argued the fundamental cause of the depression was a change in demand for cotton goods. J. M. Keynes suggested that there was over capacity, and the industry should be reorganised into larger units that would scrap the excess capacity.

The Lancashire Cotton Corporation was a company set up by the Bank of England in 1929, to rescue the Lancashire spinning industry by means of consolidation. In merged 105 companies, ending up in 1950 with 53 operating mills. These were the later larger mills. It was bought up by Courtaulds in August 1964.

The later mills were on the fringe of the spinning area in Wigan and Stockport, Availability of labour was cited as a reason. The last mills were completed in 1927, these were Holden Mill (Astley Bridge Mill) and Elk Mill.

In 1929, for the first time there were more spindles in the USA than in the UK. In 1972, India had greater spindleage than the US, and it was in turn surpassed by China in 1977.

Decline of spinning in England
Though there was a slight revival after 1945, mills closed. The most efficient mills had abandoned their steam engines, and were working the frames with individual electric motors. Broadstone Mills Stockport, was built as a double mill with 265,000 mule spindles, but by 1959 it was running 37,500 mule spindles and 70,000 ring spindles. It closed in 1959 taking advantage of the Cotton Industry Act 1959 and was then used by the John Myers mail order company. One mill was later demolished leaving the other to be used as a Shopping Outlet Centre and Craft Village. The reduction of capacity led to a legacy of redundant mills, which were readily reused for other industrial purposes.

Ring spinning technology had successfully replaced the spinning mule, with mills having been converted mules to rings. However, in the 1970s, the depleted industry was challenged by a new technology open-end or break spinning. In 1978 Carrington Viyella opened a factory to do open-end spinning in Atherton. This was the first new textile production facility in Lancashire since 1929. Immediately Pear Mill, Stockport and Alder Mill, Leigh were closed. These were both Edwardian mills designed by Stott and Sons. The mill built in 1978 was built on the Howe Bridge mills site and was named Unit One. It was not an open end mill but a combed cotton ring mill.

Modern cotton mills
Modern spinning mills are mainly built around open end spinning techniques using rotors or ring spinning techniques using spindles. In 2009 there were 202,979,000 ring spinning spindles installed worldwide, with 82% of these being in Asia or Oceania and 44% being within China. In the same year there were 7,975,000 open end spinning rotors installed, with 44% of these being within Asia or Oceania and 29% within Eastern Europe. The average age of installed rotors is much lower than that of spindles and as rotors are between 7 and 10 times more productive they are responsible for 20% of the cotton spun worldwide.

Modern cotton mills are increasingly automated. One large mill in Virginia in the United States employs 140 workers in 2013 to produce an output that would have required more than 2,000 workers in 1980.

Locations
Cotton mills were not confined to Lancashire but were built in northeast Cheshire, Derbyshire, Nottingham, the West Riding of Yorkshire, Bristol, Durham and the west of Scotland. The availability of streams or rivers to provide power determined the location of the early mills some of which were in isolated areas. In Lancashire they were built on the rivers and streams descending from the Pennines and Rossendale moorland. In some places quite small streams powered a string of small mills such as in the Cheesden Valley between Ramsbottom and Heywood. where 14 mills and their associated leats and ponds were concentrated along a four-mile stretch of the brook. Mills were built around Rochdale and Littleborough. North of Bury, ten mills occupied a mile long stretch of a stream in the Shuttleworth Valley. Other mills were built north of the River Ribble and a cluster of five mills in Caton near the port at Lancaster, one of which belonged to Samuel Greg who built Quarry Bank Mill at Styal in Cheshire. Not all water-powered mills were in rural areas, after 1780 mills were built in Blackburn and Burnley.

In Scotland, four cotton mills were built in Rothsay on the Isle of Bute using labour that had experience of the linen industry. By 1800 there were two water-powered mills at Gatehouse of Fleet employing 200 children and 100 adults. Robert Owen who had worked for Peter Drinkwater in Manchester, developed the mills at New Lanark built by his father-in-law, David Dale under licence from Arkwright.

Fireproof construction
Cotton mills were huge fire risks, since cotton fibres in the air could form an explosive mixture in their gas-lit interiors. The first mills using fireproof construction were built in Shropshire and Derbyshire in the 1790s and Philips & Lee's mill built in Salford in 1801–2. Fireproofing took the form of cast iron columns and beams from which sprang jack arches that were infilled with ash or sand and covered with stone flags or floorboards. In some mills timber was also eliminated from the roof structure which was supported by cast or wrought iron trusses. Until the properties of cast iron were properly understood some mills constructed using the early technology collapsed. In Manchester extensive testing of cast iron as a structural material was carried out by Eaton Hodgkinson and William Fairbairn in the early 1820s. Fireproof construction was expensive and timber, sometimes clad in plaster or metal continued to be used throughout the 19th century. Rolled steel beams and reinforced concrete flooring was introduced in a limited way in the 1880s but not widely adopted in Lancashire mills until the 20th century.

