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1996 Russian presidential election

Presidential elections were held in Russia on 16 June 1996, with a second round being held on 3 July 1996. It resulted in a victory for the incumbent Russian president Boris Yeltsin, who ran as an independent politician. Yeltsin defeated the Communist Party of the Russian Federation challenger Gennady Zyuganov in the second round, receiving 54.4% of the vote. Yeltsin's second inauguration ceremony took place on 9 August 1996.

Yeltsin would not complete the second term for which he was elected, as he resigned on 31 December 1999, eight months before the scheduled end of his term on 9 August 2000; he was succeeded by his chosen successor, Vladimir Putin, whom he had appointed prime minister of Russia a few months earlier. This was the first presidential election to take place in post-Soviet Russia. As of 2024, this has also been the only Russian presidential election in which no candidate was able to win on the first round, and as such a runoff election was necessary.

Although most contemporaneous reports certified the 1996 election result, the election has been associated with various counts of pro-Yeltsin media bias and foreign influence, as well as allegations of electoral fraud or that it was an unfair election. Critics also argued that Yeltsin had engaged in vote buying by utilizing state finances to fund social programs, to which he responded he was merely doing his duties as president. Others argued that the allegations were exaggerated, and that the then United States government in fact refrained from covert operations and did not grant all of Yeltsin's requests.

Background
In 1991, Boris Yeltsin was elected to a five-year term as president of Russia, which was still a part of the Soviet Union at the time. The next election was scheduled be held sometime in 1996. In late December 1991, Soviet Russia became a sovereign nation in wake of the dissolution of the Soviet Union. This meant that the scheduled election would now be the first ever presidential election to be held in a fully sovereign Russia.

In a 1993 Russian government referendum question (III), Russian voters rejected holding an early presidential election, and the presidential election remained scheduled to be held in the year 1996. Later in 1993, the Constitution of Russia was adopted. In the constitution, future presidential terms were stipulated to last for four years, meaning that the 1996 election would elect a president to serve a four-year term. When incumbent president Yeltsin launched his re-election campaign in early 1996, he was widely predicted to lose. Public opinion of Yeltsin was at a historical low point. Due to this, there was talk about Yeltsin potentially postponing or canceling the election; he ultimately decided against this.

Shortly before the election campaign, Yeltsin had faced a number of significant political humiliations which harmed his political stature. In the 1995 Russian legislative election, the Communist Party of the Russian Federation (CPRF) had achieved dominance in the State Duma. On 9 January 1996, Chechen rebels seized thousands of hostages in Dagestan and Yeltsin's response to this was viewed as a failure. Additionally, Yeltsin was overseeing a terrible economy. Russian economy was still contracting and many workers had continued to be unpaid for months.

By early 1996, Yeltsin's public approval was so poor that he was polling at fifth place among presidential candidates, with only 8 percent support, while CPRF leader Gennady Zyuganov was in the lead with 21 percent support. When Zyuganov showed up at the World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland, in February 1996, many Western leaders and the international media were eager to see him, and treated him with regards to believing that he would likely be the next president of Russia.

Vladimir Bryntsalov
Pharmaceutical businessman Vladimir Bryntsalov ran as the candidate of the Russian Socialist Party. Brytsalov argued that his leadership would eliminate the country's poverty, promising that if he were elected, there would be "no poor pensioners, no poor workers, no poor entrepreneurs, no poor farmers." His plan, which he dubbed "Russian socialism", was for large companies to begin paying wages comparable to companies in other industrialized nations. The plan anticipated that the employees of the companies would consequentially pay larger income taxes, spend more on consumer goods, and increase their productivity at their jobs. The feasibility of this plan was criticized, as Russian companies were considered to be unable to pay such wages.

Brytsalov promoted himself with the superlative claim of being "the richest man in Russia" and flaunted his wealth. Despite being at the time a recently elected deputy of the State Duma, Brytsalov did not have a voting-record. In his legislative career, he had very low attendance and extremely little participation. Brytsalov was seen as a marginal candidate, and was generally regarded as unlikely to win the election.

Mikhail Gorbachev
Former Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev ran as an independent candidate. He ran as a self-proclaimed social democrat, and asserted that, of those running for president, his was the voice of responsibility and moderation. His campaign was hampered both by strong public disdain towards him and a strong lack of media coverage for his candidacy. At one point, Gorbachev complained that there was less press freedom than when he was leader of the Soviet Union.

Gorbachev subsequently questioned the validity of the election results. While he acknowledged that he had lost by a significant margin, Gorbachev suspected that his actual vote count still exceeded what was reported in the official tally. In 2017, Gorbachev wrote in his book The New Russia that "there have been no fair and free elections in Russia since those of 1989, 1990 and the election of 1991 when Boris Yeltsin became the first president of Russia."

Svyatoslav Fyodorov
Svyatoslav Fyodorov, a politician and renown ophthalmologist, ran as the candidate of the Party of Workers' Self-Government. He was the founder and leader of the party, which at the time was arguably the most influential social-democratic movement in Russia. Fyodorov was considered to be on the center-left of the political spectrum. In 1994, Fyodorov had described his political objective by stating: "I want peasants to own farms, workers to own factories, physicians to own clinics, and everyone to pay a 30% tax, and the rest is theirs."

Fyodorov advocated for the mass creation of joint stock companies to guarantee workers a share of profits and allow them to actively participate in management of their companies. He dubbed this concept "democratic capitalism" or "popular socialism". He had advocated such a policy since as early as 1991. Fyodorov advocated for economic freedom, simple and moderate taxation, stimulation of production, and a ban on exports of most raw materials. Fyodorov promised that his policies would double the nation's GDP within five years. Fyodorov proclaimed to draw inspiration in his politics from both Ross Perot and Deng Xiaoping. Up until early May 1996, Fyodorov unsuccessfully attempted to negotiate the creation of a third force coalition, with negotiations largely centering on a coalition between him and fellow candidates Yavlinsky and Lebed.

Alexander Lebed
General Alexander Lebed ran as the nominee of the Congress of Russian Communities, a centrist nationalist party. Lebed promoted himself as an authoritative leader that would introduce law and order, tackle corruption, and allow capitalism to blossom. While he presented an authoritarian personality, he held moderate positions. After reaching an informal agreement with Yeltsin in April (under which Lebed promised to endorse Yeltsin in the second round of the election), Lebed began to see positive news coverage, as well as a greater overall quantity of media coverage. This was done as part of an effort by Yeltsin's camp to promote Lebed in the hopes that he would syphon off votes from other nationalist candidates in the first-round. Up until early May 1996, Lebed had entertained negotiations with Yavlinsky and Fyodorov to jointly form a third force coalition.

Martin Shakkum
Martin Shakkum ran as an independent candidate. An associate of radical economist Stanislav Shatalin, Shakkum was on the right wing of the Russian political spectrum. Like Lebed, although he presented himself with an authoritarian personality, he held moderate positions on many social issues.

