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Equivalence principle

The equivalence principle is the hypothesis that the observed equivalence of gravitational and inertial mass is a consequence of nature. The weak form, known for centuries, relates to masses of any composition in free fall taking the same trajectories and landing at identical times. The extended form by Albert Einstein requires special relativity to also hold in free fall and requires the weak equivalence to be valid everywhere. This form was a critical input for the development of the theory of general relativity. The strong form requires Einstein's form to work for stellar objects. Highly precise experimental tests of the principle limit possible deviations from equivalence to be very small.

Concept
In classical mechanics, Newton's equation of motion in a gravitational field, written out in full, is:
 * inertial mass × acceleration = gravitational mass × intensity of the gravitational field

Very careful experiments have shown that the inertial mass on the left side and gravitational mass on the right side are numerically equal and independent of the material composing the masses. The equivalence principle is the hypothesis that this numerical equality of inertial and gravitational mass is a consequence of their fundamental identity.

The equivalence principle can be considered an extension of the principle of relativity, the principle that the laws of physics are invariant under uniform motion. An observer in a windowless room cannot distinguish between being on the surface of the Earth and being in a spaceship in deep space accelerating at 1g and the laws of physics are unable to distinguish these cases.

History
Galileo compared different materials experimentally to determine that the acceleration due to gravitation is independent of the amount of mass being accelerated.

Newton, just 50 years after Galileo, developed the idea that gravitational and inertial mass were different concepts and compared the periods of pendulums composed of different materials to verify that these masses are the same. This form of the equivalence principle became known as "weak equivalence".

A version of the equivalence principle consistent with special relativity was introduced by Albert Einstein in 1907, when he observed that identical physical laws are observed in two systems, one subject to a constant gravitational field causing acceleration and the other subject to constant acceleration like a rocket far from any gravitational field. Since the physical laws are the same, Einstein assumed the gravitational field and the acceleration were "physically equivalent". Einstein stated this hypothesis as:

"we ... assume the complete physical equivalence of a gravitational field and a corresponding acceleration of the reference system."

In 1911 Einstein demonstrated the power of the equivalence principle by using it to predict that clocks run at different rates in a gravitational potential, and light rays bend in a gravitational field. He connected the equivalence principle to his earlier principle of special relativity:

"This assumption of exact physical equivalence makes it impossible for us to speak of the absolute acceleration of the system of reference, just as the usual theory of relativity forbids us to talk of the absolute velocity of a system; and it makes the equal falling of all bodies in a gravitational field seem a matter of course."

Immediately after completing his work on a theory of gravity (known as general relativity) and in later years Einstein recalled the role of the equivalence principle: "The breakthrough came suddenly one day. I was sitting on a chair in my patent office in Bern. Suddenly a thought struck me: If a man falls freely, he would not feel his weight. I was taken aback. This simple thought experiment made a deep impression on me. This led me to the theory of gravity."

Since Einstein developed general relativity, there was a need to develop a framework to test the theory against other possible theories of gravity compatible with special relativity. This was developed by Robert Dicke as part of his program to test general relativity. Two new principles were suggested, the so-called Einstein equivalence principle and the strong equivalence principle, each of which assumes the weak equivalence principle as a starting point. These are discussed below.

Definitions
Three main forms of the equivalence principle are in current use: weak (Galilean), Einsteinian, and strong. Some studies also create finer divisions or slight alternative.

Weak equivalence principle
The weak equivalence principle, also known as the universality of free fall or the Galilean equivalence principle can be stated in many ways. The strong equivalence principle, a generalization of the weak equivalence principle, includes astronomic bodies with gravitational self-binding energy. Instead, the weak equivalence principle assumes falling bodies are self-bound by non-gravitational forces only (e.g. a stone). Either way:

 * "All uncharged, freely falling test particles follow the same trajectories, once an initial position and velocity have been prescribed".
 * "... in a uniform gravitational field all objects, regardless of their composition, fall with precisely the same acceleration." "The weak equivalence principle implicitly assumes that the falling objects are bound by non-gravitational forces."
 * "... in a gravitational field the acceleration of a test particle is independent of its properties, including its rest mass."
 * Mass (measured with a balance) and weight (measured with a scale) are locally in identical ratio for all bodies (the opening page to Newton's Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, 1687).

Uniformity of the gravitational field eliminates measurable tidal forces originating from a radial divergent gravitational field (e.g., the Earth) upon finite sized physical bodies.

Einstein equivalence principle
What is now called the "Einstein equivalence principle" states that the weak equivalence principle holds, and that:

Here local means that experimental setup must be small compared to variations in the gravitational field, called tidal forces. The test experiment must be small enough so that its gravitational potential does not alter the result.

The two additional constraints added to the weak principle to get the Einstein form − (1) the independence of the outcome on relative velocity (local Lorentz invariance) and (2) independence of "where" known as (local positional invariance) − have far reaching consequences. With these constraints alone Einstein was able to predict the gravitational redshift. Theories of gravity that obey the Einstein equivalence principle must be "metric theories", meaning that trajectories of freely falling bodies are geodesics of symmetric metric.

Around 1960 Leonard I. Schiff conjectured that any complete and consistent theory of gravity that embodies the weak equivalence principle implies the Einstein equivalence principle; the conjecture can't be proven but has several plausibility arguments in its favor. Nonetheless, the two principles are tested with very different kinds of experiments.

The Einstein equivalence principle has been criticized as imprecise, because there is no universally accepted way to distinguish gravitational from non-gravitational experiments (see for instance Hadley and Durand ).

Strong equivalence principle
The strong equivalence principle applies the same constraints as the Einstein equivalence principle, but allows the freely falling bodies to be massive gravitating objects as well as test particles. Thus this is a version of the equivalence principle that applies to objects that exert a gravitational force on themselves, such as stars, planets, black holes or Cavendish experiments. It requires that the gravitational constant be the same everywhere in the universe and is incompatible with a fifth force. It is much more restrictive than the Einstein equivalence principle.

Like the Einstein equivalence principle, the strong equivalence principle requires gravity is geometrical by nature, but in addition it forbids any extra fields, so the metric alone determines all of the effects of gravity. If an observer measures a patch of space to be flat, then the strong equivalence principle suggests that it is absolutely equivalent to any other patch of flat space elsewhere in the universe. Einstein's theory of general relativity (including the cosmological constant) is thought to be the only theory of gravity that satisfies the strong equivalence principle. A number of alternative theories, such as Brans–Dicke theory and the Einstein-aether theory add additional fields.

