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Investment trust

An investment trust is a form of investment fund found mostly in the United Kingdom and Japan. Investment trusts are constituted as public limited companies and are therefore closed ended since the fund managers cannot redeem or create shares.

The first investment trust was the Foreign & Colonial Investment Trust, started in 1868 "to give the investor of moderate means the same advantages as the large capitalists in diminishing the risk by spreading the investment over a number of stocks".

In many respects, the investment trust was the progenitor of the investment company in the U.S.

The name is somewhat misleading, given that (according to law) an investment "trust" is not in fact a "trust" in the legal sense at all, but a separate legal person or a company. This matters for the fiduciary duties owed by the board of directors and the equitable ownership of the fund's assets.

In the United Kingdom, the term "investment trust" has a strict meaning under tax law. However, the term is more commonly used within the UK to include any closed-ended investment company, including venture capital trusts (VCTs). The Association of Investment Companies is the trade association representing investment trusts and VCTs.

In Japan, investment trusts are called trust accounts (信託口); the largest stockholder of many public companies are usually trust banks handling the investment trusts, the largest being the Japan Trustee Services Bank, The Master Trust Bank of Japan and the Trust & Custody Services Bank.

Real estate investment trusts
In the United Kingdom, REITs are constituted as investment trusts. They must be UK resident and publicly listed on a stock exchange recognised by the Financial Conduct Authority. They must distribute at least 90% of their income.

Classification of Investment Trusts
Investment trusts can hold a variety of assets: listed equities, government/corporate bonds, real estate, private companies and so on. These assets may be listed/incorporated/domiciled in any region. Moreover the investment objectives (growth, income, capital preservation...), risk profile (level of gearing, level of diversification via assets and risk factors) varies. According to such factors, investment trusts are classified into sectors by the industry body, the Association of Investment Companies. The largest sectors by assets under management in December 2017 were Global (£27.1 billion), Private Equity (£14.7 billion), UK Equity Income (£12.0 billion), Infrastructure (£10.0 billion) and Specialist Debt (£7.8 billion).

These sector classifications were revamped in spring 2019. The new list of sectors and constituents comprised 13 new sectors, 15 renamed sectors and 31 sectors that were unchanged. The new sectors were added to reflect the greater numbers of investment companies investing in alternative assets. The amount of money invested by investment companies in alternative assets grew from £39.5bn in 2014 to £75.9bn in 2019. The growing debt sector was separated into three new sectors, Debt – Direct Lending, Debt – Loans & Bonds, and Debt – Structured Finance. Similarly, there were more specialist property sectors: Property – UK Commercial, Property – UK Healthcare, Property – UK Residential, and Property – Debt. Most of the equity sectors were unchanged, but Asia was split into three new sectors, Asia Pacific, Asia Pacific Income, and Asia Pacific Smaller Companies. There were new sectors for Growth Capital and for Royalties.

Organization
Investors' money is pooled together from the sale of a fixed number of shares which a trust issues when it launches. The board will typically delegate responsibility to a professional fund manager to invest in the stocks and shares of a wide range of companies (more than most people could practically invest in themselves). The investment trust often has no employees, only a board of directors comprising only non-executive directors.

Investment trust shares are traded on stock exchanges, like those of other public companies. The share price does not always reflect the underlying value of the share portfolio held by the investment trust. In such cases, the investment trust is referred to as trading at a discount (or premium) to NAV (net asset value).

Unlike open-ended funds that are UCITS, investment trusts may borrow money in an attempt to enhance investment returns (known as gearing or leverage). UCITS funds are not permitted to gear for investment purposes.

The investment trust sector, in particular split capital investment trusts, suffered somewhat from around 2000 to 2003 after which creation of a compensation scheme resolved some problems. The sector has grown in recent years particularly through the launch of investment trusts investing in more illiquid assets such as property, private equity and infrastructure. Assets managed by investment trusts reached £174.4 billion at the end of December 2017.

Split Capital Investment Trusts
Most investment trusts issue only one type of share (ordinary shares) and have an unlimited life. Split capital investment trusts are investment trusts with more than one type of share, such as zero dividend preference shares, income shares and capital shares. However, the number of split capital trusts has fallen dramatically since the split capital investment trust crisis and there were only 12 split capital investment trusts left in existence by 2018. Each of these 12 has only two classes of share: zero dividend preference shares and ordinary shares.

Some split capital trusts have a limited life determined at launch known as the wind-up date. Typically the life of a split capital trust is five to ten years. However, this life can be extended by shareholder vote.

In the heyday of split capital trusts, splits were more complicated and could have share classes such as the following (in order of typical priority and increasing risk):
 * Zero Dividend Preference shares: no dividends, only capital growth at a pre-established redemption price (assuming sufficient assets)
 * Income shares: entitled to most (or all) of the income generated from the assets of a trust until the wind-up date, with some capital protection
 * Annuity Income shares: very high and rising yield, but virtually no capital protection
 * Ordinary Income shares (AKA Income & Residual Capital shares): a high income and a share of the remaining assets of the trust after prior ranking shares
 * Capital shares: entitled most (or all) of the remaining assets after prior ranking share classes have been paid; very high risk

The type of share invested in is ranked in a predetermined order of priority, which becomes important when the trust reaches its wind-up date. If the Split has acquired any debt, debentures or loan stock, then this is paid out first, before any shareholders. Next in line to be repaid are Zero Dividend Preference shares, followed by any Income shares and then Capital. Although this order of priority is the most common way shares are paid out at the wind-up date, it may alter slightly from trust to trust.

Splits may also issue Packaged Units combining certain classes of share, usually reflecting the share classes in the trust usually in the same ratio. This makes them essentially the same investment as an ordinary share in a conventional Investment Trust.

Taxation
Provided that it is approved by HM Revenue & Customs, an investment trust's investment income and capital gains are generally not taxed within the investment trust. This avoids the double taxation which would otherwise arise when shareholders receive income, or sell their shares in the investment trust and are taxed on their gains.

An approved investment trust must The company must not hold more than 15% of its investments in any single company (except another investment trust) and must not be a close company. Investment trusts were in 2012 given the ability to distribute capital profits to shareholders. Investment trusts that wished to take advantage of this had to change their Articles of Association, with shareholders' approval, to allow such distributions. However, only a small minority of investment trusts distribute their capital profits.
 * be resident in the United Kingdom
 * derive most of its income from investments
 * distribute at least 85% of its investment income as dividends (unless prohibited by company law)

title: Investment trust


text: User talk:69.196.230.180

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:69.196.230.180


text: User talk:67.161.21.45

title: User talk:67.161.21.45


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2004 Hartlepool by-election

On 23 July 2004, the member of parliament for Hartlepool, in England, Peter Mandelson (Labour), was nominated as the United Kingdom's new European Commissioner for Trade. On 8 September, he accepted the office of Steward of the Manor of Northstead, thereby disqualifying himself from Parliament, and causing a by-election. Polling took place on 30 September.

It was the last of six by elections held during the 2001–2005 Parliament.

Results
Out of a registered electorate of 68,517, there were 31,362 valid votes, making a turnout of 45.77%. This was the highest by-election turnout since the Romsey by-election in May 2000. The Labour Party candidate Iain Wright won the seat with a majority of 2,033, a substantially reduced majority. The Liberal Democrat vote more than doubled, leaving that party a close second. The United Kingdom Independence Party (UKIP) held its deposit, and beat the Conservative Party into fourth place.

This marked the first time UKIP had come third in a by-election (and followed a successful European election in June 2004, in which countrywide it had come third and won twelve seats). It would be over six years before the party improved on this position, when it took second place at Barnsley Central in 2011. It would go on to win a by-election for the first time a little over a decade after the Hartlepool contest, in Clacton in October 2014.

The Conservative vote in Hartlepool dropped considerably, leaving the party in fourth place for the first time in an English by-election since Liverpool Walton in 1991.

Robert Kilroy-Silk of UKIP initially suggested he might stand but later ruled this out, as did Hartlepool and Middlesbrough mayors Stuart Drummond and Ray Mallon.

Preceding by-elections had seen the Liberal Democrats come from third place to beat the Conservative Party, and in Brent East and Leicester South take seats from Labour. The seat was safer (judging by the 2001 result) than Leicester but was vulnerable to swings such as achieved in Brent, or in Birmingham Hodge Hill where the Liberal Democrats narrowly failed to win.

In the event, the Liberal Democrats were not quite able to repeat these performances. Their campaign suffered from the choice of a candidate who was not from Hartlepool, while the Labour candidate had been born and brought up in the town.

In addition, the Liberal Democrat candidate made reference, on a campaign blog, to having canvassed a street where everyone she met "was either drunk, flanked by an angry dog, or undressed"; this happened despite a Liberal Democrat minder, Ed Fordham, having been appointed by the party's Campaigns Department to proof read Dunn's blog before any posts went up. Fordham removed a reference to some of the people canvassed being Labour supporters, but he thought the rest of the comment was fine.

