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Covilhã

Covilhã is a city and a municipality in the Centro region, Portugal. The city proper had 33,691 inhabitants in 2021. The municipality population in 2021 was 46,455 in an area of 555.60 km2. It is located in the Beiras e Serra da Estrela subregion and Beiras and Serra da Estrela Intermunicipal Community. The municipal holiday is October 20. Sometimes referred to as town of wool and snow, Covilhã is one of the main urban centres of the historical Beira Interior region. The proximity of the mountains offers dramatic scenery and a great environment for those fond of hiking, camping, mountain climbing and skiing. With an industrial tradition historically focused on textile industry supplied by an abundance of wool produced in the area since antiquity, but with a more diversified industry in contemporaneity, Covilhã, which was once known as the "Portuguese Manchester", is also a university city nowadays awarding degrees from aeronautical engineering to medicine to philosophy.

History
Covilhã's history dates back to the days when it was a pre-historical settlement, a shelter for Lusitanian shepherds, and a Roman fortress known as Cava Juliana or Silia Hermínia. The region of Beira Interior, where the city of Covilhã is located, is rich in historical places. Due to its strategic potential, its mountains were used to build castles for both attack and defence purposes. Covilhã was granted foral in 1186 by king Sancho I of Portugal, who also built the castle walls. And, later, it was king Denis of Portugal who ordered the construction of the walls of the admirable medieval district of Portas do Sol. The old quarters of the city have narrow cobblestone streets; pedestrians are challenged permanently by the ups and downs of most of the streets in the city.

It was already in the Middle Ages one of the main "villages of the kingdom", a situation later confirmed by the fact that great natives from the city or its surroundings became decisive in all the great Portuguese Discoveries of the 15th and 16th centuries: the advance in the Atlantic Ocean, the sea route to India, the discoveries of America and Brazil, the first circumnavigation of the Earth. In full population expansion when the Renaissance appeared, the economic sector was particularly important in agriculture, pastoralism, fruit-growing, and forestry. Trade and industry were booming. Gil Vicente cites "the many fine cloths". The Infante D. Henrique, knowing this reality well, became "lord" of Covilhã. The Portuguese Discoveries required large sums of money. The people of the town and its council collaborated not only through taxes, but also with their capital and talent.

The expansion overseas started with the conquest of Ceuta in 1415. Covilhã personalities such as Frei Diogo Alves da Cunha, who is buried in the Church of Conceição, participated in the event. The presence of ‘’covilhanenses’’ in the whole process extends with Pêro da Covilhã (first Portuguese to set foot on land in Mozambique and who sent news to D. João II on how to reach the places where the spices were produced, preparing the Maritime Way to India), João Ramalho, Fernão Penteado and others.

Among the missionaries we find Francisco Álvares, killed on the way to Brazil; Pêro da Covilhã, chaplain in Vasco da Gama’s expedition to India, the first martyr of India; Father Francisco Cabral, missionary in Japan; Father Gaspar Pais, who left Goa for Abyssinia; and many others who took, along with their faith, the name of Covilhã and Fundão in Cova da Beira valley to all parts of the world. The brothers Rui Faleiro and Francisco Faleiro, cosmographers, became notable for their knowledge of nautical science. During renaissance is Friar Heitor Pinto, one of the first Portuguese to publicly defend the Portuguese identity. His literary work is expressed in the classic "Image of Christian Life".

The importance of Covilhã, in this period, is explained not only by the "notable" title granted to it by king D. Sebastião but also by the works carried out here and in the region by the Castilian kings during the time of the Iberian Union. The Town Hall Square was indeed until the end of the 20th century, of Spanish Philippine style. In the surrounding streets one can find several traces of this style. In the municipality as well. Examples of Manueline style can also be found in the city. This is the case of a Manueline window in the Jewish quarter in Rua das Flores. The architect Mateus Fernandes, from Covilhã, who designed the entrance door to the Imperfect Chapels in the Monastery of Batalha is also other notable personality from Covilhã.

The two streams that come down from the Serra da Estrela, Carpinteira and Degoldra, cross the urban center and were at the origin of the industrial development. They provided the hydraulic energy that allowed the factories to work. Next to these two streams, today an interesting industrial archaeological site can be seen, composed of dozens of ruined buildings. A school-factory was built by Fernando de Meneses, 2nd Count of Ericeira in 1681. On November 1, 1755, Covilhã was shaken by the forces of the 1755 Lisbon earthquake that destroyed part of Covilhã's castle walls and its large towers. A Royal Textile Factory was established in the city by the Marquis of Pombal in 1763, and Covilhã was granted city status on 20 October 1870 by king Luís I. Along the two streams that cross the city there are still remains of the old textile factories, which bear witness to the unquestionable importance of this industry for Covilhã's economy, once known as the "Portuguese Manchester". The Panasqueira mines in the municipality of Covilhã started production in 1898 and at the time of World War II, about 10,000 people worked in there.

During the first half of the 19th century, the municipality of Covilhã had about 22,000 inhabitants, and in 1930 it nearly reached 50,000 inhabitants. During the 1960s, Covilhã's municipality surpassed 70,000 inhabitants, but the Portuguese Colonial War (1961–1974) and the generalized emigration phenomena of the 1960s to 1980s Portuguese society, its geographical location in the mountainous interior of central Portugal, increasing mechanization, and the stagnation of its textile industrial sector caused a period of decline of its population to nearly 50,000 in the 1990s. A state-run university, UBI - Universidade da Beira Interior, was founded in 1979. The city is still expanding, mainly to the flat part of the valley, called Cova da Beira, where some important infrastructure, such as the central hospital and the highway, are located.

Geography
Covilhã is located in the Centro region, Cova da Beira subregion, in central Portugal; 300 km (186 mi) Northeast of Lisbon, Portugal's capital; 100 km (62 mi) East of Coimbra, the regional administrative centre; and at the bottom of the highest Portuguese mountain range, Serra da Estrela.

The city of Castelo Branco is located 50 km (31 mi) to the south of Covilhã and the neighboring city of Fundão, the largest locality in the vicinities of Covilhã, is 20 km (12.4 mi) also to the south.

The city of Covilhã towers between 450 and 800 metres (1,476 and 2,624 feet) above the sea level, thus the mountain landscape is ever present. The larger municipality has 555.6 km2 (214.5 sq mi) of territory and includes several localities distributed across 31 civil parishes.

In the municipality of Covilhã but outside the urban area, Penhas da Saúde is one of its highest points. At 1,500 metres (4,821 ft) high, this village and winter resort is located within the Serra da Estrela Natural Park.

Climate
The climate in Covilhã is Mediterranean (Csa, according to the Köppen climate classification), moderately cold in the winter and relatively warm in the summer. There is the Serra da Estrela Ski Resort, the only ski resort in Portugal, 20 km (12.4 mi) away from the city, actually in the neighbouring municipality of Seia.

The cold increases according to altitude, varying from higher temperatures in the lower parts of the city to negative temperatures and snow occurrences, sometimes abundant, in the higher areas, such as Penhas da Saúde, above 1,500 meters of altitude, only 9 km away from Torre (Serra da Estrela). In the urban area of Covilhã the snow rarely appears and usually does not accumulate on the ground.

The hottest month is August, with an average temperature of 22.2 C, while the coldest month is January, with an average of 6.2 C. The average annual temperature of Covilhã is 13.6 C and the average annual rainfall is around 1500 mm.

Parishes
Administratively, the municipality is divided into 21 civil parishes (freguesias):

 * Aldeia de São Francisco de Assis
 * Barco e Coutada
 * Boidobra
 * Cantar-Galo e Vila do Carvalho
 * Casegas e Ourondo
 * Cortes do Meio
 * Covilhã e Canhoso
 * Dominguizo
 * Erada
 * Ferro
 * Orjais
 * Paul
 * Peraboa
 * Peso e Vales do Rio
 * São Jorge da Beira
 * Sobral de São Miguel
 * Teixoso e Sarzedo
 * Tortosendo
 * Unhais da Serra
 * Vale Formoso e Aldeia do Souto
 * Verdelhos

Education
The municipality of Covilhã has several kindergartens for pre-school children between 3 and 6 years of age, and 3 primary education schools. It has also a number of 2nd and 3rd cycle basic and secondary schools: Escola Secundária Frei Heitor Pinto, Escola Básica dos 2º e 3º ciclos de Tortosendo, Escola Básica Integrada de Sao Domingos, Escola Básica dos 2º e 3º ciclos de Paúl, Escola Básica do 2º ciclo de Pêro da Covilhã, Escola Secundária Campos Melo, Escola Secundária Quinta das Palmeiras, Escola Básica dos 2º e 3º ciclos de Teixoso, Externato de Nossa Senhora dos Remédios and Escola Internacional da Covilhã. Covilhã has a public university - the University of Beira Interior (UBI), which was founded in 1979 and awards all university academic degrees (licentiate "licenciatura", master's and doctorate degrees) in several fields like medicine, mathematics, sports sciences, aeronautical engineering, industrial design, fashion design, cinema, psychology, and many others.

Economy
Major economic activities in the region include textiles, food production, agriculture, tourism and mining. The Panasqueira mines in the municipality of Covilhã, located over 30 kilometers to southwest of the city, is a large tin-tungsten mine made up of multiple concessions that started production in 1898. The industrial mining center commonly known as Panasqueira Mines extends over a vast area covered by the Panasqueira and Vale da Ermida Mining Fields with a total area around 20.5 km2. There is an estimated 12,000 km of tunnels, some still working and others already abandoned. At the time of World War II, about 10,000 people worked in the mine; by 2017, approximately 370. The mine had a planned production for more than 30 years as of 2017. The University of Beira Interior, established in 1979, has great importance in the city today. The Centro Hospitalar Universitário Cova da Beira at Covilhã, a state-run university hospital, plays a major role in the region. Covilhã is traditionally a center of wool and textile industries - the university's central building was the Royal Textile Factory, established by the Marquis of Pombal in the 18th century. Covilhã has deep industrial roots and is still one of the biggest woolen fabric producers in Europe. The textile industry produces about 40,000 km of fabric per year, mainly through companies like Paulo de Oliveira, Penteadora, Tessimax and A. Saraiva, which supply large worldwide textile and fashion brands such as Hugo Boss, Armani, Zegna, Marks & Spencer, Yves St. Laurent, Calvin Klein and Christian Dior.