Other factors
Cotton is sensitive to temperature and humidity. Heating systems used wrought iron pipes suspended at a height of 7 ft to carry steam under pressure. In summer the system was barely used but in winter the boilers would be fired up two hours before the shift started to warm up the mill. As heat was applied the humidity dropped and system of humidifiers, either atomisers which played an air jet against a jet of water or ones that injected a stream/air mixture into the room.

Early fire fighting systems used sprinklers supplied by water captured on flat roofs in shallow tanks. Later mills had a water tank at the top of the stair tower. Water for the sprinklers had to be protected from freezing and evaporation. Water pressure needed to be above 7 psi, and the header tank at least 15 ft above the highest sprinkler. The provision of light, water tanks and heating system defined the structure and shape of the mill.

Power
The earliest cotton mills were driven by water, so needed to be situated on fast flowing streams. From about 1820, the stationary steam engine became the normal form of power for a cotton mill, water was still needed to produce the steam and to condense it, to maintain the humidity, for many of the finishing processes and for firefighting. Water was extracted from rivers and canals, then later mills requiring ever more water, built and maintained their own reservoirs.

In 1781 James Watt marketed a rotary-motion steam engine that could be adapted to drive all sorts of machinery, Richard Arkwright pioneered its use in his cotton mills. Possibly the first steam engine to be used in a cotton mill was a Newcomen engine which was used at Shudehill Mill in 1783 to raise water between storage ponds so it could drive a water wheel. By 1795 most similar engines around Manchester had been replaced by Boulton and Watt or Bateman and Sherratt engines.

Electricity was introduced in 1877. Steam engines drove generators to provide electric lighting. By the 1890s this was common. Electricity was used to drive the mills machinery by 1906. It was generated in the engine house, and one group-drive electric motor was placed on each floor to drive the shafts. Generators were placed exterior to the mill as it was thought that they were a fire risk. Mains driven mills started about 1907. Later mills used individual electric motors to power the machinery.

Transmission
The early mills had a vertical shaft to take the power from the flywheel. On each floor horizontal shafts engaged with the main shaft using bevel gearing. American mills used thick leather belts instead of shafts. A new approach was to use thick cotton ropes. A rope drum was attached to the flywheel with a channel cut for each rope. The profile was such to give maximum adherence.

Spinning
A spinning mill opened raw cotton bales and cleaned the cotton in the blowing room. The cotton staples are carded into lap and straightened and drawn into roving which is spun using either a mule or ring frame. The yarn can be doubled and processed into thread, or prepared for weaving.

Minerva Mill, Ashton-under-Lyne was designed by P. S. Stott and equipped by John Hetherington and Son, it produced 40's twists and 65 wefts. It was typical of a mill of the 1890s. Self acting mule frame (Roberts 1830) was an improvement on Crompton's Mule (1779) which derived from earlier inventions. Mules were used in the 19th century mills for the finest counts, these needed skilled workers to operate them.

Ring frame (1929) developed out of the Throstle frame (19th century) an improvement on the Arkwright's Water frame. Originally rings were only suitable for coarse counts, they were lower and heavier than mules so needed stronger floors but lower rooms. Over time, rings became suitable for finer counts and because of cheaper labour costs they replaced mules. By 1950 all mills had converted to the Ring frame. The Hawk mill in Shaw near Oldham was still operating cotton mule frames in 1964/65.

Weaving
A weaving mill needed yarn suitable for the warp and the weft. The warp had to delivered on the beam, or was wound on the beam from cheeses by a beamer. To obtain the extra strength needed, the yarn was sized on a sizer. The weft was wound onto the pirns for the shuttle on a pirner. These preparatory processes completed the yarn was woven on a loom. One weaver would operate 4 or six looms. A self-acting loom would stop when any thread broke, and the thread had to be retied or pieced. The process required greater levels of light than spinning, and weaving sheds would often be single storey, with overhead north facing lights. Placing a loom onto the ground also reduced the problems caused by the vibrations of operation.

The Cartwright's powerloom (1785) was made reliable by Robert's cast iron power loom (1822) and became perfected by the Kenworthy and Bullough Lancashire Loom (1854). The Northrop or Draper Loom (1895) replaced these older designs.

Labour conditions
The mills were notable in employing women, giving them an independent income. In Lancashire and Piedmont, South Carolina child labour is well documented.

