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List of Emiratis

This is a list of prominent Emirati people who are United Arab Emirates nationals.

Al Nahyan family (Al Nahyan royal family – Abu Dhabi)

 * Sheikh Mohammad bin Zayed Al Nahyan – Ra'is (President) of UAE, Ruler of Abu Dhabi and Supreme Commander of the UAE Armed Forces
 * The Late Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan – Second Ra'is (President) of UAE and former Ruler of Abu Dhabi
 * Sheikh Sultan bin Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan – President's Representative
 * Sheikh Hamdan bin Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan – Ruler's Representative in the Western Region of Abu Dhabi
 * Sheikh Hamdan bin Mubarak Al Nahyan – Minister of Higher Education and Research Of Science
 * Sheikh Mansour bin Zayed Al Nahyan – Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Presidential Affairs
 * Sheikh Abdullah Bin Zayed Al Nahyan – Minister of Foreign Affairs
 * The Late Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan – founding father of the United Arab Emirates and first Ra'is (President)
 * Sheikha Fatima bint Mubarak Al Ketbi – referred to as the Mother of the United Arab Emirates

Al Maktoum royal family – Dubai

 * The Late Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum – Second Prime Minister of the UAE and founder of modern Dubai
 * The Late Sheikh Maktoum bin Rashid Al Maktoum – First Prime Minister of the UAE
 * Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum – Vice President & Prime Minister of UAE; Ruler of Dubai
 * The Late Sheikh Hamdan bin Rashid Al Maktoum – Minister of Finance & Industry
 * Sheikh Hamdan Bin Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum – Crown Prince of Dubai, & Chairman of Dubai Executive Council

Al-Qasimi royal family – Sharjah

 * Sheikh Sultan bin Muhammad Al-Qasimi – Ruler of Sharjah
 * Sheikha Lubna Al Qasimi – Minister of Foreign Trade

Al-Qasimi royal family – Ras al-Khaimah

 * Sheikh Saud bin Saqr al Qasimi – Ruler of RAK

Al Nuaimi royal family – Ajman

 * Sheikh Humaid bin Rashid Al Nuaimi – Ruler of Ajman
 * Sheikh Ammar bin Humaid Al Nuaimi – Crown Prince of Ajman
 * Sheikh Rashid Bin Humaid Al Nuaimi IV

Al Sharqi royal family – Fujairah

 * Sheikh Hamad bin Mohammed Al Sharqi – Ruler of Fujairah
 * Sheikh Mohammed bin Hamad bin Mohammed Al Sharqi – Crown Prince of Fujairah

Council of Ministers

 * Sheikh Hamdan bin Rashid Al Maktoum – Minister of Finance
 * Lt-General Sheikh Saif bin Zayed Al Nahyan – Minister of Interior
 * Sheikh Mansour bin Zayed Al Nahyan – Minister of Presidential Affairs
 * Sheikh Abdullah bin Zayed Al Nahyan – Foreign Minister of Foreign Affairs
 * Sheikh Nahyan bin Mubarak Al Nahyan – Minister of Tolerance
 * Rashid Ahmad Muhammad Bin Fahad – Minister of Environment and Water
 * Reem Al Hashimi – Minister of State and managing director for the Dubai World Expo 2020 Bid Committee
 * Mohammed Al Gergawi – Minister of Cabinet Affairs in the Federal Government of the United Arab Emirates
 * Noura Al Kaabi – Minister of Culture and Knowledge Development and former member of the Federal National Council (15th and 16th Legislative Terms)

Other Federal Government Officials

 * Lubna Khalid Al Qasimi – former Minister and former Speaker of the Federal National Council
 * Hawaa Saaed Al Thahak Al Mansoori – Member of the Federal National Council
 * Jouan Salem Al Dhaheri – Secretary-General and Member of Abu Dhabi National Oil Company (ADNOC)
 * Khalifa Shaheen Al Marar – Minister of State and former United Arab Emirates Ambassador to Iran
 * Saeed Khalifa Humeid Al Rumaithi – former secretary of the Ministry of Labor in Abu Dhabi

Businessmen

 * Ahmed bin Saeed Al Maktoum – CEO of Emirates airlines
 * Hussain Sajwani – CEO, Damac (real estate)
 * Ahmad Ali Al Sayegh – CEO, Dolphin Energy Limited (UAE)
 * Abdul Aziz Al Ghurair – banker, chairman, MashreqBank, former president of the Federal National Council, prominent businessman and among Forbes List of Billionaires
 * Majid Al Futtaim – Majid Al Futtaim & Co, prominent billionaire businessman
 * Mohammed bin Ali Al Abbar – chairman, Emaar and director, Dubai Economic Department
 * Saif Ahmad Al Ghurair – UAE, Al-Ghurair Group CEO
 * Suhail Galadari – UAE, Director, Khaleej Times
 * Sultan Ahmed bin Sulayem – chairman and CEO of DP World
 * Mohammad Al Gaz – chairman, United Arab Agencies
 * Mohamed Juma Al Shamisi – CEO, Abu Dhabi Ports Company (ADPC)
 * Juma al Majid – businessman – CEO and founder of Juma al majid holding groups
 * Issa bin Zayed Al Nahyan – businessman and relative of the royal family
 * Khalaf Ahmad Al Habtoor – Founder and Chairman of the Al Habtoor Group
 * Abdulraheem Al Masaood – son of Mahmoud Al Masaood; businessman and relative of the royal family prominent billionaire businessman resides in Canada

Businesswomen

 * Amina Al Rustamani – chief executive officer of AWR Properties, director and board member of the family-owned AW Rostamani Group
 * Hend Faisal Al Qassemi – businesswoman, author and journalist
 * Muna Al Gurg – Managing director of Retail at Easa Saleh Al Gurg Group
 * Her Excellency Dr. Shaikha Ali Salem Al Maskari – Chairperson of Al Maskari Holding (AMH), Emirates & Al Maskari Holdings, and Tricon Energy Operations

Medicine

 * Dr. Ali Al Numairy – first Emirati plastic surgeon
 * Dr. Moza Sultan Al Kaabi – first Emirati woman orthopedic surgeon.

Astronauts

 * Hazza Al Mansouri – first Emirati in space and first Arab to board the International Space Station
 * Sultan Al Neyadi – second of the two first Emirati astronauts
 * Nora Al Matrooshi – second group of astronauts.
 * Mohammad Al Mulla – second group of astronauts.

Arts and entertainment

 * Amal Al-Agroobi – famous Emirati film director
 * Abdul Qader Al Raes – famous Emirati painter
 * Ousha the Poet – famous Nabati poet
 * Mehad Hamad
 * Najat Makki
 * Wafa Hasher Al Maktoum
 * Mohammed Kazem
 * Hussain Sharif
 * Ebtisam Abdulaziz
 * Abdullah Al Saadi
 * Mohammed Ahmed Ibrahim
 * Mattar Bin Lahej
 * Moosa Al Halyan
 * Abdulraheem Salim
 * Ihab Darwish – famous Emirati composer and founder of Emirati Musicians' Association

Innovations

 * Reem Al Marzouqi

Cricketers

 * Ali Asad Abbas
 * Arshad Ali
 * Asghar Ali
 * Asim Saeed
 * Mohammad Aslam (UAE cricketer)
 * Shaukat Dukanwala
 * Fahad Usman
 * Mazhar Hussain
 * Kashif Ahmed
 * Khurram Khan
 * Arshad Laeeq
 * Rizwan Latif
 * Ganesh Mylvaganam
 * Naeemuddin
 * Riaz Poonawala
 * Suhail Galadari
 * Abdul Rehman (UAE cricketer)
 * Azhar Saeed
 * Saeed-Al-Saffar
 * Johanne Samarasekera
 * Sameer Zia
 * Shehzad Altaf
 * Sohail Butt
 * Syed Maqsood
 * Sultan Zarawani

ODI cricketers

 * Imtiaz Abbasi
 * Ali Asad Abbas
 * Arshad Ali
 * Asghar Ali
 * Asim Saeed
 * Mohammad Aslam (UAE cricketer)
 * Shaukat Dukanwala
 * Fahad Usman
 * Mazhar Hussain
 * Khurram Khan
 * Arshad Laeeq
 * Rizwan Latif
 * Mohammad Ishaq
 * Ganesh Mylvaganam
 * Naeemuddin
 * Riaz Poonawala
 * Ramveer Rai
 * Saleem Raza (cricketer)
 * Abdul Rehman (UAE cricketer)
 * Azhar Saeed
 * Saeed-Al-Saffar
 * Johanne Samarasekera
 * Sameer Zia
 * Shehzad Altaf
 * Sohail Butt
 * Syed Maqsood
 * Mohammad Tauqeer
 * Sultan Zarawani

Bowlers

 * Rizwan Latif
 * Sameer Zia
 * Syed Maqsood

Footballers

 * Adnan Al-Talyani – professional footballer, has the most caps in the UAE national football team
 * Ali Al-Wehaibi
 * Abdulrahman Ibrahim
 * Ismail Matar
 * Mohamed Omer (football player)
 * Saif Mohammed
 * Khalid Eisa

Rally drivers

 * Khalid Al Qassimi
 * Mohammed Ben Sulayem

Sport shooters

 * Ahmad Mohammad Hasher Al Maktoum – Saeed Mansoor Al Abdulla

Other

 * Sheikh Ahmad Mohammad Hasher Al Maktoum – ace-shooter and Olympic medalist
 * Sheikha Maitha bint Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum – karate and taekwondo practitioner
 * Elham Al Qasimi – first Arab woman to reach the North Pole
 * Sergiu Toma – Judoka and Olympic medalist
 * Hamda Taryam Al Shamsi- Professional drag racer, Philanthropist and Businesswoman

Politics

 * Ahmad Al Tayer
 * Ali bin Abdulla Al Kaabi
 * Saeed Mohammad Al Gandi
 * Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan
 * Maktoum bin Rashid Al Maktoum
 * Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum
 * Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum
 * Mansour bin Zayed Al Nahyan
 * Mohammad bin Zayed Al Nahyan
 * Nahyan bin Mubarak Al Nahyan
 * Qasim Sultan Al Banna
 * Lubna Khalid Al Qasimi
 * Rashid ibn Abdullah Al Nuaimi
 * Shakhbut Bin-Sultan Al Nahyan
 * Abdullah bin Zayed Al Nahyan
 * Sheikh Nahayan Mabarak Al Nahayan
 * Sultan bin Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan
 * Sultan bin Saeed Al Mansoori
 * Anwar Gargash

title: List of Emiratis


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Our

Our or OUR may refer to:
 * The possessive form of "we"

Places

 * Our (river), in Belgium, Luxembourg, and Germany
 * Our, Belgium, a village in Belgium
 * Our, Jura, a commune in France

Other uses

 * Office of Utilities Regulation (OUR), a government utility regulator in Jamaica
 * Operation Underground Railroad, a non-profit organization that helps rescue sex trafficking victims
 * Operation Unified Response, the United States military's response to the 2010 Haiti earthquake
 * Ownership, Unity and Responsibility Party, a political party in the Solomon Islands

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Our


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Numeric character reference

A numeric character reference (NCR) is a common markup construct used in SGML and SGML-derived markup languages such as HTML and XML. It consists of a short sequence of characters that, in turn, represents a single character. Since WebSgml, XML and HTML 4, the code points of the Universal Character Set (UCS) of Unicode are used. NCRs are typically used in order to represent characters that are not directly encodable in a particular document (for example, because they are international characters that do not fit in the 8-bit character set being used, or because they have special syntactic meaning in the language). When the document is interpreted by a markup-aware reader, each NCR is treated as if it were the character it represents.

