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Britannia Bridge

Britannia Bridge (Pont Britannia) is a bridge in Wales that crosses the Menai Strait between the Isle of Anglesey and city of Bangor. It was originally designed and built by the noted railway engineer Robert Stephenson as a tubular bridge of wrought iron rectangular box-section spans for carrying rail traffic. Its importance was to form a critical link of the Chester and Holyhead Railway's route, enabling trains to directly travel between London and the port of Holyhead, thus facilitating a sea link to Dublin, Ireland.

Decades before the building of the Britannia Bridge, the Menai Suspension Bridge had been completed, but this structure carried a road rather than track; there was no rail connection to Anglesey before its construction. After many years of deliberation and proposals, on 30 June 1845, a Parliamentary Bill covering the construction of the Britannia Bridge received royal assent. At the Admiralty's insistence, the bridge elements were required to be relatively high in order to permit the passage of a fully rigged man-of-war. In order to meet the diverse requirements, Stephenson, the project's chief engineer, performed in-depth studies on the concept of tubular bridges. For the detailed design of the structure's girders, Stephenson gained the assistance of distinguished engineer William Fairbairn. On 10 April 1846, the foundation stone for the Britannia Bridge was laid. The construction method used for the riveted wrought iron tubes was derived from contemporary shipbuilding practices; the same technique as used for the Britannia Bridge was also used on the smaller Conwy Railway Bridge. On 5 March 1850, Stephenson himself fitted the last rivet of the structure, marking the bridge's official completion.

On 3 March 1966, the Britannia Bridge received Grade II listed status.

A fire in May 1970 caused extensive damage to the Britannia Bridge. Subsequent investigation determined that the damage to the tubes was so extensive that they were not realistically repairable. The bridge was rebuilt in a quite different configuration, reusing the piers while employing new arches to support not one but two decks, as the new Britannia Bridge was to function as a combined road-and-rail bridge. The bridge was rebuilt in phases, initially reopening in 1972 as a single-tier steel truss arch bridge, carrying only rail traffic. Over the next eight years more of the structure was replaced, allowing for more trains to run and a second tier to be completed. The second tier was opened to accommodate road traffic in 1980. The bridge was subject to a £4 million four-month in-depth maintenance programme during 2011. Since the 1990s, there has been talk of increasing road capacity over the Menai Strait, either by extending the road deck of the existing bridge or via the construction of a third bridge.

Design
The opening of the Menai Bridge in 1826, 1 mi to the east of where Britannia Bridge was later built, provided the first fixed road link between Anglesey and the mainland. The increasing popularity of rail travel shortly necessitated a second bridge to provide a direct rail link between London and the port of Holyhead, the Chester and Holyhead Railway.

Other railway schemes were proposed, including one in 1838 to cross Thomas Telford's existing Menai Bridge. Railway pioneer George Stephenson was invited to comment on this proposal but stated his concern about re-using a single carriageway of the suspension bridge, as bridges of this type were unsuited to locomotive use. By 1840, a Treasury committee decided broadly in favour of Stephenson's proposals, however, final consent to the route, including Britannia Bridge, would not be granted until 30 June 1845, the date on which the corresponding Parliamentary Bill received royal assent. Around the same time, Stephenson's son, Robert Stephenson, was appointed as chief engineer for the project.

At the Admiralty's insistence, any bridge would have to permit passage of the strait by a fully rigged man-of-war. Stephenson therefore intended to cross the strait at a high level, over 100 ft, by a bridge with two main spans of 460 ft, rectangular iron tubes, each weighing 1,500 LT, supported by masonry piers, the centre one of which was to be built on the Britannia Rock. Two additional spans of 230 ft length would complete the bridge, making a 1,511 ft continuous girder. The trains were to run inside the tubes (inside the box girders). Up until then, the longest wrought iron span had been 31 ft, barely one fifteenth of the bridge's spans of 460 ft. As originally envisaged by Stephenson, the tubular construction would give a structure sufficiently stiff to support the heavy loading associated with trains, but the tubes would not be fully self-supporting, some of their weight having to be taken by suspension chains.

For the detailed design of the girders, Stephenson secured the assistance of the distinguished engineer William Fairbairn, an old friend of his father and described by Stephenson as "well known for his thorough practical knowledge in such matters". Fairbairn began a series of practical experiments on various tube shapes and enlisted the help of Eaton Hodgkinson "distinguished as the first scientific authority on the strength of iron beams" It became apparent from Fairbairn's experiments that- without special precautions - the failure mode for the tube under load would be buckling of the top plate in compression, the theoretical analysis of which gave Hodgkinson some difficulty. When Stephenson reported to the directors of the railway in February 1846, he attached reports by both Hodgkinson and Fairbairn. From his analysis of the resistance to buckling of tubes with single top plates, Hodgkinson believed that it would require an impracticably thick (and therefore heavy) top plate to make the tubes stiff enough to support their own weight, and advised auxiliary suspension from link chains.

However, Fairbairn's experiments had moved on from those covered by Hodgkinson's theory to include designs in which the top plate was stiffened by 'corrugation' (the incorporation of cylindrical tubes). The results of these later experiments he found very encouraging; whilst it was still to be determined what the optimum form of the tubular girder should be  "I would venture to state that a Tubular Bridge can be constructed of such powers and dimensions as will meet, with perfect security, the requirements of railway traffic across the Straits" although it might require more materials than originally envisaged and the utmost care would be needed in its construction. He believed it would be 'highly improper' to rely upon chains as the principal support of the bridge. Under every circumstance, I am of opinion that the tubes should be made sufficiently strong to sustain not only their own weight, but in addition to that load 2000 tons equally distributed over the surface of the platform, a load ten times greater than they will ever be called upon to support.

In fact, it should be a huge sheet-iron hollow girder, of sufficient strength and stiffness to sustain those weights; and, provided that the parts are well-proportioned and the plates properly riveted, you may strip off the chains and have it as a useful monument of the enterprise and energy of the age in which it was constructed.

Stephenson's report drew attention to the difference of opinion between his experts, but reassured the directors that the design of the masonry piers allowed for the tubes to be given suspension support, and no view need yet be taken as to the need for it, which would be resolved by further experiments. A 75 ft span model was constructed and tested at Fairbairn's Millwall shipyard, and used as a basis for the final design. Stephenson, who had not previously attended any of Fairbairn's experiments, was present at one involving this 'model tube', and consequently was persuaded that auxiliary chains were unnecessary. No chains were fitted. As the only purpose of the piers (above the level of the present road deck) was to support the chains, these piers have never had any practical use. Although Stephenson had pressed for the tubes to be elliptical in section, Fairbairn's preferred rectangular section was adopted. Fairbairn was responsible both for the cellular construction of the top part of the tubes, and for developing the stiffening of the side panels. Each main span weighed roughly 1,830 tonnes.

Construction and use
On 10 April 1846, the foundation stone for the Britannia Bridge was laid, marking the official commencement of construction work at the site. The resident engineer for the structure's construction was civil engineer Edwin Clark, who had previously aided Stephenson in performing the complex structural stress calculations involved in its design process. The first major elements of the structure to be built were the side tubes, this work was performed in situ, using wooden platforms to support it. The construction method used for the iron tubes was derived from contemporary shipbuilding practices, being composed of riveted wrought iron plates 16 mm thick, complete with sheeted sides and cellular roofs and bases. The same technique as used for the Britannia Bridge was also used on the smaller Conwy Railway Bridge, which was built around the same time. On 10 August 1847, the first rivet was driven.

Working in parallel to the onsite construction process, the two central tube sections, which weighed 1,830 tonnes apiece, were separately built on the nearby Caernarfon shoreline. Once they had been fully assembled, each of the central tubes was floated, one at a time, into the causeway and directly below the structure. The in-place sections were gradually raised into place using powerful hydraulic cylinders; they were only raised by a few inches at a time, after which supports would be built underneath the section to keep it in place. This aspect of the bridge's construction was novel at the time. Reportedly, the innovative process had been responsible for costing Stephenson several nights of sleep at one stage of the project. The work did not go smoothly; at one point, one of the tubes allegedly came close to being swept out to sea before being recaptured and finally pushed back into place. The tubes were manoeuvred into place between June 1849 and February 1850.

Once in place, the separate lengths of tube were joined to form parallel prestressed continuous structures, each one possessing a length of 460.6 metres and weighing 5,350 tonne. The pre-stressing process had increased the structure's loadbearing capacity and reduced deflection. The tubes had a width of 4.5 metres and differed between 7 metres and 9.1 metres in overall depth, while also having a 3 metre gap between them; they were supported on a series of 4.6 metre cast iron beams that were embedded in the stonework of the towers. To better protect the iron from the weather, an arched timber roof was constructed to cover both tubes; it was roughly 12 metres wide, continuous over their whole length, and covered with tarred hessian. A 3.7 metre wide central walkway was present above the roof for the purpose of producing maintenance access.

On 5 March 1850, Stephenson himself fitted the last rivet of the structure, marking the bridge's official completion. Altogether, the bridge had taken over three years to complete. On 18 March 1850, a single tube was opened to rail traffic. By 21 October of that year, both tubes had been opened to traffic.

