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Official script

An official script is a writing system that is specifically designated to be official in the constitutions or other applicable laws of countries, states, and other jurisdictions. Akin to an official language, an official script is much rarer. It is used primarily where an official language is in practice written with two or more scripts. As, in these languages, use of script often has cultural or political connotations, proclamation of an official script is sometimes criticized as having a goal of influencing culture or politics or both. Desired effects also may include easing education, communication and some other aspects of life.

List of official scripts
Below is a partial list of official scripts used in different countries. Those in italics are states that have limited international recognition.

This list does not cover local variations of international scripts, such as which diacritics are used.

 * Azerbaijan – Azeri Latin alphabet
 * Bangladesh – Bengali alphabet
 * Brunei – Rumi script (Latin) and Jawi script (Arabic)
 * Bosnia and Herzegovina:
 * Republika Srpska – Cyrillic and Latin
 * Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina – Cyrillic and Latin
 * Bulgaria – Cyrillic (Bulgarian alphabet)
 * Cambodia – Khmer script
 * China, People's Republic of (mainland China) – Simplified Chinese
 * Hong Kong SAR – Traditional Chinese (de facto), Latin script
 * Macau SAR – Traditional Chinese (de facto), Latin script
 * Inner Mongolia region – Mongolian alphabet, Simplified Chinese
 * Tibet region – Tibetan alphabet, Simplified Chinese
 * Xinjiang region – Uyghur Ereb Yéziqi, Simplified Chinese
 * Guangxi region – Zhuang Latin alphabet, Simplified Chinese
 * Croatia – Croatian alphabet
 * Ethiopia – Ge'ez script
 * Eritrea – Ge'ez script
 * Georgia – Georgian alphabet
 * Greece - Greek alphabet
 * India:
 * Hindi, Marathi, Konkani, Nepali, Maithili, Boro, Sanskrit, Dogri – Devanagari
 * Assamese – Assamese alphabet
 * Bengali – Bengali alphabet
 * Gujarati – Gujarati script
 * Kannada – Kannada script
 * Kashmiri – Perso-Arabic script
 * Malayalam – Malayalam script
 * Meitei – Meitei script
 * Odia – Odia script
 * Punjabi – Gurmukhi
 * Santali – Ol Chiki script
 * Sindhi – Perso-Arabic script, Devanagari
 * Tamil – Tamil script
 * Telugu – Telugu script
 * Urdu – Urdu alphabet
 * Indonesia – Rumi script (Latin)
 * Iran – Perso-Arabic alphabet
 * Italy:
 * Venetian (Official script of the Venetian language)
 * Japan – a combination of Kana (Hiragana, Katakana) and Kanji (Shinjitai)
 * Kazakhstan – Cyrillic (Kazakh, Russian) and Latin (Kazakh)
 * Korea (both) – Chosŏn'gŭl/Hangul (Hanja is sometime used in South Korea, not used in North Korea)
 * Laos – Lao script
 * Malaysia – Rumi script (Latin); Jawi script (Arabic) is recognized.
 * Maldives – Thaana
 * Moldova – Latin alphabet
 * Mongolia – Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet and Mongolian script
 * Montenegro – Cyrillic (Montenegrin Cyrillic script)
 * Myanmar – Burmese alphabet
 * Nepal
 * Nepali language — Devanagari
 * Nepal Bhasa — Ranjana script
 * Maithili — Tirhuta script and Kaithi
 * Bhojpuri language — Kaithi and Devanagari
 * Magar — Magar Akkha script and Devanagari
 * Tharu — Devanagari
 * Tamang — Tamyig, Devanagari and Tibetan script
 * Bajjika — Tirhuta script, Kaithi and Devanagari
 * Limbu — Limbu script
 * Bantawa — Kirat Rai script and Devanagari
 * Gurung — Khema script, Devanagari and Tibetan script
 * Awadhi — Kaithi, Perso-Arabic script, Devanagari and Latin script
 * Urdu — Urdu alphabet, Roman Urdu and Urdu Braille
 * North Macedonia – Cyrillic (Macedonian alphabet)
 * Philippines – Latin alphabet (de facto)
 * Russian Federation – Cyrillic (Russian alphabet)
 * Serbia – Cyrillic (Serbian Cyrillic script)
 * Singapore
 * English, Malay — Latin script
 * Mandarin – Simplified Chinese
 * Tamil – Tamil script
 * Taiwan – Traditional Chinese
 * Thailand – Thai script
 * Turkey – Latin alphabet
 * Ukraine – Cyrillic (Ukrainian alphabet)
 * Vietnam – Latin script (de facto)

Historical

 * In the USSR, numerous languages were latinized during the 1920s–1930s. In the late 1930s the Latinization campaign was canceled and all newly romanized languages were converted to Cyrillic.

title: Official script


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University of Puerto Rico at Carolina

The University of Puerto Rico at Carolina (UPRC or UPR-Carolina) is a public college in Carolina, Puerto Rico. It is part of the University of Puerto Rico (UPR) and is better known as CRCA or CUNICA from its former names in Spanish of Colegio Regional de Carolina and Colegio Universitario de Carolina respectively.

UPRCA is the only college in the UPR with an academic calendar divided into quarters instead of semesters, allowing complete studies in less time. It enrolls approximately 4,000 students.

History
In 2010 the campus went on strike as part of the 2010–2011 University of Puerto Rico strikes. In 2017 in response to budget cuts to the university system by the Financial Oversight and Management Board for Puerto Rico the campus students voted to join the University of Puerto Rico strikes, 2017.

Academics
UPRCA awards associate degrees and bachelor's degrees. Among campuses of the University of Puerto Rico, it is unique in offering:

 * Associate Degree and Bachelor of Hotel and Restaurant Administration
 * Associate Degree in Interior Design
 * Associate Degree in Physical Education and Recreation for people with disabilities
 * Associate Degree in Mechanical Engineering Industrial Maintenance
 * Associate Degree in Industrial Automation
 * Associate Degree in Automotive Technology
 * BA in Multidisciplinary Studies with a concentration in Cultural Tourism

UPR-Carolina also serves as the first step for students who aspire to enter the Medical Sciences Campus in the areas of Nursing, Nuclear Medicine Technology, Health Education and Veterinary Technology.

The university hosted a virtual symposium on gastronomy during the COVID-19 pandemic.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: University of Puerto Rico at Carolina


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SCOsource

SCOsource is a business division of The SCO Group that managed its (now legally voided) Unix intellectual property. The term SCOsource is often used for SCO's licensing program that allowed corporate users of Linux to buy licenses to proprietary Unix technology that SCO claimed exists in the Linux operating system. A single CPU license costs $699 (USD).

On July 21, 2003, SCO announced that it intended to sell binary-only licences to use the free Linux operating system which would remove the threat of litigation from licence-holders. Linux advocates reacted by stating that SCO had no basis for this action, as their claims were still disputed in court, and that the terms of the GPL seemed to indicate that doing this may cause SCO to forfeit their rights to distribute Linux or Linux-derived code in any form.

EV1Servers.net
On March 1, 2004, SCO announced it had reached a license agreement with EV1Servers.net, which allowed EV1Servers to use some of SCO's "intellectual property". SCO's Blake Stowell claimed the deal was worth upward of "seven figures" ($1,000,000) while a few days later EV1Servers CEO Robert Marsh claimed the amount was much lower. The exact amount was required to remain secret under terms of the agreement.

Computer Associates
During discovery of the SCO v. IBM case, SCO attorney Mark J. Heise wrote a letter answering some questions raised by IBM's attorneys. In this letter, sent on February 4, 2004 and published on Groklaw on February 10, 2004, Heise revealed that Computer Associates bought a Linux intellectual property license from SCO. On March 4, 2004 Computerweekly.com published an extensive article in which SCO CFO Robert Bench confirmed this. Computer Associates later denied buying licenses from SCO :

 * CA senior VP of product development Mark Barrenechea says that Bench's claim is nonsense. CA has not paid SCO any Linux taxes, he said. Drawing up short of calling SCO a liar, Barrenechea claims that SCO has twisted a $40 million breach-of-contract settlement that CA paid last summer to the Canopy Group, SCO's biggest stockholder, and Center 7, another Canopy company, and has turned it into a purported Linux license.

 * As a 'small part' of that settlement, Barrenechea said, CA got a bunch of UnixWare licenses that it needed to support its UnixWare customers. SCO, he said, had just attached a transparent Linux indemnification to all UnixWare licenses and that is how SCO comes off calling CA a Linux licensee.

title: SCOsource


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Oscar Hartzell

Oscar Merril Hartzell (1876–1943) was an American con man who ran a confidence scam by claiming rightful ownership of the estate of Sir Francis Drake. In total, Hartzell swindled at least $2 million, from 70,000 to 80,000 people.

Early life
Hartzell was born in 1876 in Monmouth, Illinois. He worked on his family's farm, eventually inheriting it from his father in 1905. Due to difficulties running the farm, Hartzell fell into financial trouble. He moved to Des Moines, Iowa, where he worked as a realtor, and then as a deputy sheriff. According to Hartzell, in 1915 he met con artists Sudie Whiteaker and Milo Lewis, who promised to turn his mother's $6,000 into $6 million by giving him a share of the held fortune of Sir Francis Drake. When Hartzell realized the deal was a confidence game, he decided to use it to his own advantage, and joined in.

Sir Francis Drake estate scam
Hartzell contacted many Iowans who had the surname Drake. He claimed he was a distant relative and had discovered that the estate of Sir Francis Drake had never been paid to his heirs, that it had gathered interest for the last 300 years and was now worth $100 billion. Hartzell invited all these families to invest in his campaign to sue the British government for the money and assured them that everyone would make $500 for every dollar they invested. The inheritance would include the whole city of Plymouth in England.

Tens of thousands of Americans sponsored him, sometimes with all the money they had. Hartzell later expanded his con to people without the surname Drake and outside of Iowa.

Around 1917, Hartzell travelled to London in order to meet with the heir of the Drake estate. He ended up staying, and lived an opulent lifestyle. He continued to tell the families who had invested in the "campaign" that he was negotiating with the British government and needed even more money for expenses. His agents in the Midwest, some of whom believed in the scheme themselves, collected the money.

On August 9, 1922, the British Home Office informed the American embassy that there was no unclaimed Sir Francis Drake estate. Hartzell explained that the estate was not unclaimed because it belonged to Drexel Drake (a nonexistent colonel) and therefore to Hartzell.

Since Hartzell had not broken any British laws the British police could not arrest him. The FBI investigated and announced that Drake's wife had duly inherited his estate in 1597. That information did not stop the donations. When Ed Smith, Iowa Secretary of State, tried to convince the state legislature to act, the public and Hartzell's supporters protested, saying they could donate to whomever they wanted so the legislature did nothing.

After the Wall Street Crash of 1929 and during the Great Depression, Hartzell's followers seemed to become even more desperate and continued to send him money.