Examples
In SGML, HTML, and XML, the following are all valid numeric character references for the Greek capital letter Sigma

In SGML, HTML, and XML, the following are all valid numeric character references for the Latin capital letter AE

In SGML, HTML, and XML, the following are all valid numeric character references for the Latin small letter sharp s ß

List of numeric character references for the printable ASCII characters:

Discussion
Markup languages are typically defined in terms of UCS or Unicode characters. That is, a document consists, at its most fundamental level of abstraction, of a sequence of characters, which are abstract units that exist independently of any encoding.

Ideally, when the characters of a document utilizing a markup language are encoded for storage or transmission over a network as a sequence of bits, the encoding that is used will be one that supports representing each and every character in the document, if not in the whole of Unicode, directly as a particular bit sequence.

Sometimes, though, for reasons of convenience or due to technical limitations, documents are encoded with an encoding that cannot represent some characters directly. For example, the widely used encodings based on ISO 8859 can only represent, at most, 256 unique characters as one 8-bit byte each.

Documents are rarely, in practice, ever allowed to use more than one encoding internally, so the onus is usually on the markup language to provide a means for document authors to express unencodable characters in terms of encodable ones. This is generally done through some kind of "escaping" mechanism.

The SGML-based markup languages allow document authors to use special sequences of characters from the ASCII range (the first 128 code points of Unicode) to represent, or reference, any Unicode character, regardless of whether the character being represented is directly available in the document's encoding. These special sequences are character references.

Character references that are based on the referenced character's UCS or Unicode code point are called numeric character references. In HTML 4 and in all versions of XHTML and XML, the code point can be expressed either as a decimal (base 10) number or as a hexadecimal (base 16) number. The syntax is as follows:

Character U+0026 (ampersand), followed by character U+0023 (number sign), followed by one of the following choices:

 * one or more decimal digits zero (U+0030) through nine (U+0039); or
 * character U+0078 ("x") followed by one or more hexadecimal digits, which are zero (U+0030) through nine (U+0039), Latin capital letter A (U+0041) through F (U+0046), and Latin small letter a (U+0061) through f (U+0066);

all followed by character U+003B (semicolon). Older versions of HTML disallowed the hexadecimal syntax.

The characters that comprise a numeric character reference can be represented in every character encoding used in computing and telecommunications today, so there is no risk of the reference itself being unencodable.

There is another kind of character reference called a character entity reference, which allows a character to be referred to by a name instead of a number. (Naming a character creates a character entity.) HTML defines some character entities, but not many; all other characters can only be included by direct encoding or using NCRs.

Restrictions
The Universal Character Set defined by ISO 10646 is the "document character set" of SGML, HTML 4, so by default, any character in such a document, and any character referenced in such a document, must be in the UCS.

While the syntax of SGML does not prohibit references to invalid or unassigned code points, such as, SGML-derived markup languages such as HTML and XML can, and often do, restrict numeric character references to only those code points that are assigned to characters.

Restrictions may also apply for other reasons. For example, in HTML 4,, which is a reference to a non-printing "form feed" control character, is allowed because a form feed character is allowed. But in XML, the form feed character cannot be used, not even by reference. As another example,, which is a reference to another control character, is not allowed to be used or referenced in either HTML or XML, but when used in HTML, it is usually not flagged as an error by web browsers – some of which interpret it as a reference to the character represented by code value 128 in the Windows-1252 encoding for compatibility reasons. This character, "€", has to be represented as  in a standard-compliant HTML code. As a further example, prior to the publication of XML 1.0 Second Edition on October 6, 2000, XML 1.0 was based on an older version of ISO 10646 and prohibited using characters above U+FFFD, except in character data, thus making a reference like  (U+10000) illegal. In XML 1.1 and newer editions of XML 1.0, such a reference is allowed, because the available character repertoire was explicitly extended.

Markup languages also place restrictions on where character references can occur.

Compatibility issues
In the initial versions of SGML and HTML, numeric character references were interpreted in relationship to the document character encoding, rather than Unicode. For Latin-script documents, numeric character references to characters between x80 and x9F in those documents will not be correct against Unicode, and must be recoded. HTML standards prior to HTML 4 supported only Western Latin script documents: the treatment of character references above #7F may vary between applications and national conventions.

For example, as mentioned above, the correct numeric character reference for the Euro sign "€"  when using Unicode is decimal   and hexadecimal. However, if using tools supporting obsolete implementations of HTML, the reference    (Euro sign in the CP-1252 code page) or   (Euro sign in ISO/IEC 8859-15) may work.

As another example, if some text was created originally using the MacRoman character set, the left double quotation mark “ will be represented with code point xD2. This will not display properly in a system expecting a document encoded as UTF-8, ISO 8859-1, or CP-1252, where this code point is occupied by the letter Ò. The correct numeric character reference for “ in HTML 4 and newer is, because U+201C is its UCS code. In some systems, the named character reference  may also be available.

title: Numeric character reference


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Her

Her is the objective and possessive form of the English-language feminine pronoun she.

Her, HER or H.E.R. may also refer to:

Music

 * H.E.R. (born 1997), American singer
 * H.E.R. (album), 2017
 * HIM (Finnish band), once known as HER in the United States

Songs

 * "Her" (Megan Thee Stallion song)
 * "Her", a song by Stan Getz from the album Focus, 1961
 * "Her", a song by Guy from the album The Future, 1990
 * "Her", a song by Swans from the album Omniscience, 1992
 * "Her", a song by Pigeonhed from the album Pigeonhed, 1993
 * "Her", a song by Tindersticks from the album Tindersticks, 1993
 * "Her", a song by Aaron Tippin from the album What This Country Needs, 1999
 * "Her", a song by Musiq from the album Soulstar, 2003
 * "Her", a song by Eels from the album B-Sides & Rarities 1996–2003, 2005
 * "Her", a song by Tyler, the Creator from the album Goblin, 2011
 * "Her", a song by Poppy from the album Flux, 2021
 * "Her", a 2018 song by Spratleys Japs

Other uses

 * Her (film), a 2013 American science fiction film
 * Kismet (Marvel Comics) or Her, a fictional superhero

Places

 * Helper (Amtrak station) (station code HER)
 * Heraklion International Airport (IATA code HER)
 * Khoy, Armenia (historical name)

Science and technology

 * Hydrogen evolution reaction
 * HER2/neu, a protein
 * Hercules (constellation)
 * Hydroxyethylrutoside, a flavonoid
 * High Explosive Research, the British project to develop atomic bombs independently after the Second World War

Other uses

 * Her (dating app), a geosocial networking app
 * Her.ie, a website aimed at young women in Ireland
 * Harvard Educational Review, a journal
 * Herero language (ISO 639-3 code)
 * Historic Environment Record, in the UK
 * Housing and Economic Recovery Act of 2008, in the US

title: Her


text: User talk:68.12.206.75

title: User talk:68.12.206.75


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Radiometer

A radiometer or roentgenometer is a device for measuring the radiant flux (power) of electromagnetic radiation. Generally, a radiometer is an infrared radiation detector or an ultraviolet detector. Microwave radiometers operate in the microwave wavelengths.

While the term radiometer can refer to any device that measures electromagnetic radiation (e.g. light), the term is often used to refer specifically to a Crookes radiometer ("light-mill"), a device invented in 1873 in which a rotor (having vanes which are dark on one side, and light on the other) in a partial vacuum spins when exposed to light. A common misbelief (one originally held even by Crookes) is that the momentum of the absorbed light on the black faces makes the radiometer operate. If this were true, however, the radiometer would spin away from the non-black faces, since the photons bouncing off those faces impart more momentum than the photons absorbed on the black faces. Photons do exert radiation pressure on the faces, but those forces are dwarfed by other effects. The currently accepted explanation depends on having just the right degree of vacuum, and relates to the transfer of heat rather than the direct effect of photons.

A Nichols radiometer demonstrates photon pressure. It is much more sensitive than the Crookes radiometer and it operates in a complete vacuum, whereas operation of the Crookes radiometer requires an imperfect vacuum.

The MEMS radiometer can operate on the principles of Nichols or Crookes and can operate over a wide spectrum of wavelength and particle energy levels.

title: Radiometer


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Haniwa

The Haniwa are terracotta clay figures that were made for ritual use and buried with the dead as funerary objects during the Kofun period (3rd to 6th centuries AD) of the history of Japan. Haniwa were created according to the wazumi technique, in which mounds of coiled clay were built up to shape the figure, layer by layer. Haniwa can also refer to offering cylinders, not the clay sculptures on top of them as well as the "wooden haniwa" found in Kofun tumuli.

Terracotta Haniwa were made with water-based clay and dried into a coarse and absorbent material that stood the test of time. Their name means "circle of clay", referring to how they were arranged in a circle above the tomb. The protruding parts of the figures were made separately and then attached, while a few things were carved into them. They were smoothed out by a wooden paddle. Terraces were arranged to place them with a cylindrical base into the ground, where the earth would hold them in place.

During the Kofun period, a highly aristocratic society with militaristic rulers developed. The cavalry wore iron armor, carried swords and other weapons, and used advanced military methods like those of northeast Asia. Many of them are represented in haniwa figurines for funerary purposes.

The most important of the haniwa were found in southern Honshū—especially the Kinai region around Nara—and northern Kyūshū. Haniwa grave offerings were made in many forms, such as horses, chickens, birds, fans, fish, houses, weapons, shields, sunshades, pillows, and humans. Besides decorative and spiritual reasons of protecting the deceased in the afterlife, these figures served as a sort of retaining wall for the burial mound.

Because these haniwa display the contemporary clothing, hairstyle, farming tools, and architecture, these sculptures are important as a historical archive of the Kofun Period.

Everyday pottery items from that period are called Haji pottery.

Origin
Earlier, clay figurines, called dogū, appeared during the Jōmon period.

Hiroaki Sato cites a passage from the Nihon Shoki, in which Emperor Suinin issued an imperial edict concerning funerals: "From now on make it a rule to erect clay figures and not to hurt people." It was therefore thought that these clay figures may have replaced live human sacrifices. However, haniwa figures were not made until long after Suinin's rule had ended.