For its time, the Britannia Bridge was a structure of "magnitude and singular novelty", far surpassing in length both contemporary cast beam or plate girder iron bridges. The noted engineer Isambard Kingdom Brunel, a professional rival and personal friend of Stephenson's, was claimed to have remarked to him: "If your bridge succeeds, then mine have all been magnificent failures". On 20 June 1849, Brunel and Stephenson had both looked on as the first of the bridge's tubes was floated out on its pontoons. The construction techniques employed on the Britannia Bridge had obviously influenced Brunel as he later made use of the same method of floating bridge sections during the construction of the Royal Albert Bridge across the River Tamar at Saltash.

There was originally a railway station located on the east side of the bridge at the entrance to the tunnel, run by the Chester and Holyhead Railway company, which served local rail traffic in both directions. However, this station was closed after only $8 1/2$ years in operation owing to low passenger volumes. In the present day, little remains of this station, other than the remnants of the lower-level station building. A new station named Menai Bridge was opened shortly afterwards.

Lions
The bridge was decorated by four large lions sculpted in limestone by John Thomas, two at either end. Each was constructed from 11 pieces of limestone. They are 25 ft long, 12 ft tall, and weigh 30 tons.

These were immortalised in the following Welsh rhyme by the bard John Evans (1826–1888), who was born in nearby Menai Bridge:

 Pedwar llew tew Heb ddim blew Dau 'ochr yma A dau 'ochr drew Four fat lions Without any hair Two on this side And two over there

The lions cannot be seen from the A55, which crosses the modern bridge on the same site, although they can be seen from trains on the North Wales Coast Line below. The idea of raising them to road level has been suggested by local campaigners from time to time.

Fire and reconstruction
During the evening of 23 May 1970, the bridge was heavily damaged when boys playing inside the structure dropped a burning torch, setting alight the tar-coated wooden roof of the tubes. Despite the best efforts of the Caernarfonshire and Anglesey fire brigades, the bridge's height, construction, and the lack of an adequate water supply meant they were unable to control the fire, which spread all the way across from the mainland to the Anglesey side. After the fire had burned itself out, the bridge was still standing. However, the structural integrity of the iron tubes had been critically compromised by the intense heat; they had visibly split open at the three towers and had begun to sag. It was recognised that there was still danger of the structure collapsing. As a consequence, the bridge was rendered unusable without the enactment of major restorative work.

In light of events, the chief civil engineer of British Railways' London Midland region, W.F. Beatty, sought structural advice from consulting engineering company Husband & Co. Following an in-depth investigation of the site performed by the company, it was determined that the cast iron beams inside the towers had suffered substantial cracking and tilting, meaning that the tubes required immediate support at all three towers. The Royal Engineers were quickly brought in to save the bridge, rapidly deploying vertical Bailey bridge units to fill the original jacking slots in the masonry towers. By the end of July 1970, a total of eight Bailey bridge steel towers had been erected, each being capable of bearing a vertical load of around 200 tonnes.

Further analysis showed that the wrought iron tubes had been too badly damaged to be retained. In light of this discovery, it was decided to dismantle the tubes in favour of replacing them with a new deck at the same level as the original tracks. With the exception of the original stone substructure, the structure was completely rebuilt by Cleveland Bridge & Engineering Company. The superstructure of the new bridge was to include two decks: a lower rail deck supported by steel arches and an upper deck constructed out of reinforced concrete, to carry a new road crossing over the strait. Concrete supports were built under the approach spans and steel archways constructed under the long spans on either side of the central Britannia Tower. The two long spans are supported by arches, which had not been an option for the original structure as a result of the clearance needed for tall-masted vessels; modern navigational requirements require much less headroom.

The bridge was rebuilt in stages. The first stage was to erect the new steel arches under the two original wrought-iron tubes. The arches were completed, and single-line working was restored to the railway on 30 January 1972 by reusing one of the tubes. The next stage was to dismantle and remove the other tube and replace it with a concrete deck for the other rail track. Then the single-line working was transferred to the new track (on the west side); this allowed the other tube to be removed and replaced with a concrete deck (which is used only for service access) by 1974. Finally the upper road deck was installed and by July 1980, over 10 years after the fire, the new road crossing was completed, and formally opened by the Prince of Wales, carrying a single-carriageway section of the A5 road (now the A55).

During 2011, national railway infrastructure owner Network Rail, the Welsh Assembly Government and the English Highways Agency undertook a £4 million joint programme to strengthen the 160-year-old structure and improve its reliability. The work involved the replacement of eroded steelwork, repairs to the drainage system, restoration of the parapets and stonework, and the painting of the steel approach portals of the bridge. The programme included a detailed inspection of the internal chambers of the three towers and the construction of a special walkway to enable easier and safer access to the structure for future inspections of the masonry piers; special protective efforts adopted for the work included the use of special pollution-minimising paint and the decontamination of all equipment before being brought onsite.

Proposed bridge improvement

In November 2007, a public consultation exercise into the ‘A55 Britannia Bridge Improvement’ commenced. The perceived problems stated include:
 * It is the only non-dual-carriageway section along the A55
 * Congestion during morning and afternoon peak periods
 * Congestion from seasonal and ferry traffic from Holyhead
 * Queuing at the junctions at either end
 * Traffic is expected to significantly increase over the next ten years or so

In the document, four options are presented, each with their own pros and cons:
 * Do nothing. Congestion will increase as traffic levels increase.
 * Widen existing bridge. To do this, the towers would have to be removed to make room for the extra lanes. This is an issue as the bridge is a Grade 2 listed structure and is owned by Network Rail. The extra lanes would have to be of reduced width as the existing structure is not capable of supporting four full-width lanes.
 * New multi-span concrete box bridge alongside. Building a separate bridge would allow the existing bridge to be used as normal during construction. The bridge would require support pillar(s) in the Menai Strait, which is an environmental issue as the strait is a Special Area of Conservation. Visual impact would be low as the pillars and road surface would be aligned with the current bridge.
 * New single span cable-stayed bridge. This would eliminate the need for pillars in the Strait, but the bridge would have a large impact on the landscape due to the height of the cable support pillars. This is also the most costly option.

Respondents were overwhelmingly in favour of seeing some improvements, with 70 per cent favouring the solution of building another bridge.

Similar bridges
Very few other tubular iron bridges were ever built since more economical bridge designs were soon developed. The most notable of the other tubular bridges were Stephenson's Conwy railway bridge between Llandudno Junction and Conwy, the first Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue (Québec) Grand Trunk Railway bridge, which was the prototype of the Victoria Bridge across the Saint Lawrence River at Montreal.

The Conwy railway bridge remains in use, and is the only remaining tubular bridge; however, intermediate piers have been added to strengthen it. The bridge can be seen at close quarters from Thomas Telford's adjacent 1826 Conwy Suspension Bridge.

The Victoria Bridge was the first bridge to cross the St. Lawrence River, and was the longest bridge in the world when it was completed in 1859. It was rebuilt as a truss bridge in 1898.

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Mick Farren

Michael Anthony Farren (3 September 1943 – 27 July 2013) was an English rock musician, singer, journalist, and author associated with counterculture and the UK underground.

Early life
Farren was born in Cheltenham, Gloucestershire, and after moving to Worthing, Sussex, attended Worthing High School for Boys, which was a state grammar school. In 1963, he moved to London, where he studied at Saint Martin's School of Art.

Music
Farren was the singer with the proto-punk band The Deviants between 1967 and 1969, releasing three albums. During 1970 he released the solo album Mona – The Carnivorous Circus, which also featured Steve Peregrin Took, John Gustafson and Paul Buckmaster, before ending his music business to concentrate on writing.

During the mid-1970s, he briefly revived his musical career, releasing the single "Play With Fire" featuring Marky (soon-to-be Ramone) Bell, Jon Tiven, and Doug Snyder, the EP Screwed Up, album Vampires Stole My Lunch Money and single "Broken Statue". The album featured fellow New Musical Express (NME) journalist Chrissie Hynde and Dr. Feelgood guitarist Wilko Johnson. He also contributed song ideas and music for short-lived Ladbroke Grove ensemble Warsaw Pakt's 1977 Needle Time LP.

He sporadically did musical work after that, collaborating with Wayne Kramer on Who Shot You Dutch? and Death Tongue, Jack Lancaster on The Deathray Tapes and Andy Colquhoun on The Deviants albums Eating Jello With a Heated Fork and Dr. Crow.

Aside from his own work, he provided lyrics for various musician friends over the years. He collaborated with Ian Fraser Kilmister (Lemmy), co-writing "Lost Johnny" for Hawkwind, and "Keep Us on the Road" and "Damage Case" for Motörhead. With Larry Wallis, he co-wrote "When's the Fun Begin?" for the Pink Fairies and several tracks on Wallis' solo album Death in the Guitafternoon. He provided lyrics for the Wayne Kramer single "Get Some" during the mid-1970s, and continued to work with and for him during the 1990s.