Active, passive, and inertial masses
Some of the tests of the equivalence principle use names for the different ways mass appears in physical formulae. In nonrelativistic physics three kinds of mass can be distinguished: By definition of active and passive gravitational mass, the force on $$M_1$$ due to the gravitational field of $$M_0$$ is: $$F_1 = \frac{M_0^\mathrm{act} M_1^\mathrm{pass}}{r^2}$$ Likewise the force on a second object of arbitrary mass2 due to the gravitational field of mass0 is: $$F_2 = \frac{M_0^\mathrm{act} M_2^\mathrm{pass}}{r^2}$$
 * 1) Inertial mass intrinsic to an object, the sum of all of its mass–energy.
 * 2) Passive mass, the response to gravity, the object's weight.
 * 3) Active mass, the mass that determines the objects gravitational effect.

By definition of inertial mass:$$F = m^\mathrm{inert} a$$if $$m_1$$ and $$m_2$$ are the same distance $$r$$ from $$m_0$$ then, by the weak equivalence principle, they fall at the same rate (i.e. their accelerations are the same). $$a_1 = \frac{F_1}{m_1^\mathrm{inert}} = a_2 = \frac{F_2}{m_2^\mathrm{inert}}$$

Hence: $$\frac{M_0^\mathrm{act} M_1^\mathrm{pass}}{r^2 m_1^\mathrm{inert}} = \frac{M_0^\mathrm{act} M_2^\mathrm{pass}}{r^2 m_2^\mathrm{inert}}$$

Therefore: $$\frac{M_1^\mathrm{pass}}{m_1^\mathrm{inert}} = \frac{M_2^\mathrm{pass}}{m_2^\mathrm{inert}}$$

In other words, passive gravitational mass must be proportional to inertial mass for objects, independent of their material composition if the weak equivalence principle is obeyed.

The dimensionless Eötvös-parameter or Eötvös ratio $$\eta(A,B)$$ is the difference of the ratios of gravitational and inertial masses divided by their average for the two sets of test masses "A" and "B". $$\eta(A,B)=2\frac{ \left(\frac{m_{\textrm pass}}{m_{\textrm inert}}\right)_A-\left(\frac{m_{\textrm pass}}{m_{\textrm inert}}\right)_B }{\left(\frac{m_{\textrm pass}}{m_{\textrm inert}}\right)_A+\left(\frac{m_{\textrm pass}}{m_{\textrm inert}}\right)_B}.$$ Values of this parameter are used to compare tests of the equivalence principle.

A similar parameter can be used to compare passive and active mass. By Newton's third law of motion: $$F_1 = \frac{M_0^\mathrm{act} M_1^\mathrm{pass}}{r^2}$$ must be equal and opposite to $$F_0 = \frac{M_1^\mathrm{act} M_0^\mathrm{pass}}{r^2}$$

It follows that: $$\frac{M_0^\mathrm{act}}{M_0^\mathrm{pass}} = \frac{M_1^\mathrm{act}}{M_1^\mathrm{pass}}$$

In words, passive gravitational mass must be proportional to active gravitational mass for all objects. The difference, $$S_{0,1} = \frac{M_0^\mathrm{act}}{M_0^\mathrm{pass}} - \frac{M_1^\mathrm{act}}{M_1^\mathrm{pass}}$$ is used to quantify differences between passive and active mass.

Tests of the weak equivalence principle
Tests of the weak equivalence principle are those that verify the equivalence of gravitational mass and inertial mass. An obvious test is dropping different objects and verifying that they land at the same time. Historically this was the first approach, though probably not by Galileo's Leaning Tower of Pisa experiment but earlier by Simon Stevin who dropped lead balls of different masses off the Delft churchtower and listened for the sound they made on a wooden plank.

Isaac Newton measured the period of pendulums made with different materials as an alternative test giving the first precision measurements. Loránd Eötvös's approach in 1908 used a very sensitive torsion balance to give precision approaching 1 in a billion. Modern experiments have improved this by another factor of a million.

A popular exposition of this measurement was done on the Moon by David Scott in 1971. He dropped a falcon feather and a hammer at the same time, showing on video that they landed at the same time.

Experiments are still being performed at the University of Washington which have placed limits on the differential acceleration of objects towards the Earth, the Sun and towards dark matter in the Galactic Center. Future satellite experiments – Satellite Test of the Equivalence Principle and Galileo Galilei – will test the weak equivalence principle in space, to much higher accuracy.

With the first successful production of antimatter, in particular anti-hydrogen, a new approach to test the weak equivalence principle has been proposed. Experiments to compare the gravitational behavior of matter and antimatter are currently being developed.

Proposals that may lead to a quantum theory of gravity such as string theory and loop quantum gravity predict violations of the weak equivalence principle because they contain many light scalar fields with long Compton wavelengths, which should generate fifth forces and variation of the fundamental constants. Heuristic arguments suggest that the magnitude of these equivalence principle violations could be in the 10−13 to 10−18 range.

Currently envisioned tests of the weak equivalence principle are approaching a degree of sensitivity such that non-discovery of a violation would be just as profound a result as discovery of a violation. Non-discovery of equivalence principle violation in this range would suggest that gravity is so fundamentally different from other forces as to require a major reevaluation of current attempts to unify gravity with the other forces of nature. A positive detection, on the other hand, would provide a major guidepost towards unification.

Tests of the Einstein equivalence principle
In addition to the tests of the weak equivalence principle, the Einstein equivalence principle requires testing the local Lorentz invariance and local positional invariance conditions.

Testing local Lorentz invariance amounts to testing special relativity, a theory with vast number of existing tests. Nevertheless, attempts to look for quantum gravity require even more precise tests. The modern tests include looking for directional variations in the speed of light (called "clock anisotropy tests") and new forms of the Michelson-Morley experiment. The anisotropy measures less than one part in 10−20.

Testing local positional invariance divides in to tests in space and in time. Space-based tests use measurements of the gravitational redshift, the classic is the Pound–Rebka experiment in the 1960s. The most precise measurement was done in 1976 by flying a hydrogen maser and comparing it to one on the ground. The Global positioning system requires compensation for this redshift to give accurate position values.

Time-based tests search for variation of dimensionless constants and mass ratios. For example, Webb et al. reported detection of variation (at the 10−5 level) of the fine-structure constant from measurements of distant quasars. Other researchers dispute these findings.

The present best limits on the variation of the fundamental constants have mainly been set by studying the naturally occurring Oklo natural nuclear fission reactor, where nuclear reactions similar to ones we observe today have been shown to have occurred underground approximately two billion years ago. These reactions are extremely sensitive to the values of the fundamental constants.

