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Swiss cuisine

Swiss cuisine (Schweizer Küche, cuisine suisse, cucina svizzera, cuschina svizra) is an ensemble of national, regional and local dishes, consisting of the ingredients, recipes and cooking techniques developed in Switzerland or assimilated from other cultures, particularly neighboring countries. The diversity and comprehensiveness of Swiss gastronomy reflects the linguistic, cultural and geographical diversity. The climate of Switzerland allows for a large variety of terroirs, and therefore a wide range of indigenous food, from simple cereals to refined products like cheese and wine.

Switzerland is historically an agricultural country, with many regions being isolated from each other by the Alps. Therefore, one of the main characteristics of Swiss cuisine is its simplicity, with many dishes made up of few but hearty ingredients, often of dairy origin. Swiss cuisine evolved dramatically during the last centuries. Probably the most significant changes occurred after colonization of the Americas and the introduction of now-widely-used ingredients such as potatoes, maize and cocoa. The increase in purchasing power and a certain homogenization of taste have allowed the emergence of some emblematic national dishes such as fondue and rösti.

Well-known products exported worldwide include cheese, wine and chocolate. A large number of them are protected by a geographical indication (AOP). A strong food industry, often related to chocolate, has developed over the past centuries in Switzerland.

Agriculture and foods
The climatic and cultural diversity of Switzerland is reflected in the diversity of its food products. Various cereals and fruits are cultivated in the lower regions, while the warmest and sunniest areas in the south lend themselves to growing grapes, chestnuts, and even olives. The other most common fruits cultivated in Switzerland are apples, pears, apricots, cherries, plums and strawberries. The mountainous and coldest areas feature the perhaps most emblematic agricultural practices of Switzerland: dairy farming and alpine transhumance.

Swiss cuisine comprises a variety of staple foods. These typically include bread, potatoes, pasta, rice and polenta. Potatoes are particularly ubiquitous in Swiss cuisine, although it is only the case since the late 18th century. They are notably used in rösti, a popular dish that is eaten all over Switzerland, and originally a breakfast food. Bread and cereals are eaten on a daily basis in Switzerland. Muesli, which is commonly eaten for breakfast goes by the name of "Birchermüesli" ("Birchermiesli" in some regions). For breakfast, most Swiss enjoy sliced bread with butter and jam; bread also accompanies most meals. There is a wide variety of breads made in Switzerland, from pain de seigle to Zopf. Tarts and quiches are also traditional Swiss dishes. Tarts in particular are made with all sorts of toppings, from sweet apple to onion.

Pork, poultry and beef are the most consumed meats in Switzerland. Pork is particularly omnipresent in Swiss cuisine; is it both consumed as cooked and cured meat. Swiss meat specialties are highly diversified: all sorts of pork sausages, bratwursts, smoked ham, salami, prosciutto, etc. Famous meat products include Grisons Meat (air-dried beef) and the "national sausage", cervelat. Fish is eaten in moderation, traditionally once in a week. Swiss lakes and rivers provide a small fraction of fish and shellfish consumed in the country. These include the popular perch and fera, which are served in lakeshore restaurants.

Foods associated with Switzerland often use milk as an essential ingredient; butter and cream are classic ingredients in Swiss cuisine. They notably include hard cheeses and chocolate. Swiss cheeses, in particular Emmental, Gruyère, Vacherin, and Appenzeller, are famous Swiss products. Two of the most popular Swiss dishes are fondue and raclette, which essentially consist of melted cheese accompanied with bread or potatoes. Chocolate is also strongly associated with Switzerland since the existence of milk chocolate, the Swiss chocolate industry being very flourishing since then.

Food preferences vary within Switzerland, often reflecting languages: the German-speaking north and east (the predominant linguistic area) has strong ties with Central Europe, whereas the French-speaking west and the Italian-speaking south tend to have more ties with Western and Mediterranean Europe. This applies notably to starchy foods, dairy products and fish. While potatoes, rice and pasta are commonly eaten everywhere in Switzerland, the proportion of pasta and rice is larger in the Italian-speaking regions. Conversely, fats like cream and butter are eaten in larger proportions in the German-speaking regions. Fish is also more commonly eaten in French- and Italian-speaking Switzerland. Those differences are also noticeable in wine and beer drinking habits.

History
The agrarian regions began to specialize towards the end of the Middle Ages, thus developing their own food pattern: in the Alpine regions, breeders fed on dairy products, cheese, nuts, berries, mushrooms, vegetables and fruits; on the Plateau, ploughmen fed on porridge, soups, bread, legumes, vegetables and, from time to time, wine. The diet varied greatly according to the seasons. Fresh garden vegetables gave way in winter to dried fruit and sauerkraut. The occasional famines forced the consumption of more acorns, beets, roots and breads made of substitutes.

The population boom of the early modern period led, while agricultural productivity stagnated, to an impoverishment of the diet (essentially based on porridge) and a decline in meat consumption. The supply was irregular, shortages and high prices frequent. However, the European colonization of the Americas led to the introduction of new food products, such as sugar and various fruits and vegetables. The 18th century finally experienced the food revolution which notably saw the introduction of potato, maize and cocoa. Maize spread to Ticino, the St. Gallen Rheintal and a few valleys in Graubünden, which adopted polenta for breakfast. Meanwhile, the potato was adopted as staple food in most regions of the country.

National dishes
A few dishes have become emblematic of Swiss cuisine and highly popular throughout the country. All of them have also become popular outside Switzerland's borders.

Muesli
Muesli, known in Switzerland as Birchermüesli, is a breakfast or snack consisting of cereal (oat) flakes, chopped fruit and milk. There are many ways of making a muesli, for example with honey, yoghurt and nuts. Muesli was created by the Swiss nutritionist Max Bircher-Benner in the early 20th century. His 'apple diet dish', developed as part of a raw food diet, was originally served to sanatorium patients as an easily digestible evening meal. After the Second World War, muesli became very popular throughout Switzerland thanks to home cooking courses and being served to the armed forces. Nowadays muesli is a staple in Western breakfast culture and is especially popular among athletes as a nutritional supplement.

Rösti
Rösti is a kind of fried potato cake served as a main course or side dish. As a main dish, rösti is usually accompanied with cheese, onions and cold meat or eggs. This dish, originally from Zürich, was first simply made by frying grated raw potatoes in a pan. It has then spread towards Bern where it is made with boiled potatoes instead. This is where it took the name Rösti. There are many variants in Switzerland and outside the borders. This culinary specialty gives its name to the röstigraben, which designates the cultural differences between the German- and French-speaking parts of the country.

Fondue and raclette
Fondue is a dish of usually several hard cheeses, such as Gruyère and Vacherin, which are melted with white wine and eaten hot with bread. It is served in a caquelon in which each guest dips their piece of bread using a special fork. At the base of the fondue pot is the heat source (stove or candles). Fondue was first described in 1699 in a Zürich manuscript by Albert Hauser. It is entitled To cook cheese with wine and resembles the recipe of today. Fondue was also promoted by the Swiss Cheese Union in the early 20th century. Today, it is often considered to be the national dish.

Raclette is also a dish of melted cheese, originating from Valais. Traditionally, half a cheese wheel is heated on the cut side and, as it melts, the cheese is scraped off onto a plate. Now, this is often performed using an electric appliance. Raclette is served with skin-on potatoes and mixed pickles, and often accompanied by Fendant as a drink. Melting cheese in front of a fire is attested in the 16th century. Since 1875, the French term raclette is commonly used for this dish. At the 1909 Cantonal Exhibition of Sion, raclette was promoted as a national dish of Valais. Raclette eventually gained national (and international) popularity from the 1964 National Exhibition.

Contrary to muesli and rösti, fondue and raclette are not meant to be staple foods, but rather convivial dishes intended for special occasions. Both fondue and raclette are especially popular during cold weather and have become associated with mountain culture and winter sports.

