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Reginald Brett, 2nd Viscount Esher

Reginald Baliol Brett, 2nd Viscount Esher, (30 June 1852 – 22 January 1930) was a British historian and Liberal Party politician, although his greatest influence over military and foreign affairs was as a courtier, member of public committees and behind-the-scenes "fixer", or rather éminence grise.

Background and education
Reginald, known as Regy, Brett was the son of William Baliol Brett, 1st Viscount Esher, and Eugénie Mayer (1814–1904). Born in London, Esher remembered sitting on the lap of an old man who had played the violin for Marie Antoinette, and was educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge. He held a militia commission after Cambridge. His father, who was to be Solicitor-General in Disraeli's first ministry (1868), distinguished himself in the 1867 Reform Act debate dutifully supporting the triumphant Disraeli. In 1868 he was named a judge on the Court of Common Pleas; in 1876 he became a Lord Justice of Appeal and in 1883 Master of the Rolls. A distinguished common law judge, in 1885 he was raised to the peerage as Baron Esher by Prime Minister Lord Salisbury. On his retirement as Master of the Rolls in 1897, he was created first Viscount Esher. "Regy"'s mother was the French step daughter of John Gurwood, the editor of Wellington's Dispatches.

At Eton Brett was taught by influential master William Johnson Cory, whose pupils included the future prime minister Lord Rosebery and others in the highest echelons of society. Rosebery's idealistic learning from Romantic poets William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge, the classical liberal philosopher John Stuart Mill, the chemistry of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, music of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, and Jeremy Bentham were intellectual influences on the young Regy. Going up to Trinity College, Cambridge, Brett was profoundly influenced by the radical lawyer, politician and professor of international law William Harcourt. Harcourt controlled Brett's rooms, and lifestyle at Cambridge. Brett's father had introduced him to Albert Grey's Committee, but had a long-standing dispute with General Charles Grey, the Queen's Equerry. Brett was admitted to the Society of Apostles, dedicated to emergent philosophies of European atheism; their number included the aristocratic literati of liberalism Frank, Gerald and Eustace Balfour, Frederick and Arthur Myers, Hallam and Lionel Tennyson, Edmund Gurney, S H and J G Butcher. Brett experimented approaching conversion to High Mass from Cardinal John Henry Newman on Sundays in London. The Oxford Movement included Adam Sedgwick and Frederick William Maitland holding an equally profound sway over his youthful scholarship.

Brett was seen with the Carlton Gardens set of Lady Granville, he was friend of the Clare brothers, introduced by the Earl de Grey. He visited Howick Park, and took law with Lord Brougham and Vaux. The famous lawyer's lectures coincided with Justice Brett's employment with Richard Cross, as a parliamentary re-drafter at the Home Office. Albert Grey introductions provided an invitation to the India Office and entrée to meet Sir Bartle Frere, the colonial administrator. When Disraeli tried to enforce Anglicanism, in the Public Worship Bill, and was defeated, Brett wrote copious letters to Lord Hartington, leader of the Liberal Party in the House of Commons. The consequences were to push Harcourt into the limelight as a leading Liberal in the Commons but moderates tended to be dragged into sharing a religious position when the Disraelian tradition was threatening to split English liberalism. Brett visited the actor's daughter Lady Waldegrave at Strawberry Hill, and took deportment lessons from the Duchess of Manchester at Kimbolton, Hartington's private secretary, stamping his credentials as a rich aesthete. Regy was a socialite cultivating many friendships among both aristocratic and successful people. Early on a passion for tradition and imperial liberalism would frustrate the radical right.

Courtier, diplomat and Liberal MP
The Great Eastern Crisis had released the Ottoman Empire from the threat of Russian invasion. However, the success of the Midlothian Campaign had re-energized William Ewart Gladstone's authority as rightful leader of his party; casting Hartington and Brett as marginalized jingoes. Six years later the Whigs would be pushed into the Unionist camp. Brett needed his vanity satisfied but felt comfortable in neither party. He rose to become the mediator between Liberal factions, and was a leading light at the Liberal Round Table Conference in 1887.

Having been a Conservative as a young man, Brett began his political career in 1880, as Liberal Member of Parliament for Penryn and Falmouth. He was Parliamentary Private Secretary to Lord Hartington, when latter was Secretary of State for War (1882–85) and once drove him to a Cabinet meeting on a sleigh through the snow. However he elected to withdraw from public politics in 1885, after losing an election at Plymouth, in favour of a behind the scenes role. He was instrumental in the Jameson raid of 1895 vigorously defending the imperialist Cecil Rhodes.

In 1895, Brett became Permanent Secretary to the Office of Works, where Edward, Prince of Wales, was impressed by his zeal and dedication to the elderly Queen Victoria. A lift was built at Windsor Castle to get the elderly Queen upstairs in a redecorated palace. In Kensington Palace, Esher would push the Queen around in wheel chair so she could revisit her childhood. The devoted royal servant would work even more closely with Edward VII after his coronation in 1902. Upon his father's death on 24 May 1899, he succeeded him as 2nd Viscount Esher.

During the Boer War Esher had to intervene in the row between Lord Lansdowne and General Garnet Wolseley, the Commander-in-Chief, who tended to blame the politician for military failures. He would make the walk between palace and War Office to iron out problems. Into the political vacuum, Esher wrote the memos that became established civil service procedure. When the Elgin Commission was asked to report on the conduct of war, it was Esher who wrote it after the "Khaki Election" of 1900, and continued to act to influence both King and parliament.

In 1901, Lord Esher was appointed a deputy lieutenant of Berkshire and became Deputy Governor and Constable of Windsor Castle. He remained close to the royal family until his death. By the end of 1903 Esher was meeting or corresponding with King Edward VII every day. He lived at 'Orchard Lea', Winkfield on the edge of the Great Park. During this period, he helped edit Queen Victoria's papers, publishing a work called Correspondence of Queen Victoria (1907).

From 1903 Esher shunned office, but was a member of Lord Elgin's South African War Commission, which investigated the British Army's near-failure in the Boer War. At this time he was writing to the King daily (and having three or four meetings a day with the King's adviser Lord Knollys), informing him of the views of the Commission, of party leaders, and War Office civil servants with whom he was still in touch from his days working for Hartington. St John Brodrick, Secretary of State for War, was resentful of Esher's influence. Brodrick's scope for operation was paralysed by Esher's circumvention, and the government was much weakened in October 1903 when Joseph Chamberlain and Devonshire resigned over the former's plans for Tariff Reform.

Esher Committee
In 1904 Esher set up a sub-committee of Committee for Imperial Defence, known as the Esher Committee of which he was appointed chairman. To achieve the King's desired reforms of the Army, Esher formed an uneasy alliance with Sir George Clarke, the permanent secretary, to directly undermine H O Arnold-Foster's attempt to block militia reform, Clarke "discountenancing" told him he could not possibly read the Order". The sub-committee was a triumvirate of Esher, Rosebery, and General Murray, notorious for making policy on the hoof misusing ministerial offices. Furious Esher was determined the King should have intervention: on 7 December, Arnold-Foster advised to save £2m the militia must be absorbed into the Army. His scheming encouraged by the King, wanted prime minister Balfour to look to party first, while at the same time warning the King's Secretary that "the Prime Minister will have to take matters into his own hands". Esher's role was for sixty-seven years a secret, by a memorandum behind the scenes, unaccountable to parliament. It was decided on 19 December a Reserve Force should be set up "in commission". On 12 January Esher told the minister to accept his sub-committee's recommendation, even though Arnold-Foster had not even been told of the agenda. Despite the intrigues, the King approved of the committee's work.

Esher cultivated a friendship with Colonel Sir Edmund Ward, secretary to the Army Council in order to control minute-taking, the agenda, and meetings quorum telling him he had secret information of "proof of the Army Order"; and a plan known as "Traverse" towards Army decentralisation. That was in September 1904 when the Army Council's powers were still undefined at the time it was enlarged by Lord Knollys. The issue confronting Esher was the Royal Prerogative which had been circumvented "without reference to the Sovereign". He marched into Arnold-Foster's office to remind him that precedent under Victoria had been to yield to arguments from the monarch which had already been put forward by the Adjutant-General.

Liberal War Office

Behind the scenes, he influenced many pre-First World War military reforms and was a supporter of the British–French Entente Cordiale. He was chairman of the War Office Reconstitution Committee. This recommended radical reform of the British Army, including the setting up of the Army Council, and established the Committee of Imperial Defence, a permanent secretariat that Esher joined in 1905. From 1904 all War Office appointments were approved and often suggested by Esher. He approved the setting up of the Territorial Force, although he saw it as a step towards conscription; a step not taken. Many of Esher's recommendations were nonetheless, implemented under the new Liberal governments of Henry Campbell-Bannerman and H. H. Asquith by Richard Haldane, Secretary of State for War, assisted by Esher's protégé the young Major-General Douglas Haig. When Haldane entered the War Office, he was provided with Colonel Sir Gerard Ellison as a new military secretary to make the transitional reforms. Haldane wished to avoid "corner cuts" and so established the Information Bureau in the War Office. Although Esher's biographer Peter Fraser argued "the Haldane reforms owed little to Haldane." The initial Liberal reforms were thrown out by the Lords, and the resulting documents looked like Esher's original efforts. e

Esher found his son, Oliver, a job as an additional secretary to John Morley and he was on good terms with Capt Sinclair, Campbell-Bannerman's secretary.

Esher's involvements in the Territorials were not limited to the War Office. He was the first chairman appointed in 1908 to the County of London Territorial Forces Association and its president from 1912 to his death, in addition he was appointed Honorary Colonel of the 5th (Reserve) Battalion of the Royal Fusiliers in 1908 and held the same appointment with the 6th County of London Brigade, Royal Field Artillery, from 1910 to 1921.

Esher's royal triumph and the Entente Cordiale
Esher was appointed a Deputy Lieutenant of the County of London in 1909. and the King's Aide-de-Camp. Depicted as a disciple of national efficiency, an able administrator, and a silky, smooth influence as a courtier, he was accused of being an arch-insider, undemocratic and interfering. Moreover, the King liked Esher, and so his influence over the Army grew, leading to a more liberal far-sighted attitude towards the possibility of averting conflict in Europe. Esher's invaluable contribution prevented further promotion in a political career, in which he had been destined for high cabinet office. His close political friends in the Liberal party included Edward Marjoribanks and Earl Rosebery. His aristocratic connections and military experience made him an ideal grandee, but such was the importance of his ties to the monarch, that his career was somewhat restrictive of ambition. He was by nature ambitious, 'clubbable' sociable, and frequently seen at High Society parties in the fashionable houses of the Edwardian era. He was secretive and patriotic: accordingly founding the Society of Islanders. Its one great principle was to build "two for one Keels" over and above any other Navy in the world in order to maintain global peace.