Singles

 * Solo

 * 1976 – "Play with Fire" / "Lost Johnny" (Ork records)
 * 1978 – "Half Price Drinks" (Logo Records)
 * 1978 – "Broken Statue" / "It's All in the Picture" (Logo records)

 * Other appearances

 * 1968 - The Deviants - "You've Got to Hold On" / "Let's Loot the Supermarket" (Stable Records)
 * 1977 – Mick Farren and The Deviants – Screwed Up EP (Stiff Records)
 * 1987 – Wayne Kramer & Mick Farren – Who Shot You Dutch?
 * 199? – Lunar Malice – "Gunfire in the Night" / "Touched by the Fire"

Albums

 * With The Deviants

 * Solo

 * 1970 – Mona – The Carnivorous Circus (Transatlantic Records)
 * 1978 – Vampires Stole My Lunch Money (Logo Records)
 * 2005 – To the Masterlock – live (Captain Trip Records, Japan)

 * Other appearances

 * 1991 – Wayne Kramer – Death Tongue (Progressive Records)
 * 1993 – Tijuana Bible – Gringo Madness
 * 1995 – Mick Farren and Jack Lancaster – The Deathray Tapes (Alive Records)
 * 2013 – Mick Farren and Andy Colquhoun – Black Vinyl Dress

Compilations

 * 1996 – Mick Farren and The Deviants – Fragments of Broken Probes
 * 1996 – The Social Deviants – Garbage (Alive Records)
 * 1999 – The Deviants – The Deviants Have Left the Planet
 * 2000 – Mick Farren and The Deviants – This CD Is Condemned (Alive Records)
 * 2001 – Mick Farren and The Deviants – On Your Knees, Earthlings (Alive Records)

Writing
During the early 1970s he contributed to the UK Underground press such as the International Times, also establishing Nasty Tales which he successfully defended from an obscenity charge. He later wrote for the mainstream New Musical Express, for which he wrote the article "The Titanic Sails At Dawn", an analysis of what he considered the malaise afflicting then-contemporary rock music and which described the conditions that subsequently resulted in punk.

He wrote 23 novels, including the Victor Renquist novels and the DNA Cowboys sequence. His 1989 novel The Armageddon Crazy dealt with a post-2000 United States dominated by fundamentalists who subvert the Constitution. He began writing fantasy literature in the 70s.

Farren wrote eleven works of non-fiction, including a number of biographical (including four on Elvis Presley), autobiographical and culture books (such as The Black Leather Jacket), and much poetry.

From 2003 to 2008, he was a columnist for the weekly newspaper Los Angeles CityBeat.

In his 3 May 2010 Doc40 blog, Farren announced that he was writing another Victor Renquist novel, with the working title of Renquist V.

In 2013, he worked with digital imprint Ink Monkey Books on audio inserts (with Andy Colquhoun of The Deviants) for reissues of The Texts of Festival and the DNA Cowboys sequence.

Car Warriors

 * Back From Hell: Car Warriors #2 (1999)

Flame of Evil

 * 1) Kindling (2004)
 * 2) Conflagration (2006)

Jeb Stuart Ho

 * Also known as The DNA Cowboys Trilogy.

 * 1) The Quest of The DNA Cowboys (1976)
 * 2) Synaptic Manhunt (1976)
 * 3) The Neural Atrocity (1977)
 * 4) The Last Stand of the DNA Cowboys (1989)

The Victor Renquist Quartet

 * 1) The Time of Feasting (1996)
 * 2) Darklost (2000)
 * 3) More Than Mortal (2001)
 * 4) Underland (2002)

Novels

 * The Texts of Festival (1973)
 * The Tale of Willy's Rats (1974)
 * The Feelies (1978)
 * The Song of Phaid the Gambler (1981), reissued as:
 * 1) Phaid the Gambler (1986)
 * 2) Citizen Phaid (1986)
 * Protectorate (1985)
 * CORP*S*E (1986), aka Vickers
 * Their Master's War (1987)
 * Exit Funtopia (1988), aka The Long Orbit
 * The Armageddon Crazy (1989) aka Armageddon Crazy
 * Mars – The Red Planet (1990)
 * Necrom (1991)
 * Jim Morrison's Adventures in the Afterlife (1999)
 * Road Movie (2012)

Story collections

 * Short Stories (1972–1973) (2001)
 * From the anthology – Dead Cats Bouncing, edited by Gerard Houarner and GAK, Bedlam Press (2002) a short story: Dead Cat Meets Slide
 * Zones of Chaos (2009)

Nonfiction

 * Watch Out Kids
 * Get On Down
 * Elvis in His Own Words
 * The Rolling Stones in Their Own Words
 * The Rock & Roll Circus
 * Elvis – The Illustrated Record
 * The Black Leather Jacket
 * Elvis and the Colonel
 * The Hitchhiker's Guide to Elvis
 * The CIA Files
 * Conspiracies, Lies and Hidden Agendas
 * Give the Anarchist a Cigarette
 * Gene Vincent: There's One in Every Town
 * Words of Wisdom From the Greatest Minds of All Time
 * Who's Watching You?: The Chilling Truth About the State, Surveillance and Personal Freedom
 * (Who put the) Bomp! Saving the World One Record at a Time
 * Zones of Chaos (an anthology)
 * Speed-Speed-Speedfreak – A fast history of amphetamine

Counterculture activity
Farren organised the Phun City Festival in 1970. He has long been associated with the Hells Angels (UK), who provided security at Phun City; they even awarded Farren an "approval patch" in 1970 for use on his first solo album Mona.

He was a prominent activist in the White Panthers UK movement, a group that most notably organised free food and other support services for free festivals from the Windsor Free Festival onwards.

Death
Farren died at age 69 in 2013, after collapsing while performing with the Deviants at The Borderline in London. The cause of death was stated to be a heart attack.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Mick Farren


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List of Major League Baseball career home run leaders

This is a list of the 300 Major League Baseball players who have hit the most career home runs in regular season play (i.e., excluding playoffs or exhibition games).

In the sport of baseball, a home run is a hit in which the batter scores by circling all the bases and reaching home plate in one play, without the benefit of a fielding error. This can be accomplished either by hitting the ball out of play while it is still in fair territory (a conventional home run) or by an inside-the-park home run.

Barry Bonds holds the Major League Baseball home run record with 762. He passed Hank Aaron, who hit 755, on August 7, 2007. The only other players to have hit 700 or more are Babe Ruth with 714, and Albert Pujols with 703. Alex Rodriguez (696), Willie Mays (660), Ken Griffey Jr. (630), Jim Thome (612), and Sammy Sosa (609) are the only other players to have hit 600 or more. Giancarlo Stanton is the active home run leader with 420.

Players in bold face are active as of the 2024 Major League Baseball season (including free agents), with the number in parentheses designating the number of home runs they have hit during the 2024 season. The last change in the cutoff for the top 300 occurred on July 13, 2024 when Marcus Semien hit his 228th career home run, tying Howard Johnson, Dick Stuart, and Hal Trosky.

List

 * Stats updated as of July 20, 2024.


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Kokand

Kokand is a city in Fergana Region in eastern Uzbekistan, at the southwestern edge of the Fergana Valley. Administratively, Kokand is a district-level city, that includes the urban-type settlement Muqimiy. The population of Kokand was approximately 259,700. The city lies 228 km southeast of Tashkent, 115 km west of Andijan, and 88 km west of Fergana. It is nicknamed "City of Winds". In 1877 when the first ethnographic works were done under the new imperial Russian administration, Khoqand/Kokand was reported and visually depicted on their maps as Tajik inhabited oasis (C.E de Ujfalvy (“Carte Ethnographique du Ferghanah, 1877”). The city and the entire eastern 3/4 of the Fergana Valley were included in Uzbekistan in the 1920s and Stalin's dictates of political borders.

Kokand is at the crossroads of the two main ancient trade routes into the Fergana Valley, one leading northwest over the mountains to Tashkent, and the other west through Khujand. As a result, Kokand is the main transportation junction in the Fergana Valley.

Etymology
The city's name is in conformity with other Central Asian cities that sport the element kand/kent/qand/jand, meaning "a city" in Sogdian as well as other Iranic languages. The Khwarazmian version was kath, which is still found in the name of the old city of Akhsikath/Akhsikat in the Fergana Valley of Uzbekistan. The prefix khu/hu is Iranic might stand "good" (as in modern Tajik khub), and would therefore translate as "good city".

Another explanation claims a Turkic derivation, and might refer to the "tribal family group of 'Kokan' who belong to the Kongrat tribe of Uzbeks".

History
The town of Kokand is one of the oldest towns in Uzbekistan and is situated in the western part of Fergana Valley. In the chronicles of the 10th century, the first written documents concerning town of Hukande, Havokande (old names of the town). In the 13th century, like most of Central Asian towns, the Mongols ruined the city. The town is a significant hub for trading on the Silk Route.

Kokand has existed since at least the 10th century, under the name of Khavakand, and was frequently mentioned in traveler's accounts of the caravan route between South Asia and East Asia. The Han dynasty of China conquered the entire city in the 1st century BC. Later, the Arabs conquered the region from Tang Empire. The Mongols destroyed Kokand in the 13th century.

The present city began as a fort in 1732 on the site of another older fortress called Eski-Kurgan. In 1740, it became the capital of an Uzbek kingdom, the Khanate of Kokand, which reached as far as Kyzylorda to the west and Bishkek to the northeast. Kokand was also the major religious center of the Fergana Valley, boasting more than 300 mosques.

Imperial forces of Russian Empire under Mikhail Skobelev captured the city in 1883 which then became part of Russian Turkistan. During World War I, two revolutions happened in the Russian Empire. it was the capital of the short-lived (72 days) (1917–18) anti-Bolshevik Provisional Government of Autonomous Turkistan (also known as Kokand Autonomy). They sought co-operation from Ataman Dutov and Alash Orda. However, their emissary to the Amir of Bukhara achieved little.

In September 1918, the Bolsheviks burned down the city and massacred over ten thousand citizens.

In the state of Dayuan

Archaeological research of Muyi Mubarak, Tepakurgan, Eski Kurgan and other monuments located in the city of Kokand revealed traces of civilization.