Child labour in the United Kingdom
The Lancashire and Derbyshire mills needed a pool of cheap labour. Pauper children were boys and girls between the ages of 7 and 21, who were dependent on the Poor Law Guardians. Mill owners made contracts with the guardians in London and the southern counties to supply them paupers, in batches of 50 or more, to be apprenticed. Living condition were poor in 'Prentice Houses', and the children who were paid 2d a day worked 15-hour shifts, hot bedding with children on the other shift.

Robert Owen was a millowner in New Lanark. He never employed children under the age of ten, and opposed physical punishment in schools and factories. He lobbied for parliamentary action, resulting in The Health and Morals of Apprentices Act 1802.

 * Hours of work limited to twelve a day
 * Boys and girls to sleep in separate dormitories with no more than two to each bed
 * Compulsory education to be provided in the arts of reading writing and arithmetic
 * Each apprentice to be provided with two suits of clothes
 * On Sunday children to be instructed in Christian worship
 * Sanitation to be improved

Regulation was ineffective until the mills were subject to inspection in 1833 with the establishment of a factory inspectorate consisting of four factory inspectors who had the power of magistrates. This did not reduce the number of children, half-timers worked mornings in the mill and spend the afternoon in the school room. While the number of children working in spinning as tenters did decline, more were employed in weaving because weavers were expected to tenter extra looms. From the Factory Act of 1844, until 1878 records do not distinguish between full-time and half-times. In 1851 a sizeable number of children were working the mills. For Example, In Glossop, there were 931 children (out of 3562) between 5 and thirteen working in cotton mills. In one mill in 1859, 50.2% of the workforce were women, 24.2% were girls, 19% were men and 6.6% were boys.

Child labor in the United States
The Carolinas mills developed from 1880, and would employ children in preference to adults. At Newton Mill, North Carolina, in 1909, twenty of the 150 workers observed, appeared to be twelve years old or less. As well as the usual report of hands and fingers getting severed by the machinery and insufferable heat, the dust inhaled caused a fatal condition known as brown lung. Laws were rarely enforced, and the presence of small children in the factory was explained away to the inspectors saying they were visiting the mill to bring meals to their parents (meal totters), or helping but not on the payroll (helpers). Wages were good for the workers who could earn $2 a day in the mill against $0.75 on a farm. In the segregated south, 'Blacks' were not allowed to work inside a mill; had they been the need for child labour would have been eliminated. Child labour stopped here not only because of new laws but the change in the type of machinery caused by the Great Depression, which required greater height and skill.

Women
In 1926 when it was at its peak, the Lancashire cotton industry worked 57.3 million spindles and 767,500 looms. It imported 3.3 million bales and exported 80% of its production. 61% of the 575,000 cotton operatives in Lancashire were women, of which 61% were unionised in 167 different unions

Unions
The 18th-century woollen industry of small producers in southern England was far different from the Yorkshire-based worsted industry where the clothier imported and owned the raw material and sold the cloth. He put out work to small weavers, in effect, employing them. Worsted was more capital intensive. The small weavers banded together to form self-help guilds. When Lancashire adopted cotton, the same process occurred. But in Lancashire cotton mills, spinning became a male occupation, and the tradition of unions passed into the factory. As spinners were 'assisted' by several 'piecers' there was a pool of trained labour to replace any spinner the owner cared to dismiss. The well paid mule spinners were the 'barefoot aristocrats' of labour and became organised in the 19th century. They paid union dues, and were well placed to finance themselves should a strike be needed. The Yorkshire worsted industry, adopted the ring frame which required less skill. Worsted spinning was an occupation for young girls. Unionism did not develop in Yorkshire until 1914. In, 1913 figures show 50% of cotton operatives were unionised while only 10% of wool and worsted workers.

In Lancashire there were: The spinners union, the Amalgamated Association of Operative Cotton Spinners had a federal structure with strong central leadership where control was in the hands of a small group of paid officials. Their dues were high, so the fighting fund was large and the officials were skilled in defending the complex wage structures.

Health of the workers
A cotton mill was not a healthy place to work. The air in the mill had to be hot and humid to prevent the thread from breaking: 18 °C to 26 °C and 85% humidity was normal. The air in the mill was thick with cotton dust, which could lead to byssinosis – a lung disease.

Protective masks were introduced after the war, but few workers wore them as they made them uncomfortable in the stifling conditions. The same applied to ear protectors. The air led to skin infections, eye infections, bronchitis and tuberculosis. The noise levels in a weaving shop, where the shuttles in 500 plus looms were being thumped 200 times a minute led to levels of deafness in all who worked there. The lubrication was carcinogenic and led to cancers of the mouth and cancer of the scrotum; known as mule-spinners cancer.