On October 11, 1930, John Maynard Keynes, arguing in an article for deficit spending to alleviate the Depression, mentioned that Queen Elizabeth had invested Drake's loot—which Drake had given to the crown—for the benefit of the country. Hartzell seized this as a proof of his claims and his agents in the USA spread copies of the article to his followers.

Eventually United States Postal Service inspector John Sparks, with help from the British police, seized some of Hartzell's agents and forced them to reveal the scam. At the same time, Scotland Yard arrested some of Hartzell's British associates. Britain deported Hartzell to USA and he was sent to Iowa for trial in 1933. By this time, according to U.S. officials, Hartzell had collected $800,000 from the scam.

Hartzell was tried in Sioux City, Iowa in 1933. His followers sent him a total of $68,000 for his defence. He was convicted of fraud in November 1933, sentenced to ten years in prison, and fined $2,000. By that time, he had run his scam for over 15 years. He was sent to Leavenworth Penitentiary. Even after his sentencing, some of his agents collected more donations—$500,000 for the next year.

Hartzell was eventually judged to be insane, and was transferred to the Medical Center for Federal Prisoners. He died there in 1943.

title: Oscar Hartzell


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Corrugated galvanised iron

Corrugated galvanised iron (CGI) or steel, colloquially corrugated iron (near universal), wriggly tin (taken from UK military slang), pailing (in Caribbean English), corrugated sheet metal (in North America), zinc (in Cyprus and Nigeria) or custom orb / corro sheet (Australia) is a building material composed of sheets of hot-dip galvanised mild steel, cold-rolled to produce a linear ridged pattern in them. Although it is still popularly called "iron" in the UK, the material used is actually steel (which is iron alloyed with carbon for strength, commonly 0.3% carbon), and only the surviving vintage sheets may actually be made up of 100% iron. The corrugations increase the bending strength of the sheet in the direction perpendicular to the corrugations, but not parallel to them, because the steel must be stretched to bend perpendicular to the corrugations. Normally each sheet is manufactured longer in its strong direction.

CGI is lightweight and easily transported. It was and still is widely used especially in rural and military buildings such as sheds and water tanks. Its unique properties were used in the development of countries such as Australia from the 1840s, and it is still helping developing countries today.

History
Henry Robinson Palmer, architect and engineer to the London Dock Company, was granted a patent in 1829 for "indented or corrugated metallic sheets". It was originally made from wrought iron produced by puddling. It proved to be light, strong, corrosion-resistant, and easily transported, and particularly lent itself to prefabricated structures and improvisation by semi-skilled workers. It soon became a common construction material in rural areas in the United States, Argentina, Spain, New Zealand and Australia and later India, and in Australia and Argentina also became (and remains) a common roofing material even in urban areas. In Australia and New Zealand particularly it has become part of the cultural identity,  and fashionable architectural use has become common. CGI is also widely used as building material in African slums and informal settlements.

For roofing purposes, the sheets are laid somewhat like tiles, with a lateral overlap of one and half corrugations, and a vertical overlap of about 150 mm, to provide for waterproofing. CGI is also a common construction material for industrial buildings throughout the world.

Wrought iron CGI was gradually replaced by mild steel from around the 1890s, and iron CGI is no longer obtainable, but the common name has not been changed. Galvanised sheets with simple corrugations are also being gradually displaced by 55% Al-Zn coated steel or coil-painted sheets with complex profiles. CGI remains common.

Corrugation today
Today the corrugation process is carried out using the process of roll forming. This modern process is highly automated to achieve high productivity and low costs associated with labour. In the corrugation process sheet metal is pulled off huge rolls and through rolling dies that form the corrugation. After the sheet metal passes through the rollers it is automatically sheared off at a desired length. The traditional shape of corrugated material is the round wavy style, but different dies form a variety of shapes and sizes. Industrial buildings are often built with and covered by trapezoidal sheet metal.

Many materials today undergo the corrugation process. The most common materials for corrugated iron are ferrous alloys (e.g. stainless steels), aluminium and copper. Regular ferrous alloys are the most common due to price and availability. Common sizes of corrugated material can range from a very thin 30 gauge (0.012 in) to a relatively thick 6 gauge (0.1943 in). Thicker or thinner gauges may also be produced.

Other materials such as thermoplastic and fiberglass-reinforced plastic sheets are also produced with corrugations. Clear or translucent products can allow light to penetrate below.

Pitch and depth

The corrugations are described in terms of pitch (the distance between two crests) and depth (the height from the top of a crest to the bottom of a trough). It is important for the pitch and depth to be quite uniform, in order for the sheets to be easily stackable for transport, and to overlap neatly when joining two sheets. Pitches have ranged from 25 mm (1 inch) to 125 mm (5 inches).

It was once common for CGI used for vertical walls to have a shorter pitch and depth than roofing CGI. This shorter pitched material was sometimes called "rippled" instead of "corrugated". However nowadays, nearly all CGI produced has the same pitch of 3 inches (76 mm).

A design of corrugated galvanised steel sheets "Proster 21", used as formwork, has 21 millimetre deep V-shaped pits.

Corrosion
Although galvanising inhibits the corrosion of steel, rusting is inevitable, especially in marine areas–where the salt water encourages rust–and areas where the local rainfall is acidic. Corroded corrugated steel roofs can nevertheless last for many years, particularly if the sheets are protected by a layer of paint.

title: Corrugated galvanised iron


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Striezelmarkt

The Striezelmarkt in Dresden is one of the first genuine Christmas markets in the world. Founded as a one-day market in 1434, it celebrated its 585th anniversary in 2019. Its 240 stands attract about 3 million visitors from all over the world. The annual market lasts throughout the Advent season until Christmas Eve.

History and naming
This market event was first mentioned in 1434, under Friedrich II, Elector of Saxony, when it was held the Monday before Christmas on the Altmarkt square. Originally, it was a one-day market to provide the citizens of Dresden with the sale of meat for the Christmas meal after the traditional Advent period of fasting.

In the 21st century, the Striezelmarkt has developed into a huge event with 240 stands. It takes up a large part of Dresden city centre and lasts throughout the Advent period until Christmas Eve.

The word Striezelmarkt comes from Strüzel or Stroczel, which was the name of a type of cake sold at the market; it is now widely known as Stollen or Christstollen. Stollen is a light airy fruitcake that is quite low in sugar, and today is available in many parts of the world. The true Dresden Stollen, however, is produced in the city and distinguished by a special seal depicting Augustus II, Elector of Saxony and King of Poland. The shape of the cake is meant to be reminiscent of the entrance to a mine tunnel (the literal meaning of Stollen), reflecting the area's silver and tin mining history.

Features of today's Striezelmarkt
Today the most famous features of Dresden Striezelmarkt are the world's largest usable Christmas arch with a breadth of 13.5 m and a height of more than 5 m and the 14 m high Erzgebirge Christmas pyramid. Situated on the Dresden Striezelmarkt is a children's adventure world. Here, the prune chimney sweep’s cottage and the bakery are open for kneading and arts and crafts. A puppet theatre, merry-go-round, and a children's railway are also operating. On the Dresden Striezelmarkt, a daily stage programme takes place. During Advent weekends, special events such as Dresden Stollen Festival and Pyramid and Christmas Arch Festival take place.

At the centre of the Striezelmarkt stands a 20 m high spruce, brought from the nearby Tharandt woods and decorated with lights. At the back of the market square there is a painted wooden fairy-tale castle, designed to operate as a giant Advent calendar. Children's entertainers open a door each day and present a puppet show. On Fridays, Father Christmas himself visits.

 * Wooden ornaments
 * Many of the stands at the Striezelmarkt sell carved wooden ornaments of a huge variety of shapes and sizes. This practice dates to the period of the area's mining history. Dresden is the largest city near the Erzgebirge, or Ore Mountains, where silver and tin were discovered in around 1168. The discovery brought many miners to the area, but they lost their jobs as a result of the German Peasants' War and competition from abroad. Needing a new way to earn money, the miners took up woodcarving, incorporating mining symbols and religious elements into their designs. These symbols can still be found in the Christmas ornaments sold at the Striezelmarkt.

 * Candle pyramids (Christmas pyramid)
 * In many parts of Germany, the candle pyramid (lightstock) is brought out every year to light up the room at Christmas. Two to five round wooden tiers, gradually smaller towards the top, are built onto a central rod. The tiers rotate, driven by the heat of candles rising up into a rotor at the top. On each tier there are figures connected with Christmas. The whole ornament is usually about 50 cm high. The tallest pyramid in the world dominates the Striezelmarkt, towering a full 14 m in the air. Originally, the pyramid was a much simpler affair, simply a frame to hang sprigs of fir upon. The modern-day pyramid was not developed until the early 19th century.

 * Schwibbogen
 * Literally, the word Schwibbogen means an arch "hanging" (schweben) above you, between two walls. This candle-holder is arch-shaped, representing the arched entrance to a mine hung with guiding lights; it is another connection to the area's mining past. Today the "candles" are often lit with electricity. The scenes cut from the wooden centre of the arch are not only on mining themes. At night during Advent, nearly every single window in Dresden is lit with these ornaments, traditionally bought at the Striezelmarkt.

 * Räuchermann (smoking man)
 * Another ornament always present at Christmas-time in Germany, the smoking man is hollowed out with a hole leading to his mouth, hung with a pipe. An incense candle is placed inside him so that he appears to smoke as it burns. Variations on the smoking man include old ladies in rocking chairs, Father Christmases, and figures representing nearly every occupation. Smoking men first appeared in the Striezelmarkt in the 19th century.

 * Nutcrackers
 * The type of nutcracker traditionally sold at the Striezelmarkt, carved and painted with a red coat like a soldier, probably became popular world-wide thanks to Tchaikovsky's Nutcracker Suite and related ballets. The first wood turner to carve the ornaments in this form, Wilhelm Friedrich Füchtner from the Ore Mountains, is said to have been inspired by the nutcracker in the story book Tchaikovsky drew from for his ballet.

Food and drinks

Apart from the famous Stollen, other specialities originate from Dresden and were originally sold at the Striezelmarkt.

 * Pflaumentoffel
 * Although they are made of prunes, these little figures are really decorations, although they can be eaten after Christmas. Pflaumentoffel means plum devil; (also called Feuerrüpel or Fiery Santa), although they are not meant to be devils or Santas, but chimney sweeps, all dressed in black (the prunes) with a top hat and a brush. Until the 20th century, Pflaumentoffel were sold at the Striezelmarkt on trays carried by children trying to earn some Christmas money. The artist Ludwig Richter famously portrayed these Striezelkinder in 1853 in his woodcut "Ausverkauft wegen Geschäftsaufgabe" ("Sold out as giving up business"). In 1910, however, sale by children was banned at the Striezelmarkt.