In Muyi Mubarak were found several clay shards of the 5th to 6th centuries; a clay platform, which in the 5th to 7th centuries served as the base of a monumental building; the remains of a fortress wall, built in the 1st to 2nd centuries of pahsa and mudbricks, which functioned for more than 400 years. At a depth of 5 meters, a lower cultural layer with materials dating back 2,000 years was discovered.

In Tepakurgan, located in the center of the city, a platform from the Early Middle Ages, which served as the base of a monumental castle with semicircular towers, was discovered, as in Muyi Mubarak.

The obtained artifacts give grounds to say and speculate that not later than the 7th century BC a certain part of the territory of the present city was developed for irrigated agriculture.

And the city appeared not later than the 2nd half of the 2nd century BC and was the center of the Sokh oasis, that is, the capital of the regional possession, which was part of the confederal state of Fergana ("Dayuan" of Chinese annals).

Havokand or Hokand

Arab geographers and travelers of the 10th century, Al-Istakhri and Ibn Haukal mention the city of Khovakand or Khokand, which in distance corresponds to the present Kokand.

According to written sources and local legends, there were ancient cities of Akhsikath, Kubo (Quva), Rishton, Osh, Bab (Pop), Koson (Kashan), Mo-ar-gilon (Margilan), Andigan (Andijan), Uzgen, Isfara, Varukh, Sokh, Konibodom and Khujand in Fergana already at the time of its conquest by Arabs who established Islam here (in the beginning of 8th century).

Arab travelers of the X century mention many other towns and generally notice that, besides towns, there were many large villages in Fergana.

Havokand or Hokand, located on the Silk Road between India and China on one side and Persia and the Near East on the other, may have been a major trade center of its time. It was destroyed by the mongolic peoples in the 13th century.

The Palace of Khudayar Khan
The Palace of Khudayar Khan was built between 1863 and 1874 by ruler Muhammad Khudayar Khan. American diplomat Eugene Schulyer described it as being "much larger and more magnificent than any other [palace] in Central Asia.”

Khudayar Khan commissioned architect Mir Ubaydullo to build him a royal residence with 114 rooms set around seven courtyards. The ruler wanted his mother to live in one of the palace's grand buildings, but she refused and set up her yurt in a courtyard.

The facade of the building is decorated with mosaic tiles and an Arabic inscription above the entrance. The inscription translates as “The High palace of Seid Mohammad Khudayar Khan”.

Most of the palace, including its harem, was demolished by the Soviets, but 19 rooms remain in palace. These are open to the public, and the interiors have been partially restored. They show a combination of Russian and traditional Uzbek styles, and the exquisite craftsmanship of Kokand's 19th-century artisans. It is possible to view the palace's collection of Chinese ceramics on request.

Juma Mosque
Kokand's Juma Mosque (Friday Mosque) is located on Chursu Square in the historic Icheri Sheher part of the city. It was built between 1812 and 1818 by Muhammad Umar Khan, who was ruler of Kokand from 1810 until his death in 1822.

The mosque is built around a large courtyard and has a 100m long iwan supported on 98 redwood columns, which are ornately carved and were brought from India. The minaret is 22m high.

Although intended to be Kokand's main place of worship, the Juma Mosque remained shut for most of the 20th century. It then reopened after much needed restoration in 1989 and now houses a small museum of applied arts with displays of embroideries and ceramics.

Amin Beg Madrassah
The Amin Beg Madrassah, a religious school, was built in the 1830s for a son of Madali Khan, the khan of Kokand from 1822 to 1842. The madrassah has a beautifully tiled facade, which was restored in 1913 by a craftsman called Khomol Khozi. For this reason, the madrassah is often called the Khomol Khozi Madrassah. Today, the building houses a small museum and a shop, but the tiles and the carved wooden columns are still impressive to look at.

Hamza Museum
Built in 1989, the Hamza Museum is named after Hamza Hakimzade Niyazi, a Soviet hero who was born in Kokand. Hamza was Uzbekistan's first national poet and the founder of Uzbek social realism, and the museum was opened to commemorate the centenary of his birth. The museum houses general exhibits about life in Kokand, and also has artefacts relating to a variety of dramatists, propagandists, and writers.

Additional Sites
There are three other historic madrassahs in Kokand. The 19th-century Shaib Mian Hazrat Madrasa has a small museum dedicated to the poet Mohammad Amin Muqimi (1850–1903).

The Narbutabey Madrassah was built in the 1790s. Its graveyard includes the tomb of Muhammad Umar Khan and his wife, the famous Uzbek poet Nodira. Known as the Modari Khan Mausoleum, it is ornately decorated with glazed blue mosaic tiles. Unlike the other madrassahs in Kokand which were closed by the Soviets, the Narbutabey Madrassah remained active as a place of Quranic study until 2016.

The last madrassah is the Dasturkahanchi Madrasa. It was built in 1833 as a school for boys, but it is now a training centre where girls learn embroidery.

 * Dakhma-I-Shokhon, a necropolis of the Kokand Khans from the 1830.

Education and culture
A number of madrasahs can be found with the city. Kokand made contribution to Islam. It is also home to a number of notable hanafi scholars, such as Abdulhafiz Al-Quqoniy and Yorqinjon Qori Al-Quqoniy.

There are 3 institutes there are "Kokand branch of Tashkent State Technical University(named after Islom Karimov)", "Kokand University(founded in 2019)", "Kokand State Pedagocical Institute", 9 colleges and lyceums, 40 secondary schools, 5 musical schools, a theater, and 20 libraries. There are 7 historical and house museums located in Kokand.

The first International Handicrafters Festival took place in Kokand in September 2019. It was hosted by the Uzbekistan Handicraft Association, and the guest of honour was Rosy Greenlees, President of the World Crafts Council. More than 600 creatives from 70 countries participated.

The festival was created to enable artisans from around the world to demonstrate and sell their products, as well as to network and further develop their skills. The festival included conference sessions dedicated to developing hand craftsmanship. The crafts on display included musical instruments, painting, ceramics, textiles, metalwork, and woodwork.

It is planned that the festival will be a biennial event, and it will next take place in 2021.

Economy
The black market provides nearly 75% of the income generated in the borders of the city. This includes retail, groceries, employment, money exchange, agriculture and manufacturing of many goods. A large part of the population works as small business owners in outdoor markets.

Kokand is a center for the manufacture of fertilizers, chemicals, machinery, and cotton and food products. Over the last two decades, new districts and public buildings have been created in the city as well as many houses, shops, cafes, restaurants and other private sector ventures. Kokand is an education center with one institute, nine colleges and lyceums, and numerous museums.

Notable people

 * Muhammad Sharif Gulkhani, poet and satirist
 * Ziroatkhon Hoshimova, First Lady of Uzbekistan
 * Peter Mikhailovich Kulakov, television evangelist
 * Ida Mayrin (born 1997), Israeli Olympic rhythmic gymnast
 * Yodgor Nasriddinova, Uzbek-Soviet engineer and communist party official
 * Abdulla Qahhor, Uzbek writer
 * Hamza Hakimzade Niyazi, Uzbek poet and playwright
 * Saida Mirziyoyeva, Uzbek politician, eldest daughter of the President of Uzbekistan
 * Furqat, Uzbek poet
 * Abraham Resnick, rabbi
 * Serhiy Shkarlet, Ukrainian politician
 * Mukhtorkhon Tashkhodjaev, Uzbek politician, Chairman of the National Paralympic Committee of Uzbekistan

title: Kokand


text:
Phun City

Phun City was a rock festival held at Ecclesden Common near Worthing, England, from 24 July to 26 July 1970. Excluding the one-day free concerts in London's Hyde Park, Phun City became the first large-scale free festival in the UK.

History
Organised by the UK Underground anarchist Mick Farren and financed by Ronan O'Rahilly, the festival was notable for having no fences and no admission fees. It was not intended to be a free concert, but funding was withdrawn a few days before the event. Rather than cancel it, the organisers told the scheduled bands who turned up that they would have to give their services for nothing. Remarkably, most of the acts stayed on. Free were billed to play, but withdrew – Farren later noted in his memoirs the irony of a band named Free refusing to play for free. Those who did appear included MC5, The Pretty Things, Kevin Ayers, Steve Peregrin Took's band Shagrat, Edgar Broughton Band, Mungo Jerry, Mighty Baby and Pink Fairies "who were taking all their clothes off as they played". The Beat generation poet William Burroughs also appeared.

The Hells Angels – UK had been hired as the security force, but Farren said, "It slowly dawned on us that although none of our original plans had come together, we were no longer in control." Instead, the audience themselves were now in charge, with the organizers just making sure the bands came and went – it was, if somewhat inadvertently, the first large-scale "people's festival" held in the UK.

The poster art was by Edward Barker.

Legacy
Camping at the festival, Worthing teenager Billy Idol saw MC5 play, saying later "I didn't realize it then but I had just seen the future of rock". Mick Jones another future punk pioneer was also enthusiastic "That was the first time MC5 had played. My overriding memory was falling into a ditch! That was a great festival".

title: Phun City


text:
UK underground

The British counter-culture or underground scene developed during the mid 1960s, and was linked to the hippie subculture of the United States. Its primary focus was around Ladbroke Grove and Notting Hill in London. It generated its own magazines and newspapers, bands, clubs and alternative lifestyle, associated with cannabis and LSD use and a strong socio-political revolutionary agenda to create an alternative society.