Tourism is also important, and the city serves as a winter and mountain resort. Fruit production is important in the region of Cova da Beira, a subregion centered in Covilhã's municipality. Frulact, a Portuguese fruit processing company, has major industrial facilities in the municipality of Covilhã. The city has a science park, Parkurbis, which has attracted several new businesses to the area. There is a large shopping centre in Covilhã, Serra Shopping, and besides a wide variety of shops, it has hypermarket, four cinemas and many restaurants. Hypermarkets and supermarkets located in the lower part of the town include Continente (inside Serra Shopping), Intermarché, Pingo Doce, and Lidl. The Public Market (Mercado Municipal) is another option and an opportunity to buy fresh produce directly from the producers. Covilhã hosts one of the biggest data centres in Europe, with the capacity to store 30 petabytes of information at onset. The building, which belongs to Altice, opened in September 2013 and has a floor area the size of 13 football pitches.

Culture
The City Hall of Covilhã is responsible for the cultural programming of one of the movie theatres of the town which has a wide variety of activities throughout the year. This theatre, called Teatro Municipal da Covilhã, was closed from 2001 until 2021 when it was reopened in November. There are also various theatre companies: Teatrubi, ASTA, Teatro das Beiras and Quarta Parede that stage theatre and multimedia productions throughout the year. A theatre festival is organised by a local theatre company, Teatro das Beiras, in November.

The city hosts several choirs and orchestras, like the well-known university choir and the EPABI orchestra, which is based in the building near the public garden (location has now changed to the lower parts of the city), as well as the Orquestra da Banda Filarmónica. At the university, there are student musical groups that reflect the academic environment and celebrate its traditions. They are called Tunas and each one has particular characteristics. Desertuna, Moçoilas Tuna and J’ B’ubi & To Kokuskopus perform throughout the year and welcome everyone that wants to join in and get into the academic spirit. The city hall organizes some musical events, mainly in Teatro Cine, which is located in the heart of the city centre (Pelourinho).

The theatre company GICC (Companhia de Teatro das Beiras), based in Travessa da Tapa, offers professional, high-quality performances. There are also various amateur drama groups and dance groups performing in several town locations; ASTA and TEATRUBI are just some examples. Conferences, exhibitions, trade fairs, concerts and other kinds of activities are common in the city. Several trade fairs occur throughout the year in a pavilion belonging to the ANIL – National Association of Textile Manufacturers ANIL.

Like other university towns Covilhã has a lively nightlife scene. Due to the small dimension of the city, it is easy and safe to get around, and there are many pleasant places to have a drink.

A freshmen reception week, organised by the students' union of the University of Beira Interior (Associação Académica da Universidade da Beira Interior), takes place usually in November and includes a parade through town called Latada and several concerts.

Cuisine
The cuisine of Covilhã is influenced by those of Serra da Estrela and the Cova da Beira..

Lamb, goat meat and river trout dishes, rice with carqueja (Genista tridentata), a variety of cold meats (including chouriço and presunto), morcela, honey from Serra da Estrela Natural Park, local requeijão, the internationally acclaimed Serra da Estrela Cheese, peach, apple, chestnut, cherries and berries, are typical locally sourced ingredients and products used in Covilhã’s traditional cuisine.

The pastel de molho, a typical pastry of Covilhã made with a meat-based core and a saffron-based sauce, is regarded as the city’s gastronomic delicacy.

Cherovia (Pastinaca sativa), informally described as a type of white carrot, is also a typical food in and around Covilhã.

Sport
The city has indoor swimming pools and there are also rivers and lakes where swimming is allowed. Facilities for horse riding and karting are also available. The mountain range has excellent conditions for mountain bike, trekking, climbing, skiing and snowboarding. There are tracks with artificial snow that are open all year. There are several gyms offering various services such as sauna, fitness, martial arts, and yoga.

Sporting Clube da Covilhã, a sports club founded in 1923 in Covilhã, is the most important sporting organization in the city. Its football (soccer) team now plays in the secondary national divisions, but in the past played in the top division. It is one of the few clubs of Portugal's interior to have played in the top division of Portuguese football. This football team plays in the Estádio Municipal José dos Santos Pinto, a stadium opened in 1935 which is owned by the City Hall and is located in the higher part of the city at 1,200 meters above sea level. The City Hall is also the owner of a newer sports complex with a stadium and athletics track located in the lower part of the city and inaugurated in 2003 - it is the Complexo Desportivo da Covilhã.

Transport
The nearest airports are located in Lisbon and Porto. From these two cities, Covilhã can be very easily reached both by train and bus. The railway and bus stations of Covilhã are within a walking distance from one to the other (10 minutes walk). It is also possible to reach Covilhã directly by bus from abroad. Covilhã is located, less than 300 km from Lisbon and Porto, the two biggest cities in Portugal and just 400 km from the Spanish capital, Madrid. Several national and international bus routes pass Covilhã, so it is easy and practical to reach almost all destinations. To reach Lisbon takes 3.5-4h by bus or by train. The bus station is situated in the lower part of the city; and the railway station is near, no more than 10 minutes walking. The railway company, CP (Caminhos de Ferro Portugueses), offers various types of services. An InterCity (Intercidades) train is recommended to reach Covilhã. There are also car rental companies in the city.

From Covilhã northwards to Guarda trains were operated by diesel motorcars. This scenic stretch of mountainous rural line provides the strategic last leg of the Beira Baixa Railway linking it to Guarda via Belmonte. However, for twelve years it was closed for modernisation and electrification. The works, originally due for completion in 2011, were finally completed permitting reopening of the 46 km line to Guarda in May 2021 after serious funding issues due to the weakness of the Portuguese economy.

A bus network – Transportes Urbanos da Covilhã – covers the entire urban area as well as the outskirts of the city, making it easy to travel both within and outside the city limits, although the buses are infrequent (not less than 1 hour between buses). Several bus lines serve university buildings. Cabs are also an option. They are painted cream (mostly black these days) and sometimes have a roof-light to identify them. In town they use taximeters, but once outside urban boundaries the service is charged per km.

Notable residents

 * Pêro da Covilhã (ca.1460 – after 1526), a Portuguese diplomat and explorer.
 * Mateus Fernandes (15C - 1515) a Portuguese architect, worked in the Manueline style
 * Rui Faleiro (late 15C - 16C) Portuguese cosmographer, astrologer and astronomer who was the principal scientific organizer behind Ferdinand Magellan's circumnavigation of the world.
 * José Sócrates (born 1957) brought up in Covilhã, Prime Minister of Portugal 2005 to 2011, accused in 2014 of corruption, tax evasion and money laundering, on going trial.
 * Eugénia Melo e Castro (born 1958) a Portuguese singer-songwriter.
 * Adolfo Mesquita Nunes (born 1977) a Portuguese jurist and politician
 * Miguel Gonçalves Mendes (born 1978) a Portuguese film director, screenwriter and producer.

Sport

 * César Brito (born 1964) a retired footballer with 260 club caps and 14 for Portugal
 * Hélder Godinho (born 1977) a former footballer with 291 club caps
 * João Real (born 1983) a Portuguese former footballer with 313 club caps
 * Renato Margaça (born 1985) a retired footballer with over 400 club caps and 21 for Cyprus
 * Nuno Coelho (born 1987) a retired footballer with over 430 club caps
 * Sérgio Paulico (born 1991), footballer

Politics
The present mayor is Vitor Manuel Pinheiro Pereira, elected by the Socialist Party.

International Relations
Covilhã is twinned with:

 * 🇦🇷 Trelew, Argentina
 * 🇫🇷 Berstett, France
 * 🇫🇷 Roubaix, France
 * 🇵🇹 Santarém, Portugal
 * 🇵🇹 Oeiras, Portugal
 * 🇵🇹 Madalena, Portugal
 * Laleia, East Timor
 * 🇨🇻 Praia, Cape Verde

title: Covilhã


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Grand View University

Grand View University is a private liberal arts university in Des Moines, Iowa. Founded in 1896 and affiliated with the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, the university enrolls approximately 2,000 students and is accredited by the Higher Learning Commission.

History
Grand View College and Seminary was started in 1896 by members of the Danish Evangelical Lutheran Church in America. In 1912, Grand View opened a high school academy department. Instruction at the junior college level began in 1924 and accreditation by the Iowa State Department of Public Instruction came in 1938 following the dissolution of the academy. It gained accreditation by the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools in 1959. In 1968, the school's theological seminary was relocated to Maywood, Illinois.

In 1975, nursing programs were added along with baccalaureate programs, and the school, which had been called Grand View Junior College, dropped the "junior" from its name to become Grand View College. In 2008, after adding graduate programs, the college renamed itself Grand View University.

The Grand View Danish Immigrant Archives houses a wide variety of information sources related to the Danish immigrant influence on the United States, including personal histories, photographs, writings, and a large collection of Danish American newspapers and magazines.

Campus
Grand View's 50-acre campus is located in the Union Park Neighborhood of Des Moines, Iowa, just northeast of downtown. Over 800 students live on campus in six different residential facilities. Notable landmarks include the Humphrey Center—built in 1895 in the style of Danish Renaissance architecture—and a 159-foot long skywalk across U.S. Route 69 in the heart of campus.

Major buildings

Humphrey Center – Formerly Old Main, the Humphrey Center is the oldest building on campus, built in 1896. The offices of Admissions, Business, Financial Aid, Registrar, President, Provost and Vice President for Academic Affairs, Vice President for Finance and Administration, and Vice President for Advancement are all located here. Humphrey is on the National Register of Historic Places, and was built in three different phases (1895, 1898, 1904). The facility underwent a complete renovation in 1998 and was named in recognition of alumnus Alice (Olson) Humphrey. The college's maintenance division is based out of a garage directly north of the building.