Labour gave wide publicity to this remark and asserted that it was an insult to the people of Hartlepool. Dunn defended her remarks on the Today programme, in a performance that was perceived to be unconvincing, so Labour Party vans toured the constituency playing her Today interview on loudspeakers.

Hartlepool had no significant ethnic minority vote, unlike the other three by-elections. The Liberal Democrats were nevertheless content to claim the large swing to them, and the Conservatives' fourth place established the Liberal Democrats as the main opposition party to Labour in the seat. UKIP did well with a local candidate, and its message of opposition to European Union fishing rules was a popular one in a port town.

The Conservative Party dropped from second place at the 2001 general election to fourth place, its worst place in an English by-election since 1991.

Labour believed its performance good, for it came at the end of a very long campaign (effectively seventy-one days), and with a swing markedly smaller than in other seats over the previous year; the party also regarded the result – along with that in Hodge Hill – as a vindication of its decision to aggressively attack the Liberal Democrats and essentially ignore the Conservative challenge.

2001 result
From the 2001 general election.

title: 2004 Hartlepool by-election


text: User talk:195.93.34.13

title: User talk:195.93.34.13


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Perry (disambiguation)

Perry is an alcoholic beverage made of fermented pear juice.

Perry may also refer to:

People

 * Perry (given name)
 * Perry (surname)

United States

 * Perry, Arkansas
 * Perry, Florida
 * Perry, Georgia
 * Perry, Illinois
 * Perry, Iowa
 * Perry, Kansas
 * Perry, Louisiana
 * Perry, Maine
 * Perry, Michigan
 * Perry, Missouri
 * Perry, Nebraska
 * Perry (village), New York
 * Perry (town), New York
 * Perry, Ohio
 * Perry, Oklahoma
 * Perry, Oregon
 * Perry, South Carolina
 * Perry, Texas
 * Perry, Utah
 * Perry, West Virginia
 * Perry, Wisconsin
 * Perry County (disambiguation)
 * Perry Township (disambiguation)

Other

 * Perry, Cambridgeshire, England
 * River Perry, Shropshire, England
 * Perry, Ontario, Canada
 * Shire of Perry, a former local government area in Queensland, Australia

Ships

 * USS Perry, various ships

Organisations

 * Perry (car), by the defunct British car maker Perry Motor Company
 * Perry Drug Stores, a defunct chain in the United States
 * Perry & Co., an English pen-maker company

Other uses

 * Perry (album), by the American singer Perry Como
 * Perry Nuclear Generating Station, in Lake County, Ohio
 * Perry the Platypus, a fictional character from the animated television series Phineas and Ferb
 * Perry, the official mascot of the 2022 Commonwealth Games
 * The Band Perry, an American music group

title: Perry (disambiguation)


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Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae

Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae is a Gram-positive, catalase-negative, rod-shaped, non-spore-forming, nonacid-fast, nonmotile  bacterium. Distributed worldwide, E. rhusiopathiae is primarily considered an animal pathogen, causing the disease known as erysipelas that may affect a wide range of animals. Pigs, turkeys and laying hens are most commonly affected, but cases have been reported in other mammals, birds, fish, and reptiles. In pigs, the disease is known as diamond skin disease. The bacterium can also cause zoonotic infections in humans, called erysipeloid. The human disease called erysipelas is not caused by E. rhusiopathiae, but by various members of the genus Streptococcus.

History
Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae was first isolated by Robert Koch in 1876. A few years later the bacterium was recognised as the cause of erysipelas in pigs and in 1884 the organism was first established as a human pathogen. In 1909, the genus was named Erysipelothrix. In 1918 the name Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae was introduced and in 1920 it was designated as the type species of the genus.

Epidemiology
Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae may be isolated from soil, food scraps, and water contaminated by infected animals. It can survive in soil for several weeks. In pig faeces, the survival period of this bacterium ranges from 1 to 5 months. Erysipeloid is transmitted by several animals, particularly pigs, in which the disease (very common in the past) has several names (swine erysipelas in English, rouget du porc in French and mal rossino in Italian). Urticaria-like lesions, arthralgia, arthritis, endocarditis, and sepsis are the most characteristic features of swine erysipelas. Other animals that can transmit the infection are sheep, rabbits, chickens, turkeys, ducks, emus, scorpion fish, and lobsters. Erysipeloid is an occupational disease, mainly found in animal breeders, veterinarians, slaughterhouse workers, furriers, butchers, fishermen, fishmongers, housewives, cooks, and grocers. One epidemic of erysipeloid was described in workers involved in manufacturing buttons from animal bone. The disease is of economic importance to the pig industries of North America, Europe, Asia, and Australia.

Humans
In humans, E. rhusiopathiae infections most commonly present in a mild cutaneous form known as erysipeloid. Less commonly, it can result in sepsis; this scenario is often associated with endocarditis. Erysipeloid, also named in the past Rosenbach's disease, Baker–Rosenbach disease, and pseudoerysipelas, is a bacterial infection of the skin caused by traumatic penetration of E. rhusiopathiae.

It occurs most commonly as an occupational disease. The disease is characterized clinically by an erythematous oedema, with well-defined and raised borders, usually localized to the back of one hand and/or fingers. The palms, forearms, arms, face, and legs are rarely involved. Vesicular, bullous, and erosive lesions may also be present. The lesion may be asymptomatic or accompanied by mild pruritus, pain, and fever.

Animals
Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae may infect a wide range of animals, with or without causing the clinical disease that in animals is termed erysipelas.

Pigs
In pigs, three forms of erysipelas may be seen; acute, subacute or chronic. The acute form is characterised by high fever, anorexia, depression and death of one or more animals. Also, diamond-shaped cutaneous lesions may be seen, these are pathognomonic for erysipelas in pigs. During subacute erysipelas, similar but milder signs than in the acute form are seen. The chronic form may follow from acute or subacute cases or subclinical infections. The chronic form is mostly characterised by arthritis but sudden deaths, due to valvular lesions in the heart, may occur.

Poultry
The bacterium has been isolated from a wide range of avian species and differences in susceptibility depending on species have been suggested. Erysipelas outbreaks have been reported in almost all poultry species. Historically, erysipelas has been considered a disease of significant importance primarily in turkeys. However, an increasing number of outbreaks in laying hen flocks have been reported in several countries. Signs seen during an outbreak of erysipelas in a laying hen flock include sudden onset of high mortality and egg production losses.

Muskox
Due to unregulated hunting of muskox the species was almost wiped out in the late 19th century. However, by 1917 regulations were in place and the herds began to recover to such an extent that regulated hunting was permitted in the 1980s. By the 1990s hunters were permitted to take 10,000 muskox on Banks Island alone and in 2001 it was estimated that there were more than 68,000 muskox on the island making it the largest population in the world. However, since then the numbers have dropped by 70% due to E. rhusiopathiae.

Virulence factors
Various virulence factors have been suggested as being involved in the pathogenicity of E. rhusiopathiae. The presence of a hyaluronidase and neuraminidase has been recognized, and neuraminidase was shown to play a significant role in bacterial attachment and subsequent invasion into host cells. The role of hyaluronidase in the disease process is controversial. The presence of a heat-labile capsule has been reported as important in virulence.

Isolation
Traditionally, culture methods for the isolation of E. rhusiopathiae involve the use of selective and enrichment media. Commercially available blood culture media are satisfactory for primary isolation from blood, since E. rhusiopathiae is not particularly fastidious. A number of selective media for the isolation of Erysipelothrix have been described, also. A commonly used medium is Erysipelothrix selective broth (ESB), a nutrient broth containing serum, tryptose, kanamycin, neomycin, and vancomycin. Modified blood azide medium (MBA) is a selective agar containing sodium azide and horse blood or serum. Packer's medium is a selective medium for grossly contaminated specimens, which contains sodium azide and crystal violet. Bohm's medium uses sodium azide, kanamycin, phenol, and water blue. Shimoji's selective enrichment broth contains tryptic soy broth, Tween 80, tris-aminomethane, crystal violet, and sodium azide.

Species identification
Conventional species identification is based on colony morphology, Gram-staining and biochemical tests. Colonies are small with a narrow zone of alpha hemolysis on blood agar plates. Laboratory smears show Gram-positive rods (though Gram stain has low sensitivity for this microbe). It is nonmotile, catalase-negative, microaerophilic, capnophilic, and non-spore-forming. It can also produce H2S (gas), which is a unique characteristic for a Gram-positive bacillus. Acid is produced from glucose, fructose, galactose, and lactose, but not from maltose, xylose, and mannitol. Sucrose is fermented by most strains of E. tonsillarum, but not by E. rhusiopathiae. Hydrogen sulfide H2S is produced by 95% of strains of Erysipelothrix species as demonstrated on triple sugar iron (TSI) agar. E. rhusiopathiae can be differentiated from other Gram-positive bacilli, in particular, from Arcanobacterium (Corynebacterium) pyogenes and Arcanobacterium (Corynebacterium) haemolyticum, which are hemolytic on blood agar and do not produce hydrogen sulfide in TSI agar slants, and from Listeria monocytogenes, which is catalase positive, motile, and sensitive to neomycin. Rapid identification of E. rhusiopathiae can be achieved with the API Coryne System. It is a commercial strip system based on a number of biochemical reactions for the identification of coryneform bacteria and related genera, including E. rhusiopathiae. The system permits reliable and rapid identification of bacteria and has been considered to be a good alternative to traditional biochemical methods.