Beat generation influence
Many in the blossoming underground movement were influenced by 1950s Beat generation writers such as William Burroughs and Allen Ginsberg, who paved the way for the hippies and the counterculture of the 1960s. During the 1960s, the Beat writers engaged in symbiotic evolution with freethinking academics including experimental psychologist Timothy Leary.

An example of the cross-over of beat poetry and music can be seen when Burroughs appeared at the Phun City festival, organised in 24–26 July 1970 by Mick Farren with underground community bands including The Pretty Things, Kevin Ayers, Edgar Broughton Band, Pink Fairies, Shagrat, and, from the United States, the MC5.

History
The UK's underground movement was focused on the Ladbroke Grove/Notting Hill area of London, which Mick Farren said "was an enclave of freaks, immigrants and bohemians long before the hippies got there". It had been depicted in Colin MacInnes' novel Absolute Beginners, about street culture at the time of the Notting Hill Riots in the 1950s.

The underground paper International Times (IT) began to appear in 1966 and Steve Abrams, founder of Soma, summarised the underground as a "literary and artistic avant-garde with a large contingent from Oxford and Cambridge. John Hopkins (Hoppy), a member of the editorial board of International Times for example, was trained as a physicist at Cambridge."

Police harassment of members of the underground (often referred to as "freaks", initially by others as an insult, and later by themselves as an act of defiance) became commonplace, particularly against the underground press. According to Farren, "Police harassment, if anything, made the underground press stronger. It focused attention, stiffened resolve, and tended to confirm that what we were doing was considered dangerous to the establishment."

Key underground (community) bands of the time who often performed at benefit gigs for various worthy causes included Pink Floyd (when they still had Syd Barrett), Soft Machine, Tomorrow, Pretty Things, The Deviants (featuring Mick Farren), Tyrannosaurus Rex, Edgar Broughton Band, Hawkwind, Pink Fairies (featuring Twink and ex-The Deviants), Shagrat (featuring Steve Peregrin Took, Mick Farren (early lineup), and Larry Wallis); key people included, in the late '60s, Marc Bolan, who would leave "the Grove" to find fame with T. Rex, and his partner Steve Peregrin Took, who remained in Ladbroke Grove and continued to perform benefit gigs in the anti-commercial ethos of the UK underground.

Within Portobello Road stood the Mountain Grill, a greasy spoon cafe, which in the late 1960s and early 1970s was frequented by several UK underground artists, including Hawkwind and the Pink Fairies. In 1974 Hawkwind released an album titled Hall Of The Mountain Grill and Steve Peregrin Took wrote Ballad of the Mountain Grill (aka Flophouse Blues).

Commentators
Mick Farren said,

"My own feeling is that, not just sex, but anger and violence, are part and parcel of rock n' roll. The rock concert can work as an alternative for violence, an outlet for violence. But at that time there were a lot of things that made us really angry. We were outraged! In the U.S. the youth were sent to Vietnam and there was nothing we could do to change the way the government did it. Smoking cannabis and doing things to get thrown in jail were our own way of expressing our anger, and we wanted change - I believed that picking up a guitar, not a gun, would bring about change.

It's like Germaine Greer said about the underground - it's not just some sort of scruffy club you can join, you're in or you're out ... it's like being a criminal."

Lifestyle
The underground movement was heavily symbolised by the use of drugs. The types of drugs used were varied and in many cases the names and effects were unknown as The Deviants/Pink Fairies member Russell Hunter, working at International Times (part of the underground press at the time), recalled. "People used to send in all kinds of strange drugs and things, pills and powders, stuff to smoke and that. They'd always give them to me to try to find out what they were! [Laughs]".

Part of the sense of humour of the underground, no doubt partly induced by the effects of both drugs and radical thinking, was an enjoyment at "freakin' out the norms". Mick Farren recalls actions sure to elicit the required response. "The band's baroque House of Usher apartment on London's Shaftesbury Avenue had witnessed pre-Raphaelite hippy scenes, like Sandy the bass player (of The Deviants and Pink Fairies), Tony the now and again keyboard player, and a young David Bowie, fresh from Beckenham Arts Lab, sunbathing on the roof, taking photos of each other and posing coyly as sodomites".

Aesthetics
The image of the underground as manifested in magazines such as Oz and newspapers like International Times was dominated by key talented graphic artists, particularly Martin Sharp and the Nigel Waymouth–Michael English team, Hapshash and the Coloured Coat, who fused Alfons Mucha's Art Nouveau arabesques with the higher colour key of psychedelia. British Television played a substantial role in representing the UK underground and counter-culture movement; At the beginning of the 1960s, three-quarters of the British population had a television, and the number rose to 90% by 1964.

The overground
There was a smaller, less widely spread manifestation from the UK underground termed the "Overground", which referred to an explicitly spiritual, cosmic, quasi-religious intent, though this was an element that had always been present. At least two magazines—Gandalf's Garden (6 issues, 1968–72) and Vishtaroon—adopted this "overground" style. Gandalf's Garden was also a shop/restaurant/meeting place at World's End, Chelsea. The magazines were printed on pastel paper using multi-coloured inks and contained articles about meditation, vegetarianism, mandalas, ethics, poetry, pacifism and other subjects at a distance from the more wild and militant aspects of the underground. The first issue of Gandalf's Garden urged that we should "seek to stimulate our own inner gardens if we are to save our Earth and ourselves from engulfment." It was edited by Muz Murray who is now called Ramana Baba and teaches yoga.

These attitudes were embodied musically in The Incredible String Band, who in 2003 were described as "holy" by the then Archbishop of Canterbury, Rowan Williams, in a foreword for the book Be Glad: An Incredible String Band Compendium (Helter Skelter Books). He had previously chosen the band's track "The Hedgehog's Song" as his only piece of popular music on the radio programme Desert Island Discs). The critic Ian MacDonald said: "Much that appeared to be profane in Sixties youth culture was quite the opposite".

title: UK underground


text:
Explorer 35

Explorer 35, (IMP-E, AIMP-2, Anchored IMP-2, Interplanetary Monitoring Platform-E), was a spin-stabilized spacecraft built by NASA as part of the Explorer program. It was designed for the study of the interplanetary plasma, magnetic field, energetic particles, and solar X-rays, from lunar orbit.

Spacecraft
Explorer 35 was similar to the earlier Explorer 33. The spacecraft mass was 104.3 kg. The main body of the spacecraft was an octagonal prism, 71 cm across and 20.3 cm high. Four arrays containing 6144 n/p solar cells, providing an average of 70 watts power, extended from the main bus, along with two 183 cm magnetometer booms. Four whip antennas are mounted on top of the spacecraft. A retrorocket was mounted on top of the bus. Power was stored in silver–cadmium batteries (Ag-Cd). Communication (PFM telemetry) was via a 7-watts transmitter and a digital data processor. The science payload had a mass of 23.1 kg and included two 3-axis magnetometers, low energy protons and alpha energy analyzer, low energy protons and electrons detector, energetic particle detector, plasma probe, a micrometeorite detector, a solar cell damage experiment, and gravity field and bistatic radar experiments.

Mission
Part of the Interplanetary Monitoring Platform program, it was of a design similar to Explorer 33 (IMP-D / AIMP-1), which launched in 1966. However, Explorer 34 (IMP-F), with a different design and mission objectives, was launched about two months prior to IMP-E. Explorer 41 (IMP-G) was the next IMP spacecraft to fly after Explorer 35, in 1969. It was also designed to study the Moon's gravity field, ionosphere and micrometeorite and dust distribution. The spin axis direction was nearly perpendicular to the ecliptic plane, and the spin rate was 25.6 rpm.

Launch
Explorer 35 was launched on 19 July 1967 from the Eastern Test Range of Cape Kennedy on a Thor-Delta E1 (Thrust Augmented Delta - TAD). It went on a direct ascent trajectory, reaching the Moon on 22 July 1967. It entered an initial 800 xx altitude elliptical lunar orbit at 147° inclination after a 23-seconds retrorocket burn. The main engine separated 2 hours later. Explorer 35 operated normally in lunar orbit for 6 years until it was shut off on 24 June 1973.

AMES Magnetic Fields
The Ames magnetometer experiment consisted of a boom-mounted triaxial fluxgate magnetometer and an electronics package. The sensors were orthogonally mounted, with one sensor oriented along the spin axis of the spacecraft. A motor interchanged a sensor in the spin plane with the sensor along the spin axis every 24 hours, allowing inflight calibration. The instrument package included a circuit for demodulating the outputs from the sensors in the spin plane. The noise threshold was about 0.2 nT. The instrument had three ranges covering ± 20, 60, and 200 nT full scale for each vector component. The digitization accuracy for each range was 1% of the entire range covered. The magnetic field vector was measured instantaneously, and the instrument range was changed after each measurement. A period of 2.05-seconds elapsed between adjacent measurements and a period of 6.14-seconds elapsed between measurements using the same range. The instrument performance was normal.

Explorer 35 provided important reference data for magnetic field measurements taken on the Moon during the Apollo program.