Charles S. Johnson Wellness Center – Located at 1500 Morton Avenue, the 92,000-square-foot facility houses the nursing and kinesiology departments, recreational and athletic facilities, a community clinic, classrooms and faculty offices. The field house contains weight lifting equipment, a 1/10 mile track, and a double basketball court. Sisam Arena was renovated in 2002, while the wellness center was being constructed, and put in new bleachers, backboards, wall padding and a small media platform. The lobby of the arena showcases trophy cases featuring the Grand View Athletic Hall of Fame. Sisam Arena was named after David Sisam, longtime coach and athletic director. In 2008, a new two-level addition was added on the southeast corner bringing a new weight room, wrestling room and athletics staff offices.

Cowles Center – Located at 1331 Grandview Avenue, Cowles houses the Music Department with rehearsal spaces for band and choir teaching studios, mixed use practice room, and study space for students.

Krumm Business Center – Located at 1330 Morton Avenue, and named after college benefactor and former Maytag CEO Daniel J. Krumm, this academic building houses general-purpose classrooms, a large lecture hall, computer lab, and faculty/staff offices. The university's information technology department is based out of the Krumm Center.

Library – Located at the corner of Morton Avenue and East 14th Street (U.S. Route 69), the two-story library was completed in 1968 with an addition added in 1992. The first floor contains a teaching classroom/computer lab, the reference collection, current periodicals and journals, the children's and young adult collection, private study rooms, study tables, DVD and video viewing rooms, the information desk, and the bank of research computers. The library's collection of books and journals as well as study tables are located on the second floor, along with the Danish Immigrant Archives. The library is also home to an Einstein Bros Bagels.

Rasmussen Center for Community Advancement Professions – located at 2800 East 14th Street U.S. Route 69), north of the library., the Rasmussen Center opened in fall 2008 and houses the departments of art, education, history, criminal justice, political studies, psychology and sociology, as well as general-purpose classrooms, art studios, computer labs, the ALT Center, faculty offices, and various student amenities. The building is named after Jim and Sandra Rasmussen, long-time supporters of Grand View who contributed $3 million to the building campaign.

The Kent L. Henning Student Center – Located at 2811 East 14th Street (U.S. Route 69), the Student Center was renovated and expanded in 2015 to accommodate the communication and theater departments, student dining, academic and career success centers, the bookstore, the Viking Theatre, student services and recreation, plus the Robert Speed Lyceum, a large multipurpose performance area.

Academics
Grand View offers 40+ undergraduate majors and four master's degree programs. Its nine pre-professional programs include medicine, law, pharmacy, and physical therapy.

Athletics
The Grand View athletic teams are called the Vikings. The university is a member of the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA), primarily competing in the Heart of America Athletic Conference (HAAC) since the 2015–16 academic year. The Vikings previously competed in the defunct Midwest Collegiate Conference (MCC) from 1989–90 to 2014–15 (when the conference dissolved).

Grand View competes in 25 intercollegiate varsity sports: Men's sports include baseball, basketball, bowling, cross country, football, golf, soccer, tennis, track & field, volleyball and wrestling; while women's sports include basketball, bowling, competitive dance, cross country, golf, soccer, softball, tennis, track & field, volleyball and wrestling; and co-ed sports include cheerleading, eSports (which was established in the fall of 2017) and shooting sports. The squads are supported by the athletic department.

Accomplishments

 * The Vikings won the NAIA Wrestling Championship nine consecutive times from 2012 to 2020.
 * The Vikings won the NAIA Football National Championship in 2013.
 * The Vikings men's golf team won the NAIA Men's Golf Championship in 2017.
 * The Vikings men's volleyball team won the NAIA Men's Volleyball National Championship in 2021.

Esports
Grand View University began competing in esports the fall of 2017 becoming the first higher education institute in Iowa to introduce a varsity program as well as offer esports scholarships. Grand View is a member of the National Association of Collegiate Esports. Grand View's esports gaming arena is located in the basement of Nielsen Hall dormitory.

Hired in 2018 as Grand View's director of esports, Dana Hustedt became the first female collegiate esports director in the United States.

Student life
Approximately 84% of Grand View students are from Iowa while 14% are from other elsewhere in the United States. International students make up 2% of the student population. Grand View University has more than 40 campus clubs and organizations that represent a variety of interests.

Student government
Viking Council is the governing body of Grand View students. It is composed of officers elected by the student body and a representative group of student senators. Viking Council is responsible for expenditure of student activity fees. Student Activities Council (SAC) is funded by and reports to the Viking Council. This board develops and schedules campus-wide programs and activities throughout the school year to meet the diverse needs of the student population. Residential Experience Council (REC) members are active in hall government, which speaks to policies and matters of concern to all campus residents.

Traditions
Bud the Bird

Since the 1930s Grand View students have participated in a campus tradition using "Bud the Bird," a large eagle statue, as the object of desire in the school's own version of "capture the flag."

The first reports of this tradition date back to 1933, where rumor has it, a large iron eagle decoration was stolen from a nearby business. Students named this statue "Bud the Bird," and over the years it was hidden and relocated on campus by different student groups. This first Bud would later be donated during World War II as scrap metal by college president, Alfred C. Nielsen, to support the war effort. The first Bud was replaced by Bud Jr., a 33-inch 200-pound replica. Sometime in the late 1940s, Bud Jr. was buried on the west end of campus, not to be unearthed again until over 50 years later in 1994 when maintenance crews were digging for fiber optic cables.

Over the years multiple Buds have been created, hidden and lost as students have competed for the honor of finding and hiding the statue.

The Rock

“The Rock,” located in front of the Humphrey Center is one of the most prominent traditions of Grand View. When re-sodding the lawn of what was then Old Main (now Humphrey Center), students in the 1900s placed the rock on the lawn directly in front of Old Main's entrance. The only significant change made to the landmark was in 1915 when it was moved to make room for a new sidewalk to the entrance.

Students traditionally paint the rock in the darkness of the night whenever students feel the urge to express themselves. "In times of celebration, sorrow, or protest, The Rock is deemed a medium of the students," a former Grand View student handbook stated. The rock is often used to announce campus events, and on at least one occasion, has been used to propose marriage.

Notable alumni

 * Molly Bolin, professional basketball player
 * B. J. Hill, former head men's basketball coach at the University of Northern Colorado
 * Kelley Johnson, beauty pageant titleholder
 * Danny Neville, men's basketball coach at the University of Jamestown
 * Brad Zaun, Iowa State Senator

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Grand View University


text:
Illinois House of Representatives

The Illinois House of Representatives is the lower house of the Illinois General Assembly. The body was created by the first Illinois Constitution adopted in 1818. The House under the current constitution as amended in 1980 consists of 118 representatives elected from individual legislative districts for two-year terms with no limits; redistricted every 10 years, based on the 2010 U.S. census each representative represents approximately 108,734 people.

The house has the power to pass bills and impeach Illinois officeholders. Lawmakers must be at least 21 years of age and a resident of the district in which they serve for at least two years.

President Abraham Lincoln began his career in politics in the Illinois House of Representatives.

History
The Illinois General Assembly was created by the first Illinois Constitution adopted in 1818. The candidates for office split into political parties in the 1830s, initially as the Democratic and Whig parties, until the Whig candidates reorganized as Republicans in the 1850s.

Abraham Lincoln began his political career in the Illinois House of Representatives as a member of the Whig party in 1834. He served there until 1842. Although Republicans held the majority of seats in the Illinois House after 1860, in the next election it returned to the Democrats. The Democratic Party-led legislature worked to frame a new state constitution that was ultimately rejected by voters After the 1862 election, the Democratic-led Illinois House of Representatives passed resolutions denouncing the federal government's conduct of the war and urging an immediate armistice and peace convention, leading the Republican governor to suspend the legislature for the first time in the state's history. In 1864, Republicans swept the state legislature and at the time of Lincoln's assassination at Ford's Theater, Illinois stood as a solidly Republican state.

State House of Representatives elected through Cumulative voting from 1870 to 1980. The use of that system was meant to secure a degree of representation for minority blacks and the non-dominant party through use of multi-member districts and special type of multiple voting.

From 1870 to 1980, Illinois's lower house had several unique features:
 * The House comprised 177 members. The state was divided into 59 legislative districts, each of which elected one senator and three representatives.
 * Elections for the state house were conducted using cumulative voting; each individual voter was given three votes to cast for House seats, and they could distribute them to three candidates (one vote each), one candidate (receiving three votes—this was called a bullet vote) or two candidates (each receiving 1½ votes).
 * Though not constitutionally mandated, the two parties had an informal agreement that they would only run two candidates per district. Thus, in most districts, only four candidates were running for three seats. This not only all but guaranteed that the district's minority party would win a seat (particularly outside Chicago), but usually assured that each party would have significant representation—a minimum of one-third of the seats (59 out of 177)—in the House. (The only historic exception to the minimum 59 seat rule was in 1875 and during WWI.)

Cutback Amendment of 1980
The Cutback Amendment was proposed to abolish Illinois's use of Cumulative Voting and multi-member districts.

Since its passage in 1980, representatives have been elected from 118 single-member districts formed by dividing the 59 Senate districts in half, a method known as nesting. Each senator is "associated" with two representatives.

Since the adoption of the Cutback Amendment, there have been proposals by some major political figures in Illinois to bring back multi-member districts. A task force led by former governor Jim Edgar and former federal judge Abner Mikva issued a report in 2001 calling for the revival of cumulative voting, in part because it appears that such a system increases the representation of racial minorities in elected office. The Chicago Tribune editorialized in 1995 that the multi-member districts elected with cumulative voting produced better legislators. Others have argued that the now-abandoned system provided for greater stability in the lower house.

The Democratic Party won a majority of House seats in 1982. Except for a brief two-year period of Republican control from 1995 to 1997, the Democrats have held the majority since then.