Tests of the strong equivalence principle
The strong equivalence principle can be tested by 1) finding orbital variations in massive bodies (Sun-Earth-Moon), 2) variations in the gravitational constant (G) depending on nearby sources of gravity or on motion, or 3) searching for a variation of Newton's gravitational constant over the life of the universe

Orbital variations due to gravitational self-energy should cause a "polarization" of solar system orbits called the Nordtvedt effect. This effect has been sensitively tested by the Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment. Up to the limit of one part in 1013 there is no Nordtvedt effect.

A tight bound on the effect of nearby gravitational fields on the strong equivalence principle comes from modeling the orbits of binary stars and comparing the results to pulsar timing data. In 2014, astronomers discovered a stellar triple system containing a millisecond pulsar PSR J0337+1715 and two white dwarfs orbiting it. The system provided them a chance to test the strong equivalence principle in a strong gravitational field with high accuracy.

Most alternative theories of gravity predict a change in the gravity constant over time. Studies of Big Bang nucleosynthesis, analysis of pulsars, and the lunar laser ranging data have shown that G cannot have varied by more than 10% since the creation of the universe. The best data comes from studies of the ephemeris of Mars, based on three successive NASA missions, Mars Global Surveyor, Mars Odyssey, and Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.

title: Equivalence principle


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Wincenty Witos

Wincenty Witos (21    or 22     January 1874 – 31 October 1945) was a Polish statesman, prominent member and leader of the Polish People's Party (PSL), who served three times as the Prime Minister of Poland in the 1920s.

He was a member of the Polish People's Party from 1895, and the leader of its "Piast" faction from 1913. He was a member of parliament in the Galician Sejm from 1908–1914, and an envoy to Reichsrat in Vienna from 1911 to 1918. Witos was also a leader of Polish Liquidation Committee (Polska Komisja Likwidacyjna) in 1918, head of the Piast party, and member of parliament in the Polish Sejm from 1919-1920.

He served three times as the premier of Poland, in 1920–1921, 1923 (Chjeno-Piast), and 1926. In 1926 the third Witos government was overthrown by the May coup d'état led by Józef Piłsudski. Witos had been one of the leaders of the opposition to the Sanacja-government as head of Centrolew (1929–1930) and co-founded the People's Party. He was imprisoned shortly thereafter, then lived in exile in Czechoslovakia from 1933 to 1939. Over that time, he was seen as "the messiah of the peasants." Post-exile, he returned to Poland only to be imprisoned again by the invading Germans.

In ill health by March 1941, he was put on supervised release by the Germans and ordered to stay in Wierzchosławice. In July 1944 the German occupation authorities requested that he declare an anti-Soviet appeal, but he refused to do so. In 1945, he was nominated one of the vice-chairmen of the State National Council (Krajowa Rada Narodowa) after World War II. In 1945-46 the People's Party was reorganized and taken over by Stanisław Mikołajczyk.

Early life
Wincenty was born in a peasant family in Wierzchosławice. His parents were Wojciech and Katarzyna née Sroka. The family was poor, owning little land and no livestock and they lived in a single room hut which had been converted from a barn. Wincenty had two brothers, Jan and Andrzej. Andrzej would also become a leader in the Polish agrarian movement.

He began his education in the village school at the age of ten and finished four grades. Subsequently, he worked, helping his father, as a lumberjack for Prince Eustachy Stanisław Sanguszko.

Between 1895 and 1897 Wincenty served in the Austrian Army (Galicia was part of the Austrian partition of Poland), first in infantry then in the artillery. He was stationed in Tarnów, Kraków and Krzesławice.

He married Katarzyna Trach on 9 February 1898. His daughter Julia was born on 22 March 1899.

Early political activity
At the age of nineteen he published his first newspaper article in the Przyjaciel Ludu ("Friend of the People") based in Lwów (Lviv, Lemberg), under the name "Maciej Rydz". In 1895 Witos joined the Galician Stronnictwo Ludowe ("People's Party") and in February 1903 he was elected to the Executive Committee of the party. In 1908 he was elected as a delegate to the Diet of Galicia in Lwow and served until 1914.

In April 1909 Witos was elected the wójt (mayor) of his native Wierzchosławice. During his tenure he focused on the economic development of the village, oversaw the construction of a mill and a social center, improved local roads, expanded the school and organized a farmer's cooperative and credit union. He gradually rose in the ranks of the agrarian movement.

Road to independence
In December 1913 the People's Party split. As a result, in February 1914, Witos was elected as vice president of the newly created political party Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe "Piast" (Polish People's Party "Piast"). In 1911 he served as a deputy of the party to Austria's Imperial Council's House of Representatives. Technically he remained the member of the Austrian government until 1918.

After the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Witos became even more involved in party activities. The group joined the Supreme National Committee a quasi-government for the Poles in Galicia, for which Witos served as vice president. As the political events associated with the war unfolded and the Committee became more and more irrelevant, Witos resigned.

During the war Witos kept in touch with Polish independence movement activists, including Ignacy Paderewski and Jędrzej Moraczewski. He also supported Józef Piłsudski, whom he saw as the future leader of a reconstituted Polish army. "Piast"'s backing for Piłsudski increased after the Oath Crisis and the internment of Piłsudski by the Germans. Gradually, the agrarians of the Polish People's Party came to believe that the cause of Polish independence was best served by an alliance with the alliance and so began supporting the pro-Entente, anti-German, National Democrats. In 1917 Witos joined Roman Dmowski's National League although he left the organization in 1918.

In 1916 he became the president of "Piast". He coauthored a manifesto, which declared the aims of a reconstituted, independent Poland and was published in May 1917. On 28 September 1918, he was one of the two directors of the Polish Liquidation Committee, a temporary government whose purpose was to preserve law and order in the former Austrian partition during the transition to an elected Polish government. The Committee declared Western Galicia independent of the Austria-Hungary. Witos was invited to join the government of Ignacy Daszyński but turned the offer down for political differences. Witos was also unsatisfied with the fact that the new government had no representative from the Prussian Partition.