Esher declined many public offices, including the Viceroyalty of India and the Secretaryship for War, a job to which Edward VII had urged he be appointed.

In 1911 Esher helped ease out Lord Knollys, who was then seventy-five years old, having been in the Royal Household since 1862, but who had lost some royal confidence over the negotiation of the Parliament Act. Esher arranged a replacement as King George V's principal adviser with Lord Stamfordham.

Esher's Great War
In January 1915, Esher visited Premier Aristide Briand in Paris, who told him David Lloyd George had "a longer view than any of our leaders". An earlier opening of a Salonika front might have prevented the entry of Bulgaria into the war". He also made contact with Bunau Varilla, editor of Le Matin, to keep the Russian Empire in "the alliance and Americans to come to aid of Europe". By 1916 the French war effort was almost spent.  Finance Minister, Alexandre Ribot told them to sue for peace, Esher reported. At the Chantilly Conference they discussed combined operations - "Dans la guerre l'inertie est une honte."  Esher accompanied Sir Douglas Haig to the Amiens Conference, but was back in Paris to be informed of the surprise news of Kitchener's death.  Returning to London Esher spoke with Australian Prime Minister Billy Hughes. The following month at the Beaugency Conference they discussed the Somme Offensive. "For heaven's sake put every ounce you have got of will power into this offensive" he told Maurice Hankey. He often travelled to France to leave the "mephitic" atmosphere of the War Office, on a trip to Liaison Officer, Colonel Sidney Clive at Chantilly. He learnt first hand the French government's scheme for a "Greater Syria" to include British controlled Palestine. France's ally on the Eastern Front, Russia, had been badly defeated the previous year; so Asquith's neutrality over Briand's Salonika Plan perplexed Esher. He perceived the balance of power in cabinet shifting towards a new more conservative coalition.

During the First World War Esher was, in one writer's description, de facto head of British Intelligence in France, reporting on the French domestic and political situation, although he told his son he preferred not to have a formal position where he would have to take orders. His son Maurice Brett set up a bureau in Paris called Intelligence Anglaise keeping his father informed through a small spy network with links to newspaper journalists.

In 1917 he told Lloyd George that the diplomacy in Paris was weak, informing the Prime Minister that he "was badly served". The ambassador Lord Bertie was the last of the Victorian imperial envoys, and was failing to do enough to persuade a faltering France to remain fighting in the war. When offered the ambassadorship in Bertie's stead Esher crowed "I cannot imagine anything I would detest more." His considerable diplomatic skills included fluent French and German. The following month there was a French mutiny, as the Poilus were dying in appalling conditions. Haig and Henry Wilson lent their support to an offensive to bolster the French. Phillipe Petain, the new French commander-in-chief, was deemed too defensive: Esher sent Colonel Repington as liaison officer on a 'charm offensive'. Backed by Munitions Minister Winston Churchill and Lord Milner for dramatic action, Esher entered a diplomatic conversation with the Cabinet's War Policy Committee; a unique new departure in the management of British policy. The bad weather and sickness of war made Esher ill in 1917; he was encouraged by the King to holiday at Biarritz.

Partly on Esher's advice, the War Office undertook major re-organization in 1917. He advised unification of commands, in which all British military commands would be controlled from Whitehall's Imperial War Office only. Esher was at the famous Crillon Club dinner meeting in Paris on 1 December 1917 in which with Clemenceau they took critical decisions over the strategy for 1918. The Allied Governments proposed a unified Allied Reserve, despite negative press and publicity in the Commons. As cabinet enforcer, Esher visited Henry Wilson on 9 February 1918, during the crisis over his succession to William Robertson as Chief of the Imperial General Staff. Esher became instrumental in remonstrating with loose press articles critical of the war effort in particular, Lord Northcliffe's newspapers and The Morning Post. In France, Esher had established a rapprochement with the press to help hold the Poincare-Clemenceau government together, at a time when England was at the zenith of her military strength."

As the Great War concluded Esher intimated that the King wanted his resignation as Deputy-Governor of Windsor. In fact he coveted the post of Keeper of the Royal Archives. Lord Stamfordham demanded his resignation in favour of historian Sir John Fortescue, but Esher remained as Governor. Professionalization also warned Maurice Hankey against becoming secretary to the Paris Peace Conference, which to Esher's mind was beyond his competence. Esher also persuaded his friend not to desert the British Empire for the League of Nations. Domestic unrest and trade unionism, which Esher loathed, as it threatened peace and stability, also destabilized his position as President of the Army of India Committee. Ever skeptical of political changes, "omnivorous" introductions to the Viceroy's work forced him to decline a solicitous offer to chair a sub-committee of the Conditions of the Poor.

Historian and retirement
Esher was admitted to the Privy Council in 1922. In 1928 he became Constable and Governor of Windsor Castle, an office he had always wanted, holding it until his death in 1930.

Lord Esher was also a historian; besides the aforementioned work, he also published works on King Edward VII and Lord Kitchener. Together with Liberal MP Lewis ("Loulou") Harcourt he established the London Museum, which opened its doors on 5 March 1912. In February 1920 he proof read Haig's History of the General Head Quarters 1917–1918. That summer Esher's critique of a Life of Disraeli appeared in Quarterly Review. His memoir, Cloud-capp'd Towers, was published in 1927. After his death, his sons published four volumes of his Journals and Letters (1934–1938).

Esher's most cheerful experiences were at Roman Camp in Callander, Scotland.

Honours and arms

 * British honours
 * KCB : Knight Commander the Order of the Bath – announced in the 1902 Coronation Honours list on 26 June 1902 – invested by King Edward while on board his yacht HMY Victoria and Albert on 28 July 1902 (gazetted 11 July 1902)
 * GCVO: Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order (previously KCVO)

Family
In 1879, Reginald Brett married Eleanor Van de Weyer, daughter of Belgian ambassador Sylvain Van de Weyer and granddaughter of Anglo-American financier Joshua Bates. They had four children.
 * Their elder son, Oliver Sylvain Baliol Brett became 3rd Viscount Esher and was a Fellow of the Royal Institute of British Architects. He married Antoinette Heckscher, daughter of August Heckscher.
 * Their second son, Maurice Vyner Baliol Brett, married the famous musical theatre actress Zena Dare.
 * Their older daughter, Dorothy, was a painter and member of the Bloomsbury Group. She studied at the Slade School of Fine Arts and spent years in New Mexico.
 * Their younger daughter, Sylvia, became the last Ranee of Sarawak on 24 May 1917, following the proclamation of her husband Charles Vyner Brooke as Rajah.

Sexuality
Although married with children, Lord Esher had homosexual inclinations; but his flirtations with young men were regarded with tolerant amusement in polite society. The years before his marriage had been marked by a series of what Esher described as "rapturous" love affairs with various young men. His subsequent marriage in no way stopped or curtailed these activities. Indeed, he could not, he told a friend, remember a single day when he was not in love with one young man or another. He later published anonymously a white-covered book of verse called Foam, in which he glorified "golden lads". According to his biographer, Esher "never deliberately concealed his infatuations" but explicitly confided them to only a few. Those few included Esher's son Maurice, to whom Maurice wrote prurient and even romantic letters during the boy's time at Eton.

One of his most significant male companions was his private secretary Lawrence Burgis, who met Esher when he was attending King's School, Worcester. Although the relationship likely went physically unconsummated due to Burgis's heterosexuality, they remained closely acquainted until Esher's death in 1930. After the British entry into World War I, Esher personally intervened to have Burgis appointed as an aide-de-camp to the British Expeditionary Force Commander of Intelligence John Charteris so that he could avoid front-line service on the Western Front. Esher also had him appointed as a secretary to the Cabinet Office. Burgis later used his position to keep verbatim records of Prime Minister Winston Churchill's War Cabinet meetings in defiance of the Official Secrets Act 1911, providing one of the most important records of World War II.

title: Reginald Brett, 2nd Viscount Esher


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Structures from Silence

Structures from Silence is the third studio album by American ambient musician Steve Roach. It was released in 1984 on Fortuna.

Recording
The title track, Structures from Silence, took Steve Roach a few months to compose. He would play the song using an Oberheim OB-8 and Oberheim DSX sequencer day and night, adjusting it until it sounded right to him. Finally, he went to a recording studio and recorded the song in a single 30-minute long pass, using his own gear along with a second OB-8 as well as a Lexicon 224 digital reverberator.

Release
A remastered version of this album, with a different cover, was released in 2001 by Projekt.

A 30-year anniversary edition was released by Projekt in 2014. The album was remastered in 24-bit/96 kHz from the original analog mixes. There is both a single-CD edition, and a 3-CD deluxe edition that includes two bonus discs created in 2013. Both editions use the original cover art. The remastered original album (but not the two bonus discs) was made available as 24-bit/96 kHz digital downloads.

Video release
In 1987 a VHS video titled Structures from Silence was released. It featured imagery created by Marianne Dolan set to the album's title track. This video was also released on laserdisc under the title Space Dreaming.

Reception
In late November 2014, Steve Roach was selected as Echoes Radio's #1 Artist and Structures from Silence was voted as the #2 album.

Fact listed Structures from Silence as the tenth best album of the 1980s, calling it a "thoughtful, slow-paced study in synthesizer" and one of the most important ambient albums of all time. They listed the 2014 reissue as the fourth best reissue that year, commenting that "it's a perfect time to return to this classic album – still spellbinding, three decades on." In 2016, Pitchfork listed it as the 33rd best ambient album of all time.

Personnel
Per liner notes.
 * Steve Roach — performer, producer, recording engineer
 * Michael Stearns — spatial enhancements
 * Kevin Braheny — spatial enhancements
 * Richard Bailey — cover art

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Structures from Silence


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Teraina

Teraina (written also Teeraina, also known as Washington Island – these two names are constitutional ) is a coral atoll in the central Pacific Ocean and part of the Northern Line Islands which belong to Kiribati. Obsolete names of Teraina are New Marquesas, Prospect Island, and New York Island. The island is located approximately 4.71° North latitude and 160.76° West longitude. Teraina differs from most other atolls in the world in that it has a large freshwater lake (Washington Lake), an open lens, concealed within its luxuriant coconut palm forest; this is the only permanent freshwater lake in the whole of Kiribati.

