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Interwar period

Post WWI Conflict Map In New-York Tribune November 9 1919 Page 26.jpg'' printed this map on 9 November 1919, of the armed conflicts in Central and Eastern Europe in 1919, one year after World War I had ended: 1. Baltic States War of Independence and Russian Civil War

2. White Army of Yudenich

3. North Russia intervention

4. White Army of Kolchak: Siberia

5. Denikin: White Army

6. Petliura: Ukrainian directorate

7. Polish–Soviet War

8. Silesia tension between the Poles and Germans.

9. Romanian occupation of Hungary

10. Gabriele D'Annunzio seizes Fiume, creates the Italian Regency of Carnaro

11. Promiscuous fighting in Albania

12. Turkish War of Independence]]

In the history of the 20th century, the interwar period (or interbellum) lasted from 11   November 1918 to 1    September 1939 (20    years, 9    months, 21    days) – from the end of World War I (WWI) to the beginning of  World War II (WWII). It was relatively short, yet featured many social, political, military, and economic changes throughout the world. Petroleum-based energy production and associated mechanisation led to the prosperous Roaring Twenties, a time of social and economic mobility for the middle class. Automobiles, electric lighting, radio, and more became common among populations in the first world. The era's indulgences were followed by the Great Depression, an unprecedented worldwide economic downturn that severely damaged many of the world's largest economies.

Politically, the era coincided with the rise of communism, starting in Russia with the October Revolution and Russian Civil War, at the end of WWI, and ended with the rise of fascism, particularly in Germany and Italy. China was in the midst of a half-century of instability and the Chinese Civil War between the Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist Party. The empires of Britain, France, and others faced challenges as imperialism was increasingly viewed negatively and independence movements emerged in many colonies; in Europe, after protracted low-level fighting most of Ireland became independent.

The Russian, Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian, and German Empires were dismantled, with the Ottoman territories and German colonies redistributed among the Allies, chiefly Britain and France. The western parts of the Russian Empire, Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland became independent nations in their own right, and Bessarabia (now Moldova and parts of Ukraine) chose to reunify with Romania.

In Russia, the Bolsheviks managed to regain control of Belarus and Ukraine, Central Asia, and the Caucasus, forming the Soviet Union. In the Near East, Egypt and Iraq gained independence. During the Great Depression, countries in Latin America nationalised many foreign companies (most of which belonged to the United States) in a bid to strengthen their own economies. The territorial ambitions of the Soviets, Japanese, Italians, and Germans led to the expansion of their domains.

Militarily, the period would see a markedly rapid advance in technology which, alongside lessons learned from WWI, would catalyze new strategic and tactical innovations. While the period would largely see a continuation of the development of the technologies pioneered in WWI, debates emerged as to the most effective use of these advancements. On land, discussions focused on how armoured, mechanized, and motorized forces should be employed, particularly in-relation to the 'traditional' branches of the regular infantry, horse cavalry, and artillery. In the air, the question of allocating air forces to strategic bombing versus dedicating such forces to frontline close air support was the primary contention, with some arguing that interceptor development was outpacing bombers, and others maintaining that "the bomber will always get through." In the naval sphere, the primary question was whether battleships would maintain their dominance of the seas or be rendered virtually obsolete by naval aviation. The military deliberations and controversies characteristic of the interwar period would ultimately find resolution via the events of WWII, which served as a foundation for many of the tenets, doctrines, and strategies of modern warfare. Overall, the innovations of WWI and the interwar period would see a shift away from 'traditional' line- and front-based warfare and towards a significantly more mobile, mechanized, and asymmetric form of combat.

Turmoil in Europe
Following the Armistice of Compiègne on 11 November 1918 that ended World War I, the years 1918–1924 were marked by turmoil as the Russian Civil War continued to rage on, and Eastern Europe struggled to recover from the devastation of the First World War and the destabilising effects of not just the collapse of the Russian Empire, but the destruction of the German, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman Empires, as well. There were numerous new or restored countries in Southern, Central, and Eastern Europe, some small in size, such as Lithuania and Latvia, and some larger, such as Poland and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes. The United States gained dominance in world finance. Thus, when Germany could no longer afford war reparations to Britain, France and other former members of the Entente, the Americans came up with the Dawes Plan and Wall Street invested heavily in Germany, which repaid its reparations to nations that, in turn, used the dollars to pay off their war debts to Washington. By the middle of the decade, prosperity was widespread, with the second half of the decade known as the Roaring Twenties.

International relations
The important stages of interwar diplomacy and international relations included resolutions of wartime issues, such as reparations owed by Germany and boundaries; American involvement in European finances and disarmament projects; the expectations and failures of the League of Nations; the relationships of the new countries to the old; the distrustful relations of the Soviet Union to the capitalist world; peace and disarmament efforts; responses to the Great Depression starting in 1929; the collapse of world trade; the collapse of democratic regimes one by one; the growth of efforts at economic autarky; Japanese aggressiveness toward China, occupying large amounts of Chinese land, as well as border disputes between the Soviet Union and Japan, leading to multiple clashes along the Soviet and Japanese occupied Manchurian border; fascist diplomacy, including the aggressive moves by Mussolini's Italy and Hitler's Germany; the Spanish Civil War; Italy's invasion and occupation of Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in the Horn of Africa; the appeasement of Germany's expansionist moves against the German-speaking nation of Austria, the region inhabited by ethnic Germans called the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia, the remilitarisation of the League of Nations demilitarised zone of the German Rhineland region, and the last, desperate stages of rearmament as the Second World War increasingly loomed.

Disarmament was a very popular public policy. However, the League of Nations played little role in this effort, with the United States and Britain taking the lead. U.S. Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes sponsored the Washington Naval Conference of 1921 in determining how many capital ships each major country was allowed. The new allocations were actually followed and there were no naval races in the 1920s. Britain played a leading role in the 1927 Geneva Naval Conference and the 1930 London Conference that led to the London Naval Treaty, which added cruisers and submarines to the list of ship allocations. However the refusal of Japan, Germany, Italy and the USSR to go along with this led to the meaningless Second London Naval Treaty of 1936. Naval disarmament had collapsed and the issue became rearming for a war against Germany and Japan.

Roaring Twenties

The Roaring Twenties highlighted novel and highly visible social and cultural trends and innovations. These trends, made possible by sustained economic prosperity, were most visible in major cities like New York City, Chicago, Paris, Berlin, and London. The Jazz Age began and Art Deco peaked. For women, knee-length skirts and dresses became socially acceptable, as did bobbed hair with a Marcel wave. The young women who pioneered these trends were called "flappers". Not all was new: "normalcy" returned to politics in the wake of hyper-emotional wartime passions in the United States, France, and Germany. The leftist revolutions in Finland, Poland, Germany, Austria, Hungary, and Spain were defeated by conservatives, but succeeded in Russia, which became the base for Soviet communism and Marxism–Leninism. In Italy, the National Fascist Party came to power under Benito Mussolini after threatening a March on Rome in 1922.

Most independent countries enacted women's suffrage in the interwar era, including Canada in 1917 (though Quebec held out longer), Britain in 1918, and the United States in 1920. There were a few major countries that held out until after the Second World War (such as France, Switzerland, and Portugal). Leslie Hume argues: "The women's contribution to the war effort combined with failures of the previous systems' of Government made it more difficult than hitherto to maintain that women were, both by constitution and temperament, unfit to vote. If women could work in munitions factories, it seemed both ungrateful and illogical to deny them a place in the polling booth. But the vote was much more than simply a reward for war work; the point was that women's participation in the war helped to dispel the fears that surrounded women's entry into the public arena."

In Europe, according to Derek Aldcroft and Steven Morewood, "Nearly all countries registered some economic progress in the 1920s and most of them managed to regain or surpass their pre-war income and production levels by the end of the decade." The Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, and Greece did especially well, while Eastern Europe did poorly, due to the First World War and Russian Civil War. In advanced economies the prosperity reached middle class households and many in the working class with radio, automobiles, telephones, and electric lighting and appliances. There was unprecedented industrial growth, accelerated consumer demand and aspirations, and significant changes in lifestyle and culture. The media began to focus on celebrities, especially sports heroes and movie stars. Major cities built large sports stadiums for the fans, in addition to palatial cinemas. The mechanisation of agriculture continued apace, producing an expansion of output that lowered prices, and made many farm workers redundant. Often they moved to nearby industrial towns and cities.

Great Depression

The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression that took place after 1929. The timing varied across nations; in most countries it started in 1929 and lasted until the late 1930s. It was the longest, deepest, and most widespread depression of the 20th century. The depression originated in the United States and became worldwide news with the stock market crash of 29 October 1929 (known as Black Tuesday). Between 1929 and 1932, worldwide GDP fell by an estimated 15%. By comparison, worldwide GDP fell by less than 1% from 2008 to 2009 during the Great Recession. Some economies started to recover by the mid-1930s. However, in many countries, the negative effects of the Great Depression lasted until the beginning of World War II.

The Great Depression had devastating effects in countries both rich and poor. Personal income, tax revenue, profits, and prices dropped, while international trade plunged by more than 50%. Unemployment in the United States rose to 25% and in some countries rose as high as 33%. Prices fell sharply, especially for mining and agricultural commodities. Business profits fell sharply as well, with a sharp reduction in new business starts.

Cities all around the world were hit hard, especially those dependent on heavy industry. Construction was virtually halted in many countries. Farming communities and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by about 60%. Facing plummeting demand with few alternative sources of jobs, areas dependent on primary sector industries such as mining and logging suffered the most.

The Weimar Republic in Germany gave way to two episodes of political and economic turmoil, the first culminated in the German hyperinflation of 1923 and the failed Beer Hall Putsch of that same year. The second convulsion, brought on by the worldwide depression and Germany's disastrous monetary policies, resulted in the further rise of Nazism. In Asia, Japan became an ever more assertive power, especially with regard to China.

The rise of fascism

Democracy and prosperity largely went together in the 1920s. Economic disaster led to a distrust in the effectiveness of democracy and its collapse in much of Europe and Latin America, including the Baltic and Balkan countries, Poland, Spain, and Portugal. Powerful expansionary anti-democratic regimes emerged in Italy, Japan, and Germany.

Fascism took control of the Kingdom of Italy in 1922; as the Great Depression worsened, Nazism emerged victorious in Germany, fascism spread to many other countries in Europe, and also played a major role in several countries in Latin America. Fascist parties sprang up, attuned to local right-wing traditions, but also possessing common features that typically included extreme militaristic nationalism, a desire for economic self-containment, threats and aggression toward neighbouring countries, oppression of minorities, a ridicule of democracy while using its techniques to mobilise an angry middle-class base, and a disgust with cultural liberalism. Fascists believed in power, violence, male superiority, and a "natural" hierarchy, often led by dictators such as Benito Mussolini or Adolf Hitler. Fascism in power meant that liberalism and human rights were discarded, and individual pursuits and values were subordinated to what the party decided was best.