The origin of haniwa started during the latter part of the Yayoi period around the Kingdom of Kibi. During this time special earthenware figurines and bowls started to appear on top of the tombs of leaders. The early sculptures exceeded 1 m (3.3 ft) in length. They consisted of a cylindrical portion, which represented the torso, and a skirt-shaped portion at the base, which represented the legs. Many times a special insignia or pattern would be displayed on the torso. Sometimes an obi would be placed around the torso. These sculptures are thought to have been used as part of a funeral ritual. Other than the Kibi area, the only other place these sculptures were found was in the Izumo province.

During the latter part of the third century, these sculptures started to appear on top of the imperial grave mounds in the Kinai region. During this time more elaborate haniwa appeared with earthenware bowls. It is believed that the movement of these sculptures and haniwa from the Kibi region to the Kinai region is indicative of an increase in their importance.

Later developments
During the earlier part of the Kofun period (later 3rd century CE) the only earthenware haniwa were cylindrical, like barrels. These haniwa barrels were used to form the kofun mound. They were arranged in the shape of the mound (square, circle, or keyhole) and soil was brought in to fill the interior, and then a new row of haniwa barrels was arranged to make the next level and the process was repeated until the mound was the desired height. Additional soil was added to the exterior to form sloping sides.

Toward the early 4th century CE, haniwa sculptures in the shape of shields and other tools started to appear. By the middle Kofun period (mid-5th century AD), there were haniwa statues in the shape of shrine maidens, horses, dogs, and other animals. As the practice of ceremonial burial mounds declined in the mid-6th century CE, haniwa became rarer in the Kinai region; however, haniwa were made in abundance in the Kantō region.

It is not uncommon for some haniwa to be painted with red dye or other colors. Besides the cylindrical haniwa (enkei-haniwa), another common type was the house-shaped haniwa (keisho-haniwa). Other things that fell into the category of keisho-haniwa were those shaped like humans, animals, and swords. The details on the haniwa give information about the elite buried in the tomb, and represent some of the tools or other objects people of that time used. The military haniwa inform archeologists of the armour and weapons, as well as the status symbols of the military class.

Significance
Originally, the cylindrical type haniwa were set on top of the funeral mounds, so it is believed that they had a purpose in funeral rituals; however, as the haniwa became more developed, they were set toward the outside of the grave area. It is thought that they were used as boundary markers for the borders of the gravesite.

There is a theory that the soul of the deceased would reside in the haniwa, as the earlier haniwa were placed on top of the funeral mounds. There are haniwa that are equipped with weapons and armor. These are thought to be containers for souls. The armor and weapons would drive away evil spirits and protect the buried ruler from calamity. Because the horse- and animal-shaped haniwa were normally neatly arranged into a line, it is believed that they were part of a sending-off ceremony.

In modern society
Although the religious implications of the haniwa have largely declined in modern society, the sculptures are prized by many for their aesthetic and historical significance. The works of Isamu Noguchi, for example, were heavily influenced by the haniwa. They have been accepted as "Pure Art", according to Time magazine. Beyond simple appreciation as artistic sculptures, modern popular culture has, in some cases, portrayed the haniwa as containing a sentient entity and not just as a simple empty sculpture.

The portrayal of living haniwa has—since the late 1990s—become widespread, being featured in entertainment mediums, including but not limited to: video games, trading cards, movies, and television. In some of the depictions, the haniwa is primarily presented as a ghostlike, malevolent creature with no emotional remorse to complete its task. The most common portrayal depicts the haniwa with a rounded, pot-like shape, bearing two deep eyes, a wide mouth, and two featureless "arms" on opposite sides of the "pot". Gyroids in the Animal Crossing video game series are based on Haniwa.

title: Haniwa


text:
User talk:Ming888

Welcome to the Wikipedia
Here are some links I find useful:

 * Policy Library
 * Utilities
 * Cite your sources
 * Verifiability
 * Wikiquette
 * Civility
 * Conflict resolution
 * Brilliant prose
 * Neutral point of view
 * Pages needing attention
 * Peer review
 * Bad jokes and other deleted nonsense
 * Village pump
 * Boilerplate text
 * IRC channel
 * Mailing lists
 * Current polls

Feel free to ask me anything the links and talk pages don't answer. You can sign your name by typing 4 tildes, likes this: ~.

Cheers, Sam [Spade] 06:44, 18 Jul 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Ming888


text:
Race to the Sea

The Race to the Sea (Course à la mer; Wettlauf zum Meer, Race naar de Zee) took place from about 1914 during the First World War, after the Battle of the Frontiers  and the German advance into France. The invasion had been stopped at the First Battle of the Marne (5–12 September) and was followed by the First Battle of the Aisne (13–28 September), a Franco-British counter-offensive. The term describes reciprocal attempts by the Franco-British and German armies to envelop the northern flank of the opposing army through the provinces of Picardy, Artois and Flanders, rather than an attempt to advance northwards to the sea. The "race" ended on the North Sea coast of Belgium around 19 October, when the last open area from Diksmuide to the North Sea was occupied by Belgian troops who had retreated after the Siege of Antwerp (28 September – 10 October). The outflanking attempts had resulted in a number of encounter battles but neither side was able to gain a decisive victory.

After the opposing forces had reached the North Sea, both tried to conduct offensives leading to the mutually costly and indecisive Battle of the Yser from 16 October to 2 November and the First Battle of Ypres from 19 October to 22 November. After mid-November, local operations were carried out by both sides and preparations were made to take the offensive in the spring of 1915. Erich von Falkenhayn, Chief of the German General Staff (Oberste Heeresleitung OHL) since 14 September, concluded that a decisive victory could not be achieved on the Western Front and that it was equally unlikely in the east. Falkenhayn abandoned Vernichtungsstrategie (strategy of annihilation) and attempted to create the conditions for peace with one of Germany's enemies, by Ermattungsstrategie (strategy of exhaustion), to enable Germany to concentrate its resources decisively to defeat the remaining opponents.

Over the winter lull, the French army established the theoretical basis of offensive trench warfare, originating many of the methods which became standard for the rest of the war. Infiltration tactics, in which dispersed formations of infantry were followed by nettoyeurs de tranchée (trench cleaners), to capture by-passed strong points were promulgated. Artillery observation from aircraft and creeping barrages, were first used systematically in the Second Battle of Artois from 9 May to 18 June 1915. Falkenhayn issued memoranda on 7 and 25 January 1915, to govern defensive battle on the Western Front, in which the existing front line was to be fortified and to be held indefinitely with small numbers of troops, to enable more divisions to be sent to the Eastern Front. New defences were to be built behind the front line to contain a breakthrough until the position was restored by counter-attacks. The Westheer began the huge task of building field fortifications, which were not complete until the autumn of 1915.

Plan XVII
Under Plan XVII the French peacetime army was to form five field armies, with groups of Reserve divisions attached and a group of reserve divisions was to assemble on each flank, c. 2,000,000 men. The armies were to concentrate opposite the German frontier around Épinal, Nancy and Verdun–Charleville-Mezières, with an army in reserve around Sainte-Menehould and Commercy. Since 1871 railway building had given the French General Staff sixteen lines to the German frontier against thirteen available to the German army and the French could wait until German intentions were clear. The French deployment was intended to be ready for a German offensive in Lorraine or through Belgium. It was anticipated that the Germans would use reserve troops but also expected that a large German army would be mobilised on the border with Russia, leaving the western army with sufficient troops only to advance through Belgium south of the Meuse and the Sambre rivers. French intelligence had obtained a map exercise of the German general staff of 1905, in which German troops had gone no further north than Namur and assumed that plans to besiege Belgian forts were a defensive measure against the Belgian army.

A German attack from south-eastern Belgium towards Mézières and a possible offensive from Lorraine towards Verdun, Nancy and St. Dié was anticipated; the plan was an evolution from Plan XVI and made more provision for the possibility of a German offensive through Belgium. The First, Second and Third Armies were to concentrate between Épinal and Verdun opposite Alsace and Lorraine, the Fifth Army was to assemble from Montmédy to Sedan and Mézières and the Fourth Army was to be held back west of Verdun, ready to move east to attack the southern flank of a German invasion through Belgium or southwards against the northern flank of an attack through Lorraine. No formal provision was made for combined operations with the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) but joint arrangements had been made and in 1911 during the Second Moroccan Crisis the French had been told that six divisions could be expected to operate around Maubeuge.

Schlieffen–Moltke Plan
German strategy had given priority to offensive operations against France and a defensive posture against Russia since 1891. German planning was determined by numerical inferiority, the speed of mobilisation and concentration and the effect of the vast increase of the power of modern weapons. Frontal attacks were expected to be costly and protracted, leading to limited success, particularly after the French and Russians modernised their fortifications on the frontiers with Germany. Alfred von Schlieffen, Chief of the Imperial German General Staff, Oberste Heeresleitung (OHL) from 1891–1906, devised plans to evade the French frontier fortifications with an offensive on the flank, which would have a local numerical superiority and obtain rapidly a decisive victory. By 1906, such a manoeuvre was intended to pass through neutral Belgium and threaten Paris from the north. Helmuth von Moltke the Younger succeeded Schlieffen in 1906 and was less certain that the French would conform to German assumptions. Moltke adapted the deployment and concentration plan, to accommodate an attack in the centre or an enveloping attack from both flanks as variants to the plan, by adding divisions to the left flank opposite the French frontier, from the c. 1,700,000 men expected to be mobilised in the Westheer (western army). The main German force would still advance through Belgium and attack southwards into France, the French armies would be enveloped on the left and pressed back over the Meuse, Aisne, Somme, Oise, Marne and Seine, unable to withdraw into central France. Either the French would be annihilated or the manoeuvre from the north would create conditions for victory in the centre or in Lorraine on the common border.

Battle of the Frontiers, 7 August – 13 September
The Battle of the Frontiers is a general name for all of the operations of the French armies until the Battle of the Marne. A series of encounter battles began between the German, French and Belgian armies, on the German-French frontier and in southern Belgium on 4 August 1914. The Battle of Mulhouse (Battle of Alsace 7–10 August) was the first French offensive against Germany. The French captured Mulhouse until forced out by a German counter-attack on 11 August and fell back toward Belfort. The main French offensive, the Battle of Lorraine (14–25 August), began with the Battles of Morhange and Sarrebourg (14–20 August) advances by the First Army on Sarrebourg and the Second Army towards Morhange. Château-Salins near Morhange was captured on 17 August and Sarrebourg the next day. The German 6th Army and 7th Army counter-attacked on 20 August and the Second Army was forced back from Morhange and the First Army was repulsed at Sarrebourg. The German armies crossed the border and advanced on Nancy but were stopped to the east of the city.