Firsts
The first two African-American legislators in Illinois were John W. E. Thomas, first elected in 1876, and George French Ecton, elected in 1886. In 1922, Lottie Holman O'Neill became the first woman elected to the Illinois House of Representatives (she was elected in the first election in which women could vote or run for election). In 1958, Floy Clements became the first African American woman to serve as state Representative. In 1982, Joseph Berrios became the first Hispanic American state representative. Theresa Mah became the first Asian American to serve in the Illinois House when she was sworn into office January 10, 2017.

Powers
The Illinois House of Representatives meets at the Illinois State Capitol in Springfield, Illinois. It is required to convene on the second Wednesday of January each year. Along with the Illinois Senate and governor, it is vested with the power to make laws, come up with a state budget, act on federal constitutional amendments, and propose constitutional amendments to the state constitution. The Illinois House of Representatives also holds the power to impeach executive and judicial officials.

Qualifications
A person must be a U.S. citizen and two-year resident of an electoral district of at least 21 years of age to serve in the Illinois House of Representatives. Members of the House cannot hold other public offices or receive appointments by the governor while in office.

Leadership
The current Speaker of the Illinois House of Representatives is Emanuel Chris Welch, a Democrat from Hillside, who represents the 7th district. The Democratic Party of Illinois currently holds a super-majority of seats in the House. Under the Constitution of Illinois, the office of minority leader is recognized for the purpose of making certain appointments. Tony McCombie, of Savanna, who represents the 89th district, currently holds that post. Both leaders appointed their leadership teams shortly after the start of the 103rd General Assembly.

Majority

 * Speaker of the House: Emanuel Chris Welch
 * Majority Leader: Robyn Gabel
 * Speaker pro tempore: Jehan Gordon-Booth
 * Deputy Majority Leaders:
 * Mary E. Flowers (until May 31, 2023)
 * Elizabeth Hernandez
 * Assistant Majority Leaders:
 * Marcus C. Evans Jr.
 * Jay Hoffman
 * Natalie Manley
 * Aaron Ortiz
 * Kam Buckner
 * Barbara Hernandez
 * Kelly Burke
 * Robert Rita
 * Majority Conference Chairperson: Theresa Mah
 * Majority Officer & Sergeant at Arms: Nick Smith

Minority

 * Minority Leader: Tony McCombie
 * Deputy Minority Leaders:
 * Norine Hammond
 * Ryan Spain
 * Assistant Minority Leaders:
 * John Cabello
 * Charles Meier
 * Mike Marron
 * C. D. Davidsmeyer
 * Jackie Haas
 * Minority Conference Chairperson: Jeff Keicher
 * Minority Floor Leader: Patrick Windhorst

Officers

 * Clerk of the House: John W. Hollman
 * Chief Doorkeeper: Lee A. Crawford
 * Parliamentarian: James Hartmann
 * Assistant Clerk of the House: Bradley S. Bolin

Members
, the 103rd General Assembly of the Illinois House of Representatives consists of the following members:

 * Ɨ Legislator was appointed to the Illinois House of Representatives during session.
 * ƗƗ Legislator was appointed to the Illinois House of Representatives after being elected, but prior to inauguration day of the General Assembly to which they were elected.

title: Illinois House of Representatives


text:
User talk:Jwlwikipedia

Hello and welcome to Wikipedia! Hope you like it here, and stick around.

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title: User talk:Jwlwikipedia


text:
Communist Party of Canada – Manitoba

The Communist Party of Canada – Manitoba is the provincial wing of the Communist Party of Canada for the province of Manitoba. Founded in 1921, it was an illegal organization for several years and its meetings were conducted with great secrecy. Until 1924, the "Workers Party" functioned as its public, legal face. For a period in the 1920s, the party was associated with the Canadian Labour Party. After 1920 it attracted former members of radical and syndicalist groups such as the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW). Many of the new members were Jews, Finns or Ukrainians who supported the Russian Revolution.

Despite being a minor party since the 1960s, the party managed to field at least one candidate in all elections in Manitoba since World War II, except in 1995.

History
The Workers Party ran three candidates in Winnipeg for Manitoba's 1922 provincial election: Mathew Popovitch, Arthur Henderson and William Hammond. These candidates frequently disrupted rallies for George Armstrong, a Socialist Party incumbent. None were elected.

In the 1927 election, Jacob Penner ran as a Communist candidate in Winnipeg, which at the time elected ten members by preferential balloting. Penner's 2015 first-preference votes were enough for an initial eighth-place finish, but he received few votes from transfers and was not elected.

In the 1932 election, Penner and Leslie Morris ran in Winnipeg as "United Front Workers" candidates. (The CPC had been, for all practical purposes, made illegal again in 1931). Morris finished eighth on first preferences but was unable to be elected on transfers; Penner was further behind. Communist candidates also ran in Gimli and Fisher. In the latter riding, W.N. Kolisnyk placed second against Progressive candidate Nicholas Bachynski. In 1934 it tried to organize strikes, notably copper miners at Flin Flon.

The Communist Party (once again legal) ran only one candidate in the provincial election of 1936: James Litterick in Winnipeg. In a period of increased support for the party, Litterick placed second on first-preference votes and received enough transfers from first-place candidate Lewis Stubbs to gain an easy victory. He was expelled from the legislature in 1940, after the Communist Party was once again made illegal. He subsequently went into hiding.

In the 1941 election, William Kardash (running as a Workers Party candidate) was elected for Winnipeg after placing fourth on first-preferences. Kardash was re-elected in the 1945, 1949 and 1953 elections as a member of the "Labor-Progressive Party" (as the Communists had renamed themselves).

Kardash led the provincial LPP from its founding in 1943 until December 1948, when he was replaced by William Cecil Ross. Ross served as leader until his retirement in 1981, and ran for provincial and federal office several times.

The party's support base declined during the Cold War, and Kardash was the party's only official candidate in the 1953 and 1958 elections. He was defeated on the latter occasion, after Manitoba adopted a system of single-member constituencies for Winnipeg.

The national LPP renamed itself the Communist Party in 1959, and the provincial party did the same. It now operates under the name "Communist Party of Canada – Manitoba".

The CPC-M has not elected an MLA since Kardash, and became a marginal political force during the 1960s.

Joseph Zuken (1912–1986) was a Communist city councillor and school trustee in Winnipeg. His biographer says he "was loved and hated in about equal measure. He was ignored by no one." He was the son of Jewish immigrants from the Ukraine. He ran for mayor in 1979.

Paula Fletcher became the party's leader after Ross's retirement in 1981, and led the party into the 1981 and 1986 elections. The party ran only two candidates on the former occasion (Fletcher and Ross), and three on the latter.

Fletcher left Manitoba for Ontario in 1986, and subsequently left the Communist Party entirely. The CPC-M was led by Lorne Robson in the provincial election of 1988, in which it ran six candidates.

Robson also moved to Ontario in the late 1980s. Frank Goldspink subsequently served as the party's provincial organizer, and may have been its political leader as well. Goldspink was the party's sole candidate in the 1990 election, running as an independent as the party had been de-registered.

Goldspink left the Communist Party in 1991, and the CPC-M does not appear to have had a regular leader for the next five years (although its provincial organization continued to meet on an occasional basis). The party did not run any candidates in the 1995 provincial election.

Darrell Rankin moved from Ontario to Manitoba in 1995, and became the provincial organizer of the CPC-M before the year was over. Rankin was chosen as the party's official leader in 1996. Rankin led the CPC-M into the 1999 and 2003 elections, in which it ran six and five candidates respectively. The CPC-M was re-registered with Elections Manitoba in 1998, after a petition was presented with 3500 signatures.

Rankin faced a leadership challenge from Paul Sidon in January 2004, receiving 79% delegate support against 21% for Sidon. Rankin left the party in 2019. Organizer Andrew Taylor, a former anti-apartheid activist, trade unionist and professor, ran for the Communist Party in Winnipeg North during the 2019 federal election.

Throughout 2020, the CPC-M was vocal in criticizing Premier Brian Pallister's response to the COVID-19 pandemic. According to a statement from the CPC-M, "free market ideologues have escalated a foreseeable second wave in pursuit of profit, creating the perfect conditions for a public health disaster."

Election results
Notes:

1: The party was banned under Section 98, and fielded its candidates under the 'United Front' banner.

2: In 1941 the party was banned under the Defence of Canada Regulations.

3: Between 1945 and 1958 the party fielded candidates as the Labor-Progressive Party.

4: The sole candidate of the CPC (M) ran as an independent.

Party leaders

 * 1) Bill Kardash 1943 – 12 December 1948
 * 2) William Ross 12 December 1948 – 1981
 * 3) Paula Fletcher 1981–1986
 * 4) Lorne Robson (election of 1988)
 * 5) Frank Goldspink (election of 1990) (*)
 * 6) Darrell Rankin 1996–2019
 * 7) Frank Komarniski 2019–2022
 * 8) Andrew Taylor 2022–present

Source:

(*) Provincial organizer, may not have been an official party leader.

title: Communist Party of Canada – Manitoba


text:
1992 Democratic National Convention

The 1992 Democratic National Convention nominated Governor Bill Clinton of Arkansas for president and Senator Al Gore from Tennessee for vice president; Clinton announced Gore as his running-mate on July 9, 1992. The convention was held at Madison Square Garden in New York City, New York from July 13 to July 16, 1992. The Clinton-Gore ticket then faced and defeated their Republican opponents, President George H. W. Bush and Vice President Dan Quayle as well as the independent ticket of Ross Perot and James Stockdale in the 1992 presidential election.

The convention, organized by chairman Ron Brown, was seen as a great success. Unlike some earlier Democratic conventions, it had been well planned and run with few gaffes or errors, as even Republicans conceded. As Clinton finished his acceptance speech Fleetwood Mac's "Don't Stop", which would become the theme song of Bill Clinton's 1992 campaign, was played several times during the balloon drop and celebration.

Clinton received a significant poll bounce from the convention, due to both the perceived success of the convention, as well as Ross Perot announcing he was withdrawing from the campaign just as the convention was ending (Perot got back into the race in October).