Second Cabinet

On 17 May 1923, an agreement was held in Warsaw between the Polish centre (Polish People's Party "Piast") and right-wing parties (primarily Związek Ludowo-Narodowy and Polskie Stronnictwo Chrześcijańskiej Demokracji and several smaller parties, known as the Christian Union of National Unity alliance or Chjena) called the Lanckorona Pact (Pakt lanckoroński). The politicians of those parties agreed to pursue stricter polonization policies and to increase the role of Catholic Church in the state. Furthermore, the program of Polonization of the Eastern Borderlands was to be initiated. The pact was signed at Warsaw's apartment of Juliusz Zdanowski, one of the leaders of Zwiazek Ludowo-Narodowy. Its name refers to the fact, that it was negotiated in the real estate of Senator Ludwik Hammerling, who was elected in the district which included Lanckorona. The agreement led to the dismissal of the government of Władysław Sikorski and creation of the Chjeno-Piast coalition on 28 May, with the new government of Witos. Former Polish chief of state, Józef Piłsudski, who resigned claiming that he would not participate in the government, which is made of parties responsible for the death of President Narutowicz.

He resigned in December 1923.

Third Cabinet and Coup d'état
In November 1925, the government of Prime Minister Władysław Grabski was replaced by the government led by Minister of Foreign Affairs Aleksander Skrzyński, which had received support from the National Democrats and the Polish Socialist Party. General Lucjan Żeligowski became the new government's minister of military affairs. However, after the PPS withdrew its support, this government also fell and was replaced by that of Witos, formed by the Polish People's Party "Piast" and the Christian Union of National Unity (Chjeno-Piast). However, the new government had even less popular support than the previous ones, and pronouncements from Józef Piłsudski, who viewed the constant power shifts in the Sejm as chaotic and damaging, set the stage for a coup d'état. Apart from domestic turmoil, Polish politics had been shaken by a trade war with Germany, begun in June 1925, and by the signing of the Treaty of Locarno on 16 October. Under the terms of the treaty, the World War I western European Allied powers and the new states of Central and Eastern Europe sought to secure a postwar territorial settlement in return for normalized relations with defeated Germany. On 10 May 1926, a coalition government of Christian Democrats and Agrarians was formed, and that same day Józef Piłsudski, in an interview with Kurier Poranny (the Morning Courier), said that he was "ready to fight the evil" of sejmocracy and promised a "sanation" (restoration to health) of political life. The newspaper edition was confiscated by the authorities.

The night of 11 to 12 May, a state of alert was declared in the Warsaw military garrison, and some units marched to Rembertów, where they pledged their support to Piłsudski. On 12 May, they marched on Warsaw and captured bridges over the Wisła River. Meanwhile, Witos' government declared a state of emergency. At about 17:00 hours, Marshal Piłsudski met President Stanisław Wojciechowski on the Poniatowski Bridge. Major Marian Porwit who commanded one of the troops loyal to the government), reported to the president, then reported to Piłsudski and witnessed the discussion between the two dignitaries. Piłsudski demanded the resignation of Witos' cabinet, while the President demanded Piłsudski's capitulation. After the failure of negotiations and the president's departure, Major Porwit refused Piłsudski to let him cross the bridge. On 14 May, at about 13:00 hours, Witos' cabinet decided to move from the Belweder Palace to Wilanów. Wojciechowski allowed this decision an hour later. After transferring to Wilanów, Wojciechowski and Witos negotiated with the commanders of troops loyal to the cabinet. The military decided they should move to Poznań and maintain the armed struggle from beyond. Eventually, to prevent the Warsaw fighting from turning into a country-wide civil war, both Wojciechowski and Witos decided to resign and issued an order to their troops to cease fratricidal fighting. A new government was formed under Prime Minister Kazimierz Bartel, with Piłsudski as the new Minister of Military Affairs. On 31 May 1926, the National Assembly nominated Piłsudski to be president, but he declined. Eventually Ignacy Mościcki became the new president; Piłsudski, however, wielded much greater  de facto power than his military ministry nominally gave him.

Centrolew

On 26 May 1926, Witos resigned as President of the Polish People's Party "Piast" shortly after his removal from power, though it was not adopted. He resigned in 1927 as President of the Małopolska Agricultural Society due to the limitation of state financial assistance. On 18 August 1927, the Krakow Provincial Office dissolved the Union of Commune Heads, which was created by Witos and operating in Lesser Poland under his own leadership. In the 1928 Polish legislative election, Witos successfully applied for parliamentary re-election as the member of the Sejm for the Tarnów district, by obtaining the largest number of votes for this constituency. On 9 April 1929, the Voivode of Kraków Voivodeship Mikołaj Kwaśniewski, removed Witos from the Tarnów local government board, to which he served as a member of this board since 1905. Witos remained in clear opposition during the Sanation regime.

From 1929–1930, Witos was one of the leaders of Centrolew (Centre-left), a coalition of several Polish political parties (Polish People's Party "Wyzwolenie", Polish People's Party "Piast", National Workers' Party, Polish Socialist Party and Christian-democratic parties). The coalition was directed against Piłsudski and the Sanation government. Witos participated, among others at the Congress of Defense of People's Rights and Freedom in Krakow (organized by Centrolew) in June 1930, during which he gave a speech.

Brest trials
The Polish Sanation government had invalidated the 1930 election results by disbanding the parliament in August and with increasing pressure on the opposition started a new campaign, the new elections being scheduled for November. Using anti-government demonstrations as a pretext, 20 members of the opposition, including most of the leaders of the Centrolew alliance (from Polish Socialist Party, Polish People's Party "Piast" and Polish People's Party "Wyzwolenie") were arrested in September without a warrant, only strictly on the order of Józef Piłsudski and the then Minister of Internal Security, Felicjan Sławoj Składkowski, accusing them of plotting an anti-government coup. The opposition members (who included Witos, and Wojciech Korfanty) were imprisoned in the Brest Fortress, where their trial took place (thus the popular name for the election: the 'Brest election'). The detainee (including Witos' inmates and opponents of the Sanation) were beaten and humiliated. Witos was ordered, among others manually cleaning latrines and emptying faeces buckets. A little later he was taken to the arrest in Grójec. On 27 November 1930 (the same day he was re-elected to the Sejm), Witos left prison, his bail was set at 10,000 zloty.

Regardless of Sanation's struggle against the well-known parties, Witos declared the need to consolidate with peasant groups. On 15 March 1931, he formed the "united" People's Party from the merger of three other, smaller, peasant-based parties: the Polish People's Party "Piast", Polish People's Party "Wyzwolenie" and left-wing Stronnictwo Chłopskie (SCh). On 26 October 1931, the Brest trial began in Warsaw. Witos and the other 10 accused were charged with the fact that in the period from 1928 to 9 September 1930, following the communicating between each other and acting consciously, they jointly prepared an assassination attempt whose purpose was to forcefully remove members of the Council of Ministers and replace them by other people, although without a fundamental change state system. None of the accused pleaded guilty after 55 hearings from the trial. Witos used the opportunity to explain the harsh criticisms of Sanation's actions, starting with the May Coup of 1926. Among others, Witos stated: "Your Honor, I was the president of this government that was overthrown by the May coup. So I wasn't plotting, I wasn't plotting, but I, along with the government, was the victim of a plot and assassination. This government was not a usurper government, it was a constitutional government, in a lawful manner, in a completely lawful manner appointed by the President of the Republic of Poland. Someone else was swinging, someone else was plotting, and I am sitting on the bench!"