Empire of Japan

The Japanese modelled their industrial economy closely on the most advanced Western European models. They started with textiles, railways, and shipping, expanding to electricity and machinery. The most serious weakness was a shortage of raw materials. Industry ran short of copper, and coal became a net importer. A deep flaw in the aggressive military strategy was a heavy dependence on imports including 100 per cent of the aluminium, 85 per cent of the iron ore, and especially 79 per cent of the oil supplies. It was one thing to go to war with China or Russia, but quite another to be in conflict with the key suppliers, especially the United States, Britain, and the Netherlands, of oil and iron.

Japan joined the Allies of the First World War to make territorial gains. Together with the British Empire, it divided up Germany's territories scattered in the Pacific and on the Chinese coast; they did not amount to very much. The other Allies pushed back hard against Japan's efforts to dominate China through the Twenty-One Demands of 1915. Its occupation of Siberia proved unproductive. Japan's wartime diplomacy and limited military action had produced few results, and at the Paris Versailles peace conference at the end of the war, Japan was frustrated in its ambitions. At the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, its Racial Equality Proposal led to increasing diplomatic isolation. The 1902 alliance with Britain was not renewed in 1922 because of heavy pressure on Britain from Canada and the United States. In the 1920s Japanese diplomacy was rooted in a largely liberal democratic political system, and favoured internationalism. By 1930, however, Japan was rapidly reversing itself, rejecting democracy at home, as the Army seized more and more power, and rejecting internationalism and liberalism. By the late 1930s it had joined the Axis military alliance with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy.

In 1930, the London disarmament conference angered the Imperial Japanese Armed Forces. The Imperial Japanese Navy demanded parity with the United States, Britain and France, but was rejected and the conference kept the 1921 ratios. Japan was required to scrap a capital ship. Extremists assassinated Japanese Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi in the May 15 Incident and the military took more power, leading to rapid democratic backsliding.

Japan seizes Manchuria
In September 1931, the Japanese Kwantung Army—acting on its own without government approval—seized control of Manchuria, an anarchic area that China had not controlled in decades. It created the puppet government of Manchukuo. Britain and France effectively controlled the League of Nations, which issued the Lytton Report in 1932, saying that Japan had genuine grievances, but it acted illegally in seizing the entire province. Japan quit the League, and Britain and France took no action. US Secretary of State Henry L. Stimson announced that the United States would also not recognise Japan's conquest as legitimate. Germany welcomed Japan's actions.

Towards the conquest of China

The civilian government in Tokyo tried to minimise the Army's aggression in Manchuria, and announced it was withdrawing. On the contrary, the Army completed the conquest of Manchuria, and the civilian cabinet resigned. The political parties were divided on the issue of military expansion. Prime Minister Tsuyoshi tried to negotiate with China but was assassinated in the May 15 Incident in 1932, which ushered in an era of nationalism and militarism led by the Imperial Japanese Army and supported by other right-wing societies. The IJA's nationalism ended civilian rule in Japan until after 1945.

The Army, however, was itself divided into cliques and factions with different strategic viewpoints. One faction viewed the Soviet Union as the main enemy; the other sought to build a mighty empire based in Manchuria and northern China. The Navy, while smaller and less influential, was also factionalised. Large-scale warfare, known as the Second Sino-Japanese War, began in August 1937, with naval and infantry attacks focused on Shanghai, which quickly spread to other major cities. There were numerous large-scale atrocities against Chinese civilians, such as the Nanjing massacre in December 1937, with mass murder and mass rape. By 1939 military lines had stabilised, with Japan in control of almost all of the major Chinese cities and industrial areas. A puppet government was set up. In the U.S., government and public opinion—even including those who were isolationist regarding Europe—was resolutely opposed to Japan and gave strong support to China. Meanwhile, the Japanese Army fared badly in large battles with the Soviet Red Army in Mongolia at the Battles of Khalkhin Gol in summer 1939. The USSR was too powerful. Tokyo and Moscow signed a nonaggression treaty in April 1941, as the militarists turned their attention to the European colonies to the south which had urgently-needed oil fields.

Spanish Civil War (1936–1939)
To one degree or another, Spain had been unstable politically for centuries, and in 1936–1939 was wracked by one of the bloodiest civil wars of the 20th century. The real importance comes from outside countries. In Spain the conservative and Catholic elements and the army revolted against the newly elected government of the Second Spanish Republic, and full-scale civil war erupted. Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany gave munitions and strong military units to the rebel Nationalist faction, led by General Francisco Franco. The Republican (or "Loyalist") government, was on the defensive, but it received significant help from the Soviet Union and Mexico. Led by Great Britain and France, and including the United States, most countries remained neutral and refused to provide armaments to either side. The powerful fear was that this localised conflict would escalate into a European conflagration that no one wanted.

The Spanish Civil War was marked by numerous small battles and sieges, and many atrocities, until the Nationalists won in 1939 by overwhelming the Republican forces. The Soviet Union provided armaments but never enough to equip the heterogeneous government militias and the "International Brigades" of outside far-left volunteers. The civil war did not escalate into a larger conflict, but did become a worldwide ideological battleground that pitted all the Communists and many socialists and liberals against Catholics, conservatives and fascists. Worldwide there was a decline in pacifism and a growing sense that another world war was imminent, and that it would be worth fighting for.

Great Britain and British Empire

The changing world order that the war had brought about, in particular the growth of the United States and Japan as naval powers, and the rise of independence movements in India and Ireland, caused a major reassessment of British imperial policy. Forced to choose between alignment with the United States or Japan, Britain opted not to renew the Anglo-Japanese Alliance and instead signed the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty, in which Britain accepted naval parity with the United States. The issue of the empire's security was a serious concern in Britain, as it was vital to the British pride, its finance, and its trade-oriented economy.

India strongly supported the Empire in the First World War. It expected a reward, but failed to get self-government as the government was still kept in control of British hands and feared another rebellion like that of 1857. The Government of India Act 1919 failed to satisfy demand for self-rule. Mounting tension, particularly in the Punjab region, culminated in the Amritsar Massacre in 1919. Indian nationalism surged and centred in the Congress Party led by Mohandas Gandhi. In Britain, public opinion was divided over the morality of the massacre between those who saw it as having saved India from anarchy and those who viewed it with revulsion.

Egypt had been under de facto British control since the 1880s, despite its nominal ownership by the Ottoman Empire. In 1922, the Kingdom of Egypt was granted formal independence, though it continued to be a client state following British guidance. Egypt joined the League of Nations. Egypt's King Fuad and his son King Farouk and their conservative allies stayed in power with lavish lifestyles thanks to an informal alliance with Britain who would protect them from both secular and Muslim radicalism. Mandatory Iraq, a British mandate since 1920, gained official independence as the Kingdom of Iraq in 1932 when King Faisal agreed to British terms of a military alliance and an assured flow of oil.

In Palestine, Britain was presented with the problem of mediating between the Palestinian Arabs and increasing numbers of Jewish settlers. The Balfour Declaration, which had been incorporated into the terms of the mandate, stated that a national home for the Jewish people would be established in Palestine, and Jewish immigration allowed up to a limit that would be determined by the mandatory power. This led to increasing conflict with the Arab population, who openly revolted in 1936. As the threat of war with Germany increased during the 1930s, Britain judged the support of Arabs as more important than the establishment of a Jewish homeland, and shifted to a pro-Arab stance, limiting Jewish immigration and in turn triggering a Jewish insurgency.

The Dominions (Canada, Newfoundland, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and the Irish Free State) were self-governing and gained semi-independence in the World War, while Britain still controlled foreign policy and defence in all except Ireland. The right of the Dominions to set their own foreign policy was recognised in 1923 and formalised by the 1931 Statute of Westminster. The Irish Free State effectively broke all ties with Britain in 1937, leaving the Commonwealth and becoming an independent republic.

French Empire

French census statistics from 1938 show an imperial population with France at over 150 million people, outside of France itself, of 102.8 million people living on 13.5 million square kilometers. Of the total population, 64.7 million lived in Africa and 31.2 million lived in Asia; 900,000 lived in the French West Indies or islands in the South Pacific. The largest colonies were French Indochina with 26.8 million (in five separate colonies), French Algeria with 6.6 million, the French protectorate in Morocco, with 5.4 million, and French West Africa with 35.2 million in nine colonies. The total includes 1.9 million Europeans, and 350,000 "assimilated" natives.

Revolt in North Africa against Spain and France
The Berber independence leader Abd el-Krim (1882–1963) organised armed resistance against the Spanish and French for control of Morocco. The Spanish had faced unrest off and on from the 1890s, but in 1921, Spanish forces were massacred at the Battle of Annual. El-Krim founded an independent Rif Republic that operated until 1926, but had no international recognition. Eventually, France and Spain agreed to end the revolt. They sent in 200,000 soldiers, forcing el-Krim to surrender in 1926; he was exiled in the Pacific until 1947. Morocco was now pacified, and became the base from which Spanish Nationalists would launch their rebellion against the Spanish Republic in 1936.

Weimar Republic

The humiliating peace terms in the Treaty of Versailles provoked bitter indignation throughout Germany, and seriously weakened the new democratic regime. The Treaty stripped Germany of all of its overseas colonies, of Alsace–Lorraine, and of predominantly Polish districts. The Allied armies occupied industrial sectors in western Germany including the Rhineland, and Germany was not allowed to have a real army, navy, or air force. Reparations were demanded, especially by France, involving shipments of raw materials, as well as annual payments.

When Germany defaulted on its reparation payments, French and Belgian troops occupied the heavily industrialised Ruhr district (January 1923). The German government encouraged the population of the Ruhr to passive resistance: shops would not sell goods to the foreign soldiers, coal mines would not dig for the foreign troops, trams in which members of the occupation army had taken seat would be left abandoned in the middle of the street. The German government printed vast quantities of paper money, causing hyperinflation, which also damaged the French economy. The passive resistance proved effective, insofar as the occupation became a loss-making deal for the French government. But the hyperinflation caused many prudent savers to lose all the money they had saved. Weimar added new internal enemies every year, as anti-democratic Nazis, Nationalists, and Communists battled each other in the streets.