Measuring about 5.4 by NW-SE and SW-NE, it has a land area of about 9.55 km2; its circumference is about 15 km. The island is generally low-lying, with a maximum elevation ASL of about 5 m, while most of the island rises some 3 m high; trees in the dense inland forest grow to several times this height however. At the western end of the island is the capital, Tangkore (or Tengkore). There are (as at the 2020 Census) about 1,893 inhabitants, making it the least-populated of the permanently inhabited Northern Line Islands. However, population density (177 per km2) is three times as high as on Tabuaeran and vastly more than on the much larger (300-plus km2) Kiritimati with its about 15 people/km2.

There are two dirt roads around the island's perimeter – an outer (Beach Road) and an inner one (Ring Road). Transport inland is done by boat on artificial canals, rather uniquely for a Pacific island. A 21 m navigation light tower and two radio masts stand near Tangkore. What cannot be produced locally is shipped in about twice a year; there is also some minor inter-island traffic by ship or boat. The old landing was at the western tip, but this was dangerous due to being exposed to surf breaking on the reef flats; it has been more recently replaced by a new and more easily accessible landing south of Tangkore, where the canal system feeds into the ocean. A rough airstrip of some 1,000 m length exists near Kaaitara. It may become temporarily unusable after heavy rains.

History
Permanent early human occupation of Teraina is disputed. Although there were no occupants on the island at the time of European discovery, a number of human made sites have been identified on the island including dry stacked stone architecture. Additionally, ethnographic data from the Cook Islands and the Tuamotu Islands points to Polynesian knowledge of the island. Perhaps the most compelling discovery on Teraina is the recovery of an intact voyaging canoe. Although archaeological sites are known to exist on the island, the general lack of fresh water makes long-term human habitation unlikely though more work is needed in establishing the timeline of human use.

Teraina was sighted on 12 June 1798 by the American whaling captain Edmund Fanning of Betsy; he named the island for George Washington but did not attempt to land. The first exploration of the island arrived later with captain Adam Johann von Krusenstern, on a Russian expedition (called then New Marquesas). The island was subsequently claimed under the Guano Islands Act of 1856 for the United States under the name "Prospect Island". Guano was never mined or exported to any notable extent, however; the humid climate prevents the formation of substantial deposits. It was occupied by Captain John English and people from Manihiki in about 1860.

Later William Greig who began planting the island with coconut trees. Eventually the sons of Greig owned the plantation with Father until he sold his interest to the Fanning Island Limited, and started a coconut plantation on Christmas Island.

Fanning Island was annexed by the British by Commander Nichols of HMS Cormorant (1877) on May 29, 1889. It became a part of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands colony in 1916. The name of the island was changed to Teraina in 1979 when Kiribati gained independence. The major export of Teraina is copra, the dried meat of the coconut.

The Burns Philip Copra Company operated plantations on the island after the Second World War. At various times, contract laborers were brought from Manihiki, Tahiti, and the Gilbert Islands to work the coconut plantations. More recently, settlement from Gilbert group has been encouraged during the re-settlement schemes of 1989–1995.

Washington Island Post Office opened on 1 February 1921, closed around 1923, reopened in 1924, closed in 1948 and reopened again around August 1979.

Political geography
The population of Teraina lives in nine villages. It is increasing; from 416 in 1978, it had risen to 936 in 1990 and had exceeded 1,000 by 2000. The population of Teraina in the 2010 census was 1,690. Compared to the 2005 population of 1,155 and the 2000 population of 1,087, the population is growing very rapidly. The population of Teraina grew by 535 people between 2005 and 2010, an annual population growth of 7.9%.

All villages are listed in the following table, with the preliminary census results of 2005, counterclockwise around the perimeter of the atoll, starting in the northeast with Abaiang and ending in the southeast with Onauea. Tangkore is near the westernmost point of Teraina:

Teraina has an unusual age structure; nearly half the population (44%) is aged under 15 and one in five people (19%) are children under five years. There are more males than females in almost all age groups except the elderly.

Physical geography
As regards its physical characteristics, this is one of the most interesting islands in the Pacific. It is a raised coral atoll, but it has not filled up with sand and soil, yet still retains a significant remnant of the former lagoon. The lake, however, is only just barely perceptibly brackish, as its only significant source is the plentiful rain. The lake is only a few feet (around 1–2 meters) deep for the most part, though the supposed maximum depth is nearly 10 m. Being only about 520 km away from the equator, Teeraina is inside the ITCZ; its climate is thus extremely humid, making it one of the "wet" Pacific islands.

The western inland is made up by peat bog, which is still flooded after heavy rains, and constitutes infilled former lakebed. It is not clear in what way the western lake or lakes – there are now 2 main areas of bogland, which may correspond to former lake basins – were connected to the remaining waterbody. One bog is immediately adjacent to the lake's western end, the other is halfway between that and the island's northwest tip. Canals have been cut into the bogs, for punting, rowing and motor boats transporting people and produce. There is some removal of peat and sediments to stem the lake's ongoing infilling; in addition it seems that in recent times, the lake's level is slowly rising again so that the eastern bog's area has receded somewhat. The peat reaches thicknesses of about 1 - 1.5 m, much of which is located above sea level.

It is also not precisely known where the last connection of the inland waters to the ocean were, and when they closed. The southeast end is more likely however, as the island is in the Equatorial Counter Current which runs west to east, and drifting coral and other reef-builder larvae as well as flotsam would therefore predominantly land at the island's western side. Thus, it is to be expected that land build up faster there. This also agrees with the eastern location of the remaining lake. In any case, the canal network now opens to the sea south of Tangkore, and there is a direct connection from the lake to the ocean at Teraina's eastern tip.

Ecology
Ecologically, Teraina is also highly interesting, for several reasons. First, as is readily apparent from its peculiar geographical and geological features, it possesses a combination of ecosystems that is quite unique in the entire world. Second, it holds the world's largest population of a rare bird species though it is over 2,500 km from that bird's original home. Furthermore, it was until fairly recently home to some enigmatic dabbling ducks which are now extinct. Last, the island's biodiversity seems to prove quite conclusively that, probably by about 1200 AD or so, the island was temporarily inhabited by a significant number of humans.

At present, there is no formal protection for the islands' ecosystems or species, but it has been suggested to legally protect key habitat, namely the boglands. Though it is globally endangered, the Rimatara lorikeet (Vini kuhlii) does not appear to be in need of formal protection; it actually benefits from human land use change and the feral cats. The former provides the birds with more habitat, while the cats have so far managed to keep Teraina completely free of black rats (Rattus rattus) which due to their tree-climbing habits would seriously jeopardize the species' existence, should they become established in numbers. Given the negative experience e.g. from Rennell Island, maintenance of a vigorous tilapia fishery would seem to be advisable. These fish certainly represent a valuable source of protein on Teraina, and in fact were originally introduced for that purpose.

Flora
Over 30 species of flowering plants are known from the island, but most seem to be not originally native. Cocos nucifera, the coconut palm, is the most conspicuous tree on Teraina. It is found planted, but also constitutes one of the dominant forest trees. The palms occur in wet forest around the bogs, mixed with Pandanus (screwpine), and an undergrowth dominated by the ferns Asplenium pacificum and Phymatosorus scolopendria. In more elevated places near the beach, Pisonia (catchbird tree) atoll forest is found, though Teraina has not that much of this ubiquitous Pacific ecosystem for its size.

The most conspicuous plants of the boglands are the arum Cyrtosperma merkusii and the giant bulrush (Schoenoplectus californicus).

Among the local crops, sugar-apple (Annona squamosa), breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis), papaya (Carica papaya), bananas (Musa cultivars, including Fe'i bananas ) and apple guava (Psidium guajava) are the most significant, apart from the coconuts. Frangipani (Plumeria) and hibiscus are popular as ornamental plants.

Birds
Though numerous seabirds nest on Teraina, for many such species the limited habitat makes it a less important rookery than other, similar-sized raised atolls. About 10 species of seabirds breed here, most significantly tree-nesters like the little white tern (Gygis microrhyncha) and the red-footed booby (Sula sula). The eastern reef egret (Egretta sacra), widespread throughout the region, can also be found on Teraina.

Among migratory birds, the ruddy turnstone (Arenaria interpres), sanderling (Calidris alba), bristle-thighed curlew (Numenius tahitiensis), Pacific golden plover (Pluvialis fulva), and grey-tailed (Tringa brevipes) and wandering tattlers (T. incana) use Teraina as stopover location or winter quarters on a regular basis. Other shorebirds, gulls, and occasionally ducks of North American and East Asian species may occur as vagrants.

In historic times, two species of landbirds and one subspecies of duck have been recorded. The latter, Coues's gadwall (Anas strepera couesi), was the only distinct subspecies of the widespread gadwall. It is surrounded by considerable mystery, mainly as regards the origin of the population, the age and therefore validity of the subspecies (it is sometimes disputed to be significantly distinct), and the causes and date of its disappearance. Only two specimens are known – a couple that is not fully mature, and therefore only limited information can be gleaned from it. What is certain is that there was a duck population of some size in the mid-1870s, while in 1900 all were gone.

The bokikokiko (Acrocephalus aequinoctialis) is Kiribati's endemic reed-warbler. This small greyish passerine is well-known, due to its bold and inquisitive habits, and its song, a series of alternating higher and lower squeaks after which it is named.