Aman Tuleyev
Independent candidate Aman Tuleyev, a member of the Communist Party of the Russian Federation (CPRF), styled himself as a "Muslim Communist". The head of the Kemerovo Oblast legislature, Tuleyev was considered to be charismatic, energetic, and well-liked by the CPRF's political base. Despite the fact that Tuleyev dropped out of the race before the election, he had already been on the ballot during a portion of the early voting period, and he turned-in his signatures the day before the deadline. He was considered to be a fallback CPRF candidate in case Zyuganov's candidacy faltered. Tuleyev's rhetoric straddled between hardline communism and social democracy. Generally a hardliner, he had nonetheless occasionally taken moderate stances, such as seeking tax cuts. Tuleyev's positions centered upon communism and creating a disciplined and uncorrupt government. Tuleyev dropped out of the race on 8 June 1996 and endorsed Zyuganov.

Yury Vlasov
Politician and former Olympic weightlifter Yury Vlasov ran as an independent candidate. His politics were characterized as nationalist. Vlasov openly espoused antisemitic rhetoric. Vlasov dubbed his politics as "people's patriotism". His campaign platform proclaimed: "There is only one single force that is able to unite almost all and at the same time become the ideological basis of the Russian state – popular patriotism." While he had been a supporter of democratic reforms in the Soviet Union, Vlasov had embraced authoritarian political views following its collapse. Vlasov likened his politics to Gaullism. He argued that his politics were a more effective unifying force than communist or liberal-democratic ideals. Although he was nominally an independent candidate, Vlasov's campaign was supported by the People's National Party; by the end of the election, many in the party grew dissatisfied with Vlasov's campaign style, believing he failed to campaign aggressively enough. Despite polling at under one percent, Vlasov had stated that he anticipated capturing between six and seven percent of the vote. He swore to refuse supporting either Yeltsin or support Zyuganov in the runoff.

Grigory Yavlinsky
Grigory Yavlinsky ran as the nominee of Yabloko. Yavlinsky officially accepted Yabloko's nomination on 27 January 1996. In terms of social issues, Yavlinsky occupied the political left. In terms of economic issues, Yavlinsky occupied the far right of the Russian political spectrum. His ideology most strongly appealed to Russia's population of young intellectuals. Yabloko had been a programmatic party, as opposed to a populist one. This proved to be a weakness for Yavlinsky's campaign, as he and his party opted to maintain their long-established party positions on many issues rather than reshaping their agenda in order to better capitalize on the political tides. This had also been the case in the preceding 1995 electoral campaign, during which Yabloko similarly had opted to focus on complex economic issues, rather than focusing on bread and butter issues. Up until early May 1996, Yavlinsky unsuccessfully attempted to negotiate the creation of a third force coalition, with negotiations largely centering on a coalition between him and fellow candidates Lebed and Fyodorov.

Boris Yeltsin

Incumbent Boris Yeltsin ran for re-election as an independent candidate. While his prospects of winning were originally faltering, Yeltsin was able to resuscitate his image and pull off a successful campaign. Yeltsin's original strategy, devised by Oleg Soskovets, involved him pivoting towards the nationalist wing of Russia's politics in order to directly compete for votes with Zyuganov and Zhirinovsky; this strategy was ultimately abandoned in favor of one devised by reformists and British and American consultants. Yeltsin's new campaign strategy was, essentially, to convince voters that they had to choose him as the lesser of two evils. This strategy sought to recast Yeltsin as an individual single-handedly fighting to stave off Communist control. The campaign framed a narrative that portrayed Yeltsin as Russia's best hope for stability. The campaign worked to shift the narrative of the election into a referendum on whether voters wanted to return to their Communist past (with Zyuganov), or continue with reforms (with Yeltsin).

Yeltsin was able to leverage the power of his office. This included using government funds to finance campaign promises, utilizing state media organizations, and currying favoritism amongst financial and media oligarchs. Two days after the conclusion of the first round, Yeltsin appointed former general Alexander Lebed, who had finished third with 14.7% of vote, to the post of Secretary of Security Council of the Russian Federation and the President's National Security Advisor. Lebed in turn endorsed Yeltsin in the runoff election. Meanwhile, Yeltsin suffered from a serious heart attack and disappeared from public view. His condition was kept secret through the second-round election on 3 July 1996. During this period of time, Yeltsin's campaign team created a "virtual Yeltsin" shown in the media through staged interviews that never happened and pre-recorded radio addresses.

Vladimir Zhirinovsky
The Liberal Democratic Party of Russia (LDPR) leader Vladimir Zhirinovsky campaigned on nationalist rhetoric. After his surprisingly strong third-place finish in the 1991 presidential election and the surprisingly strong first-place performance of the LDPR in the 1993 Russian legislative election, Zhirinivsky had once been seen as a rising force in Russian politics and a future contender for the presidency. Boorish and outlandish conduct by Zhirinovsky had diminished the public perception of his stature to such a degree that, by 1996, he was seen as a buffoonish figure and was no longer seen as a viable candidate.

Gennady Zyuganov
The Communist Party of the Russian Federation (CPRF) leader Gennady Zyuganov successfully advanced to the second-round of the election, where he was defeated by Yeltsin. Coming off of a very successful CPRF performance in the 1995 Russian legislative election, when he launched his campaign, Zyuganov had originally been seen as the frontrunner to win the election.

Contemporary analysis
In their 1996 report, the International Republican Institute stated that their election observers "witnessed no deliberate attempts to commit electoral fraud and, indeed, in the tracking of protocols through the various levels of Russia's electoral system, observed transparency in the process." In their 1996 analysis, the Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs declared that, while the election failed to be "free and fair" in regards to media coverage and campaign financing, it appeared to have largely succeeded in being "free and fair" in regards to the administration of voting and vote-counting.

Observers from the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) reported in 1996 that the first round of the election "appeared to be generally well run, and not seriously marred by some problems which occurred in the pre-election campaign. The delegation considered the first round of the Russian Presidential elections to have been conducted in a generally free and fair manner." The OSCE also reported: "Delegation members considered voter participation in the political campaign to be quite active compared to previous Russian elections. A relatively open flow of information concerning candidates and their platforms was made available to voters during the pre-election campaign; opposition candidates charged that the state controlled electronic broadcast media did not provide fair and balanced coverage, and this was also observed to be the case by delegation members. The bias appeared to be primarily in favor of the President." The OSCE concluded: "The delegation found that Polling Station Election Committees (PSECs) generally followed proper procedures and enforced the one-man-one-vote principle, although scattered instances of minor irregularities, such as family voting and voting outside of polling booths were observed."