To the south the French retook Mulhouse on 19 August and then withdrew. On 24 August, at the Battle of the Mortagne (14–25 August), a limited German offensive in the Vosges, the Germans managed a small advance, before a French counter-attack retook the ground. By 20 August, a German counter-offensive in Lorraine had begun and the German 4th Army and 5th Army advanced through the Ardennes on 19 August towards Neufchâteau. An offensive by French Third and Fourth Armies through the Ardennes began on 20 August, in support of the French invasion of Lorraine. The opposing armies met in thick fog and the French mistook the German troops for screening forces. On 22 August, the Battle of the Ardennes (21–28 August) began with French attacks, which were costly to both sides and forced the French into a disorderly retreat late on 23 August. The Third Army recoiled towards Verdun, pursued by the 5th Army and the Fourth Army retreated to Sedan and Stenay. Mulhouse was recaptured again by German forces and the Battle of the Meuse (26–28 August), caused a temporary halt of the German advance.

Liège was occupied by the Germans on 7 August, the first units of the BEF landed in France and French troops crossed the German frontier. On 12 August, the Battle of Haelen was fought by German and Belgian cavalry and infantry and was a Belgian defensive success. The BEF completed its move of four divisions and a cavalry division to France on 16 August, as the last Belgian fort of the Fortified Position of Liège surrendered. The Belgian government withdrew from Brussels on 18 August and the German army attacked the Belgian field army at the Battle of the Gete. Next day the Belgian army began to retire towards Antwerp, which left the route to Namur open; Longwy and Namur were besieged on 20 August. Further west the Fifth Army had concentrated on the Sambre by 20 August, facing north either side of Charleroi and east towards the Belgian Fortified Position of Namur. On the left, the Cavalry Corps (General André Sordet) linked with the BEF at Mons.

The Fifth Army was confronted by the German 3rd Army and 2nd Army from the east and the north. Before the Fifth Army could attack over the Sambre the 2nd Army attacked at the Battle of Charleroi and at Namur on 21 August. The 3rd Army crossed the Meuse and attacked the French right flank and on 23 August, the Fifth Army began a retirement southwards to avoid encirclement. After the Battle of St. Quentin, the French withdrawal continued. On 22 August, the BEF advanced and on 23 August fought the Battle of Mons, a delaying action against the German 1st Army, to protect the left flank of the French Fifth Army. The BEF was forced to retreat when the 1st Army began to overrun the British defences on the right flank and the Fifth Army retired from the area south of the Sambre, exposing the British right flank to envelopment. Namur capitulated on 25 August and a Belgian sortie from Antwerp led to the Battle of Malines (25–27 August).

After the French defeat during the Battle of Lorraine, the French Second Army retreated to the Grand Couronné heights near Nancy and dug in, on an arc from Pont-à-Mousson to Champenoux, Lunéville and Dombasle-sur-Meurthe by 3 September. The Battle of Grand Couronné (4–13 September) began next day, when the German 7th and 6th Armies attacked simultaneously at St. Dié and Nancy, as the Second Army sent reinforcements to the Third Army. Costly fighting continued until 12 September but the French were able to withdraw more than four corps to reinforce the armies on the left flank. On 13 September, Pont-à-Mousson and Lunéville were recaptured by the French and the advance continued close to the Seille river, where the front stabilised. The battles kept a large number of German troops in Lorraine, as the Great Retreat further west culminated on the Marne.

The Great Retreat, 24 August – 5 September
The French Fifth Army fell back about 10 km from the Sambre during the Battle of Charleroi (22 August) and began a greater withdrawal from the area south of the Sambre on 23 August. The BEF fought the Battle of Mons on 24 August, by when the French First and Second armies had been pushed back by attacks of the German 7th and 6th armies between St. Dié and Nancy, the Third Army held positions east of Verdun against attacks by the 5th Army, the Fourth Army held positions from the junction with the Third Army south of Montmédy, westwards to Sedan, Mezières and Fumay, facing the 4th Army and the Fifth Army was between Fumay and Maubeuge, with the 3rd Army advancing up the Meuse valley from Dinant and Givet into a gap between the Fourth and Fifth Armies and the 2nd Army pressed forward into the angle between the Meuse and Sambre directly against the Fifth Army. On the far west flank of the French, the BEF prolonged the line from Maubeuge to Valenciennes against the 1st Army and Army Detachment von Beseler masked the Belgian Army at Antwerp.

On 26 August, German forces captured Valenciennes and conducted the Siege of Maubeuge (24 August – 7 September). Leuven (Louvain) was sacked by German troops and the Battle of Le Cateau was fought by the BEF and the 1st Army. Longwy was surrendered by its garrison and next day, British Royal Marines and a party of the Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS) landed at Ostend; Lille and Mezières were occupied by German troops. Arras was occupied on 27 August and a French counter-offensive began at the Battle of St. Quentin (also known as the Battle of Guise 29–30 August). On 29 August the Fifth Army counter-attacked the 2nd Army south of the Oise, from Vervins to Mont Dorigny and west of the river from Mont Dorigny to Moy towards St. Quentin on the Somme, while the British held the line of the Oise west of La Fère. Laon, La Fère and Roye were captured by German troops on 30 August and Amiens the next day. On 1 September, Craonne and Soissons were captured and on 5 September the BEF ended its retreat from Mons, German troops reached Claye, 10 km from Paris, Reims was captured, German forces withdrew from Lille and the First Battle of the Marne (Battle of the Ourcq) (5–12 September) began, marking the end of the Great Retreat of the western flank of the Franco-British armies.

By 4 September, the First and Second Armies had slowed the advance of the 7th and 6th armies west of St. Dié and east of Nancy, from where the Second Army had withdrawn its left flank, to face north between Nancy and Toul. A gap between the left of the Second Army and the right of the Third Army at Verdun, which faced north-west, on a line towards Revigny against the 5th Army advance, west of the Meuse between Varennes and St. Ménéhould. The Fourth Army had withdrawn to Sermaize, west to the Marne at Vitry-le-François and then across the river to Sompons, against the 4th Army, which had advanced from Rethel, to Suippes and the west of Châlons. The new Ninth Army held a line from Mailly against the 3rd Army, which had advanced from Mézières, over the Vesle and the Marne west of Châlons. The 2nd Army had advanced from Marle on the Serre, across the Aisne and the Vesle, between Reims and Fismes to Montmort, north of the junction of the Ninth and Fifth Armies at Sézanne. The Fifth Army and the BEF had withdrawn south of the Oise, Serre, Aisne and Ourq, pursued by the 2nd Army on a line from Guise to Laon, Vailly and Dormans and by the 1st Army from Montdidier, towards Compiègne and then south-east towards Montmirail. The new French Sixth Army, linked with the left of the BEF, west of the Marne at Meaux, to Pontoise north of Paris. French garrisons were besieged at Strasbourg, Metz, Thionville, Longwy, Montmédy and Maubeuge. The Belgian army was invested at Antwerp in the National Redoubt and at Liège, fortress troops continued the defence of the forts.

Eastern Front
Austria-Hungary had declared war on Serbia on 28 July and on 1 August, military operations began on the Polish border. Libau was bombarded by a German cruiser on 2 August and on 5 August, Montenegro declared war on Austria-Hungary. On 6 August, Austria-Hungary declared war on Russia and Serbia declared war on Germany; war began between Montenegro and Germany on 8 August. The Battle of Stallupönen (17 August) caused a minor check to the Russian invasion of East Prussia and on 12 August, Britain and France declared war on Austria-Hungary, as Austrian forces crossed the Save and seized Shabatz. Next day, Austrian forces crossed the Drina and began the first invasion of Serbia. The Battle of Cer (Battle of the Jadar, 17–21 August) began and the Battle of Gumbinnen in East Prussia took place from 19–20 August.

On 21 August, Austro-Hungarian forces withdrew from Serbia. The Battle of Tannenberg (26–30 August) began in East Prussia and in the Battle of Galicia (23 August – 11 September) the First Battle of Kraśnik was fought in Poland from 23–25 August. Shabatz was retaken by Serbian forces and the last Austrian troops retired across the Drina, ending the First Austrian Invasion of Serbia. The First Battle of Lemberg (26–30 August) began in Galicia and the Battle of Komarów (26 August – 2 September) and the Battle of Gnila Lipa (26–30 August) began in Poland. A naval action took place off Åland and a German cruiser SMS Magdeburg ran aground and was intercepted by a Russian squadron.

On 3 September, Lemberg was captured by the Russian army and the Battle of Rawa (Battle of Tarnavka 7–9 September) began in Galicia. The First Battle of the Masurian Lakes (7–14 September) began and on 8 September, the Austro-Hungarian army commenced the Second Invasion of Serbia, leading to the Battle of Drina (6 September – 4 October). The Second Battle of Lemberg (8–11 September) began and on 11 September, Austrian forces in Galicia retreated. The Battle of the Masurian Lakes ended on 15 September and Czernowitz in Bukovina was taken by the Russian army. On 17 September, Serbian forces in Syrmia were withdrawn and Semlin evacuated, as the Battle of the Drina ended. Next day General Paul von Hindenburg was appointed Oberbefehlshaber der gesamten Deutschen Streitkräfte im Osten (Ober Ost, Commander-in-Chief of German Armies in the Eastern Theatre).

On 21 September, Jaroslaw in Galicia was taken by the Russian army. On 24 September, Przemyśl was isolated by Russian forces, beginning the First Siege as Russian forces conducted the First Invasion of North Hungary (24 September – 8 October). Military operations began on the Niemen (25–29 September) but German attacks were suspended on 29 September. The retreat of Austro-Hungarian forces in Galicia ended and Maramaros-Sziget was captured by the Russian army; an Austro-Hungarian counter-offensive began on 4 October and Maramaros-Sziget was retaken. On 9 October, the First German Offensive against Warsaw began with the battles of Warsaw (9–19 October) and Ivangorod (9–20 October). As the situation on the eastern front deteriorated in September, the new German high command under General Falkenhayn attempted to retrieve the situation in France and inflict a decisive defeat.

Operations in Belgium, August–October 1914
On 2 August 1914, the Belgian government refused the passage of German troops through Belgium to France and on the night of 3/4 August, the Belgian General Staff ordered the Third Division to Liège to obstruct a German advance. Covered by the Third Division, the Liège fortress garrison, a screen of the Cavalry Division and detachments from Liège and Namur, the rest of the Belgian field army closed up to the river Gete by 4 August, covering central and western Belgium and the communications towards Antwerp. The German invasion began on 4 August, when an advanced force of six German brigades from the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Armies, crossed the German-Belgian border. Belgian resistance and German fear of Francs-tireurs, led the Germans to implement a policy of Schrecklichkeit (frightfulness) against Belgian civilians soon after the invasion, in which massacres, executions, hostage taking and the burning of towns and villages took place and became known as the Rape of Belgium.