Germany was the first state to establish diplomatic relations with the new Soviet Union. Under the Treaty of Rapallo, Germany accorded the Soviet Union de jure recognition, and the two signatories mutually agreed to cancel all pre-war debts and renounced war claims. In October 1925 the Treaty of Locarno was signed by Germany, France, Belgium, Britain, and Italy; it recognised Germany's borders with France and Belgium. Moreover, Britain, Italy, and Belgium undertook to assist France in the case that German troops marched into the demilitarised Rhineland. Locarno paved the way for Germany's admission to the League of Nations in 1926.

Nazi era, 1933–1939
Hitler came to power in January 1933, and inaugurated an aggressive power designed to give Germany economic and political domination across central Europe. He did not attempt to recover the lost colonies. Until August 1939, the Nazis denounced Communists and the Soviet Union as the greatest enemy, along with the Jews.

Hitler's diplomatic strategy in the 1930s was to make seemingly reasonable demands, threatening war if they were not met. When opponents tried to appease him, he accepted the gains that were offered, then went to the next target. That aggressive strategy worked as Germany pulled out of the League of Nations, rejected the Versailles Treaty, and began to rearm. Retaking the Territory of the Saar Basin in the aftermath of a plebiscite that favoured returning to Germany, Hitler's Germany remilitarised the Rhineland, formed the Pact of Steel alliance with Mussolini's Italy, and sent massive military aid to Franco in the Spanish Civil War. Germany seized Austria, considered to be a German state, in 1938, and took over Czechoslovakia after the Munich Agreement with Britain and France. Forming a non-aggression pact with the Soviet Union in August 1939, Germany invaded Poland after Poland's refusal to cede the Free City of Danzig in September 1939. Britain and France declared war and World War II began – somewhat sooner than the Nazis expected or were ready for.

After establishing the "Rome-Berlin Axis" with Benito Mussolini, and signing the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan – which was joined by Italy a year later in 1937 – Hitler felt able to take the offensive in foreign policy. On 12 March 1938, German troops marched into Austria, where an attempted Nazi coup had been unsuccessful in 1934. When Austrian-born Hitler entered Vienna, he was greeted by loud cheers. Four weeks later, 99% of Austrians voted in favour of the annexation (Anschluss) of their country Austria to the German Reich. After Austria, Hitler turned to Czechoslovakia, where the 3.5 million-strong Sudeten German minority was demanding equal rights and self-government.

At the Munich Conference of September 1938, Hitler, the Italian leader Benito Mussolini, British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, and French Prime Minister Édouard Daladier agreed upon the cession of Sudeten territory to the German Reich by Czechoslovakia. Hitler thereupon declared that all of German Reich's territorial claims had been fulfilled. However, hardly six months after the Munich Agreement, in March 1939, Hitler used the smouldering quarrel between Slovaks and Czechs as a pretext for taking over the rest of Czechoslovakia as the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia. In the same month, he secured the return of Memel from Lithuania to Germany. Chamberlain was forced to acknowledge that his policy of appeasement towards Hitler had failed.

Italy

In 1922, the leader of the Italian Fascist movement, Benito Mussolini, was appointed Prime Minister of Italy after the March on Rome. Mussolini resolved the question of sovereignty over the Dodecanese at the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne, which formalised Italian administration of both Libya and the Dodecanese Islands, in return for a payment to Turkey, the successor state to the Ottoman Empire, though he failed in an attempt to extract a mandate of a portion of Iraq from Britain.

The month following the ratification of the Treaty of Lausanne, Mussolini ordered the invasion of the Greek island of Corfu after the Corfu incident. The Italian press supported the move, noting that Corfu had been a Venetian possession for four hundred years. The matter was taken by Greece to the League of Nations, where Mussolini was convinced by Britain to evacuate Royal Italian Army troops, in return for reparations from Greece. The confrontation led Britain and Italy to resolve the question of Jubaland in 1924, which was merged into Italian Somaliland.

During the late 1920s, imperial expansion became an increasingly favoured theme in Mussolini's speeches. Amongst Mussolini's aims were that Italy had to become the dominant power in the Mediterranean that would be able to challenge France or Britain, as well as attain access to the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. Mussolini alleged that Italy required uncontested access to the world's oceans and shipping lanes to ensure its national sovereignty. This was elaborated on in a document he later drew up in 1939 called "The March to the Oceans", and included in the official records of a meeting of the Grand Council of Fascism. This text asserted that maritime position determined a nation's independence: countries with free access to the high seas were independent; while those who lacked this, were not. Italy, which only had access to an inland sea without French and British acquiescence, was only a "semi-independent nation", and alleged to be a "prisoner in the Mediterranean":

"The bars of this prison are Corsica, Tunisia, Malta, and Cyprus. The guards of this prison are Gibraltar and Suez. Corsica is a pistol pointed at the heart of Italy; Tunisia at Sicily. Malta and Cyprus constitute a threat to all our positions in the eastern and western Mediterranean. Greece, Turkey, and Egypt have been ready to form a chain with Great Britain and to complete the politico-military encirclement of Italy. Thus Greece, Turkey, and Egypt must be considered vital enemies of Italy's expansion ... The aim of Italian policy, which cannot have, and does not have continental objectives of a European territorial nature except Albania, is first of all to break the bars of this prison ... Once the bars are broken, Italian policy can only have one motto—to march to the oceans."

In the Balkans, the Fascist regime claimed Dalmatia and held ambitions over Albania, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, and Greece based on the precedent of previous Roman dominance in these regions. Dalmatia and Slovenia were to be directly annexed into Italy while the remainder of the Balkans was to be transformed into Italian client states. The regime also sought to establish protective patron-client relationships with Austria, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria.

In both 1932 and 1935, Italy demanded a League of Nations mandate of the former German Cameroon and a free hand in the Ethiopian Empire from France in return for Italian support against Germany in the Stresa Front. This was refused by French Prime Minister Édouard Herriot, who was not yet sufficiently worried about the prospect of a German resurgence. The failed resolution of the Abyssinia Crisis led to the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, in which Italy annexed Ethiopia to its empire.

Italy's stance towards Spain shifted between the 1920s and the 1930s. The Fascist regime in the 1920s held deep antagonism towards Spain due to Miguel Primo de Rivera's pro-French foreign policy. In 1926, Mussolini began aiding the Catalan separatist movement, which was led by Francesc Macià, against the Spanish government. With the rise of the left-wing Republican government replacing the Spanish monarchy, Spanish monarchists and fascists repeatedly approached Italy for aid in overthrowing the Republican government, in which Italy agreed to support them to establish a pro-Italian government in Spain. In July 1936, Francisco Franco of the Nationalist faction in the Spanish Civil War requested Italian support against the ruling Republican faction, and guaranteed that, if Italy supported the Nationalists, "future relations would be more than friendly" and that Italian support "would have permitted the influence of Rome to prevail over that of Berlin in the future politics of Spain". Italy intervened in the civil war with the intention of occupying the Balearic Islands and creating a client state in Spain. Italy sought the control of the Balearic Islands due to its strategic position—Italy could use the islands as a base to disrupt the lines of communication between France and its North African colonies and between British Gibraltar and Malta. After the victory by Franco and the Nationalists in the war, Allied intelligence was informed that Italy was pressuring Spain to permit an Italian occupation of the Balearic Islands.

After Great Britain signed the Anglo-Italian Easter Accords in 1938, Mussolini and Foreign Minister Galeazzo Ciano issued demands for concessions in the Mediterranean by France, particularly regarding French Somaliland, Tunisia and the French-run Suez Canal. Three weeks later, Mussolini told Ciano that he intended for an Italian takeover of Albania. Mussolini professed that Italy would only be able to "breathe easily" if it had acquired a contiguous colonial domain in Africa from the Atlantic to the Indian Oceans, and when ten million Italians had settled in them. In 1938, Italy demanded a sphere of influence in the Suez Canal in Egypt, specifically demanding that the French-dominated Suez Canal Company accept an Italian representative on its board of directors. Italy opposed the French monopoly over the Suez Canal because, under the French-dominated Suez Canal Company, all merchant traffic to the Italian East Africa colony was forced to pay tolls on entering the canal.

Albanian Prime Minister and President Ahmet Zogu, who had, in 1928, proclaimed himself King of Albania, failed to create a stable state. Albanian society was deeply divided by religion and language, with a border dispute with Greece and an undeveloped, rural economy. In 1939, Italy invaded and annexed Albania as a separate kingdom in personal union with the Italian crown. Italy had long built strong links with the Albanian leadership and considered it firmly within its sphere of influence. Mussolini wanted a spectacular success over a smaller neighbour to match Germany's annexation of Austria and Czechoslovakia. Italian King Victor Emmanuel III took the Albanian crown, and a fascist government under Shefqet Vërlaci was established.

Balkans
The Great Depression destabilised the Kingdom of Romania. The early 1930s were marked by social unrest, high unemployment, and strikes. In several instances, the Romanian government violently repressed strikes and riots, notably the 1929 miners' strike in Valea Jiului and the strike in the Grivița railroad workshops. In the mid-1930s, the Romanian economy recovered and the industry grew significantly, although about 80% of Romanians were still employed in agriculture. French economic and political influence was predominant in the early 1920s but then Germany became more dominant, especially in the 1930s.

In the Albanian Kingdom, Zog I introduced new civil codes, constitutional changes and attempted land reforms, the latter which was largely unsuccessful due to the inadequacy of the country's banking system that could not deal with advanced reformist transactions. Albania's reliance on Italy also grew as Italians exercised control over nearly every Albanian official through money and patronage, breeding a colonial-like mentality.

Ethnic integration and assimilation was a major problem faced by the newly formed post-World War I Balkan states, which were compounded by historical differences. In the Kingdom of Yugoslavia for instance, its most influential element was the pre-war Kingdom of Serbia but also integrated states like Slovenia and Croatia, which were part of Austria-Hungary. With new territories came varying legal systems, social structures and political structures. Social and economic development rates also varied as for example Slovenia and Croatia was far more advanced economically than Kosovo and Macedonia, which had substantial Albanian populations that faced persecution. Redistribution of land led to social instability, with estate seizures generally benefiting Slavic Christians.

Latin America
The United States launched minor interventions into Latin America. These included military presence in Cuba, Panama with the Panama Canal Zone, Haiti (1915–1935), Dominican Republic (1916–1924), and Nicaragua (1912–1933). The U.S. Marine Corps began to specialise in long-term military occupation of these countries.