The convention bounce gave the Clinton/Gore ticket a lead that only shrank insignificantly when Ross Perot re-entered the race. Clinton and Gore went on to defeat President Bush and Vice-President Quayle, as well as independent candidate Ross Perot and his running mate, James Stockdale, in the general election.

Party platform
The party platform was more centrist than recent preceding Democratic Party platforms had been, reflecting the new positioning of the party.

Speakers
New York Governor Mario Cuomo delivered the nominating speech for Clinton, hailing him as the "comeback kid" in reference to Clinton's comeback in the Democratic primaries after his campaign took a hit following a loss in the New Hampshire primary and media coverage of infidelity allegations.

Prominently featured as speakers during the convention were Democratic Party women. The convention's opening program placed a spotlight both on prominent female Democratic U.S. Senate nominees and women's issues.

Other notable speakers included Democratic National Committee Chair Ron Brown and Elizabeth Glaser.

Former California Governor Jerry Brown, who was still an active candidate with a large amount of delegates and had not withdrawn to support the clear nominee—thus not being given a speaker's spot by the convention organizers—addressed the convention to state his case for a "humility agenda" by seconding his own nomination.

Keynote speakers
In a departure from tradition, the convention featured three keynote speakers: Georgia Governor Zell Miller, Senator Bill Bradley and former Representative Barbara Jordan, who also served as a keynote speaker at the 1976 Democratic National Convention.

Vice president
Gore was nominated by acclamation on a voice vote.

Abortion
Expanding on previous support for reproductive rights, the 1992 platform for the first time explicitly supported a national law to codify Roe v. Wade.

Casey controversy
Pennsylvania Governor Bob Casey wanted to speak at the convention, but did not speak. Casey maintained that he was denied a speaking spot because he intended to give a speech about his opposition to abortion, while the Clinton camp said that Casey did not speak because he had not endorsed the Clinton/Gore ticket. After the convention was over, Casey told the New York Times, "I support the ticket. Period." Other Democrats opposing abortions such as Chicago Mayor Richard M. Daley, Senators John Breaux and Howell Heflin, and five anti-abortion Democratic governors did speak. While Democratic officials said that these speakers were not barred from discussing their opposition to abortion, they nonetheless did not address the issue in their speeches.

Casey asked both DNC Chairman Ron Brown and Texas Governor Ann Richards, the convention's chairwoman, for a speaking spot. Neither responded directly, and Casey later received a letter explaining that he would not receive a spot.

Controversy regarding Casey's treatment at the 1992 Convention was frequently cited in media coverage of his son Bob Casey, Jr.'s successful 2006 Pennsylvania Senate campaign against Republican incumbent Rick Santorum.

title: 1992 Democratic National Convention


text:
Illinois Senate

The Illinois Senate is the upper chamber of the Illinois General Assembly, the legislative branch of the government of the State of Illinois in the United States. The body was created by the first state constitution adopted in 1818. Under the Illinois Constitution of 1970, the Illinois Senate is made up of 59 senators elected from individual legislative districts determined by population and redistricted every 10 years; based on the 2020 U.S. census each senator represents approximately 213,347 people. Senators are divided into three groups, each group having a two-year term at a different part of the decade between censuses, with the rest of the decade being taken up by two four-year terms. For example, group one elects senators for terms of four years, four years and two years, group two elects senators for terms of four years, two years and four years, and group three elects senators for terms of two years, four years and four years. This ensures that the Senate reflects changes made when the General Assembly redistricts itself after each census.

Usually, depending on the election year, roughly one-third or two-thirds of Senate seats are contested. On rare occasions (usually after a census), all Senate seats are up for election. In contrast, the Illinois House of Representatives is made up of 118 members with its entire membership elected to two-year terms. House districts are formed by dividing each Senate district in half, with each senator having two "associated" representatives.

The Illinois Senate convenes at the Illinois State Capitol in Springfield, Illinois. Its first official working day is the second Wednesday of January each year. Its primary duties are to pass bills into law, approve the state budget, confirm appointments to state departments and agencies, act on federal constitutional amendments and propose constitutional amendments for Illinois. It also has the power to override gubernatorial vetoes through a three-fifths majority vote. The Illinois Senate tries impeachments made by the House of Representatives, and can convict impeached officers by a two-thirds vote.

Voting in the Illinois Senate is done by members pushing one of three buttons. Unlike most states, the Illinois Senate allows members to vote yes, no, or present. It takes 30 affirmative votes to pass legislation during final action. The number of negative votes does not matter. Therefore, voting present has the same effect on the tally as voting no.

Leadership
, the 102nd General Assembly of the Illinois Senate consists of the following leadership:

Majority

 * President of the Senate: Don Harmon
 * Majority Leader: Kimberly A. Lightford
 * Assistant Majority Leader/President Pro Tempore: Bill Cunningham
 * Deputy Majority Leaders:
 * Laura Murphy
 * Emil Jones III
 * Assistant Majority Leaders:
 * Jacqueline Y. Collins
 * Linda Holmes
 * Dave Koehler
 * Antonio Munoz
 * Majority Caucus Chair: Mattie Hunter
 * Majority Caucus Whips:
 * Omar Aquino
 * Michael Hastings
 * Napoleon Harris III
 * Julie Morrison

Minority

 * Minority Leader: John Curran
 * Deputy Minority Leader: Sue Rezin
 * Assistant Minority Leaders:
 * Terri Bryant
 * Dale Fowler
 * Steve McClure
 * Jason Plummer
 * Minority Caucus Chair: Neil Anderson
 * Minority Caucus Whips:
 * Sally Turner
 * Jil Tracy

Officers

 * Secretary of the Senate: Tim Anderson
 * Assistant Secretary of the Senate: Scott Kaiser
 * Sergeant-at-Arms: Joe Dominguez
 * Assistant Sergeant-at-Arms: Dirk R. Eilers

Members
In 1924, Florence Fifer Bohrer became the body's first female member and Adelbert H. Roberts became its first African American member. In 1977, Earlean Collins became the first African American woman to serve in the Illinois Senate. Barack Obama, later the first African-American President of the United States, served in the Illinois Senate from 1997 to 2004.

, the 103rd General Assembly of the Illinois Senate consists of the following members:
 * Ɨ Legislator was appointed to the Illinois Senate prior to initial election.
 * ƗƗ Legislator was appointed to the Illinois Senate after being elected, but prior to inauguration day of the General Assembly to which they were elected.

title: Illinois Senate


text:
Super Mario 64 DS

Super Mario 64 DS is a 2004 platform game developed and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo DS. It was a launch game for the DS. Super Mario 64 DS is a remake of the 1996 Nintendo 64 game Super Mario 64, with new graphics, characters, collectibles, a multiplayer mode, and several extra minigames. As with the original, the plot centers on rescuing Princess Peach from Bowser. Unlike the original, Yoshi is the first playable character, with Mario, Luigi, and Wario being unlockable characters in early phases of the game.

Nintendo revealed Super Mario 64 DS as a multiplayer demonstration at E3 2004, and released it in November 2004. The game received generally positive reviews from critics, who praised its single-player mode, graphics and the changes made from the original game. However, it was criticized for its multiplayer mode and lack of analog controls. The game is the tenth best-selling Nintendo DS game, with over 11.06 million copies sold by 2018. Super Mario 64 DS was re-released on the Wii U's Virtual Console service across 2015 and 2016.

Plot
The game begins with Mario receiving a letter from Princess Peach inviting him to come to her castle for a cake she has baked for him. Mario arrives at Peach's castle, along with Luigi and Wario. The trio disappear as they enter the castle, and Lakitu, the game's camera operator, informs Yoshi of their disappearance. Yoshi explores Peach's castle to find Mario, Luigi, Wario, and Peach.

Scattered throughout the castle are paintings and secret walls, which act as portals to other worlds where Bowser and his minions guard the Power Stars. After recovering some of the power stars and defeating Bowser's minions, Yoshi unlocks doors that access other areas of the castle, where he finds Mario and his friends imprisoned in various rooms.

Yoshi defeats Goomboss and frees Mario as they continue searching the castle to find more Power Stars. Mario defeats King Boo and frees Luigi with the key he got from the boss, who then defeats Chief Chilly, and then frees Wario using the key he got. Mario and his friends tackle two obstacle courses, with each ensuing a battle with Bowser. After defeating him each time, they receive a key that opens more levels of the castle. Mario and his friends eventually reach the highest area of the castle and come across the endless stairs, which constantly loops when trying to climb it.

After collecting 80 Power Stars, the endless stairs' magic stops and Mario confronts Bowser alone (as he is the only one allowed to gain access to the top). After Bowser's defeat, Mario and his friends return to Peach's castle, where they free Peach from a stained-glass window above the entrance. As a reward for saving Peach, she kisses Mario on the nose and goes to bake the cake she had promised.

Gameplay

Super Mario 64 DS is a 3D platformer in which the player switches between four different characters – Yoshi, Mario, Luigi, and Wario – and controls them through numerous levels to collect 150 Power Stars, 30 more than the original game. Each character is essential to fully complete the game. Each level is an enclosed world (usually contained within and entered through a painting) in which the player is free to wander in all directions and discover the environment without time limits. The worlds are inhabited with enemies that attack the characters, as well as friendly creatures that provide assistance, offer information, or ask for help. The player gathers stars in each course; some stars only appear after completing certain tasks, often hinted at by the name of the star in the star select menu. These challenges include defeating bosses, solving puzzles, racing an opponent, and gathering coins. As the player collects stars, more areas of the castle become accessible.