From the German-speaking part of Switzerland

 * Aargauer Rüblitorte mit Zitronenzuckerguss (AG): Carrot cake, a baked sponge cake made of nuts and carrots. Often spread with a glaze made out of powdered sugar and lemon juice, and decorated with small carrots made of marzipan.
 * Älplermagronen (Alpine herdsman's macaroni): This dish is a frugal all-in-one dish making use of the ingredients the herdsmen had at hand in their alpine cottages: macaroni, potatoes, onions, small pieces of bacon, and melted cheese. Traditionally Älplermagronen is served with applesauce instead of vegetables or salad.
 * Appenzeller Käsefladen: The Appenzeller cheese tart, also called Chäsflade, is made with either a bread dough or a yeast dough. The topping consists of Appenzeller cheese, finely chopped onions, eggs, cream and milk, spices to taste.
 * Appenzeller Mostbröckli
 * Basler Mehlsuppe (BS): In Basel, flour soup has been eaten early in the morning of carnival since the 19th century. Flour is roasted dark and deglazed with broth. Often served with grated cheese.
 * Basler Käsewähe (BS)
 * Basler Läckerli
 * Bauernbrot
 * Berner Platte (BE)
 * Berner Rösti (BE)
 * Berner Lebkuchen (BE)
 * Biber(li) (Appenzell): The Biber is a gingerbread specialty from the Appenzellerland. The large Biber, the actual Biberfladen, contain natural honey and are unfilled. Smaller Biber, called Biberli, are filled with an almond paste.
 * Bündner Nusstorte (GR)
 * Bündnerfleisch (GR)
 * Emmental Apple Rösti (Emmentaler Apfelrösti: Made from old bread, apple, and sugar, this used to be a very popular sweet dish made from leftovers, since the ingredients were usually at hand and the preparation is very simple. The recipe comes from the Emmental ("Emmen Valley") in the canton of Bern, the home of the famous Emmentaler cheese.
 * Fotzelschnitten: A variant of french toast. The exact origin of the name remains unclear (literally, Fotzel means "torn-off scrap of paper").
 * Cholera (VS)
 * Cholermus (OW)
 * Cordon Bleu
 * Fasnachtschüechli: Deep fried dough disks, often sprinkled with powdered sugar. Traditionally served at the carnival season.
 * Fastenwähe (BS)
 * Fleischvogel
 * Gehacktes mit Hörnli: Minced meat in either tomato- or brown sauce, served over small elbow macaroni, sometimes with apple sauce on the side.
 * Glarner Birnbrot (GL): Pear bread is a traditional pastry from the Swiss Alps and foothills of the Alps with a filling of dried pears. Besides pears, the filling contains raisins, tree nuts and often figs and dried apple slices. It is spiced with candied orange peel, candied lemon peel, coriander, cinnamon, star anise, anise, and cloves, as well as with marc, kirsch, or wine.
 * Gnottene/Gottus (VS)
 * Kalberwurst (GL): A sausage with a distinctive, creamy flavor that originated in the canton of Glarus, kalberwurst is made with veal, milk, ground crackers, and mild spices. It has a smooth texture and mild taste, and although most sausages are smoked, kalberwurst is not. It is often cooked with onions and gravy.
 * Kappeler Milchsuppe: The so-called 'Kappel Milk Soup' is at the center of an important event in the history of Switzerland. In 1529, Zürich troops marched against the central Swiss cantons. According to the reports, the common foot people of the two armies took advantage of the time when the leaders were negotiating to fraternize and placed a large cooking pot on a fire in Kappel am Albis, exactly on the border between the two cantons. The Zugers are said to have contributed the milk and the Zürichers the bread for a milk soup, which was then eaten together by both armies.
 * Landjäger: A semi-dried sausage traditionally made in Switzerland, but also in Southern Germany, Austria, and Alsace. It is popular as a snack food during activities such as hiking. It also has a history as soldier's food because it keeps without refrigeration and comes in single-meal portions. Landjäger tastes similar to dried salami.
 * Innerschweizer Chäs-Chueche
 * Innerschweizer Zigerkrapfen
 * Luzerner Birrenbrot (LU)
 * Luzerner Chügelipastetli (LU): Lucerne Chügelipastete is a regional pastry dish from Lucerne. The name is derived from the spherical shape (Chügeli = little balls) of most of the ingredients used. Oldest mentions of the dish date back to the 18th century. The basic form consists of a puff pastry filled with a ragout of meat, mushrooms and raisins.
 * Luzerner Lebkuchen (LU)
 * Magenbrot (BS)
 * Meitschibei (BE)
 * Meringue (Meiringen)
 * Neuenburger Wurst im Schlafrock
 * Nüsslisalat
 * Nussstängeli: (Nut sticks) is a Swiss hazelnut pastry, ideal for dunking in a hot coffee.
 * Osterfladen
 * Rahmschnitzel
 * Riz Casimir is a preparation of rice with curry sauce and minced pork blended with tropical fruits: pineapple, banana and cherries, sometimes with currant grape. It was first served in 1952 by the international chain of hotel and resorts Mövenpick.
 * Nidelwähe: Similar to the 'Wähen' (swiss tarts), these are flat, round cakes with little dough. However, these tarts are filled with a mildly sweet and creamy filling of thick cream, which in Switzerland is called nidle or nidel, depending on the region.
 * Nidwaldner Lebkuchen (NW)
 * Ribel (Rheintal)
 * Schenkele
 * Schinkengipfeli(i): Popular small ham croissants, consisting of a ham mousse filling and puff pastry.
 * Schwyzer Krapfen (SZ)
 * St. Galler (Kalbs)bratwurst (Veal Sausage, SG)
 * St. Galler Brot (SG)
 * St. Galler Schüblig (SG)
 * suuri Lääberli (Basel)
 * Tirggel (ZH) are traditional Christmas biscuits from Zürich. Made from flour and honey, they are thin, hard, and sweet.
 * Zopf (bread): There are dozens of types of bread in Switzerland. However, Zopf is a typical Swiss specialty for Sundays.
 * Vermicelles
 * Wähe/Kuchen/Dünnen/Fladen/Gateau
 * Walliser Roggenbrot (VS)
 * Schweizer Wurstsalat
 * Wurzelbrot
 * Zibelechueche (BE)
 * Zuger Kirschtorte (ZG)
 * Zürcher Geschnetzeltes (English: cut meat, Zürich style; French: émincé de veau a la Zurichoise). This dish typically consists of sliced strips of veal in a creamy white wine sauce. Zürcher Geschnetzeltes is often served with Rösti.

From the French-speaking part of Switzerland

 * Brisolée (VS): roasted chestnuts served in autumn with local cheeses and meats
 * Carac: A distinctively green-colored chocolate and shortcrust pastry
 * Gâteau bullois: A walnut pie (comparable to the Bündner Nusstorte) with chocolate
 * Malakoff: Fried cheese balls or sticks from the region of la Côte in the canton of Vaud.
 * Meringue: A dessert made of whipped egg whites, traditionally accompanied by double Gruyère cream
 * Papet Vaudois: the canton of Vaud is home to this filling dish of leeks and potatoes. It is usually served with saucisse au chou (cabbage sausage).
 * Longeole: A sausage from the Canton of Geneva made of pork and filled with fennel seeds.
 * Cardon argenté épineux genevois: This cardoon is only grown in the Canton of Geneva. Its origins come from Huguenot refugees from the south of France, and adapted to the colder climate of Geneva. It is part of Christmas festivities in many Geneva households, often eaten in the form of a gratin.

From the Italian-speaking part of Switzerland
The Italian-speaking part of Switzerland essentially coincides with Ticino, but also with the southern valleys of Graubünden. Popular dishes are polenta and risotto, often accompanied by the Luganighe and Luganighetta, a type of artisan sausages. Typical food from Ticino can be found in a Grotto, the local type of restaurant. Chestnut is also a historical staple food of southern Switzerland. The chestnut tree, introduced there 2,000 years ago, was referred to as the "bread tree". Another specific product of Ticino is olive oil; olive cultivation was revived in the late 20th century.

 * Polenta: For centuries polenta was regarded as a meal for the poor. Corn was introduced to the south of what is now Ticino as long ago as the beginning of the 17th century, which led to a change in the monotonous cuisine. But it took another 200 years before polenta - at first made of mixed flour, only later of pure cornmeal - became the staple dish of the area.
 * Risotto is another common dish from Ticino. It is made with either mushrooms, saffron or cheese. It is often accompanied with either cooked pork sausages (Luganighe) or other regional cured meats, like salami, coppa and prosciutto.
 * Pizzoccheri is a type of short tagliatelle, a flat ribbon pasta, made with a blend of buckwheat flour and wheat flour. It is believed to have originated in Valtellina, a valley in the northern Italian region of Lombardy. They are also popular in Val Poschiavo, a side valley of Valtellina which belongs to the Swiss canton of Grisons.
 * Bruscitti are an Italian and Swiss single-course meal of the Lombard, Piedmontese and Ticinese cuisines (Switzerland) based on finely chopped beef cooked for a long time. Other ingredients of the dish are butter, lard, garlic, pancetta and fennel seeds. At the end of cooking they are blended with well-structured red wines such as Barbera, Barolo or Gattinara. This dish is served with the polenta, risotto alla milanese or purée.

From the canton of Graubünden

 * Bündner Nusstorte: There are several different regional recipes for nut cake, but the most famous is probably the one from the Engadin valley in the canton of Graubünden.
 * Chur meat pie
 * Bündner barley soup: The most famous soup from Graubünden
 * Capuns: Typical speciality of western Graubünden
 * Maluns
 * Pizokel with cabbage: Pizokel were eaten in a wide variety of ways. In some places when eaten by themselves they are known in Romansh as "bizochels bluts", or “bald pizokel”. If someone leaves a small amount of any kind of food on the serving dish for politeness's sake, in the Engadine this is called "far sco quel dal bizoccal", meaning more or less “leaving the last pizokel”.

Restaurants and haute cuisine
A large variety of restaurants can be found in Switzerland. The Stube, Stübli or Stiva (German and Romansh), Brasserie (French) and Osteria (Italian) typically serve simple and traditional dishes. This is even more the case in mountain restaurants or mountain huts.

A unique type of restaurant is found in Ticino: the Grotto. Grottoes are rustic eateries, offering traditional food, such as polenta. Authentic grottoes are old wine caves re-functioned into restaurants. Due to their nature they are mostly found in or around forests and built against a rocky background. Typically, the facade is built from granite blocks and the outside tables and benches are made of the same stone as well. Grottoes are popular with locals and tourists alike, especially during the hot summer months.

As a culinary hotspot in the middle of Europe where high-quality ingredients are readily available, Switzerland boasts a high number of luxury restaurants. It also has a long tradition of hospitality, which is reflected in the palace hotels found in numerous localities. In the 2018 Michelin Guide, Switzerland ranked first worldwide in terms of Michelin-starred restaurants per capita. As of 2022, four restaurants were awarded 3 stars: the Restaurant de l'Hôtel de Ville in Crissier, the Schloss Schauenstein in Fürstenau, the Cheval Blanc in Basel and the Memories in Bad Ragaz. Among famous Swiss chefs are Frédy Girardet and Anton Mosimann.

Beverages

Wine is produced in many regions of Switzerland, particularly the Valais, the Vaud, the Geneva, the Ticino, the Neuchâtel and the Zürich cantons. Wine economy notably shaped the landscapes of Valais and the Lavaux, which have the most extensive terraced vineyards. Riesling X Sylvaner is a common white wine produced in German-speaking parts of the country, while Chasselas is the most common white wine in the French-speaking parts of the country, where it can also be known as Fendant (in the Valais) and Perlan (in Geneva). Pinot noir is the most popular red grape in both the French-speaking and the German-speaking part, while this position is held by Merlot in the Italian-speaking part.

Beer is second to wine in terms of consumption among Swiss. The country has a long tradition of brewing, with significant domestic beer production and a growing craft brewing sector. Most contemporary large-scale breweries are in German-speaking Switzerland. The Feldschlösschen brewery in Rheinfelden dwarfs all others in the country in terms of output. Calanda brewery in Chur is the largest in Graubünden. Zürich hosts the country's largest beer festival annually, and has a number of microbreweries.

Absinthe is perhaps the most famous Swiss spirit. It is legally distilled again in its Val-de-Travers birthplace, in the Jura region of Switzerland. Long banned by a specific anti-Absinthe article in the Swiss Federal Constitution, it was legalized again in 2005, with the adoption of the new constitution. Swiss absinthe is exported to many countries, with Kübler and La Clandestine Absinthe amongst the first new brands to emerge. Wine and beer can legally be purchased by youths aged 16 and up. Spirits and beverages containing distilled alcohol (including wine coolers like Bacardi Breezer) can be bought at age 18.

Damassine is a liqueur produced by distillation of the Damassine prune from the Damassinier tree and is produced in the canton of Jura.