Bistatic Radar Observations of the Lunar Surface
The purpose of this experiment was to study the electromagnetic reflective properties of the lunar surface. The 136.10-Hz (2.2 m) telemetry transmissions from the spacecraft were scattered from the lunar surface and then recorded by use of the 46 m Stanford dish antenna. The reflected signal intensity depended upon the lunar reflectivity, the spacecraft altitude above the lunar surface, and the mean curvature of the Moon. The returned signal bandwidth was proportional to RMS lunar surface slopes. Occultation phenomena permitted a determination of the scattering properties of the lunar limb. The dielectric constant of the lunar subsurface in the scattering region below a depth of about 25 cm was then determined from a profile of reflectivity values versus the angle of incidence on the Moon. The mean lunar slope over each area from which signals were reflected has also been inferred. The observations were located within about 10° of the lunar equator. Experiment operation was normal as of March 1971.

Electron and Proton Detectors
Three EON type 6213 Geiger–Müller tubes (GM1, GM2, and GM3) and a silicon solid-state detector (SSD) provided measurements of solar X-rays (GM1 only, between 2 and 12 A) and charged particles in the vicinity of the Moon. GM1 and GM3 measured electrons of energies greater than 48 to 50 keV and protons of energy greater than 740 to 820 keV, while GM2 was shielded by a cap with approximately 1 gram per cm2 (limiting its response to protons of energies greater than about 55 MeV). The SSD output was discriminated at four thresholds: (1) PN1, which detected protons between 0.32 and 6.3 MeV, (2) PN2, which detected protons between 0.48 and 3.0 MeV, (3) PN4, which detected alpha particles between 2 and 10.2 MeV, and (4) PN3, which was sensitive to particles of Z greater than 3, including carbon-12 between 0.58 and 9.5 MeV per nucleon, nitrogen-14 between 0.514 and 13.9 MeV per nucleon, and oxygen-16 between 0.466 and 18.8 MeV per nucleon. GM1 and SSD were oriented perpendicular to the spacecraft spin axis, GM2 was oriented parallel to the spin axis, and GM3 was oriented antiparallel to the spin axis. Data from GM1, PN1, and PN4 were divided into data from quadrants oriented with respect to the Sun (sectors I, II, III, and IV were centered 180°, 270°, 0°, and 90° away from the Sun, respectively). Data were read out every 82- or 164-seconds, and the experiment performance was normal.

Energetic Particle
This experiment consisted of a 12 cm Neher-type ionization chamber and two Lionel type 205 HT Geiger–Müller tubes (GM). The ion chamber responded omnidirectionally to electrons above 0.7 MeV and protons above 12 MeV. Both GM tubes were mounted parallel to the spacecraft spin axis. GM tube 1 detected electrons above 45 keV that were scattered off a gold foil. The acceptance cone for these electrons had a 70« full-angle and an axis of symmetry that was 20« off the spacecraft spin axis. GM tube 2 responded to electrons and protons above 22 and 300 keV, respectively, in an acceptance cone of 70° full-angle centered at the spacecraft spin axis. Both GM tubes responded omnidirectionally to electrons and protons of energies above 2.5 and 50 MeV, respectively. Pulses from the ion chamber and counts from each GM tube were accumulated for 39.72-seconds and read out every 40.96-seconds. In addition, the time between the first ion chamber pulses in an accumulation period was also telemetered. This experiment performed well initially.

GSFC Magnetometer
The experiment consisted of a boom-mounted triaxial fluxgate magnetometer. Each sensor had dual ranges of minus to plus 24 nT and 64 nT, with digitization resolutions of ± 0.094 nT and 0.250 nT, respectively. Zero level drift was checked by periodic reorientation of the sensors until 20 May 1969, when the flipper mechanism failed. Past this point, data analysis was more difficult as the zero level drift of the sensor parallel to the spacecraft spin axis was not readily determined. Spacecraft interference was less than 0.125 nT. One vector measurement was obtained each 5.12-seconds. The bandpass of the magnetometer was 0 to 5 Hz, with a 20-dB per decade decrease for higher frequencies. Except for the flipper failure, the experiment functioned normally from launch to spacecraft turnoff on 24 June 1973.

Low-Energy Integral Spectrum Measurement Experiment
A planar multi-grid sensor programmed as a retarding potential analyzer was used to observe the intensity of the electron and ion components of the low energy plasma near the Moon. Integral spectra were obtained for both ions and electrons in the energy range from 1 to 500 eV. A complete spectrum was obtained every 80-seconds.

Micrometeorite Flux
This experiment was designed to measure the ionization, momentum, speed, and direction of micrometeorites, using thin film charged detectors, induction devices, and microphones.

Plasma Probe
A multigrid, split-collector Faraday cup mounted on the equator of the spacecraft was used to study the directional intensity of solar wind positive ions and electrons with particular emphasis on the interaction of the solar wind with the moon. Twenty-seven integral current samples (requiring about 4.3 s) were taken in an energy-per-charge window from 80 to 2850 eV. Then the current was sampled in eight differential energy-per-charge windows between 50 and 5400 eV at the azimuth where the peak current appeared in the previous series of integral measurements. These measurements (integral and differential) took about 25 s. Both the sum and difference of collector currents were obtained for positive ions. Only the sum was obtained for electrons. A complete set of measurements (two collector plate sums and one difference for protons, and one collector plate sum for electrons) required 328 s. The experiment worked well from launch until its failure in July 1968.

Selenodetic Studies
Range and range-rate tracking data of the Explorer 35 satellite as it orbited the Moon were used to obtain selenodetic gravity field information based on the perturbations to the satellite orbit imparted by the lunar mass distribution.

End of Mission
After successful operation for 6 years, the spacecraft was turned off on 24 June 1973. The orbit would have naturally decayed after this point, resulting in an impact on the Moon at an unknown time and location. Explorer 35 (or Explorer XXXV) was also known as the Anchored Interplanetary Monitoring Platform-2 (AIMP-2 or IMP-E).

title: Explorer 35


text:
International Times

International Times (it or IT) is the name of various underground newspapers, with the original title founded in London in 1966 and running until October 1973. Editors included John "Hoppy" Hopkins, David Mairowitz, Roger Hutchinson, Peter Stansill, Barry Miles, Jim Haynes and playwright Tom McGrath. Jack Moore, avant-garde writer William Levy and Mick Farren, singer of The Deviants, also edited at various periods.

The paper's logo is a black-and-white image of Theda Bara, vampish star of silent films. The founders' intention had been to use an image of actress Clara Bow, 1920s It girl, but a picture of Theda Bara was used by accident and, once deployed, not changed. Paul McCartney donated to the paper as did Allen Ginsberg through his Committee on Poetry foundation.

The IT restarted first as an online archive in 2008, a move arranged by former IT editor and contributor Mike Lesser and financed by Littlewoods heir James Moores, and in 2011 relaunched as an online magazine publishing new material, following a suggestion by Lesser to poet and actor Heathcote Williams. Irish poet Niall McDevitt served as the first online editor of IT, a position later held by Williams until his death in 2017.

History
International Times was launched on 15 October 1966 at The Roundhouse at an 'All Night Rave' featuring Soft Machine and Pink Floyd. The event promised a 'Pop/Op/Costume/Masque/Fantasy-Loon/Blowout/Drag Ball' featuring 'steel bands, strips, trips, happenings, movies'. The launch was described by Daevid Allen of Soft Machine as "one of the two most revolutionary events in the history of English alternative music and thinking. The IT event was important because it marked the first recognition of a rapidly spreading socio-cultural revolution that had its parallel in the States."

From April 1967, and for some while later, the police raided the offices of International Times to try, it was alleged, to force the paper out of business. A benefit event labelled The 14 Hour Technicolor Dream took place at Alexandra Palace on 29 April 1967. Bands included Pink Floyd, The Pretty Things, The Crazy World of Arthur Brown, Soft Machine, The Move, and Sam Gopal Dream. Despite police harassment, the paper continued to grow, with financial help from Paul McCartney, a personal friend of editor Barry Miles. Published fortnightly, it became the leading British underground paper, its circulation peaking at around 40,000 copies in late 1968/early 1969, before another police raid, along with competition from newer publications such as Time Out led to declining sales and a financial crisis.

In response to another raid on the paper's offices, London's alternative press on one occasion succeeded, somewhat astonishingly, in pulling off what was billed as a "reprisal attack" on the police—prompting the Evening Standard headline "Raid on the Yard". The paper Black Dwarf published a detailed floor-by-floor guide to Scotland Yard, complete with diagrams, descriptions of locks on particular doors and snippets of overheard conversation in the offices of Special Branch. The anonymous author, or "blue dwarf," as he styled himself, described how he perused police files, and even claimed to have sampled named brands of whisky in the Commissioner's office. A day or two later The Daily Telegraph announced that the "raid" had forced the police to withdraw and re-issue all security passes.

In 1970 a group of people from IT, led by photographer Graham Keen, launched Cyclops, "The First English Adult Comic Paper."

Later publications
IT first ceased publication in October 1973, after being convicted for running contact ads for gay men. The name was revived by another publisher in May 1974 for three issues until October. In 1975, Maya, another underground publication, temporarily renamed itself IT - the International Times, until that title closed after the November issue. A new title of the same name launched the following month, continuing until March 1976 when it went into hiatus until resuming in January 1977, ceasing in August of that year.

Publications with the International Times title were published from January to December 1978, and again from April 1979 to June 1980. A single 'festival issue' was produced in June 1982. The title was again revived in 1986, with three issues from January to March, the last time a paper publication of the IT name was printed.

The IT restarted as an online archive in 2008, a move arranged by former IT editor and contributor Mike Lesser and financed by Littlewoods heir James Moores. In 2011 it was relaunched as an online magazine publishing new material, following a suggestion by Lesser to poet and actor Heathcote Williams.