A mill worker could expect to work a thirteen-hour day, six days a week with two weeks off for the wakes week holidays in summer. Unsurprisingly, a series of Factory Acts were passed to attempt to ameliorate these conditions.

In the early days when the cotton towns were expanding rapidly, living conditions for the workers were poor. Badly planned housing was seriously overcrowded. Open sewers and shared privies led to diseases such as cholera; Manchester was hit by an epidemic in 1831 that claimed hundreds of lives.

Art and literature

 * William Blake: "And did those feet in ancient time" (1804 poem — "dark satanic mills")
 * Mrs Gaskell : Mary Barton (1848 novel), North and South (1855 novel)
 * L. S. Lowry: Coming from the Mill (1930 oil painting)
 * Charles Sheeler

title: Cotton mill


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User:BigHaz

I'm a historian in Brisbane, Queensland studying for a PhD at the University of Queensland in the political history of Estonia. I hold a First-class Honours degree from the same university, awarded under the supervision of Renee Worringer (who is sadly not notable yet) and Bob Elson. My thesis was on Turkish political history, a topic which never fails to make family and friends roll their eyes. As of March 2007, I'm also your friendly neighbourhood admin. The pay's lousy and I get shouted at a lot, but it's an opportunity to help this website even further.

As a result of my studies and other connections, I may have a number of conflicts of interest. Relevant details are discussed here, in a list I will attempt to keep up to date.

 * My philosophy of editing
 * Things I've been called

If you're wondering why a page you created or worked on was deleted, please read this page first before posting on my Talk page. Your question may well be answered therein, or at least it will help you frame the question in such a way as to get a good answer.

As a note to those who insist on "erasing" or "obliterating" either my Userpage or my User Talk page, just remember that any and all actions on Wikipedia are both reversible and traceable.

I've been on Wikipedia long enough that "BigHaz" is actually not the name I use elsewhere online. Unlike a lot of other users, if you see someone with that name elsewhere, it's not me.

Things I've Done
Some years ago, I contributed a very large amount of content regarding entries, performers and countries in the Eurovision Song Contest. While I'm still a member of that Wikiproject, I don't keep my ear to the ground enough to contribute in content-creation much anymore. The article-creation aspect of that was, however, my primary source of "notoriety" for quite a few years.

I've also been responsible for creating articles on a number of places in my home city of Brisbane. While the form these articles are in these days bears little or no resemblance to what I typed at the time, attractions such as the Museum of Brisbane, landmarks like the Go Between Bridge and even Westfield Carindale, which was then my local shopping centre first saw the light of day from my keyboard. The same is also true on a much smaller scale for places elsewhere in the world. The tiny settlement of Burnt Pine was something I wrote about, and which has now been dramatically improved by others. My interests in the Pitcairn/Norfolk story also led to my creation of articles on the Norfuk language and the demographics of the Pitcairn Islands. More prosaically, I also made attempts at writing articles on TV shows I enjoyed, such as Kommissar Rex and All Aussie Adventures. The latter led me to try and create some articles for key Australian comedy performers, but that was something I decided rapidly that I wasn't much good at.

Things To Do
I intend to look at creating articles for any notable songs featured on the TV program Eesti otsib lemmiklaulu, as a number of these would seem to be notable, and many are missing articles. The show itself also seems to pass the applicable standards as a series "air[ing] on a network of...television stations (either national or regional in scope)", as the broadcaster is a nationally-viewed broadcaster in Estonia. Additionally, there's an article about the show on the Estonian Wikipedia, which at least contains sources which can be plundered and translations provided.