Bon Père William is a famous regional Swiss pear brandy containing 43% ABV. It is usually paired with fondue or raclette dishes or drunk after dinner, and sometimes poured into coffee alongside dessert. Some bottles are available with the full-size pear inside the bottle, grown with the bud placed in the bottle. There are many other types of regional brandies made from local fruit, the most popular being cherries (kirschwasser).

Rivella, a carbonated Swiss drink based on lactose, is one of the most popular drinks in Switzerland. Apple juice, both still and sparkling, is popular in many areas of Switzerland, as is apple cider. The chocolate drink Ovomaltine (also known as "Ovaltine") originates in Switzerland and enjoys ongoing popularity, particularly with young people. Aside from being a beverage, the powder is also eaten sprinkled on top of a slice of buttered bread.

Switzerland has the seventh highest per capita coffee consumption worldwide.

title: Swiss cuisine


text: Talk:Swiss cuisine

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title: Talk:Swiss cuisine


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Talk:Electro stimulation

An article already exists for this topic "erotic electrostimulation".

On 30 July 2004, this page was nominated for deletion. As a result of the discussion, it was kept but converted to a disambiguation page. See Votes for deletion/Electro stimulation for a record of the discussion. Rossami 22:25, 11 Aug 2004 (UTC)

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Emmental cheese

Emmental, Emmentaler, or Emmenthal is a yellow, medium-hard cheese that originated in the Emme valley, Switzerland. It is classified as a Swiss-type cheese.

History
Emmental cheese is "true" Swiss cheese; i.e. it originates from the Emme valley, Switzerland.

It has a savory but mild taste. While "Emmentaler" is registered as a geographical indication in Switzerland, a limited number of countries recognize the term as a geographical indication: similar cheeses of other origins, especially from France (as Emmental), the Netherlands, Bavaria, and Finland, are widely available and sold by that name. In some parts of the world, the names "Emmentaler" and "Swiss cheese" are used interchangeably for Emmental-style cheese.

Production
Three types of bacteria are needed to prepare Emmental: Streptococcus thermophilus, Lactobacillus helveticus, and Propionibacterium freudenreichii. Historically, the holes were a sign of imperfection, and until modern times, cheese makers would try to avoid them. Nowadays, however, eye formation is valued as a sign of maturation and quality and acoustic analysis has been developed for this purpose. Emmental cheese is usually consumed cold, as chunks or slices, and is also used in a variety of dishes, particularly in gratins, and fondue, in which it is mixed with Gruyère, the other highly popular Swiss cheese.

Ziger, a whey cheese, is a by-product of the manufacture of Emmental.

Protected varieties and nomenclature
Several varieties of Emmental are registered as geographical indications, including:

Switzerland
Emmentaler was registered in 2000 as an appellation d'origine contrôlée (AOC) in Switzerland. In 2013, it was replaced by the appellation d'origine protégée (AOP) certification. The Emmentaler produced according to the AOC-registration needs to be produced in small rural dairies with raw cow's milk, adding only natural ingredients (water, salt, natural starter cultures and rennet); preservatives or ingredients from genetically modified organisms are not allowed. The cheese is produced in a round shape with a natural rind, and aged in traditional cellars for a minimum of four months. Emmentaler must be produced in Kantons Aargau, Bern (except Amtsbezirk Moutier), Glarus, Luzern, Schwyz, Solothurn, St. Gallen, Thurgau, Zug or Zürich, or in the See- and Sensebezirk of Kanton Freiburg.

Emmentaler is also recognized as a geographical indication in the Czech Republic, France, Georgia, Germany, Hungary, Jamaica, Portugal, Russia, Slovakia and Spain.

Outside Switzerland
Three cheeses containing the word Emmental are protected under EU law:
 * Allgäuer Emmentaler, from Bavaria, Germany, has PDO status
 * Emmental de Savoie, from Savoie, France, has PGI status
 * Emmental français est-central from Franche-Comté, France, also has PGI status

In many parts of the English-speaking world the terms "Emmentaler" and "Swiss cheese" are both used to refer to any cheese of the Emmental type, whether produced in Switzerland or elsewhere. The United States Department of Agriculture, for example, uses the terms "Swiss cheese" and "Emmentaler cheese" interchangeably.

Emmental-style cheeses
Emmental cheese is very widely imitated around the world, often just called "Swiss cheese". Specific European types include:
 * Grevé from Sweden
 * Jarlsberg cheese from Norway
 * Maasdam cheese from the Netherlands, with Leerdammer being one variety

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Helianthus

Helianthus is a genus comprising about 70 species of annual and perennial flowering plants in the daisy family Asteraceae commonly known as sunflowers. Except for three South American species, the species of Helianthus are native to North America and Central America. The best-known species is the common sunflower (Helianthus annuus). This and other species, notably Jerusalem artichoke (H. tuberosus), are cultivated in temperate regions and some tropical regions, as food crops for humans, cattle, and poultry, and as ornamental plants. The species H. annuus typically grows during the summer and into early fall, with the peak growth season being mid-summer.

Several perennial Helianthus species are grown in gardens, but have a tendency to spread rapidly and can become aggressive. On the other hand, the whorled sunflower, Helianthus verticillatus, was listed as an endangered species in 2014 when the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service issued a final rule protecting it under the Endangered Species Act. The primary threats are industrial forestry and pine plantations in Alabama, Georgia, and Tennessee. They grow to 6 ft and are primarily found in woodlands, adjacent to creeks and moist, prairie-like areas.

The common sunflower is the national flower of Ukraine, cultivated there for several centuries.

Description
Sunflowers are usually tall annual or perennial plants that in some species can grow to a height of 300 cm or more. Each "flower" is actually a disc made up of tiny flowers, to form a larger false flower to better attract pollinators. The plants bear one or more wide, terminal capitula (flower heads made up of many tiny flowers), with bright yellow ray florets (mini flowers inside a flower head) at the outside and yellow or maroon (also known as a brown/red) disc florets inside. Several ornamental cultivars of H. annuus have red-colored ray florets; all of them stem from a single original mutant. While the majority of sunflowers are yellow, there are branching varieties in other colors including, orange, red and purple.

The petiolate leaves are dentate and often sticky. The lower leaves are opposite, ovate, or often heart-shaped. The rough and hairy stem is branched in the upper part in wild plants, but is usually unbranched in domesticated cultivars.

This genus is distinguished technically by the fact that the ray florets (when present) are sterile, and by the presence on the disk flowers of a pappus that is of two awn-like scales that are caducous (that is, easily detached and falling at maturity). Some species also have additional shorter scales in the pappus, and one species lacks a pappus entirely. Another technical feature that distinguishes the genus more reliably, but requires a microscope to see, is the presence of a prominent, multicellular appendage at the apex of the style. Further, the florets of a sunflower are arranged in a natural spiral.

Variability is seen among the perennial species that make up the bulk of those in the genus. Some have most or all of the large leaves in a rosette at the base of the plant and produce a flowering stem that has leaves that are reduced in size. Most of the perennials have disk flowers that are entirely yellow, but a few have disk flowers with reddish lobes. One species, H. radula, lacks ray flowers altogether.

Overall, the macroevolution of the Helianthus is driven by multiple biotic and abiotic factors and influences various floral morphology.

Helianthus species are used as food plants by the larvae of many lepidopterans.

Growth stages
The growth of a sunflower depends strictly on its genetic makeup and background. Additionally, the season it is planted will have effects on its development; those seasons tend to be in the middle of summer and beginning of fall. Sunflower development is classified by a series of vegetative stages and reproductive stages that can be determined by identifying the heads or main branch of a single head or branched head.

Facing the Sun (heliotropism)
Before blooming, Helianthus plant heads tilt during the day to face the Sun. This movement is referred to as heliotropism, which continues for a short time when flower buds form and young Helianthus heads track the Sun. At night, the flower heads reorient their position and face East in anticipation for the sunrise. Sunflowers move back to their original position between 3am and 6am, and the leaves follow about an hour later.

By the time they are mature and reach anthesis, Helianthus generally stop moving and remain facing east, which lets them be warmed by the rising sun. Historically, this has led to controversy on whether or not Helianthus is heliotropic, as many scientists have failed to observe movement when studying plants that have already bloomed.

This is notably different from heliotropism in leaves, as the moving mechanism for leaves exists in the pulvinus. Since flowers do not have pulvini, the movement is caused by increased growth rate of the stems. The growth rate accumulation of the stem on the east side of the stem gradually pushes the flower from east to west during daytime. This matches with the Sun as it rises from the east and falls in the west. At night, the growth rate is higher in the west side of the stem that gradually pushes the flower from the west side back to the east side. In addition, it is not actually the whole plant that changes its direction to face the Sun, but the flower itself that bends to be illuminated by the Suns rays.

The heliotropic movement is caused by growth on the opposite side of the flower, driven by accumulation of growth hormones during Sun exposure.

Heliotropism persists on cloudy days when the sun is not shining brightly, meaning that the movement is endogenous as a trained and continuous process. However, flower movement does not occur during long periods of rain or clouds. It also does not occur in a growth chamber when exposed to 16 hours of light or in greenhouses, suggesting that the plants require a directional, moving light source. Helianthus can also discriminate between different types of light. When exposed to different light frequencies, the hypocotyls will bend toward blue light but not red light, depending on the quality of the light source.

It is the circadian rhythms and the differences of the stem growth rate that work together and cause the heliotropism of the Helianthus. This is important for attracting pollinators and increasing growth metabolism. Future studies are needed for identifying the exact physiological basis and cellular mechanism for this behavior.

Taxonomy
Helianthus is derived from Greek ἥλιος hēlios "sun" and ἄνθος ánthos "flower", because its round flower heads in combination with the ligules look like the Sun.