Irish poet Niall McDevitt served as the first online editor of IT, a position later held by Heathcote Williams until his death in 2017. In 2016, the 50th anniversary of the first copy of the magazine, further editions of a paper version of IT began to be published starting with issue Zero. These were edited by Heathcote Ruthven.

International Times has also published two books. Both are poetry collections – Royal Babylon by Heathcote Williams, an attack on the British monarchy, and Porterloo by Niall McDevitt, a book satirising the Conservative Party and registering the counterculture of 2011-12.

Current editor-in-chief is Nick Victor.

Contributors
Many people who became prominent UK figures wrote for IT, including feminist critic Germaine Greer, poet and social commentator Jeff Nuttall, occultist Kenneth Grant, and DJ John Peel. There were many original contributions from underground writers such as Alexander Trocchi; William Burroughs and Allen Ginsberg.

Leading editorial contributors to the late 1970s IT were Heathcote Williams, Max Handley, Mike Lesser, Eddie Woods (Amsterdam editor), and Chris Sanders.

In 1986 IT was relaunched by Tony Allen and Chris Brook. After three issues (Volume 86; issues 1,2,3) Allen left, and Brook continued with one more issue (Volume 86; issue 4). After various one-off issues into 1991, 2000 saw Brook and others create a web-based presence—initially through the alternative server 'Phreak', c. 1996.

There are currently two archive sources online: 1) a comprehensive archive scanned by previous contributors and editors, and a less extensive archive with some commentary.

International Times archive
International Times (NIIT) Archive is a free online archive of every issue of the International Times. It runs from a precursor to IT, The Longhair Times, released on April Fools' Day 1966 to an erroneously labelled 'last issue'—a Xeroxed single sheet issue in 1994. The continuum of this journal, in fact, includes issues and web presence from the last editorial group (IT#4 Vol 1986) until the present day.

The IT Archive was launched on 16 July 2009 at the Idea Generation Gallery.

The IT Archive was founded by Mike Lesser supported by fellow contributors and editors of IT including Mick Farren, John "Hoppy" Hopkins, Dave Mairowitz, Peter Stansill and Heathcote Williams amongst others.

title: International Times


text:
Plantin Press

The Plantin Press at Antwerp was one of the focal centers of the fine printed book in the 16th century.

History
Christophe Plantin (c. 1520–1589) of Touraine was trained as a bookbinder. He fled from Paris where at least one printer had recently been burned at the stake for heresy, and went to Antwerp. There he bound books, became a citizen, and by 1555 began to print books, at first for distribution by other publishers. The city was already an established center of printing woodcuts, engravings and books. Plantin took on an assistant, Jan Moretus (Moerentorf), who read Latin and Greek and could write correspondence in several modern languages. He became Plantin's business manager, son-in-law and eventually his successor in the Plantin printing press. For over two hundred years the Plantin press had a monopoly, granted by the papacy, for the printing of liturgical formularies, including in Spain. In 1562, suspected of heresy, Plantin fled to France for two years. At an auction of his press, friends bought up his equipment on his behalf.

After 1564, when Plantin set up again in a new shop at the sign of De Gulden Passer ("The Golden Compasses"), the printers mark of the House of Plantin. It often appeared in a vignette on the title page of books from the press, depicting a compass, angels, and the motto Labore et Constancia ("By Labor and Constancy") which epitomizes the life of the publisher. From about 1570 Plantin employed the engravers Jan Wierix and his brother Hieronymus.

Plantin's successors continued the print at Antwerp until 1867.

Today
The building that housed the press is now the Plantin-Moretus Museum. It maintains a collection of printing tools and around 25,000 volumes related to the press. In 2001, the archives of Plantin Press were added to UNESCO's Memory of the World Register.

Works
Like the printer Robert Estienne, Plantin exposed galley proofs of his works in front of his establishment and promised a reward to anyone who could find faults. Later Plantins were friends of the painter Peter Paul Rubens who did drawings for illustrations and also some portraits of the Plantin-Moretus family. Plantin was also a member of the Family of Love. He was a close friend of cartographer Abraham Ortel (a.k.a. Ortelius), genre painter Brueghel the Elder, and calligraphy master Clement Perret. Some outstanding books published by the Plantin Press, by year:
 * La Institutione di una Fanciulla Nata Nobilmente. L'Institution d'une Jeune Fille de Noble Maison. Traduuite de langue Tuscan en François. Plantin's first printed book, a Tuscan manual on the education of young girls of good family.
 * (an album of plates commemorating the funeral of the Emperor Charles V, 1559)
 * Dictionarium Tetraglotton 1562. a dictionary in Greek, Latin, French and Flemish
 * The Biblia Polyglotta, a Polyglot Bible, 1572. Plantin's most famous project, in preparation since 1567, a bible in eight folio volumes, in Hebrew, Latin, Greek, Syriac and Aramaic.
 * Abraham Ortelius, Theatrum orbis terrarum 1584 and 1598 (first published 1570)
 * Theatrum orbis terrarum

 * Henricus Sedulius, Apologeticus adversus Alcoranum Franciscanorum pro libro Conformitatum (Antwerp, 1607). An apology of the Franciscan order in response to Erasmus Alberus's Alcoranus Franciscanorum.

title: Plantin Press


text: File:Ross Barnes Baseball Player.jpg

title: File:Ross Barnes Baseball Player.jpg


text:
Matthew III Csák

Máté Csák or Matthew III Csák (between 1260 and 1265 – 18 March 1321; Csák (III.) Máté, Matúš Čák III), also Máté Csák of Trencsén (trencséni Csák (III.) Máté, Matúš Čák III Trenčiansky), was a Hungarian oligarch who ruled de facto independently the north-western counties of Medieval Hungary (today roughly the western half of present-day Slovakia and parts of Northern Hungary). He held the offices of master of the horse (főlovászmester) (1293–1296), palatine (nádor) (1296–1297, 1302–1309) and master of the treasury (tárnokmester) (1309–1311). He was able to maintain his rule over his territories even after his defeat at the Battle of Rozgony against King Charles I of Hungary. In the 19th century, he was often described as a symbol of the struggle for independence in both the Hungarian and Slovak literatures.

Early years
He was a son of the Palatine Peter I Csák, a member of the Hungarian genus ("clan") Csák. Around 1283, Matthew and his brother, Csák, who later served as bearer of the sword (kardhordó) in 1293, inherited their father's possessions, Komárom (Slovak: Komárno) and Szenic (Slovak: Senica). At about that time, they also inherited their uncles' (Matthew II and Stephen I Csák) possessions around Nagytapolcsány (Slovak: Veľké Topoľčany, now Topoľčany), Hrussó (Slovak: Hrušovo) and Tata. Their father had started to expand his influence over the territories that surrounded his possessions.

Matthew was born around 1260s. A diploma recorded his lameness which caused by either birth defect or a result of a war injury. He was presumably first mentioned by a charter issued by the Somogyvár Abbey on 5 August 1284, where the sons of the late Peter were summoned in a case of land title rights to Kötcse. Historian Gyula Kristó argues that the document mentions the possible elder brothers of Matthew and Csák as they first appeared in contemporary sources only in 1291. Following Peter's death, the members of the rival Kőszegi family from the Héder clan strengthened in Pozsony and Sopron Counties taking advantage of that the Csák clan has been weakened due to the death of Matthew II and Peter I. The Kőszegis defeated the local Osl clan in Sopron County and also forged ahead to Pozsony County where captured Pozsony Castle for a short time.

King Andrew's partisan
In 1291, Matthew took part in the campaign of King Andrew III of Hungary against Austria. In the next year, when Nicholas I Kőszegi rebelled against King Andrew III and occupied Pozsony (German: Pressburg, Slovak: Prešporok, today Bratislava) and Detrekő (Slovak Plavecké Podhradie), Matthew managed to reoccupy the castles on behalf of the king. Henceforward, the Danube became the border between the developing domains of the Kőszegi and Csák families. King Andrew appointed him to master of the horse and he also became the ispán (comes) of Pozsony County (1293–1297). On 28 October 1293, Matthew issued a charter and promised that he would respect the liberties of the burghers of the city of Pozsony that King Andrew had confirmed before.

During this period, Matthew started to augment his possessions not only by the king's donations, but also by using force. In 1296, he bought Vöröskő (Slovak: Červený Kameň) from its former holders for money; however, contemporary documents prove that he enforced several neighboring landowners to transfer their possessions either to him or his partisans. He even was ready to occupy territories; e.g., around 1296, he took possession of the lands of the Archabbot of Pannonhalma south of the Danube and he also trespassed the possessions of the Collegiate Chapter of Pressburg.

Around the end of 1296, Matthew acquired Trencsén (Slovak: Trenčín) and afterwards, he was named after the castle. In 1296 King Andrew appointed him Palatine, but shortly afterwards the king absolved one of Matthew's opponents, Andrew of Gimes from the Hont-Pázmány clan of all responsibility for the damage he had caused to Matthew. The document proves that the relationship of the king and Matthew worsened and the king deprived him of his office of Palatine in 1297. At the same time, the king granted Pozsony County to his queen, Agnes of Austria.

Kings' rival
Matthew continued to style himself Palatine even after 1297. He managed to overcome Andrew of Gimes and his family and thus expanded his influence along the Zsitva River (Žitava River).