Other assays
Several polymerase chain reaction (PCR) based methods have also been developed for detection of E. rhusiopathiae. Laboratory investigations of humans may reveal leucocytosis, slightly increased serum c-globulins, and an increase in inflammatory markers (erythrocyte sedimentation rate, C-reactive protein, and a-1 acid glycoprotein).

Humans
Penicillin is the treatment of choice for both disease states in humans. E. rhusiopathiae is sensitive in vitro and in vivo mainly to penicillins, but also to cephalosporins (cefotaxime, ceftriaxone), tetracyclines (chlortetracycline, oxytetracycline), quinolones (ciprofloxacin, pefloxacin), clindamycin, erythromycin, imipenem, and piperacillin. It is resistant to vancomycin, chloramphenicol, daptomycin, gentamicin, netilmicin, polymyxin B, streptomycin, teicoplanin, tetracycline, and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole. Penicillins and cephalosporins are the first-line choices for treatment. A 7-day course is appropriate, and clinical improvement is usually observed 2–3 days after the beginning of the treatment.

Poultry
Only a few poultry isolates have been investigated for antimicrobial susceptibility. Penicillin is the drug of choice for treatment of poultry, however the disease may reoccur. Therefore, antibiotic treatment may be combined with vaccination.

title: Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae


text:
User:CWserendipity

aka Chris Waigl

title: User:CWserendipity


text:
The Good Son (Frasier)

"The Good Son" is the pilot episode of the television sitcom Frasier. It premiered on September 16, 1993, on NBC. It introduces the primary characters and settings, and distances itself from its parent series Cheers.

The final draft of the script was published on April 29, 1993. Excerpts from the show were promoted as the series finale of Cheers aired on May 20, 1993. This episode set up a number of recurring gags for the series, such as Martin's Lazyboy recliner and the unseen character of Maris Crane, Niles' wife.

Plot
Six months after the conclusion of Cheers, Dr. Frasier Crane is divorced from Lilith Sternin and has moved back to his hometown of Seattle, Washington, looking for a fresh start. Since the move, Frasier has been hosting a talk-radio show on KACL 780 AM Talk Radio as an on-air psychiatrist, alongside producer Roz Doyle.

Frasier is approached by his brother, Niles, who informs him that their father, Martin, a retired police officer injured in the line of duty, can no longer live by himself due to his injuries. In hopes of renewing their father-son relationship, Frasier offers to take his father in.

Martin moves into Frasier's apartment but Frasier is appalled when Martin brings in his thread-bare recliner and Parson Russell Terrier Eddie, both of which greatly upset Frasier. Some time afterwards, Niles and his unseen wife, Maris, offer to help Frasier take care of Martin by jointly paying for a health care provider. Martin convinces Frasier to hire Daphne Moon, an eccentric immigrant from Manchester, England, who claims to be "a bit psychic,” much to Frasier's displeasure. After Daphne reveals that she needs to move in, Frasier, who doesn't want more people living in his apartment, rejects her. This leads to an argument with Martin, which ends with Frasier walking out of the apartment.

The next day at work, Frasier confides his troubles with Roz. In turn, she tells him the story of Lupe Vélez; she points out that although things might not go as planned, they can work out anyway. Frasier then takes his next call, only to find an apologetic Martin on the line. Frasier then atones for his arrogance and reconciles with his father. The next call is from a woman, upset and tearful about breaking up with her boyfriend. Frasier proceeds to tell her the story of Vélez. The episode ends with Daphne, Martin, and Frasier watching TV in his apartment in the evening while Eddie silently stares at a disturbed Frasier.

Awards

 * David Angell, Peter Casey, and David Lee won the Primetime Emmy Award for writing this episode.
 * James Burrows won the Directors Guild of America Award and the Primetime Emmy Award for directing this episode.
 * For his performance in this episode, Kelsey Grammer won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series. This was his second nomination in this category and his first win.

title: The Good Son (Frasier)


text:
User:Unwind-protect

A running, cycling kenshi, with a penchant for programming.

title: User:Unwind-protect


text:
Metal Gear Acid

Metal Gear Acidメタルギア アシッド (Metaru Gia Ashiddo) is a turn-based collectible card tactical RPG video game developed by Konami Computer Entertainment Japan for the PlayStation Portable. The game was first unveiled at E3 in May 2004, and was released in Japan on December 16, 2004, in North America on March 24, 2005, and in Europe on September 1, 2005. It was a launch title for the PSP. A Java ME version for mobile phones was released by Glu Mobile in 2008 titled Metal Gear Acid Mobile.

Acid focuses on turn-based tactics, using a trading card-based system to control the main character's movements and actions. Acid in the name stands for "Active Command Intelligence Duel". The cards are not truly collectible, as the game is complete with a single purchase. However, the game does feature deck design and deck optimization elements. The game allows for multiplayer gameplay by wireless ad-hoc connections of two PSPs.

Gameplay
Before each round, the player can customize the deck of cards used by the main characters. The majority of the cards are based upon elements spanning the entire Metal Gear series, such as weaponry, characters, and even the Metal Gear itself. When the game is started, the player's hand can consist of a maximum of six cards. The maximum number of cards in a deck increases with overall progress. In action mode, the player can choose to use the cards as they are intended or use them to move the character. Most cards only allow the player to move three spaces, while certain cards let the player move up to six or higher.

Cost is an important factor in game play and can be summed up as the weight of the player's action. With some exceptions, all cards have a cost attached to them and when used this cost transfers to the player. Cost varies radically from card to card. The higher the cost a character has, the longer that character must wait until their next turn. The lower the cost a character has, the shorter that character must wait until their next turn. For example: if a player character has a cost of 10 and a guard has a cost of 15, then the character's turn would occur before the guard's.

Some cards can be equipped; cards such as weapon cards, can have other cards attached to them in order to improve performance. In order to fire the weapon, another weapon card that uses the same kind of ammunition must be equipped. Some weapons don't need to be equipped and can be used by themselves, however they are discarded afterwards. Other cards that can be equipped include equipment cards and action cards.

Multiplayer, or "Link Battle", is also a new feature. Two PSP systems running Acid can link wirelessly, allowing players to face each other in a "sneak-off". The objective is to collect a certain number of diskettes before the rival player. Diskettes can be stolen by another player, so there is an emphasis on avoiding detection.

Story
In 2016, a jumbo jet carrying Senator Hach, an important politician and likely future presidential candidate, is hijacked by terrorists. In exchange for the senator the terrorists demand from the United States government Pythagoras, a research project being conducted in the Moloni Republic in southern Africa. In efforts to identify these terrorists, the government begins an investigation of Pythagoras.

The Moloni government refuses to cooperate and work with the United States, saying that it doesn't want to interfere in its current affairs. In response, the US sends in a covert special forces team to investigate, but the team is obliterated by armed resistance. With no other options and time running out, the US government calls Solid Snake to infiltrate the laboratory, discover the nature of Pythagoras, and to rescue Senator Hach.

Characters

 * Solid Snake - The main character. A member of FOXHOUND who has achieved legendary status, he is brought to duty to infiltrate the Lobito Physics and Chemistry laboratory compound. Snake is led to believe that he is actually Hans Davis, a researcher involved in the development of the new Metal Gear model.
 * Teliko Friedman - A female Japanese-American member of the Federal Bureau of Investigation's Hostage Rescue Team that was sent to the Lobito compound prior to Snake. She rendezvous with Snake and teams up with him as a second playable character in the game. She reappears in Metal Gear Solid: Portable Ops as a hidden playable character.
 * Roger McCoy - A Central Intelligence Agency operative from New Jersey who serves as Snake's commanding officer in the game. He previously served in the Green Berets and is an acquaintance of Roy Campbell, Snake's former commanding officer.
 * Alice Hazel - An English girl who has aided the FBI and CIA in the past with her psychic abilities. She is one of Snake's radio contacts in the game.
 * Lt. Leone - The leader of a mercenary group hired by an anti-government militia in the Moloni Republic. He was once known as Jeff Jones and served under McCoy's unit during the Vietnam War until he was suspected of treason.
 * Gary Murray - A lab worker who requests Snake's help. He is actually William L. Flemming and is involved in the development of the new Metal Gear.
 * Elsie and Frances - A pair of marionettes that carry out the hijacking of Flight 326
 * La Clown - An assassin of unknown gender with the ability to disguise their appearance.
 * Viggo Hach - A Dutch-American United States Senator from New York who is a presidential candidate. Taken hostage by terrorists during his flight.
 * Lena Arrows - Hach's secretary, who was also caught in the hijacking.
 * Minette Donnell - A young girl on the same flight as Hach. She is actually Constance Flemming, the daughter of William L. Flemming.
 * Charles Schmeiser - A CIA agent from Toronto, Canada who works under McCoy.