There are many species recognized in the genus:

 * Helianthus agrestis Pollard – southeastern sunflower – Florida, Georgia
 * Helianthus ambiguus Britt. – Wisconsin, Michigan, Ohio, New York
 * Helianthus angustifolius L. – swamp sunflower – Texas, northern Florida to southern Illinois, Long Island, New York
 * Helianthus annuus L. – common sunflower, girasol – most of United States + Canada
 * Helianthus anomalus S.F.Blake – western sunflower – Nevada, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico
 * Helianthus argophyllus Torr. & A.Gray – silverleaf sunflower – Texas, North Carolina, Florida
 * Helianthus arizonensis R.C.Jacks. – Arizona sunflower – Arizona, New Mexico
 * Helianthus atrorubens L. – purpledisk sunflower – Louisiana, Alabama, Georgia, Florida, South Carolina, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Virginia
 * Helianthus bolanderi A.Gray – serpentine sunflower – California, Oregon
 * Helianthus × brevifolius E.Watson – Texas, Indiana, Ohio
 * Helianthus californicus DC. – California sunflower – California
 * Helianthus carnosus Small – lakeside sunflower – Florida
 * Helianthus ciliaris DC. – Texas blueweed – United States: Washington, California, Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada, Utah, Texas, Oklahoma, Colorado, Kansas, Illinois; Mexico: Tamaulipas, Coahuila, Chihuahua, Sonora
 * Helianthus cinereus Small – Missouri, Kentucky, Indiana, Ohio
 * Helianthus coloradensis Cockerell –  prairie sunflower – Colorado, New Mexico
 * Helianthus cusickii A.Gray – Cusick's sunflower – Washington, Oregon, California, Idaho, Nevada
 * Helianthus debilis Nutt. – cucumberleaf sunflower – Texas to Maine, Mississippi
 * Helianthus decapetalus L. – thinleaf sunflower – eastern United States; Ontario, Quebec
 * Helianthus deserticola Heiser – desert sunflower – Arizona, Nevada, Utah
 * Helianthus devernii T.M.Draper – red rock sunflower – Nevada
 * †Helianthus diffusus Sims – Missouri†
 * Helianthus dissectifolius R.C.Jacks. – Chihuahua, Durango
 * Helianthus divaricatus L. – woodland sunflower or rough woodland sunflower – eastern United States; Ontario, Quebec
 * Helianthus × divariserratus R.W.Long Michigan, Indiana, Ohio, Connecticut
 * Helianthus × doronicoides Lam. – Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Minnesota, Illinois, Kentucky, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Michigan, New Jersey, Virginia
 * Helianthus eggertii Small – Alabama, Kentucky, and Tennessee
 * Helianthus exilis A.Gray – California
 * Helianthus floridanus A.Gray ex Chapm. – Florida sunflower – Louisiana, Alabama, Georgia, Florida, South Carolina, North Carolina
 * Helianthus giganteus L. – giant sunflower – eastern United States; most of Canada
 * Helianthus glaucophyllus D.M.Sm – whiteleaf sunflower – Tennessee, South Carolina, North Carolina
 * Helianthus × glaucus Small – scattered locales in southeastern United States
 * Helianthus gracilentus A.Gray – slender sunflower – California
 * Helianthus grosseserratus M.Martens – sawtooth sunflower – Great Plains, Great Lakes, Ontario, Quebec
 * Helianthus heterophyllus Nutt. – variableleaf sunflower – Coastal plain of Texas to North Carolina
 * Helianthus hirsutus Raf. – hairy sunflower – central and eastern United States, Ontario
 * Helianthus × intermedius R.W.Long – intermediate sunflower – scattered locales in United States
 * Helianthus laciniatus A.Gray – alkali sunflower – United States: Arizona, New Mexico, Texas; Mexico: Coahuila, Nuevo León
 * Helianthus × laetiflorus Pers. – cheerful sunflower, mountain sunflower – scattered in eastern and central United States; Canada
 * Helianthus laevigatus Torr. & A.Gray – smooth sunflower – Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Virginia, Maryland, West Virginia
 * Helianthus lenticularis Douglas ex Lindl. Minnesota to North Dakota, Idaho, Missouri, Texas
 * Helianthus longifolius Pursh – longleaf sunflower – Alabama, Georgia, North Carolina
 * Helianthus × luxurians (E.Watson) E.Watson – Great Lakes region
 * Helianthus maximiliani Schrad. – Maximillian sunflower – much of United States and Canada
 * Helianthus membranifolius Poir. – Cayenne Island French Guiana
 * Helianthus microcephalus Torr. & A.Gray – eastern United States
 * Helianthus mollis Lam. – downy sunflower, ashy sunflower – Ontario, eastern and central United States
 * Helianthus multiflorus L. – manyflower sunflower – Ohio
 * Helianthus navarri Phil. – Chile
 * Helianthus neglectus Heiser – neglected sunflower – New Mexico, Texas
 * Helianthus niveus (Benth.) Brandegee – showy sunflower – United States: California, Arizona; Mexico: Baja California, Baja California Sur
 * Helianthus nuttallii Torr. & A.Gray – western and central United States, Canada
 * Helianthus occidentalis Riddell – fewleaf sunflower, western sunflower – Great Lakes region, scattered in southeastern United States
 * Helianthus × orgyaloides Cockerell – Colorado, Kansas
 * Helianthus paradoxus Heiser – paradox sunflower – Utah, New Mexico, Texas
 * Helianthus pauciflorus Nutt. – stiff sunflower – central United States, Canada
 * Helianthus petiolaris Nutt. – prairie sunflower, lesser sunflower – much of United States, Canada
 * Helianthus porteri (A.Gray) Pruski – Porter's sunflower – Alabama, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina
 * Helianthus praecox Engelm. & A.Gray Texas sunflower – Texas
 * †Helianthus praetermissus – New Mexico sunflower – New Mexico†
 * Helianthus pumilus Nutt. – little sunflower – Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, Utah, Idaho
 * Helianthus radula (Pursh) Torr. & A.Gray – rayless sunflower – Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, South Carolina, Florida
 * Helianthus resinosus Small – resindot sunflower – Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Florida
 * Helianthus salicifolius A.Dietr. – willowleaf sunflower – Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, Missouri, Illinois, Wisconsin, Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York
 * Helianthus sarmentosus Rich. – French Guiana
 * Helianthus scaberrimus Elliott – South Carolina
 * Helianthus schweinitzii Torr. & A.Gray – Schweinitz's sunflower – South Carolina, North Carolina
 * Helianthus silphioides Nutt. – rosinweed sunflower – Lower Mississippi Valley
 * Helianthus simulans E.Watson – muck sunflower – southeastern United States
 * Helianthus smithii Heiser – Smith's sunflower – Alabama, Georgia, Tennessee
 * Helianthus speciosus Hook. – Michoacán
 * Helianthus strumosus L. – eastern and central United States, Canada
 * Helianthus subcanescens (A.Gray) E.Watson – Manitoba, north-central United States
 * Helianthus subtuberosus Bourg.
 * Helianthus tuberosus L. – Jerusalem artichoke, sunchoke, earth-apple, topinambur – much of United States and Canada
 * Helianthus verticillatus Small – whorled sunflower – Alabama, Georgia, Tennessee

Formerly included
The following species were previously included in the genus Helianthus.
 * Flourensia thurifera (Molina) DC. (as H. thurifer Molina )
 * Flourensia thurifera (Molina) DC. (as H. navarri) Phil.
 * Helianthella quinquenervis (Hook.) A.Gray (as H. quinquenervis Hook. )
 * Helianthella uniflora (Nutt.) Torr. & A.Gray (as H. uniflorus Nutt. )
 * Pappobolus imbaburensis (Hieron.) Panero (as H. imbaburensis Hieron. )
 * Viguiera procumbens (Pers.) S.F.Blake (as H. procumbens Pers. )

Uses
The seeds of H. annuus are used as human food. Most cultivars of sunflower are variants of H. annuus, but four other species (all perennials) are also domesticated. This includes H. tuberosus, the Jerusalem artichoke, which produces edible tubers.

There are many species in the sunflower genus Helianthus, and many species in other genera that may be called sunflowers.

 * The Maximillian sunflower (Helianthus maximiliani) is one of 38 species of perennial sunflower native to North America. The Land Institute and other breeding programs are currently exploring the potential for these as a perennial seed crop.
 * The sunchoke (Jerusalem artichoke or Helianthus tuberosus) is related to the sunflower, another example of perennial sunflower.
 * The Mexican sunflower is Tithonia rotundifolia. It is only very distantly related to North American sunflowers.
 * False sunflower refers to plants of the genus Heliopsis.

Ecology
Sunflowers have been proven to be excellent plants to attract beneficial insects, including pollinators. Helianthus spp. are a nectar producing flowering plant that attract pollinators and parasitoids which reduce the pest populations in nearby crop vegetation. Sunflowers attract different beneficial pollinators (e.g., honey bees) and other known insect prey to feed on and control the population of parasitic pests that could be harmful to the crops. Predacious insects are first attracted to sunflowers once they are planted. Once the Helianthus spp. reaches six inches and produces flowers it begins to attract more pollinators. Distance between sunflower rows and crop vegetation plays an important role in this phenomenon, hypothesizing that closer proximity to the crops will increase insect attraction.

In addition to pollinators of Helianthus spp., there are other factors such as abiotic stress, florivory, and disease which also contribute to the evolution of floral traits. These selective pressures, which stem from several biotic and abiotic factors are associated with habitat environmental conditions which all play a role in the overall morphology of the sunflowers' floral traits.

An ecosystem is composed of both biotic (which are living elements of an ecosystem such as plants, animals, fungi, protists, and bacteria), and abiotic factors (non-living elements of an ecosystem such as air, soil, water, light, salinity and temperature).

It is thought that two biotic factors can explain for the evolution of larger sunflowers and why they are present in more drier environments. For one thing, the selection by pollinators is thought to have increased the sunflower's size in a drier environment. This is because in a drier environment, there are typically less pollinators. As a result, in order for the sunflower to be able to attract more pollinators, they had to increase the morphology of their floral traits in that they had to increase their display size. Another biotic factor that can explain for the evolution of larger sunflowers in drier environments is that the pressure from florivory and disease favors smaller flowers in habitats that have a more moderate supply of moisture (mesic habitat). Wetter environments usually have more dense vegetation, more herbivores, and more surrounding pathogens. As larger flowers are typically more susceptible to disease and florivory, smaller flowers may have evolved in wetter environments which explains the evolution of larger sunflowers in more drier environments.

title: Helianthus


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Denise Batcheff

Denise Tual (née Piazza; 15 May 1906 – 23 November 2000), known as Denise Batcheff, was a French film editor and sound technician in the early 1930s.