The Great Depression posed a great challenge to the region. The collapse of the world economy meant that the demand for raw materials drastically declined, undermining many of the economies of Latin America. Intellectuals and government leaders in Latin America turned their backs on the older economic policies and turned toward import substitution industrialisation. The goal was to create self-sufficient economies, which would have their own industrial sectors and large middle classes and which would be immune to the fluctuations of the global economy. Despite the potential threats to United States commercial interests, the Roosevelt administration (1933–1945) understood that the United States could not wholly oppose import substitution. Roosevelt implemented a Good Neighbour policy and allowed the nationalisation of some American companies in Latin America. Mexican President Lázaro Cárdenas nationalised American oil companies, out of which he created Pemex. Cárdenas also oversaw the redistribution of a quantity of land, fulfilling the hopes of many since the start of the Mexican Revolution. The Platt Amendment was also repealed, freeing Cuba from legal and official interference of the United States in its politics. The Second World War also brought the United States and most Latin American nations together, with Argentina the main hold out.

During the interwar period, United States policy makers continued to be concerned over German influence in Latin America. Some analysts grossly exaggerated the influence of Germans in South America even after the First World War when German influence somewhat declined. As the influence of United States grew all-over the Americas Germany concentrated its foreign policy efforts in the Southern Cone countries where US influence was weaker and larger German communities were at place.

The contrary ideals of indigenismo and hispanismo held sway among intellectuals in Spanish-speaking America during the interwar period. In Argentina the gaucho genre flourished. A rejection of "Western universalist" influences was in vogue across Latin America. This last tendency was in part inspired by the translation into Spanish of the book Decline of the West in 1923.

Sports
Sports became increasingly popular, drawing enthusiastic fans to large stadiums. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) worked to encourage Olympic ideals and participation. Following the 1922 Latin American Games in Rio de Janeiro, the IOC helped to establish national Olympic committees and prepare for future competition. In Brazil, however, sporting and political rivalries slowed progress as opposing factions fought for control of international sport. The 1924 Summer Olympics in Paris and the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam had greatly increased participation from Latin American athletes.

English and Scottish engineers had brought futebol (soccer) to Brazil in the late 19th century. The International Committee of the YMCA of North America and the Playground Association of America played major roles in training coaches. Across the globe after 1912, the Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) played the chief role in the transformation of association football into a global game, working with national and regional organisations, and setting up the rules and customs, and establishing championships such as the World Cup.

End of an era
The interwar period ended in September 1939 with the German and Soviet invasion of Poland and the start of World War II.

Timelines

 * Timeline of the 20th century, since 1900
 * Timeline of events preceding World War II
 * Events preceding World War II in Europe
 * Events preceding World War II in Asia

Historiography

 * Cornelissen, Christoph, and Arndt Weinrich, eds. Writing the Great War – The Historiography of World War I from 1918 to the Present (2020) free download; full coverage for major countries.
 * Jacobson, Jon. "Is there a New International History of the 1920s?." American Historical Review 88.3 (1983): 617–645 online.
 * Sontag, Raymond James. "Between the Wars." Pacific Historical Review 29.1 (1960): 1–17 online.

title: Interwar period


text: Category:Departments of Haiti

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Category:Departments of Haiti


text:
The Love for Three Oranges

L'amour des trois oranges, Op. 33, is a 1921 satirical French-language opera by Sergei Prokofiev. He wrote his own libretto, basing it on the Italian play L'amore delle tre melarance, or The Love for Three Oranges (Любовь к трём апельсинам Lyubov k tryom apyelsinam) by Carlo Gozzi, and conducted the premiere, which took place at the Auditorium Theatre in Chicago on 30 December 1921.

Composition
The opera resulted from a commission during Prokofiev's first visit to the United States in 1918. After well-received concerts of his works in Chicago, including his First Symphony, Prokofiev was approached by the director of the Chicago Opera Association, Cleofonte Campanini, to write an opera.

Conveniently the composer had already drafted a libretto during his voyage to America, one based on Gozzi's Italian play in mock commedia dell'arte style (itself an adaptation of Giambattista Basile's fairy tale). He had done so using Vsevolod Meyerhold's Russian translation of the Gozzi and had injected a dose of Surrealism into the commedia dell'arte mix. But Russian would have been unacceptable to an American audience, and Prokofiev's English was scanty, so, with possible help from soprano Vera Janacopoulos, he settled on French.

Performance
Prokofiev conducted the premiere, which took place at the Auditorium Theatre in Chicago on 30 December 1921. Initial criticism was harsh. "It left many of our best people dazed and wondering"; "Russian jazz with Bolshevik trimmings"; and "The work is intended, one learns, to poke fun. As far as I am able to discern, it pokes fun chiefly at those who paid money for it". However, one newspaperman and author gave it an enthusiastic review. Ben Hecht wrote: "There is nothing difficult about this music, unless you are unfortunate enough to be a music critic. But to the untutored ear there is a charming capriciousness about the sounds from the orchestra".

Five years after the premiere, in 1926, the French opera received its first production in Russian, in Petrograd.

L'amour des trois oranges was not performed again in the United States until 1949 when the New York City Opera resurrected it. As staged by Vladimir Rosing and conducted by Laszlo Halasz, the production was successful. Life magazine featured it in a color photo spread. The New York City Opera mounted a touring company of the production, and the opera was again staged in New York for three successive seasons.

Memorably a 1988 production by Richard Jones for Opera North, later seen at English National Opera, New York City Opera and elsewhere, used "scratch'n'sniff" cards handed out to the audience, suggesting various scents matching events in the staging (gunshots, Truffaldino's "wind", the aroma of oranges).

The work has entered the standard repertory, with regular stagings on both sides of the Atlantic and at least a dozen complete recordings, six of them videos, to its credit.

Popular culture
Its most familiar section is the March, used by CBS in the radio-drama series The FBI in Peace and War from 1944 to 1958, as an "FBI" leitmotiv in films such as The Brink's Job (1978), and by Prokofiev himself in the ballet Cinderella. It also has been used for the TM Books & Video's warning screen.

Prologue
Advocates of Tragedy, Comedy, Lyric Drama, and Farce argue for their favourite form before the curtain goes up for a play. The Ridicules (Cranks) round them up and tell them they are to witness "The Love for Three Oranges".

Act 1
The King of Clubs and his adviser Pantalone lament the sickness of the Prince, brought on by an indulgence in tragic poetry. Doctors inform the King that his son's hypochondria can only be cured with laughter, so Pantalone summons the jester Truffaldino to arrange a grand entertainment, together with the (secretly inimical) prime minister, Leandro.

The magician Tchelio, who supports the King, and the witch Fata Morgana, who supports Leandro and Clarice (niece of the King, lover of Leandro), play cards to see who will be successful. Tchelio loses three times in succession to Fata Morgana, who brandishes the King of Spades, alias of Leandro.

Leandro and Clarice plot to kill the Prince so that Clarice can succeed to the throne. The supporters of Tragedy are delighted at this turn of events. The servant Smeraldina reveals that she is also in the service of Fata Morgana, who will support Leandro.

Act 2
All efforts to make the Prince laugh fail, despite the urgings of the supporters of Comedy, until Fata Morgana is knocked over by Truffaldino and falls down, revealing her underclothes—the Prince laughs, as do all the others except for Leandro and Clarice. Fata Morgana curses him: henceforth, he will be obsessed by a "love for three oranges". At once, the Prince and Truffaldino march off to seek them.

Act 3
Tchelio tells the Prince and Truffaldino where the three oranges are, but warns them that they must have water available when the oranges are opened. He also gives Truffaldino a magic ribbon with which to seduce the giant (female) Cook (a bass voice) who guards the oranges in the palace of the witch Creonte.

They are blown to the palace with the aid of winds created by the demon Farfarello, who has been summoned by Tchelio. Using the ribbon to distract the Cook, they grab the oranges and carry them into the surrounding desert.

While the Prince sleeps, Truffaldino opens two of the oranges. Fairy princesses emerge but quickly die of thirst. The Ridicules give the Prince water to save the third princess, Ninette. The Prince and Ninette fall in love. Several soldiers conveniently appear, and the Prince orders them to bury the two dead princesses. He leaves to seek clothing for Ninette so he can take her home to marry her, but, while he is gone, Fata Morgana transforms Ninette into a giant rat and substitutes Smeraldina in disguise.

Act 4
Everyone returns to the King's palace, where the Prince is now forced to prepare to marry Smeraldina. Tchelio and Fata Morgana meet, each accusing the other of cheating, but the Ridicules intervene and spirit the witch away, leaving the field clear for Tchelio. While Leandro and the Master of Ceremonies see that the palace is prepared for the wedding, Tchelio restores Ninette to her natural form. The plotters are sentenced to die but Fata Morgana helps them escape through a trapdoor, and the opera ends with everyone praising the Prince and his bride.

Arrangements
Suite from The Love for Three Oranges, Op. 33bis

Prokofiev compiled a 15–20 minute orchestral suite from the opera for concert use. The suite is in 6 movements:
 * 1) The Ridicules
 * 2) The Magician Tchelio and Fata Morgana Play Cards (Infernal Scene)
 * 3) March
 * 4) Scherzo
 * 5) The Prince and the Princess
 * 6) Flight

March and Scherzo from The Love for Three Oranges, Op. 33ter

This is a transcription for piano solo prepared by the composer.

Videos
In French
 * 1982: Glyndebourne Festival Opera, conductor Bernard Haitink. Staging design by Maurice Sendak. Warner box.
 * 1989: Gabriel Bacquier, Jean-Luc Viala, Georges Gautier, Catherine Dubosc, Jules Bastin, Chorus & Orchestra of the Lyon Opera, conductor Kent Nagano, stage director Louis Erlo.
 * 2005: Alain Vernhes, Martial Defontaine, François Le Roux, Serghei Khomov, Sandrine Piau, Anna Shafajinskaja, Willard White. Rotterdam Philharmonic Orchestra & Chorus of De Nederlandse Opera, Stéphane Denève, Laurent Pelly (stage director). Recorded live at Het Muziektheater, Amsterdam. Opus Arte.
 * 2005: Charles Workman (tenor) (Le Prince), José van Dam (Tchélio), Philippe Rouillon (Le roi de Trèfle), Barry Banks (Trouffaldino), Béatrice Uria-Monzon (Fata Morgana) & David Bizic (Le Héraut). Opéra National de Paris, Sylvain Cambreling (conductor), Gilbert Deflo (stage director), Set and costumes by William Orlandi.