In a 1996 post-election analysis published in the journal Presidential Studies Quarterly, Erik Depov asserted: "The inaccuracy of many early predictions was primarily because Yeltsin's successful re-election bid had as much to do with the dynamics of the electoral campaign as with the results of his first term in office. If the 1996 presidential campaign proved anything, it illustrated the danger of underestimating Yeltsin's ability to meet a serious political challenge head on and prevail despite apparently insurmountable odds." During the campaign, Yeltsin's opponents criticized his use of state coffers to fund programs that would bolster his approval with voters. Yeltsin had been utilizing state finances to fund programs (such as pensions) with the aim of convincing voters of his willingness to fulfill promises he was making on the campaign trail. Yeltsin's opponents charged that, in doing this, he was essentially buying votes; in turn, Yeltsin's team argued that he was simply doing his job as president. During the second round campaign, Zyuganov asserted in a letter to the parliament, the Central Election Commission, and the media that Yeltsin was buying votes with money that should be used to pay wage and pension arrears and that he had pressured local leaders into working for his campaign. He also alleged that Yeltsin was using "tens of trillions of rubles" from the state budget for campaign purposes. Zyuganov argued that such practices would call into question the results of the voting and urged immediate measures that would insure equal conditions for the candidates.

Pro-Yeltsin media bias
Yeltsin benefited from an immense media bias favoring his campaign. In 1991, at the time of the previous presidential election, Russia had only two major television channels. RTR had supported Yeltsin, while ORT had criticized him and provided broad coverage of the views of his opponents. In the 1996 presidential election, none of Russia's major television networks were critical of Yeltsin. Yeltsin had successfully enlisted the national television channels (ORT, RTR, and NTV) and most of the written press to essentially act as agents of his campaign.

The European Institute for Media found that Yeltsin received 53% of all media coverage of the campaign, while Zyuganov received only 18%. In their evaluation of the biases of news stories, EIM awarded each candidate 1 point for every positive story they received and subtracted a point for every negative story they received. In the first round of the election, Yeltsin scored +492 and Zyuganov scored −313. In the second round of the election, Yeltsin scored +247 and Zyuganov scored −240. Television networks marginalized all of Yeltsin's opponents aside from Zyuganov, helping to create the perception that there were only two viable candidates. This allowed Yeltsin to pose as the lesser-evil. Near the end of the election's first-round, the networks began also providing coverage to the candidacy of Lebed, who had already agreed to support Yeltsin in the second round.

Supplementing the work of the numerous public relations and media firms that were hired by the Yeltsin campaign, a number of media outlets "volunteered" their services to Yeltsin's re-election effort. For instance, Kommersant (one of the most prominent business newspapers in the country) published an anti-Communist paper called Ne Dai Bog (meaning "God forbid"). At ORT, a special committee was placed in charge of planning a marathon of anti-Communist films and documentaries to be broadcast on the channel ahead of the election. Led by the efforts of Mikhail Lesin, the media painted a picture of a fateful choice for Russia, between Yeltsin and a "return to totalitarianism". They even played up the threat of civil war if a Communist was elected president.

One of the reasons for the media's overwhelming favoritism of Yeltsin was their fear that a Communist government would dismantle Russia's right to a free press. Another factor contributing to the media's support of Yeltsin was that his government still owned two of the national television channels, and still provided the majority of funding to the majority of independent newspapers. In addition, Yeltsin's government also was in charge of supplying licenses to media outlets. Yeltsin's government and Yury Luzhkov, the then mayor of Moscow, flexed their power and reminded the owners, publishers, and editors that newspaper licenses and Moscow leases for facilities were "under review". There were also instances of direct payments made for positive coverage ("dollar journalism").

Yeltsin had managed to enlist Russia's emerging business elite to work in his campaign, including those who ran media corporations. This included Vladimir Gusinsky, owner of Most Bank, Independent Television and NTV. NTV which had, prior to the campaign, been critical towards Yeltsin's actions in Chechnya, changed the tone of their coverage. Igor Malashenko, Gusinsky's appointed head of NTV, even joined the Yeltsin campaign and led its media relations in a rather visible conflict of interest. In early 1996, Gusinsky and his political rival Boris Berezovsky (chairman of the Board of ORT) decided that they would put aside their differences in order to work together to support the re-election of Yeltsin. By mid-1996, Yeltsin had recruited a team of a handful of financial and media oligarchs to bankroll the Yeltsin campaign and guarantee favorable media coverage the president on national television and in leading newspapers. In return, Yeltsin's presidential administration allowed well-connected Russian business leaders to acquire majority stakes in some of Russia's most valuable state-owned assets.

To further guarantee consistent media coverage, Yeltsin had fired the chairperson of the All-Russia State Television and Radio Broadcasting Company and replaced him with Eduard Sagalaev in February 1996. While the anti-Communist pro-Yeltsin media bias certainly contributed to Yeltsin's victory, it was not the sole factor. A similar anti-Communist media bias in the run-up to the 1995 parliamentary elections had failed to prevent a Communist victory. Additionally, Yeltsin himself had been able to win the 1991 presidential election in spite of a strongly unfavorable media bias towards him.

Violations of campaign laws
Following the election, a financial fraud investigation (the Xerox affair) was launched against Yeltsin's campaign. Yeltsin's campaign disregarded numerous campaign regulations. Analysis has indicated that Yeltsin's campaign spent well in excess of spending limits. Yeltsin also violated a law against broadcasting advertisements before 15 March. Yeltsin undertook many abuses of his power in order to assist his campaign effort.

Fraud
Some instances of fraud were indicated to have taken place; the various political actors, including the opposition, did not challenge the result. The Central Election Commission (CEC) found in 1996 that the original second-round results reported from Mordovia were falsified. A significant number of votes that had been cast for Zyuganov were recorded as "Against All Candidates". The vote totals from Mordovia were subsequently adjusted by the CEC in order to remedy this. The CEC also discovered fraud in Dagestan, an ethnic republic which had experienced a very improbable change in voting patterns between rounds, and the vote totals were revised to remedy this. Another instance of fraud was discovered in Karachay-Cherkessia by the CEC. The vote totals were adjusted to remedy for this as well.

Allegations of unfairness and fraud
There have been a number of allegations claiming further and greater instances of fraud than the instances that had been discovered by the CEC. They include a number of allegations that assert that the election was unfair and favored Yeltsin, as well as some allegations that go as far as to assert that the entire election was fraudulent. In addition to federal subjects in which fraud was discovered by the CEC, some results, such as those from Russia's ethnic republics of Tatarstan and Bashkortostan, showed highly-unlikely changes in voting patterns between the two rounds of voting. That has aroused suspicions of election fraud,  although any fraud that may have contributed to those discrepancies is unlikely to have had a material effect on the outcome of the election. One hypothesis that has been given for the dramatic increase in support that Yeltsin saw in some regions was that prior to the second round vote, administrative pressure was applied in those regions to coerce voters into supporting Yeltsin.