She worked on nine films:
 * Black and White (1931)
 * Amour à l'américaine (1931) also known as American Love (USA)
 * La Chienne (1931) (sound editor), directed by Jean Renoir
 * Fantômas (1932), directed by Paul Fejos'
 * La Dame chez Maxim's (1933)
 * Lac aux dames (1934) also known as Lake of Ladies (USA)
 * L'Hôtel du libre échange (1934)
 * Zouzou (1934) (as D. Batcheff)
 * Les Beaux jours (1935)

She was married to Pierre Batcheff (1901–1932), a French actor whose most famous film was Un chien andalou (1929) by Luis Buñuel and Salvador Dalí.

title: Denise Batcheff


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Andaz Apna Apna

Andaz Apna Apna is a 1994 Indian Hindi-language romantic comedy film directed by Rajkumar Santoshi and produced by Vinay Kumar Sinha. It stars Aamir Khan, Salman Khan, Raveena Tandon, Karishma Kapoor, Paresh Rawal (in a dual role) and Shakti Kapoor in lead roles. The film was released on 4 November 1994 and the plot elements of the film were later used in other language films such as Ullathai Allitha (1996), Veedevadandi Babu (1997) and Galate Aliyandru (2000), though none being a frame-to-frame remake. Although the film was a semi-hit at the box office, the film has emerged as a cult film over the years. The climax of this film is a rehashed version of the climax of a 1972 film Victoria No. 203.

The film focuses on two gold diggers who attempt to woo an heiress to have access to her father's wealth. They soon realize that the heiress has exchanged her identity with that of her secretary. By that point, one of them is genuinely in love with the heiress, and the other gold digger has fallen for the secretary.

Plot
Both Amar Manohar and Prem Bhopali are daydreamers living with their fathers Murli and Bankelal respectively. They learn that millionaire Ram Gopal Bajaj's daughter Raveena Bajaj is coming to India from London with her secretary Karishma to find a suitable groom. Amar and Prem decide to woo Raveena to get a share in her father's wealth.

Amar and Prem meet each other when they escape from their towns and board a bus bound for Ooty where Raveena and Karishma live. They soon realise that they have the same goal and they also fail at several attempts to woo Raveena and Karishma but they manage to enter their house.

Amar pretends that he has lost his memory and eyesight after getting knocked out by Raveena when he tried to flirt with her, while Prem pretends to be a doctor at their house to cure him from his diseases but he unknowingly falls in love with Karishma.

Meanwhile, nobody knows that Ram Gopal has an evil twin-brother Shyam Gopal "Teja" Bajaj who plans to kidnap him and pose as him to go to London. He has also sent his two sidekicks Robert and Bhalla to live in Raveena and Karishma's house as their servants. Later, Amar and Prem discover that the secretary Karishma is actually the wealthy "Raveena" while the wealthy Raveena is actually the secretary "Karishma", as they had exchanged their identities as Raveena wanted to find a suitable groom for herself who will love her, not her money. However, Amar still falls in love with the real Karishma while Prem also still falls in love with the real Raveena.

Soon, Ram Gopal arrives in India and seeing the true nature of Amar and Prem, declines their marriages with Raveena and Karishma, respectively. They plan a fake kidnapping of him along with their friends where they will heroically "rescue" him which will make him agree for their marriages. Teja also plans along with Robert and Bhalla to kidnap Ram Gopal and steal all of his money converted into his diamonds. Robert and Bhalla somehow manage to kidnap Ram Gopal which shocks Amar and Prem. When they go to Teja's hideout to rescue Ram Gopal, they mistake Teja for him and take him to his house.

The next day, Raveena and Karishma tell their suspicion to Amar and Prem who discover the truth on secretly following Teja to his hideout where Ram Gopal tricks him and escapes his hideout prison. However, Amar and Prem mistake him for Teja and imprison him again - resulting in Teja imprisoning Amar and Prem as well before escaping from his hideout. Amar and Prem still manage to convince Robert and Bhalla that Ram Gopal is Teja and free him from the prison. An escaping Teja is then stopped by Amar and Prem along with Robert and Bhalla.

Meanwhile, throughout the film, Robert and Bhalla are constantly harassed by Crime Master Gogo who is demanding his money taken by Teja back, but he discovers Ram Gopal's diamonds and he kidnaps him along with Raveena and Karishma. At Gogo's hideout, Amar and Prem arrive and they try to control the situation along with Ram Gopal as each motive of each villain is revealed in a comic standoff. However, the police who were already called by Amar and Prem, are able to find Gogo's hideout and arrest all of the criminals. Ram Gopal finally gets all of his diamonds back and he also agrees for the marriages of Amar and Prem with Raveena and Karishma, respectively.

Cast

 * Aamir Khan as Amar Manohar/Teelu
 * Salman Khan as Prem Bhopali
 * Raveena Tandon as Karishma (Fake Raveena)
 * Karishma Kapoor as Raveena (Fake Karishma)
 * Paresh Rawal as Ram Gopal Bajaj / Shyam Gopal Bajaj aka Teja (Double Role)
 * Shakti Kapoor as Crime Master Gogo
 * Viju Khote as Robert
 * Shehzad Khan as Vinod Bhalla
 * Javed Khan as Anand Akela
 * Tiku Talsania as Inspector Pandey
 * Harish Patel as Sevaram
 * Mehmood as Johnny
 * Deven Verma as Murli Manohar
 * Jagdeep as Bankelal Bhopali
 * Suresh Bhagwat
 * Govinda as himself (Special Appearance)
 * Juhi Chawla as herself (Special Appearance)

Development
After the success of his debut film Ghayal (1990), director Rajkumar Santoshi was approached by producer Vinay Kumar Sinha for a film. The latter wanted to make a film with Aamir Khan. Having made a film on a serious subject, Santoshi wanted to make a comedy film now. It was then decided that he would write a story about two warring buddies, the human versions of Tom and Jerry. Santoshi wrote the screenplay with Dilip Shukla, also modelling the characters on Archie comics. Despite the film feeling impromptu, every scene and dialogue was in the script. The film was in production for over three years.

Casting
Santoshi then decided to cast Salman Khan followed by then relative newcomers Karisma Kapoor and Raveena Tandon as the female leads along with Paresh Rawal in a double role. Santoshi finished the script after the casting. He also wrote several dialogues on the set which were in his mind and not in the script. Amrish Puri was supposed to play the role of Mogambo's younger brother, Zorambo. But due to the length of the film, the character was removed. Sunny Deol was supposed to do a cameo in the film, who was not available at that time. It was done by Govinda.

Initially, Salman Khan wanted more screen space than the other but later agreed to have the same amount of screen time. Tinnu Anand was offered the role of the villain "Gogo", but could not do it because of date issues. It was eventually played by Shakti Kapoor. While shooting, Santoshi had to call for a cut as almost the entire crew including the director of photography laughed so hard that it shook the camera. The Muhurat shot was done by cricketer Sachin Tendulkar. Andaz Apna Apna took three years in making, which resulted in some continuity issues. Ishwar Bidri was the director of photography while V. N. Mayekar served as the editor.

Marketing
Aamir Khan made a special appearance in the 1993 film Damini to promote the film.

Soundtrack
The film featured 4 songs composed by Tushar Bhatia with lyrics by Majrooh Sultanpuri.

There are 2 songs more songs in the soundtrack, which were not used in the film.

Box office
The film only did moderately well at box-office; it was able to recover its budget cost mainly due to business from big cities but did not turn out to be a massive hit contrary to everyone's expectations. It earned an excess of ₹6.1crore net in India. Its total domestic gross was ₹8.18 crore, and its overseas gross was $150,000, bringing its worldwide gross to inr 86530000. It was the year's 17th highest-grossing Indian film.

The lack of publicity and tough competition from other films of that year were reasons for its average business. Santoshi also attributes the failure to the fact that the film was not released and distributed well due to a new distributor. All of these films were very strong in their box office presence and Andaz Apna Apna, belonging to a different genre, could not compete well. It has however, in subsequent years, achieved a cult classic status among Hindi audiences.

Critical reception
While reviewing Grand Masti in 2013, critic Khalid Mohamed described Andaz Apna Apna in the "collection of excellent comedies" from Hindi cinema. Film critic Raja Sen called it a "cornball classic" and "one of the greatest comedies in recent times." In 2014, comedian Aditi Mittal wrote: "Writing about Andaz Apna Apna, I have realized, is like writing about mother's love. Everyone has their own version of how it affects them, what lines they remember the most." The film was featured in Filmfare's 100 Days series. It is available on the streaming platform Netflix and Prime Video.

Legacy
Several dialogues from this film like "Teja main hu. Mark Idhar hai", "Crime Master Gogo, Mogambo ka Bhatija", "Do dost ek cup me chay piyenge" etc., are popular. It went on to be an inspiration for the plot element of the Tamil film Ullathai Allitha, the Telugu film Veedevadandi Babu and the Kannada film Galate Aliyandru. Andaz Apna Apna did not have a bound script most of the dialogues were improvised by the cast and crew during the shoot of the film. The film was featured in Filmfare's 100 Days series. It was voted as the 2nd best Bollywood comedy film of all time in an online poll conducted by The Indian Express.

The plot elements of the film were used in many languages as Ullathai Allitha (1996), Veedevadandi Babu (1997), and Galate Aliyandru (2000). Andaz Naya Naya is a Bollywood animated 3D film, an official remake of Andaz Apna Apna, but it has been shelved for unknown reasons. Producer Sidharth Jain began to question if the film would do any good at the box office because Indian animated films do not get the good market, so Jain shelved the film after being 35% done.

Robert, the character from the film played by Viju Khote, also makes an appearance in Ajab Prem Ki Ghazab Kahani, a 2009 film also directed by Rajkumar Santoshi.

title: Andaz Apna Apna


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Gustave Boissonade

Gustave Émile Boissonade de Fontarabie (7 June 1825 – 27 June 1910) was a French legal scholar, responsible for drafting much of Japan's civil code during the Meiji Era, and honored as one of the founders of modern Japan's legal system.

Biography
Boissonade was born in Vincennes in 1825 to the famous scholar Jean François Boissonade de Fontarabie. He was a brilliant law student, and received his doctorate of law with honours from the University of Paris in 1853. He was in charge of law courses at Paris University until 1864, and was assistant law professor at the University of Grenoble until 1867.

In 1873 he was invited to lecture on constitutional and criminal law to some Japanese visitors to Paris, and received an invitation to work in Japan by the Japanese Ministry of Justice as one of several foreign legal scholars needed to assist with the drafting of Japan's legal codes and in the renegotiation of the unequal treaties.

Boissonade remained in Japan for more than 21 years, from 1873 to 1895, and worked as an instructor in the Law School of the Ministry of Justice. He worked closely with Ume Kenjirō and Hozumi Nobushige in drafting much of Japan's criminal and civil law. He was also an expert in international law, and was legal advisor to the government in the Taiwan Expedition of 1874. He was named a consultant to the Genrōin in 1875.