 * Pulsnitzer Pfefferkuchen (Pulsnitz gingerbread)

 * The Christmas market at Nuremberg (Christkindlmarkt) is more famous for its gingerbread known as Lebkuchen, but the Striezelmarkt's gingerbread has nearly as long a history. Pfefferkuchen literally means "pepper cake": the word "pepper" was used to mean any new foreign spice. The gingerbread sold at the Striezelmarkt comes from Pulsnitz, a town about 50 km from Dresden; it was first mentioned as a speciality from Pulsnitz in a decree issued in 1558 allowing bakers to produce it there. Pfefferkuchen are usually filled with marmalade or jam and covered with chocolate. Unlike gingerbread from other countries, the dough does not usually contain any fat, or indeed ginger, but instead nutmeg, cinnamon, ground cloves and allspice, which are added after the dough has been left up to 6 months to mature. In 1780 eight master bakers came personally from Pulsnitz to sell their wares at the Striezelmarkt; today there are many more Pfefferkuchen stands, but the gingerbread is usually sold by hired staff.

 * Glühwein (mulled wine)

 * One very well-loved tradition on a cold December night in Dresden is drinking steaming mugs of mulled wine at the Striezelmarkt. The hot red wine spiced with cloves and cinnamon is served in specially decorated mugs.

title: Striezelmarkt


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Talk:La Voisin

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 14 January 2019 and 3 May 2019. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Breaguirre.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 02:04, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

Untitled
Other information (in french) about the 'Poison Affair' on :
 * fr:Affaire des poisons
 * fr:L'Affaire des poisons (film)
 * and also l'Affaire des poisons on Internet Movie Database

Ma'ame Michu 09:20, 3 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Spelling of her name?
It is alternately spelled with (Montvoisin) and without (Monvoisin) a T throughout the article. Which is correct? I know that in French there is no difference in pronunciation between the two, which might lead to this confusion. Google seems to turn up considerably more hits for "Monvoisin." I am changing all spellings in this article to this version - if anyone finds more information, please add on here! SeaworthyViolin 16:00, 11 June 2006 (UTC)

Black Mass
The description of the black mass ("an abominable parody in which the host was compounded of the blood of a little child mixed with horrible ingredients") is not only POV, but is also in conflict with the black mass article as it stands. For now I am changing it to "a parody of the Christian mass" and anyone with more information is free to add on. SeaworthyViolin 16:06, 11 June 2006 (UTC)
 * You say that it is POV, but it sounds more like a quote. The fact is, however, that the statement is actually accurate - it matches the testimony from the trail.  Additionally, you are ignoring the goals of their "Black Mass".  It was not to make a parody of anything, but to obtain practical results (such as the love of the King of France, or the death of enemies) for La Voisin's very rich clients.Jimhoward72 (talk) 03:44, 25 February 2008 (UTC)
 * I believe that is a quote from the book by Anne Somerset - The Affair of the Poisons: Murder, Infanticide, and Satanism at the Court of Louis XIV (St. Martin's Press (October 12, 2003) ISBN 0-312-33017-0, as well as a quote from a statement made by one of the investigators. I have the book (which is out of print) and can look it up.  We should put it in quotes and reference it if it is indeed a quote by the author of the book or somebody else.  Editors must recall that we are talking about a viewpoint from history and not some viewpoint from the Church of Satan or current Satanic viewpoints.  This all took place during the reign of Louis XIV and therefore the conclusions drawn by the inquiry at the time will be colored by the prevailing views of that time period.  This Scandal was so huge, lurid and decadent that some historians credit it with having weakened the Monarchy and the position of the Aristocracy in general so much that it may have helped lead to the violent nature of the French Revolution 2 Generations later! The shocking statements of outrage and graphic imagery discussed in the testimony were well in keeping with prevailing beliefs about witchcraft and satanic rites at that time.  Give me a few days and I'll try and find the source of that quote, if indeed it is a quote.  If it is merely some sensational exposition on Somerset's part, we'll quote her.LiPollis (talk)

Her picture?
There is a well-know portrait of her, surprising it hasn't been added yet.Jimhoward72 (talk) 08:52, 2 March 2008 (UTC)

WikiProject class rating
This article was automatically assessed because at least one article was rated and this bot brought all the other ratings up to at least that level. BetacommandBot 02:41, 27 August 2007 (UTC)

La Voisin
It says that it means the neighbour in French but this is ungrammatical. It's either le voisin (male neighbour) or la voisine (female neighbour). La Voisin simply means The Voisin so I'm removing the translation. Nothingbutmeat (talk) 19:09, 18 November 2015 (UTC)

Murderer or poison provider?
I wonder if its correct to categorize her as a murderer. Mainly, she appears to have sold poision to people who wished to comit murder, rather than to having comitted murder herself. To sell the weapon murderers use to comit murder is not the same thing to comit murder oneself. That is a distinction Wikipedia should make. --Aciram (talk) 15:04, 29 January 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:La Voisin


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Aurichalcite

Aurichalcite is a carbonate mineral, usually found as a secondary mineral in copper and zinc deposits. Its chemical formula is (Zn,Cu)5(CO3)2(OH)6. The zinc to copper ratio is about 5:4. Copper (Cu2+) gives aurichalcite its green-blue colors.

Occurrence
Aurichalcite typically occurs in the oxidized zone of copper and zinc deposits. Associated minerals include: rosasite, smithsonite, hemimorphite, hydrozincite, malachite and azurite.

It was first described in 1839 by Bottger who named the mineral for its zinc and copper content after the Greek όρειχαλκος, for "mountain brass" or "mountain copper", the name of orichalcum, a fabulous metal, mentioned in the legend of the mythic lost continent Atlantis. The type locality is the Loktevskoye Mine, Upper Loktevka River, Rudny Altai, Altai Krai, Western Siberia, Russia.

Crystallography
Aurichalcite displays prismatic crystals often in the form of encrustations and sometimes columnar structures. The crystal system is monoclinic.

title: Aurichalcite


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Truman Henry Safford

Truman Henry Safford (6 January 1836 – 13 June 1901) was an American calculating prodigy. In later life he was an observatory director.

Biography
Safford was born in Royalton, Vermont, on 6 January 1836. At an early age he attracted public attention by his remarkable calculation powers. At the age of nine, a local priest asked him to multiply 365,365,365,365,365,365 by itself. In less than a minute, Truman gave the correct answer of 133,491,850,208,566,925,016,658,299,941,583,225 with no paper. At around this age he also developed a new rule for calculating the moon's risings and settings, taking one-quarter of the time of the existing method.

Unlike many other calculating prodigies, Safford did not give public exhibitions. He went to Harvard College where he studied astronomy. During his time at Harvard, he was part of the founding class of the Rho chapter of the Zeta Psi fraternity. He became the second director of the Hopkins Observatory at Williams College, the oldest extant astronomical observatory in the United States. Safford served as director of the Observatory until his death.

In 1894, Safford had a stroke. He died on 13 June 1901 at 112 Broad Street in Newark, New Jersey where he was living with his son.

Legacy
The Safford Fund for Williams College student researchers was created by his descendants to honor him. A portrait of him as a child prodigy hangs in the Hopkins Observatory's Mehlin Museum of Astronomy, adjacent to the Milham Planetarium. His natural calculating abilities seemed to wane with age.

title: Truman Henry Safford


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Autunite

Autunite (hydrated calcium uranyl phosphate), with formula Ca(UO2)2(PO4)2·10–12H2O, is a yellow-greenish fluorescent phosphate mineral with a hardness of 2–$2 1/2$. Autunite crystallizes in the orthorhombic system and often occurs as tabular square crystals, commonly in small crusts or in fan-like masses. Due to the moderate uranium content of 48.27% it is radioactive and also used as uranium ore. Autunite fluoresces bright green to lime green under UV light. The mineral is also called calco-uranite, but this name is rarely used and effectively outdated.

Autunite was discovered in 1852 near Autun, France, which is also autunite's namesake. It occurs as an oxidation product of uranium minerals in granite pegmatites and hydrothermal deposits. Associate minerals include metaautunite, torbernite, phosphuranylite, saleeite, uranophane and sabugalite.

Etymology
Autunite was named after the town of Autun, France, where the mineral was initially found. The mineral was named by Henry J. Brooke and William H. Miller in 1854. The archaic name "calco-uranite" pairs with the similarly composed mineral, torbernite, which was named "cupro-uranite". Both minerals are named due to their uranium content, with autunite's name referring to its calcium (calco), and torbernite's copper (cupro) quantity.

Mount Kit Carson, Washington
Researchers found autunite inside the Daybreak Mine on Mount Kit Carson, Spokane, Washington (or sometimes referred to as "near Mount Spokane"), in "vugs, fractures, and shear zones in granitic rock". These areas showed signs of another phosphate, apatite, which may have helped lead to the formation of autunite, by providing a source of phosphate and lime. The formation may have occurred with the interaction of uranium leached from a separate deposit.

90,000 lbs of U3O8 were produced from nine properties, although most of the ore came from the Daybreak Mine.

Other locations
One of the other locations of autunite includes Autun, France, the type locality and namesake of the mineral. The mineral was formed there as an alteration of uraninite and other uranium bearing minerals. Autunite is also found in Cornwall, Saxony, and North and South Dakota.

Meta-autunite
If the mineral dries out, it can lose its water content and convert to meta-autunite-I, which can turn into meta-autunite-II after heating. These two subsequent minerals are very rare in nature. For scientific studies it is recommended to store the mineral in a sealed container to minimize the water loss. Museums are known to have covered the mineral with lacquer to avoid drying of the mineral.

title: Autunite


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Brígido Lara

Brígido Lara (born 1939/40) is a Mexican artist and ex-forger of pre-Columbian antiques. Lara claims to have created perhaps as many as 40,000 pieces of forged pre-Columbian pottery.

Brígido Lara began to create forgeries in the 1950s and 1960s. He created many items in the style of the Mayans, Aztecs and especially the lesser-known Totonacs — in fact to such an extent that the majority of purported Totonac artifacts may actually be of his creation. He worked in a museum, where he was acquainted with both original artifacts and potential customers.

Lara sold his work as genuine Mexican antiquities; buyers did not ask many questions since they were buying contraband — taking antiquities out of Mexico is illegal. Some of the works were sold to the Morton D. May collection and the Metropolitan Museum of Art, dated AD 400–700 and attributed to the Remojadas culture in Veracruz. In 1971, the Los Angeles County Museum of Natural History presented a large exhibition entitled "Ancient Art of Veracruz" – Lara later recognized many of the exhibits as his work.

In July 1974, Mexican police arrested a group of what appeared to be antique smugglers – with Brígido Lara among them. An antiquities expert declared Lara's forgeries genuine. While serving his prison sentence, Lara requested fresh clay, and to prove his innocence, created just the items he was accused of smuggling. The same antique expert declared them genuine as well. Lara was released in January 1975.

The Museo de Antropología de Xalapa later hired Lara as a restorer and to recognize forgeries.

In 1987 Brígido Lara told his story to two journalists from Connoisseur magazine. Through them the St. Louis Art Museum heard that their Morton D. May collection contained his forgeries. The Dallas Museum of Art and the Metropolitan Museum of Art also realized they had Lara forgeries in their collections, though they initially claimed that there was no proof. In 1999 he was featured in the documentary film "Ruins," directed by Jesse Lerner. The film screened at the Sundance Film Festival, and in many museums around the world, giving him further exposure.