Allegations have been made by some that in the first round of the election, several regions of Russia committed electoral fraud in favor of Zyuganov. It has also been further alleged by some that several of the republics switched the direction of their fraud during the second round to favor Yeltsin instead. Mikhail Gorbachev voiced a belief that the results of the election were falsified. He stated that he believes that the results underreported his actual share of the vote. At a meeting with opposition leaders in 2012, the then Russian president Dmitry Medvedev was reported to have said: "There is hardly any doubt who won [that race]. It was not Boris Nikolaevich Yeltsin."

American influence
After the election, a group of American consultants that worked for the Yeltsin campaign sought to take credit for Yeltsin's successful re-election in a profile published in the July 1996 issue of Time magazine with the headline "Yanks to the Rescue". Their account was later the basis of the 2003 comedy Spinning Boris; there was reporting that indicated that their work for Yeltsin's campaign did not play a consequential role in shaping the campaign, with Time receiving accusations of poor journalism and sensationalism for publishing the consultants' claims about their importance to the campaign without practicing skepticism. Additionally, it had not at all been unusual for foreign consultants to work on campaigns in the nation's fledgling electoral politics.

Knowing that his voter base was pro-Western, Yeltsin lobbied the then United States president Bill Clinton to speak in praising terms of Russia's transition to democracy. Yeltsin believed that this would strengthen his support from voters. Yeltsin warned Clinton of the possible ramifications of a Zyuganov victory, saying: "There is a U.S. press campaign suggesting that people should not be afraid of the communists; that they are good, honorable and kind people. I warn people not to believe this. More than half of them are fanatics; they would destroy everything. It would mean civil war. They would abolish the boundaries between the republics. They want to take back Crimea; they even make claims against Alaska. ... There are two paths for Russia's development. I do not need power. But when I felt the threat of communism, I decided that I had to run. We will prevent it." In their conversations, Clinton assured Yeltsin that he would give him his publicly declared personal endorsement, saying: "I've been trying to find a way to say to the Russian people 'this election will have consequences,' and we are clear about what it is we support." Yeltsin made other requests, such as admission into the G8 (not granted), a $2.5 billion direct cash loan to the government (not granted), and a delay in NATO expansion (granted). Clinton refrained from undertaking covert operations to support Yeltsin in order to prevent spurring backlash if such efforts were to be discovered.

In January 1997, observing the support Yeltsin had received in 1996 from the Clinton administration, former candidate Alexander Lebed visited the United States to rally support from American businesses for a potential run in the 2000 Russian presidential election. As one analyst wrote at the time, "[Lebed] may perceive that Yeltsin benefited greatly from support from the Americans in the last campaign. Clinton made a trip to Moscow during the campaign. And the International Monetary Fund extended loans that enabled the Government to make credible promises to pay wages." Some argued that the role of the Clinton administration in securing an International Monetary Fund loan for Russia had an impact on the election, with some critics characterizing it as an act of foreign electoral intervention.

Results

title: 1996 Russian presidential election


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Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion

The Church of Our Lady, Mary of Zion is an Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church which is claimed to contain the Ark of the Covenant.

The church is located in the town of Axum, Tigray Region in northern Ethiopia, near the grounds of Obelisks of Axum. The original church is believed to have been built during the reign of Ezana the first Christian ruler of the Kingdom of Axum (Present-day Eritrea and Ethiopia), during the 4th century AD, and has been rebuilt several times since then. Women are not permitted entry into the “Old Church”; the Blessed Virgin Mary, representing the archetype of the Ark, is the only woman allowed within its premises.

History
Since its founding during the episcopacy of Frumentius, the first Bishop of Axum, (known in Ethiopia as Abune Selama Kesatie Birhan or "Our Father of Peace the Revealer of Light"); the Church of Mary of Zion has been destroyed and rebuilt at least twice. Its first putative destruction occurred at the hands of Queen Gudit during the 10th century. Its second, confirmed, destruction occurred in the 16th century at the hands of Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, after which it was rebuilt by the Emperor Gelawdewos, then further rebuilt and enlarged by Fasilides during the 17th century. Francisco Álvares, who was in Ethiopia before its destruction, describes it as follows:

"a very noble church, the first there was in Ethiopia: it is named Mary of Syon. They say that it is so named because its altar stone came from Sion. In this country (as they say) they have the custom always to name the churches by the altar stone, because on it is written the name of the patron saint. This stone which they have in this church, they say that the apostles sent it from Mount Sion. This church is very large; it has five aisles of good width and of great length, vaulted above, and all the vaults closed, the ceiling and sides all painted. Below, the body of the church is well worked with handsome cut stone; it has seven chapels, all with their backs to the east, and their altars well ornamented. It has a choir after our fashion, except that it is low, and they reach the vaulted roof with their heads; and the choir is also over the vault, and they do not use it. This church has a very large circuit, paved with flagstones like the lids of tombs. This consists of a very high wall, and it is not covered over like those of the other churches, but is left open. This church has a large enclosure, and it is also surrounded with another larger enclosure, like the enclosing wall of a large town or city. Within this enclosure are handsome groups of one storey buildings, and all spout out their water by strong figures of lions and dogs of stone [of different colours]. Inside this large enclosure there are two mansions, one on the right hand and the other on the left, which belong to the two rectors of the church; and the other houses are of canons and monks."

The church of Saint Mary of Zion was the traditional place where Ethiopian Emperors came to be crowned. Which indeed meant if an Emperor was not crowned at Axum, or did not at least have his coronation ratified by a special service at St. Mary of Zion, he could not be referred to by the title of "Atse".

The church is a significant center of pilgrimage for the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, especially during the “Festival of Zion Mariam” on 30 November (21 Hidar on the Ethiopian calendar).

Tigray War
In mid-December 2020 during the Tigray War, according to Europe External Programme with Africa (EEPA), 750 people who were hiding in the church were brought out and killed by militants. Locals suspected an intention to steal the Ark of the Covenant, but no evidence of that allegations has been found to date.

A more recent report by Amnesty International points to war crimes committed by Eritrean troops in and around Aksum, and de facto desacralisation of the church, but these reports have not been confirmed by independent investigation or by the Ethiopian Human Rights Commission.

The Ethiopian government has blocked forensic investigators from accessing the church grounds.

Ark of the Covenant
The Church of Saint Mary of Zion claims to contain the original Ark of the Covenant.

Accordingly, the Ark was moved to the Chapel of the Tablet adjacent to the old church because a divine 'heat' from the Tablets had cracked the stones of its previous inner sanctum. The Ethiopian Empress Menen funded the construction of the new present chapel.

According to pious tradition, the Ark came to Ethiopia with Crown prince Menelik I after he visited his father King Solomon in Jerusalem.