Potential Song Articles

 * Suudlus läbi jäätunud klaasi (doesn't have an Estonian article)
 * Tunnete keele (ditto)
 * On küll hilja (ditto, although I'm surprised, given the notability of the original artist)
 * Tule kui leebe tuul (also no article)
 * Juulikuu lumi (Estonian article - currently redirects to the relevant album - look into this further)
 * Mis värvi on armastus? (Estonian redlink, possibly in need of an article?)
 * Aita mööda saata öö (no article, it's an Ivo Linna and perhaps can qualify)
 * Raagus sõnad (Estonian redlink)
 * Kui on meri hülgehall (Estonian redlink - from a very famous film there)
 * Kodulaul (no article)
 * Pistoda laul (redlink - from the same film would be Põgene, vaba laps, surely...)
 * Leekiv armastus (no article)
 * Ma tahan olla öö (redlink)
 * Naer (no article)
 * Kerjuse laul (no article)
 * Laul põhjamaast (redlink)
 * Valgus (no article)
 * Tere, perestroika (article - I'm going to call this one high priority)
 * Massikommunikatsioon (redlink)
 * Tsirkus (no article)
 * Kassitapp (no article)
 * Mägede hääl (no article)
 * Helinälg (Karuks istus vangitornis...) (no article)
 * Marie, Marie (Estonian article exists - NB that this was a cover performed by Rock Hotel, but the original has no article here)
 * Miniseelik (redlink)
 * Aeg ei peatu (redlink - this is an Apelsin song)
 * Neiu mustas kleidis (redlink)
 * Merepidu (redlink)
 * Suveöö (Estonian article exists)
 * Jätke võtmed väljapoole (redlink)
 * Saaremaa valss (Estonian article exists)
 * Rohelised niidud (redlink - this is a cover of someone)
 * Julge laul (Estonian article exists - cover)
 * Millest elad ja hingad? (redlink - cover)
 * Roosiaia kuninganna (redlink - cover)
 * Naerata (redlink - cover)
 * Laula mu laulu, helisev hääl (redlink - cover?)
 * Vildist kübar (redlink - cover)
 * Kikilips (redlink - cover of Lucky Lips, into which article I've already listed Linna's iconic cover)
 * Koit (currently a dismal-looking stub created by yours truly a couple of years ago - high priority)
 * Liivimaa pastoraal (Estonian article exists)
 * Eestlane olen ja eestlaseks jään (Estonian article exists - my terrible stub needs work - high priority)
 * Eesti muld ja Eesti süda (redlink)
 * Mu kodu (redlink)
 * Depressiivsed Eesti väikelinnad (Estonian article exists)
 * Ei ole üksi ükski maa (Estonian article exists - high priority)
 * Ärkamisaeg (no Estonian article, oddly)
 * Kallim kullast (redlink)
 * Club Kung Fu (Estonian article exists)

Articles I've marked "high priority" also link into things like the Estonian Song Festival, Eestimaa laul and the Singing Revolution, a group which would also include Isamaa ilu hoieldes, Sind surmani, Kaunimad laulud and Mingem üles mägedele in an ideal world.

Smaller Projects
I'm very interested in non-standard varieties of English, particularly those spoken in Southeast Asia (Singlish is a little hobby of mine, but I'm referring more to the "Singaporean English" and other varieties), and my goal is to bring that interest to bear here as well. The plan is to tweak the various unusual usages on pages about Singapore - and later other countries - into something approaching a more standard form.

A lot of my work is connected to the unpatrolled new pages and tagging/improving those in need of it. In this regard, I've run into some of the more unusual denizens of this project and I'm sure I'll keep doing so. "All part of life's rich tapestry", as a certain Inspector of the Sûreté would say, and a constant reminder that an encyclopedia project attracts all sorts - even those who don't always get it.

Aside from trying to help shift the backlog of unpatrolled new pages, whenever I'm at a loose end, I have a look on Pages Needing Translation to English to see if there's anything I can assist with. Generally speaking, this involves copy-editing and adding internal links to pages listed as needing an extra pair of eyes, particularly those translated from or pertaining to either the Middle East or Eastern, Central or Northern Europe. My exact abilities in this regard vary depending on the quality of the article before I get to it, but it's always an interesting abstract exercise.

Middle East

 * Turkish language
 * Arabic language
 * Persian language
 * Ataturk
 * Politics of Turkey
 * Sufism
 * Salafism
 * Turkish culture
 * Yemen
 * Iran

Europe

 * Baltic States
 * Estonia
 * Scandinavia
 * Balkans

Languages

 * Norfuk
 * Estonian
 * Icelandic
 * Swedish
 * Danish
 * Constructed languages
 * Albanian
 * Lithuanian
 * Croatian
 * Serbian
 * Tok Pisin
 * Dutch
 * German
 * Latvian
 * Note: Just because I've edited an article related to a language (or used a word or two of it) doesn't mean I can speak it...yet. If you're wondering what I'll understand if you post on my Talk page, look at the Babel-boxes first

Other Places

 * Norfolk Island
 * Brisbane

Popular Culture

 * Eurovision Song Contest
 * Kommissar Rex

Awards

 * DYK Collection
 * Awards

Feel free to drop me a line on my Talk Page if you want to take something up with me. I'm not averse to constructive criticism.

Matters Eurovision
Since everyone seems unhealthily obsessed with the Eurovision DYKs every now and then, I present:
 * On Eurovision, an essay by a fan and editor

Useful Links

 * Bravada's infobox
 * Eurovision Precedents
 * Edit Counter
 * deletion toolchest

title: User:BigHaz


text: Category:Accuracy disputes

title: Category:Accuracy disputes


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Category:Wikipedia neutral point of view disputes

"POV" is an abbreviation for "Point of View". It is most commonly used to signify that, in the opinion of the editor, some statement is biased, which is to say that it is "non-neutral and takes a point of view". Non-neutral content or style conflicts with Wikipedia's goal of being a neutral source of factual — and independently verifiable — information.