Lara continues to sculpt in ancient styles but now signs his work and is a licensed maker of replicas. He calls his previous forgeries "his originals" or "original interpretations".

title: Brígido Lara


text:
Wikipedia:Requests for comment/CVA

In order to remain listed at Requests for comment, at least two people need to show that they tried to resolve a dispute with this user and have failed. This must involve the same dispute, not different disputes. The persons complaining must provide evidence of their efforts, and each of them must certify it by signing this page with ~. If this does not happen within 48 hours of the creation of this dispute page (which was: 09:26, Aug 3, 2004 (UTC)), the page will be deleted. The current date and time is:, 29 July 2024 (UTC).

 * (CVA | talk | contributions)

Statement of the dispute
User CVA is ignoring the talk pages, ignoring the three revert rule, and resorting to personal and racist remarks while at the same time failing to provide any factual backup for his or hers claims when asked.

Allegations: CVA is constantly reverting the Partisan page and erasing any mention of the Polish partisans. He or she claims the sources that are quoted on the Talk:Partisan page to be biased solely because they are Polish. CVA is also stating that most Poles are wrong and biased because they are Poles, which is offensive and absurd, to say the least. He or she is also suggesting other users ignorance or bad will. At the same time he or she fails to provide any sources that would back up his or hers claims. Such statements are clearly against the "Discuss the facts and how to express them, not the attributes of the other party" rule.
 * Description:

Halibutt demands apologies for the personal remarks and suggesting that he is wrong solely because of his nationality. CVA should finally state some reliable sources before he or she commits to a revert war once again. No ban is needed since user CVA is also engaged in valuable edits of other pages.

 * Evidence of disputed behavior (provide diffs and links):
 * - CVA suggests bad will, lack of education and states that Poles are wrong because they are Poles
 *
 * ,, ...

 * Applicable policies:
 * Talk page
 * Cite sources
 * Check your facts
 * No personal attacks
 * Negotiating NPOV
 * Always explain your reverts
 * Three revert rule
 * Wikiquette

 * Evidence of trying and failing to resolve the dispute (provide diffs and links):
 * Talk:Partisan and
 * and - CVA asked to quote some sources
 * CVA asked to check his or hers sources
 * and - CVA asked to be cooperative
 * and - CVA not only ingores comments related to this case on his talk pages, he actively deletes them.
 * ,, , , , , , , , , - CVA asked to cooperate

 * Users certifying the basis for this dispute (sign with ~ ):
 * Halibutt 10:08, Aug 3, 2004 (UTC)
 * Przepla 08:53, 5 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * Other users who endorse this summary (sign with ~ ):
 * Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus 21:56, 4 Aug 2004 (UTC) and 16:35, 3 Aug 2004
 * Szopen 07:29, 4 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Response
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This is a summary written by users not directly involved with the dispute but who would like to add an outside view of the dispute.

I must add that CVA ignores calls for discussion from Halibutt, deletes his question without any comment and modified his user page. I guess CVA is nothing more than vandal which should be banned from wikipedia Szopen 09:49, 31 Aug 2004 (UTC) Users who endorse this summary (sign with ~ ):

Discussion
All signed comments and talk not related to a vote or endorsement, should be directed to this page's discussion page.

title: Wikipedia:Requests for comment/CVA


text:
Commendation

Commendation ceremony was a formal ceremony that evolved during the Early Medieval period to create a bond between a lord and his fighting man.

Commendation may also refer to:
 * the placing of an ecclesiastical benefice in commendam
 * Ulmus 'Morton Stalwart' Commendation, a Morton Arboretum hybrid cultivar
 * Commander-in-Chief Unit Commendation, a Canadian award given to military units
 * Commendation Medal, a mid-level United States military decoration
 * Commendation for Gallantry, a military decoration awarded to personnel of the Australian Defence Force
 * King's Commendation, a South African award for valuable services in connection with the Second World War
 * Meritorious Team Commendation, a unit award of the United States Coast Guard
 * Meritorious Unit Commendation, a mid-level unit award of the United States Armed Forces
 * Navy Unit Commendation, a United States Navy unit award

Official Commendation awards of the United Kingdom consist of:
 * King's and Queen's Commendation for Brave Conduct, awarded 1939-1994
 * King's and Queen's Commendation for Valuable Service in the Air, awarded 1942-1994
 * Queen's Commendation for Bravery, awarded since 1994
 * Queen's Commendation for Bravery in the Air, awarded since 1994
 * Queen's Commendation for Valuable Service, awarded since 1994

title: Commendation


text:
University of Puerto Rico at Ponce

The University of Puerto Rico at Ponce (UPRP or UPR-Ponce) is a public college in Ponce, Puerto Rico. It is the only campus of the University of Puerto Rico on the southern region of the island.

History
The school opened on 23 August 1970 as Colegio Regional de Ponce de la Universidad de Puerto Rico (often shortened to Colegio Regional de Ponce). In 1982, the school starts offering four-year degrees and its name is changed Colegio Universitario Tecnológico de Ponce (CUTPO ) to reflect this. In 1998 the school is given administrative independence from the University of Puerto Rico flagship school at Rio Piedras and its name is once again changed to become Colegio Universitario de Ponce. In 2000, in light of the expansion and diversity of the school academic offering, the Consejo de Educación Superior de Puerto Rico (Puerto Rico Higher Education Council) authorized a name change to Universidad de Puerto Rico en Ponce (University of Puerto Rico at Ponce).

In 2010 the campus went on strike as part of the 2010–2011 University of Puerto Rico strikes. In 2017 in response to budget cuts to the university system by the Financial Oversight and Management Board for Puerto Rico the campus students voted to join the University of Puerto Rico strikes, 2017.

Academics
The school offers associate degrees and bachelor degrees.

title: University of Puerto Rico at Ponce


text:
American Ballet Theatre

American Ballet Theatre (ABT) is a classical ballet company based in New York City. Founded in 1939 by Lucia Chase and Richard Pleasant, it is recognized as one of the world's leading classical ballet companies. Through 2019, it had an annual eight-week season at the Metropolitan Opera House (Lincoln Center) in the spring and a shorter season at the David H. Koch Theater in the fall; the company tours around the world the rest of the year. The company was scheduled to have a 5-week spring season at the MET preceded by a 2-week season at the Koch Theater beginning in 2020. ABT is the parent company of the American Ballet Theatre Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis School, and was recognized as "America's National Ballet Company" in 2006 by the United States Congress.

History
In 1939 Pleasant and Chase committed to the creation of "a large scale company with an eclectic repertory". The pair and a small group from Mordkin Ballet formed Ballet Theatre. Their new company's first performance was on 11 January 1940. Chase began developing the company's repertoire of well-known full-length ballets, as well as original works, amidst financial issues. In 1945 Oliver Smith joined Ballet Theatre and became co-director with Chase.

In 1957 the company changed its name to American Ballet Theatre. It continued to emphasize ballet classics, yet remained challenged by financial issues. During the 1960s and 1970s, the company's prospects brightened due to more favorable private funding. During this period, American Ballet Theatre shifted its ballet focus to the recruitment of star performers. In 1977, the company began its spring season at the Metropolitan Opera House, its new official venue.

Mikhail Baryshnikov in 1980 became artistic director for American Ballet Theatre. Baryshnikov staged, restaged, and refurbished numerous classical ballets and, according to the company, strengthened their classical tradition. Baryshnikov was replaced in 1989 by Jane Hermann and Oliver Smith, who remained as artistic directors until 1992, when Kevin McKenzie received the appointment. McKenzie satisfied the demands of the traditional ballet audience by prioritizing full-length narrative ballets. He also succeeded in keeping the company afloat during financially unstable times. In 2004 he established an official associate ballet school, the Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis School. After a long period of no in-house choreographer, McKenzie appointed Alexei Ratmansky as "Artist in Residence" in January 2009.

McKenzie stepped down from the company in late 2022, as announced in 2021. Susan Jaffe was appointed was announced as McKenzie's successor, and took over the company at the end of 2022. Ratmansky departed the troupe in June 2023.

Artistic directors

 * Lucia Chase and Oliver Smith (1940–1980)
 * Mikhail Baryshnikov (1980–1989)
 * Jane Hermann and Oliver Smith (1989–1992)
 * Kevin McKenzie (1992–2022)
 * Susan Jaffe (2022–present)

Executive director and CEO

 * Rachel S. Moore Executive director (2003–2011) CEO (2011–2016)

Executive director

 * Kara Medoff Barnett (2016–2021)
 * Janet Rollé (2021–2023)
 * Barry Hughson (2024–present)

Resident choreographers

 * Antony Tudor (1940–1950)
 * Alexei Ratmansky (2009–2023)

Music directors, conductors, concertmasters (partial list)

 * Ormsby Wilkins (music director) (current)
 * Charles Barker (principal conductor) (current)
 * David LaMarche (conductor) (current)
 * Benjamin Bowman (concertmaster) (current)

Dancers
American Ballet Theatre has four levels within the company. They are (in ascending order): apprentice, corps de ballet, soloist, and principal.

Former dancers
The following is a partial list of former dancers with ABT, listed by their highest rank prior to leaving the company.

Former principal dancers

 * Stella Abrera (1996–2020)
 * Ivan Allen (1950s–1960s)
 * Alicia Alonso (1943–1948)
 * Nina Ananiashvili (1993–2009)
 * Victor Barbee (1975–2003)
 * Mikhail Baryshnikov (1974–1978)
 * Patrick Bissell (1977–1987)
 * Julio Bocca (1986–2006)
 * Karena Brock (1973–?)
 * Leslie Browne (1976–1993)
 * Erik Bruhn (1949–1958, 1961–1972)
 * Fernando Bujones (1972–85, 1990s)
 * José Manuel Carreño (1995–2011)
 * Lucia Chase (1940–1960)
 * Ángel Corella (1996–2012)
 * Eleonor D'Antuono (1961–1981)
 * Anton Dolin (1940–1946)
 * Irina Dvorovenko (1996–2013)
 * Alessandra Ferri (1985–2007)
 * Carla Fracci (1967–?)
 * Alexander Godunov (1979–1982)
 * Guillaume Graffin (1988–2005)
 * Cynthia Gregory (1965–1991)
 * Cynthia Harvey (1974–1986, 1988–1996)
 * Susan Jaffe (1980–2002)
 * Julie Kent (1993–2015)
 * Gelsey Kirkland (1974–1984)