Production and release
According to an interview originally published by Electronic Gaming Monthly with the game's producer, Masahiro Hinami, the 'Acid' part of the title actually has three different meanings. The first meaning refers to Acid's departure from the previous Metal Gear games in terms of style, which is an analogue to acid's ability to dissolve metal. The second is a reference to vecuronium bromide, the chemical used by Elsie and Frances to hijack Flight 326. The third is stated to be an acronym for Active Command Intelligence Duel, a reference to the game's mixture of turn-based tactics with card-based gameplay.

Soundtrack
The game's soundtrack was composed by Nobuko Toda, Shuichi Kobori and Akihiro Honda. The soundtrack was released on December 21, 2005, packaged with the Metal Gear Acid 2 soundtrack. The album's title is Metal Gear Acid 1 and 2 Original Soundtrack, the first disc of the album featuring the music from the first Metal Gear Acid title.

Reception
Metal Gear Acid received somewhat positive reviews from critics, citing the game's unique mechanics and turn-based stealth. The game holds a 75 on Metacritic, indicating "generally favorable reviews". IGN gave it a 6.5/10, calling the game's story "contrived", and referencing the occasionally frustrating gameplay while praising some elements.

Sequel
Acid was followed by a sequel for the PSP, Metal Gear Acid 2, which released the following year. A mobile phone version, titled Metal Gear Acid Mobile was also produced.

title: Metal Gear Acid


text:
Zonal

Zonal can refer to:
 * Zonal and meridional, directions on a globe, west–east and north–south, respectively.
 * Zonal and poloidal, directions in a toroidal magnetically confined plasma
 * Zonal polynomial, a symmetric multivariate polynomial
 * Zonal pelargonium, a type of pelargoniums
 * Zonal tournaments in chess: see Interzonal
 * Electronic musicians Zonal, previously known as Techno Animal
 * Zonal (company), a UK based, privately owned company that provides EPoS systems

title: Zonal


text:
Car platform

A car platform is a shared set of common design, engineering, and production efforts, as well as major components, over a number of outwardly distinct models and even types of cars, often from different, but somewhat related, marques. It is practiced in the automotive industry to reduce the costs associated with the development of products by basing those products on a smaller number of platforms. This further allows companies to create distinct models from a design perspective on similar underpinnings. A car platform is not to be confused with a platform chassis, although such a chassis can be part of an automobile's design platform, as noted below.

Definition and benefits
A basic definition of a platform in cars, from a technical point of view, includes underbody and suspensions (with axles) — where the underbody is made of the front floor, rear floor, engine compartment, and frame (reinforcement of underbody). Key mechanical components that define an automobile platform include:
 * The floorpan, which serves as a foundation for the chassis and other structural and mechanical components
 * Front and rear axles and the distance between them - wheelbase
 * Steering mechanism and type of power steering
 * Type of front and rear suspensions
 * Placement and choice of engine and other powertrain components

Platform sharing is a product development method where different products and the brand attached share the same components. The purpose with platform sharing is to reduce the cost and have a more efficient product development process. The companies gain on reduced procurement costs by taking advantage of the commonality of the components. However, this also limits their ability to differentiate the products and imposes a risk of losing the tangible uniqueness of the product. The companies have to make a trade-off between reducing their development costs and the degree of differentiation of the products.

Characteristics of a joint platform
Platform sharing is often used by different brands within a group of companies. Essential characteristics of a commonly used platform are the Chassis and the Drive Unit. There is a fluent transition, to what extent two or more different Motorcycle models draw on the same components:

 * Structural equality: Only the brand logo, front fairing, fuel tank, and, if applicable, headlights and rear lights, are different. Structurally equal vehicles are often manufactured at the same production line.
 * Same platform: Different fairings have the same fixation points, so that the fork, wing, engine, transmission, etc. can be switched out easily.

The remaining parts of the vehicle are divided into "head"- and system parts. A "head"-part could be the bodywork, or fuel tank, which can significantly differ from one another (cf. BMW GS-Model).

System parts are actually common parts (COP = Carry Over Parts), which are copied and adjusted to the particular model. E.g.: Wheels or wagons, totally identical, just another model symbol.

Platform sharing among brands
One of the first car companies to use this product development approach was General Motors in 1908. General Motors used a single chassis for certain class of model across most of its brands like Chevrolet, Buick, Pontiac and Oldsmobile. Later, Chrysler Corporation would do the same for Plymouth, DeSoto and Dodge cars. Ford followed the same principle for Ford and Mercury in US markets. The chassis unit was common with many shared mechanical components while the exterior styling and interior trims were designed according to its individual brand and category.

Multiple body variants
In recent years for monocoque chassis, platform-sharing combined with advanced and flexible-manufacturing technology enabled automakers to sharply reduce product development and changeover times, while modular design and assembly allow building a greater variety of vehicles from one basic set of engineered components. Pictured below is the Nissan MS platform, where designs including 5-door hatchback, sedan, compact SUV and minivan were built on a common floor panel and many shared functional assemblies such as engine, transmission and chassis components.

Many vendors refer to this as product or vehicle architecture. The concept of product architecture is the scheme by which the function of a product is allocated to physical components.

The use of a platform strategy provides several benefits:
 * Greater flexibility across plants (the possibility of transferring production from one plant to another due to standardization)
 * Cost reduction through using resources on a global scale
 * Increased utilization of plants (higher productivity due to the reduction in the number of differences)
 * Reduction of the number of platforms as a result of their localization on a worldwide basis

The car platform strategy has become important in new product development and in the innovation process. The finished products have to be responsive to market needs and to demonstrate distinctiveness while – at the same time – they must be developed and produced at low cost. Adopting such a strategy affects the development process and also has an important impact on an automaker's organizational structure. A platform strategy also offers advantages for the globalization process of automobile firms.

Because automakers spend the majority of time and money on the development of platforms, platform sharing affords manufacturers the ability to cut costs on research and development by spreading it over several product lines. Manufacturers are then able to offer products at a lower cost to consumers. Additionally, economies of scale are increased, as is return on investment.

Early examples
Originally, a "platform" was a literally shared chassis from a previously-engineered vehicle, as in the case for the Citroën 2CV platform chassis used by the Citroën Ami and Citroën Dyane, as well as the Volkswagen Beetle frame under the Volkswagen Karmann Ghia. These two manufacturers made different category of vehicles under using the same chassis design at different years though the primary vehicle was still in production.

In the United States, platform sharing has been a common practice since the 1960s. This was when GM used the same platform in the development of the Pontiac LeMans, the Buick Skylark, the Chevrolet Chevelle, and the Oldsmobile Cutlass.

In the 1980s, Chrysler's K-cars all wore a badge with the letter "K" to indicate their shared platform. In later stages, the "K" platform was extended in wheelbase, as well as use for several of the Corporation's different models. In the same decade, Fiat and Saab jointly developed cars using the Type Four platform to compete with the German-dominated European executive car segment.

General Motors used similar strategies with its "J" platform that debuted in mid-1981 in four of GM's divisions. Subsequently, GM introduced its "A" bodies for the same four divisions using the same tread width/wheelbase of the "X" body platform, but with larger bodywork to make the cars seem larger, and with larger trunk compartments. They were popular through the 1980s, primarily. Even Cadillac started offering a "J" body model called the Cimarron, a much gussied-up version of the other four brands' platform siblings.

A similar strategy applied to what is known as the N-J-L platform, arguably the most prolific of GM's efforts on one platform. Once more, GM's four lower-level divisions all offered various models on this platform throughout the 1980s and into the 1990s.

The 1988 Fiat Tipo was one of the first European cars utilizing a modular platform, also used for the Fiat Tempra.

Recent years
Japanese carmakers have followed the platform sharing practice with Honda's Acura line, Nissan's Infiniti brand, and Toyota's Lexus marque, as the entry-level luxury models are based on their mainstream lineup. For example, the Lexus ES is essentially an upgraded and rebadged Toyota Camry. After Daimler-Benz merged with Chrysler, Chrysler engineers used several M-B platforms for new models including the Crossfire which was based on the M-B SLK roadster. Other models that share platforms are the European Ford Focus, Mazda 3, and the Volvo S40.

Differences between shared models typically involve styling, including headlights, tail lights, and front and rear fascias. Examples also involve differing engines and drivetrains. In some cases such as the Lexus ES that is a Toyota Camry, "same car, same blueprints, same skeleton off the same assembly line in the same factory", but the Lexus is marketed with premium coffee in the dealership's showroom and reduced greens fees at Pebble Beach Golf Links as part of the higher-priced badge.

Platform sharing may be less noticeable now; however, it is still very apparent. Vehicle architectures primarily consist of "under the skin" components, and shared platforms can show up in unusual places, like the Nissan FM platform-mates Nissan 350Z marketed as a sports car and Infiniti FX positioned as a SUV. The Volkswagen A platform-mates such as the sports-oriented Audi TT and the economy-focused Volkswagen Golf also share much of their mechanical components but are visually entirely different. Both the Volkswagen Group and Toyota have had much success building many well-differentiated vehicles from many marques, from the same platforms. One of the least conspicuous recent examples is the Chevy Trailblazer and Chevy SSR; both use the GMT-360 platform.