POV contrasts with "NPOV", an abbreviation for "Neutral Point of View", Wikipedia's editorial approach. See the page WP:NPOV for this policy.

Catholic cleanup, Coatrack, Obit, POV, POV lead, Political POV, USgovtPOV, POV map, and POV section all put articles in this category.

This page has a backlog of over 5,500 articles as of January 2018. You can help clean this up! See the POV Cleanup page.

You can also help by sub-categorizing disputes.

Articles which may or may not have neutrality problems, being based on a partisan source, are also included here.

Random


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Godfrey Hounsfield

Sir Godfrey Newbold Hounsfield (28 August 1919 – 12 August 2004)     was a British electrical engineer who shared the 1979 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine with Allan MacLeod Cormack for his part in developing the diagnostic technique of X-ray computed tomography (CT).

His name is immortalised in the Hounsfield scale, a quantitative measure of radiodensity used in evaluating CT scans. The scale is defined in Hounsfield units (symbol HU), running from air at −1000 HU, through water at 0 HU, and up to dense cortical bone at +1000 HU and more.

Early life
Hounsfield was born in Sutton-on-Trent, Nottinghamshire, England on 28 August 1919. He was the youngest of five children (he has two brothers and two sisters). His father, Thomas Hounsfield was a farmer from Beighton, and was linked to the prominent Hounsfield and Newbold families of Hackenthorpe Hall, his mother was Blanche Dilcock.

As a child he was fascinated by the electrical gadgets and machinery found all over his parents' farm. Between the ages of eleven and eighteen, he tinkered with his own electrical recording machines, launched himself off haystacks with his own home-made glider, and almost killed himself by using water-filled tar barrels and acetylene to see how high they could be waterjet propelled. He attended the Magnus Grammar School in Newark-on-Trent, but was not academic.

Military service and education
Shortly before World War II, he joined the Royal Air Force as a volunteer reservist where he learned the basics of electronics and radar. After the war, he attended Faraday House Electrical Engineering College in London, graduating with the DFH (Diploma of Faraday House). Before the advent of most university engineering departments, Faraday House was a specialist Electrical Engineering college that provided university level education that combined practical experience with theoretical study.

Career

In 1949, Hounsfield began work at EMI, Ltd. in Hayes, Middlesex, where he researched guided weapon systems and radar. Hounsfield incorrectly gave this date as 1951 when he wrote his autobiography which is available on the Nobel Prize website. The correct date is 10 October 1949 as stated in a biography of Hounsfield. At EMI, he became interested in computers and in 1958, he helped design the first commercially available all-transistor computer made in Great Britain: the EMIDEC 1100. Shortly afterwards, he began work on the CT scanner at EMI. He continued to improve CT scanning, introducing a whole-body scanner in 1975, and was senior researcher (and after his retirement in 1984, consultant) to the laboratories.

While on an outing in the country, Hounsfield came up with the idea that one could determine what was inside a box by taking X-ray readings at all angles around the object. He then set to work constructing a computer that could take input from X-rays at various angles to create an image of the object in "slices". Applying this idea to the medical field led him to propose what is now known as computed tomography. At the time, Hounsfield was not aware of the work that Cormack had done on the theoretical mathematics for such a device. Hounsfield built a prototype head scanner and tested it first on a preserved human brain, then on a fresh cow brain from a butcher’s shop, and later on himself. On 1 October 1971, CT scanning was introduced into medical practice with a successful scan on a cerebral cyst patient at Atkinson Morley Hospital in Wimbledon, London, United Kingdom. In 1975, Hounsfield built a whole-body scanner. The principles of computed tomography developed by Hounsfield remain in use today (2022).

Awards and honours
In 1979, Hounsfield and Cormack received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.

Hounsfield received numerous awards in addition to the Nobel Prize. He was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1976 and knighted in 1981.

In 1974, he received the Wilhelm Exner Medal. Hounsfield was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1975. In 1976, he received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement. He was awarded the Howard N. Potts Medal in 1977. In 1994 he was elected an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering.

The Hounsfield Facility for 3-D CT imaging at the University of Nottingham, opened in 2014, was named after him. It was designed to apply CT scanning to biomaterials, especially within soil, and thus to the exploring the environment.

Personal life and death
Hounsfield enjoyed hiking and skiing. He had resolved to develop what came to be CT scanning while on a country ramble.