On 9 June 1992, a former professor of Ethiopian Studies at the University of London, Edward Ullendorff, declared that he personally examined the ark contained within the church in 1941 while serving as an officer of the British army. He described the ark as empty, and a “Middle- to late-medieval construction [from] when these were fabricated ad hoc."

At present, only the guardian monk may view the Ark, in accordance with the Biblical accounts of the dangers of doing so for non-Kohanim. This lack of accessibility, and questions about the account as a whole, has led Ethiopians and foreign scholars alike to express doubt about the veracity of the claim. The guardian monk is appointed for life by his predecessor before the predecessor dies. If the incumbent guardian dies without naming a successor, then the monks of the monastery hold an election to select the new guardian. The guardian then is confined to the chapel of the Ark of the Covenant for the rest of his life, praying before it and offering incense.

Burials

 * Tekle Giyorgis I, in the churchyard

Other sources

 * Stuart Munro-Hay (2005), The Quest for the Ark of the Covenant, Ch. 6

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion


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Holland Harbor Light

The Holland Harbor Light, known as Big Red, is located in Park Township, Michigan at the entrance of a channel connecting Lake Michigan with Lake Macatawa, and which gives access to the city of Holland, Michigan.

The lighthouse is on the south side of the channel. There are two modern lights marking the ends of the breakwaters that extend out into the Lake Michigan beyond the lighthouse.

History
After decades of local requests that went unanswered, in 1870 the United States Lighthouse Board finally recommended construction of the first light at Holland Harbor. It was thereupon approved by the U.S. Congress.

Text of the Michigan Historic Site marker:
 * When seeking a location for himself and his Dutch emigrant followers in 1847, the Reverend A. C. Van Raalte was attracted by the potential of using Black Lake (Lake Macatawa) as a harbor. However, the lake's outlet to Lake Michigan was blocked by sandbars and silt. Van Raalte appealed to Congress for help. The channel was surveyed in 1849, but was not successfully opened due to inadequate appropriations. Frustrated, the Dutch settlers dug the channel themselves. On July 1, 1859, the small steamboat Huron put into port. Here, in 1886, the government established the harbor's first lifesaving station. By 1899 the channel had been relocated and harbor work completed. This spurred business and resort expansion. In 1900 over 1,095 schooners, steamers and barges used the harbor.

 * The first lighthouse built at this location was a small, square wooden structure erected in 1872, after the U.S. Congress, appropriated $4,000 to the project. This was in large part due to Senator Thomas Ferry's influence. In 1880 the lighthouse service installed a new light atop a metal pole in a protective cage. The oil lantern was lowered by pulleys for service. At the turn of the century, a steel tower was built for the light and in 1907 the present structure was erected. Named the Holland Harbor South Pierhead Lighthouse, it has a gabled roof that reflects the Dutch influence in the area. The lighthouse, popularly referred to as "Big Red," was automated in 1932. When the U. S. Coast Guard recommended that it be abandoned in 1970, citizens circulated petitions to rescue it. The Holland Harbor Lighthouse Historical Commission was then organized to preserve and restore this landmark.

Except for its color, it is a virtual twin of the Kewaunee Pierhead Light on the Wisconsin side of Lake Michigan.

In 2007, the United States Department of the Interior announced that the Holland Harbor Light would be protected, making it the 12th Michigan lighthouse to have such status.

Accessibility
Public access to Big Red is somewhat limited due to the fact one must cross private property to see the lighthouse up close. However, there are no barriers for walking into the lighthouse area. The best vantage points that are easily accessible to the general public are from across the channel at Holland State Park. As of May 27, 2013 access by foot to the lighthouse is restricted to Tuesdays and Thursdays, from mid-morning to sunset.

title: Holland Harbor Light


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BMW 3 Series (E36)

The third generation of the BMW 3 Series range of compact executive cars is designated under the model code E36, and was produced by the German automaker BMW from 1990 to 2000. The initial models were of the four-door sedan body style, followed by the coupé, convertible, wagon ("Touring"), and eventually hatchback ("Compact").

The E36 was the first 3 Series to be offered in a hatchback body style. It was also the first 3 Series to be available with a six-speed manual transmission (in the 1996 M3), a five-speed automatic transmission, and a four-cylinder diesel engine. The multi-link rear suspension was also a significant upgrade as compared to the previous generations of the 3 Series. All-wheel drive was not available for the E36, unlike the previous (E30) and successive (E46) generations.

The E36 was named in Car and Driver magazine's 10Best list for every year it was on sale.

Following the introduction of its successor, the E46 3 Series in 1998, the E36 began to be phased out and was eventually replaced in 1999.

Development and launch
Development of the E36 began in 1981 and the exterior design was heavily influenced by aerodynamics, specifically the overall wedge shape, headlight covers and smaller wing mirrors. The lead designers were Pinky Lai and Boyke Boyer.

The production version of the E36 was launched in October 1990, with press release in November and market launch in early 1991. The Touring (E36/3) did not go on sale until March 1995, with the Touring version of the previous generation having remained on sale until April 1994 alongside the E36 sedans and coupés. At first, the Touring was only offered in 320i and 328i versions; in July 1995 the 318 tds Touring arrived, followed by the 318i in September.

Body styles
The body styles of the range are:
 * 4-door sedan, produced from 1990 to 1998.
 * 2-door coupé, produced from 1990 to 1999.
 * 2-door convertible, produced from 1993 to 1999. A 4-door Baur "Top Cabriolet" (TC4) conversion was also available.
 * 5-door wagon (marketed as "Touring"), produced from November 1994 to 1999. 105,606 examples were built.
 * 3-door hatchback (see BMW 3 Series Compact), produced from 1994 to 2000.

Design
All models are rear-wheel drive since the E36 was not produced with all-wheel drive (unlike its predecessor and successor). The E36 chassis was all new, using the "Z-axle" multilink suspension proven in the 1989 BMW Z1, and designed with rear toe-in to minimize the oversteering characteristics of the preceding generation. Unlike the other body styles, the hatchback (known as the "E36/5" or "BMW Compact") used a rear semi-trailing arm suspension based on the older E30 instead, in order to save space due to its truncated rear end.

The E36 was produced with the following transmissions:
 * 5-speed manual (1994-1999 M3) Getrag 420G transmission
 * 6-speed manual (1996-1999 M3- except for the United States)
 * 4-speed automatic
 * 5-speed automatic

Available safety equipment included a driver's airbag, passenger airbag (from 1993 production) and side impact airbags in later models, ABS braking and stability control ("ASC +T"). The dashboard was designed to accommodate the passenger side airbag from the beginning, which limited the size of the glove compartment. Available in the sedan and Touring, a rear seat with two integrated children's booster seats was a first for BMW.

Electronic climate control was also available on the E36. In North America, cars equipped with the "Winter Package" also have heated seats and side mirrors.