In Russian
 * 1970: The Love for Three Oranges (film)
 * 2004: Alexey Tanovitsky (King of Clubs), Andrey Ilyushnikov (the Prince), Nadezhda Serdjuk (Princess Clarissa), Eduard Tsanga (Leandro), Kirill Dusheschkin (Trouffaldino), Vladislas Sulimsky (Pantalone), Pavel Schmulevich (the magician, Chelio), Ekaterina Shimanovitch (Fata Morgana), Sophie Tellier (Linetta), Natalia Yevstafieva (Nicoletta), Julia Smorodina (Ninetta), Yuriy Vorobiev (the Cook), Alexander Gerasimov (Farfarello), Wojciek Ziarnik (Herald), Juan Noval (Master of Ceremonies), Michel Fau (The Diva). EuropaChorAkademie & Mahler Chamber Orchestra, conducted Tugan Sokhiev. Stage Direction, Philippe Calvario. Coproduction Festival d'Aix-en-Provence 2004, Teatro Real de Madrid. DVD Tugan Sokhiev Bel Air Classics. Russian subtitles.

In English
 * 1989: Opera North, Mark Glanville (King of Clubs), Peter Jeffes (the Prince), Patricia Payne (Princess Clarissa), Andrew Shore (Leander), Paul Harrhy (Trouffaldino), Alan Oke (Pantalone), Roger Bryson (the magician, Chelio), Maria Moll (Fata Morgana), Lesley Roberts (Linetta), Victoria Sharp (Nicoletta), Juliet Booth (Ninetta), Richard Angas (the Cook), Mark Lufton (Farfarello), Stephen Dowson (Herald), Terry Whan (Acrobat), Maria Jagusz (Smeraldina). Chorus Opera North & English Northern Philharmonia, conducted David Lloyd-Jones. Stage Direction, Richard Jones.

Recordings of the Suite

 * National Symphony Orchestra cond. Leonard Slatkin, BMG Classics, 1998
 * ORTF National Orchestra cond. Lorin Maazel, Sony Classical, 1991
 * Royal Scottish National Orchestra cond. Neeme Järvi, Chandos, 1989
 * Dallas Symphony Orchestra cond. Eduardo Mata, Red Seal Digital, 1985

title: The Love for Three Oranges


text:
Beer die

Beer die, or snappa is a table-based drinking game in which opposing players sit or stand at opposite ends and throw a die over a certain height with the goal of either landing the die in their opponent's cup or having the die hit the table and bounce over the scoring area to the floor. The defending team attempts to catch the die one-handed after it hits the table, but before it touches a non-table surface. The game typically consists of two two-player teams with each of the four players having a designated cup on the table, but can also be played one-vs-one.

There are three distinct attributes which define a beer die thrower: offense, defense, and stamina. A good offensive player throws many legal throws and often will put pressure on the defense by throwing near the opponents' cups and edge of the table. A good defensive player consistently catches routine throws, and often will snare "hot tosses". A player with good stamina is able to drink often over a period of many games without their game diminishing. When constructing a beer die team it is advantageous to bring different facets to the table.

Basic rules
The Beer Die League website specified the following rules for the game in February 2014, based on a crowdsourced project and research into the history of the game:
 * It is played on a standard sheet of plywood (8 by of at least 1/2 in thickness) placed on banquet tables, saw horses or similar objects between 20 and 30 in. The game uses a standard solo cup (4.75 in height, 3.75 in diameter). The official dice used for play is the standard Bicycle die, measuring 5/8 in.
 * The game is to be played standing up, (sitting down is called Snappa), 2 vs. 2.
 * A cup full of water or beer is to be placed 8 in from the back, 5 in from the side, for each player (hand from back, fist from side).
 * The game is played to a particular end score, such as first to five, seven, eleven, or twelve points (win by 2, cap at seven)
 * The number 5 must be referred to as bizz, the number 7 must be referred to as buzz.
 * One player from each team will roll the die, the team rolling the highest number will be able to choose either side or first toss.
 * Players must tap the die before tossing to signal the impending throw.
 * The die must be thrown in such a manner that the opposing team does not see the thrower's palm upon release of the die.
 * The die must travel higher than 8 ft from the ground. If the opposing team disputes the height, the shot does not count.
 * A point is awarded if the die hits the table and bounces off the defensive (4 ft) side of the table without being properly caught.
 * The defending team may catch the die to nullify potential points scored. The die must be caught with one hand (juggling is permitted) but must not be trapped between any surface or body part or a point is awarded. Once the die comes in contact with the floor or stops moving, the play is dead and a point is awarded. Leaving the chair to catch the die is permitted. Players may not reach over the plane of the table to catch the die.
 * If the die strikes the cup on a toss, this is a "plink" (also "body" or "ting"): the die is dead and no points can be awarded.
 * If the die is thrown into the opposing team’s cup, this is a "plunk", "sink" or "sploosh": the throwing team is awarded one point and the thrower is permitted to sign the table. Each additional plunk is awarded a tally under their name.
 * If a team shoots out of turn, the toss is negated and the team loses their next shot.
 * A designated "god" referee has a final say in disputes.

Drinking
When played as a drinking game, players are required to take drinks when certain events occur, or fail to occur. The Beer Die League website specifies that the following rules are used:

 * There are five drinks per cup (or "boat").
 * All drinks must be completed as a team.
 * A player must drink 1/5th of a cup if:
 * They say the word five or seven.
 * Their toss misses the table completely.
 * Their toss stays on the table, without hitting the cup.
 * Their toss hits the ceiling.
 * Their team tosses the die out of turn.
 * The die strikes their cup (plink/body/ting).
 * If the die lands in a cup (plunk/sink/sploosh) that team must finish their drinks and roll the die out onto the table. If the die is a "bizz", the team must finish another full drink.

Snappa
The standing variant of beer die was originally developed from the drinking game Snappa. The variant known as Snappa is played seated, with a chair at each corner of the table. Players must throw the die the proper height and bounce it off the table through the opposing team’s cups. Should the opposing team drop the die, the throwing team gains one point. All scores in Snappa are worth one point. The winners are the first to seven points..

The location of cups may also vary slightly - while beer die often requires cups to be at the very corners of the table, house snappa rules may ask that they be moved in one palm-length from the sides and base. Additionally, pint glasses may be used for their tendency to deflect any ricocheting dice faster and further than red solo cups.

At the University of Dayton, Members of Sigma Alpha Epsilon created a variant called Bop. It involves 3 players on each side of the table. The middleman is called the anchor. It is the same rules as beer die, except when the die is thrown, it must hit the table 1st, and when it bounces off the table, a member on the team awaiting the shot must hit it up with their hand, also known as a bop, to one of their teammates to cancel out the point. If the die falls onto the ground, it is then considered a point. Sinks in cups are worth three points, and hitting the cup and bouncing off is two points.

House rules
In addition to the base rules of die, there are many house rules used by players all over the country. Many of these rules are localized to specific colleges or universities, and are shared between players from different schools during events such as tailgate parties.

Scoring variants

 * Sinking: Some play that a die landing or bouncing into the opposition team's cup is worth 3 points. Players at some universities qualify a sink as an automatic win at social events in which there is a line of others waiting to play next.
 * Some play that a die that bounces and hits the opposing team's cup is worth a single point, with another point possible if the die falls to the ground without a catch.
 * Stanford Rules play that if a "plink" is not caught by the opposing team, it is worth two points. "Sinks" are also worth 3 points.
 * If a die lands on the opposite side on a regulation toss, then bounces backwards between the throwing team's cups before landing on the ground, the throwing team gets 2 points.
 * A self-sink is when a toss lands in the cup of one's own team. This counts as an automatic loss for the team that self-sunk.
 * A self sink leads to the self-sinker chugging the cup it landed in and refilling their beer, but no points are awarded and the game continues. Some snappa house rules dictate that sinking one's own cup results in a lifetime ban from the sport, unless a specific task is performed (eg. Living in a trophy case for 48 hours)
 * In some versions, a plunk scores 2 points.

Other variants

 * Players may be required to take all drinks with their left hand.
 * Players may be required to drink when any player says the word "five" or "seven", or uses another player's name.
 * When the sum of both teams' scores is equal to the winning score, teams switch sides of the table. Example: If teams win with 12 points, halftime switch could happen when the score is 6-6, 7-5, 8-4, etc.
 * If there is not a fifth person nearby to act as "god" referee, stalemated arguments may be determined by repeating the toss that lead to the dispute. All players will respect the result of the re-toss.
 * If the die lands on the table showing a four, both sides are required to finish their drinks and flip their cup. If the defending side flips first, zero points are scored that turn.
 * If the die lands on the table with a "5" facing upward, everyone playing clinks cups and takes a drink. A variation of the rule mandates only the throwing team must finish their drink. When the teams both want to speed up their time til intoxication, they could add the "ground 5" rule, where even a 5 on the ground results in the throwing team finishing their drink.
 * 4, 5 or 6 (i.e. 5 give or take 1) leads to a drink.
 * When a 5 lands on the table, only the defending team must finish their drinks.
 * If the tosser notices his die will stay on the table, he may call out any number (rather than just a "5"), and if that is the number facing up when the die stops the defense must finish their drinks.
 * If one team fails to score any points during the game, they may be encouraged to run a "nudie"- running naked down the street.

title: Beer die


text:
NHL Collective Bargaining Agreement

The NHL Collective Bargaining Agreement (CBA) is the basic contract between the National Hockey League (NHL) (32 team owners and NHL commissioner) and the NHL Players' Association (NHLPA), designed to be arrived at through the typical labour–management negotiations of collective bargaining. On January 6, 2013, an agreement was tentatively reached after a labour dispute cancelled 510 regular season games of the 2012–13 season, and was ratified by the league's Board of Governors on January 9, 2013, as well as by the NHLPA membership three days later on January 12, 2013. As originally signed, the 2013 CBA was a 10-year deal, longest in NHL history, expiring after the 2021–22 season. On July 10, 2020, the NHL and NHLPA announced the extension of the CBA through the 2025–26 NHL season.

1994–1995 lockout
The previous agreement was signed in 1995 following a lockout which shortened the 1994–95 NHL season to 48 games, a loss of 34 games from what had originally been an 82-game schedule. None of the games scheduled for the 1994 segment of the season was ever played, the lockout lasting until after the beginning of 1995. The collective bargaining agreement was initially to last for six seasons and be open to re-negotiation in 1998, but was eventually extended to last until September 15, 2004 (one day after the World Cup of Hockey final in Toronto).

2004–2005 lockout
On the expiration date of the old agreement, the NHL Board of Governors, representing ownership, met and unanimously decided that the 2004–05 NHL season would be delayed until a new collective bargaining agreement was in place. The owners' lockout of players began at 12:01 a.m. on September 16, 2004, the day most NHL training camps would have opened had the NHLPA and the NHL come to an agreement. By November 2004 it became apparent that the entire 2004–05 season was in jeopardy and supposedly "last-ditch" efforts were undertaken to avoid this, but little, if any, progress was seen during the last few months of 2004. The general consensus of many sportswriters and other knowledgeable observers was that, if the entire 2004–05 season were cancelled, the owners would attempt to open training camps in September 2005 for the 2005–06 NHL season using "replacement players," who are either not members of the NHLPA or were willing to resign their memberships.