On 5 August, the advanced German forces tried to capture Liège and the forts of the Fortified Position of Liège by coup de main. The city fell on 6 August but the forts were not captured and on 12 August, five German super-heavy 420 mm howitzers and four batteries of Austrian 305 mm howitzers, began systematically to bombard the Belgian defences, until the last fort fell on 16 August. On 18 August, the Germans began to advance along the Meuse River towards Namur and the Belgian field army began a withdrawal from its positions along the Gete, to the National Redoubt at Antwerp. On 20 August, the German 1st Army took Brussels unopposed and the Belgian field army reached Antwerp, with little interference from German advanced parties, except for an engagement between the 1st Division and the German IX Corps near Tienen, in which the Belgians had 1,630 casualties.

While the BEF and the French armies conducted the Great Retreat into France (24 August – 28 September), small detachments of the Belgian, French and British armies conducted operations in Belgium against German cavalry and Jäger. On 27 August, a squadron of the RNAS had flown to Ostend, for air reconnaissance sorties between Bruges, Ghent and Ypres. British marines landed at Dunkirk on the night of 19/20 September and on 28 September occupied Lille. The rest of the brigade occupied Cassel on 30 September and scouted the country in motor cars. An RNAS Armoured Car Section was created, by fitting vehicles with bullet-proof steel. On 2 October, the Marine Brigade was moved to Antwerp, followed by the rest of the Naval Division on 6 October, having landed at Dunkirk on the night of 4/5 October. From 6–7 October, the 7th Division and the 3rd Cavalry Division landed at Zeebrugge. Naval forces collected at Dover were formed into a separate unit, which became the Dover Patrol, to operate in the Channel and off the French-Belgian coast.

Antwerp was invested to the south and east by German forces after 20 August, while the main German armies chased the French and British over the border southwards to the Marne. Belgian forces in Antwerp tried to assist the French and British with sorties on 24–26 August, 9–13 September and 26–27 September. On 28 September, German heavy and super-heavy artillery began to bombard Belgian fortifications around Antwerp. On 1 October, the Germans attacked forts Sint-Katelijne-Waver and Walem and the Bosbeek and Dorpveld redoubts, held by the 5th Reserve and Marine divisions. By 11:00 am, Fort Walem was severely damaged and Fort Lier was hit by 16 in shells but Fort Koningshooikt, the Tallabert and Bosbeek redoubts were mostly intact; the intervening ground between Fort Sint-Katelijne-Waver and Dorpveld redoubt had been captured. Despite reinforcement by the Royal Naval Division from 2 October, the Germans penetrated the outer ring of forts. When the German advance began to compress a corridor from the west of the city along the Dutch border to the coast, the Belgian field army withdrew from Antwerp westwards towards the coast. On 9 October, the remaining garrison surrendered and the Germans occupied the city. Some British and Belgian troops escaped to the Netherlands, where they were interned for the duration of the war. The Belgian withdrawal was protected by a French Marine brigade, Belgian cavalry and the British 7th Division around Ghent. On 15 October, the Belgian army occupied a defensive line along the Yser river in west Flanders, from Diksmuide to the coast.

First Battle of the Marne, 5–12 September
Joffre used the railways which had transported French troops to the German frontier to move troops back from Lorraine and Alsace to form a new Sixth Army under General Michel-Joseph Maunoury with nine divisions and two cavalry divisions. By 10 September, twenty divisions and three cavalry divisions had been moved west from the German border to the French centre and left and the balance of force between the German 1st, 2nd and 3rd armies and the Third, Fourth, Ninth, Fifth armies, the BEF and Sixth Army had changed to 44:56 divisions. Late on 4 September, Joffre ordered the Sixth Army to attack eastwards over the Ourcq towards Château Thierry as the BEF advanced towards Montmirail and the Fifth Army attacked northwards, with its right flank protected by the Ninth Army along the St. Gond marshes. The French First, Second, Third and Fourth armies to the east, were to resist the attacks of the German 5th, 6th and 7th armies between Verdun and Toul and repulse an enveloping attack on the defences south of Nancy from the north. The 6th and 7th armies were reinforced by heavy artillery from Metz and attacked again on 4 September along the Moselle.

On 5 September, the Sixth Army advanced eastwards from Paris and met the German IV Reserve Corps, which had moved into the area that morning and stopped the French advance short of high ground north of Meaux. Overnight, the IV Reserve Corps withdrew to a better position 10 km east and French air reconnaissance observed German forces moving north to face the Sixth Army. General Alexander von Kluck the 1st Army commander, ordered the II Corps to move back to the north bank of the Marne, which began a redeployment of all four 1st Army corps to the north bank by 8 September. The swift move to the north bank prevented the Sixth Army from crossing the Ourcq but created a gap between the 1st and 2nd armies. The BEF advanced from 6–8 September, crossed the Petit Morin, captured bridges over the Marne and established a bridgehead 8 km deep. The Fifth Army also advanced into the gap and by 8 September, had crossed the Petit Morin, which forced Bülow to withdraw the right flank of the 2nd Army. Next day the Fifth Army recrossed the Marne and the German 1st and 2nd armies began to retire as the French Ninth, Fourth and Third Armies fought defensive battles against the 3rd Army which then had to retreat with the 1st and 2nd armies on 9 September.

Further east, the Third Army was forced back to the west of Verdun as German attacks were made on the Meuse Heights to the south-east but managed to maintain contact with Verdun and the Fourth Army to the west. German attacks against the Second Army south of Verdun from 5 September, almost forced the French to retreat but on 8 September, the crisis eased. By 10 September, the German armies west of Verdun were retreating towards the Aisne and the Franco-British were following-up, collecting stragglers and equipment. On 12 September, Joffre ordered an outflanking move to the west and an attack northwards by the Third Army, to cut off the German retreat. The pursuit was too slow and by 14 September, the German armies had dug in north of the Aisne and the Allies met trench lines, rather than rearguards. Frontal attacks by the Ninth, Fifth and Sixth armies were repulsed from 15–16 September, which led Joffre to begin the transfer of the Second Army west to the left flank of the Sixth Army, the first phase of the operations to outflank the German armies, which from 17 September to 17–19 October, moved the opposing armies through Picardy and Flanders, to the North Sea coast.

First Battle of the Aisne, 13–28 September
On 10 September, the French armies and the BEF advanced to exploit the victory of the Marne and the armies on the left flank advanced, opposed only by rearguards. On 11 and 12 September, Joffre ordered outflanking manoeuvres but the advance was too slow to catch the Germans, who on 14 September, began to dig in on high ground on the north bank of the Aisne, which reduced the French advance from 15–16 September to a few local gains. French troops had begun to move westwards on 2 September, over undamaged railways which could move a corps to the left flank in from 5–6 days. On 17 September, the French Sixth Army attacked from Soissons to Noyon, with the XIII and IV corps, supported by the 61st and 62nd divisions of the 6th Group of Reserve Divisions, after which the fighting moved north to Lassigny and the French dug in around Nampcel.

The French Second Army arrived from the eastern flank and took over command of the left-hand corps of the Sixth Army, as indications appeared that German troops were also being moved from the eastern flank. The German IX Reserve Corps arrived from Belgium by 15 September and next day attacked with the 1st Army to the south-west with the IV Corps and the 4th and 7th cavalry divisions, against the attempted French envelopment. The attack was cancelled and the corps withdrew behind the right flank of the 1st Army. The 2nd and 9th cavalry divisions were sent next day but the French attack reached Carlepont and Noyon, before being contained on 18 September. In the Battle of Flirey, the German armies attacked from Verdun west to Reims and the Aisne on 20 September, cut the main railway from Verdun to Paris and created the St Mihiel salient. The main German effort remained on the western flank, which the French discovered by intercepting wireless messages. By 28 September, the Aisne front had stabilised and the BEF began to withdraw on the night of 1/2 October, with the first troops arriving in the Abbeville area on 8/9 October.

German plan
After the defeat on the Marne, Moltke ordered a retirement to the Aisne by the 1st and 2nd armies on the German right wing and a withdrawal to Reims and a line eastwards past the north of Verdun, by the 3rd, 4th and 5th armies. The 6th and 7th armies were ordered to end their attacks and dig in. The withdrawal was intended to make time for the 7th Army to be transferred from Alsace to the right-wing near the Oise but Franco-British attacks led to the 7th Army being sent to fill the gap between the 1st and 2nd armies instead. Moltke was replaced by Falkenhayn on 14 September, by when the 1st Army had reached the Aisne, with its right flank on the Oise and the 7th Army had assembled on the Aisne, between the 1st and 2nd armies. Further east the 3rd, 4th and 5th armies had dug in from Prosnes to Verdun, secure from frontal attacks. The 1st Army was still vulnerable on its northern flank, to attacks by French troops transferred from the south, which could be moved faster over undamaged railways, than German troops using lines damaged during the Great Retreat. General Wilhelm Groener, head of the Railway Department of the OHL, suggested three alternatives, a frontal attack from the new positions, a defence of the line of the Aisne while reserves were transferred to the right flank or to continue the withdrawal and comprehensively regroup the German armies, ready to conduct an offensive on the right flank.

On 15 September, Falkenhayn wanted to continue the withdrawal and ordered the 1st Army to fall back and dig in from Artems to La Fère and Nouvion-et-Catillon, to protect the right flank from a French offensive, while the 6th Army moved from Lorraine to the western flank, ready for a general offensive to begin progressively on 18 September from the 5th Army in the east, pinning French troops down westwards, until the 6th Army enveloped the French, beyond the right of the 1st Army. The plan was cancelled soon afterwards, when Oberst (Colonel) Gerhard Tappen (OHL Operations Branch), reported from a tour of inspection at the front that the French were too exhausted to begin an offensive, that a final push would be decisive and that more withdrawals would compromise the morale of the German troops, after the defeat on the Marne. From 15–19 September Falkenhayn ordered the 1st, 2nd and 7th armies, temporarily under the command of General Karl von Bülow, to attack southwards and the 3rd, 4th and 5th armies to attack with the intention of weakening the French and preventing troops from being moved westwards. The 6th Army began to move to the western flank on 17 September, ready for a decisive battle (Schlachtentscheidung) but French attacks on 18 September, led Falkenhayn to order the 6th Army to operate defensively to secure the German flank.

French plan of attack
French attempts to advance after the German retirement to the Aisne were frustrated after 14 September, when German troops were discovered to have stopped their retirement and dug in on the north bank of the Aisne. Joffre ordered attacks on the German 1st and 2nd armies but attempts by the Fifth, Ninth and Sixth armies to advance from 15–16 September, had little success. The Deuxième Bureau (French Military Intelligence) also reported German troop movements from east to west, which led Joffre to continue the transfer of French troops from the east, which had begun on 2 September with the IV Corps and continued on 9 September with the XX Corps, 11 September with the XIII Corps and the XIV Corps on 18 September. The depletion of the French forces in the east, took place just before the Battle of Flirey, a German attack on 20 September against the Third Army on either side of Verdun, the Fifth Army north of Reims and the Sixth Army along the Aisne, which ended with the creation of the St. Mihiel Salient. Joffre maintained the French emphasis on the western flank, after receiving intercepted wireless messages, showing that the Germans were moving an army to the western flank and continued to assemble the Second Army to the north of the Sixth Army. On 24 September the Second Army was attacked and found difficulty in holding ground, rather than advancing around the German flank as intended.