Petrol
The four-cylinder petrol engines used in the E36 range were initially engines carried over from the previous generation 3 Series: the BMW M40 SOHC engine and the BMW M42 DOHC engine. In 1993, the M40 was replaced by the BMW M43 SOHC engine and the M42 was replaced in 1996 by the BMW M44 DOHC engine. To retain a 50/50 weight distribution (on petrol models), versions fitted with the heavier, six-cylinder engines had the battery relocated to the trunk.

For the six-cylinder models, the E36 was launched with the then-new BMW M50 DOHC petrol engine. In late 1992 the M50TU versions added single-VANOS (variable valve timing), which increased torque (peak power was unchanged). In 1995, the BMW M52 engine replaced the M50TU, resulting in the 328i model replacing the 325i and the addition of a new mid-range 323i model (powered by a 2.5 litre version of the M52).

In 1992, the 3.0 L BMW S50 engine debuted in the E36 M3. In 1995, its capacity was increased to 3.2 L.

Diesel
Initially, the turbocharged straight-six BMW M51 engine was used in the E36 325td model. In 1993, the 325tds model was released, which added an intercooler to the M51. In 1994, the 318tds model was introduced, powered by the four-cylinder BMW M41 turbocharged and intercooled engine. Diesel engines were only available in sedan, touring and compact body styles. The coupe and convertible only had petrol engines.

M3 model

The E36 M3 was launched in 1992 and was powered by the BMW S50 and BMW S52 straight-six engines rather than the four-cylinder units used in the E30. Unlike the predecessor, it was no longer a homologation special and was not developed expressly with competition in mind. It was produced in coupé, sedan, and convertible body styles.

Alpina models

E36-based Alpina production began in 1991 with the release of the Alpina B6 2.8/2, with an upgraded M50-derived engine. A Japanese market exclusive B6 2.8/2 wagon was produced between 1996 and 1998.

In 1993, the 2.8/2 was replaced by the B6 3.0, following the introduction of the 3 litre S50 engine that was used in the new M3 models. Alpina models were now offered in convertible and touring form as well, rather than just in coupe and sedan models. Again in 1996, Alpina introduced the B3 3.2, following the S50 engine's upgrade to 3.2 litres. With the new 3.2 models, Alpinas were now based on the 328i and its 2.8L engine, rather than 325i models. In 1995, the B8 was released. The B8 4.6 was based on the 4 litre V8 from the E34 5-series, put in to a 328i-based shell. BMW V8s had coated bores which meant new blocks had to be cast by BMW specifically for Alpina V8s. Fitting the V8 into the engine bay required numerous adjustments to both the body and engine parts; and even then, it was still a tight fit. The B8 4.6 produced a claimed 333 horsepower and 470 Nm of torque. Production of the B8 4.6 ended in late 1998.

For a short time, Alpina produced the B8 4.0, making 313 horsepower and 410 Nm of torque. Only an estimated 5 models are known to exist, and they were all sold in Japan.

All Alpina models featured Alpina's distinctive 20 spoke rims, as well as optional striping. Alpina models also had special aerodynamic pieces, including an Alpina-branded front lip and rear spoiler. Changes to the interior were also present in Alpina models, including new blue instrument panels, wooden trim, new seats and steering wheel.

E36/5 Compact

The 3 Series Compact range of three-door hatchback models was introduced in 1993, based on a shortened version of the E36 platform. The model code for the hatchback body style is "E36/5" and the model range consisted of 316i, 316g, 318ti, 323ti, and 318tds.

Z3 Roadster/Coupé
A modified version of the E36 platform was used for the 1996-2002 Z3 roadster (model code E36/7) and coupé (model code E36/8).

North American model range
The North American model range consisted of the models listed below. The 318i models were powered by the BMW M42 engine until 1995, and later the BMW M44 engine which was used in the 318is model sold in other countries. In North America, the "is" suffix was applied to the coupés.

European model range
The European model range had more variety than the North American and included diesel engines and the station wagon "Touring" body styles. The European market range had more low-range models than the North American, for example, the 316i and 318i had 8-valve SOHC engines. The M3 was also more expensive and had more horsepower than the North American version.

Production
The E36 was produced in Munich, Germany; Regensburg, Germany; Rosslyn, South Africa; and Spartanburg County, South Carolina, United States.

Local assembly of complete knock-down (CKD) kits was used for cars sold in Uruguay (until 1991), Egypt, Mexico, and Thailand. The E36 was also built as CKD kits in the Philippines starting from 1994 up until 1997, where production halted due to the 1997 Asian financial crisis.

Motorsports
Joachim Winkelhock competed in the British Touring Car Championship with the 318i and 320i from 1993 to 1995, winning the title in 1993. In the same year, Johnny Cecotto won the German ADAC GT Cup driving an E36 M3. Cecotto won the Super Tourenwagen Cup for BMW in 1994 and 1998, while Winkelhock won in 1995. Steve Soper won the Japanese Touring Car Championship in 1995 with a works BMW 318i.

Geoff Brabham and his younger brother David Brabham won the 1997 AMP Bathurst 1000 at the Mount Panorama Circuit in Bathurst, Australia driving a Super Touring BMW 320i for BMW Motorsport Australia.

The 1998 24 Hours Nürburgring was won by a diesel-engined car for the first time – a BMW E36 320d, aided by its diesel engine requiring fewer fuel stops than rivals.

title: BMW 3 Series (E36)


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BMW 3 Series (E46)

The BMW 3 Series (E46) is the fourth generation of the BMW 3 Series range of compact executive cars manufactured by German automaker BMW. Produced from 1997 to 2006, it was the successor to the E36 3 Series, which ceased production in 2000. It was introduced in November 1997, and available in sedan, coupé, convertible, station wagon and hatchback body styles. The latter has been marketed as the 3 Series Compact.

The M3 performance model was introduced in June 2000 with a 2-door coupé body style, followed by the convertible counterpart in April 2001. The M3 is powered by the BMW S54 straight-six engine with either a 6-speed manual or a 6-speed SMG-II automated manual transmission.

The E46 line-up was phased out starting from late 2004, following the introduction of the E90 3 Series sedans. However, the E46 coupé and convertible body styles remained in production until August 2006.

Development

In 1993, the development programme for the E46 began under the lead of chief engineer Wolfgang Ziebart and head of R&D Wolfgang Reitzle. In late 1993, design work began under the lead of chief designer Chris Bangle and continued into 1995. In May 1995, the general exterior design of the E46 by Erik Goplen of DesignworksUSA was approved and as a result DesignworksUSA was contracted by BMW to work alongside BMW Group's in-house design team to create the exterior bodywork for the 3 Series range in February 1996. The design team put an emphasis on improving aerodynamics and increasing the car's aggressive stance. Design patents were filed in Germany on 16 July 1997 and in the US on 16 January 1998.