Advantages

 * Easier inventory management/smaller number of parts
 * Platform sharing allows for fewer parts for different models of vehicles and therefore the task of inventorying those parts is greatly reduced.

 * Lower development costs
 * Platform sharing allows manufacturers to cover many different market segments when a platform sharing strategy is implemented. This is exemplified by Ford in the case of the Ford Explorer, Mercury Mountaineer, and Lincoln Aviator. They are essentially the same vehicles, but they are targeted as being in the mass-market, near luxury, and luxury vehicles segments.

 * Increased quality and innovation
 * Platform sharing allows manufacturers to design parts with fewer variation. A byproduct of this is increased quality, which results in lower defect rates.

 * Global standardization
 * Platform sharing allows manufacturers to design flexible platforms that can be tailored to a country's specific needs without compromising quality. It also allows for manufacturing standardization and improved logistics.

 * Greater product variety
 * Platform sharing allows manufacturers to build/design differentiated products faster and cheaper. This is possible because the development and cost of the original platform have already been paid for.

Disadvantages

 * Badge engineering
 * Manufacturers that practice platform sharing have the ability to create several models based on the same design but with different names. This leads to the public looking over certain models and cannibalized sales from competing automakers with essentially similar products. This was prevalent among U.S. domestic manufactures from the 1970s onward, e.g., the Chevrolet Trailblazer, GMC Envoy, Buick Rainier, Saab 9-7X, Oldsmobile Bravada, and Isuzu Ascender.

 * Incompatible changes to platforms
 * The two elements of platforms are constant and non-constant. If the non-constant elements are not designed to be easily integrated into the constant elements of the platform, extensive and expensive changes will have to be made in order to make the elements compatible again. Failure to do so negates the purpose of platform sharing in that it increases costs as opposed to reducing them.

 * Product dilution
 * Platform sharing has the ability to be used in too many different models. However, in the minds of the consumers, the products may be too similar and more expensive products may be perceived to be cheaper. For example, the perceived value of a "luxury" brand may be not as desirable if it is too similar to a mass-market version of the same platform. Conversely, platform sharing may increase the price of the economic models. Examples of luxury vehicles that suffered from being based on economy platforms include the Cadillac Cimarron, the Chrysler TC by Maserati (similar to the K-platform, though it was actually built on a different and unique Q-platform), the Maybach 57 and 62 and the Jaguar X-Type.

 * Risk concentration/higher recall rate
 * The propensity for a higher number of recall is greatly increased with platform sharing. If a defect is found in one model and that model shares its platform with nine other models, the recall would be magnified by ten thus costing the manufacturer more time and money to fix. An example of problems spreading across platforms and numerous versions of models are the 2009–11 Toyota vehicle recalls.

Top hat
In automotive design, the top hat is one or more vehicle upper body structures that can share a common platform. The upper body could vary from a crossover to a sedan or coupe thereby creating economies of scale and product differentiation.

title: Car platform


text:
Intracranial hemorrhage

Intracranial hemorrhage (ICH), also known as intracranial bleed, is bleeding within the skull. Subtypes are intracerebral bleeds (intraventricular bleeds and intraparenchymal bleeds), subarachnoid bleeds, epidural bleeds, and subdural bleeds.

Intracerebral bleeding affects 2.5 per 10,000 people each year.

Signs and symptoms
Intracranial hemorrhage is a serious medical emergency because the buildup of blood within the skull can lead to increases in intracranial pressure, which can crush delicate brain tissue or limit its blood supply. Severe increases in intracranial pressure (ICP) can cause brain herniation, in which parts of the brain are squeezed past structures in the skull.

Symptoms include severe headache, nausea/vomiting, seizures, dizziness or lightheadedness or vertigo, one-sided facial drooping, one-sided numbness, weakness, tingling, or paralysis, speech problems, blindness, deafness, memory issues, attention problems, balance problems, coordination problems and decreasing level of consciousness or complete loss of consciousness. Coma and persistent vegetative state can result from intracranial hemorrhage.

Brain stem hemorrhage may cause additional symptoms such as shortness of breath, dysphagia (difficulty swallowing), chewing problems, abnormal heart rate, and irregular heartbeat. Brain stem hemorrhage can cause cardiac arrest.

Causes
Trauma is the most common cause of intracranial hemorrhage. It can cause epidural hemorrhage, subdural hemorrhage, and subarachnoid hemorrhage. Other condition such as hemorrhagic parenchymal contusion and cerebral microhemorrhages can also be caused by trauma.

Non-traumatic causes of hemorrhage includes: hypertension, cerebral amyloid angiopathy, hemorrhagic conversion of ischemic infarction, cerebral aneurysms, dural arteriovenous fistulae, cerebral venous sinus thrombosis, cerebral vasculitis and mycotic aneurysm.

More than half of all cases of intracranial hemorrhage are the result of hypertension.

Diagnosis
CT scan (computed tomography) of the brain (without any iodinated contrast), is the initial imaging choice because of its high speed, good accessibility in hospitals, high sensitivity in detecting brain injuries or brain diseases, thus helping to triage patients in emergency department in a timely manner and urgent neurosurgical intervention can be administered. Examples of brain diseases that require urgent intervention are: large volume hemorrhage, brain herniation, and cerebral infarction. Other advantages of CT over MRI scan are ability to detect bony fractures, vascular injury, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leak. It also does not need to screen for MRI safety of implants/foreign body especially for penetrating or blast injuries. Moreover, CT scans have also been used to train deep learning models to automatically perform intracranial hemorrhage detection. Interestingly, deep learning models have been found to reach expert-level performance.

However, MRI has higher sensitivity than CT scan for the detection of epidural hemorrhage, subdural hemorrhage, subarachnoid hemorrhage, nonhemorrhagic cortical contusions, hemorrhagic parenchymal contusions, brainstem injuries, and white matter axonal injuries. If CT scan shows normal findings, but the subject has persistent neurological symptoms, MRI is also indicated. However, MRI safety concerns on metallic foreign bodies, limited availability, longer imaging time, high sensitivity to motion, and higher cost limits the usefulness of MRI.

Swirl sign on CT scan (areas of low densities with surrounding areas of high densities) is indicative of active intracranial bleeding, high chance of death within one month, and poor subject's function in three months if the subject is still alive.

When ICP is increased the heart rate may be decreased.

Traumatic
Types of intracranial hemorrhage are roughly grouped into intra-axial and extra-axial. Intra-axial hemorrhage is bleeding within the brain itself, or cerebral hemorrhage. This category includes intraparenchymal hemorrhage, or bleeding within the brain itself, and intraventricular hemorrhage, bleeding within the brain's ventricles (particularly of premature infants). Intra-axial hemorrhages are more dangerous and harder to treat than extra-axial bleeds. Hemorrhagic parenchymal contusions and cerebral microhemorrhages are examples of traumatic intra-axial bleeds.

Extra-axial hemorrhage, bleeding that occurs within the skull but outside of the brain tissue, falls into three subtypes: epidural hematoma, subdural hematoma, and subarachnoid hemorrhage.

Hemorrhagic parenchymal contusion
This condition most commonly occurred in those with significant head movement or head impact. It is caused by injuries of small arterial or venous vessels, causing hemorrhage within the brain parenchyma, and give rise to hyperdense lesion on CT scan. MRI is more sensitive than CT scan in detecting such small hemorrhagic contusions, with the use of gradient echo sequence. Contusions are more commonly seen in the brain parenchyma near base of the skull such as inferior frontal lobes and temporal lobes as a result of Coup contrecoup injury. Those with parenchymal contusion would require frequent follow-up imaging because such contusions may grow large enough to become hemorrhage and exerts significant mass effect on the brain.

Cerebral microhemorrhages is a smaller form of hemorrhagic parenchymal contusion and are typically found in white matter. Such microhemorrhages are difficult to be detected on CT scan, but easily detected on gradient echo and susceptibility weighted imaging on MRI scan as hypointense susceptibility blooming. Such microhemorrhages are frequently associated with diffuse axonal injury and located near the grey-white matter junction.

Epidural hemorrhage
Epidural hemorrhage (extradural hemorrhage, EDH) which occur between the dura mater (the outermost meningeal layer) and the skull, is caused by trauma. It does not cross the suture lines of the skull because the superifical dural layer is attached tightly to the skull along the suture lines. Unless rarely, fracture involves the suture lines (more common in children), then epidural hematoma may cross the suture lines. As the blood accumulated in the epidural space is confined within suture lines, accumulation of additional blood will cause bulging in this space, and thus resulting in a typical "biconvex" appearance on CT scans. EDH can be due to arterial or venous rupture depending on the locations. Arterial injuries results in more rapidly growing hematoma when compared to venous injuries. At the pterion region, middle meningeal artery is most commonly affected. When fracture is crossing areas where dural venous sinuses resides, venous hemorrhage can occur such as falx cerebri, tentorium cerebelli, and vertex (where superior sagittal sinus resides). Anterior temporal EDH is usually caused by sphenoparietal sinus. Such EDH is limited and does not require surgery because its extension is confined within the sphenosquamosal suture and the superior or inferior orbital fissures. In 20 to 50% of epidural hemorrhage cases, there is a lucid interval during which the patient regains consciousness after being knocked unconscious; this is then followed by deterioration of conscious state.