On February 13, 2005, the U.S. Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service called a meeting between the two sides to negotiate a new deal. Three days later, NHL commissioner Gary Bettman officially cancelled the season. There was some hope that a season could have been salvaged, as hockey legends Wayne Gretzky and Mario Lemieux, both now part-owners of NHL teams, brought the owners and players together for talks on February 19. However, the two sides failed to reach an agreement.

Once the possibility of losing a second season to the dispute became real and the two sides realized that the dispute had alienated a large portion of the league's fan base, the league and the NHLPA resumed negotiations again in June 2005. Many pundits thought that the two sides wished to come to an agreement in early July, to coincide with the Canada Day (July 1) and United States Independence Day (July 4) holiday season. While July 4 passed without an agreement, momentum for a settlement was clearly building, with the two sides meeting daily between July 5 and July 13. Reportedly, the July 12 session lasted until 6 a.m. local time (1000 UTC) on July 13, at which time talks recessed for five hours. The sides announced a tentative agreement at 12:30 p.m. Eastern Time (1630 UTC) on the 13th.

The most important provision of the new collective bargaining agreement was an overall salary cap for all NHL teams, tied to league revenues. The agreement also phased in a reduced age for free agency, which would eventually give players unrestricted rights to negotiate with any team at age 27 or after 7 years of play in the NHL, whichever came first.

On September 4, 2010, the NHL and NHLPA ratified an agreement to alter how the salary cap hit of long-term contracts would be calculated. The new salary cap accounting system would see two distinct changes. First, long-term contracts remain valid, but contracts that include years when a player aged 40 or older will only have the portion of their salaries before they turn 40 included in cap hit calculation. Second, if the average value of the three highest seasons is $5.75 million or more, then the value of years 36 through 39 will have a minimum cap "charge" of $1 million.

These changes came shortly after Ilya Kovalchuk's contract extension with the New Jersey Devils was voided, due to "cap circumvention". Other long-term contracts, such as Marc Savard, Roberto Luongo and Marian Hossa, were grandfathered and their respective cap hits calculated under the old accounting system. However, any long-term contracts signed on or after September 5, 2010 would be subject to the new system.

2012–2013 lockout
The 2005–12 CBA expired on September 15, 2012. The 2011–12 NHL season was the final year of the then-current collective bargaining agreement, as the NHL Players' Association would no longer have the option to extend the current CBA. The players' association could not move the expiration date to June 30 in order to avoid a repeat of the lockout that cancelled the 2004–05 season.

Just after 5 AM on January 6, 2013, after approximately 16 continuous hours of negotiating, a tentative deal was reached on a new collective bargaining agreement to end the lockout. It was ratified by the league's Board of Governors on January 9, as well as by the NHLPA membership three days later on January 12. The deal was also officially signed that day.

Present status
Originally, the 2013 CBA was on a ten–year deal, and would have expired on September 15, 2022. The NHL and NHLPA had a choice to opt out of the CBA on September 1 and September 16, 2019, but they chose not to. The NHL paused play in its 2019–20 season on March 12 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. On July 10, 2020, the NHL and NHLPA announced the extension of the CBA through the 2025–26 NHL season. Various elements of the "Return to Play" plan were announced the same day.

title: NHL Collective Bargaining Agreement


text: Category:Governorates of Egypt

title: Category:Governorates of Egypt


text: User talk:82.44.184.185

title: User talk:82.44.184.185


text:
S. T. Joshi

Sunand Tryambak Joshi (born June 22, 1958) is an American literary critic whose work has largely focused on weird and fantastic fiction, especially the life and work of H. P. Lovecraft and associated writers.

Career
His literary criticism focuses upon the worldviews of authors. His The Weird Tale examines horror and fantasy writing by Arthur Machen, Algernon Blackwood, Lord Dunsany, M. R. James, Ambrose Bierce, and Lovecraft.

Personal life
S. T. Joshi was born on June 22, 1958, in Pune, India, to Tryambak M. Joshi and Padmini T. Joshi. When he was four, his family moved to the United States and settled in Indiana. He discovered the work of Lovecraft at age 13 in a public library in Muncie, Indiana. He also read L. Sprague de Camp's biography of Lovecraft, Lovecraft: A Biography, on publication in 1975, and began thereafter to devote himself to Lovecraft. This devotion led him to decline offers from Yale and Harvard so that he could attend Brown University. He is an atheist.

He lives in Seattle, Washington. Joshi married Leslie Gary Boba on September 1, 2001. They divorced in December 2010.

In August 2014, Joshi opposed the decision to retire and replace Gahan Wilson's bust of Lovecraft as the World Fantasy Award statuette in light of a campaign highlighting Lovecraft's history of racism; Joshi returned his World Fantasy Awards in protest.

Books

 * Lord Dunsany: A Bibliography (1993) (co-writer: Darrell Schweitzer)
 * H. P. Lovecraft: A Life (1996)
 * Sixty Years of Arkham House: A History and Bibliography (Arkham House, 1999) ISBN 9780870541766
 * I Am Providence: The Life and Times of H. P. Lovecraft (2010)
 * Lord Dunsany: A Comprehensive Bibliography (2013)

Edited volumes

 * Miscellaneous Writings by H. P. Lovecraft (Arkham House, 1995).
 * Documents of American Prejudice: An Anthology of Writings on Race from Thomas Jefferson to David Duke (Basic Books, 1999).
 * The Call of Cthulhu and Other Weird Stories by H. P. Lovecraft (Penguin Classics No. 1, 1999).
 * Atheism: A Reader (Prometheus Books, 2000).
 * The Thing on the Doorstep and Other Weird Stories by H. P. Lovecraft (Penguin Classics No. 2, 2001).
 * The Dreams in the Witch House and Other Weird Stories by H. P. Lovecraft (Penguin Classics No. 3, 2005).

title: S. T. Joshi


text:
User:Xshare

Hey, new to Wikipedia, created an account in order to change a page that had links that were dead. Enjoy!

title: User:Xshare


text:
Battle of Brávellir

The Battle of Brávellir or the Battle of Bråvalla was a legendary battle, said to have taken place c. 770, that is described in the sagas as taking place on the Brávellir between Sigurd Hring, king of Sweden and the Geats of Västergötland, and his uncle Harald Wartooth, king of Denmark and the Geats of Östergötland.

Cause
Harald had inherited Sweden from his maternal grandfather Ivar Vidfamne, but ruled Denmark and East Götaland, whereas his subordinate king, Sigurd Hring, was the ruler of Sweden and West Götaland. According to legend, Harald realised that he was now old and might die of old age and therefore not go to Valhalla. He consequently asked Sigurd if he would let him leave this life gloriously in a great battle. Odin is also implicated.

Preparation
According to Saxo Grammaticus, both hosts prepared for seven years, and mustered armies of 200,000 men. Harald was joined by the legendary heroes Ubbe of Friesland, Uvle Brede, Are the One-eyed, Dag the Fat, Duk the Slav, Hroi Whitebeard and Hothbrodd the Indomitable as well as 300 shieldmaidens led by Hed, Visna of the Slavs and Hedborg. Sigurd recruited the legendary heroes Starkad, Egil the Bald, Grette the Evil (a Norwegian), Blig Bignose, Einar the Fatbellied and Erling Snake. Famous Swedes were Arwakki, Keklu-Karl, Krok the peasant, Gummi and Gudfast from Gislamark. They were joined by scores of Norwegians, Slavs, Finns, Estonians, Curonians, Bjarmians, Livonians, Saxons, Angles, Frisians, Irish, Rus', and others, all picking a side. Whole forests were chopped down in order to build 3000 longships to transport the Swedes. Harald's Danes built so many ships that they were able to walk on them across Øresund.

Location
The Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks speaks of "Brávelli í eystra Gautlandi" (Bråvalla in East Götaland) and in Sǫgubrot af nokkrum fornkonungum the battle is said to have taken place south of Kolmården, which separated Svealand (Sweden proper) from East Götaland and is where Bråviken is located: "Kolmerkr, er skilr Svíþjóð ok Eystra-Gautland ... sem heitir Brávík". Saxo ends his account by saying "thus ended the battle of Bråvik". Most historians have held the battle to have taken place near Bråviken, but in the 17th century a minority view appears to have located it in Småland at Lake Åsnen.

Battle
The accounts found in Gesta Danorum and the Sǫgubrot saga are essentially the same.

At first the two armies fought collectively, but after a while Ubbi was in the centre of attention. He slew first Ragnvald the Wise Councilor, then the champion Tryggvi and three Swedish princes of the royal dynasty.

Humbled, King Sigurd Hring sent forth the champion Starkad, who managed to wound Ubbi but was himself even more seriously wounded. Then Ubbi killed Agnar, and took the sword in both hands and slashed a path through the Swedish host, until he fell riddled with arrows from the archers of Telemark. Then the shieldmaiden Veborg killed the champion Soti and managed to give additional wounds to Starkad, who was greatly angered. She was killed by the champion Thorkell.

Furious, Starkad went forth in the Danish army, killing warriors all around him, and cut off the Wendish shieldmaiden Visna's arm, which held the Danish banner. Starkad then proceeded to slay the champions Brai, Grepi, Gamli and Haki.

When Harald had observed these heroic feats, he stood on his knees in his chariot with one sword in each hand and killed a great many warriors both to his left and to his right. After a while, Harald's steward Bruni deemed that his liege had amassed enough glory and crushed the king's skull with a club.

Outcome
Sigurd won the battle and became the sovereign ruler of all of Sweden and Denmark (40,000 warriors had died).

Historicity
The general agreement on the historicity of the battle has turned back and forth during the last two centuries depending on what was the prevalent ideology among Scandinavian historians. In 1925, the Swedish archaeologist Birger Nerman summarized the ebbs and tides of its historicity. He stated that older scholarship had treated the accounts of the battle uncritically and perceived the accounts as largely historical. During the last decades of the 19th century, however, the hypercritical school considered the battle as entirely fictional and considered even the area where it took place as mythical. The pendulum turned and during the first decades of the 20th century, the opinion was once again in favour of its historicity, although the contemporary scholarship regarded it as a fictionalized historic event. In 1990, the Swedish encyclopedia Nationalencyklopedin summed up the debate by claiming that the historicity of the battle is impossible to verify. There is also a hypothesis relating the battle to the events of 827 when Harald Klak was expelled from Denmark.

title: Battle of Brávellir


text: Category:Provinces of Madagascar

title: Category:Provinces of Madagascar


text: Category:Provinces of Saudi Arabia

title: Category:Provinces of Saudi Arabia


text:
S. Foster Damon

Samuel Foster Damon (February 12, 1893 – December 25, 1971) was an American academic, a specialist in William Blake, a critic and a poet. When remembered as a Blake scholar, he is often compared in importance to Northrop Frye and David V. Erdman.