The Rimitara lorikeet (Vini kuhlii) is present with about 1,000 birds. It is a tiny parrot with brilliant plumage and an endearing and highly social behavior, owing to which they were known to late 19th century settlers as "love-birds". This species was originally native to the Austral and Cook Islands in SE Polynesia, a long distance to the south. They were treasured by the natives of the Society Islands and were an item of high value in inter-island trade; these birds were kept as pets, and in addition their feathers were used in crafts and art. In any case, there is considerable evidence from Ancient Hawaiʻi that Polynesian seafarers travelled between southeastern Polynesia and Hawaiʻi with some regularity, perhaps as early as 400 AD, but certainly by about 1200 AD. Since it is almost inconceivable – given the prevailing winds, ocean currents, known trade routes, and the difficulty with which these birds can be kept alive during voyages – that Vini kuhlii was transported from the Austral or Cook Islands to the Gilbert Islands and from there to Teraina, the presence of the birds there is best explained by them having been introduced by SE Polynesian travelers. Today, the species is extinct on many islands on which it formerly occurred, while the Teraina population, considered crucially important for its survival, contains some 60% of the remaining global wild population. Ironically, the reason for the Rimitara lorikeet thriving on Teraina is the replacement of native forest with coconut plantations; these birds feed mainly on the nectar of coconut palm flowers and nest in old coconut shells or husks.

As it thus seems clear that there was prehistoric human activity of some degree on Teraina, it is also likely that birds became extinct consequently, like on all such Outer Pacific islands for which research has been conducted. David Steadman in his comprehensive review lists several such hypothetical taxa for Kiribati as a whole. For Teraina specifically, considering the habitat and what birds still exist, one or more rails (Gallirallus and/or Porzana ), an imperial-pigeon (Ducula), and maybe a Todiramphus kingfisher or an Aplonis starling make the most likely candidates for birds gone extinct prehistorically. It must be considered, however, that given the lack of fieldwork it is not quite clear what effect changing sea levels would have had on Teraina. If the sea level were only half a meter (c. 2 ft) higher it is certainly possible that the forest and freshwater lake would be replaced by shrubland or dunes and a brackish lagoon. That notwithstanding, it is well possible that a Polynesian sandpiper related to or identical with the Christmas sandpiper from Kiritimati once lived on Teraina.

Other fauna
As with most outer Pacific islands, there are no native land mammals.

Polynesian rats (Rattus exulans) are present on Teraina, apparently since prehistoric times. They may have arrived with flotsam after storms further west, or accidentally or deliberately (as food) been introduced by prehistoric seafarers. Their present-day impact on the bird population is minor, but if rails were once present on Teraina, the rats had probably some role in these birds' disappearance, and maybe in that of any other birds gone extinct in prehistoric times too. If a Polynesian sandpiper once bred on Teraina, it is almost certainly those rats that are responsible for these birds' disappearance; only a single taxon of Prosobonia remains today, precariously holding its own on atolls that are devoid of any rat species.

Feral dogs, cats and pigs occur in varying numbers on Teraina; the cats especially are responsible for some decline in the number of ground-nesting seabirds. On the other hand, as noted above, the cats have thus far kept the rat population at bay.

Lacustrine species reported from Teraina include fish. and some unspecified "shrimp", i.e. (in all probability) a member of the Crustacea. Teraina's freshwater fish include the marbled eel (Anguilla marmorata), a Caranx freshwater trevally, and Oreochromis tilapias and the milkfish (Chanos chanos). The latter two, and perhaps also the trevally, were introduced in recent times. The eels were already established by 1877; like many Anguillidae they are catadromous and able to migrate some distance on dry land. Thus it may be presumed that the lake is continuously being restocked from the Pacific, though apparently no actual field data exists on the habits of the eels of Teraina.

As on many Indopacific islands rich in coconut (Cocos nucifera) trees, the coconut crab (Birgus latro) is often encountered on Teraina.

A few green turtles (Chelonia mydas) nest on the beaches. It is not a very important nesting site however and the clutches have a rather low probability of success, as Teraina is one of the Kiribati islands where turtle egg collecting is permitted.

title: Teraina


text:
Thomas Aufield

Thomas Aufield (1552 – 6 July 1585), also called Thomas Alfield, was an English Roman Catholic martyr.

He was born in Gloucestershire and educated at Eton College and King's College, Cambridge. He then converted to Roman Catholicism and in September 1576 went to the English College at Douai, France, but suspecting danger returned to England in November.

In September 1580 Aufield returned to the English College, by then at Rheims. He was ordained a priest on 4 March 1581 at Châlons-sur-Marne and later that month set out for the English Mission. He seems to have mostly operated in the North, where he was arrested on 2 May 1582. He was imprisoned in the Tower of London, where he apostatized under torture, returning to Protestantism. Released on bond, he then returned to Gloucester.

By the following April he was again at Rheims, and having returned to Catholicism around the beginning of Michaelmas term visited his brother-in-law in Aldersgate Street, London. Around this time he was approached by Captain John Davis requesting an introduction to William Allen. Davis proposed that the ships he had been given by the government for piracy against Spain be crewed by Catholics to serve the Pope or the King of Spain against the Turks or other enemies. Aufield met Davis at Rouen and brought him to Rheims to meet Williams. Davis's plan was conveyed to the Pope, who referred Davis to the King of Spain.

On the failure of the negotiations, Aufield returned to England and was arrested for circulating Catholic texts and sent to the Tower, and again put to torture. Aufield was charged under Religion Act 1580 s.4 which prohibited publication of any book against the queen. He was then transferred to Newgate. He was then tried, convicted and hanged at Tyburn alongside his assistant Thomas Webley. He was beatified in 1929. His feast day is 6 July, the date of his martyrdom.

title: Thomas Aufield


text:
List of 1990 Canadian incumbents

Crown

 * Head of State - Queen Elizabeth II

Federal government

 * Governor General - Jeanne Sauvé then Ray Hnatyshyn

Cabinet

 * Prime Minister - Brian Mulroney
 * Deputy Prime Minister - Don Mazankowski
 * Minister of Finance - Michael Wilson
 * Secretary of State for External Affairs - Joe Clark
 * Secretary of State for Canada - Gerry Weiner
 * Minister of National Defence - Bill McKnight
 * Minister of National Health and Welfare - Perrin Beatty
 * Minister of Industry, Science and Technology - Benoît Bouchard (position created February 23, 1990)
 * Minister of Regional Industrial Expansion - Harvie André (position discontinued February 22, 1990)
 * Minister of the Environment - Lucien Bouchard then Frank Oberle (interim) then Robert de Cotret
 * Minister of Justice - Doug Lewis then Kim Campbell
 * Minister of Transport - Benoît Bouchard then Doug Lewis
 * Minister of Communications - Marcel Masse
 * Minister of Fisheries and Oceans - Tom Siddon then Bernard Valcourt
 * Minister of Agriculture - Don Mazankowski
 * Minister of Public Works - Elmer MacKay
 * Minister of Employment and Immigration - Barbara McDougall
 * Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development - Pierre Cadieux then Tom Siddon
 * Minister of Energy, Mines and Resources - Jake Epp
 * Minister of Forestry - Frank Oberle (position was created on February 23, 1990)
 * Minister of Veterans Affairs - Gerry Merrithew

Parliament
See: 34th Canadian parliament

Party leaders

 * Progressive Conservative Party of Canada - Brian Mulroney
 * Liberal Party of Canada - John Turner then Jean Chrétien
 * Bloc Québécois - Lucien Bouchard (party first formed May 21, 1990)
 * New Democratic Party- Audrey McLaughlin
 * Reform Party of Canada - Preston Manning

Supreme Court Justices

 * Chief Justice: Brian Dickson then (from July 1) Antonio Lamer
 * Beverley McLachlin
 * Bertha Wilson
 * William Stevenson (arrived on September 17, to replace Lamer who had previously been promoted to Chief Justice)
 * Gérard V. La Forest
 * John Sopinka
 * Peter deCarteret Cory
 * Claire L'Heureux-Dubé
 * Charles D. Gonthier

Other

 * Speaker of the House of Commons - John Allen Fraser
 * Governor of the Bank of Canada - John Crow
 * Chief of the Defence Staff - General John de Chastelain

Premiers

 * Premier of Alberta - Don Getty
 * Premier of British Columbia - Bill Vander Zalm
 * Premier of Manitoba - Gary Filmon
 * Premier of New Brunswick - Frank McKenna
 * Premier of Newfoundland - Clyde Wells
 * Premier of Nova Scotia - John Buchanan then Roger Bacon
 * Premier of Ontario - David Peterson then Bob Rae
 * Premier of Prince Edward Island - Joe Ghiz
 * Premier of Quebec - Robert Bourassa
 * Premier of Saskatchewan - Grant Devine
 * Premier of the Northwest Territories - Dennis Patterson
 * Premier of Yukon - Tony Penikett

Lieutenant-governors

 * Lieutenant-Governor of Alberta - Helen Hunley
 * Lieutenant-Governor of British Columbia - David Lam
 * Lieutenant-Governor of Manitoba - George Johnson
 * Lieutenant-Governor of New Brunswick - Gilbert Finn
 * Lieutenant-Governor of Newfoundland and Labrador - James Aloysius McGrath
 * Lieutenant-Governor of Nova Scotia - Lloyd Roseville Crouse
 * Lieutenant-Governor of Ontario - Lincoln Alexander
 * Lieutenant-Governor of Prince Edward Island - Robert Lloyd George MacPhail then Marion Reid
 * Lieutenant-Governor of Quebec - Gilles Lamontagne then Martial Asselin
 * Lieutenant-Governor of Saskatchewan - Sylvia Fedoruk

Mayors

 * Toronto - Art Eggleton
 * Montreal - Jean Doré
 * Vancouver - Gordon Campbell
 * Ottawa - James A. Durrell

Religious leaders

 * Roman Catholic Bishop of Quebec - Cardinal Archbishop Louis-Albert Vachon then Archbishop Maurice Couture
 * Roman Catholic Bishop of Montreal - Cardinal Archbishop Paul Grégoire then Cardinal Archbishop Jean-Claude Turcotte
 * Roman Catholic Bishops of London - Bishop John Michael Sherlock
 * Moderator of the United Church of Canada - Sang Chul Lee then Walter H. Farquharson

title: List of 1990 Canadian incumbents


text:
Presidential election

A presidential election is the election of any head of state whose official title is President.

Albania
The president of Albania is elected by the Assembly of Albania who are elected by the Albanian public.

Chile
The president of Chile is elected by the Chilean people for a four-year term. Sitting presidents are not allowed to run for reelection, but former presidents may do so.

China
The president and vice president of China, are elected by the National People's Congress (NPC) on the nomination of the NPC Presidium. In practice, the presidential candidate is chosen through an informal process within the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), which is headed by the CCP general secretary.

Czech Republic
The president of the Czech Republic is elected for a five-year term. Prior 2013, the election was indirect by the Parliament. The first direct election was held in 2013.