When the epidural hematoma is large enough, it will cause mass effect on contralateral brain which lead to midline, subfalcine (below the falx cerebri), and trans-tentorial (crossing tentorium cerebelli) herniations. This phenomenon can cause the subject to lose consciousness and eventually to death. Therefore, large EDH requires emergent surgical clot evacuation. Embolisation of middle meningeal artery is performed if the hemorrhage is medium or small.

Subdural hemorrhage
Subdural hemorrhage (SDH) results from tearing of the bridging veins in the subdural space between the dura and arachnoid mater. It can cross the suture lines, but not across dural reflections such as falx cerebri or tentorium cerebelli. Therefore, subdural hematoma always limited to one side of the brain. Density of SDH reduces as it progresses from acute to chronic forms. However, areas with low density may not represent chronic SDH entirely as unclotted blood products that are due to active bleed can also give low density appearance on CT scans especially those with coagulopathy. Those with SDH that have same density with brain parenchyma may represent acute bleed such as those with anemia, arachnoid tear, and the mixing of hemorrhage and CSF. SDH usually have high or mixed densities during first two days of trauma, followed by isodensity at 11 days after trauma, and hypodensity after 14 days of trauma. Membranes with granulation tissue can rupture within SDH, and give high density appearance on CT scan. Over a prolonged period of time, calcifications can form. SDH can be treated with burr hole drainage, craniotomy or port system placement for blood clot evacuation, or middle meningeal artery embolisation.

Subdural hematoma maybe less acute than epidural hematoma due to slower blood accumulation, but it still has the potential to cause brain herniation that may require surgical evacuation. Clinical features depend on the site of injury and severity of injury. Patients may have a history of loss of consciousness but they recover and do not relapse. Clinical onset occurs over hours. Complications include focal neurologic deficits depending on the site of hematoma and brain injury, increased intracranial pressure leading to herniation of brain and ischemia due to reduced blood supply and seizures.

Subarachnoid hemorrhage
A subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) is bleeding into the subarachnoid space—the area between the arachnoid membrane and the pia mater surrounding the brain. Trauma can also cause SAH when the arteries and veins coursing through the subarachnoid space are ruptured. It is usually located at the cerebral sulci near the vertex of the head and spare the basal cisterns on CT scan. Severe trauma can cause SAH in all parts of the brain. When the SAH volume is large, rarely it can cause cerebral infarction a few days after trauma due to arterial vasospasm. Although CT scan is performed more often than MRI to detect SAH, MRI is more sensitive than CT in this aspect. SAH shows hyperintense signal of Fluid-attenuated inversion recovery (FLAIR) sequence and blooming artifact on susceptibility weighted imaging (SWI).

Computed tomography angiography (CT angiography) or Magnetic resonance angiography (MR angiography) should be done if fracture involves the carotid canal, because in such cases, posttraumatic vasospasm can occur, thus cutting blood supply to the brain. Besides, intracranial hemorrhage that are atypical for trauma should also be investigated further with CT or MR angiography to look for other causes of intracranial bleeds apart from trauma causes. Such atypical patterns includes: isolated SAH in the basal cisterns, isolated large-volume SAH in the Sylvian fissure, and isolated SAH in the anterior interhemispheric fissure. These cases warrants investigations to look for aneurysms that can cause such bleeding.

Hypertensive bleed
Intracranial bleed in hypertensive subjects usually occurs at 50 to 60 years of life with 30 to 50% chance of death. Such hemorrhages are typically located in the basal ganglia, cerebellum, or occipital lobes. Other location such as bleed within the cerebral cortex and intracranial bleed in people younger than 50 years should prompt further investigations on other causes of bleed such as brain tumour or cerebral arteriovenous malformation. The bleed can be very small without any significant effect on surrounding brain or large hemorrhage that exerts mass effecct on adjacent brain. Follow up CT scan is recommended. Those with extension of bleed into the ventricular system, expansion of bleeding, or increasing cerebral oedema on CT scan gives poorer prognosis. CT angiography (CTA) of brain can be performed to investigate the source of bleeding. An image during the delayed phase of the CTA may be taken to look for pooling of contrast that signifies active bleeding (known as "Spot sign"). Presence of "Spot sign" signifies poor clinical outcome for the subject.

Cerebral amyloid angiopathy
Cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) is the deposition of Amyloid beta peptide protein within the brain. Accumulation of such peptide proteins within the walls of the arteries can cause weakening of the walls and causes microhemorrhages, SAH within the cerebral sulci or large cerebral intraparenchymal bleed. SAH in CAA can be differentiated from vasculitis by its presentations. SAH in CAA usually occurs in those who age more than 60 years, temporary motor and sensory deficits, and intracranial bleed in white matter adjacent to cerebral cortex. Basal ganglia, posterior fossa, and brainstem are spared. Boston criteria is used to determine the likelihood of a cerebral hemorrhage due to CAA. Definitive diagnosis of CAA is by performing brain biopsy

CT scan may show hyperdense intra-axial hemorrhage in the subcortical region. Diffuse white matter hypodensities in both cerebral hemispheres may represents microangiopathic changes. On MRI these lesions will be presented as blooming artifact on gradient echo and susceptibility weighted imaging.

Hemorrhagic conversion of ischemic infarction
43% of those with infarcted brain tissue will develop hemorrhagic conversion. Risk of hemorrhagic is further increased with recanalisation of veins or arteries. Several types of hemorrhages can occur such as petechial hemorrhages around the infarcted margin (HI1), confluent petechial hemorrhages within the infarcted tissue (HI2), hematoma occupying less than 30% of the infarcted tissue (PH1), hematoma involving greater than 30% of infarcted tissue with small mass effect (PH2), and hematoma involving greater than 30% of the infarcted tissue with significant mass effect. However, only PH2 is clinically significant. Those who has infarction should be monitored frequently with CT brains to access hemorrhagic conversions or worsening vasogenic oedema that may require neurosurgical decompression. Dual energy CT scan maybe useful to differentiate the high densities caused by reperfusion hemorrhage (bleeding after endovascular stroke treatment) and high density due to iodinated contrast administered during cerebral angiography.

Cerebral aneurysm
Besides from head injury, it may occur spontaneously, usually from a ruptured cerebral aneurysm (focal outpouchings with weakened walls on the arteries on the brain surface that are prone to rupture). Symptoms of SAH include a severe headache with a rapid onset (thunderclap headache), vomiting, confusion or a lowered level of consciousness, and sometimes seizures. CT scan has 100% sensitivity of detecting SAH at 6 to 24 hours after symptoms onset. The diagnosis is generally confirmed with a CT scan of the head. If CT scan is normal but SAH is still strongly suspected, lumbar puncture can be done at six to twelfth hours after the onset of headache. This is determine the presence of blood within the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Those with SAH will have blood and bilirubin within CSF because of degradation red blood cells. Meanwhile, those who has blood within CSF due to traumatic lumbar puncture will not have bilirubin within CSF. SAH is generally located within basal cisterns, extends diffusely to all subarachnoid spaces (cerebral sulci) or into the ventricular system, or brain parenchyma. Modified Fisher scale is used to describe the volume and distribution of SAH, just predicting the probability of cerebral artery vasospasm after SAH.

Treatment is by prompt neurosurgery or radiologically guided interventions with medications and other treatments to help prevent recurrence of the bleeding and complications. Since the 1990s, many aneurysms are treated by a minimal invasive procedure known as endovascular coiling, which is carried out by instrumentation through large blood vessels. However, this procedure has higher recurrence rates than the more invasive craniotomy with clipping.

Cerebral ateriovenous malformation
Cerebral ateriovenous malformation (Cerebral AVM) is characterised by abnormal shunting between cerebral arteries and veins without going through capillaries. Instead the blood goes through a collection of small vessels from arteries to veins. These collection of abnormal small vessels is termed as "nidus". This condition happens in 0.1% of the population has a risk of 2 to 4% per year for intracranial bleeding. Once ruptured, it results in intraparenchymal hemorrhage, intraventricular hemorrhage and SAH. Rupture of cerebral AVM often occurs in young people and children. Cerebral AVM can be diagnosed by computed tomography angiography (CTA) brain, magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) brain, or digital subtraction angiography (DSA). DSA is important to determine whether there is nidal or perinidal aneurysm.