During the trial, Witos's lawyer was attorney Stanisław Szurlej. The accused were acquitted of the charge of preparing a coup d'état, though they were convicted of their activities. Witos was sentenced to 1/5 years in prison and deprived of public rights for 3 years. Witos was imposed a fine of PLN 80, similar to the fine imposed on Kazimierz Bagiński. The Brest trial ended in January 1932, with 10 accused receiving sentences up to three years of imprisonment; the appeals of 1933 confirmed the sentences. On 7–11 February 1933, an appeal hearing was held which culminated in the approval of the first-instance judgment. On 9 May, the Supreme Court cancelled this judgment and referred the case back to the court. On 11–20 July, a second hearing was held before the Court of Appeal which found the first judgment justified. The verdict was finally approved by the Supreme Court, which on 2–5 October, reconsidered the appeal of the defenders. Five of the convicts went to prison to serve their sentence. Witos, Adam Pragier, Wladyslaw Kiernik, Kazimierz Baginski and Herman Lieberman went into exile, before the approval of the judgment by the Supreme Court. They wrote in a joint statement: "We will not again be hostage to the dictatorship, as in 1930 ... The country demands from us not martyrdom, but a struggle to remove the mafia, which established its reign on lies, harm and depravity of characters. We left Poland to continue fighting the hated dictatorship."

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Wincenty Witos


text:
1982 in India

Events in the year 1982 in the Republic of India.

Incumbents

 * President of India – Neelam Sanjiva Reddy until 25 July, Zail Singh
 * Prime Minister of India – Indira Gandhi
 * Vice President of India – Mohammad Hidayatullah
 * Chief Justice of India – Yeshwant Vishnu Chandrachud

Governors

 * Andhra Pradesh – K. C. Abraham
 * Assam – Prakash Mehrotra
 * Bihar – Akhlaqur Rahman Kidwai
 * Gujarat – Sharda Mukherjee
 * Haryana – Ganpatrao Devji Tapase
 * Himachal Pradesh – A. K. Banerjee
 * Jammu and Kashmir – B. K. Nehru
 * Karnataka – Govind Narain (until 15 April), Ashoknath Banerji (starting 15 April)
 * Kerala – Jothi Venkatachalam (until 27 October), P. Ramachandran (starting 27 October)
 * Madhya Pradesh – B. D. Sharma
 * Maharashtra – O. P. Mehra (until 5 March), Idris Hasan Latif (starting 5 March)
 * Manipur – S. M. H. Burney
 * Meghalaya – Prakash Mehrotra
 * Nagaland – S. M. H. Burney
 * Odisha –
 * until 24 June: Cheppudira Muthana Poonacha
 * 25 June-31 August: Ranganath Misra
 * starting 1 September: Cheppudira Muthana Poonacha
 * Punjab – Aminuddin Ahmad Khan (until 21 April), Marri Chenna Reddy (starting 21 April)
 * Rajasthan – K. D. Sharma (until 6 March), Om Prakash Mehra (starting 6 March)
 * Sikkim – Homi J. H. Taleyarkhan
 * Tamil Nadu – Sadiq Ali (until 6 September), Sundar Lal Khurana (starting 6 September)
 * Tripura – S. M. H. Burney
 * Uttar Pradesh – Chandeshwar Prasad Narayan Singh
 * West Bengal – Bhairab Dutt Pande

Events

 * National income - ₹1,932,546 million
 * March 5 - Gonda Encounter.
 * April – INSAT-1A launched; deactivated in September.
 * April 7 - Charan Singh announces retirement from active politics.
 * April 25 - Doordarshan begins testing of Color television broadcast in India.
 * April 30 - Bijon Setu massacre seventeen Ananda Margis were set ablaze at Bijon Setu in Dhakuria in south Kolkata. No one has been convicted of the murders.
 * May 29 - Government of India announced setting up of a permanent and integrated Indian Naval Academy at Ezhimala (hill, Kannur).
 * July 12 – NABARD established through act of Parliament following B. Sivaraman Committee recommendation.
 * September 1 - Vypeen alcohol poisonings.
 * September 16 - Future Prime Minister of India Manmohan Singh becomes Governor of the Reserve Bank of India

Sport

 * 19 November – 4 December – 9th Asian Games held in Delhi.

Births

 * 15 January – Neil Nitin Mukesh, actor.
 * 15 February – Meera Jasmine, actress.
 * 28 March – Sonia Agarwal, actress.
 * 8 April – Allu Arjun, actor.
 * 28 April – Koyel Mullick, actress.
 * 19 May – R. K. Suresh, actor and producer.
 * 24 May – Kanchi Kaul, actress.
 * 12 June – Shailaja Pujari, weightlifter
 * 30 June – Allari Naresh, actor.
 * 3 July – Kanika Subramaniam, actress.
 * Priyanka Chopra promoting The Sky Is Pink.jpg July – [[Priyanka Chopra]], actress, Miss World 2000.
 * 8 August – Fahadh Faasil, actor.
 * 28 August – Prasanna, actor.
 * 4 September – Gaurav Gogoi, politician.
 * 11 September – Shriya Saran, actress,
 * Prithviraj in Thirakkatha (2008).jpg]]28 September – Ranbir Kapoor, actor
 * 16 October – Prithviraj Sukumaran actor,
 * Mary Kom - British High Commission, Delhi, 27 July 2011.jpg March – [[Mary Kom]], boxer
 * 21 November – Aarti Chhabria, actress and model,
 * 8 December – Pa. Ranjith, film director.
 * 10 December – Shiva, actor, comedian, radio jockey, and dialogue writer.
 * 14 December – Aadhi Pinisetty, actor.

Deaths

 * 11 January – Manya Surve, Indian urban dacoit and gangster in the Mumbai underworld (born 1944).
 * 3 August – Tribhuvan Narain Singh, Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh (born 1904).
 * 2 October – C.D. Deshmukh, Minister of Finance and first Governor of the Reserve bank of India (b.1896)
 * 15 November – Vinoba Bhave, freedom fighter and teacher (born 1895).