 * Ruth Ann Koesun (1946–1969)
 * John Kriza (1940–1966)
 * Robert La Fosse (1977–1986)
 * Harold Lang (1943–1945)
 * Annabelle Lyon (1939–1943)
 * Natalia Makarova (1970–1986)
 * Vladimir Malakhov (1995–2008)
 * Alicia Markova (1941–1946)
 * Bruce Marks (1961–1968)
 * Kevin McKenzie (1979–1991)
 * Amanda McKerrow (1982–2005)
 * Kathleen Moore (1982–2006)
 * Veronika Part (2002–2017)
 * Kirk Peterson (1974–1980)
 * Danilo Radojevic (1978–1993)
 * Johan Renvall (1978–1996)
 * Keith Roberts (1987–1999)
 * Ethan Stiefel (1997–2012)
 * Marianna Tcherkassky (1970–1996)
 * Ashley Tuttle (1987–2004)
 * Martine van Hamel (1970–1992)
 * Edward Verso (1962–1968)
 * Michele Wiles (1998–2011)
 * Diana Vishneva (2005–2017)
 * Marcelo Gomes (1997–2018)
 * Roberto Bolle (2009–2019)
 * Sarah Lane (2004–2020)

Former soloists

 * Kristi Boone (2000–2014)
 * Ethan Brown (1981–2004)
 * Gabrielle Brown (1980–1996)
 * Sandra Brown (1987–2003)
 * Tener Brown (1979–1986)
 * Carmen Corella (1998–2007)
 * Lykke Håkansson (2007–2010)
 * Erica Cornejo (1998–2007)
 * George de la Peña (1970s–1985)
 * Joaquín De Luz (1997–2003)
 * Lisa de Ribere (1979–1984)
 * Melissa Hayden (1945–1947)
 * Yuriko Kajiya (2002–2014)
 * Elaine Kudo
 * Anna Liceica (1996–2007)
 * Carlos Lopez (2001–2011)
 * Charles Maple (1972–1983)
 * Jared Matthews (2002–2014)
 * Simone Messmer (2002–2013)
 * Monique Meunier (2002–2007)
 * Carlos Molina (1998–2007)
 * Sascha Radetsky (1995–2014)
 * Amy Rose (1979–1992)
 * Gennadi Saveliev (1996–2012)

Former corps de ballet

 * Susan Borree
 * Maria Bystrova (2000–2010)
 * Caroline Duprot (2009–2011)
 * Tobin Eason (2002–2012)
 * Aino Ettala (2010)
 * Hezekiah C. Fairbank (1999–2000)
 * Victoria (Born) Fornelli (1999–2000)
 * Jeffrey Golladay (2003–2012)
 * Meaghan Hinkis (2010–2011)
 * Carrie Jensen (2000–2009)
 * Clinton Luckett (1992–2002)
 * Ilona McHugh (1997–2005)
 * Patrick Ogle
 * Joseph Phillips (2008–2013)
 * Brendali Staana Espiritu
 * Isaac Stappas (2000–2011)
 * Sarawanee Tanatanit (2002–2008)
 * Mary Mills Thomas (2008–2011)
 * Melissa Thomas (2002–2009)
 * Simon Wexler
 * Jennifer Whalen
 * Katharine Wildish (1985–1987)

 * Renata Pavam (2002–)
 * Bo Busby

Repertoire
Perhaps no other choreographer was as closely associated with ABT as the great British choreographer Antony Tudor, who made his American debut with the company. The other continuous creative force was the legendary Agnes de Mille. She staged the majority of her ballet works with them. Many choreographers have mounted works especially for ABT, including George Balanchine, Adolph Bolm, Michel Fokine, Léonide Massine, and Bronislava Nijinska. Other renowned choreographers who have worked at ABT include Jerome Robbins, Twyla Tharp, and Alvin Ailey.

ABT's 1976 production of The Nutcracker starring Mikhail Baryshnikov and Gelsey Kirkland was televised the following year and has become a broadcast classic.

The main season is held during the spring at New York City's Metropolitan Opera House, with shorter seasons in the fall previously held at New York City Center, now held at the David H. Koch Theater. Performances of Alexei Ratmansky's The Nutcracker during the holiday season are held at the Segerstrom Center for the Arts. The company tours extensively throughout United States and the world.

Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis School
The Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis School at American Ballet Theatre (ABT/JKO School) is the associate school of American Ballet Theatre located within the Flatiron District of Manhattan, New York City. The school comprises a Children's Division for ages 4 to 12, a Pre-Professional Division for ages 12 to 18, and the preparatory program Studio Company for ages 16 to 20. Cynthia Harvey, a former dancer with ABT, serves as the school's artistic director.

Studio Company
ABT Studio Company, formerly known as ABT II, is a small company of 12 young dancers, ranging from ages 16 to 20, handpicked by ABT. It is the top level of the American Ballet Theatre training ladder and is currently an extension of the ABT JKO school. These dancers are trained in the program to join ABT's main company or other leading professional companies, and the program is described by ABT as "a bridge between ballet training and professional performance".

Project Plié
Project Plié is a diversity initiative launched in 2013 by Rachel Moore, who was then ABT's executive director and CEO. Following her departure, the project was overseen by artistic director Kevin McKenzie and Mary Jo Ziesel, ABT director of education and training. The program was inspired by ABT principal dancer Misty Copeland, and aims to "increase racial and ethnic representation in ballet and diversify America's ballet companies". The initiative is made up of a combination of partnerships within the community and within the industry in addition to scholarships and opportunities for exposure for children of color. Annually, as of 2013, Project Plié has awarded scholarships to young people ranging from ages 9 to 18 including to the ABT/JKO School, ABT's summer intensive programs and ABT's Young Dancer Workshop.

title: American Ballet Theatre


text:
Raymond of Aguilers

Raymond of Aguilers was a participant in and chronicler of the First Crusade (1096–1099). During the campaign he became the chaplain of Count Raymond IV of Toulouse, the leader of the Provençal army of crusaders. His chronicle, entitled Historia Francorum qui ceperunt Iherusalem, which he co-wrote with Pons of Balazun, ends with the events immediately following the capture of Jerusalem in 1099.

Biography
Raymond was probably born second half of the 11th century in the vicinity of Toulouse. "Aguilers" is probably a reference to the village of Aiguilhe. Before the crusade, Raymond was a lay canon (deacon) of the cathedral of Le Puy. He probably travelled originally in the entourage of Bishop Adhemar of Le Puy, the papal legate. There is a purported charter of Bishop Adhemar that refers to his chancellor as Raymond of Aguilhes, but the existence of this charter and the identification of the chancellor and the canon are doubtful. Raymond was ordained a priest during the Siege of Antioch in 1098 and was made a chaplain to Count Raymond and thus a member of his household after the death of Raymond's previous confessor, Bishop William of Orange. After the successful conquest of Jerusalem he was the likely author of the letter the crusaders wrote to Pope Urban II in 1099.

Raymond reports that he was among the first to believe Peter Bartholomew's claim to have seen in a vision the location of the Holy Lance and that he participated in the digging that led to its discovery in the Church of Saint Peter. The authenticity of the Holy Lance and of Peter's visions is a major theme of his work, although he admits that Peter did not unambiguously pass the ordeal by fire in April 1099.

Author of the Historia Francorum qui ceperunt Iherusalem
Everything we know about Raymond is derived from the Historia, the idea for which he credits to Pons. Raymond must have been the main author and finisher, however, since Pons died before the capture of Jerusalem. The Historia was probably started as the crusade progressed, possibly just after the discovery of the Holy Lance, and the preface added later. It was completed before the death of Count Raymond in 1105.

His account is partial to the Peasants' Crusade and takes a dim view of those who deserted or abandoned the expedition (and their vows). He had access to the Gesta Francorum, of which he made some use, and his Historia was used as a source by Fulcher of Chartres for the work he completed in 1101. He was further influenced by his time at the Le Puy Cathedral whose library, including the famous Le Puy Bible, was comparable to some of the best of the late tenth and early eleventh century.

Compared to other authors of works on the First Crusade, Raymond has a preference for references to the Old instead of the New Testament, using twice as many as his fellow Provencal Peter Tudebode. There are references to several eschatological elements in his account such as the Olivet Discourse, the Last Emperor or Apocalypse of Daniel.

title: Raymond of Aguilers


text:
University of Puerto Rico at Utuado

The University of Puerto Rico at Utuado (UPRU or UPR-Utuado) is a public college in Utuado, Puerto Rico. Founded in 1979, it is the youngest of the campuses that compose the University of Puerto Rico system. UPR-Utuado is also known by its previous name Colegio Regional de la Montaña (Regional College of the Mountain) and its acronym "CORMO".

The University of Puerto Rico at Utuado is the only university campus in Puerto Rico in a rural setting. The campus specializes in agricultural technological studies; it is located in the center of the island, about an hour and a half from San Juan, in a region of archaeological value where the first inhabitants of Puerto Rico, the Taino Indians, lived.

History
In 2010 the campus went on strike as part of the 2010–2011 University of Puerto Rico strikes. In 2017 in response to budget cuts to the university system by the Financial Oversight and Management Board for Puerto Rico the campus students voted to join the University of Puerto Rico strikes, 2017.

Over a period of twelve years the campus student population has declined by 83% from 1,917 in 2010 to 331 in 2022.

Academics
UPRU awards associate's degrees and bachelor's degrees. Many of the academic programs also offer access to four baccalaureate programs by articulated transfer to other campuses of the University of Puerto Rico.

The college has established four study projects that promote integrated technical and human issues related to agriculture and rural life in the local and international environment. These are: Research and Documentation Center of Mountain Affairs, Project for Rural Life assessment, Contemporary Articulation Learning Communities, and Sustainability First Year Infrastructure. In 2017 the campus began a bachelor's program in sustainable agriculture.

title: University of Puerto Rico at Utuado


text:
Beinn Dearg (Torridon)

Beinn Dearg is the fourth highest of the Torridon Hills in the highlands of Scotland. Beinn Dearg offers all the typical features of a Torridon hill, with steeply terraced rocky sides dissected by near vertical gullies. The summit ridge is an airy crest that offers some easy scrambling; alternatively this can be avoided by following a path that traverses the terraces on the southern side.

Unlike its higher neighbours, the hill just misses out on the height of 3,000 ft, and therefore lacks any peaks of Munro status. For this reason, if no other, it is climbed far less than the three major mountains surrounding it. In 2007, the Munro Society commissioned CMCR Ltd to survey Beinn Dearg in order to ascertain the precise height of the summit, and determine whether it might in fact be correctly categorised as a Munro. The summit was found to be 2.42 ft short.

Ascent
The most normal starting point for climbing Beinn Dearg is the car park at the foot of the Abhainn Coire Mhic Nobuil, which is also the normal start point for an ascent of Beinn Alligin. From here the river is followed until the confluence with the Allt à Bhealaich. This burn may be followed up to the low bealach or saddle between Beinn Dearg and Beinn Alligin, at which point the walker can strike upwards for the western end of the summit ridge.

Alternative routes of ascent may be made by continuing to follow the Abhainn Coire Mhic Nobuil under the south side of the hill. Two gullies offer routes to the summit ridge, either side of the subsidiary peak of Carn na Feòla at the eastern end of the 4 km long ridge. By combining two of the three routes described above one may complete a traverse of Beinn Dearg.