Battle of Picardy, 22–26 September
The French Sixth Army began to advance along the Oise, west of Compiègne on 17 September. French reconnaissance aircraft were grounded during bad weather and cavalry were exhausted, which deprived the French commanders of information. As news reached Joffre that two German corps were moving south from Antwerp, the Sixth Army was forced to end its advance and dig in around Nampcel and Roye. The IV and XIII corps were transferred to the Second Army, along with the 1st, 5th, 8th and 10th Cavalry divisions of the Cavalry Corps (General Louis Conneau), the XIV and XX Corps were withdrawn from the First and the original Second Army to assemble south of Amiens, with a screen of the 81st, 82nd, 84th and 88th Territorial divisions, to protect French communications. The French advanced on 22 September, on a line from Lassigny northwards to Roye and Chaulnes around the German flank but met the German II Corps, which had arrived on the night of 18/19 September, on the right flank of the IX Reserve Corps.

Despite the four divisions of the II Cavalry Corps (General Georg von der Marwitz), the Germans were pushed back to a line from Ribécourt to Lassigny and Roye, which menaced German communications through Ham and St. Quentin. On 24 September, the French were attacked by the XVIII Corps as it arrived from Reims, which forced back the French IV Corps at Roye on the right flank. To the north, the French reached Péronne and formed a bridgehead on the east bank of the Somme, only for the German XIV Reserve Corps to reach Bapaume to the north on 26 September. The offensive capacity of the Second Army was exhausted and defensive positions were occupied, while Joffre sent four more corps to reinforce. Over the next week, the northern flank of the Second Army moved further north and on 29 September, a subdivision d'armée (General Louis de Maud'huy) was formed, to control the northern corps of the Second Army as they assembled near Arras.

Battle of Albert, 25–29 September
On 21 September, Falkenhayn decided to concentrate the 6th Army near Amiens, to attack westwards to the coast and then envelop the French northern flank south of the Somme. The offensive by the French Second Army forced Falkenhayn to divert the XXI and I Bavarian Corps as soon as they arrived, to extend the front northwards from Chaulnes to Péronne on 24 September and drive the French back over the Somme. On 26 September, the French Second Army dug in on a line from Lassigny to Roye and Bray-sur-Somme; German cavalry moved north to enable the II Bavarian Corps to occupy the ground north of the Somme. On 27 September, the German II Cavalry Corps drove back the 61st and 62nd Reserve divisions (General Joseph Brugère, who had replaced General Albert d'Amade), to clear the front for the XIV Reserve Corps and link with the right flank of the II Bavarian Corps. The French subdivision d'armée began to assemble at Arras and Maud'huy found that instead of making another attempt to get around the German flank, the subdivision was menaced by a German offensive.

The German II Bavarian and XIV Reserve corps pushed back a French Territorial division from Bapaume and advanced towards Bray-sur-Somme and Albert. From 25–27 September, the French XXI and X Corps north of the Somme, with support on the right flank by the 81st, 82nd, 84th and 88th Territorial divisions and the 1st, 3rd, 5th and 10th Cavalry divisions of the French II Cavalry Corps, defended the approaches to Albert. On 28 September, the French were able to stop the German advance on a line from Maricourt to Fricourt and Thiepval. The German II Cavalry Corps was stopped near Arras by the French cavalry. On 29 September, Joffre added X Corps, 20 km north of Amiens, to the French II Cavalry Corps south-east of Arras and a provisional corps (General Victor d'Urbal), which had a Reserve division in Arras and one in Lens, to a new Tenth Army.

First Battle of Arras, 1–4 October
On 1 October, the French at Arras were pushed back from Guémappe, Wancourt and Monchy-le-Preux, until the arrival of X Corps. By 1 October, two more French corps, three infantry and two cavalry divisions had been sent northwards to Amiens, Arras, Lens and Lille, which increased the Second Army to eight corps, along a front of 100 km. Joffre ordered Castelnau to operate defensively, while Maud'huy and the subdivision d'armée advanced on Arras. On 28 September, Falkenhayn had ordered the 6th Army to conduct an offensive by the IV, Guard and I Bavarian corps near Arras and more offensives further north. Rupprecht intended to halt the French west of Arras and envelop them around the north side of the city. On 1 October, the French attacked to the south-east, expecting only a cavalry screen.

The Germans attacked from Arras to Douai on 1 October, forestalling the French. On 3 October, Rupprecht reinforced the 6th Army north of Arras and ordered the IV Cavalry Corps from Valenciennes to Lille. From 3 to 4 October, German attacks on Arras and the vicinity were costly failures. On 4 October, German troops entered Lens, Souchez, Neuville-Saint-Vaast and gained a footing on the Lorette Spur. German attacks were made from the north of Arras to reach the Scarpe but were eventually repulsed by X Corps. By 4 October, German troops had also reached Givenchy-en-Gohelle and on the right flank of the French further south, the Territorial divisions were separated from X Corps, prompting Castelnau and Maud'huy to recommend a retreat. Joffre made Maud'huy's subdivision d'armée independent as the Tenth Army and told Castelnau to keep the Second Army in position because the increasing number of troops arriving further north would divert German pressure.

By 6 October, the Second Army front from the Oise to the Somme and the Tenth Army front from Thiepval to Arras and Souchez had been stabilised. A German cavalry attack to the north of the 6th Army, pushed back the French Territorial divisions from Lens to Lille and on 5 October, Marwitz ordered the cavalry to advance westwards to Abbeville on the Channel coast and cut the railways leading south. At the end of 6 October, Falkenhayn terminated attempts by the 2nd Army to break through in Picardy. To the north, the I and II Cavalry corps attacked between Lens and Lille and were quickly forced back behind the Lorette Spur. The next day, the cavalry was attacked by the first troops of the French XXI Corps to arrive as they advanced eastwards from Béthune.

Battle of La Bassée, 10 October – 2 November
The German 6th Army took Lille before a British force could secure the town and the 4th Army attacked the exposed British flank at Ypres. On 9 October, the German XIV Corps arrived opposite the French and the German 1st and 2nd Cavalry corps tried a flanking move between La Bassée and Armentières but the French cavalry stopped the Germans north of La Bassée Canal. The German 4th Cavalry Corps passed through Ypres on 7 October and was forced back to Bailleul by French Territorial troops. From 8–9 October the British II Corps arrived by rail at Abbeville and advanced on Béthune. By the end of 11 October, II Corps held a line from Béthune to Hinges and Chocques, with flanking units on the right, 3.5 km south of Béthune and on the left 4.5 km to the west. On 12 October, II Corps attacked to reach Givenchy and Pont du Hem, 6 km north of La Bassée Canal. The German I and II Cavalry corps and attached Jäger tried to delay the advance but the British repulsed a counter-attack near Givenchy.

From 14 to 15 October, II Corps attacked eastwards up La Bassée Canal and managed short advances on the flanks, with help from French cavalry but lost 967 casualties. From 16–18 October the corps attacks pivoted on the right and the left flank advanced to Aubers against German opposition at every ditch and bridge. A foothold was established on Aubers Ridge on 17 October and French cavalry captured Fromelles. On 18 October, the German XIII Corps arrived, reinforced the VII Corps and gradually forced the British II Corps to a halt. On 19 October, parties of British infantry and French cavalry captured the village of Le Pilly, which later was recaptured by the Germans. The fresh German 13th and 14th divisions arrived and counter-attacked the II Corps front. By 21 October, II Corps was ordered to dig in from the canal near Givenchy to Violaines, Illies, Herlies and Riez, while offensive operations continued to the north. The Lahore Division of the Indian Corps arrived and the British repulsed German attacks until early November, when both sides concentrated their resources on the First Battle of Ypres and the battle at La Bassée ended.

Battle of Messines, 12 October – 2 November
The III Corps reached St. Omer and Hazebrouck from 10–12 October, then advanced eastwards towards Lille. The British cavalry advanced and found the Germans dug in on Mont des Cats and at Flêtre on the road from Cassel to Bailleul. The 3rd Cavalry Brigade attacked Mont des Cats and occupied Mt. Noir, 3 km north of Bailleul. On 14 October, the cavalry advanced north-eastwards, occupied Dranoutre and Kemmel against slight opposition, then reached a line from Dranoutre to Wytschaete (Wijtschate), linking with the 3rd Cavalry Division of IV Corps, which had been operating in Belgium since early October.

On 15 October, Estaires was captured by French cavalry but the Germans prevented an advance beyond Comines, 5.5 km west of Menin (Menen), where German troops had arrived during the night. A foothold was gained at Warneton and German outposts west of the Ypres–Comines canal were pushed back to the far side. By 16 October, the Cavalry Corps and the 3rd Cavalry Division held the Lys river from Armentières to Comines and the Comines canal to Ypres. The BEF was ordered to make a general advance on 16 October, as the German forces were falling back. The cavalry was ordered to cross the Lys between Armentières and Menin as the III Corps advanced north-east to gain touch with the 7th Division near Ypres.

Fog grounded Royal Flying Corps (RFC) reconnaissance aircraft and made artillery observation impossible. The Lys was 45 – wide and 5 ft deep and flanked by water meadows. The banks were cut by boggy streams and dykes, which kept the cavalry on the roads; German outposts were pushed back but dismounted cavalry attacks could not dislodge the German defenders and the cavalry in Warneton town were withdrawn during the night. The attack was resumed on 18 October, when the cavalry attacked from Deûlémont to Tenbrielen but made no progress against a strong and well-organised German defence, ending the day opposite Deûlémont in the south to the railway at Tenbrielen to the north. From 9–18 October, the Cavalry Corps had c. 175 casualties. The encounter battle ended and subsequent operations in the Battle of Messines took place after the end of the "Race to the Sea".

Battle of Armentières, 13 October – 2 November
On 11 October, the British III Corps comprising the 4th and 6th divisions arrived by rail at St. Omer and Hazebrouck and then advanced behind the left flank of II Corps, towards Bailleul and Armentières. II Corps was to advance around the north of Lille and III Corps was to reach a line from Armentières to Wytschaete, with the Cavalry Corps (Lieutenant-General Edmund Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby) on the left as far as Ypres. French troops were to relieve the II Corps at Béthune to move north and link with the right of III Corps but this did not occur. On the northern flank of III Corps, in front of the Cavalry Corps, was a line of hills from Mont des Cats to Mt. Kemmel, about 400 ft above sea level, with spurs running south across the British line of advance, occupied by the German IV Cavalry Corps with three divisions. On 12 October, the British cavalry advanced and captured the Mont des Cats.