Power-ups in Super Mario 64 DS take the form of special hats resembling those worn by Mario, Luigi, and Wario (all voiced by Charles Martinet), and are available in some levels. Acquiring one such hat will change the player's character into the corresponding character, allowing the player to use that character's abilities. The hats fall off if the character is hit, but can be reacquired. Yoshi (voiced by Kazumi Totaka) is able to start a level wearing the hat of any of the other available characters. Another power-up item, the "Power Flower", provides each character with a different ability: Mario is able to float, similar to Super Mario World's balloon item; Luigi becomes intangible and transparent, similar to the Vanish Cap in the Nintendo 64 version; Wario becomes coated by metal, which makes him temporarily invincible to enemy attacks and poison (which is purple instead of yellow as in the original version), and sink underwater, similar to the Metal Cap in the original version, but with the added ability to walk on lava instead of bouncing without taking damage; and Yoshi is able to breathe fire, which allows him to burn enemies and melt ice. Each ability is necessary to complete specific areas in the game. Other items include the "Mushroom", which is a semi-rare item that greatly increases the character's size and strength for a short period of time, and the Feather, that only Mario can get, and which allows him to fly in the same fashion as the Wing Cap in the original game. However, in multiplayer VS. Mode, other characters can get wings; in Yoshi's case, he grows wings out of his body, like in Super Mario World.

The game uses both of the system's screens to offer new options. The top screen displays the normal gameplay, while the bottom touchscreen can function as an overhead map and touch controls. The overhead map displays the current course the player traverses and displays item locations. The touch controls include virtual buttons, which rotate the top screen's camera angle, and directional character controls, which can operate with either the DS stylus or the player's thumb using the DS wrist strap. In addition to the single-player adventure, the game includes 36 minigames and a multiplayer mode. Minigames are made accessible by catching rabbits in the main game. All the minigames use the touchscreen to play and are based on different themes: racing, card games, puzzles, and so forth. The multiplayer mode uses the wireless DS Download Play where up to four players compete against each other using Green, Red, Blue, and Yellow Yoshi (voiced by Kazumi Totaka)—character hats appear in the stage allowing players to transform into either Mario, Luigi, or Wario. Wario can stun opponents by picking them up, swinging them around, and throwing them.

Development

Super Mario 64 DS was developed by Nintendo Entertainment Analysis and Development and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo DS. It is a remake of the Nintendo 64 launch game Super Mario 64, with the game's 3D engine mirroring many visual effects used in the original game. Graphical changes include the lack of texture filtering, and updated versions of the character models which represented their updated, more detailed designs. Coins have been upgraded from 2D animation to 3D models. All of Koji Kondo's music from the original game was re-used, with Kenta Nagata providing new music for the game. The voice actors from Super Mario 64 returned as well, and Kazumi Totaka joined the cast, playing the role of Yoshi.

Release and promotion
Originally titled "Super Mario 64 ×4", the game was first shown as a multiplayer demonstration at the 2004 E3 before the Nintendo DS was released. A few months later, Nintendo announced an actual game—along with many others—was in development. At the Nintendo DS conference on October 7, 2004, the game was on demonstration again and new information was revealed; the name was changed to Super Mario 64 DS and four different characters (Mario, Luigi, Yoshi, and Wario) would be used in the main, single-player adventure. The demonstration was a more complete version of the game than the E3 version—the game's development was 90% complete at this time—and highlighted the multiple characters in the single-player mode and included minigames; the multiplayer mode, however, was not present.

Prior to the conference, the appearance of the box art on GameStop's product page caused speculation Super Mario 64 DS would be a launch game. Nintendo confirmed the rumor by announcing at the conference that the game would be a launch game of the Nintendo DS in North America and Japan. As the game's release approached, the release schedule of launch games altered; many games were delayed, while others were announced to be released a few days before the Nintendo DS. Super Mario 64 DS was the only game scheduled to be released with the system.

Super Mario 64 DS was first released in North America for the Nintendo DS on November 21, 2004 as a launch game for the system. On June 5, 2011, the game was repackaged in a red-colored case (along with New Super Mario Bros., Mario Kart DS, Mario Party DS, Mario & Luigi: Bowser's Inside Story, and Mario vs. Donkey Kong: Mini-Land Mayhem!) in tandem with a price drop of $99 for the DS. Super Mario 64 DS was later re-released in Japan for the Wii U as a part of the Virtual Console line of games on January 6, 2016, and was later released in North America in August of that year.

Sales
Super Mario 64 DS has been commercially successful. Following its release in Japan, the game sold 241,000 copies by December 19, 2004, and was the fifth best-selling game on the weekly sales chart of that week. Sales continued to increase, and Super Mario 64 DS had sold 639,000 units by February 20, 2005. The game frequently appeared on Amazon.com's sales charts. In the first week of June 2006, it was listed as the sixth best-selling Nintendo DS game, and had risen to number three by the last week of the month. The game appeared again near the end of July 2006 as the eighth best-selling game. At the beginning of 2008, Amazon.com charts listed the game as the seventh best-selling Nintendo DS game in the United States. In the United States, it sold 1.4 million copies and earned $42 million by August 2006. During the period between January 2000 and August 2006, it was the seventh highest-selling game launched for the Nintendo DS. By November 2006, the game had sold over one million units in Europe, and by the end of 2007, over two million copies in the United States. By May 31, 2011, the game had sold 4.34 million copies in the United States, and in October 2012 Nintendo reported that the game had surpassed sales of 5 million units. As of March 31, 2018, Super Mario 64 DS has sold 11.06 million copies worldwide.

Critics
Super Mario 64 DS has won awards and met with "generally favorable reviews" from video game journalists, according to review aggregator Metacritic, which assigned it a weighted average score of 85 out of 100 based on 54 reviews, and listed it as the best Nintendo DS game of the year and 34th best Nintendo DS game of all time. Upon its release, IGN labeled it as an "Editor's Choice" and awarded it "Game of the Month" for the Nintendo DS, citing the game as a "great achievement" of the system's capability. In 2005, the game won a Golden Joystick Award for best handheld game of year. Prior to the game's release, Craig Harris of IGN reviewed the early demonstration. He commented on the accurate recreation of the original graphics, and stated that the small Nintendo DS screen helps hide any visual flaws. Harris criticized the game's controls calling them a little "sluggish" and "clumsy". Though he praised the graphics and new gameplay additions, Harris expressed disappointment that the Mario launch game for the new system was a remake instead of a full game. IGN's Anoop Gantayat anticipated the game would be a big hit among American video game enthusiasts. In Japan, Famitsu ranked Super Mario 64 DS the 29th most wanted game.

Reviewers praised the game's accurate recreation of the Nintendo 64 game, additional features, and upgrades. Phil Theobald of GameSpy lauded Super Mario 64 DS, calling it "fantastic" and complimenting the new features: minigames, use of a second screen, and extra stars. He also commented that the gameplay of the original game holds up ten years after its original release. Harris said the original feel of Super Mario 64 is retained, while the new challenges and features build upon it in a way that added to the game's longevity. He complimented the graphics and audio, and considered the game a good demonstration of the Nintendo DS's capabilities. Jeff Gerstmann of GameSpot also complimented the graphics, specifically the higher polygon count and smooth frame rate. He called Super Mario 64 DS a "great update of a classic game", and felt the changes and additional features offered a new experience to fans of the original. In contrast, 1UP.com's Jeremy Parish felt the game did not offer enough new content to warrant a purchase. He praised the inclusion of extra characters, calling them a "nice twist", but concluded his review by calling the game a "poorly-conceived port" that should be played on the original system.

Other criticism focused on the game's controls and multiplayer mode. Theobald felt the lack of an analog stick made the controls more difficult than the original game and required a short period of adjustment. He further stated that the digital pad and touchscreen's virtual analog control were "tricky" and required practice. Harris echoed similar comments and noted the touchscreen does not provide physical feedback like an analog stick. He added the game was never intended to be played without proper analog controls. Gerstmann referred to the multiplayer mode as "uneventful" and considered it lacking longevity, but commented that it was a good extra that demonstrated the system's wireless multiplayer capabilities. Theobald agreed it was a nice addition, but considered it a "diversion" that players would tire of quickly.

During the 8th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards, the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences awarded Super Mario 64 DS with "Wireless Game of the Year", as well as received a nomination for "Handheld Game of the Year" (which was ultimately awarded to Metroid: Zero Mission).

title: Super Mario 64 DS


text:
Minimum funding requirement

The Minimum Funding Requirement (MFR) was a part of United Kingdom legislation in the Pensions Act 1995, and was introduced on 6 April 1997. The Pensions Act 2004 abolishes the MFR replaces it with new "statutory funding objective"; this came into force on 30 December 2005 for all pension schemes with a valuation date after September 22, 2005.

The aim of the Minimum Funding Requirement was to set a minimum amount of assets that a defined benefit pension scheme should hold in order to fund its promised benefits. If a scheme did not hold sufficient assets, the pension scheme was required to achieve the minimum level within a given time scale.

For a scheme with less than 90% of the assets required, the scheme had to pay the shortfall below 90% within three years. Where the scheme was between 90% and 100%, the period was ten years.

Although legislation set out the broad requirements of the Minimum Funding Requirement, the details of the methods and assumptions to use were specified in Guidance Note 27, issued by the Institute of Actuaries and the Faculty of Actuaries.

After the introduction of the Minimum Funding Requirement, there were several modifications to the assumptions to cope with perceived weaknesses in the original basis. However, the level of assets required by the MFR never proved sufficient to provide the benefits promised by the scheme which the MFR was supposed to fund. The Pensions Act 2004 abolished the MFR and introduced a new scheme funding objective hoped to adapt more flexibly to individual schemes' circumstances but at the same time protecting members' benefits. Paul Myners report states on page 4: "I propose replacing the Minimum Funding Requirement, which distorts investment and fails to protect scheme members, with a long-term approach based on disclosure and openness instead of an artificial uniform yardstick."

title: Minimum funding requirement


text:
Michael East (athlete)

Michael John East (born 20 January 1978 in Reading, England) is a retired middle-distance athlete. His best result came in winning the 1500 metres gold medal at the 2002 Commonwealth Games in Manchester, England. He was the last British male to win a major 1500m title until Jake Wightman became World Champion in 2022.

He has also had some success in the IAAF European Cup finishing second and third in 2002 and 2003 respectively at the same distance. He nearly added to his medal tally when finishing third at the 2004 IAAF World Indoor Championships in Budapest, Hungary only to find himself disqualified for interfering with the run of the Kenyan Laban Rotich.