He also opposed Inoue Kaoru's 1887 proposal to allow non-Japanese judges, and cautioned against too rapid movement towards revision of the unequal treaties.

He was awarded the Order of the Rising Sun (2nd degree) in 1876 and was thus one of the few foreigners so honored at that time. Today, he is honored as one of the founders of Hosei University. The "Boissonade Tower", the Ichigaya campus of Hosei University halfway between Ichigaya and Iidabashi stations in central Tokyo, a 26-story building completed in 2000, was named after him.

He returned to France in 1895 and lived in Antibes, where his tomb is located.

title: Gustave Boissonade


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Khaan

Khaan (from Mongol 'lord') is an extinct genus of oviraptorid dinosaur known from remains found in the Djadochta Formation of Mongolia, dating to the Late Cretaceous (Campanian, 75-71 million years ago).

Description
Khaan did not differ much from other oviraptorids. At first, its remains were assigned to "Ingenia", but the Khaan manual structure, lacking the expansion of the upper third metacarpal, was considered to differ sufficiently from that of "Ingenia" for it to be assigned to its own genus.

The oviraptorid diet is disputed, with plants and molluscs having been suggested. Like other oviraptorids, Khaan was probably at least partially a meat eater, feeding on small vertebrates like mammals, lizards and possibly other small dinosaurs. It was also probably feathered.

Discovery
The type species Khaan mckennai was named by James M. Clark et al. in 2001. The genus name is derived from Mongol khaan, "lord" or "ruler". The specific name honours the paleontologist Malcolm Carnegie McKenna.

The holotype IGM 100/1127 consists of an almost complete skeleton found together with another specimen, IGM 100/1002. Together they were informally referred to as "Romeo and Juliet". These individuals are about four feet long. A third, considerably larger, specimen, IGM 100/973, was referred to the species.

Classification
Khaan was by Clark assigned to the Oviraptoridae. Among oviraptorids, it was probably more closely related to Conchoraptor.

The cladogram below follows an analysis by Fanti et al., 2012.

Paleobiology
According to a 2014 study published in Nature, Khaan was possibly sexually dimorphic. Two specimens, the holotype MPC-D 100/1127 and referred specimen MPC-D 100/1002, were analyzed, the dimorphic feature being in the anterior chevrons. Both specimens were of the same size and build, and thus were likely the same age, ruling out ontogeny. In MPC-D 100/1127, the anterior chevrons showed great similarity to those of other theropods, with no great expansion on the distal end. However, in the other individual, the chevrons had a "heel"-like expansion above the distal end, which increased in size along the sequence. The study ruled out a possibly pathologic explanation, finding sexual dimorphism to have more support. It was thought that the reduced spines were a female characteristic, because they would increase space for laying eggs. Also, the larger spines could be for male muscle attachments, which would support a tail fan.

A 2022 study of the bite force of Khaan and comparisons with other oviraptorosaurs such as Incisivosaurus, Citipati, and Conchoraptor suggests that Khaan had a very strong bite force. The moderate jaw gape seen in oviraptorosaurs is indicative of herbivory in the majority of the group, but it is clear they were likely feeding on much tougher or more types of vegetation than other herbivorous theropods in their environment, such as ornithomimosaurs and therizinosaurs were able to. The examinations suggest oviraptorosaurs may have been powerful-biting generalists or specialists that partook of niche partitioning both in body size and cranial function.

title: Khaan


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Economy of Isan

The economy of Isan, Thailand's largest region, composed of 20 provinces in the northeast, is dominated by agriculture, although agricultural output is low and decreasing in importance while the trade and service sectors are growing. Much of the population is poor and badly educated. Many labourers have been driven by poverty to seek work in other parts of Thailand or abroad.

Isan accounts for around a third of Thailand's population and a third of its area. In 2013 it contributed 10.9 percent of the kingdom's GDP. The gross regional product (GRP) per capita in 2013 was 74,532 baht per year, the lowest of all Thai regions, 5.8 times lower than that of the leading eastern region.

World Bank report that after the 1997 Asian financial crisis Income in the northeast, the poorest part of Thailand, has risen by 46 percent from 1998 to 2001 due to Education For All. Nationwide poverty fell from 21.3 to 11.3 percent.

Politically-driven upturn
The first decade of the 21st century saw improvements in Isan's economy. Economic growth in the region reached 40 percent from 2007 to 2011, versus 23 percent for the country as a whole, and just 17 percent for greater Bangkok. Monthly household income rose 40 percent between 2007 and 2011, the biggest jump of any Thai region.

Former prime minister Thaksin Shinawatra came to power in 2001 and initiated a series of populist policies—-from virtually free healthcare to low-interest loans to the rural poor—that stimulated Isan's economy. Thaksin was ousted in a 2006 coup, but his sister, Yingluck was elected prime minister in 2011. The economic renaissance of Isan coincided with the expansionary policies, from wage increases to farm subsidies, that were begun by Thaksin and continued by his sister. Yingluck's government brought in a nationwide minimum wage of 300 baht a day in January 2013. In some Isan provinces, that was an increase of 35 percent, among the biggest gains in the country, on top of a nationwide 40 percent increase in April 2012. Yingluck was deposed in early-2014 and replaced by a military government in May.

The military government's economic initiatives of 2016 call for two trillion baht (US$57 billion) to be fast-tracked into nationwide infrastructure projects. Only 10 percent of the funds are allocated to projects in Isan despite its accounting for 33 percent of the population. The majority will be spent on a new Khorat-Bangkok motorway.

Economy
Agriculture is the biggest sector of the economy. The following table shows the percentage of gross regional product (GRP) by sector in 2013:

For FY 2018, Northeastern Thailand Region had a combined economic output of 1,559 trillion baht (US$50.3 billion), or 9.5 percent of Thailand's GDP. Loei province had an economic output of 54.769 billion baht (US$1.77 billion). This equates to a GPP per capita value of 100,796 baht (US$3,251), almost double than for Nong Bua Lamphu province, lowest in the ranking.

Khon Kaen province had an economic output of 211.192 billion baht (US$6.8 billion). This equates to a GPP per capita value of 122,950 baht (US$3,966), nearly 66 percent more than for Maha Sarakham province, next in the rank-list and double then for Yasothon province, lowest in the ranking.

Nakhon Ratchasima province had an economic output of 295.511 billion baht (US$9.5 billion). This amounts to a per capita GPP value of 115,517 baht (US$3,726), 56 percent more than for Maha Sarakham province, next in the rank-list.

Agriculture

Agriculture remains the largest sector of the economy, but its importance is decreasing. Its share of GRP fell from 45 percent in 1980 to 33.2 percent in 1990, and to 27.1 percent in 2013. During the 1990s, the agricultural sector grew at 3.8 percent per annum, compared to 9.7 percent for the service sector. Although 76 percent of the population engages in some form of agriculture, only 46 percent of the workforce is formally employed in the sector, reflecting the fact that for many it is a part-time occupation.

Of the region's 155,400 km2, only 92,204 km2 is cultivated, and only 7,770 km2 of that is irrigated. There are a number of reasons for this. Saline contamination makes a third of the land unfit for cultivation. Although average rainfall is not much less than in other parts of the country, its unpredictability often causes droughts or flooding. The latter is worsened by the generally flat terrain of the plateau, while both are exacerbated by the sandy soil, which is poor at retaining water. Deforestation reduced forest cover from 25 percent in 1975 to 14 percent in 1995, again inhibiting water retention.

Attempts to improve the agricultural sector through irrigation and diversification have caused unforeseen environmental damage. Increased irrigation has raised the water table in some areas, bringing salt to the surface and contaminating the soil. The same effect has also been observed following forest clearance and the planting of cereal crops, cassava, and sugar cane.

Irrigation has also proved somewhat ineffective in increasing agricultural production. Workers commonly work in agriculture during the wet season and turn to non-farm activities during the dry season. Using irrigation to increase dry season production would therefore reduce the labour devoted to these other activities and so reduce the income they provide, rather than supplementing it.

The cultivated land is relatively unproductive: paddy fields produce only 424 tonnes of rice per square mile, compared to 547 nationally. Most farmers can produce only one crop of rice a year. Many farmers still use water buffalo rather than tractors.

Sixty percent of cultivated land is devoted to rice paddies. The concentration on rice farming has made the farmers vulnerable to fluctuating prices. This has been reduced somewhat by increased diversification, but Isan still accounts for half of Thailand's exports of rice, cassava, and sugar. These crops employ 700,000 Isan families. Other crops include, tobacco, cotton, and watermelons.

Tourism
According to the governor of Nakhon Phanom Province, "The entire Northeast [Isan] gained only 2.9 percent of [the] country's tourism income of 2.7 trillion baht [in 2017]."

Other sectors
Other sectors of the economy have been growing more quickly than agriculture, although this growth can be misleading. The number of factories grew from 1,908 in 1975 to 44,000 in 1995, but 34,312 of these were rice mills. In 2000, 76 percent of Isan factories were breweries or food or tobacco processors.

A study conducted by Khon Kaen University estimated that each year 8.67 billion baht is sent by foreign husbands to their wives in Isan. The 2010 census found that 90 percent of the slightly more than 27,000 foreigners living in the northeastern region were married to women from there.

Poverty
Isan's economic disadvantages have caused great poverty. Most of Thailand's rural poor live in Isan. In 1995, 28 percent of the population was classed as below the poverty line, compared to just seven percent in central Thailand. In 2000, per capita income was just 26,317 baht, compared to 208,434 in Bangkok. Even within Isan, there is a rural/urban divide.

In 1995, all of Thailand's ten poorest provinces were in Isan, the poorest being Sisaket Province. In 2012, six of Thailand's ten poorest provinces were in Isan, Kalasin being the poorest province in the region. From 2000 to 2012, half of Thailand's eight provinces with chronic poverty were in Isan. Most wealth and investment is concentrated in the four major cities of Khorat, Ubon, Udon, and Khon Kaen. These four provinces account for 40 percent of the region's population.

Workforce
A survey in spring 2001 found a total labour force of 10.7 million. Almost 600,000 of those were seasonal labourers between work, and 5.2 percent were unemployed. The remaining 9.5 million were employed as follows:

The population is poorly-educated, with 6.4 million over 15 not having completed primary school. Four million have a primary education, 2.2 million secondary, and 829,736 have a university level education (all as of 2001). There is little incentive for better education, as most job vacancies require few or no educational qualifications.