On 13 October, III Corps found German troops dug in along the Meterenbecque. A corps attack from La Couronne to Fontaine Houck began at 2:00 p.m. in wet and misty weather and by evening had captured Outtersteene and Méteren, at a cost of 708 casualties. On the right, French cavalry attempted to support the attack but without howitzers, could not advance in level terrain, dotted with cottages used as improvised strong points. The German defenders slipped away from defences in front of houses, hedges and walls, well-sighted to keep the soldiers invisible, dug earth having been scattered rather than used for a parapet, which would have been visible. III Corps was to attack the next German line of defence before German reinforcements could reach the scene. Rain and mist made air reconnaissance impossible on 14 October but patrols found that the Germans had fallen back beyond Bailleul and crossed the Lys.

Allied forces completed a continuous line to the North Sea when British cavalry and infantry reached a line from Steenwerck–Dranoutre, after a slow advance against German rearguards, in poor visibility and close country. III Corps closed up to the river at Sailly, Bac St. Maur, Erquinghem and Pont de Nieppe, linking with the cavalry at Romarin. On 16 October, the British secured the Lys crossings and late in the afternoon, German attacks began at Diksmuide and the next day the III Corps occupied Armentières. On 18 October, the III Corps was ordered to join an offensive by the BEF and the French army, by attacking down the Lys valley. Part of Pérenchies ridge was captured but much stronger German defences were encountered and the infantry were ordered to dig in. On the night of 18/19 October, the III Corps held a line from Radinghem to Pont Rouge, west of Lille. The encounter battle ended and subsequent operations in the Battle of Armentières took place after the end of the Race to the Sea during the First Battle of Ypres (19 October – 22 November).

Analysis
From 17 September to 17 October, the belligerents had made unsuccessful reciprocal attempts to turn the northern flank of their opponent. A German offensive began by 21 October but the 4th and 6th armies were only able to take small amounts of ground at great cost to both sides, at the Battle of the Yser (16–31 October) and further south at Ypres. Falkenhayn then attempted to achieve a limited goal of capturing Ypres and Mount Kemmel, in the First Battle of Ypres (19 October – 22 November). By 8 November, Falkenhayn concluded that the attempt to advance along the coast had failed and that taking Ypres was impossible. The French and Germans had not been able to assemble forces near the northern flank fast enough to obtain a decisive advantage. Where the opposing forces had attempted to advance, they had quickly been stopped and forced to improvise field defences, against which attacks were costly failures. By the end of the First Battle of Ypres both sides were exhausted, short of ammunition and suffering from collapses in morale and refusals of orders by some infantry units.

In October 1914, French and British artillery commanders met to discuss means for supporting infantry attacks, the British practice being to keep the artillery silent until targets were identified and the French firing a rafale (preliminary bombardment) which ceased as the infantry began the assault. A moving barrage of fire was proposed as a combination of both methods and became a standard practice later in the war as guns and ammunition were accumulated in sufficient quantity. Falkenhayn issued memoranda on 7 and 25 January 1915, defining a theory of defensive warfare to be used on the Western Front, intended to enable ground to be held with the fewest possible troops. By economising on manpower in the west, a larger number of divisions could be sent to the Eastern Front.

The front line was to be fortified to enable its defence with small numbers of troops indefinitely and the captured ground was to be recovered by counter-attacks. A second trench was to be dug behind the front line, to shelter the trench garrison and to have easy access to the front line, through covered communication trenches. Should counter-attacks fail to recover the front trench, a rearward line was to be connected to the remaining parts of the front line, limiting the loss of ground to a bend (Ausbeulung) in the line, rather than a breakthrough. The building of the new defences took until the autumn of 1915 and confronted Franco-British offensives with an evolving system of field fortifications, which was able to absorb the increasing power and sophistication of breakthrough attempts.

During the mobile operations of 1914, armies operating in hostile territory had relied on wireless communication to a far greater extent than anticipated, having expected to use telegraphs, telephones and dispatch riders. None of the armies had established cryptographic systems sufficient to prevent eavesdropping and all of the armies sent messages containing vital information in plain language. From September–November, the British and French intercepted c. 50 German messages, which showed the disorganisation of the German command in mid-September and the gap between the 1st and 2nd armies on the eve of the Battle of the Marne. Similar plain language messages and the reading of crudely coded German messages, gave warnings to the British of the times, places and strengths of eight attacks by four German corps or more, during the Race to the Sea and the battles in Flanders.

Casualties
By the end of the battles at Ypres, German army casualties in the west were 800,000 men, including 116,000 dead. The French army casualty total from October–November was 125,000 men, which, with losses of 329,000 men from August–September, gave a total of 454,000 casualties by the end of the year. In 2001, Strachan recorded 80,000 German casualties at Ypres, 89,964 British casualties since the beginning of the war, (54,105 incurred at Ypres) and that c. 50 per cent of the Belgian army had become casualties.

Battle of the Yser, 18 October – 30 November
During the Allied retreat from Antwerp, the British IV Corps moved north of Ypres on 14 October, where I Corps arrived on 19 October, with cavalry covering a gap to the south of the town. The Battle of the Yser (18 October – 30 November 1914) was fought, along a 35 km stretch of the Yser river and Yperlee Canal in Belgium. Falkenhayn created a new 4th Army to capture Dunkirk and Calais to inflict an "annihilating blow". The retreat of the Belgians to the Yser ended the "Race to the Sea", with the Belgians holding a 15 km front southwards from the coast and Belgian, French and British troops holding another 15 km beyond, the BEF holding 40 km and the Tenth Army holding another 25 km on the extreme right flank of the northern front.

German attacks began on 18 October and on 22 October, German troops gained a foothold over the river at Tervaete. The French 42nd Division at Nieuwpoort was sent as reinforcements on 23 October, when the Belgians were pushed back between Diksmuide and Nieuwpoort. German heavy artillery was countered on the coast by Allied ships under British command, which forced Germans to attack further inland. On 24 October, fifteen German attacks crossed the Yser for 5 km and the French sent the rest of the 42nd Division. By 26 October, the Belgian Commander General Félix Wielemans, had decided to retreat but French objections and orders from the King Albert led to a withdrawal being cancelled. Next day sluice gates on the coast at Nieuwpoort were opened and flooded the area between the Yser and the railway embankment. On 30 October, a German attack crossed the embankment at Ramscapelle but was repulsed on the following evening; the inundations reduced the fighting to local operations.

First Battle of Ypres, 19 October – 22 November
The First Battle of Ypres (part of the First Battle of Flanders) began on 19 October, with attacks by the German 6th and 4th armies, as the BEF attacked towards Menin and Roeselare (Roulers). On 21 October, the 4th Army was repulsed in mutually costly fighting and from 23–24 October, the Germans attacked on the Yser with the 4th Army and with the 6th Army to the south. French attacks by a new Eighth Army were made towards Roeselare and Torhout (Thourout), which diverted German troops from British and Belgian positions. A new German attack was planned where the 4th and 6th armies would pin down Allied troops and armeegruppe von Fabeck with six new divisions and more than 250 heavy guns, attacked north-west between Messines and Gheluvelt, against the British I Corps. The Germans took ground on the Menin road on 29 October and drove back the British cavalry next day, to a line 3 km from Ypres. Three French battalions were sent south and on 31 October, a British battalion counter-attacked and drove back the German troops from the Gheluvelt crossroads.

By 1 November, the BEF was close to exhaustion and the French XIV Corps was moved north from the Tenth Army and the French IX Corps attacked southwards towards Becelaere, which relieved the pressure on the British flanks. German attacks began to diminish on 3 November, by when armeegruppe von Fabeck had lost 17,250 casualties. A French offensive was planned for 6 November towards Langemarck (Langemark) and Messines but was forestalled by German attacks from 5–8 November and 10–11 November. The main attack on 10 November was made by the 4th Army between Langemarck and Diksmuide, in which Diksmuide was lost by the Franco-Belgian garrison. Next day, the British were subjected to an unprecedented bombardment between Messines and Polygon Wood and then attacked by the Prussian Guard, which broke into British positions along the Menin road, before being forced back by counter-attacks. From mid-October to early November, the German 4th Army lost 52,000 and the 6th Army lost 28,000 casualties.

title: Race to the Sea


text:
Hers

Hers or HERS may refer to:

 * The possessive pronoun version of she
 * Her's, an English rock band from Liverpool
 * "Hers" (Justin Timberlake song)
 * Hers-Vif (or simply Hers), a river in southern France
 * Hers-Mort, a river in southern France
 * Hertwig's epithelial root sheath
 * Energy rating systems:
 * Home Energy Rating, in the United States
 * House Energy Rating, in Australia

People with the surname

 * François Hers (born 1943), Belgian photographer and artist
 * Henri G. Hers (1923–2008), Belgian scientist
 * Joseph Hers (1884–1965), Belgian railroad engineer and botanist

title: Hers


text:
Srpska Crnja

Srpska Crnja (Српска Црња; Hungarian: Szerbcsernye; Romanian: Cernea Neamț) is a village in Serbia, situated in central-east Banat alongside the border with Romania. It is located in Nova Crnja municipality, Central Banat District, Province of Vojvodina. It is about 120 km (74.6 mi) away from the capital city of Belgrade, 113 km (70.2 mi) from Novi Sad, 9 km (5.6 mi) south-east of Kikinda and 6 km (3.7 mi) south-west of Jimbolia, Romania. The village has a population of 3753 people (2011 census) and most of its inhabitants are ethnic Serbs (83.77%).

Name
Name of the village comes from Serbian words "srpska" (meaning "Serb", "Serbian") and "crno" (meaning "black"). In Serbian the village is known as Srpska Crnja / Српска Црња (formerly also Crnja / Црња), in German as Serbisch-Zerne or Serbish Zerne, and in Hungarian as Szerbcsernye (formerly also Csernye, Czernya, Rácz-Czernya, and Szerb-Csernya).

Former German-populated settlement that is now part of this village was known as Nemačka Crnja (Немачка Црња) in Serbian, Deutsch-Zerne or Deutsch-Tschernja in German, and Németcsernye or Nemacske-Csernye in Hungarian.

Geography
Although Srpska Crnja is the largest settlement in Nova Crnja municipality, municipal center is located in the village of Nova Crnja, since this settlement have more favourable geographic position. The former railroad that linked Srpska Crnja to other settlements is no longer operational.

History
Srpska Crnja is an old settlement. The first historical records mentioning the settlement are from 1373. In this time, it was part of the Temesiensis County within the medieval Kingdom of Hungary. In the 16th-17th century, it was part of the Ottoman Empire and administratively belonged to the Temeşvar Eyalet. It was recorded as populated settlement in 1660, but was later resettled. In this time, it was known as Crnja and was populated by ethnic Serbs.

In the first half of the 18th century, this area was included into the Habsburg monarchy, but Crnja was without inhabitants in this time. The first time it appeared on a map was in 1723. In the middle of the 18th century, Crnja was populated by Serbs and Romanians. Until 1778, the village was part of the Banat of Temeswar, which was a separate Habsburg land. In 1778, it was included into the Habsburg Kingdom of Hungary and was administratively a part of the Torontal County. In 1787, population of the village numbered 1,394 residents. In 1790, German colonists founded a new settlement nearby and it was named Nemačka Crnja i.e. the "German Crnja". It was located in the north-east from the original settlement. The older settlement, hence, became known as Srpska Crnja i.e. the "Serb Crnja".