Chris Bangle and Wolfgang Reitzle were responsible through 1995 for the production sedan's exterior, as evident in the 1997 design patent. Production development of the sedan took 24 months following design freeze and was 31 months from executive board styling approval in 1995 to its start of series production in December 1997. Erik Goplen designed the production coupé, convertible and station wagon during between 1996 and 1997. The E46 sedan was unveiled via press release on 11 November 1997 and was launched on the market at the end of April 1998 with customer deliveries.

Chassis
The body shell of the E46 was claimed by BMW to be 70% more rigid than its E36 predecessor. Aluminium was used for an increased quantity of suspension components, in order to decrease unsprung mass. However, with a curb weight of 1450 kg, the E46 328ci is 55 kg heavier than the E36 equivalent.

In tune with BMW's core values regarding handling dynamics, the E46 was initially available with a rear-wheel drive layout and a 50/50 weight distribution. All-wheel drive, which was last available in the 3 Series in 1991, was reintroduced for the E46 on the 325xi, 330xi and 330xd models.

Electronics
The electronic components in the E46 are more integrated than previous generations of 3 Series, including the use of a CAN bus system. Drivetrain information (such as engine, transmission and stability control) is communicated using the CAN bus. Vehicle electronics (such as the radio, navigation, television and telecommunications) can communicate to each other via the K-bus.

The E46 was the first 3 Series to be available with an engine using Valvetronic (variable valve lift). Various electronic features were also introduced to the 3 Series in the E46 generation, including satellite navigation, electronic brake-force distribution, rain-sensing wipers and LED tail-lights.

Production and sales
The E46 was produced in Germany (Leipzig, Munich and Regensburg) and in South Africa (Rosslyn). Local assembly of complete knock-down (CKD) kits was used for cars sold in China, Egypt, Indonesia, Malaysia, Mexico, Thailand and Russia.

The highest selling year for the E46 chassis was 2002, when 561,249 vehicles were sold worldwide.

Body styles
The body styles of the range are:

 * 4-door sedan/saloon (E46/4), produced from December 1997 to May 2005 (CKD production continued until December 2005). 1,918,984 examples built (includes 54,528 CKD).
 * 2-door coupé (E46/2), produced from December 1998 to May 2006. 443,264 examples built.
 * Cabriolet – 2-door convertible (E46/2C), produced from December 1999 to November 2006. 277,146 examples built.
 * Touring – 5-door wagon/estate (E46/3), produced from January 1999 to May 2005. 428,061 examples built.
 * Compact – 3-door hatchback (E46/5), produced from April 2000 to December 2004. 199,430 examples built.

3 Series Compact (E46/5)

The shorter three-door hatchback version of the E46 was marketed as the BMW 3 Series Compact. The exterior styling has several differences to the rest of the E46 3 Series range, notably the distinctive headlights and tail-lights. Mechanically, the Compact shares many elements with the rest of the E46 range, however the steering rack has a faster ratio.

Engines
Factory specifications are listed below. Sources:
 * Coupé and convertible models were badged as "Ci (petrol) or Cd (diesel)", and all-wheel drive models were badged as "Xi (petrol) or Xd (diesel)".
 * Coupé and convertible models were badged as "Ci (petrol) or Cd (diesel)", and all-wheel drive models were badged as "Xi (petrol) or Xd (diesel)".
 * Coupé and convertible models were badged as "Ci (petrol) or Cd (diesel)", and all-wheel drive models were badged as "Xi (petrol) or Xd (diesel)".
 * Coupé and convertible models were badged as "Ci (petrol) or Cd (diesel)", and all-wheel drive models were badged as "Xi (petrol) or Xd (diesel)".
 * Coupé and convertible models were badged as "Ci (petrol) or Cd (diesel)", and all-wheel drive models were badged as "Xi (petrol) or Xd (diesel)".
 * Coupé and convertible models were badged as "Ci (petrol) or Cd (diesel)", and all-wheel drive models were badged as "Xi (petrol) or Xd (diesel)".
 * Coupé and convertible models were badged as "Ci (petrol) or Cd (diesel)", and all-wheel drive models were badged as "Xi (petrol) or Xd (diesel)".
 * Coupé and convertible models were badged as "Ci (petrol) or Cd (diesel)", and all-wheel drive models were badged as "Xi (petrol) or Xd (diesel)".
 * Coupé and convertible models were badged as "Ci (petrol) or Cd (diesel)", and all-wheel drive models were badged as "Xi (petrol) or Xd (diesel)".
 * Coupé and convertible models were badged as "Ci (petrol) or Cd (diesel)", and all-wheel drive models were badged as "Xi (petrol) or Xd (diesel)".
 * Coupé and convertible models were badged as "Ci (petrol) or Cd (diesel)", and all-wheel drive models were badged as "Xi (petrol) or Xd (diesel)".
 * Coupé and convertible models were badged as "Ci (petrol) or Cd (diesel)", and all-wheel drive models were badged as "Xi (petrol) or Xd (diesel)".
 * Coupé and convertible models were badged as "Ci (petrol) or Cd (diesel)", and all-wheel drive models were badged as "Xi (petrol) or Xd (diesel)".
 * Coupé and convertible models were badged as "Ci (petrol) or Cd (diesel)", and all-wheel drive models were badged as "Xi (petrol) or Xd (diesel)".
 * Coupé and convertible models were badged as "Ci (petrol) or Cd (diesel)", and all-wheel drive models were badged as "Xi (petrol) or Xd (diesel)".
 * Coupé and convertible models were badged as "Ci (petrol) or Cd (diesel)", and all-wheel drive models were badged as "Xi (petrol) or Xd (diesel)".
 * Coupé and convertible models were badged as "Ci (petrol) or Cd (diesel)", and all-wheel drive models were badged as "Xi (petrol) or Xd (diesel)".
 * Coupé and convertible models were badged as "Ci (petrol) or Cd (diesel)", and all-wheel drive models were badged as "Xi (petrol) or Xd (diesel)".
 * Coupé and convertible models were badged as "Ci (petrol) or Cd (diesel)", and all-wheel drive models were badged as "Xi (petrol) or Xd (diesel)".
 * Coupé and convertible models were badged as "Ci (petrol) or Cd (diesel)", and all-wheel drive models were badged as "Xi (petrol) or Xd (diesel)".
 * Coupé and convertible models were badged as "Ci (petrol) or Cd (diesel)", and all-wheel drive models were badged as "Xi (petrol) or Xd (diesel)".
 * Coupé and convertible models were badged as "Ci (petrol) or Cd (diesel)", and all-wheel drive models were badged as "Xi (petrol) or Xd (diesel)".
 * Coupé and convertible models were badged as "Ci (petrol) or Cd (diesel)", and all-wheel drive models were badged as "Xi (petrol) or Xd (diesel)".
 * Coupé and convertible models were badged as "Ci (petrol) or Cd (diesel)", and all-wheel drive models were badged as "Xi (petrol) or Xd (diesel)".