The summit offers excellent views of the well known surrounding peaks of Torridon.

title: Beinn Dearg (Torridon)


text:
CVG

CVG may refer to:

Businesses

 * Corporación Venezolana de Guayana, a mining conglomerate (formed 1960)
 * Convergys, a software company (1998–2018)
 * Carrill Aviation, an airline

Places

 * Central Valley Greenway, a route in Canada
 * Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport, United States

Other uses

 * Cutis verticis gyrata, a condition of the scalp
 * Computer and Video Games, a British gaming magazine
 * Coriolis vibratory gyroscope

title: CVG


text:
List of colonial governors of the Comoros

This article lists the colonial governors of the Comoros, from the establishment of the French suzerainty over the Comoro Islands in 1841 until the independence of the Comoros in 1975.

List of officeholders
(Dates in italics indicate de facto continuation of office)

For continuation after independence, see: List of heads of state of the Comoros


text:
Talk:Sir Richard Grenville, 1st Baronet

Untitled
I think a natural disambiguator is better than "(Royalist soldier)". Proteus (Talk) 09:55, 3 Aug 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Sir Richard Grenville, 1st Baronet


text:
Hwair

Hwair (also ƕair, huuair, hvair) is the name of, the Gothic letter expressing the or  sound (reflected in English by the inverted wh-spelling for ). Hwair is also the name of the Latin ligature ƕ (capital Ƕ) used to transcribe Gothic.

Name
The name of the Gothic letter is recorded by Alcuin in Codex Vindobonensis 795 as uuaer. The meaning of the name ƕair was probably "cauldron, pot" (cf. ƕairnei "skull"); comparative reconstruction shows *kʷer- (“a kind of dish or pot”) in Proto-Indo-European.

There was no Elder Futhark rune for the phoneme, so that unlike those of most Gothic letters, the name does not continue the name of a rune (but see qairþra).

Sound
Gothic ƕ is the reflex of Common Germanic xʷ, which in turn continues the Indo-European labiovelar * after it underwent Grimm's law. The same phoneme in Old English and Old High German is spelled hw.

Transliteration
The Gothic letter is transliterated with the Latin ligature of the same name, ƕ, which was introduced by philologists around 1900 to replace the digraph hv, which was formerly used to express the phoneme, e.g. by Migne (vol. 18) in the 1860s. It is used, for example, in Dania transcription. It was also used to represent the voiceless labial–velar fricative in a 1921 edition of the International Phonetic Alphabet.

Related letters and other similar characters

 * : ʘ|IPA letter Bilabial click
 * Ԋ ԋ : Komi Nje, a letter in the Molodtsov alphabet
 * Ꙩ ꙩ : Cyrillic letter Monocular O
 * ん : N (kana)
 * Խ խ : Armenian Khe

Character encodings
Note that the Unicode names of the Latin letters are different: "Hwair" and "Hv".

title: Hwair


text:
Beinn Dearg

Beinn Dearg, meaning "Red Mountain" in Gaelic, is the name of several hills in Scotland:

 * Beinn Dearg (Ullapool), a 1084 m Munro and Marilyn lying southeast of Ullapool
 * Beinn Dearg (Blair Atholl), a 1009 m Munro and Marilyn to the north of Blair Atholl
 * Beinn Dearg (Torridon), a 914 m Corbett and Marilyn in the Torridon area
 * Beinn Dearg (Glen Lyon), a 830 m Corbett and Marilyn north of Glen Lyon
 * Beinn Dearg (Glenartney), a 706 m Graham and Marilyn in the Glenartney area, Perthshire
 * Beinn Dearg (Skye), a 552 m Marilyn whose parent is The Storr
 * Beinn Dearg (Menteith), a 427 m Marilyn in the Menteith Hills, the Trossachs
 * Beinn Dearg (Cape Wrath), a 423.8 m Marilyn in the Cape Wrath peninsula

title: Beinn Dearg


text:
Islam and other religions

Over the centuries of Islamic history, Muslim rulers, Islamic scholars, and ordinary Muslims have held many different attitudes towards other religions. Attitudes have varied according to time, place and circumstance.

Non-Muslims and Islam
The Qur'an distinguishes between the monotheistic People of the Book, i.e. Jews, Christians, Sabians and others on the one hand and polytheists or idolaters on the other hand. There are certain kinds of restrictions that apply to polytheists but not to "People of the Book" in classical Islamic law. One example is that Muslim males are allowed to marry a Christian or Jew, but not a polytheist. Muslim women, however, may not marry non-Muslim men.

The Quran told Muslims to discuss the common points between Muslims and non-Muslims. It directs Muslims not to fight with people of the Book.

The idea of Islamic infallibility is encapsulated in the formula, "Islam is exalted and nothing is exalted above it."

Abraham, Moses, Hebrew prophets, and Jesus were all prophets of Islam, but according to Muslim tradition their message and the texts of the Torah and the Gospels were corrupted.

"And dispute not with the People of the Book, except with means better than mere disputation, unless I be with those of them who inflict wrong and injury, but say to them: "We believe in the revelation which has come down to us and in that which came down to you; Our God and your God is one; and it is to Him that we bow."

Apostasy in Islam can be punishable by death and/or imprisonment according to some interpretations but they are only found in hadiths and there is nothing in the Quran that commands death penalty for apostate so the issue of apostasy is controversial. W. Heffening states that Shafi'is interpret verse as adducing the main evidence for the death penalty in Qur'an. Wael Hallaq states the death penalty was a new element added later and "reflects a later reality and does not stand in accord with the deeds of the Prophet." He further states that "nothing in the law governing apostate and apostasy derives from the letter of the holy text." There are also interpretations according to which apostates are not executed nor punished, and there is freedom of religion.

In the 7th century text Concerning Heresy, the Christian scholar John of Damascus named Islam as Christological heresy, referring to it as the "heresy of the Ishmaelites". The position has remained popular in Christian circles well into the 20th century, by theologians such as the Congregationalist cleric Frank Hugh Foster and the Roman Catholic historian Hilaire Belloc, the latter of who described it as "the great and enduring heresy of Mohammed."

Early Muslim practice
During the thirteen years that Muhammad led his followers against Mecca and then against the other Arab tribes, Christian and Jewish communities who had submitted to Muslim rule were allowed to worship in their own way and follow their own family law, and were given a degree of self-government.

However, the non-Muslim were subject to taxation (known as ) at a different rate to the Muslim. also faced economic impediments, restrictions on political participation and/or social advancement based on their non-Muslim status.

Some Jews generally rejected Muhammad's status as a prophet. According to Watt, "Jews would normally be unwilling to admit that a non-Jew could be a prophet." In the Constitution of Medina, Muhammad demanded the Jews' political loyalty in return for religious and cultural autonomy. In every major battle with the Medinans, two local Jewish tribes were found to be treacherous (see ). After Badr and Uhud, the Banu Qainuqa and Banu Nadir (the latter being an ethnic Arab tribe who converted to Judaism, according to the Muslim historian al-Yaqubi), respectively, took up arms against the ummah and were subsequently expelled "with their families and possessions" from Medina.

However, this incident does not imply that Jews in general rejected Muhammad's constitution. One Yemenite Jewish document, found in the Cairo Genizah, claims that many Jews had not only accepted Muhammad as a prophet, but even desecrated Sabbath in order to join Muhammad in his struggle; historians suggest that this document, called (Muhammad's Writ of Protection), may have been fabricated by Yemenite Jews for the purpose of self-defence. Still, some Yemeni Jews considered Muhammad a true prophet, including Natan'el al-Fayyumi, a major 12th century rabbi who incorporated various Shia doctrines into his view of Judaism.

The Syriac Patriarch Ishôyahb III wrote in his correspondence to Simeon of Rewardashir, "As for the Arabs, to whom God has at this time given rule (shultãnâ) over the world, you know well how they act toward us. Not only do they not oppose Christianity, but they praise our faith, honour the priests and saints of our Lord, and give aid to the churches and monasteries."

After Muhammad's death in 632, Islamic rule grew rapidly, encompassing what is now the Middle East, Egypt, North Africa, and Iran. Most of the new subjects were Christian, Jewish, and Zoroastrian, the first two being considered People of the Book. (After some argument, the Zoroastrians were considered People of the Book as well.) Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians were called, protected persons. As noted above, they could worship, follow their own family law, and own property. People of the Book were not subject to certain Islamic rules, such as the prohibitions on alcohol and pork, but were subject to other restrictions. Under the Islamic state, they were exempt from military service, but were required to pay a poll tax known as. (They were, however, exempt from the required of Muslims.) They could be bureaucrats and advisors, but they could never be rulers.

Later Islamic practices
Under the Ummayads and Abbasids, the Islamic community was increasingly fragmented into various sects and kingdoms, each of which had its own evolving policy towards and towards conquered polytheists.

Later Islamic conquests
From historical evidence, it appears Tokharistan was the only area of Iran heavily colonized by Arabs, where Buddhism flourished when they arrived and the only area incorporated into the Arab empire where Sanskrit studies were pursued up to the conquest. The grandson of Barmak was the vizier of the empire and took personal interest in Sanskrit works and Indian religions. When the Barmakids were removed from power and their influence disappeared, no further translations of Sanskrit works into Arabic is known until that of Al-Biruni.

With the Ghaznavids and later the Mughals, Islam also expanded further into northern India. Will Durant, in The Story of Civilization, described this as "probably the bloodiest story in history." This approach was not uniform, and different rulers adopted different strategies. The Ghurid dynasty converted to Sunni Islam from Buddhism after the conquest of Ghor by the Ghaznavid ruler Mahmud of Ghazni in 1011. The Mughal emperor Akbar, for example, was relatively tolerant towards Hindus, while his great-grandson Aurangzeb was heavily intolerant. Hindus were ultimately given the tolerated religious minority status of.

The Buddhists of India were not as fortunate; although Buddhism had been in decline prior to the Muslim invasions, the destruction of monastic universities in the invasions such as Nalanda and Vikramashila were a calamity from which it never recovered. According to one Buddhist scholar, the monasteries were destroyed because they were large, fortified edifices considered threats by Muslim Turk invaders.

The Almohad rulers of Muslim Spain were initially intolerant, and engaged in forced conversions; Maimonides, for example, was forced to masquerade as a Muslim and eventually flee Spain after the initial Almohad conquest.

Comparative religion and anthropology of religion
After the Arab conquest of the Buddhist center of Balkh, a Quranic commentator was denounced for anthropomorphism, a standard attack on those sympathetic to Buddhism. Hiwi al-Balkhi had attacked the authority of Quran and revealed religions, reciting the claims of Zoroastrianism, Christianity and Judaism.

In the early 11th century, the Islamic scholar Abū Rayhān Bīrūnī wrote detailed comparative studies on the anthropology of religions across the Middle East, Mediterranean and especially the Indian subcontinent. Biruni's anthropology of religion was only possible for a scholar deeply immersed in the lore of other nations. He carried out extensive, personal investigations of the peoples, customs, and religions of the Indian subcontinent, and was a pioneer in comparative religion and the anthropology of religion.