El Salvador
El Salvador elects its head of state – the president of El Salvador – directly through a fixed-date general election whose winner is decided by absolute majority. A presidential term in of 5 years and can't be re-election immediately, to become president again they have to wait one electoral period to run again. Current president of El Salvador is Nayib Bukele

France
The president of France is elected for a five-year (since 2002) term by popular vote.

Indonesia
The president and vice president of Indonesia are elected for a maximum of two five-year terms. Since 2004, presidential elections in Indonesia have been determined by popular vote.

Iran
The president of Iran is elected to a four-year term by the public. The first presidential election in Iran was held in 1980, following the Iranian Revolution of 1979 which resulted in the overthrow of the monarchy, although the president's power is second to the Supreme Leader.

Ireland
The president of Ireland is elected by the Irish people for a seven-year term.

Israel
The president of Israel is elected by the Knesset to a single seven-year term, though the role of the president is largely ceremonial as the real power of the country is in the hands of the prime minister.

Kazakhstan
The president of Kazakhstan is directly elected by popular vote for a single seven-year term. The first de-facto presidential election in Kazakhstan was held in 1991, during the dissolution of the Soviet Union, excluding the 1990 Kazakh presidential election where the president was indirectly elected by the Supreme Soviet of the Kazakh SSR.

Kyrgyzstan
The president of Kyrgyzstan undergoes a single term of six years.

Lithuania
The president of Lithuania is elected for a five-year term by the citizens of Lithuania.

Mexico
The president of Mexico is elected for a six-year term by the public. The first presidential election in Mexico was in 1934, although these weren't considered to have met international standards until 1994.

Palestine
The president of the Palestinian National Authority is the highest-ranking political position in the State of Palestine and is elected to a four-year term by the public.

Philippines
The president of the Philippines is the highest-ranking political position in the Philippines and is elected to a six-year term by the general populace. The most recent presidential election was held in 2022 which resulted in Bongbong Marcos being elected as the 17th president of the Philippines.

Poland
The first president of Second Polish Republic was Gabriel Narutowicz. In the Second Polish Republic, the president was elected by the Parliament, while in the Third Polish Republic the president is elected for a five-year term by the public. The most recent presidential election was the 2020 Polish presidential election. The next election will take place in 2025.

Russia
The president of Russia is elected for a six-year term by the public. The first presidential election in Russia was held in 1991.

Singapore
The president of Singapore is directly elected by popular vote, subject to potential candidates meeting stringent qualifications set out in the Constitution, in order to run for office.

South Africa
The president of South Africa is elected by the National Assembly who are elected by the South African public. The leader of the largest elected party in the National Assembly becomes president for a five-year term. The first non-racial elections were held in 1994 to mark the end of apartheid.

South Korea
South Korea has adopted a single, five-year presidential system. People over the age of 19 elect the president by direct voting. Voting for overseas Korean was first conducted during the 20th presidential election in 2017, and about 220,000 overseas Korean participated in the presidential election.

Switzerland
The president of the Swiss Confederation is elected every year for a one-year term by the Federal Assembly among the seven Federal Councillors who collectively form together the Head of State. Primus inter pares, the president has no powers over and above the other six Councillors and continues to head his or her department. Traditionally the duty rotates among the members in order of seniority and the previous year's vice president becomes president.

Republic of China

 * Candidates for President of the Republic of China must be ROC citizens who have reached 40 years of age, has set their domicile in the ROC for not less than 15 years and lived in the free regions of the ROC for not less than 6 consecutive months. Naturalised citizens, residents of Hong Kong, Macau or the People's Republic of China, soldiers and election officials are not eligible.

Tanzania
The president of Tanzania is elected by general vote every five years. As of 2015, 24,001,134 people in Tanzania were registered to vote. Voters are registered upon completion of a Biometric Voters Register kit. The current president is John Magufuli.

Turkey
The president of Turkey is elected for a maximum of two five-year terms. Prior to 2014, the election was indirect by the Parliament. Since 2014, presidential elections in Turkey have been determined by popular vote.

Ukraine
The president of Ukraine is elected for a five-year term by the public. The first presidential election in Ukraine was held in 1991 following the dissolution of the Soviet Union.

United States
The United States has elections on the state and local levels. The Electoral College is the constitutional body that elects the president, and voters actually vote for the members of the Electoral College at the state level. In the U.S., the presidential elections at the state-level decide which people shall become members of the Electoral College for each state, and those members of the Electoral College in turn cast their votes for the presidential candidates. The first recorded Electoral College presidential election in the United States was in 1788−1789, in which George Washington won.

Venezuela
The president of Venezuela is elected by the public to a six-year term.

List of presidential elections

 * Elections in Albania
 * Elections in Argentina
 * Elections in Belarus
 * Elections in Brazil
 * Elections in Estonia
 * Elections in El Salvador
 * Elections in Finland
 * Elections in France
 * Elections in Germany
 * Elections in Hungary
 * Elections in India
 * Elections in Iceland
 * Elections in Indonesia
 * Elections in Iran
 * Elections in the Republic of Ireland
 * Elections in Israel
 * Elections in Italy
 * Elections in Mexico
 * Elections in the Palestinian National Authority
 * Elections in Poland
 * Elections in Portugal
 * Elections in Russia
 * Elections in South Africa
 * Elections in South Korea
 * Elections in Spain
 * Elections in Taiwan
 * Elections in Turkey
 * Elections in Ukraine
 * Elections in the United States
 * Elections in Venezuela

Related articles

 * Head of state
 * Presidential elections in France
 * Elections in Algeria
 * Elections in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
 * United States presidential election
 * Elections by country

title: Presidential election


text:
Regionalisation

Regionalisation is the tendency to form decentralised regions.

Regionalisation or land classification can be observed in various disciplines:

 * In agriculture, see Agricultural Land Classification.
 * In biogeography, see Biogeography.
 * In ecology, see Ecological land classification.
 * In geography, it has two ways: the process of delineating the Earth, its small areas or other units into regions and a state of such a delineation.
 * In globalisation discourse, it represents a world that becomes less interconnected, with a stronger regional focus.
 * In politics, it is the process of dividing a political entity or country into smaller jurisdictions (administrative divisions or subnational units) and transferring power from the central government to the regions; the opposite of unitarisation. See Regionalism (politics).
 * In sport, it is when a team has multiple "home" venues in different cities. Examples of regionalized teams include a few teams in the defunct American Basketball Association, or the Green Bay Packers when they played in both Green Bay and Milwaukee from 1933 to 1994.
 * In linguistics, it is when a prestige language adopts features of a regional language, such as how, in medieval times, Church Latin developed regional pronunciation differences in the countries it was used, including Italy, France, Spain, Portugal, England, Germany, Denmark, Hungary, and Slavic countries.

title: Regionalisation


text:
Charles H. Russell

Charles Hinton Russell (December 27, 1903 – September 13, 1989) was an American politician who served as the 20th Governor of Nevada. He was a member of the Republican Party.

Biography
Russell was born on December 27, 1903, in Lovelock, Nevada. He graduated from the University of Nevada in 1926. He taught school in Ruby Valley for one term and then went to Ruth to work for the copper company. He was the editor of the Ely Record for seventeen years, beginning in 1929.

Political career
Russell was a member of the Nevada state Senate from 1941 to 1946. After that, he was elected as a Republican to the Eightieth Congress, succeeding Democrat Berkeley L. Bunker, who ran unsuccessfully for the U. S. Senate. He was an unsuccessful candidate for reelection in 1948 to the Eighty-first Congress, narrowly losing to Reno City Councilman Walter S. Baring. He was elected Nevada Governor in 1951 and signed into law SB79, which made Nevada into a right-to-work state. He left office in 1959.

Death
Russell died on September 13, 1989, in Carson City, Nevada, at the age of 85. He is interred at the Dayton Cemetery in Dayton, Nevada.

title: Charles H. Russell


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Transcendentalist Theology

I think our old friend Kurt Kawohl is back with a massive, POV and nearly unreadable entry. There's a Google link with his name at the top of the page which, quite frankly, turns up nothing. Same anon has made vast edits to "transcendentalism" and similar articles. - Lucky 6.9 23:25, 30 Jul 2004 (UTC) My literary qualities are sorely wanting. Complete editing rather than deletion would be appreciated.Kurt Kawohl
 * This is horribly unsalvagable. If it is a valid topic, a personal essay is not required.  Dunc_Harris|☺ 23:28, 30 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Reads like he is telling you how it is. Would make a good article if an expert could make some serious revisions.  Delete Jaberwocky6669
 * Delete as original research, unless the contributor or someone else can provide verifiable references showing this is a well-established concept. Presently the article presents no references or external links, it's just all ex cathedra. "Transcendentalist theology" in quotes gets only 28 Google hits, it's apparently not well-established terminology, either in reference to either the Concord, Mass crowd or to the TM folks. Dpbsmith 02:00, 31 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Tough: The topic is very much encyclopedic, if we're talking about Transcendentalism and not TM.  Transcendentalism was a theological/philosophical movement of the US in the early 19th c. that grew out of the Congregationalism and Universalism movements in the northeast.  It was quasi-Deist.  I'm sure everyone who read Ralph Waldo Emerson got bored by hearing about it.  At any rate, that transcendentalism is notable and deserves an article.  This one is a personal essay.  I'd love for the name to be kept, but not this article. Geogre 02:36, 31 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * So why doesn't someone edit it? See Transcendentalism Today
 * Looks like a candidate to merge and redirect into Transcendentalism, an article that could probably use some expansion. Current content reads like original research with a strong POV. Rossami 03:53, 31 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, delete, delete. He does love to plaster his name on the thing, doesn't he?  RickK 04:06, Jul 31, 2004 (UTC)
 * Agree with Rossami, this subject is relevant but does not need its own page - redirect to Transcendentalism. Don't merge though - it's a lost cause. Rdsmith4 | Talk 05:19, 31 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Hoo, boy, another "neospiritualistic" sermon posing as an article. This Kurt Kawohl guy signs his writings more often than Gene Ray.  Or, if he doesn't, then the person who created Transcendentalist Theology must be his biggest fan.  Original research (and original screeds) do not belong in the Wikipedia; we should delete on those grounds alone.  As for merging with transcendentalism, what does a new-age personal opinion have to do with an intellectual movement started by Immanuel Kant in 1836?  There is nothing to merge.  --Ardonik 11:43, Jul 31, 2004 (UTC)
 * Transcendentalism is is a conglomeration of similar, but diverse ideas about literature, religion, culture and philosophy. Religious irrationality today is the main cause of terrorism & killings worldwide. Encyclopedia means information on many subjects, not history. Does a new concept automatically deserve censorship?
 * Censorship? How I wish people would stop tossing that word around in here!  Who is censoring you, suppressing your ideas, forbidding your edits, making you unwelcome?  Or do your writings automatically deserve an article in the Wikipedia, never mind the community's opinion?  Given my contempt for censorship in the real world, I can't say I appreciate being accused of such in this virtual world.
 * Back to the topic at hand. Kurt, I did not find your article to be even remotely encyclopedic; that does not mean that it does not deserve to exist.  If you wrote it to urge rationality and introspection in religion, then I applaud your efforts; such perspectives are sorely needed in this irrational world.  But the Wikipedia is not the place for such things.  Get a webpage and write your opinions there; I have a webpage, too, and that's where I keep my own opinions!  If you want the ease of editing your webpage as a wiki, try OddMuse.  Its Free and its syntax most closely resembles that of the MediaWiki projects.  --Ardonik 01:55, Aug 1, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete; POV essay. Get a personal website, Kurt. (Interestingly enough, Transcendentalist Theology does not actually wikilink to transcendentalism!) --Sean Curtin 05:53, 1 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Revised 7-31-04 (Please reconsider) POV has been removed & it can be edited further to make it acceptable. .Kurt Kawohl
 * Dear Kurt, There are already articles on the subject, Ralph Waldo Emerson's work is certainly notable, but any expansion on them will have to be much more neutral to survive the VfD peer review process. The article in question isn't reporting "Transcendentalist theology", it is asserting it. For example, you state in boldface that "Transcendentalist theology perceives that..." at one point. Using perceive (esp. in boldface) is a positive assertion, preaching, not a neutral observation, reporting. The words claim or purport would work better. As the article stands today, I will vote to delete. Fire Star 15:56, 1 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * I thank everyone for their advise. I have again made corrections & respectfully request that edits be made by anyone who wishes to have anything changed therein.Kurt Kawohl
 * It's not the style or little errors. It's the entire approach and content. Kurt, we went through this the last time you tried to add this material. Delete. DJ Clayworth 18:24, 3 Aug 2004 (UTC)