Economic migrants
Many Isan people have sought work elsewhere. In the first half of the 1990s, 420,000 workers moved elsewhere in Thailand (60 percent of them to Bangkok). Many of the taxicab drivers, shop and factory workers and construction workers in the capital are from Isan. The economic advantages of migrant labour have come at a social cost. While some workers migrate annually, other families are divided, often for many years.

The Thai government's National Economic and Social Development Board estimates that remittances from Isan women overseas amount to US$35 million per year, equivalent to six percent of the region's economic output. Researchers estimate that at least 15,000 Isan women are married to foreign men.

Rural Isan is a disproportionate supplier of workers to the sex trade, both domestically and abroad. This is partly a legacy of Vietnam-era US bases, but mostly due to the region's poverty. As one researcher summed it up, "The equation looks like this: One working day in a tapioca field pays $8 (300 baht). One working day at a multinational chicken factory pays $11 (400 baht). One working day at a metal factory in Denmark pays $91 (3200 baht), and one busy working day at a Danish brothel pays $450 (15,800 baht)."

Sex workers from Isan see prostitution as a way out of poverty. One former sex worker from Maha Sarakham said she entered Bangkok's sex trade at the age of 19 and earned up to 5,000 baht (US$143.14) a night, nearly 20 times the minimum wage of 300 baht (US$8.59) per day. "No one wants to work in this business, but it's fast and easy money," she said.

title: Economy of Isan


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Swiss Cheese Union

The Swiss Cheese Union (Schweizer Käseunion AG, ) was a marketing and trading organization in Switzerland, which served as a cartel to control cheese production from 1914 to 1999. To this end, the Swiss Cheese Union mandated production be limited to only a few varieties, chiefly Gruyere and Emmental, and bought the entire production and distribution of cheese at prices set by the Swiss Federal Council. It also coordinated the national and international marketing for these varieties of cheese.

The Swiss Cheese Union was particularly successful in campaigning for cheese fondue, which became a very popular dish in Switzerland and abroad. It is now often considered to be the Swiss national dish. Before that, it was only a regional dish.

1914-1920s
Throughout the course of World War I, Switzerland remained neutral and maintained the health of its massive cheese production industry. Exports of the product suffered in part due to the devastation wrought upon customers in the surrounding countries; these numbers would remain low until after World War II. The war exacerbated this further as a lack of hay and fodder to use as feed for dairy animals showed sharp decreases in production.

In an effort to combat this slump in exports, cheese producers were determined to develop strict non-compete guidelines, establishing a cartel that became known as the Swiss Cheese Union. According to journalist Robert Smith, "The union set the price for milk. It told dairymen how much milk to produce and who they could sell it to. They told the cheesemakers how much cheese to make, and then set the prices for the cheese. And it was all so complicated, this cheese business, that they actually narrowed down the number of cheeses that people could produce. Switzerland used to make over 1,000 different kinds of cheeses; the Cheese Union supported seven."

Inter-War Period
The Swiss Cheese Union's success in controlling production soon presented a problem: overproduction of cheese in a saturated, stagnant market. Initially, the Swiss Cheese Union was able to float the dairy market by buying cheese from the milk association at fixed prices and then reselling the cheese to itself, but the logic of this was so dizzying that it could not be the final answer. A more long-term solution presented itself in the form of fondue. According to former director of the Musee Gruerien Isabelle Raboud-Schuele, "Up until 1930, fondue was essentially only known in the French-speaking part of Switzerland but thereafter it became popular throughout Switzerland, to the point of becoming a national dish. This was due to the success of intensive campaigns to promote cheese, led by the Swiss Union for Marketing Cheese in the 1930s. Cheese production exceeded consumption and hence in order to expand the market for this former export, the Swiss needed to be convinced to eat more cheese."

Though marketed by the Swiss Cheese Union as an Alpine specialty, the dish did not originate in the mountains. Alpine cheese-making was limited to the summer months, and fondue was thus in the 18th century eaten only by upper class households in small towns in the Jura region and lowland Switzerland; cheese making spread throughout the country in the following century and became easier to make year-round thanks to advances in equipment. Alpine-cheese making could not keep up with the strong competition, and the economy of mountain-produced cheese weakened. According to Dominik Flammer, the author of Swiss cheese: origins, traditional cheese varieties and new creations, typical families might have the dish only a few times a year.

These facts did not stop the Swiss Cheese Union from fabricating an almost infectious enthusiasm for fondue in its marketing materials, drawing on a recipe requiring vast amounts of Swiss cheese and steeped in a narrative of tradition. The Swiss Cheese Union used iconography known around the world to promote the dish, invoking Heidi (the stories of whom had been translated into many languages at this point) to underline the wholesomeness and authenticity of the Swiss dish. Posters showcasing rain or snow as “fondue weather” reinforced the notion that fondue delivers a feeling of warmth in guests, and the recipes and tips were given on how to prepare fondue for anywhere from four to one hundred people, encouraging conspicuous consumption of the mass produced product.

Rebellion
A rebel cheesemaker named Sepp Barmettler strove against this near-universal acceptance of cheese restrictions and aimed to add the Parmesan-like Sbrinz cheese to the list of allowed cheeses. After eight years of applications and appeals to the Swiss Cheese Union, his request was denied. In a letter to Barmettler, no specific reason was given for the denial, but it was noted to Barmettler that "you do not fit into the envisaged structures." Nevertheless, Barmettler continued to produce small, soft cheeses stanser fladen, selling them directly to small vendors like hotels and small restaurants rather than to the larger distributors that would have caught the attention of the cartel. After the collapse of the cartel, an explosion of new cheeses from Switzerland came onto the market, from recreations of old recipes to continuations of classics like Sepp helped keep alive.

Decline of the Union
As the country's reputation shifted from that of a dairy farming nation raising cows to one peopled by scientists and engineers, concern grew over the vast sums of taxpayer money pumped into the dairy industry. In the 1960s and 1970s, the dairy industry purportedly cost the Swiss government more than the whole cost of the army of Switzerland.

The Swiss Cheese Union sponsored the 1992-1993 Swiss National Ski Team. The team wore yellow ski suits with simulated cheese holes.

After corruption charges were leveled against a number of the Swiss Cheese Union officials, the union was disbanded by the late 1990s. Dairy subsidies continued, but competition between cheese makers was reintroduced, causing prices to plummet.

title: Swiss Cheese Union


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Appenzeller cheese

Appenzeller cheese is a hard cow's-milk cheese produced in the Appenzellerland region of northeast Switzerland, in the two modern-day cantons of Appenzell Innerrhoden and Appenzell Ausserrhoden. It is classified as a Swiss-type or Alpine cheese.

History
Cheese from Appenzellerland has a documented history of at least 700 years, being first mentioned in a document from 1282. However, the manufacturing process is not mentioned and may have been rather different from today. Today, about 75 dairies produce Appenzeller, each with a different recipe for their brine wash. Most of the recipes are trade secrets.

Production
An herbal brine, sometimes incorporating wine or cider, is applied to the wheels of cheese while they cure, which flavors and preserves the cheese while promoting the formation of a rind.

Variants
The cheese is straw-colored, with tiny holes and a golden rind. It has a strong smell and a nutty or fruity flavor, which can range from mild to tangy, depending on how long it is aged. Three types are sold:

 * "Classic". Aged three to four months, mildly spicy. The wheels are wrapped in a silver label.
 * "Surchoix". Aged four to six months, strongly spicy. Gold label.
 * "Extra". Aged six months or longer, extra spicy. Black label.

title: Appenzeller cheese


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Limma

The word limma or leimma (from Greek: $λείμμα$, leimma; meaning "remnant") can refer to several different musical intervals, and one form of breath-mark to indicate spacing within lyrics; their only common property is that all are very small either in pitch difference or in time.

Pitch
More specifically, in Pythagorean tuning (i.e. 3-limit):
 * The original Pythagorean limma, $256⁄243$, a Pythagorean interval.

and in 5-limit tuning:
 * The 5-limit diatonic semitone, $16⁄15$ . Although closer in size to the Pythagorean apotome than to the limma, it has been so called because of its function as a diatonic semitone rather than a chromatic one.

 * The 5-limit limma (now a diesis), $128⁄125$, the amount by which three just major thirds fall short of an octave.

 * The major limma, $135⁄128$, which is the difference between two major whole tones and a minor third.

Metre
A leimma is also the name of a musical / metrical symbol ($𝉅$) for the timing of sung lyrics. If written over lyrics to it directed the singer to insert the shortest possible pause between words or syllables it was placed over.

Modern equivalents are:
 * a breath mark
 * a comma [,]
 * a sixteenth rest ($λεῖμμα$) or perhaps a thirty-second rest ($λ. ἐν ῥυθμῷ$)

title: Limma


text: User talk:62.58.132.177

title: User talk:62.58.132.177


text:
Talk:Jean François Boissonade de Fontarabie

Untitled
Surely Jean François must be related to Gustave Emille Boissonade but can anyone confirm this? Cutler 09:45, Jul 23, 2004 (UTC)
 * Yes, he was his father.--Niohe 20:47, 21 January 2007 (UTC)


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True West Magazine

True West Magazine (alternate title: True West) is an American magazine that covers the Old West.

Started in 1953, True West is headquartered in Cave Creek, Arizona, and publishes monthly. It is the world's oldest, continuously published Western American magazine.

History
True West began publication in 1953 under founder Joe Small of Austin, Texas. The idea for True West originated from a monthly feature in Small's first publication, Sporting Magazine. The magazine's recurring "Bad Man" article, about outlaws of the West, was the feature that generated the most reader mail and interest. True West was born to satisfy the readers' hunger for Old West history.

True West was the largest Western magazine on the market in the 1960s, selling hundreds of thousands of copies monthly at newsstands. The magazine benefited from an era featuring popular television western series such as Bonanza, The Lone Ranger, and Gunsmoke. At least one episode, "The Hunted" (1958), of the ABC/Warner Brothers series Sugarfoot is based on a True West article. Fans interested in the lives of real cowboys and cowgirls found those stories in True West.

After that, the early era of television westerns faded during the time of the Vietnam War and disco music. In 1979, Small sold the magazine to Chet Krause of Iola, Wisconsin. Small stayed on as publisher, with Krause as assistant publisher. The magazine saw a few moves—to Perkins, Oklahoma, then Stillwater—before the 1999 move to Cave Creek, Arizona. Among its new owners was Bob Boze Bell, who first discovered the magazine as a nine-year-old at Desert Drugs in Kingman, Arizona. The publication sparked a lifelong interest in the Old West. As the January 2000 issue was being edited, Bell flew to Stillwater to design the cover because he, "wanted to own the millennium."