He retired from EMI in 1986 and used the prize money from his Nobel to build a personal laboratory in his home. Hounsfield died at Kingston upon Thames, Greater London, in 2004, at the age of 84.

title: Godfrey Hounsfield


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Template talk:Npov

Many templates are using the pattern of capital letters for section and article tags, and lower case letters for inline tags. Example : OR versus or. This might be good for this template as well. Also, since this has less than a couple hundred links (many many less than POV or NOV, the transition could be an relatively easy one.--Esprit15d • talk • contribs 20:49, 4 February 2008 (UTC)

title: Template talk:Npov


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Orangism

Orangism, with supporters known as Orangists, may refer to one of several political movements:

 * Orangism (Dutch Republic), a loosely defined current in support of a mixed constitution (until 1795)
 * Orangism (Kingdom of the Netherlands), a liberal-monarchist trend (starting 1860s)
 * Orangism (Belgium), supported the re-unification of Belgium and the Netherlands in a United Kingdom
 * Orangism (Luxembourg), supported the personal union of the Netherlands and the grand-duchy of Luxembourg
 * Orangism (Northern Ireland), whose followers are more usually known as Orangemen

title: Orangism


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User:Mezzerat

hi

title: User:Mezzerat


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User talk:Mezzerat

{msg:stub}

Unless you can name a change that took place in the Soviet Union under Khrushchev that could be reasonably described as a "restoration of capitalism," I will revert your edit to Sino-Soviet split. Adam 00:49, 9 Aug 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Mezzerat


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Kemijoki

The Kemijoki or Kemi River (Kemi älv, Giemajohka), with its 550 km length, is the longest river in Finland. It runs south through the towns of Kemijärvi and Rovaniemi before reaching the Gulf of Bothnia at Kemi.

At Rovaniemi the Ounasjoki river merges with the Kemijoki.

The first hydroelectric plant on the Kemijoki was constructed in 1949 at Isohaara. A total of 15 power plants have been constructed so far. The plants are owned by Kemijoki Oy and Pohjolan Voima Oy. In 2003 the plants produced a total of 4.3 TWh, which was about 34.5% of Finland's total hydroelectric production.

title: Kemijoki


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Peter Darvill-Evans

Peter Darvill-Evans (born 1954) is an English writer and editor.

Early life
He was born and lived in Buckinghamshire until he went to university, graduating in 1975 from University College, London with a degree in History.

Career
In 1976 Darvill-Evans joined the staff of Games Centre, a specialist games shop in London. He became the manager of a branch of the shop, then manager of wholesale sales, selling board games and eventually role-playing games.

In 1979 he became employed by Games Workshop, becoming first its Trade Sales Manager, then General Manager, responsible for purchases, sales, distribution and magazine publishing. When Games Workshop relocated to Nottingham, Darvill-Evans left the company, preferring to stay in London. He then wrote his first of three Fighting Fantasy gamebooks for Puffin Books.

In 1989, he became a junior editor at W. H. Allen Ltd, initially overseeing the Target Books imprint. He also oversaw the Nexus imprint of erotic fiction for men, redesigning its logo and cover style as well as changing its editorial direction.

Target's main output was novelisations of the popular science-fiction television series Doctor Who, and when Darvill-Evans arrived he immediately realised that there were very few Doctor Who stories left to novelise. This problem was exacerbated by the cancellation of the television series at the end of 1989. When WH Allen sold the Nexus and Doctor Who lines to Virgin Publishing, Darvill-Evans went with them. Deciding to go freelance, he was made redundant at his own request, and entered negotiations with the BBC to license Virgin to produce full-length, original novels carrying on the story of the series from the point where the television programme had left off.

Launched in 1991, this successful line of novels were known as the New Adventures. Darvill-Evans set down guidelines for the writers, and even wrote one novel himself, Deceit. Other output from the Virgin fiction department during his time there included another series of Doctor Who novels (the Missing Adventures, featuring previous Doctors and companions); a series of novels following the character of Bernice Summerfield; the Virgin Worlds imprint of new mainstream science-fiction and fantasy novels. Non-science fiction lines included Black Lace, the first mainstream erotic fiction imprint targeted at women; the Crime and Passion imprint; Idol, a homoerotic fiction imprint for men; and Sapphire, a lesbian erotica line.

Other successes included media-tie in books such as the Red Dwarf Programme Guide, which served as the template for guides about other cult television series, and a series of novelisations based on the Jimmy McGovern-scripted series Cracker starring Robbie Coltrane.

By 1997, however, Virgin Publishing decided to emphasise more non-fiction books by and about celebrities. Their Doctor Who licence renewal negotiations fell in 1996, a year in which the BBC was seeking to bring all the Doctor Who licences back in house. Consequently, Virgin's Doctor Who licence was not renewed and instead the BBC opted to launch their own series of Doctor Who novels. In 1998, Darvill-Evans managed among other projects the editing and production of Virgin's Guide to British Universities, and personally supervised the copy-editing and proofreading of Richard Branson's autobiography Losing My Virginity.