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Regionalism (politics)

Regionalism is a political ideology that seeks to increase the political power, influence and self-determination of the people of one or more subnational regions. It focuses on the "development of a political or social system based on one or more" regions, and/or the national, normative, or economic interests of a specific region, group of regions or another subnational entity, gaining strength from or aiming to strengthen the "consciousness of and loyalty to a distinct region with a homogeneous population", similarly to nationalism. More specifically, "regionalism refers to three distinct elements: movements demanding territorial autonomy within unitary states; the organization of the central state on a regional basis for the delivery of its policies including regional development policies; political decentralization and regional autonomy".

Regions may be delineated by administrative divisions, culture, language and religion, among others. Regionalists' demands occur in "strong" forms (such as sovereigntism, separatism, sovereignty, secession and independence), as well as more "moderate" campaigns for greater autonomy (such as states' rights, decentralization or devolution). Strictly speaking, regionalists favour confederations over unitary nation states with strong central governments. They may, however, embrace intermediate forms of federalism. Proponents of regionalism usually claim that strengthening the governing bodies and political powers within a region, at the expense of a centralized government, will benefit local populations by improving regional or local economies, in terms of better fiscal responsibility, regional development, allocation of resources, implementation of localist policies and plans, competitiveness among regions and, ultimately, the whole country, consistent with the principle of subsidiarity.

Definition
Regionalism, autonomism, separatism and nationalism are interrelated concepts, yet they often have different and sometimes opposite meanings. For instance, in Spain "regionalism" is regarded as strongly associated with "nationalism" and, often, "separatism", whereas in Italy, it is generally seen as a synonym of "federalism" and the opposite of "nationalism". In some cases movements or parties campaigning for independence may push for federalism or autonomy within the pre-existing nation state.

In developed, Western, liberal-democratic countries, secessionist parties include the Parti Québécois in Quebec (Canada), the Scottish National Party and the Scottish Greens in Scotland (United Kingdom), Plaid Cymru in Wales (United Kingdom) and, to some extent, Sinn Féin in Northern Ireland (United Kingdom), the New Flemish Alliance and Vlaams Belang in Flanders (Belgium), Corsica Libera in Corsica (France), the Basque Nationalist Party and Euskal Herria Bildu in the Basque Country (Spain and France), Together for Catalonia and the Republican Left of Catalonia in Catalonia and the Catalan Countries (Spain and France), the Galician Nationalist Bloc in Galicia (Spain), South Tyrolean Freedom and Die Freiheitlichen in South Tyrol (Italy), factions of Lega and several minor parties in northern Italy (Italy), nominally the Sardinian Action Party and several minor parties in Sardinia. In developing countries they include the Polisario Front in Western Sahara (Morocco), the National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad in Azawad (Mali), the Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda in the Cabinda Province (Angola), all national liberation movements and the Democratic Progressive Party in Taiwan (a country whose sovereignty is disputed by China).

Federalist and/or autonomist regional parties include the Coalition Avenir Québec in Quebec (Canada), the New Progressive Party and the Popular Democratic Party in Puerto Rico (a commonwealth of the United States), Femu a Corsica and the Party of the Corsican Nation in Corsica (France), Lega Nord and its sister/successor party Lega in northern Italy (the party has, at times, advocated Padania's independence and its "national section" in Veneto, Liga Veneta, is a mild proponent of Venetian independence), the Martinican Progressive Party in Martinique and the Communist Party of Réunion in Réunion (both French overseas territories) and the New Macau Association in Macau (China).

In some countries, the development of regionalist politics may be a prelude to further demands for greater autonomy or even full separation, especially when ethnic, cultural and economic disparities are present. This was demonstrated, among other examples, in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in the early 1990s.

Regional vs. regionalist
Political parties that are regional are not necessarily regionalist parties. A "regional party" is any political party with its political base in a single region, whatever its objectives and platform may be, whereas "regionalist" parties are a subset of regional parties that specifically campaign for greater autonomy or independence in their region.

Because regional parties – including regionalist parties – often cannot receive enough votes or legislative seats to be politically powerful, they may join political alliances or seek to be part of a coalition government. Notable examples include the Sinn Féin's participation in the Northern Ireland Executive since 1999, the New Flemish Alliance's participation in the Federal Government of Belgium in 2014–2019 and Lega's frequent participation in the Italian government.

Examples of regional parties that do not generally campaign for greater autonomy or federalism include most provincial parties in Canada, most regional and minority parties in Europe, notably including the Christian Social Union in Bavaria (Germany), most political parties in Belgium, most political parties in Northern Ireland (United Kingdom), the Istrian Democratic Assembly in Istria (Croatia), the Alliance of Primorje-Gorski Kotar in Primorje-Gorski Kotar (Croatia) and most political political parties in India.

Regional parties with an autonomist/federalist or separatist agendas have included the aforementioned Bloc Québécois, Lega Nord, the Vlaams Belang, the New Flemish Alliance, the defunct Catalan European Democratic Party, the Republican Left of Catalonia, the Scottish National Party, Plaid Cymru and Sinn Féin

Lists
Lists of regional and regionalist parties are available at:
 * List of political parties campaigning for self-government
 * List of historical separatist movements
 * Category:Independence movements
 * Category:Regionalist parties
 * Category:Political parties of minorities
 * List of regional and minority parties in Europe
 * Lists of active separatist movements
 * European Free Alliance

Concepts

 * Self-determination
 * Self-governance
 * Autonomism
 * Subnational citizenship
 * Decentralization
 * Federalism
 * Separatism
 * Secession
 * Sovereigntism
 * Glocalization
 * Think globally, act locally
 * Localism
 * Parochialism
 * Minority group
 * Ethnicity
 * Ethnic party
 * Country (identity)

Countries

 * Australia: West Australian secessionism; Tasmanian secessionism; Proposals for new Australian states
 * Belgium: communities, regions and language areas; Languages; Economic regional differences
 * Brazil: regions; Languages; nationalisms and regionalisms (Sao Paulo independence movement, The South Is My Country)
 * Canada: languages; Provinces; Maritime Rights Movement; Quebec nationalism (Quebec sovereignty movement); Western alienation (Alberta separatism, Cascadia movement)
 * China: languages; Ethnic groups; nationalisms and regionalisms (Hong Kong independence, Hong Kong Autonomy Movement, Inner Mongolian independence movement, Taiwanese nationalism, Taiwan independence movement, Tibetan independence movement, East Turkestan independence movement)
 * Croatia: minority languages; nationalisms and regionalisms (Dalmatianism, Istrianism)
 * Denmark: manguages; dialects; Realm; nationalisms and regionalismsn (Faroese nationalism (Faroese independence movement; Greenlandic independence)
 * France: nationalisms and regionalisms (Basque nationalism, Breton nationalism, Corsican nationalism, Occitan nationalism)
 * Germany: dialects; nationalisms and reginonalisms (Bavarian nationalism)
 * Italy: languages; North–South divide; nationalisms and regionalisms (Friuli Movement; Lombard nationalism; Padanian nationalism; Sardinian nationalism; Sicilian nationalism; Southern Italy autonomist movements; South Tyrolean independence movement; Venetian nationalism)
 * Romania: languages; ethnic minorities; nationalisms and regionalisms (Székely autonomy movement)
 * Russia: languages; nationalisms and regionalisms (Chechen Republic of Ichkeria, Circassian nationalism, Siberian regionalism), insurgency in the North Caucasus
 * South Africa: languages; Afrikaner nationalism (Volkstaat)
 * Spain: languages; National and regional identity in Spain (Andalusian nationalism, Aragonese nationalism, Asturian nationalism, Basque nationalism, Canarian nationalism, Castilian nationalism, Catalan nationalism, Galician nationalism, Leonesism, Valencian nationalism etc.)
 * United Kingdom: countries; Languages; North–South divide; nationalisms (Cornish nationalism–devolution, English nationalism–independence, Irish nationalism–republicanism, Scottish nationalism–independence, Ulster nationalism, Welsh nationalism–independence)
 * United States: secessionism; Free State Project, Alaskan Independence Party, Yes California, Cascadia movement, Hawaiian sovereignty movement, Neo-Confederates, New England secession movements, Northwest Territorial Imperative, Puerto Rico independence movement, Texas secession movements, Second Vermont Republic

title: Regionalism (politics)


text:
John Sankey, 1st Viscount Sankey

John Sankey, 1st Viscount Sankey, (26 October 1866 – 6 February 1948) was a British lawyer, judge, Labour politician and Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain, famous for many of his judgments in the House of Lords. He gave his name to the Sankey Declaration of the Rights of Man (1940).