According to Arthur Jeffery, "It is rare until modern times to find so fair and unprejudiced a statement of the views of other religions, so earnest an attempt to study them in the best sources, and such care to find a method which for this branch of study would be both rigorous and just." Biruni compared Islam with pre-Islamic religions, and was willing to accept certain elements of pre-Islamic wisdom which would conform with his understanding of the Islamic spirit.

In the introduction to his Indica, Biruni himself writes that his intent behind the work was to engage dialogue between Islam and the Indian religions, particularly Hinduism as well as Buddhism. Biruni was aware that statements about a religion would be open to criticism by its adherents, and insisted that a scholar should follow the requirements of a strictly scientific method. According to William Montgomery Watt, Biruni "is admirably objective and unprejudiced in his presentation of facts" but "selects facts in such a way that he makes a strong case for holding that there is a certain unity in the religious experience of the peoples he considers, even though he does not appear to formulate this view explicitly." Biruni argued that Hinduism was a monotheistic faith like Islam, and in order to justify this assertion, he quotes Hindu texts and argues that the worship of idols is "exclusively a characteristic of the common people, with which the educated have nothing to do."

Biruni argued that the worship of idols "is due to a kind of confusion or corruption." According to Watt, Biruni "goes on to maintain that in the course of generations the origin of the veneration of the images is forgotten, and further that the ancient legislators, seeing that the Veneration of images is advantageous, made it obligatory for the ordinary. He mentions the view of some people that, before God sent prophets, all mankind were idol-worshippers, but he apparently does not presumably held that, apart from the messages transmitted by prophets, men could know the existence and unity of God by rational methods of philosophy." Biruni argued that "the Hindus, no less than the Greeks, have philosophers who are believers in monotheism." Al-Biruni also compared Islam and Christianity, citing passages from the Qur'an and Bible which state that their followers should always speak the truth.

Contemporary Islam
During the 19th and early 20th centuries, most Islamic states fell under the sway of European colonialists. The colonialists enforced tolerance, especially of European Christian missionaries. After World War II, there was a general retreat from colonialism, and predominantly Muslim countries were again able to set their own policies regarding non-Muslims. This period also saw the beginning of increased migration from Muslim countries into the First World countries of Europe, the UK, Canada, the US, etc. This has completely reshaped relations between Islam and other religions.

In predominantly Muslim countries
Some predominantly Muslim countries allow the practice of all religions. Of these, some limit this freedom with bans on proselytizing or conversion, or restrictions on the building of places of worship; others (such as Mali) have no such restrictions. In practice, the situation of non-Muslim minorities depends not only on the law, but on local practices, which may vary.

Some countries are predominantly Muslim and allow freedom of religion adhering to democratic principles. Of particular note are the following countries:
 * Indonesia and Malaysia have a significant population from the Hindu, Christian and Buddhist religions. They are allowed to practice their religions, build places of worship and even have missionary schools and organizations but with limitation of such practice.
 * In Syria, there are about 2.2 million Christians (10–12% of the population) from about 15 different religious and ethnic sects (Greek Orthodox, Syrian Orthodox, Church of the East, Protestants, Armenians Apostolic and various Catholics, Greek, Syrian, Aremenian, Chaldean, Maronite, Latin), as well as a few dozen Jews, and they have many hundreds of independent privately owned churches and some 15 synagogues. The freedom of religion is well observed by the state law as well as the historical long record of tolerance since the Ummayde caliph days. Christmas and Easter days are official holidays for both the Catholic or Orthodox calendar.
 * Pakistan has different electorates for Muslims and non-Muslims, and also two chief justices of Supreme Court of Pakistan were Hindu and Christian after the formation of the country.

Other Islamic nations are not so tolerant of minority religions:

 * Saudi Arabia limits religious freedom to a high degree, prohibiting public worship by other religions.
 * The Taliban regime in Afghanistan is considered intolerant by many observers. Some ancient Buddhist monuments, like the Buddhas of Bamyan, were destroyed as idolatrous.
 * The constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran recognizes Islam, Christianity, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism as People of the Book and official religions, and they are granted the right to exercise religious freedom in Iran. Five of the 270 seats in parliament are reserved for these three religions. However, the situation of the followers of the Bahá'í Faith, the largest religious minority in the country, is far worse. State sanctioned persecution of Bahá'ís allows them to be attacked and dehumanized on political, religious, and social grounds to separate Bahá'ís from the rest of society. According to Eliz Sanasarian "Of all non-Muslim religious minorities the persecution of the Bahá'ís has been the most widespread, systematic, and uninterrupted." See Religion in Iran and Persecution of Bahá'ís. Also, senior government posts are reserved for Muslims. All minority religious groups, are barred from being elected president. Jewish, Christian and Zoroastrian schools must be run by Muslim principals. Compensation for death paid to the family of a non-Muslim was (by law) less than if the victim was a Muslim. Conversion to Islam is encouraged by entitling converts to inherit the entire share of their parents (or even uncle's) estate if their siblings (or cousins) remain non-Muslim. Iran's non-Muslim population has fallen dramatically. For example, the Jewish population in Iran dropped from 80,000 to 30,000 in the first two decades of the revolution.
 * In Egypt, a 16 December 2006 judgement of the Supreme Administrative Council created a clear demarcation between "recognized religions"—Islam, Christianity and Judaism—and all other religious beliefs; the ruling effectively delegitimatizes and forbids the practice of all but these aforementioned religions. The ruling leaves members of other religious communities, including Bahá'ís, without the ability to obtain the necessary government documents to have rights in their country, essentially denying them of all rights of citizenship. They cannot obtain ID cards, birth certificates, death certificates, marriage or divorce certificates, and passports; they also cannot be employed, educated, treated in public hospitals or vote among other things. See Egyptian identification card controversy.

According to Islamic law, (poll tax) is to be paid by all non-Muslims living in a Muslim state, excluding the weak and the poor, to the general welfare of the state. Also, in his book "Al-Kharaj," Abu Yusuf says, "No is due on females or young infants." In exchange for the tax, the non-Muslims are required to be given security, provided compensation from the Muslim Exchequer when they are in need, treated on equality with Muslims, and enjoy rights as nationals of the state. Al-Balathiri comments on this saying, "Khaled Ibn Al-Walid, on entering Damascus as a conqueror, offered a guarantee of security to its people and their properties and churches, and promised that the wall of the city would not be pulled down, and none of their houses be demolished. It was a guarantee of God, he said, and of the Caliph and all believers to keep them safe and secure on condition they paid the dues of the ." This poll tax is different from the alms tax paid by the Muslim subjects of a Muslim state. Whereas is compulsory and paid by the tolerated community per head count,  was paid only if one can afford it. Muslims and non-Muslims who hold property, especially land, were required however to pay.

Territorial disputes
One of the open issues in the relation between Islamic states and non-Islamic states is the claim from hardline Muslims that once a certain land, state or territory has been under "Muslim" rule, it can never be relinquished anymore, and that such rule, somewhere in history would give the Muslims a kind of an eternal right on the claimed territory. This claim is particularly controversial with regard to Israel and to a lesser degree Spain and parts of the Balkan and it applies to parts of Kashmir as well.

Islamic views on religious pluralism
Reference to Islamic views on religious pluralism is found in the Quran. The following verses are generally interpreted as an evidence of religious pluralism:

Surah Al-Ma'idah verse 48 states:

"If Allah so willed, He would have made you a single People, but His plan is to test each of you separately, in what He has given to each of you: so strive in all virtues as in you are in a race. The goal of all of you is to Allah. It is He that will show you the truth of the matters in which ye dispute."

Surah Al-Ankabut verse 46 states:

"And do not argue with the People of the Scripture except in a way that is best, except for those who commit injustice among them, and say, "We believe in that which has been revealed to us and revealed to you. And our God and your God is one; and we are Muslims [in submission] to Him.""

The Quran criticizes Christians and Jews who believed that their own religions are the only source of truth:

"They say, if you want to be guided to salvation, you should either become a Jew or Christian. Say: What about the religion of Abraham, he also worshiped no one but Allah. We believe in Allah, and the revelation given to us, and to Abraham, to Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, and the Tribes of Israel, and that given to Moses and Jesus, and that given to all prophets from their Lord: We make no difference between one and another of them: And we bow to Allah. So, if they believe, they are indeed on the right path, but if they turn back, Allah will suffice them, and He is the All-Hearing, the All-Knowing. This is the Baptism of Allah. And who can baptize better than Allah. And it is He Whom we worship. Say: Will you dispute with us about Allah, He is our Lord and your Lord; that we are responsible for our doings and you for yours; and that We are sincere in Him? Or do ye say that Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob and the Tribes were Jews or Christians? Say: Do ye know better than Allah? Ah! who is more unjust than those who conceal the testimony they have from Allah. But Allah is not unmindful of what ye do! That was a people that hath passed away. They shall reap the fruit of what they did, and ye of what ye do! Of their merits there is no question in your case."

Surah Al-Baqara verse 113 states:

"The Jews say: 'The Christians have nothing to stand upon'; and the Christians say: 'The Jews have nothing to stand upon.' Yet they both have something to stand upon, they both recite the Book. Like unto their word is what those say who know not; but Allah will judge between them in their quarrel on the Day of Judgment."

Many Muslims agree that cooperation with the Christian and Jewish community is important but some Muslims believe that theological debate is often unnecessary:

"Say: 'O People of the Book! Come to what is common between us and you: That we worship none but God, that we associate no partners with Him, that we erect not, from among ourselves, Lords other than Allah. If then they turn back, say: 'Bear witness that we are bowing to Allah’s will.''"

Islam's fundamental theological concept is the belief in one God. Muslims are not expected to visualize God but to worship and adore him as a protector. Any kind of idolatry is condemned in Islam. As a result, Muslims hold that for someone to worship any other gods or deities other than Allah ( (polytheism)) is a sin that will lead to separation from Allah.

Muslims believe that Allah sent the Qur'an to bring peace and harmony to humanity through Islam (submission to Allah). Muhammad's worldwide mission was to establish universal peace under the. The ensured security of the lives and property of non-Muslims under the  system. This status was originally only made available to non-Muslims who were "People of the Book" (Christians, Jews, and Sabians (commonly identified with the Mandaeans)), but was later extended to include Zoroastrians, Sikhs, Hindus, and Buddhists. had more rights than other non-Muslim religious subjects, but often fewer legal and social rights than Muslims. Some Muslims, however, disagree, and hold that adherents of these faiths cannot be.

enjoyed some freedoms under the state founded by Muhammad and could practice their religious rituals according to their faith and beliefs. Non-Muslims who were not classified as "people of the book," for example practitioners of the pre-Muslim indigenous Arabian religions, had few or no rights in Muslim society.

Muslims and Muslim theologians attend at many interfaith dialogues, for example at the Parliament of the World's Religions with whom in 1993 also Muslim theologians signed the Declaration Toward a Global Ethic. Religious persecution is also prohibited, although religious persecution in Muslim majority states has occurred, especially during periods of cruel rulers and general economic hardships. Pre-Islamic religious minorities continue to exist in some of their native countries, although only as marginal percentages of the overall population.