Virgin closed its fiction department in 1999, with Darvill-Evans departing the company and moving to Southampton. He continued to freelance, writing several Doctor Who novels for BBC Books, amongst various other editing and writing work.

In 2001 he began working for the Inland Revenue, subsequently renamed HM Revenue and Customs, and became an Inspector of Taxes.

Working full time for HMRC has left little time for writing, but Darvill-Evans has maintained his interest in the worlds of cult fiction, in particular Doctor Who and Fighting Fantasy. He has contributed to the following:
 * 2005 - a contributory interviewee for a documentary about author Terrance Dicks included in the BBC's remastered DVD edition of the Doctor Who TV series The Horror of Fang Rock
 * 2007 - short story Home published in the book Bernice Summerfield - Missing Adventures, published by Big Finish Productions and edited by Rebecca Levene
 * 2010 - a contributory interviewee for a documentary feature about Doctor Who books included in the BBC's remastered DVD edition of the Doctor Who 1996 movie
 * 2013 - a contributory interviewee for the BBC Radio 2 documentary Who Is The Doctor?
 * 2013 - a contributory interviewee for a documentary feature included in the BBC's remastered DVD edition of the Doctor Who TV series The Ark In Space
 * 2015 - the main contributing interviewee for the DVD documentary Mythmakers - Virgin Publishing - Doctor Who Books, published by Reeltime Pictures
 * 2017, 2018, 2019, 2022 - panel guest at the conventions Fighting Fantasy Fest, Fighting Fantasy Fest 2, Fighting Fantasy Fest 3 and Fighting Fantasy Fest 4.
 * 2021 - contributed text and photographs to The Who Adventures, a large-format, hardback, full-colour-illustrated book that provided a detailed and comprehensive history of the Doctor Who novels and short stories published by Virgin Publishing under Darvill-Evans' direction during the 1990s. Published by Telos Publishing, ISBN 978-1-84583-185-1.
 * 2022 - panel guest at a commemorative event for the Doctor Who author Terrance Dicks.
 * 2022 - contributed text and photographs to Dice Men: The Origin Story Of Games Workshop by Ian Livingstone, published by Unbound, ISBN 978-1-80018-052-9.
 * 2023 - panellist and speaker at Novel Experiences, a gathering of authors and readers of the Doctor Who New Adventures.
 * 2024 - the main contributing interviewee for the DVD documentary Novel Experiences - the Virgin Books Adventures, published by Reeltime Pictures; appointed to the committee of the Southampton Archaeological Society.

Having retired from HMRC at the end of March 2022, Darvill-Evans has resumed writing - very slowly. In November 2022 and March 2023 he performed his first (and so far only) solo gigs as a singer/guitarist.

title: Peter Darvill-Evans


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Bureau

Bureau may refer to:

Agencies and organizations

 * Government agency
 * Public administration
 * News bureau, an office for gathering or distributing news, generally for a given geographical location
 * Bureau (European Parliament), the administrative organ of the Parliament of the European Union
 * Federal Bureau of Investigation, the leading internal law enforcement agency in the United States
 * Service bureau, a company which provides business services for a fee
 * Citizens Advice Bureau, a network of independent UK charities that give free, confidential help to people for money, legal, consumer and other problems

Furniture

 * Bureau is a piece of furniture with hinged writing space of flap resting at an angle when closed
 * Bureau bedstead is form of a folding bed that looks like a bureau when closed
 * Bureau bookcase is a combination of a bureau and a bookcase.
 * Bureau cabinet is a combination of a bureau and display shelves.
 * Bureau dressing table is a combination of a dressing table and a writing desk. Later models by Chippendale lost the actual bureau.
 * Bureau table is a variant of a kneehole desk with drawers.
 * Chest of drawers, a piece of furniture that has multiple, stacked, parallel drawers
 * Bureau à gradin, a writing table with one or several tiers of small drawers and pigeonholes built on a part of the desktop surface.

Geography

 * Bureau County, Illinois
 * Bureau Lake, a body of water in the Gouin Reservoir, in Quebec, Canada

People

 * Bernard Béréau (1940–2005), French footballer
 * Bernard Bureau (born 1959), French footballer

Other uses

 * The Bureau (band), English New Wave soul music group
 * The Bureau (TV series), original title: Le Bureau des Légendes, a French political thriller series
 * Le Bureau, a 2006 French adaptation of the British television series The Office
 * The Bureau: XCOM Declassified, a 2013 tactical shooter video game
 * Bureau (surname)

title: Bureau