Background and education
He was the son of Thomas Sankey, a grocer of Moreton-in-Marsh, Gloucestershire, by his second wife Catalina (née Dewsbury). Sankey's father died when he was 8 years old, when the family moved to Castle Road (now City Road) in Roath, Cardiff. Sankey was educated at a local Anglican school, and with the financial support of an Anglican clergyman he attended Lancing College, a public school in Sussex. He studied at Jesus College, Oxford, graduating with a second-class BA in Modern History in 1889, and a third-class Bachelor of Civil Law degree in 1891. He was called to the Bar at Middle Temple in 1892.

Political and legal career
Sankey began his practice as a barrister in south Wales, later specialising in workmen's compensation cases. In 1909 he was appointed a King's Counsel.

Sankey became a judge of the High Court, King's Bench Division, in 1914. In 1919, Prime Minister David Lloyd George appointed him to chair the Sankey Commission into the coal industry, which recommended a seven-hour day for miners and the nationalisation of the industry. He was appointed a Lord Justice of Appeal in 1928.

On Labour's victory in the 1929 general election, Sankey was appointed Lord Chancellor by Ramsay MacDonald, and was raised to the peerage as Baron Sankey, of Moreton in the County of Gloucester. He was one of the few Labour politicians to follow MacDonald into the National Government in 1931, and served as Lord Chancellor until 1935, when Stanley Baldwin re-entered office. In 1932 he was created Viscount Sankey, of Moreton in the County of Gloucester.

Several of his judgments in the House of Lords have become landmark statements of law. Sankey's judgment in Woolmington v DPP [1935] AC 462 is famous for iterating the duty inherent on the prosecution to prove the prisoner's guilt beyond a reasonable doubt. In pertinent part, his judgment stated: "Throughout the web of the English criminal law one golden thread is always to be seen – that it is the duty of the prosecution to prove the prisoner's guilt subject to what I have already said as to the defence of insanity and subject also to any statutory exception..." This judgment is usually referred to as the "golden thread".

Sitting in the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, Lord Sankey gave decisions in significant Canadian constitutional law cases. Of particular note is Edwards v. Canada (Attorney General) (often referred to as the Persons Case). In his decision, Sankey affirmed that women are eligible to be appointed to the Senate of Canada. In his analysis, he set out the living tree doctrine of constitutional interpretation that has become a foundation of Canadian constitutional law. In another significant decision, the Aeronautics Reference, Sankey held that the federal government had exclusive regulatory jurisdiction over aeronautics.

Sankey Declaration
Sankey's name was associated with the Sankey Declaration of the Rights of Man, the product of the Sankey Committee, which was set up in 1940 by the Daily Herald and the National Peace Council, and which Sankey chaired. The most active member of the committee was H. G. Wells, who prepared the draft that the Declaration was based on. It identified eleven fundamental human rights:
 * right to life
 * protection of minors
 * duty to the community
 * right to knowledge
 * freedom of thought and worship
 * right to work
 * right to personal property
 * freedom of movement
 * personal liberty
 * freedom from violence
 * right of law-making.

The Sankey Declaration was widely publicised by its sponsors at the time, but has since been largely forgotten, having been overtaken by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

Sankey played a key role in establishing the legal framework of the newly disestablished Church in Wales.

Personal life
Sankey never married. He died in London on 6 February 1948, aged 81, when the peerage became extinct. He is buried in The Lower Cemetery of Moreton in Marsh, Gloucestershire. A house at his former school Lancing College is named after him. Sankey endowed a scholarship for students at Jesus College Oxford seeking to practise at the English Bar.

title: John Sankey, 1st Viscount Sankey


text:
Paulo Pancatuccio

Paulo Pancatuccio was a 16th-century cryptographer born in Volterra and employed by the Pope to break enciphered documents.

His activities are described in Blaise de Vigenère's book on cryptography.

title: Paulo Pancatuccio


text:
Patrol Boat, River

Patrol Boat, Riverine, or PBR, is the United States Navy designation for a small rigid-hulled patrol boat used in the Vietnam War from March 1966 until 1975. They were deployed in a force that grew to 250 boats, the most common craft in the River Patrol Force, Task Force 116, and were used to stop and search river traffic in areas such as the Mekong Delta, the Rung Sat Special Zone, the Saigon River and in I Corps, in the area assigned to Task Force Clearwater, in an attempt to disrupt weapons shipments. In this role, they frequently became involved in firefights with enemy soldiers on boats and on the shore, were used to insert and extract Navy SEAL teams, and were employed by the United States Army's 458th Transportation Company, known as the 458th Sea Tigers.

The PBR was replaced by the Special Operations Craft – Riverine (SOC-R)

Design

The PBR was a versatile boat with a fiberglass hull and water jet drive which enabled it to operate in shallow, weed-choked rivers. It drew only 2 ft of water fully loaded. The drives could be pivoted to reverse direction, turn the boat in its own length, or come to a stop from full speed in a few boat lengths.

The PBR was manufactured in two versions, the first with 31 ft length and 10-foot, 7-inch beam. The Mark II version was 32 ft long, and had a 1 ft wider beam than the Mark I. It also had improved drives to reduce fouling and aluminum gunwales to resist wear.

The PBR was designed by Willis Slane and Jack Hargrave of Hatteras Yachts, located in High Point, NC at the time, and its hull was based on an existing Hatteras Yacht hull. Just seven days after a meeting with US Navy officials, Slane and Hargrave had a prototype ready.

The 11 PBRs delivered in March 1966 and the approximately 300 delivered over the next few years to the U.S. and South Vietnamese military were based on a pleasure boat design constructed by Uniflite, a boatyard in Bellingham, Washington, on the northern end of Puget Sound near the Canadian border.

In October 1965, the Navy awarded a contract to the company for construction of 140 PBRs. The first craft off the assembly line, called the Mark I, was 31 feet long with a hull constructed entirely of fiberglass, a technology developed in the early 1950s.

Crew
The PBR was usually manned by a four-man crew. Typically, a First Class Petty Officer served as boat captain, with a gunner's mate, an engineman and a seaman on board. Each crewman was cross-trained in each other's jobs in the event one became unable to carry out his duties. Generally, PBRs operated in pairs under the command of a patrol officer who rode on one of the boats.

Power
The boats were powered by dual 180 hp Detroit Diesel 6V53N engines with Jacuzzi Brothers 14YJ water-jet drives. The boats reached top speeds of 28.5 kn.

Armament

The boats had a comparatively heavy firepower for their size. Typical armament configuration included twin M2HB .50 caliber (12.7 mm) machine guns forward in a rotating, shielded tub, a single rear M2HB, one or two M60 7.62 mm light machine guns mounted on the port and starboard sides, and a Mk 18 grenade launcher. There was also a full complement of M16 rifles, shotguns, .45 ACP handguns and hand grenades. Some had a "piggyback" arrangement, a .50 cal machine gun on top of an 81mm mortar; others had a bow-mounted Mk16 Mod 4 Colt 20 mm automatic cannon, derived from the AN/M3 version of the Hispano-Suiza HS.404 and also found on the LCMs and PBRs.

The boats are not well protected, aside from some ceramic armor shielding for the machine gun pit, and some quarter-inch thick steel armor plate for the coxswain's flat.

They were designed to rely on rapid acceleration, maneuverability, and speed to get out of dangerous situations.

Operational career
From 1966 to 1972, PBRs were operated by the Navy as the principal component of Task Force 116. PBRs operated with the U.S. Naval Reserve up until 1995 at Mare Island, California, prior to the base's closure due to BRAC action that year. During the Vietnam War, Mare Island was home to the U.S. Navy's Repair Facilities, Mothballing Operations, Submarine Operations, and Riverine Training Operations for both Patrol Craft Fast (PCF—more commonly known as Swift Boats), PBRs, and the River Assault Boats of the Mobile Riverine Force.

The training areas for the PBRs and Swift Boats still exist today within the Napa Sonoma Marsh state wildlife area. Sloughs such as Dutchman Slough, China Slough, Napa Slough, Devil's Slough, Suisun marshland and the Napa River all run through the former training area.

Since the Navy was busy patrolling the rivers, the U.S. Army had to secure the waters around its military ports. So, it converted the 458th Transportation Company (LARC) into a PBR company in early 1968 under the 18th Military Police Brigade. With the company headquarters at Cat Lai, the company assigned pairs of PBRs to each of the Army ports. The crews consisted of two army mariners, coxswain and engineman, and two military police as gunners.

In the late 1990s, what remained of the U.S. Navy's PBR force was solely in the Naval Reserve (Swift Boats had been retired from the active duty U.S. Navy immediately following the Vietnam War during the early 1970s), and was moved further inland towards Sacramento, California, the state capital, which is also intertwined with rivers. From Sacramento, PBRs could still transit directly to and through San Francisco Bay and into the Pacific Ocean, if need be. The waters of the State Wildlife Area, next to the former U.S. Navy (Riverine) training base at Mare Island, are still available for U.S. Navy PBR usage.

Operators

 * 🇵🇭 Philippines - Formerly used by Philippine Navy
 * 🇺🇸 United States – Formerly used by US Navy
 * South Vietnam – Republic of Vietnam Navy
 * Khmer Republic – Khmer National Navy
 * Kingdom of Laos – Royal Lao Navy
 * 🇹🇭 Thailand – Royal Thai Navy
 * 🇵🇦 – SENAN

Medals
James "Willie" Williams was a United States Navy sailor commanding PBR 105. During a patrol operation on 31 October 1966, an engagement between the two PBRs (105 and one other) and two Viet Cong (VC) sampans escalated into a three-hour running battle involving more than 50 enemy vessels, numerous VC ground troops, and U.S. Navy attack helicopter support. For his role in this battle, Williams received the Medal of Honor. According to the citation, "the patrol accounted for the destruction or loss of 65 enemy boats and inflicted numerous casualties on the enemy personnel." Williams is considered the most heavily decorated enlisted sailor in U.S. Navy history. The U.S. Navy posthumously named a guided missile destroyer, USS James E. Williams, after him.