In 1848-1849, the area was part of the autonomous Serbian Vojvodina and in 1849-1860 part of the Voivodeship of Serbia and Banat of Temeschwar, a separate Austrian land. After abolishment of the voivodeship in 1860, the area was again included into Torontal County. In 1910, Srpska Crnja had a Serb ethnic majority, while Nemačka Crnja had a German ethnic majority. Before the First World War, population of Srpska Crnja numbered 3,924 residents, while population of Nemačka Crnja numbered 3,392 residents. If population of two settlements is counted together, largest ethnic group in the area were Serbs.

In 1918, as part of the Banat, Bačka and Baranja region, the area was firstly included into the Kingdom of Serbia and then into the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later known as Yugoslavia). From 1918 to 1922 the area was part of the Veliki Bečkerek County, from 1922 to 1929 part of the Belgrade Oblast, and from 1929 to 1941 part of the Danube Banovina. Between the two World Wars, some families of Serbian World War I volunteers were settled in the area. In 1931, population of both settlements numbered 9,100 people.

During the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia in World War II, from 1941 to 1944, the area was included into the German-administered Banat region that had special status within the Axis puppet state of Serbia. The German population of Nemačka Crnja numbered over 3,000 people in 1944. At the end of World War II, in 1944, one part of local German inhabitants left from the area, together with defeated German army. Those who remained in the region were sent to local communist prison camps. After communist prison camps were dissolved (in 1948), most of the remaining German population left Yugoslavia mainly because of economic reasons.

Since 1944, the area was part of Yugoslav Vojvodina, which, from 1945, was an autonomous province of new socialist Serbia within Yugoslavia. After the war, some Serb families from Bosnia settled in the area. In that time, two settlements were administratively joined into the single village. In recent times, population of the village is decreasing. As a result of the current bad economic situation in the Banat region, a sizable number of local Serbs is emigrating to large Serbian cities or to other countries (like Austria and Germany), searching for jobs.

Ethnic groups (2002 census)

 * Serbs = 3,672 (83.78%)
 * Romani = 413 (9.42%)
 * Hungarians = 163 (3.72%)
 * others.

Historical population

 * 1948: 8,220
 * 1953: 7,977
 * 1961: 7,376
 * 1971: 6,001
 * 1981: 5,467
 * 1991: 5,046
 * 2002: 4,383
 * 2011: 3,753

Sights

 * Orthodox church built in 1775, with Đura Jakšić's religious paintings (icons) on the altar.
 * Memorial museum of Đura Jakšić.
 * Bust of Đura Jakšić located in the nave of the Orthodox church.
 * Monument to people of Srpska Crnja who were killed on October 5 - Freedom Day in memory of the liberation from German occupation in 1944, also located in the nave of the Orthodox church.
 * The oldest grave monument, from 1790.
 * The Lipar's Days in Srpska Crnja is a manifestation dedicated to Crnja's beloved Đura Jakšić. The tradition started in 1962.
 * Motel Kastel built as a castle in 1943 for general Najhauzen during the Nazi German occupation.
 * Catholic church.

Notable residents
The poet and artist Đura Jakšić was born and grew up in the village.

title: Srpska Crnja


text:
User talk:Chris Thompson

Hello and welcome to Wikipedia! Hope you like it here, and stick around.

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Various contributions
Hey Chris - just wanted to say that your editorial skills are sorely missed. You were an excellent peakmaker in the controversial articles you worked on and it's sad to see you gone. Hope you'll be back soon!198.20.40.50 19:38, 4 July 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Chris Thompson


text:
David X. Cohen

David Samuel Cohen (born July 13, 1966), better known as David X. Cohen, is an American television writer. He is best known for co-developing the animated television series Futurama.

Early life
Cohen was born in New York City as David Samuel Cohen. He changed his middle initial around the time Futurama debuted due to Writers' Guild policies prohibiting more than one member from having the same name. Both of his parents were biologists, and growing up Cohen had always planned to be a scientist, though he also enjoyed drawing cartoons and writing. Cohen is of Jewish background.

Cohen graduated from Dwight Morrow High School in Englewood, New Jersey, where he wrote the humor column for the high school paper and was a member of the school's state champion mathematics team. Cohen graduated from Harvard University with a B.A. in physics, and the University of California, Berkeley, with a M.S. in computer science. At Harvard, he wrote for and served as President of the Harvard Lampoon.

In high school, Cohen wrote in MOS 6502 assembly language, an Apple II compiler, and computer game, and unsuccessfully tried to publish the latter through Broderbund. His most notable academic publication concerned the theoretical computer science problem of pancake sorting.

Writing career
After three years of graduate school, Cohen took a leave of absence and started writing sample TV scripts. In 1992, this landed him a job writing two of the earliest Beavis and Butt-Head episodes. In 1993, Cohen began working on The Simpsons, writing or co-writing thirteen episodes. Nearly five years later, Cohen would team with Matt Groening to develop Futurama, where he served as writer or co-writer of seven episodes and executive producer, head writer, and showrunner of the series' entire run. Cohen has won four Primetime Emmy Awards: Two for Futurama and two for The Simpsons.

Futurama

Cohen co-developed Futurama, along with The Simpsons creator Matt Groening. Cohen served as head writer, executive producer, showrunner, and voice director of the series. He was also the voice director of the Futurama video game. After spending a few years researching science fiction, Groening got together with Cohen in 1997 and developed Futurama, an animated series about life in the year 3000. By the time they pitched the series to Fox in April 1998, Groening and Cohen had composed many characters and storylines; Groening claimed they had "gone overboard" in their discussions. Groening described trying to get the show on the air as "by far the worst experience of [his] grown-up life". The show premiered on March 28, 1999.

After four years on the air, the series was canceled by Fox. In a situation similar to the animated Family Guy, however, strong DVD sales and very stable ratings on Comedy Central brought Futurama back to life. When Comedy Central began negotiating for the rights to air Futurama reruns, Fox suggested that there was a possibility of also creating new episodes. When Comedy Central committed to sixteen new episodes, it was decided that four straight-to-DVD films—Bender's Big Score (2007), The Beast with a Billion Backs (2008), Bender's Game (2008) and Into the Wild Green Yonder (2009)—would be produced. Since no new Futurama projects were in production, the movie Into the Wild Green Yonder was designed to stand as the Futurama series finale. However, Groening had expressed a desire to continue the Futurama franchise in some form, including as a theatrical film. In an interview with CNN, Groening said that "we have a great relationship with Comedy Central and we would love to do more episodes for them, but I don't know... We're having discussions and there is some enthusiasm but I can't tell if it's just me."

Comedy Central picked up the show for 26 new half-hour episodes that began airing in mid-2010.

Cohen told Newsday in August 2009 that the reported 26-episode order means "[i]t will be up to 26. I can't guarantee it will be 26. But I think there's a pretty good chance it'll be exactly 26. Fox has been a little bit cagey about it, even internally. But nobody's too concerned. We're plunging ahead." Two episodes were in the process of being voice-recorded at that time, with an additional "six scripts ... in the works, ranging in scale from 'it's a crazy idea that someone's grandmother thought of' to 'it's all on paper'. ..."The first episode is tentatively titled 'Rebirth' — and in a surprisingly literal fashion, as things turn out". It aired June 24 on Comedy Central.

Cohen designed one of the robots in the robot strip club which he said was "his one artistic contribution to the show". The robot's waist gyrated sexily using a planetary gear. In an episode's commentary, this artistic contribution is discussed by Futurama co-creator Matt Groening, who describes Cohen as being very particular about how the animators used his design, and that Cohen's original drawing is still framed in his office.

He makes some brief cameo appearances in cartoon form, first in the Futurama episode "A Bicyclops Built for Two", along with several other people who worked on the show, and second on "I Dated a Robot" as a member of the eBay audience. Both appearances are pointed out during DVD commentaries.

Name change
When the FOX primetime animated shows unionized in 1998, Cohen was forced to use a different name for professional purposes, as there was already another member credited as David S. Cohen (who worked on Courage the Cowardly Dog). The Writers Guild of America does not allow multiple members to use the same name for onscreen credits. Instead of using his full middle name, he chose to use the middle initial "X"—because it sounded "sci-fi-ish"—and has jokingly said that the "X" would make him "the David Cohen people would remember". The "X" does not actually stand for anything, but Cohen included a period "so people don't think it's some mathematical formula: 'David times Cohen' or something".

Writing credits
Cohen is credited with writing or co-writing the following episodes:

Disenchantment

 * "For Whom the Pig Oinks" (2018)
 * "Stairway To Hell" (2019)

Futurama

 * "Space Pilot 3000" (with Matt Groening) (1999)
 * "Xmas Story" (1999)
 * "Anthology of Interest I" (Part 3) (2000)
 * "The Day the Earth Stood Stupid" (shared story credits with Jeff Westbrook) (2001)
 * "Anthology of Interest II" (Part 2) (2002)
 * "The Why of Fry" (2003)
 * Bender's Big Score (story with Ken Keeler) (2008)
 * The Beast with a Billion Backs (story with Eric Kaplan) (2008)
 * Bender's Game (both story and part 4 of the teleplay) (2009)
 * Into the Wild Green Yonder (story with Ken Keeler; Parts 1 & 4) (2009)
 * "Rebirth" (2010)
 * "Free Will Hunting" (2012)

The Simpsons

 * "Treehouse of Horror V" ("Nightmare Cafeteria") (1994)
 * "Lisa the Vegetarian" (1995)
 * "Treehouse of Horror VI" ("Homer3") (1995)
 * "22 Short Films About Springfield" (co-contributor) (1996)
 * "Much Apu About Nothing" (1996)
 * "Treehouse of Horror VII" ("Citizen Kang") (1996)
 * "The Itchy & Scratchy & Poochie Show" (1997)
 * "The Simpsons Spin-Off Showcase" ("Chief Wiggum, P.I.") (1997)
 * "Treehouse of Horror VIII" ("Fly vs. Fly") (1997)
 * "Lisa the Skeptic" (1997)
 * "Das Bus" (1998)
 * "Bart the Mother" (1998)
 * "Treehouse of Horror IX" ("Starship Poopers") (1998)
 * "Podcast News" (2020)

Beavis and Butt-head

 * "Couch Fishing"
 * "Plate Frisbee"

Cohen has also been credited with inventing the word "cromulent", meaning "valid" or "acceptable" in The Simpsons episode "Lisa the Iconoclast". Subsequently, the word was included in Webster's New Millennium Dictionary. The meaning of cromulent is inferred only from its usage, which indicates that it is a positive attribute. Webster's Dictionary defines it as meaning "fine" or "acceptable".

title: David X. Cohen