Manual transmissions

 * 5-speed ZF S5-39 (325xi, 330xi)
 * 5-speed Getrag 250G (316i, 318i, 320i, 323i, 325i )
 * 5 speed ZF S5-31 (320d, 328Ci, 330i, 330Ci, 325xi)
 * 6-speed ZF S6-37 (325ti, 330i, 330Ci, 320d, 320Cd)
 * 6-speed ZF S6-53 (330d, 330 Cd)
 * 6-speed Getrag 420G (M3)

Automatic transmissions

 * 4-speed GM 4L30-E (A4S270R)
 * 5-speed GM 5L40-E (A5S360R)
 * 5-speed GM 5L40-E (A5S390R)
 * 5-speed ZF 5HP19 (A5S325Z) (330i has a more reinforced 5HP19 compared to 320/325i)
 * 5-speed GM 5L50-E (A5S390R)
 * 6-speed SMG-II
 * 6-speed Non-M SMG-I

M3

The E46 M3 was introduced in October 2000, available with the 3.2-litre S54 M-tuned engine. It was offered in coupé and convertible body styles.

The M3's S54 engine has a redline of 8,000 rpm. As with most M engines, the S54 has 6 individual throttle bodies, in this case electronically operated (drive-by-wire throttle). The transmission options for the M3 were a 6-speed manual or the 6-speed "SMG-II" automated manual transmission.

There was also a lighter and faster M3 CSL model; CSL stands for Coupé Sport Leichtbau ("Coupé Sport Lightweight). Weight was reduced by removing equipment and replacing the roof, door panel, and center console with carbon fiber pieces.

M3 GTR road car

In order for the M3 GTR race car to compete in the American Le Mans Series, BMW produced 10 examples of the "M3 GTR Straßen Version" (street version) in 2001. As per the race M3 GTR, the roadgoing Version was powered by the BMW P60B40 4.0 L V8 engine which was slightly detuned and generated a maximum power output of 380 hp at 7,000 rpm. Power was delivered to the rear wheels via a race type 6-speed dual clutch sequential transmission with M locking differential. The engine featured dry sump lubrication as its racing counterpart and bigger radiators.

The stiffer chassis and suspension system were a carryover from the race version. The car was lowered further than a standard M3 and featured additional strut braces between the firewall and strut towers as well as between the right shock towers. The redesigned front and rear fascias and the rear wing optimised aerodynamics.

The roof, the hood, the rear wing and front and rear fascias were made from carbon-fibre in order to reduce weight. Notable changes made to the interior included leather Recaro bucket seats, removal of rear seats and special M3 GTR sill plates.

Alpina models

The Alpina "B3 3.3" and "B3 S" were based on the E46 and were powered by inline-six petrol engines.

Performance package (ZHP)

The Performance Package was an option sold in North America, which is commonly referred to by its order code in the United States, ZHP (the order code in Canada was ZAM). It was available for 330i sedans from model years 2003 to 2005, and available for 330ci coupés and convertibles from 2004 to 2006. It included various aesthetic changes over the regular 3 series, as well as functional and mechanical enhancements.

The ZHP was equipped with sportier camshafts and revised engine tuning to increase power output from 225 to 235 hp as well as a shorter final drive gear ratio, and a corresponding increase in redline from 6,500 rpm to 6,800 rpm. Suspension was modified over the standard suspension with firmer springs and dampers, larger anti-roll bars, stronger front control arm ball joints, a lower ride height, heavy duty steering rack, and slightly more negative camber. Car and Driver magazine track-tested the car, which recorded a 0–60 mph acceleration time of 5.6 seconds and a 1/4 mile time of 14.3 seconds.

325i SULEV

In some parts of the United States, BMW sold a version of the 325i which met the super ultra low emission vehicle (SULEV) emissions standards. California, New York, and Massachusetts received the SULEV E46's in 2003, and Vermont in 2004. They utilised a variant of the M54 engine named the BMW M56. The M56 meets SULEV standards, as well as partial zero emission vehicle (PZEV) and zero evaporative emissions requirements. The M56 is claimed to have identical power output as its M54 counterpart.

320Ci/325Ci/330Ci Clubsport
The Clubsport package was available only for the 320Ci/325Ci/330Ci M-Sport models in 2002 and came in these colors: Estoril Blue, Velvet Blue, Titanium Silver and Carbon Black. The package removed 20 kg insulation materials, added an optional rear M spoiler and two spoiler lips on the front bumper, and chromed exhaust tailpipes. Style 71, M-Double Spoke Split rim wheels were standard while interior equipment included M short gear shift, aluminum or black "Alu-Tech" trims, silver rings on cluster, door sills with "M Clubsport" letters, and an interior finished in half-leather and half-fabric "M Texture" cloth. The Clubsport was offered with the 5/6-Speed manual, 6-Speed SMG, or 5-Speed Steptronic transmissions.

2000

 * Electronic Stability Control ("Dynamic Stability Control") introduced, replacing the previous ASC+T traction control system.
 * Manual shift mode ("Steptronic") added to automatic transmissions

2001 facelift
In September 2001, the facelift versions of the sedan and Touring were released for the 2002 model year.
 * 325i (M54 engine) replaced 323i (M52TÜ engine).
 * 330i (M54 engine) replaced 328i (M52TÜ engine).
 * 320d engine upgraded from M47 to M47TÜ.
 * Display for navigation system upgraded to widescreen.
 * Sedan and Touring received revised headlights, tail-lights, grille, hood, front fenders and front bumpers.
 * Single Xenon headlights for 2001 and in 2002 Xenon were installed for high-beam lamps; Bi-Xenon headlights for 2002.

2003
In March 2003, the facelift versions of the coupe and convertible models (except M3) were released for the 2004 model year.
 * Navigation system upgraded to Mark IV version, which is DVD-based.
 * Auxiliary input for sound system became available.
 * SULEV engine option (M56) became available for 325 models with automatic transmission.
 * Manual transmission for 330 models upgraded from 5-speed to 6-speed.
 * Coupes and convertibles received revised headlights, tail-lights (LED), grille, hood and front bumper.
 * Adaptive headlights available for coupé and convertible models
 * 330d engine upgraded from M57 to M57TÜ.

Motorsport
Andy Priaulx won the 2004 European Touring Car Championship season and 2005 World Touring Car Championship season championships driving a 320i. Franz Engstler won the 2006 Asian Touring Car Championship season in a 320i.

The E46 has also competed in the British, European and Russian touring car championships.

In the United States, the National Auto Sport Association and BMW Car Club of America (BMW CCA) organized a "Spec E46" amateur racing series. The Spec E46 cars were built to a standard with limited modifications, to create a level playing field and increased competition between drivers. By mid-2020, Spec E46 had become one of BMW CCA's three largest racing classes.

title: BMW 3 Series (E46)