Full date unknown

 * Firaq Gorakhpuri, poet (born 1896).

title: 1982 in India


text:
Workforce

In macroeconomics, the labor force is the sum of those either working (i.e., the employed) or looking for work (i.e., the unemployed):

$$\text{Labour force} = \text{Employed} + \text{Unemployed}$$

Those neither working in the marketplace nor looking for work are out of the labor force.

The sum of the labor force and out of the labor force results in the noninstitutional civilian population, that is, the number of people who (1) work (i.e., the employed), (2) can work but don't, although they are looking for a job (i.e., the unemployed), or (3) can work but don't, and are not looking for a job (i.e., out of the labor force). Stated otherwise, the noninstitutional civilian population is the total population minus people that could not work (children, elders, soldiers, incarcerated). The noninstitutional civilian population is the number of people potentially available for civilian employment.

$$ \begin{align} \text{Noninstitutional civilian population} &= \text{Labor force} + \text{Out of the labor force} \\ &= \text{Employed} + \text{Unemployed} + \text{Out of the labor force} \\ &= \text{Total Population} - \text{People who can not work} \end{align} $$.

The labor force participation rate is defined as the ratio of the labor force to the noninstitutional civilian population.

$$\text{Labor force participation rate} = \dfrac{\text{Labor force}}{\text{Noninstitutional civilian population}}$$.

Instead, within a company, its value can be labelled as its "Workforce in Place".

Formal and informal
Formal labour is any sort of employment that is structured and paid in a formal way. They are paid formally using payrolls paper, electronic card and alike. Unlike the informal sector of the economy, formal labour within a country contributes to that country's gross national product. Informal labour is labour that falls short of being a formal arrangement in law or in practice. Labour inherit may come as formal or non-formal, an employee old enough but below retirement age bracket passing on to his children. It can be paid or unpaid and it is always unstructured and unregulated. Formal employment is more reliable than informal employment. Generally, the former yields higher income and greater benefits and securities for both men and women.

Informal labour
The contribution of informal labourers is immense. Informal labour is expanding globally, most significantly in developing countries. According to a study done by Jacques Charmes, in the year 2000 informal labour made up 57% of non-agricultural employment, 40% of urban employment, and 83% of the new jobs in Latin America. That same year, informal labour made up 78% of non-agricultural employment, 61% of urban employment, and 93% of the new jobs in Africa. Particularly after an economic crisis, labourers tend to shift from the formal sector to the informal sector. This trend was seen after the Asian economic crisis which began in 1997.

Informal labour and gender
Gender is frequently associated with informal labour. Women are employed more often informally than they are formally, and informal labour is an overall larger source of employment for females than it is for males. Women frequent the informal sector of the economy through occupations like home-based workers and street vendors. The Penguin Atlas of Women in the World shows that in the 1990s, 81% of women in Benin were street vendors, 55% in Guatemala, 44% in Mexico, 33% in Kenya, and 14% in India. Overall, 60% of women workers in the developing world are employed in the informal sector.

The specific percentages are 84% and 58% for women in Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America respectively. The percentages for men in both of these areas of the world are lower, amounting to 63% and 48% respectively. In Asia, 65% of women workers and 65% of men workers are employed in the informal sector. Globally, a large percentage of women that are formally employed also work in the informal sector behind the scenes. These women make up the hidden work force.

According to a 2021 FAO study, currently, 85 per cent of economic activity in Africa is conducted in the informal sector where women account for nearly 90 per cent of the informal labour force. According to the ILO's 2016 employment analysis, 64 per cent of informal employment is in agriculture (relative to industry and services) in sub-Saharan Africa. Women have higher rates of informal employment than men with 92 per cent of women workers in informal employment versus 86 per cent of men.

Formal and informal labour can be divided into the subcategories of agricultural work and non-agricultural work. Martha Chen et al. believe these four categories of labour are closely related to one another. A majority of agricultural work is informal, which the Penguin Atlas for Women in the World defines as unregistered or unstructured. Non-agricultural work can also be informal. According to Martha Chen et al., informal labour makes up 48% of non-agricultural work in North Africa, 51% in Latin America, 65% in Asia, and 72% in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Agriculture and informal economic activity are among some of the most important sources of livelihood for women. Women are estimated to account for approximately 70 per cent of informal cross-border traders and are also prevalent among owners of micro, small, or medium-sized enterprises (MSMEs). MSMEs are more vulnerable to market shocks and market disruptions. For women-owned MSMEs this is often compounded by their lack of access to credit and financial liquidity compared to larger businesses. However, MSMEs are often more vulnerable to market shocks and market disruptions. For women-owned MSMEs, this is often compounded by their lack of access to credit and financial liquidity compared to larger businesses .

Paid and unpaid
Paid and unpaid work are also closely related with formal and informal labour. Some informal work is unpaid, or paid under the table. Unpaid work can be work that is done at home to sustain a family, like child care work, or actual habitual daily labour that is not monetarily rewarded, like working the fields. Unpaid workers have zero earnings, and although their work is valuable, it is hard to estimate its true value. The controversial debate still stands. Men and women tend to work in different areas of the economy, regardless of whether their work is paid or unpaid. Women focus on the service sector, while men focus on the industrial sector.

Unpaid work and gender
Women usually work fewer hours in income generating jobs than men do. Often it is housework that is unpaid. Worldwide, women and girls are responsible for a great amount of household work.

The Penguin Atlas of Women in the World, published in 2008, stated that in Madagascar, women spend 20 hours per week on housework, while men spend only two. In Mexico, women spend 33 hours and men spend 5 hours. In Mongolia the housework hours amount to 27 and 12 for women and men respectively. In Spain, women spend 26 hours on housework and men spend 4 hours. Only in the Netherlands do men spend 10% more time than women do on activities within the home or for the household.

The Penguin Atlas of Women in the World also stated that in developing countries, women and girls spend a significant amount of time fetching water for the week, while men do not. For example, in Malawi women spend 6.3 hours per week fetching water, while men spend 43 minutes. Girls in Malawi spend 3.3 hours per week fetching water, and boys spend 1.1 hours. Even if women and men both spend time on household work and other unpaid activities, this work is also gendered.

Sick leave and gender
In the United Kingdom in 2014, two-thirds of workers on long-term sick leave were women, despite women only constituting half of the workforce, even after excluding maternity leave.