Dural arteriovenous fistulae
Dural arteriovenous fistulae (DAVF) is the direct connection between dural or cerebral arteries with dural venous sinuses or cortical veins. It accounts for 10 to 15% of intracranial arteriovenous shunts. DAVF lacks a nidus. Signs and symptoms of DAVF are: headache, tinnitus, neurological deficits involving cranial nerves, and increased intracranial pressure. DAVF once ruptured, will produce intraparenchymal hemorrhage or SAH. Increase in number of vessels near dural venous sinuses as seen on CTA is suggestive of DVAF. 4DCT may increase the sensitivity of detecting DAVF. In MRI scans, susceptibility weighted imaging (SWI) and arterial spin labelling sequences (labelling protons in blood without the use of contrast media to determine blood flow) are useful in evaluating DAVF. The patterns of draining veins from the fistula determines the risk of DAVF rupture. Increased pressure within the dural venous sinuses causes backpressure into the cortical veins, thus making cortical veins more prone to rupture. The risk of hemorrhage is graded by Cognard and Borden grading systems. These grading systems are based upon the DSA.

Cortical venous/cerebral venous sinus thrombosis
Dural venous sinus thrombosis (DVST) and cortical venous thrombosis (CVT) commonly presents with headache, increased intracranial pressure, or seizures. DVST is more common than CVT. DVST are frequently caused by infections in the skull base, dehydration, thrombophilia, meningioma, and other dural tumours. On CT scans, brain parenchymal hemorrhage that does not confined to specific arterial territory along with hyperdense appearance on dural venous sinuses raises the suspicion of DVST. Further evaluation with CT venography, MR venography, and post gadolinium MRI provides accurate diagnosis of venous thrombosis and follow-up after treatment. These studies demonstrate thrombus as filling defect or lack of signal.

Vasculitis/vasculopathy
Those with vasculitis may be presented with headache, behavioural changes, neurological deficits, or intracranial bleeding. Sulcal SAH is the most common form of intracranial bleed caused by vasculitis. On CT scans, sulcal SAH is seen as hyperdensity within the cerebral sulcus, while on MRI, it is seen as hyperintensity on FLAIR sequence, and hypointensity on GRE/SWI sequence. DSA is important in making the diagnosis of vasculitis or vasculopathy.

Mycotic aneurysm
It is arterial outpouchings arise from distal cerebral arteries. These are pseudoaneurysm, caused by thrombus clogging the distal arteries, which results in inflammation and small tears at the site of occlusion. These inflammation and thrombis can caused by infective endocarditis, artificial heart valve or other heart problems. Similar to vasculitis, rupture of mycotic aneurysm also causes SAH in cerebral sulci, mostly located in the vertex. If mycotic aneurysm is located more proximally, it will produce diffuse SAH pattern. CTA or MRA would produce focal outpouching or increase in diameter of the vessel. Meanwhile, GRE/SWI MRI sequence would produce focal hypointensity. Small mycotic aneurysms are difficult to be seen on CT or MRI. Thus, DSA is useful in identifying these lesions.

Management
For those who is already on blood thinners such as aspirin or clopidogrel for prevention of myocardial infarction or stroke, traumatic intracranial hemorrhage should prompt the use of platelet function assays (PFA-100) to assess the effect of these antiplalelet agents. After that, plateletpheresis can be started to increase the aggregation of platelets, thus stopping the intracranial bleed. In those with impaired kidney functions, desmopressin or cryoprecipitate can be used instead.

From limited observational data, it may be relatively safe to restart blood thinners after an ICH as it is associated with reduced thromboembolic complications with similar risk of recurrent hemorrhage when compared to those did not start blood thinners after an ICH.

title: Intracranial hemorrhage


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Anersha

Absolutely no information of this band on google. Secfan 10:34, 23 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete - band vanity. -- Cyrius|✎ 19:21, 23 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * "In late 2004 Anersha will be releasing their first album/demo". No public exposure here, thanks. Delete.Ianb 20:47, 23 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: Releasing a demo?  Wow.  That's like showing up on a radar gun on the highway. Geogre 20:59, 23 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Vanity delete. Bacchiad 21:36, 23 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, unreleased=unencyclopedic. --Stormie 00:59, Jul 24, 2004 (UTC)

title: Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Anersha


text: Category:Lists of languages

title: Category:Lists of languages


text:
Tugtupite

Tugtupite is a beryllium aluminium tectosilicate. It also contains sodium and chlorine and has the formula Na4AlBeSi4O12Cl. Tugtupite is a member of the silica-deficient feldspathoid mineral group. It occurs in high alkali intrusive igneous rocks.

Tugtupite is tenebrescent, sharing much of its crystal structure with sodalite, and the two minerals are occasionally found together in the same sample.

Tugtupite occurs as vitreous, transparent to translucent masses of tetragonal crystals and is commonly found in white, pink, to crimson, and even blue and green. It has a Mohs hardness of 4 and a specific gravity of 2.36. It fluoresces crimson under ultraviolet radiation.

It was first found in 1962 at Tugtup agtakôrfia Ilimaussaq intrusive complex of southwest Greenland. It has also been found at Mont-Saint-Hilaire in Quebec and in the Lovozero Massif of the Kola Peninsula in Russia

The name is derived from the Greenlandic Inuit word for reindeer (tuttu), and means "reindeer blood".

The U.S. Geological Survey reports that in Nepal, tugtupite (as well as jasper and nephrite) were found extensively in most of the rivers from the Bardia to the Dang.

It is used as a gemstone.

title: Tugtupite


text:
Enharmonic scale

In music theory, an enharmonic scale is a very ancient Greek musical scale which contains four notes tuned to approximately quarter tone pitches, bracketed (as pairs) between four fixed pitches. For example, in modern microtonal notation, one of the several enharmonic scales aligned with the conventional key of C major would be
 * (0 ¢), 𝄪 (400 ¢), (450 ¢),  (500 ¢),
 * (700 ¢), 𝄪 (1000 ¢), (1150 ¢), (1200 ¢).

The symbol in this example represents a half-sharp, or sharpening by a quartertone (50 cents), although raising pitch by exactly 50 cents is not at all required, nor even usual among the different Greek enharmonic tunings, which tended instead to have the movable, inner notes (here,  & ;  & ) variably spaced, with about 20~30 cents between each other, and likewise spaced from their closest fixed note (for this example those are, , , and ).

Bracketing tetrachords
Four of the scale notes – the tonic ( in the example), subdominant, dominant , and octave – are all fixed: They are nearly exactly the same relative pitches in all three categories of ancient Greek scales (enharmonic, chromatic, and diatonic), and in ancient Greek music, the fixed tones relative pitches were very nearly the same as the corresponding notes in the modern conventional scale. On the other hand, the four notes contained between the brackets, from the example and  (between  and ); and  and  (between  and ) are the two pairs of bracketed, variable notes; they can have nearly any pitch. After pitches chosen for them, if the interval between a movable note and any other note is about a quarter tone or less, the scale is called "enharmonic". The small, or "microtonal" interval can be between either of the bracketing fixed notes, or from the other movable note, inside the bracket.

Despite the music of India and the Middle East still using similar intervals in traditional and classical scales, even the idea of the very small pitch intervals used in the enharmonic scale has lain outside the competence of musicians trained in occidental music at least since the time of the early Roman Empire.

Difference in meaning of "enharmonic" between the classical-era and now
The ancient Greek meaning of enharmonic is that the scale contains at least one very narrow interval. (The spacing of each pair notes between their bracketing fixed notes is usually either approximately or exactly the same, so when there is one narrow interval in one bracket there is almost always another one inside the other bracket.) Modern musical vocabulary has re-used the word "enharmonic" altered to have the most extreme possible meaning of its ancient sense, to mean two differently-named notes which happen to actually have the same pitch. In ancient Greek music from which enharmonic scales come, the meaning of enharmonic not so extreme: It means that the notes are not actually the same, but do only differ in pitch by a very slight amount, and had a similar connotation to "microtonal" in modern musical vocabulary.

Since an enharmonic scale uses (approximately) quarter tones, or more technically dieses (divisions) which do not occur on standard modern keyboards, nor were even used in the preceding western tuning systems, such as ¼ comma temperament (the predominant tuning about 200 years ago) or well temperament (finally went out of use as conventional tuning about 140~150 years ago) the pitches and intervals in the several ancient Greek enharmonic scales are foreign to nearly any modern-trained musician, and generally outside the scope of musical competence of modern occidental musicians: People playing modern fixed-pitch instruments have no opportunity to experiment with musical scales containing these notes, since piano keyboards only have provisions for half tones, as do frets on guitars and mandolins, fingering holes on woodwinds, and valves on brass instruments. This has been the situation for more than 150 years for fixed-pitch occidental instruments.

Even among Hellenic musicians, enharmonic scales appear to have gone out of style around 2 500 years ago, and only persisted as a perfunctory part of normal musical training; enharmonic scales seem to have been oddities even to the Greek writers in the Roman Empire, whose works on music theory we still have. So the idea of such very small pitch intervals used in the enharmonic scale has lain outside of the scope of musicians' training for occidental music, despite music of India and the Middle East still using similar intervals traditional and classical scales.