On March 6,1967, United States Navy Seaman David George Ouellet was the forward machine gunner on PBR 124. After observing a grenade hurtled in the his boats direction, Seaman Ouellet left the protection of his position and ran to the rear of his boat warning his shipmates to take cover. He then pushed the boat's captain down to safety and placed himself between the grenade and his shipmates. His actions saved the other men, but tragically Seaman David Ouellet was mortally wounded when the grenade detonated. For his actions that day Seaman David Ouellet was awarded the Medal of Honor.

Patrick Osborne Ford was a United States Navy sailor serving on a PBR patrol boat who was killed in South Vietnam after he saved the lives of two of his shipmates. The U.S. Navy posthumously awarded him the Navy Cross and later named a frigate, USS Ford (FFG-54), after him.

In popular culture
A major part of the action in the 1979 movie Apocalypse Now takes place on a fictional United States Navy PBR that used the radio call-sign PBR Street Gang.

An unarmed PBR Mk. II replica called "Boat Machine" or "Du Ma" was used in the "Seamen" special of the television show The Grand Tour by Jeremy Clarkson, who claimed that as there were no surviving PBRs the replica had to be built completely from scratch in New Zealand. The total cost of building Clarkson's PBR was £100,000.

title: Patrol Boat, River


text:
Political unitarism

Political unitarism designates various theories, concepts or policies that advocate or enforce a fully unified and centralized system of government, with ultimate goal in creating a unitary state. In practice, unitarism is often manifested as a political doctrine or movement within complex political entities (confederations, federations, and other political unions), advocating for the highest degree of political integration and unification, beyond mere administrative centralization.

One of the main goals of political unitarists (proponents of unitarism) is to abolish or substantially suppress all forms of regional self-government and autonomy, by transferring powers of confederated states, federal units, autonomous regions or cantons directly to the central government. Unitarization and regionalization are often confused with centralization and decentralization, respectively.

History
Historically, complex processes of political unitarization were often accompanied by political struggle between proponents of unitarism and radical centralization, and their opponents, advocating decentralization and regionalism. In political history, that kind of political struggle was very frequent, even from ancient times. One of the most famous examples of local resistance to political unitarism in classical times was the internal conflict between ancient Athens and other federated city-states within the Delian League.

In modern history, one of the most notable examples of political unitarization was the creation of Kingdom of Great Britain by the Acts of Union in 1701, and subsequently the creation of United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland by the Acts of Union in 1800.

One of practical goals of political unitarism is to create a singular legislature, with exclusive legislative powers over the entire territory of a state. Through the process of political unitarization, local regions within an emerging unitary state are deprived of any form of contract with the centralized government. Thus, the remaining regional powers, if any have been left at all, are not protected by being entrenched in the constitution of the unitary state; they can be reduced even more, or completely abolished, by the acts of the central government.

Literature

 * E. H. Kossmann (1971), "The Crisis of the Dutch State 1780–1813: Nationalism, Federalism, Unitarism", in: Britain and the Netherlands, Dordrecht: Springer, pp. 156–175.
 * Danilo Vuković (2001), "Democratic consolidation and social consensus – cleavage between unitarists and separatists in Bosnia and Herzegovina", in: South-East Europe Review for Labour and Social Affairs, 1/2001, pp. 95-111.
 * Danilo Vuković (2001), "Democratic consolidation and social consensus – cleavage between unitarists and separatists in Bosnia and Herzegovina", in: South-East Europe Review for Labour and Social Affairs, 1/2001, pp. 95-111.
 * Danilo Vuković (2001), "Democratic consolidation and social consensus – cleavage between unitarists and separatists in Bosnia and Herzegovina", in: South-East Europe Review for Labour and Social Affairs, 1/2001, pp. 95-111.

title: Political unitarism


text:
Unitarism

Unitarism may refer to:

 * Political unitarism, political doctrine advocating for creation of a unitary state
 * Ethnic unitarism, a form of ethnic homogenization
 * Cultural unitarism, a form of cultural homogenization
 * Unitarism (management), a term in human resource management

title: Unitarism


text:
Talk:Charles Krauthammer

"American citizen BUT a zealous supporter of Israel"?
Use of the negation form in first paragraph is unclear: MY VIEW One can be both an American citizen and "a zealous supporter of Israel", even if the two countries' interests do not necessarily or automatically coincide. — Preceding unsigned comment added by TannyC  (talk • contribs)  15:45, 13 August 2006 After years of close observation one can only say that being an American and a Jewish-pro-Israel hardliner do not contradict each other, especially since the peaceful conquest of Washington by Isreal after November 2016. (E.C)

A Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 14:32, 29 October 2018 (UTC)
 * Krauthammer 2.jpg

Tagged article--needs more citations
A bunch of sentences in the article that have been tagged as unsourced. I have tagged the article accordingly. SunCrow (talk) 02:23, 29 November 2018 (UTC)
 * I undid your edit about "removing inaccurate, blatantly POV nonsense about krauthammer having advocated for torture" and added a direct quote from an Op Ed Mr Krauthammer wrote. 2600:1700:1111:5940:D9F6:63D1:857A:104 (talk) 02:36, 29 November 2018 (UTC)

Torture issue
Having previously pushed back against the use of the word "torture" to describe Krauthammer's views, I am correcting myself now that I have reviewed his 2009 article on the subject. Accordingly, I have added the following material, which provides a clear and balanced summary of his view on the subject:

 * In 2009, Krauthammer argued that the use of torture against enemy combatants was impermissible except in two contexts: (a) when "[an] innocent's life is at stake," "[the] bad guy you have captured possesses information that could save this life, [and he] refuses to divulge"; and (b) wen torture may lead to "the extraction of information from a high-value enemy in possession of high-value information likely to save lives".

I have placed this sentence in the appropriate section, which is the section on 9-11 and the War on Terror. I also removed the reference to this issue from the lede. Unless I'm missing something, this issue wasn't even mentioned in the body of the article until I made my edit just now. If it's not in the body of the article anywhere, it obviously isn't lede-worthy. Furthermore, simply stating that Krauthammer supports torture and dropping a footnote is unacceptable. It doesn't summarize the source accurately, it is misleading, and it comes across as a POV potshot. SunCrow (talk) 22:03, 29 November 2018 (UTC)
 * Good with me, I had an issue with using a euphemism in the lede "enhanced interrogation techniques" when the topic is really "torture". I disagree that it is misleading or comes across as a POV potshot, since he said it in no uncertain terms, but the article is fine either way. 2600:1700:1111:5940:D9F6:63D1:857A:104 (talk) 04:14, 30 November 2018 (UTC)
 * OK, 2600:1700:1111:5940:D9F6:63D1:857A:104. It is good that we agree on the content and the placement of the content. And I hear you about the euphemism. I still think it is misleading to simply say someone supports torture when he has said that he opposes torture in all but two rather extreme circumstances. I would respectfully invite you to consider being more specific next time. Thank you for adding the link to Krauthammer's article, which allowed me to understand his position more clearly. I erred earlier by not taking the time to look into the issue further before firing away and calling the torture information "inaccurate, blatantly POV nonsense." My bad. SunCrow (talk) 19:17, 30 November 2018 (UTC)
 * No apology needed. We agree on both content and intent. Thank you for being a consensus builder. 2600:1700:1111:5940:D9F6:63D1:857A:104 (talk) 19:35, 30 November 2018 (UTC)

Primary Photo
I think there are several pictures of Krauthammer that better capture his aesthetic. The current primary photo is blurry and does not bring to mind Krauthammer as he looked prior to his passing. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 198.101.123.90 (talk) 18:30, 18 May 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Charles Krauthammer


text:
Western Spaces

Western Spaces is a collaborative album by the American ambient musicians Steve Roach and Kevin Braheny. This album is the first of Steve Roach’s many musical tributes to the Southwestern Desert.

On several tracks Kevin Braheny uses his trademark sound created by playing a cello preset on his Steiner EWI (Electronic Woodwind Instrument). This album was originally released on the Innovative Communications label by Chameleon Records as a Steve Roach/Kevin Braheny/Richard Burmer album and was released later the same year on the Fortuna label as a Steve Roach/Kevin Braheny album, with Burmer's solo contributions (“A Story from the Rain” and “Across the View”) replaced by two pieces from Roach.

The liner notes contain a poem by Roach's wife Linda Kohanov from which many of the song titles and perhaps the album title were derived.

Innovative Communications (Chameleon Records)

 * 1) ”The Breathing Stone” (Roach) (6:46)
 * 2) ”Desert Walkabout” (Braheny) (7:03)
 * 3) ”A Story from the Rain” (Burmer) (7:08)
 * 4) ”Desert Prayer” (Roach, Braheny) (12:33)
 * 5) ”Across the View” (Burmer) (4:40)
 * 6) ”In the Heat of Venus” (Roach, Brennan) (22:42)
 * 7) ”Western Spaces” (Roach, Braheny, Burmer) (6:07)

Fortuna

 * 1) "The Breathing Stone" (Roach) (6:46)
 * 2) "Desert Walkabout" (Braheny) (7:03)
 * 3) "New Moon at Forbidden Mesa" (Roach, Brennan) (5:40)
 * 4) "Desert Prayer" (Roach, Braheny) (12:33)
 * 5) "In the Heat of Venus" (Roach, Brennan) (22:33)
 * 6) "The Slow Turning" (Roach) (7:40)
 * 7) "Western Spaces" (Roach, Braheny, Burmer) (6:07)

Personnel

 * Steve Roach (Oberheim System with digital drums and Xpander, EMU I, Arp, Casio, Emulator II, Ensoniq ESQ-I)
 * Kevin Braheny (Steiner EWI, The Mighty Serge Modular, Oberheim, Ensoniq ESQ-1 piano, panpipes, kalimba, bells)
 * Thom Brennan (Oberheim Matrix 12 on “New Moon at Forbidden Mesa” and “In the Heat of Venus”)
 * Richard Burmer (Emulator II on “Western Spaces”)

title: Western Spaces


text: User talk:12.223.237.66

title: User talk:12.223.237.66