Globalisation of the labour market
The global supply of labor almost doubled in absolute numbers between the 1980s and early 2000s, with half of that growth coming from Asia. At the same time, the rate at which new workers entered the workforce in the Western world began to decline. The growing pool of global labor is accessed by employers in more advanced economies through various methods, including imports of goods, offshoring of production, and immigration. Global labor arbitrage, the practice of accessing the lowest-cost workers from all parts of the world, is partly a result of this enormous growth in the workforce. While most of the absolute increase in this global labor supply consisted of less-educated workers (those without higher education), the relative supply of workers with higher education increased by about 50 percent during the same period. From 1980 to 2010, the global workforce grew from 1.2 to 2.9 billion people. According to a 2012 report by the McKinsey Global Institute, this was caused mostly by developing nations, where there was a "farm to factory" transition. Non-farming jobs grew from 54 percent in 1980 to almost 73 percent in 2010. This industrialization took an estimated 620 million people out of poverty and contributed to the economic development of China, India and others. Under the "old" international division of labor, until around 1970, underdeveloped areas were incorporated into the world economy principally as suppliers of minerals and agricultural commodities. However, as developing economies are merged into the world economy, more production takes place in these economies. This has led to a trend of transference, or what is also known as the "global industrial shift ", in which production processes are relocated from developed countries (such as the US, European countries, and Japan) to developing countries in Asia (such as China, Vietnam, and India), Mexico and Central America. This is because companies search for the cheapest locations to manufacture and assemble components, so low-cost labor-intensive parts of the manufacturing process are shifted to the developing world where costs are substantially lower.

But not only manufacturing processes are shifted to the developing world. The growth of offshore outsourcing of IT-enabled services (such as offshore custom software development and business process outsourcing) is linked to the availability of large amounts of reliable and affordable communication infrastructure following the telecommunication and Internet expansion of the late 1990s.

title: Workforce


text:
PS Waverley

PS Waverley is the last seagoing passenger-carrying paddle steamer in the world. Built in 1946, she sailed from Craigendoran on the Firth of Clyde to Arrochar on Loch Long until 1973. Bought by the Paddle Steamer Preservation Society (PSPS), she has been restored to her 1947 appearance and now operates passenger excursions around the British coast.

Since 2003, Waverley has been listed in the National Historic Fleet by National Historic Ships UK as "a vessel of pre-eminent national importance".

History
PS Waverley is named after Sir Walter Scott's first novel. She was built for the London and North Eastern Railway (LNER) to replace a PS Waverley that was sunk in 1940 while helping to evacuate troops from Dunkirk. The new vessel was ordered from shipbuilders A. & J. Inglis of Glasgow, who laid the keel at their Pointhouse shipyard on 27 December 1945, Lady Matthews, wife of the Chairman of the LNER, launched the new 693 ton steamer on 2 October 1946. Fitting out proceeded, around the end of the year the ship was towed to Victoria Harbour in Greenock where Rankin & Blackmore installed the engine and coal-fired boiler they had manufactured. After sea trials in June 1947, Waverley entered service on 16 June, working the LNER's Firth of Clyde steamer route from Craigendoran Pier, near Helensburgh, up Loch Long to Lochgoilhead and Arrochar, joining the LNER Clyde paddle steamer fleet of PS Lucy Ashton, PS Jeanie Deans and Talisman. In her first year in service, she wore that company's red, white and black funnel colours. The 1948 nationalisation of Britain's railways brought their Scottish steamers into the Caledonian Steam Packet Company (CSP), a subsidiary of the Railway Executive. The funnels were repainted yellow with a black top. In 1965, a Scottish red lion rampant was fixed to each side of both funnels. Waverley's hull was painted monastral blue until 1970.

After a revival of fortunes in the 1950s, the 1960s saw a gradual change in holiday habits that led to a decline in passenger numbers and the closure of many of the small piers. Since 1969, and the formation of the Scottish Transport Group, the CSP had been gradually merging with the West Highland shipping and ferry company David MacBrayne Ltd. In 1973, the company became Caledonian MacBrayne Ltd (CalMac).

Restoration
CalMac withdrew Waverley after the 1973 season as she was too costly to operate and needed significant expenditure. By then, the Paddle Steamer Preservation Society had been set up as a registered UK charity and had bought the near-derelict small River Dart paddler PS Kingswear Castle. CalMac, keen to ensure that the ship was preserved, sold Waverley to the PSPS for the token sum of one pound. Neither side really believed that the vessel would return to steam but, just in case, Caledonian MacBrayne stipulated that she should not sail in competition with their remaining cruise vessel, TS Queen Mary.

A public appeal was launched to secure funding for the return of the Waverley to service and the fund-raising operation was successful. The PSPS found itself running a cruise ship operation, "Waverley Excursions". Since then, Waverley has been joined in the PSPS fleet by PS Kingswear Castle and MV Balmoral (1949) and has had a series of extensive refits and much restoration work, including a new boiler and improvements to meet modern safety standards. She has circumnavigated Great Britain and every year makes extensive sailings around the country.

Listed as part of the National Historic Fleet, between 2000 and 2003 the ship underwent a substantial rebuild and reboilering at the shipyard of George Prior at Great Yarmouth, funded principally by the Heritage Lottery Fund. The work, done in two stages, has added many 21st century safety and technological improvements and returned the ship to her original 1947 livery.

In 2009, the ship was affiliated with HMS Defender (D36), having hosted the official dignitary party at Defenders launch on the River Clyde. And in 2011 the ship was awarded the Institution of Mechanical Engineers 65th Engineering Heritage Award.

In 2019, Waverley was withdrawn from service due to boiler problems. An appeal was subsequently launched with a target of £2.3 million to recommission Waverley. It was announced on 11 July 2019 that new boilers had been ordered from Cochran Ltd.

Following the boiler replacement, Waverley returned to sea on 13 August 2020 for sea-trials, and resumed service for a short COVID-19-affected season starting on 22 August. This was cut short after she struck the pier at Brodick on 3 September, damaging her bow.

The following year Waverley started operating from 29 June but with limited passenger capacity due to COVID-19. The sailing season was described as a success, with a total of 52,000 passenger journeys, but shorter than normal as it only lasted until 19 September. A highlight for passengers and crew were the dolphins that could frequently be spotted as they accompanied Waverley on her sails up and down the Clyde.

Engine
Waverley is powered by a three-crank diagonal triple-expansion marine steam engine built by Rankin & Blackmore, Engineers, Eagle Foundry, Greenock, Scotland. It is rated at 2,100 IHP and achieved a trial speed of 18.37 kn at 57.8 rpm. Passengers can watch this engine from passageways on either side of the engine room.

The main crank is solidly attached to both paddle wheels so they cannot turn independently. The Waverley therefore has a much larger turning circle than modern ferries.