Early life
He was born in Newton, Massachusetts. He graduated from Harvard University in 1914, returning there after World War I as an instructor in the English Department. He was one of the Harvard Aesthetes, and married Louise Wheelwright, sister of John Brooks Wheelwright, another active Harvard Aesthete.

Scholarly career
His book William Blake, His Philosophy and Symbols from 1924 was later followed by A Blake Dictionary (1965), the work for which he is perhaps best known. Their encyclopedic scope expanded Blake studies into the examination of the mystical and occult elements of Blake's work. In the foreword to a revised edition of the Dictionary, Morris Eaves says that when Damon's first book on Blake came out, he was the "Young Turk" of Blake studies, and when the Dictionary appeared, he was the "patriarch" of the field.

His later academic career was at Brown University, where he had positions from 1927. His other writings include a biography of Amy Lowell, and the long poem The Moulton Tragedy, a heroic poem with lyrics (1971). He also published poetry under the pseudonym Samuel Nomad.

title: S. Foster Damon


text:
Deverel–Rimbury culture

The Deverel–Rimbury culture was a name given to an archaeological culture of the British Middle Bronze Age in southern England. It is named after two barrow sites in Dorset and dates to between c. 1600 BC and 1100 BC.

It is characterised by the incorrectly-named Celtic fields, palisaded cattle enclosures, small roundhouses and cremation burials either in urnfield cemeteries or under low, round barrows. Cremations from this period were also inserted into pre-existing barrows. The people were arable and livestock farmers.

Deverel–Rimbury pottery is characterised by distinctive globular vessels with tooled decoration and thick-walled, so-called "bucket urns" with cordoned, usually finger-printed decoration. In the southern counties of the UK, fabric is usually coarsely flint-tempered. In East Anglia and further northeast grog-tempering is typical.

The term Deverel-Rimbury is now mostly used to refer to the pottery types as archaeologists today believe that Deverel–Rimbury does not represent a single homogeneous cultural group but numerous disparate groups who shared a varying range of cultural traits.

title: Deverel–Rimbury culture


text:
Dipsomania

Dipsomania is a historical term describing a medical condition involving an uncontrollable craving for alcohol or other drugs. In the 19th century, the term dipsomania was used to refer to a variety of alcohol-related problems, most of which are known today as alcohol use disorder. Dipsomania is occasionally still used to describe a particular condition of periodic, compulsive bouts of alcohol intake. The idea of dipsomania is important for its historical role in promoting a disease theory of chronic drunkenness. The word comes from Greek dipso ("δίψα"= thirst) and mania.

It is mentioned in the World Health Organization ICD-10 classification as an alternative description for Alcohol Dependence Syndrome, episodic use F10.26.

History
The term was coined by the German physician Christoph Wilhelm Hufeland in 1819, when, in a preface to an influential book by German-Russian doctor C. von Brühl-Cramer, he translated Brühl-Cramer's term "trunksucht" as "dipsomania". Brühl-Cramer classified dipsomania in terms of continuous, remittent, intermittent, periodic and mixed forms, and in his book he discussed its cause, pathogenesis, sequelae, and treatment options, all influenced by prevailing ideas about the laws of chemistry and concepts of excitability.

Due to the influence of Brühl-Cramer's pioneering work, dipsomania became popular in medical circles throughout the 19th century. Political scientist Mariana Valverde describes dipsomania as "the most medical" of the many terms used to describe habitual drunkenness in the 19th century. Along with terms such as "inebriety", the idea of dipsomania was used as part of an effort of medical professionals and reformers to change attitudes about habitual drunkenness from being a criminally punishable vice to being a medically treatable disease. As historian Roy MacLeod wrote about this dipsomania reform movement, it "illuminates certain features of the gradual transformation taking place in national attitudes towards the prevention and cure of social illnesses during the last quarter of the 19th century."

Although dipsomania was used in a variety of somewhat contradictory ways by different individuals, by the late 19th century the term was usually used to describe a periodic or acute condition, in contrast to chronic drunkenness. In his 1893 book Clinical Lessons on Mental Diseases: The Mental State of Dipsomania, Magnan characterized dipsomania as a crisis lasting from one day to two weeks, and consisting of a rapid and huge ingestion of alcohol or whatever other strong, excitatory liquid was available. Magnan further described dipsomania as solitary alcohol abuse, with loss of all other interests, and these crises recurred at indeterminate intervals, separated by periods when the subject was generally sober.

Similarly, in 1892 the influential English physician and mental health expert Daniel Hack Tuke defined dipsomania as a syndrome involving "an irresistible obsession and impulse to drink, coming on in attacks, during which the patients are in a condition of impotence of will and manifest great anguish." Tuke clarifies that dipsomania can be distinguished from what was at the time considered alcoholism by six key factors. First, "an alcoholic patient becomes insane because he drinks; a dipsomaniac is insane before he commences to drink." Second, "alcoholism is an intoxication which has as its cause alcohol; dipsomania has its cause in a defective mental condition, and alcohol is but a secondary factor, which may be replaced by any other poison, leaving to the syndrome all its psychological characters." Third, "dipsomania proceeds in paroxysmal attacks, and the appetite for strong drink is absent during the intervals between the attacks. Alcoholism has no definite course." Fourth, "a dipsomaniac satisfies a pathological and imperious want; he does not like alcohol, and takes it against his will," whereas "an alcoholic individual has no actual want; he only obeys a vice, a proclivity, and an alteration of his moral sense." Fifth, a dipsomaniac is conscious and ashamed of his condition, whereas an alcoholic is sometimes unaware of, but more often indifferent to it. Finally, he concluded that "dipsomania is a syndrome, always identical with itself, whilst alcoholism is an intoxication varying much in its clinical symptoms."

Over time, the term dipsomania became less common, replaced by newer ideas and terms concerning chronic and acute drunkenness and alcohol use disorder.

Examples in fiction

 * Sebastian Flyte, a character from the novel Brideshead Revisited by Evelyn Waugh, who sarcastically describes himself as a dipsomaniac
 * James O. Incandenza, a character in Infinite Jest by David Foster Wallace, described in the novel as having "crippling dipsomania"
 * Dwight Carson, a talented writer in The Fountainhead, who is turned into a dipsomaniac on the whim of Gail Wynand
 * Mrs. Ritchey (played by actress Charlotte Merriam in the 1931 movie Night Nurse) who exclaims that she is a dipsomaniac several times when confronted by Barbara Stanwyck's character (Lora Hart) with the fact that Ritchey's daughter is dying from malnutrition
 * Peter Morgan Sr., (played by actor Charles Coburn) in the 1938 movie Vivacious Lady, talks about his nephew Keith Morgan's (played by James Ellison) dipsomania ways
 * Richard Gilmore, a character in the TV series Gilmore Girls, refers to a fundraiser speaker as a dipsomaniac in the season one episode "P.S. I Lo..."
 * Susanna Conolly (alias Lalage Virtue, a talented singer and player), in George Bernard Shaw's first novel The Irrational Knot.
 * Raymond Reddington, a character played by actor James Spader in the TV series The Blacklist, uses the term while referring to a bogus DUI charge being used as blackmail in the season 4 episode "Lipet's Seafood Company (No. 111)".
 * Leaving Las Vegas, Ben Sanderson (Nicolas Cage), 1995, is listed by many doctors and specialists as a to watch on this issue. This movie is heavily about this issue and listed in numerous lists about this issue.
 * John Barth, "Ambrose His Mark" The neighbor has returned from the asylum "whither he repaired to cure a sudden dipsomania." From the short story collection "Lost in the Funhouse."
 * Payton Hobart, a character from the Netflix comedy drama "The Politician," describes himself as a dipsomaniac.

Examples in science

 * William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin writing to George FitzGerald on April 9, 1896: "I have not had a moment's peace or happiness in respect to electromagnetic theory since Nov. 28, 1846 (see vol i. p. 80 M.P.P). "All this time I have been liable to fits of ether dipsomania, kept away at intervals only by rigorous abstention from thought on the subject."

title: Dipsomania


text: Category:Regions of Somalia

title: Category:Regions of Somalia


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Harry pearson

Notable person? [[User:Poccil|Peter O. (Talk)]] 07:16, Aug 14, 2004 (UTC) [moved from main vfd page]
 * Delete: Link spam, especially since it doesn't give the surname a capital letter. Geogre 14:41, 14 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete - doesn't sound notable. Deb 20:20, 14 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * The magazine might be notable, but being an editor isn't enough. Delete. -- Cyrius|✎ 06:39, 16 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Zaelsius 14:49, 19 Aug 2004 (UTC)


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Sunny Jim

"Sunny Jim" is the name of two completely unconnected characters used in advertising and product branding: (1) a cartoon character created to promote Force cereal, the first commercially successful wheat flake; (2) the name of a brand of peanut butter produced in the Seattle area. It also has been used as a form of address for men in general or to refer to those named James.

Sunny Jim and Force cereal
The character on boxes of Force cereal was created in the United States in 1902 by writer Minnie Maud Hanff and artist Dorothy Ficken (the mother of Fred Gwynne), initially for an advertising campaign. Rather than selling the benefits of eating wheat, which Hanff assumed customers already knew, her copy for the original advertisements told stories in verse, such as this one:

 * Jim Dumps was a most unfriendly man,
 * Who lived his life on the hermit plan;
 * In his gloomy way he'd gone through life,
 * And made the most of woe and strife;
 * Till Force one day was served to him
 * Since then they've called him "Sunny Jim."

The advertisements featured slogans such as "Better than a Vacation" and "A Different Food for Indifferent Appetites." Other verses included:

 * Whatever you say, wherever you've been,
 * You can't beat the cereal, that raised Sunny Jim!

and

 * High o'er the fence leaps Sunny Jim,
 * Force is the food that raises him

This last rhyme became a familiar catchphrase.

Also used was the slogan "When skies are grey and times are grim, wake up and smile with Sunny Jim", which appeared on advertising coins.

The campaign was wildly successful at promoting the character of Sunny Jim. Printers' Ink stated September 17, 1902 that "No current novel or play is so universally popular. He is as well-known as President Roosevelt or J. Pierpont Morgan." However, the cereal company turned its advertising account over to a different firm, which did not approve of humor in advertising and more or less abandoned the campaign.