Unfamiliar, variable-size quarter tones
An otherwise well regarded 19th century musicologist once wrote the rather blatantly false definition in his 1905 musical dictionary, that the enharmonic scale is

 * ... "an [imaginary] gradual progression by quarter tones" or any "[musical] scale proceeding by quarter tones". — Elson (1905)

However, enharmonic tuning does seem "imaginary" to many modern western musicians because of the intentional limitations placed into conventional tuning, and deficient musical training which only prepares modern students to deal with a single tuning system, even though many others were in use in the west in the recent past, and still more are in current use in other parts of the world. Even well-educated musicologists have little or no understanding of ancient Greek musical scales (among whom sits Elson ) nor even relatively recently disused tuning systems, such as the ¼ comma temperament predominantly used up to the time of Bach, and the later unequal well temperaments based on it.

The enharmonic scale was a very real tuning system that survived from pre-classical Greek music (when it seems to have been put to more use ) into the Roman Imperial era. Although still taught as a perfunctory part of Hellenistic education, the enharmonic scale was only rarely – if ever – used during the period of 180~400 CE when the Greek musical theory books which still survive were written.

The enharmonic scale uses dieses (divisions) which are not tuned in any pitch present on standard modern keyboards, since modern, standard keyboards only have provisions for half-tone steps. The two different notations used for vocal and instrumental notes in ancient Greek musical are more tonally versitile, since they are based on quarter-tones = half-sharps, with step sizes that could be altered from a strict quarter tone step. Despite the pitches being unknown to naïve occidentally-trained musicians, all the ancient Greek tuning systems only require seven distinct pitches in a completed octave, and only the four of those pitches, the two that lie between the fixed tonic and subdominant (or fourth) (relative to C$Maj$, the notes between and ), and the other two movable notes between fixed dominant / fifth and the octave (between  and ). When expressing notes with modern letter notation, it is conventional to use some elaborately sharpened or flattened version of the notes, , , and , representing not their precise pitches, but merely to follow the modern standard of giving every distinct pitch in a scale its own, separate letter.

Since the ancient Greek pitch systems only require eight different notes in a completed octave, and a modern keyboard has twelve, there actually are more than enough keys on any keyboard to implement one of the several enharmonic scales, contrary to Elson's remark calling them "imaginary". The only difficulty is retuning the strings (on an acoustic piano or harpsichord) or convincing an electronic sound module (for a modern electronic keyboard) to produce the bizarre pitches required for enharmonic scale, , , and notes; the fixed notes (, , , and ) may also need comparatively slight adjustments, but in enharmonic scales they are all very nearly (or even exactly) tuned to the same relative pitches they have in the conventional modern scale.

For example, in modern microtonal notation, and standard-pitch quarter tones (approximately 50 ¢ up =, down = ), a simplified version of one of the enharmonic scales is
 * (0 ¢), (50 ¢), 𝄫 (100 ¢),  (500 ¢),
 * (700 ¢), (750 ¢), 𝄫 (800 ¢),  (1200 ¢).

None of the pitches used in any standard enharmonic scale would actually be rounded to the nearest 50 ¢, but the approximate positions would be within about ±20 ¢ of those shown. It is also not necessary for the movable pitches to all lean toward their lower-bound fixed note; a somewhat more realistic example would be
 * (0 ¢), 𝄪 (380 ¢), (420 ¢),  (500 ¢),
 * (700 ¢), 𝄪 (970 ¢), (1130 ¢), (1200 ¢).

The symbol in this instance represents a half-sharp, or sharpening by a quartertone, however the actual pitches for ancient Greek music the half sharp  and double sharp (𝄪) pitches were allowed to be anything between around  = 30~70 cents, and 𝄪 = 130~240 cents, depending on the aesthetics of the musician creating the scale.

Note that the modern sharp (♯), flat (♭), half-sharp, and half-flat symbols do not (usually) represent fixed pitch changes when used to annotate ancient Greek notes, but instead only the approximate location of the actual pitches used in the Greek scale.

Although the movable notes are highly variable when a scale is devised, after the choice is made, all the notes are stuck in their respective positions until the end of a musical piece. So their use is not like modern musical forms, like the blues, that use pitch bend on notes played on pitch elsewhere, and for those modern styles that use sliding pitch, at least in principle, any note might be bent during performance. As far as now known, the only form of "pitch bend" used by the ancient Greeks was in the initial tuning, with a bent pitch remaining bent until the instrument was retuned for the next piece of music.

More broadly, an enharmonic scale is a scale in which (using standard notation) there is no exact equivalence between a sharpened note and the flattened note it is enharmonically related to, such as in the quarter tone scale. As an example, F♯ and G♭ are equivalent in a chromatic scale (the same sound is spelled differently), but they are different sounds in an enharmonic scale (as well as nearly every known musical tuning except for the modern 12-tone E.T. scale). (See: musical tuning for a more complete introduction to the many non-12-tone E.T. tuning systems.)

Musical keyboards which distinguish between enharmonic notes are called by some modern scholars enharmonic keyboards, and more generically microtonal keyboards. (The enharmonic genus, a tetrachord with roots in early Greek music, is only loosely related to enharmonic scales.)

Example of a modern, multi-tone enharmonic scale
As opposed to ancient Greek enharmonic scales, which only employed seven notes in an octave, modern musicians have expanded the idea of an "enharmonic scale" to include most of the pitches which ancient Greek tuning might select from to create a seven pitch octave. This gives the modern musician options for in-effect modulating between multiple different ancient Greek scales. This creates musical options that, as far as we now understand, was never possible for ancient Greeks musicians. Although note that some kitharodes were musically experimental and inventive, and sought musical novelty, so they might well have imagined alternating between different enharmonic scales. They might even accomplished it, by one musician switching between several different kitharas during a performance, with each tuned to a different, but tonally interlocking enharmonic scale.

Consider a scale constructed through Pythagorean tuning: A Pythagorean scale can be constructed "upwards" by wrapping a chain of perfect fifths around an octave, but it can also be constructed "downwards" by wrapping a chain of perfect fourths around the same octave. By juxtaposing these two slightly different scales, it is possible to create an enharmonic scale.

The following Pythagorean scale is enharmonic:

 * {| class="wikitable"

! Note ! Ratio ! Decimal ! Cents ! Difference (cents)
 * C || 1:1 || 1 || 0 || style="background: darkgrey" |
 * D♭ || 256:243 || 1.05350 || 90.225 || rowspan="2" | 23.460
 * C♯ || 2187:2048 || 1.06787 || 113.685
 * D || 9:8 || 1.125 || 203.910 || style="background: darkgrey" |
 * E♭ || 32:27 || 1.18519 || 294.135 || rowspan="2" | 23.460
 * D♯ || 19683:16384 || 1.20135 || 317.595
 * E || 81:64 || 1.26563 || 407.820 || rowspan="2" style="background: darkgrey" |
 * F || 4:3 || 1.33333 || 498.045
 * G♭ || 1024:729 || 1.40466 || 588.270 || rowspan="2" | 23.460
 * F♯ || 729:512 || 1.42383 || 611.730
 * G || 3:2 || 1.5 || 701.955 || style="background: darkgrey" |
 * A♭ || 128:81 || 1.58025 || 792.180 || rowspan="2" | 23.460
 * G♯ || 6561:4096 || 1.60181 || 815.640
 * A || 27:16 || 1.6875 || 905.865 || style="background: darkgrey" |
 * B♭ || 16:9 || 1.77778 || 996.090 || rowspan="2" | 23.460
 * A♯ || 59049:32768 || 1.80203 || 1019.550
 * B || 243:128 || 1.89844 || 1109.775 || rowspan="2" style="background: darkgrey" |
 * C′ || 2:1 || 2 || 1200
 * }
 * F♯ || 729:512 || 1.42383 || 611.730
 * G || 3:2 || 1.5 || 701.955 || style="background: darkgrey" |
 * A♭ || 128:81 || 1.58025 || 792.180 || rowspan="2" | 23.460
 * G♯ || 6561:4096 || 1.60181 || 815.640
 * A || 27:16 || 1.6875 || 905.865 || style="background: darkgrey" |
 * B♭ || 16:9 || 1.77778 || 996.090 || rowspan="2" | 23.460
 * A♯ || 59049:32768 || 1.80203 || 1019.550
 * B || 243:128 || 1.89844 || 1109.775 || rowspan="2" style="background: darkgrey" |
 * C′ || 2:1 || 2 || 1200
 * }
 * B♭ || 16:9 || 1.77778 || 996.090 || rowspan="2" | 23.460
 * A♯ || 59049:32768 || 1.80203 || 1019.550
 * B || 243:128 || 1.89844 || 1109.775 || rowspan="2" style="background: darkgrey" |
 * C′ || 2:1 || 2 || 1200
 * }
 * C′ || 2:1 || 2 || 1200
 * }
 * }

In the above scale the following pairs of notes are said to be enharmonic:
 * C♯ and D♭
 * D♯ and E♭
 * F♯ and G♭
 * G♯ and A♭
 * A♯ and B♭

In this example, natural notes are sharpened by multiplying its frequency ratio by $min$ (called a limma), and a natural note is flattened by multiplying its ratio by $Aug$ . A pair of enharmonic notes are separated by a Pythagorean comma, which is equal to $256⁄243$ (about 23.46 cents).

title: Enharmonic scale