Over the centuries, several known religious debates, and polemical works did exist in various Muslim countries between various Muslim sects, as well as between Muslims and non-Muslims. Many of these works survive today, and make for some very interesting reading in the apologetics genre. Only when such debates spilled over to the unlearned masses, and thus causing scandals and civil strife, did rulers intervene to restore order and pacify the public outcry on the perceived attack on their beliefs.

As for sects within Islam, history shows a variable pattern. Various sects became intolerant when gaining favour with the rulers, and often work to oppress or eliminate rival sects, for example, the contemporary persecution of Muslim minorities in Saudi Arabia. Sectarian strife between Shia and Sunni inhabitants of Baghdad is well known through history.

Views on forms of worship in other religions
The 14th century Sufi saint Abd al-Karim al-Jili stated that all principal religions actually worship Allah in their own way:

 * 1) The Infidels; they disbelieve in a lord, because they worship the essence of God which reflects there is no lord over him.
 * 2) The Physicists; worshipping the natural properties, which are actually attributes of God.
 * 3) The Philosophers; worshipping the seven planets, which represents further names of God.
 * 4) The Dualists; worshipping God as the Creator and the One.
 * 5) The Magians; worship God in the names of Unity in which all names and attributes past just as fire destroys and transmutes them in their nature.
 * 6) The Materialists; denying a creator and instead believe in the eternity of Time. Thus they just believe in his He-ness, in which God is just potentially but not actually creative.
 * 7) The Jews.
 * 8) The Sabians (Mandaeans).
 * 9) The Christians.
 * 10) The Muslims.

Although there are different ways to worship God, those who do not worship like it was ordinated by a prophet will suffer in the afterlife. This suffering causes pleasure, because they feel spiritual delight in the way of their worship until they repent and take refuge in God.

The Sunni scholar and mystic Mahmoud Shabestari holds that every religion is in some way worshipping Allah. Even idol-worshippers actually would unconsciously worship him, but they do not recognise, that in reality, there is no other entity than Allah to worship, thus unnecessarily limiting him.

Forced conversion
The Quran says "Let there be no compulsion in religion: Truth stands out clear from Error" ( and ).

Quranic translator M. A. S. Abdel Haleem wrote of the Sword Verse, verse 9:5 of At-Tawba 5: "In this context, this definitely refers to the ones who broke the treaty" between Muslims and a group of idolaters during the time of Muhammad. According to Sahih Al-Bukhari although clear orders were given to kill everyone who broke the treaty, Muhammad made a second treaty before entering Mecca and spared even Amar who was responsible for his daughter Rukayya's death and the person who killed his Uncle Hamza.

According to historian Bernard Lewis, forced conversions played a role especially in the 12th century under the Almohad dynasty of North Africa and Andalusia. He is also of the opinion that other incidents of forced conversions have been rare in Islamic history. He adds that "In the early centuries of Islamic rule there was little or no attempt at forcible conversion, the spread of the faith being effected rather by persuasion and inducement." A few well-known examples of forced conversion are:
 * Anusim of Meshhad, Jewish community forced on pain of death to convert in 1839 under Qajar rule. Most continued Jewish practices in secret and many of their descendants returned to Judaism in the early 20th century.
 * Francis Bok—Sudanese-American activist, from Christianity; later returned to his Christian faith.
 * Steve Centanni and Olaf Wiig—forced to convert at gunpoint by terrorists of the Holy Jihad Brigades.
 * Sabbatai Zevi—convert from Judaism, 17th century mystic, pseudo-Messiah and the self-proclaimed "King of Jews." Converted ostensibly of his own free will, while in prison. Although, some speculate that he may have been executed for treason had he not converted. Muslim authorities were opposed to his death.

title: Islam and other religions


text:
Small-numbers game

In economics and decision theory, a small-numbers game is a situation in an oligopolistic market in which the actions of one player have direct unforeseeable consequences for other players.

title: Small-numbers game


text:
Talk:List of state and territorial universities in the United States

Move etc
I think there's a need for an article on the State University systems of the USA giving an overview of the history and the current structure of these systems, but it doesn't fit the current structure of this article.

This article is excellent as is IMO, but probably would be better at List of US State University systems or a similar title. I don't think that the move is urgent or controversial enough to raise on Requested moves just now, but that might be something for later on. Interested in other views on this of course.

See Talk:University of Wisconsin and its (currently two) archive pages for some of the complexity involved. Andrewa 19:18, 8 November 2006 (UTC)

 * The above comments were posted prior to this article being moved from state university. Andrewa 04:01, 18 November 2006 (UTC)

List Order
Hi, just a user here. What do you guys think about having it in order of relative size within each of the states. There are definitely some pros and cons to that. One thing we could do to make size more apparent could be to format it like the State Governors list and have a column for population.

,Jason Mitchell jasonm@morganmeredith.com

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

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Satellite campuses
Some entries are not autonomous institutions within a system but satellite campuses that have no separate accreditation from the main campus. I cleaned it up. Isko1901 (talk) 09:03, 20 January 2019 (UTC)


text:
Liberalism in Belgium

This article gives an overview of liberalism in Belgium. Liberalism was a dominant force since the Belgian independence from the Netherlands. It is limited to liberal parties with substantial support, mainly proved by having had a representation in parliament. The sign ⇒ denotes another party in that scheme. For inclusion in this scheme it is not necessary that parties labeled themselves as a liberal party.

History
Since 1972 the traditional liberal current is divided in parties for each language. In Flanders the liberal Flemish Liberals and Democrats (Vlaamse Liberalen en Democraten, member LI, ELDR), comprising both market and left of center liberals, is one of the dominant parties. Smaller liberal parties are Spirit, allied with the social democrats, and Vivant, allied to the VLD. In the French-speaking part of the country the nowadays center liberal Reformist Movement (Mouvement Réformateur, member LI, ELDR) is one of the major parties. Affiliated with this party is the German-speaking Party for Freedom and Progress (Partei für Freiheit und Fortschritt).

Liberal Party/Party for Freedom and Progress

 * 1846: Liberals formed the Liberal Party (Parti Libéral)
 * 1887: A radical faction seceded as the ⇒ Progressive Party
 * 1900: The ⇒ Progressive Party rejoined the party
 * The party name gradually included the Dutch version Liberale Partij (LP/PL)
 * 1961: The LP/PL is reorganised into Party for Freedom and Progress (Partij voor Vrijheid en Vooruitgang/Parti pour la Liberté et le Progrès) (PVV/PLP)
 * 1972: The PVV/PLP fell apart in three parties with the same name in the three state languages (French, Dutch and German)

Progressive Party

 * 1887: A radical faction of the ⇒ Liberal Party formed the Progressive Party (Parti Progressiste)
 * 1900: The PP merged into the ⇒ Liberal Party

(Flemish) Party for Freedom and Progress/Flemish Liberals and Democrats

 * 1972: The Flemish section of the ⇒ PVV/PLP formed the Party for Freedom and Progress (Partij voor Vrijheid en Vooruitgang)
 * 1992: The PVV is reorganised into the Flemish Liberals and Democrats (Vlaamse Liberalen en Democraten or VLD)
 * 2007: VLD is regorganised into the Open Flemish Liberals and Democrats (Open Vlaamse Liberalen en Democraten, or open vld)

(Francophone) Party for Freedom and Progress/Liberal Reformist Party

 * 1972: The francophone section of the ⇒ PVV/PLP became the Party for Freedom and Progress (Parti pour la Liberté et le Progrès)
 * 1973: The Brussels section of the PLP formed the ⇒ Liberal Party
 * 1976: The PLP merged with a faction of the Walloon Rally (Rassemblement Wallon) into the Party for Reforms and Freedom of Wallonia (Parti pour les Réformes et la Liberté de Wallonie)
 * 1979: The party merged with the ⇒ Liberal Party into the Reformist Liberal Party (Parti Réformateur Libéral)
 * 2002: The PRL is reorganised into the present-day Reformist Movement (Mouvement Réformateur or MR)

(Brussels) Liberal Party

 * 1973: The Brussels section of the ⇒ PLP formed the Liberal Party (Parti Libéral)
 * 1979: The Liberal Party merged into the ⇒ Liberal Reform Party

(German speaking) Party for Freedom and Progress

 * 1976: The German-speaking section of the ⇒ PLP became the present-day Party for Freedom and Progress (Partei für Freiheit und Fortschritt)
 * 2002: The PFF became affiliated to the ⇒ Reformist Movement
 * 2023: The PFP is renamed into Perspectives. Freedom. Progress. (Perspektiven. Freiheit. Fortschritt.)

Libertine party during the 1990s

 * 1991: ROSSEM was founded around Jean-Pierre Van Rossem.
 * 1994: ROSSEM collapsed.
 * 1995: A group centered around Roland Duchâtelet splits from ROSSEM and found BANAAN.
 * 1995: A group centered around Jan Decorte splits from ROSSEM and found HOERA, which vanishes in the same year.
 * 1997: BANAAN merges into Vivant (social-liberalism).
 * 2004: Vivant becomes cartel partner of the VLD.
 * 2007: Flemish Vivant gets absorbed into ⇒ Open Vld and becomes de facto a German-speaking party.
 * 2009: ROSSEM is re-founded under the new full name Party of the Future.
 * 2014: ROSSEM is renamed into Anderz.
 * 2014: Anderz dissolves.

Right-liberal parties

 * Liberal Appeal (2002–2007), cartel partner of the VLD; merged into ⇒ Open Vld.
 * Veilig Blauw (Safe Blue), local party, defunct.
 * Verstandig Rechts (Smart Right), local party, defunct, led by Willy Vermeulen.
 * VLOTT (2006–2012), cartel partner of the Vlaams Belang.
 * List Dedecker (populist right-liberalism) founded in 2007.
 * Libéral Démocrate, local party led by Rudy Aernoudt, cartel partner of the MR.
 * People's Party, far-right liberal party (2009–2019), founded by Rudy Aernoudt and Mischaël Modrikamen, merged into ⇒ Chez Nous.
 * Liberal Democrats, founded in 2019 in inspiration by New Flemish Alliance.

Other liberal parties formed in the 2000s

 * FlemishProgressives (left-liberalism), cartel partner of the Different Socialist Party.

Liberal leaders

 * Parti Libéral
 * Charles Rogier
 * Walthère Frère-Orban (1812-1896), wrote the first charter of the liberal party
 * Paul Janson
 * Paul Hymans
 * Paul-Emile Janson
 * Mouvement Réformateur
 * Charles Michel
 * Sophie Wilmès
 * Vlaamse Liberalen en Democraten
 * Guy Verhofstadt
 * Alexander De Croo

Liberal thinkers
In the Contributions to liberal theory the following Belgian thinkers are included:

 * Dirk Verhofstadt (born 1955)
 * Boudewijn Bouckaert

title: Liberalism in Belgium


text:
Tukay

Tukay may refer to:
 * Ğabdulla Tuqay (1886–1913), Tatar poet
 * Tukay, Republic of Tatarstan, a settlement in the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia
 * Tukay, name of several other rural localities in Russia

title: Tukay