He reached the final of the 1500m at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, finishing in 6th place. He was the only British male at those Games to reach an individual athletics final on the track. He was a semi-finalist at the 2005 IAAF World Championships but missed the most of the 2006 and 2007 seasons because of a knee injury. As a result, in November 2007 he had his lottery funding removed, making it much harder for him to return to top rank competition. He had to rely on financial support from two Portsmouth companies. East called the decision by UK Athletics "crazy" and "shortsighted." He returned to compete at the 2008 IAAF World Indoor Championships but was not selected for the squad for the 2008 Summer Olympics as he could finish only 8th in the trials held in July. He announced his retirement on 8 September 2008.

title: Michael East (athlete)


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Vassili Poyarkov

Vassili Danilovich Poyarkov (Василий Данилович Поярков in Russian, c. 1597 – after 1668) was the first Russian explorer of the Amur region.

The Russian expansion into Siberia began with the conquest of the Khanate of Sibir in 1582. By 1639 they reached the Pacific 65 miles southeast of the mouth of the Ulya River. East of the Yenisei River there was little land fit for agriculture, except Dauria, the land between the Stanovoy Mountains and the Amur River which was nominally controlled by China. Poyarkov was sent to explore this land.

In 1640 he was in Yakutsk as pismenyy golova (roughly, in charge of records and correspondence). In June 1643, Poyarkov with 133 men started out from Yakutsk. They were sent by the voevoda of Yakutsk, Peter Golovin. Having no idea of the proper route, Poyarkov traveled up the rivers Lena, Aldan, Uchur, Gonam. Delayed by 64 portages, it was early winter before he reached the Stanovoy watershed. Leaving 49 men to overwinter, he pushed south over the mountains in December to reach the upper Zeya River in Daur country, where he found a land of farmers with domestic animals, proper houses and Chinese trade goods who paid tribute to the Manchus who were just starting their conquest of China. He built a winter fort near the mouth of the Umelkan river. To extract supplies from the natives, he employed excessive brutality, thereby provoking their hostility and making supplies harder to get. His men survived on a diet of pine bark, stolen food, stray forest animals and native captives whom they cannibalized.

By the spring of 1644 only forty of his men were left alive. Joined now by the overwintering party, they pushed down the Zeya to the Amur. Their reputation having preceded them, they had to fight their way down the Amur through numerous ambushes. By fall they reached the Gilyak country at the mouth of the Amur. With so many enemies behind him, Poyarkov thought it unwise to return by the same route. That winter they built boats and the next spring worked their way up the Sea of Okhotsk coast to the Ulia River and spent the next winter in the huts that had been built by Ivan Moskvitin six years earlier. The next spring, they followed Moskvitin's route along the Maya River back to Yakutsk, arriving almost exactly three years after they left.

Like so many Russian explorers and colonists in Siberia, Poyarkov received no reward. His brutal treatment of Siberian natives had made enemies even among his own men. The voevoda of Yakutsk sent him to Moscow for trial and an unknown fate. Whatever the authorities thought of Poyarkov himself, they were happy with the information he supplied. The next Russian expedition to the Amur was led by Yerofei Khabarov in 1650. See also Russian-Manchu border conflicts.

The 1963-built icebreaker Ledokol-4 was renamed Vasiliy Poyarkov in 1996.

title: Vassili Poyarkov


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Nautiloid

Nautiloids are a group of marine cephalopods (Mollusca) which originated in the Late Cambrian and are represented today by the living Nautilus and Allonautilus. Fossil nautiloids are diverse and species rich, with over 2,500 recorded species. They flourished during the early Paleozoic era, when they constituted the main predatory animals. Early in their evolution, nautiloids developed an extraordinary diversity of shell shapes, including coiled morphologies and giant straight-shelled forms (orthocones). No orthoconic and only a handful of coiled species, the nautiluses, survive to the present day.

In a broad sense, "nautiloid" refers to a major cephalopod subclass or collection of subclasses (Nautiloidea sensu lato). Nautiloids are typically considered one of three main groups of cephalopods, along with the extinct ammonoids (ammonites) and living coleoids (such as squid, octopus, and kin). While ammonoids and coleoids are monophyletic clades with exclusive ancestor-descendant relationships, this is not the case for nautiloids. Instead, nautiloids are a paraphyletic grade of various early-diverging cephalopod lineages, including the ancestors of ammonoids and coleoids. Some authors prefer a narrower definition of Nautiloidea (Nautiloidea sensu stricto), as a singular subclass including only those cephalopods which are closer to living nautiluses than they are to either ammonoids or coleoids.

Taxonomic relationships
Nautiloids are among the group of animals known as cephalopods, an advanced class of mollusks which also includes ammonoids, belemnites and modern coleoids such as octopus and squid. Other mollusks include gastropods, scaphopods and bivalves.

Traditionally, the most common classification of the cephalopods has been a four-fold division (by Bather, 1888), into the orthoceratoids, nautiloids, ammonoids, and coleoids. This article is about nautiloids in that broad sense, sometimes called Nautiloidea sensu lato.

Cladistically speaking, nautiloids are a paraphyletic assemblage united by shared primitive (plesiomorphic) features not found in derived cephalopods. In other words, they are a grade group that is thought to have given rise to orthoceratoids, ammonoids and coleoids, and are defined by the exclusion of those descendent groups. Both ammonoids and coleoids have traditionally been assumed to have descended from bactritids, which in turn arose from straight-shelled orthoceratoids. The ammonoids appeared early in the Devonian period (some 400 million years ago) and became abundant in the Mesozoic era, before their extinction at the end of the Cretaceous.

Some workers apply the name Nautiloidea to a more exclusive group, called Nautiloidea sensu stricto. This taxon consists only of those orders that are clearly related to the modern nautilus to the exclusion of other modern cephalopods. In this restricted definition, membership is somewhat variable between authors, but it usually includes Tarphycerida, Oncocerida, and Nautilida.

Shell
All nautiloids have a large external shell, divided into a narrowing chambered region (the phragmocone) and a broad, open body chamber occupied by the animal in life. The outer wall of the shell, also known as the conch, defines its overall shape and texture. The chambers (camerae) of the phragmocone are separated from each other by thin curved walls (septa), which formed during growth spurts of the animal. During a growth spurt, the rear of the mantle secretes a new septum, adding another chamber to the series of shell chambers. At the same time, shell material is added around the shell opening (aperture), enlarging the body chamber and providing more room for the growing animal. Sutures (or suture lines) appear where each septum contacts the wall of the outer shell. In life, they are visible as a series of narrow wavy lines on the outer surface of the shell. Like their underlying septa, the sutures of the nautiloids are simple in shape, being either straight or slightly curved. This is different from the "zigzag" sutures of the goniatites and the highly complex sutures of the ammonites.

The septa are perforated by the siphuncle, a fleshy tube which runs through each of the internal chambers of the shell. Surrounding the fleshy tube of the siphuncle are structures made of aragonite (a polymorph of calcium carbonate – which during fossilisation is often recrystallized to calcite, a more stable form of calcium carbonate [CaCO3]): septal necks and connecting rings. Some of the earlier nautiloids deposited calcium carbonate in the empty chambers (called cameral deposits) or within the siphuncle (endosiphuncular deposits), a process which may have been connected with controlling buoyancy. The nature of the siphuncle and its position within the shell are important in classifying nautiloids and can help distinguish them from ammonoids. The siphuncle is on the shell periphery in most ammonoids whereas it runs through the center of the chambers in some nautiloids, including living nautiluses.

The subclass Nautiloidea, in its broader definition, is distinguished from other cephalopods by two main characteristics: the septa are smoothly concave in the forward direction, producing external sutures which are generally simple and smooth. The siphuncle is supported by septal necks which point to the rear (i.e. retrosiphonate) throughout the ontogeny of the animal.

Modern nautiluses have deeply coiled shells which are involute, meaning that the larger and more recent whorls overlap and obscure older whorls. The shells of fossil nautiloids may be either straight (i.e., orthoconic as in Orthoceras and Rayonnoceras), curved (as in Cyrtoceras) coiled (as in Cenoceras), or rarely a helical coil (as in Lorieroceras). Some species' shells—especially in the late Paleozoic and early Mesozoic—are ornamented with spines and ribs, but most have a smooth shell. The shells are formed of aragonite, although the cameral deposits may consist of primary calcite. The coloration of the shell of the modern nautilus is quite prominent, and, although somewhat rarely, the shell coloration has been known to be preserved in fossil nautiloids. They often show color patterns only on the dorsal side, suggesting that the living animals swam horizontally.

Modern nautiloids
Much of what is known about the extinct nautiloids is based on what we know about modern nautiluses, such as the chambered nautilus, which is found in the southwest Pacific Ocean from Samoa to the Philippines, and in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Australia. It is not usually found in waters less than 100 m deep and may be found as far down as 500 to 700 m.

Nautili are free swimming animals that possess a head with two simple lens-free eyes and arms (or tentacles). They have a smooth shell over a large body chamber, which is divided into subchambers filled with an inert gas (similar to the composition of atmospheric air, but with more nitrogen and less oxygen) making the animal neutrally buoyant in the water. As many as 90 tentacles are arranged in two circles around the mouth. The animal is predatory, and has jaws which are horny and beak-like, allowing it to feed on crustaceans.

Empty nautilus shells may drift a considerable distance and have been reported from Japan, India and Africa. Undoubtedy the same applies to the shells of fossil nautiloids, the gas inside the shell keeping it buoyant for some time after the animal's death, allowing the empty shell to be carried some distance from where the animal lived before finally sinking to the seafloor.

Nautili propel themselves by jet propulsion, expelling water from an elongated funnel called the hyponome, which can be pointed in different directions to control their movement. Unlike the belemnites and other cephalopods, modern nautili do not have an ink sac, and there is no evidence to suggest that the extinct forms possessed one either. Furthermore, unlike the extinct ammonoids, the modern nautilus lacks an aptychus, a biomineralized plate which is proposed to act as an operculum which closes the shell to protect the body. However, aptychus-like plates are known from some extinct nautiloids, and they may be homologous to the fleshy hood of a modern nautilus.