In the United States, Force followed a convoluted path involving many corporate mergers. The last owner stopped producing the cereal in 1983. Both the cereal and Sunny Jim had greater success in the United Kingdom, where Force cereal was available until 2013, and the box still featured a picture of Sunny Jim.

Sunny Jim peanut butter
The brand of peanut butter known as Sunny Jim was manufactured in Seattle, Washington, by the Pacific Standard Foods company. The company was founded by Germanus Wilhelm Firnstahl in 1921 after he moved to Seattle from Wisconsin and bought a peanut roaster. Firnstahl based the apple-cheeked character seen on the jars on his son, Lowell, after taking photos of all his children and selecting the best photograph as model (allegedly because Lowell was the only child with all his teeth at the time). During the 1950s the brand accounted for nearly a third of all peanut butter sold in the Seattle area. The company was sold in 1979 for $3 million to the Bristol Bay Native Corp. A large sign on the factory building made the "Sunny Jim building" on Airport Way South a familiar landmark to motorists passing on nearby Interstate 5 which Firnstahl had purchased during the Great Depression. In 1997, there was a fire at this plant (by then owned by the city of Seattle) which destroyed the sign and a portion of the building. On September 20, 2010, a massive fire finished off the Sunny Jim plant as well as a vacant building on the factory site. The main advertisement for Sunny Jim was "Sunny Jim has underground peanuts with a flavor that's outta sight".

General usage
From shortly after the time of its use in advertising, the term gained general currency for cheerful man, and was particularly applied as a nickname to individuals named James, such as UK Prime Minister James Callaghan. Often with the spelling 'Sonny Jim' it was used as familiar term of address in Britain, Australia and New Zealand.

Nicknames

 * James Rolph (1869–1934), American politician.
 * Sunny Jim Fitzsimmons (1874–1966) was a famous thoroughbred horse trainer
 * James Mackay (1880–1953), Australian cricketer
 * James Young of Celtic FC (1882–1922)
 * Jim Bottomley (1900–1959), American baseball player.
 * James Callaghan, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1976 to 1979
 * General Alexander A. Vandegrift, 18th Commandant of the Marine Corps, a nickname given to him by his mentor Smedley J. Butler

Other uses

 * At the La Jolla Cove beach in San Diego, California, there is a sea cave called Sunny Jim's Sea Cave. When the cave is viewed from a certain angle, the opening of the cave bears a striking similarity to the cartoon character. The cave is accessible by swimming from the cove, but also is accessible from a nearby store that charges a nominal fee to walk down some in-store steps leading to the cave.
 * In The Elephant Man and the 2017 series Twin Peaks, both by David Lynch, there are characters nicknamed Sunny Jim.
 * In the 1968 film Coogan's Bluff, Walt (Played by Clint Eastwood) observes a picture of James Ringerman, the fugitive he is pursuing. The picture is signed "With Love, from Sunny Jim".
 * The Sunny Jim wheat flakes character is referenced in the lyrics to the song 1000 Umbrellas by XTC on the Skylarking album.
 * In Lobo (web series) based on the DC Comics character of the same name had a villain named Sunny Jim. He was voiced by Dee Bradley Baker and later by Tom Kenny.
 * Sonny Crockett of Miami Vice has a legal first name of James, and is frequently and even officially referred to as "Sonny James Crockett".
 * In the Harry Potter Book, Order of the Phoenix, the gargoyles at the entrance to the staff lounge say to Harry Potter, "You should be in class sunny Jim" when he seeks out professor Grubbly-Plank to help care for his wounded owl, Hedwig.

title: Sunny Jim


text:
MC Eiht

Aaron Bernard Tyler (born May 22, 1971), better known by his stage name MC Eiht (pronounced "MC Eight"), is an American rapper. Many of his songs are based on his life in Compton. His stage name was partly inspired by the numeral in KRS-One's name. He chose Eiht for its links to "hood culture", including Olde English 800 (8 Ball) and .38 caliber firearms. He is the de facto leader of West Coast hip hop group Compton's Most Wanted, which also included fellow Compton-based rappers Boom Bam, The Unknown DJ, Tha Chill, DJ Mike T, DJ Slip and Ant Capone. He is also known for his role as A-Wax in the 1993 film Menace II Society, as well as playing the character Ryder in the 2004 video game Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas.

Career
Tyler was born in Compton, California, and grew to fame on the West Coast as one of two MCs in the four-man crew Compton's Most Wanted. After enjoying increasing success with the group, which peaked with 1992's Music to Driveby, Eiht took a role in the hit movie Menace II Society as well as a high-profile spot on the soundtrack. The song "Streiht Up Menace", which chronicles the unfortunate downturn of the film's protagonist within the pathological conditions of American inner city life, is considered by many critics to be Eiht's magnum opus. The movie spurred him into a solo career, although his next two albums We Come Strapped and Death Threatz would be accredited as MC Eiht featuring Compton's Most Wanted. These albums were considered his best and took place during the most tense years of the 'beef' between Eiht and DJ Quik, Eiht's childhood friends Boom Bam and Tha Chill of N.O.T.R were heavily involved with both albums and the Quik beef, there are several explicit remarks towards Quik made on these albums by E, Bam and Chill. E was also associated with the West 159th Street Tragniew Park Compton Crips.

He states that he didn't wish to star in comedy films in order to maintain his public image. He later only appeared in the low-budget movies Reasons, Thicker than Water and Who Made the Potatoe Salad? as well as providing the voice for Lance 'Ryder' Wilson in the video game Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas. His music has also been included in the Grand Theft Auto series, both alone and with Compton's Most Wanted.

He put out Last Man Standing, the first album accredited only to MC Eiht, then broke from the label for Big Beat/Atlantic. Eiht never ended up putting out an album on the label, instead eventually signing with and releasing the album Section 8 on Priority/EMI in 1999. Eiht would hop between record labels and one-off releases in the next years, moving between independent labels Half-Ounce, D3 Entertainment and Lookin' Up Entertainment from 2001 to 2003. He would put out records with Spice 1 and Brotha Lynch Hung in 2004 and 2006 on Real Talk Ent., releasing another solo album between them on West Inc./Native Records. His inability to settle at a label contributed to his joining the Warzone, a trio put together by Snoop Dogg and consisting of Goldie Loc, Kam, and MC Eiht himself. In 2006, Eiht and the group appeared on the single "Candy (Drippin' Like Water)" on Snoop Dogg's album Tha Blue Carpet Treatment. In 2010, Eiht appears on the remix to Dam Funk's "Hood Pass Intact". MC Eiht also appeared with Young Maylay in Blaq Poet's new street single, Ain't Nuttin' Changed (Remix).

In June 2011, MC Eiht released his single "Fine By Me" accompanied by a music video directed by Director Hugo V. under his new label Year Round/Blue Stamp Records. Year Round Records is owned by New York-based hip hop artist DJ Premier.

In October 2012, MC Eiht was featured on the song "m.A.A.d city" by Kendrick Lamar, from his major label debut Good Kid, m.A.A.d City. Eiht released the Keep It Hood EP, through BLUESTAMP Music Group on January 4, 2013. The album features cuts from DJ Premier and production from Brenk Sinatra. In 2013, he plans to release a collaboration album with DJ Premier.

In the summer of 2014, MC Eiht released a single with the Outlawz, Tupac Shakur's old group, titled "Shut ’Em Down", which made references to old Outlawz members Tupac and Kadafi. The song is a part of Eiht's upcoming "Which Way Iz West LP" and is MC Eiht's first LP in eight years.

Feud with DJ Quik
MC Eiht and his group CMW got involved in a long tumultuous rivalry with fellow Compton DJ/rapper DJ Quik that lasted for several years. The feud traces back to a track on DJ Quik's debut mixtape The Red Tape, where Quik indirectly dissed both Compton's Most Wanted and N.W.A. During that time, Quik was a member of the Tree Top Piru Bloods and Eiht was a member of the 159th St. Tragniew Park Compton Crips. On the track "Duck Sick" from CMW's debut album It's a Compton Thang, they criticized and questioned Quik's street credibility. They hit Quik again in 1991 on their second effort Straight Checkn 'Em. Quik didn't respond to CMW's disses on his debut album Quik is the Name, but he responded to Eiht on the title track to his sophomore effort Way 2 Fonky. CMW responded months later with a music video for "Def Wish II" which featured a DJ Quik lookalike having a surreal nightmare of CMW chasing & ambushing him leading to him getting killed. Quik responded to it with "Let You Have It", mentioning the Compton's Most Wanted music video, while facing label problems and other music projects. However, on the soundtrack to the 1994 short film Murder Was The Case, on the track "Dollaz + Sense", Quik ruthlessly verbally attacks Eiht, calling him a movie script killer (in reference to Eiht's appearance in the critically acclaimed 1993 film Menace II Society), a coward, and more. Quik fanned the flames even more by performing the song at the 1995 Source Awards in New York City. The feud stayed quiet until April 1996, where Eiht responded to Quik on his second solo album Death Threatz which featured the track Def Wish IV (Tap That Azz) which was the last diss track of their feud. The feud between Quik and Eiht slowly died down in 1997 following the deaths of Tupac Shakur and The Notorious B.I.G., but the feud didn't actually end until the summer of 1998, where Snoop Dogg, Daz Dillinger, and other West Coast rappers helped Eiht and Quik squash the beef. Since then, Quik and Eiht collaborated on various songs. Even though the rivalry was not on the level of the Nas-Jay Z rivalry or the East Coast-West Coast hip hop rivalry since it was not covered by the media, it has been hailed by most hip hop fans and critics that it stands out as one of the longest active hip hop rivalries of all time (from 1992 to 1998).

Discography
Studio albums
 * We Come Strapped (1994)
 * Death Threatz (1996)
 * Last Man Standing (1997)
 * Section 8 (1999)
 * N' My Neighborhood (2000)
 * Tha8t'z Gangsta (2001)
 * Underground Hero (2002)
 * Hood Arrest (2003)
 * Smoke in tha City (2004)
 * Veterans Day (2004)
 * Affiliated (2006)
 * Compton's O.G. (2006)
 * Which Way Iz West (2017)
 * Official (2020)
 * Lessons (2020)
 * Revolution in Progress (2022)
 * Lessons 2 (2023)

Collaborative albums
 * The Pioneers (with Spice 1) (2004)
 * The New Season (with Brotha Lynch Hung) (2006)
 * Keep It Gangsta (with Spice 1) (2006)

title: MC Eiht