Bell felt the magazine needed to change with the times or it would not survive. One of the first changes he made was switching the magazine from pulp paper to gloss, as True West was one of the last remaining publications using pulp. He also expanded the coverage of Western movies, since so many people developed a love of Old West history after being exposed to Westerns on television or the big screen. He added, and still writes, the successful "Classic Gunfights" department that has featured more than one hundred gunfights of the Old West.

In 2007, Ken Amorosano joined the team as associate publisher. In 2011, he became True West's publisher and set the magazine in a new direction, catering the publication more toward its core history aficionados and expanding the magazine's readership globally.

Television
Executive editor Bob Boze Bell is regularly featured on True West Moments, which airs on Encore's Westerns channel. He responds to inquiries from around the world.

In 2012, in honor of Arizona's centennial, True West created and released the show Outrageous Arizona, an irreverent and humorous look at the history of Arizona, hosted by Bob Boze Bell and True West contributors Jana Bommersbach and Marshall Trimble. The show aired on select PBS stations in the Southwest. Outrageous Arizona received an EMMY Award from Rocky Mountain Southwest Chapter of the National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences (NATAS) in 2013.

title: True West Magazine


text:
User talk:80.168.14.138

Nomination of John Rose (Trotskyist) for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether the article John Rose (Trotskyist) is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.

The article will be discussed at Articles for deletion/John Rose (Trotskyist) until a consensus is reached, and anyone, including you, is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on high-quality evidence and our policies and guidelines.

Users may edit the article during the discussion, including to improve the article to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the article-for-deletion notice from the top of the article. Szzuk (talk) 10:53, 13 January 2019 (UTC)

title: User talk:80.168.14.138


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Great Gable

Great Gable is a mountain in the Lake District, United Kingdom. It is named after its appearance as a pyramid from Wasdale, though it is dome-shaped from most other directions. It is one of the most popular of the Lakeland fells, and there are many different routes to the summit. Great Gable is linked by the high pass of Windy Gap to its smaller sister hill, Green Gable, and by the lower pass of Beck Head to its western neighbour, Kirk Fell.

Topography
The Western Fells occupy a triangular sector of the Lake District, bordered by the River Cocker to the north east and Wasdale to the south east. Westwards, the hills diminish toward the coastal plain of Cumbria. At the central hub of the high country are Great Gable and its satellites, while two principal ridges fan out on either flank of Ennerdale, the western fells forming a horseshoe around this valley.

Great Gable and its lesser companion Green Gable stand at the head of Ennerdale, with the walkers' pass of Sty Head to their backs. This connects Borrowdale to Wasdale, giving Gable a footing in both valleys. The Borrowdale connection is quite tenuous, but Great Gable is prominent in almost any view up the lake.

The upper section of Great Gable has a roughly square plan, about half a mile on each side, with the faces running in line with the four points of the compass. The fells connecting and subsidiary ridges occupy the corners of the square. The northern face is formed by Gable Crag, prominent in views from Haystacks and the surrounding fells. This is the longest continuous wall of crag on the fell and reaches up almost to the summit. Scree slopes fall away below to the headwaters of the River Liza, which flows down Ennerdale. There are few crags on the eastern slopes, although these fall steeply to Styhead Tarn, a feeder of the Borrowdale system. About 30 feet deep, this tarn occupies a scooped hollow, dammed by boulders fallen from the slopes above. It is reputed to contain trout and is a popular location for wild camping. The southern flank of Great Gable falls 2300 ft direct to Lingmell Beck, one of the main feeders of Wastwater. Right below the summit are the Westmorland Crags, and then a second tier breaks out lower down. These are Kern Knotts, Raven Crag and Great Napes, all footed by great tongues of scree. Finally on the west rough slopes fall below the rocks of White Napes to the narrow valley of Gable Beck, a tributary of Lingmell Beck.

From the north-western corner of the pyramid the connecting ridge to Kirk Fell runs out across the col of Beck Head (2050 ft). There is a small tarn in the depression, and sometimes a second after heavy rain. Both are blind, having no apparent inlet or outflow. Gable Beck runs south from Beck Head, while an unnamed tributary of the Liza flows northward. The main spine of the Western Fells continues along the north east ridge to Green Gable, dropping to Windy Gap (2460 ft) as it rounds the end of Gable Crag. This ridge is rough and rocky, further worn by the boots of countless walkers. Stone Cove lies on the Ennerdale side while the rough gully of Aaron Slack runs down toward Styhead Tarn. The south-eastern ridge provides the connection to the Southern Fells, across the pass of Sty Head. This is a major crossroads for walkers and climbers, the summit being at around 1560 ft. On the opposite slope is Great End in the Scafells. Kern Knotts lies on this south-east ridge, as does the small pool of Dry Tarn. The south-western ridge gives to high level connection, dropping down Gavel Neese in the angle between Lingmell Beck and Gable Beck.

Geology
Lying on the edge of the Scafell Syncline, the various strata dip to the east. The summit area is formed from a dacite lava flow (Scafell Dacite), directly underlain by the Lingmell Formation. This tuff, lapilli tuff and breccia outcrops a little to the west of the summit. Around Beck Head is evidence of the Crinkle Member, welded rhyolitic tuff and lapilli-tuff with some breccia. A dyke of andesite and hybridised andesite porphyry is responsible for Kern Knotts.

Summit
The summit of Great Gable is strewn with boulders and the highest point marked by a rock outcrop set with a cairn. There is a plaque set on the summit rock commemorating those members of the Fell & Rock Climbing Club who died in World War I; an annual memorial service is held here on Remembrance Sunday. The club bought 3,000 acres of land including Great Gable and donated it to the National Trust in memory of these members, and the plaque was dedicated on Whit Sunday 1924 by Geoffrey Winthrop Young in front of 500 people. The bronze memorial, weighing 70 kg, was removed on 10 July 2013 by 13 soldiers and carried down the hill via a stretcher. A replacement, with spelling errors corrected, was installed by Royal Engineers in October 2013.

Due to its central position within the Lake District and great prominence the summit offers panoramic views. All of the main fell groups are laid out, though Wast Water, Crummock Water and Windermere are the only lakes visible. A hundred yards to the south west of the summit, overlooking the Napes, is the Westmorland Cairn. This cairn was erected in 1876 by two brothers named Westmorland to mark what they considered to be the finest view in the Lake District. From here ground falls away into the upper Wasdale valley. Further cairns mark the top of Gable Crag. The summit has become a popular site for the scattering of ashes following cremation.

Ascents
Routes to climb to the summit start from all of the main dales that radiate out from central Lakeland. A popular route is to climb Sour Milk Gill from Seathwaite in Borrowdale, first ascending Green Gable before traversing Windy Gap.

Other walking routes
Alfred Wainwright described the 'Gable Girdle', a circuit around the fell at mid height. This links a number of existing paths, namely the north and south traverses, Styhead Pass, Aaron Slack and Moses Trod. The south traverse climbs westward from Sty Head and provides access to the Napes and Kern Knotts for rock climbers. The route offers views of Napes Needle, Sphinx Rock and many other climbing locations. The north traverse similarly runs beneath Gable Crag to Windy Gap. In the west the two traverses are joined by a section of Moses Trod, running up the southern side of Beck Head. "Moses" was a possibly apocryphal trader-cum-smuggler, based at Honister Quarry. His route contoured the fellside from there to provide access to Wasdale markets for his illicit whisky. Moses Trod would also function as a route with minimal uphill sections for transporting slate from the quarry to the coast. Aaron Slack provides a fast down from Windy Gap to Sty Head.

Rock climbing
Great Gable has cliffs to the north (Gable Crag) and south (Westmorland Crags, the Napes, and Kern Knotts). The Napes are important in the history of English rock climbing: Walter Parry Haskett Smith's ascent of the detached pinnacle of Napes Needle in June 1886 is thought by some to mark the origins in England of rock climbing as a sport in its own right. A BBC documentary by Eye to Eye on the history of mountaineering in 1956 filmed Monica Jackson with Horace "Rusty" Westmoreland climbing it.

title: Great Gable


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Sbrinz

Sbrinz is a very hard cheese produced in Central Switzerland. It is often used as grated cheese in Swiss cuisine, although it is also eaten in small pieces. The cheese is produced in only 42 dairies in Central Switzerland. Only local cow's milk is used when producing this cheese. It is kept in the region until ready for consumption. It is the hardest of Swiss cheeses together with Berner Hobelkäse.

Sbrinz probably got its name from the town of Brienz in the Bernese Oberland. In the 16th and 17th centuries, there was a collecting point for both cheeses from the Oberland and Central Switzerland. Most of the cheese was then transported from there across the Alps. Customers in northern Italy soon named the cheese "Sbrinz" after this place. The term then also became common in Switzerland. A second explanation is based on the adoption of the Lombard dialect word "sbrinzo", a term for hard cheese.

Character
Sbrinz is an extra hard full fat cheese. It contains approximately 40% to 45% of fat when dry. The cheese must ripen for 16 months before it can be sold as Sbrinz, and the full flavour only develops after about 24–30 months in storage.

History
Sbrinz is one of the oldest European cheeses. The Celtic ancestors of the Swiss were making cheese centuries before the birth of Christ. In the first century AD, Roman writer Columella (or Pliny the Elder) mentions in his writings Caseus Helveticus, which is probably Sbrinz. It seems certain, however, that it is mentioned in documents dating from 1530, which are kept in the state archive in Bern.

Starting in 2001, Sbrinz was granted an appellation d'origine contrôlée (AOC) certification. The AOC provides specifications for the origin of the milk and the processes that must be followed in order for the cheese to be labeled as Sbrinz. In 2013, this was replaced by the appellation d'origine protégée (AOP) certification.

Consumption
Sbrinz is commonly consumed in several ways; it can be used grated, such as on pasta. It can be eaten in small pieces, often to accompany wine. Traditionally, Sbrinz is never cut, but grated, broken with a special cutter or planed. It is also eaten in thin slices planed from the hard cheese. Sbrinz is often simply enjoyed with bread and butter.

title: Sbrinz


text:
True West

True West may refer to:
 * True West (band), a Paisley Underground band that flourished in the early 1980s
 * True West (play), a play by Sam Shepard
 * True West Magazine, a magazine that began publication in 1953

title: True West