Fossil record
Nautiloids are often found as fossils in early Palaeozoic rocks (less so in more recent strata).

The rocks of the Ordovician period in the Baltic coast and parts of the United States contain a variety of nautiloid fossils, and specimens such as Discitoceras and Rayonnoceras may be found in the limestones of the Carboniferous period in Ireland. The marine rocks of the Jurassic period in Britain often yield specimens of Cenoceras, and nautiloids such as Eutrephoceras are also found in the Pierre Shale formation of the Cretaceous period in the north-central United States.

Specimens of the Ordovician nautiloid Endoceras have been recorded measuring up to 5.7 m in shell length, and there is a description of a specimen estimated to have reached 9.1 m, although that specimen is reported as destroyed. These large nautiloids would have been formidable predators of other marine animals at the time they lived.

In some localities, such as Scandinavia and Morocco, the fossils of orthoconic nautiloids accumulated in such large numbers that they form limestones composed of nonspecific assemblages known as cephalopod beds, cephalopod limestones, nautiloid limestones, or Orthoceras limestones in the geological literature. Although the term Orthoceras now only refers to a Baltic coast Ordovician genus, in prior times it was employed as a general name given to all straight-shelled nautiloids that lived from the Ordovician to the Triassic periods (but were most common in the early Paleozoic era).

Evolutionary history
Nautiloids are first known from the late Cambrian Fengshan Formation of northeastern China, where they seem to have been quite diverse (at the time this was a warm shallow sea rich in marine life). However, although four orders have been proposed from the 131 species named, there is no certainty that all of these are valid, and indeed it is likely that these taxa are seriously oversplit.

Most of these early forms died out, but a single family, the Ellesmeroceratidae, survived to the early Ordovician, where it ultimately gave rise to all subsequent cephalopods. In the Early and Middle Ordovician the nautiloids underwent an evolutionary radiation. Some eight new orders appeared at this time, covering a great diversity of shell types and structure, and ecological lifestyles.

Nautiloids remained at the height of their range of adaptations and variety of forms throughout the Ordovician, Silurian, and Devonian periods, with various straight, curved and coiled shell forms coexisting at the same time. Several of the early orders became extinct over that interval, but others rose to prominence.

Nautiloids began to decline in the Devonian, perhaps due to competition with their descendants and relatives the Ammonoids and Coleoids, with only the Nautilida holding their own (and indeed increasing in diversity). Their shells became increasingly tightly coiled, while both numbers and variety of non-nautilid species continued to decrease throughout the Carboniferous and Permian.

The massive extinctions at the end of the Permian were less damaging to nautiloids than to other taxa and a few groups survived into the early Mesozoic, including pseudorthocerids, bactritids, nautilids and possibly orthocerids. The last straight-shelled forms were long thought to have disappeared at the end of the Triassic, but a possible orthocerid has been found in Cretaceous rocks. Apart from this exception, only a single nautiloid suborder, the Nautilina, continued throughout the Mesozoic, where they co-existed quite happily with their more specialised ammonoid cousins. Most of these forms differed only slightly from the modern nautilus. They had a brief resurgence in the early Tertiary (perhaps filling the niches vacated by the ammonoids in the end Cretaceous extinction), and maintained a worldwide distribution up until the middle of the Cenozoic Era. With the global cooling of the Miocene and Pliocene, their geographic distribution shrank and these hardy and long-lived animals declined in diversity again. Today there are only six living species, all belonging to two genera, Nautilus (the pearly nautilus), and Allonautilus.

The recent decrease in the once worldwide distribution of nautiloids is now believed to have been caused by the spread of pinnipeds. From the Oligocene onward, the appearance of pinnipeds in the geological record of a region coincides with the disappearance of nautiloids from that region. As a result, nautiloids are now limited to their current distribution in the tropical Indo-Pacific ocean, where pinnipeds are absent. The genus Aturia seem to have temporarily survive regions where pinnipeds were present through adaptations to fast and agile swimming, but eventually went extinct as well. Predation by short-snouted whales and the development of OMZs, preventing nautiloids from retreating into deeper water, are also cited as other potential causes of extinction.

Older classification systems
A consensus on nautiloid classification has traditionally been elusive and subject to change, as different workers emphasize different fundamental traits when reconstructing evolutionary events. The largest and most widely cited publication on nautiloid taxonomy is the Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology Part K by Teichert et al. 1964, though new information has rendered this volume outdated and in need of revision. Treatise Part K was based on previous classification schemes by Flower & Kummel (1950) and the Russian Osnovy Paleontologii Vol. 5 (1962) textbook.

Other comprehensive taxonomic schemes have been devised by Wade (1988), Teichert (1988), and Shevyrev (2006). Wade (1988) divided the subclass Nautiloidea (sensu lato) into 6 superorders, incorporating orders that are phylogenetically related. They are:
 * †Plectronoceratoidea = †Plectronocerida, †Protactinocerida, †Yanhecerida, and †Ellesmerocerida.
 * †Endoceratoidea = †Endocerida
 * †Orthoceratoidea = †Orthocerida, †Ascocerida, and †Pseudorthocerida (the Orthoceratoidea of Kröger 2007)
 * Nautilitoidea = †Tarphycerida, †Oncocerida, and Nautilida.
 * †Actinoceratoidea = †Actinocerida
 * †Discosoritoidea = †Discosorida

Three of these superorders were established for orders of uncertain placement: Endocerida, Actinocerida, and Discosorida. The other three unite related orders which share a common ancestor and form a branch of the nautiloid taxonomic tree: Plectronoceratoidea, which consists mostly of small Cambrian forms that include the ancestors of subsequent stocks; Orthoceratoidea, which unites different primarily orthoconic orders (including the ancestors for Bacritida and Ammonoidea); and Nautilitoidea, which includes the first coiled cephalopods, Tarphycerida, as well as Nautilida, which includes the recent Nautilus. Another order, Bactritida, which is derived from Orthocerida, is sometimes included with Nautiloidea, sometimes with Ammonoidea, and sometimes placed in a subclass of its own, Bactritoidea.

Recently some workers in the field have come to recognize Dissidocerida as a distinct order, along with Pseudorthocerida, both previously included in Orthocerida as subtaxa.

Early cladistic efforts
Cladistic approaches are rare in nautiloid systematics. Many nautiloid orders (not to mention the group as a whole) are not monophyletic clades, but rather paraphyletic grades. This means that they include some descendant taxa while excluding others. For example, the paraphyletic order Orthocerida includes numerous orthocerids stretching through the Paleozoic, but it excludes colloids, despite colloids having a well-established ancestry among the orthocerids. Interpretations by Engeser (1996-1998) suggests that nautiloids, and indeed cephalopods in general, should be split into two main clades: Palcephalopoda (including all the nautiloids except Orthocerida and Ascocerida) and Neocephalopoda (the rest of the cephalopods). Palcephalopoda is meant to correspond to groups which are closer to living nautilus, while Neocephalopoda is meant to correspond to groups closer to living coleoids. One issue which this scheme is the necessity of establishing a firm ancestry for nautilus, to contextualize which cephalopods are closer to which of the two living end members. On the basis of morphological traits, Nautilida is most similar to coiled early nautiloids such as the Tarphycerida and Oncocerida. However, these orders diverged from coleoid ancestors in the early Ordovician at the latest, while genetic divergence estimates suggest that Nautilida diverged in the Silurian or Devonian.

A more recent phylogenetic study by Lindgren et al. (2004), which supports the monophyly of cephalopods, does not bear on the Palcephalopod/Neocephalopod question, since the only cephalopods included were Nautilus and coleoids.

Recent revisions
For an in-process revision of Treatise Part K, King & Evans (2019) reclassified nautiloids sensu lato into five subclasses. Major groups were primarily defined by variation in their muscle attachment types. Other traits referenced during this reclassification include protoconch morphology, connecting ring structure, and the extent of cameral and endosiphuncular deposits. While most previous studies referred to subclasses with the suffix '-oidea', these authors instead opted for the suffix '-ia', to prevent confusion between group levels. For example, Nautiloidea sensu stricto was renamed to Nautilia, to differentiate it from the informal broader definition of "nautiloid". In addition, they used the unsimplified names for orders, with the suffix '-atida' rather than the common simplified form, '-ida'.

Traditional nautiloid classification schemes emphasize certain character traits over others, potentially involving personal bias as to which traits are worth emphasizing according to different authors. This issue may be resolved by sampling all morphological traits equally through bayesian phylogenetic inference. The first cephalopod-focused paper to use this technique was published by Pohle et al. (2022). They recovered several previously hypothesized groups, though many orders were determined to be paraphyletic. The study was focused on early cephalopod diversification in the Late Cambrian and Ordovician, and did not discuss in detail the origin of post-Ordovician groups. The following is a simplified version of their cladogram, showing early cephalopod relationships to the order level (although various isolated families also originated during this diversification event):
 * Subclass †Plectronoceratia (formerly Plectronoceratoidea)
 * Order †Plectronoceratida
 * Order †Yanheceratida
 * Order †Protactinoceratida
 * Subclass †Multiceratia (formerly Multiceratoidea)
 * Order †Ellesmeroceratida
 * Order †Cyrtocerinida
 * Order †Bisonoceratida
 * Order †Oncoceratida
 * Order †Discosorida
 * Subclass †Tarphyceratia
 * Order †Tarphyceratida
 * Order †Ascoceratida
 * Subclass Nautilia (formerly Nautiloidea sensu stricto)
 * Order Nautilida
 * Subclass †Orthoceratia (formerly Orthoceratoidea)
 * Order †Rioceratida
 * Order †Dissidoceratida
 * Order †Orthoceratida
 * Order †Pseudorthoceratida
 * Order †Actinoceratida
 * Order †Astroviida (suborders †Lituitina and †Pallioceratina)
 * Order †Endoceratida

title: Nautiloid