In 1298, King Andrew III allied himself with King Wenceslaus II of Bohemia; the alliance was probably directed against Matthew whose possessions lay between the two monarchs' territories. In the next year, King Andrew sent his troops against him, but he could resist the attack; only Pozsony County was reoccupied by the king's partisans.

Before 1300, Matthew entered into negotiations with the representatives of King Charles II of Naples and reassured him that he would assist the claim of his grandson, Charles for the throne against King Andrew III. However, in the summer of 1300, Matthew visited Andrew's court, but the king, the last male member of the Árpád dynasty, died on 14 January 1301, and following his death a rivalry broke out among the several claimants for the throne. At that time, Matthew's brother, Csák died childless and therefore Matthew inherited his possessions.

Following the death of King Andrew III, he became the Neapolitan prince's follower, but shortly afterwards, he joined the party that offered the crown to Wenceslaus, the son of King Wenceslaus II of Bohemia. He was present at the coronation of the young Bohemian prince (27 August 1301) who granted him Trencsén and Nyitra counties; therefore he became the lawful holder of all the royal castles and possessions in the two counties. In the following years, Matthew Csák occupied the possessions of the Balassa family in the two counties and he also took several castles in Nógrád and Hont counties.

King Wenceslaus could not strengthen his rule against his opponent and he had to leave the kingdom (August 1304). By that time Matthew Csák had already left King Wenceslaus' party, and shortly afterwards he made an alliance with Duke Rudolph III of Austria against the king of Bohemia. Although he did not join to King Charles' partisans, but his troops took part in the campaign King Charles and Duke Rudolph lead against the Kingdom of Bohemia (September–October 1304). The internal struggles, however, did not end, because on 6 December 1305 a new claimant, Otto III, Duke of Bavaria was crowned King of Hungary. Matthew Csák did not accept King Otto's rule, and his troops struggled together with King Charles' armies who occupied some castles on the northern part of the kingdom.

On 10 October 1307, an assembly confirmed King Charles' rule, but Matthew Csák and some other oligarchs (Ladislaus Kán, Ivan and Henry II Kőszegi) absented themselves from the assembly. In 1308, Pope Clement V sent a legate to the kingdom in order to strengthen King Charles' position. The legate, Cardinal Gentile Portino da Montefiore managed to persuade Matthew to accept King Charles' rule at their meeting in the Pauline Monastery of Kékes (10 November 1308). Although Matthew himself was not present at the following assembly (27 November) in Pest where King Charles' reign was again confirmed, he sent his envoy to attend at the meeting. Shortly afterwards, King Charles appointed Matthew Palatine of the kingdom. However, at the new coronation of King Charles (15 June 1309), he was only represented by one of his followers. In the next year, King Charles appointed him to the office of master of the treasury, which then was the first high-ranking political position during the first regnal years of Charles as the position of palatine was "devaluated".

Matthew Csák did not want to accept the king's rule; therefore, he did not attend King Charles' third coronation, when he was crowned with the Holy Crown of Hungary (27 August). Moreover, Matthew Csák still continued to expand the borders of his domains and occupied several castles in the northern part of the kingdom. On 25 June 1311, he led his troops towards Buda and pillaged the surrounding territories and on this account the Cardinal Gentile excommunicated him on 6 July 1311. However, he did not accept the punishment and persuaded some priests to continue their services on his territories.

The indignant oligarch pillaged the possessions of the Archdiocese of Esztergom. When the citizens of Kassa (Slovak: Košice) killed Amade Aba, the powerful oligarch of the north-eastern parts of the kingdom (5 September 1311) Matthew made an alliance with his sons against the king who sided with Kassa. His troops liberated Sáros Castle (Slovak: Šarišský hrad), besieged by the king, and then marched against Kassa. At the Battle of Rozgony, the king's armies defeated Matthew's and his allies' troops (15 June 1312). Following the battle, the king occupied the territories of Amade Aba's sons. Although Matthew's domain stayed undisturbed, the occupation of the neighboring territories by the king hindered his expansion.

Last years
In 1314, the king's armies invaded Matthew Csák's domain, but they could not occupy it. In the meantime, Matthew occupied some fortresses in the March of Moravia and therefore King John of Bohemia also invaded his territories (May 1315). The Czech armies defeated his troops (whom he encouraged in Hungarian language) at Holics but they could not occupy the fortress. King Charles also invaded Matthew's domain and occupied Visegrád.

Charles I launched small campaigns against the Csák dominion during 1314 and 1315. When Matthew invaded Szepes and his troops plundered the region, he was narrowly defeated by Philip Drugeth, the king's loyal soldier. During this time Thomas Szécsényi received Hollókő from Charles, who confiscated the land from the Kacsics clan, the disloyal relatives of Thomas. Charles gradually encircled the Csák dominion, when appointed loyal castellans to head of the nearby forts.

The king attempted to weaken the unity among Matthew's partisans through diplomatic means. According to a royal charter issued in September 1315, Charles I stripped three of the oligarch's servients of all their possessions and gave those to Palatine Dominic Rátót, because they absolutely supported all Matthew Csák's efforts and did not ask for the king's grace. One of these sanctioned nobles was Felician Záh, who later unsuccessfully attempted to assassinate the entire royal family in 1330.

In 1316, some of his former followers rebelled against Matthew, and although he occupied their castle at Jókő, some of them left his domain. In 1317, he invaded the possessions of the Diocese of Nyitra, and his troops occupied and pillaged its see. As a consequence, Bishop John excommunicated him and his followers again.

The king's armies continued to invade his territories and occupied Sirok and Fülek (Fiľakovo), but Matthew could maintain his rule over his territories until his death.

Domain
Matthew Csák's domain had been developing gradually before the Battle of Rozgony, and it reached its greatest territorial extent around 1311. By that time, 14 counties of the kingdom, and about 50 castles were under his and his followers' rule.

Around 1297, he organized his own court, similar to the king's court and he usurped royal prerogatives on his domains, similarly to other oligarchs (e.g., Amade Aba, Nicholas Kőszegi) of the beginning of the 14th century. Thus he became the de facto ruler of his domain and he made alliances independently of the king. He refused to accept appeals to the king against his decisions and he denied to put claimants in possession of lands the king had granted them on his territories. Although some of the local landowners did not want to accept Matthew's supremacy, but sooner or later, they had to leave their possessions.

Following his death, his cousin Stephen Sternberg (or Stephen the Bohemian) became the lord of his domain, because his son (Matthew IV) had died and his grandsons (Matthew V and James) were still minors at the time of his death in 1321. However, Stephen Sternberg could not resist the king's invasion and Matthew Csák's former domain was overtaken by the king's armies in a few months' time.

Legacy in the Slovak romantic movement
Matthew Csák significantly influenced regional history of today's Slovakia in the 13th–14th centuries. Alongside other activities, he founded several new settlements mainly in Trencsén County and supported raising towns. The level of independence he had achieved together with his contacts with the Czech lands (especially with Moravia) positively influenced also the development of local Slovak speaking nobility. Regardless of his relatively short rule his (ex-)domain was called the Matthew's Land (terra Matthei) already in the 14th century. This concept had been preserved until the 15th century, when individuals still used to claim their origin from the Matthew's Land (de Terra Matthei) instead of the official administrative divisions or settlements of the Kingdom of Hungary.

This was later reflected in the Slovak national revival in the 19th century. Although his personality was known to older generation of Slovak intellects (Adam František Kollár, Anton Bernolák), he became a subject of the national mythology only in the period of Ľudovít Štúr. The motive of Matthew Csák was introduced in 1836–37 by a Slovak lawyer Alexander Boleslavín Vrchovský. Thereafter, the topic was covered by numerous Slovak poets and writers like Ľudovít Štúr, Ján Kalinčiak, Jozef Miloslav Hurban, Mikuláš Dohány, Viliam Paulíny-Tóth, Samuel Ornis, Jonáš Záborský, Jozef Škultéty and others. In the romantic national discourse of the 19th century, he was perceived as a Slovak national hero, defender of Slovak interests and/or an uncrowned Slovak king. Matthew Csák and his "realm" became the symbols of Slovak independence with the purpose to expropriate his historical heritage for the emerging national state of Slovakia. Ľudovít Štúr, the most prominent personality in the period of the Slovak national revival presented Matthew Csák in his poem Matúš z Trenčína ("Matúš of Trenčín") as champion of Slovak interests who build on legacy of Great Moravia, predicting that the Slovak nation "will be free one day".

However, such idealized view remained favored only by a narrow group of Slovak intellectuals and was not (in most cases) adopted by ordinary people. The idea of Matthew Csák as a Slovak national hero was already eroded by critically thinking members of the Slovak intellectuals in the second half of the 19th century and the early 20th century (Jonáš Záborský, Július Botto) and was finally crushed in 1923 by Slovak historian Jozef Škultéty. Similar views are also rejected by the modern critical Slovak historiography and in Slovak historic memory Matthew Csák is perceived simply as a feudal magnate, a notable regional figure and the "Lord of Váh and Tatras".

"Matúš Čák was hardly a Slovak patriot as some 19th century historians have claimed. He pursued the ordinary goals of a Hungarian magnate and never did establish a sufficiently well-defined territory or political organization to support any Slovak claims to a heritage."

- Anton Špiesz, Dušan Čaplovič, Ladislaus J. Bolchazy; Illustrated Slovak history: a struggle for sovereignty in Central Europe (2006).

title: Matthew III Csák