Appearance

Waverley has had several colour schemes in her life. At launch the paddle boxes were painted black, in 1959 they were changed to white, then returned to black but with white edges in 1972, then to all black in 1977. The two gold stripes along the hull were removed in 1954 but restored during the 2000 rebuild. Today, Waverley has the LNER 1947 livery of red, white and black funnels, traditional brown-grained (or "scumbled") superstructure and black paddle-wheel boxes, decorated with gold lettering on each side.

When launched Waverley had square windows on her sponsons, instead of the current portholes. For most of her life, the upper passenger cabins were painted white and had wooden doors; all have had layout improvements at some time in the ship's life. Sailing in all weathers in salt water can cause pale brown rust streaks to appear by the end of each season, so cosmetic painting and improvements are done annually as the ship is drydocked and inspected by the Department for Transport.

Since 1962, when PS Waverley's original funnels were renewed, replacement items had been slightly out of parallel due to their heavier welded steel construction. The problem was resolved in the 2000–03 refit and her two funnels are now parallel.

Lifeboat arrangements have varied depending on the legislation at the time. Between 1975 and 1980, there was only one traditional lifeboat on the rear deck.

Service
Waverley makes passenger excursions from various British ports, including ports in Northern Ireland. She regularly sails from Glasgow and other towns on the Firth of Clyde, the Thames, the South Coast of England and the Bristol Channel. She also undertakes private charters and has provided a period setting for television documentaries and movies, such as Sherlock Holmes: A Game of Shadows (2011).

Primarily during the summer she is based on the Clyde, operating excursions from Glasgow, Greenock, Largs or Ayr.

Typically her Clyde timetable ends at the end of August and Waverley spends 6 weeks between September and October cruising the Bristol Channel, the Solent and the Thames before returning to the Clyde for two sailings in October.

On 3 September 2020, Waverley collided with the Brodick Pier on the Isle of Arran, causing damage to the bow. Twenty-four people were injured. The ship was carrying 213 passengers and 26 crew, who were temporarily stranded on Arran. A Caledonian MacBrayne ferry, MV Caledonian Isles, made an unscheduled sailing to return them to the Scottish mainland later that evening.

During the 2021 season Waverley was unable to operate south of the Clyde owing to crew availability. 2022 marks the 75th anniversary of her maiden voyage and she was able to return to other parts of the British coast.

In 2023, during the ships sailing to the South Coast, Waverley and the steamship SS Shieldhall sailed side-by-side as the two vessels passed The Needles. The occasion of the two vessels with similar histories sailing together was met with great praise from guests on both vessels and garnered national attention for both vessels.

title: PS Waverley


text:
Tristram Cary

Tristram Ogilvie Cary, OAM (14 May 1925 – 24 April 2008), was a pioneering English-Australian composer. He was also active as a teacher and music critic.

Career
Cary was born in Oxford, England, and educated at the Dragon School in Oxford and Westminster School in London. He was the third son and child of a pianist and the Ulster-born novelist Joyce Cary, author of Mister Johnson. While working as a radar engineer for the Royal Navy during World War II, he independently developed his own conception of electronic and tape music, and is regarded as being amongst the earliest pioneers of these musical forms.

Following World War II, he created one of the first electronic music studios, later travelling around Europe to meet the small numbers of other early pioneers of electronic music and composition. He studied arts at the University of Oxford and went on to study composition, conducting, piano, viola and horn at Trinity College London.

With Peter Zinovieff and David Cockerell, he founded Electronic Music Studios (London) Ltd, which created the first commercially available portable synthesiser, the EMS VCS 3, and was then involved in the production of such distinctive EMS products as the EMS Synthi 100.

In 1967 he created an electronic music studio at the Royal College of Music. This led to an invitation from the University of Melbourne in 1973 for a lecture tour, which in turn led to an invitation to become the Visiting Composer at the University of Adelaide in 1974. He remained there as a lecturer until 1986. He also wrote music criticism for The Australian.

Musical works
His concert works of note include a Sonata for guitar (1959), Continuum for tape (1969), a cantata Peccata Mundi (1972), Contours and Densities at First Hill for orchestra (1972), a Nonet (1979), String Quartet No. 2 (1985) and The Dancing Girls for orchestra (1991).

Cary is also particularly well known for his film and television music. He wrote music for the science fiction television series Doctor Who (including the first Dalek story ), as well as the score for the Ealing comedy The Ladykillers (1955). Later film scores included The Boy Who Stole a Million (1960); The Prince and The Pauper (1962); Sammy Going South (1963); Quatermass and the Pit (1967) and Blood from the Mummy's Tomb (1971), both for Hammer. He also composed the score for the ABC TV animated version of A Christmas Carol. and the children's animated special Katya and the Nutcracker.

Cary was one of the first British composers to work in musique concrète. In 1967 he created the first electronic music studio of the Royal College of Music. He built another at his home in Fressingfield, Suffolk which he transported to Australia when he emigrated there, and incorporated it into the University of Adelaide where he worked as a lecturer until 1986.

He provided the visual design for the EMS VCS3 synthesizer.

Death
Cary died in Adelaide, South Australia, on 24 April 2008, aged 82.

Honours
Cary won the 1977 Albert H. Maggs Composition Award. He was awarded the Medal of the Order of Australia in 1991 in recognition of service to music. He also received the 2005 lifetime achievement award from the Adelaide Critics' Circle for his contribution to music in England and Australia.

Orchestral/Choral

 * Peccata Mundi for Chorus, Orchestra, Speaking voice, Four tracks of tape (1972/76),
 * Contours & Densities at First Hill – Fifteen Landscapes for Orchestra (1976)
 * The Dancing Girls Four Mobiles for Orchestra (1991)
 * Sevens Concertino for Yamaha Disklavier and Strings (1991)
 * Inside Stories for chamber orchestra and prerecorded CD (1993)
 * The Ladykillers Suite for Orchestra (1955/96)

Chamber/Solo

 * Sonata for Guitar Alone (1959)
 * Three Threes and One Make Ten Mixed decet (1961)
 * Narcissus for Flute and two tape recorders (1968)
 * Trios for VCS3 Synthesiser and two turntables (1971)
 * Romantic Interiors for violin, cello and tape (1973)
 * Family Conference for four clarinets (1981)
 * Seeds Mixed Quintet (1982)
 * String Quartet No.2 (1985)
 * Rivers Four percussionists and two tape recorders (1986)
 * Black, White & Rose Marimba and tape (1991)
 * Strange Places Piano solo (1992)
 * Messages Cello solo (1993)
 * Through Glass Piano and electronics (1998)

Vocal

 * Divertimento (1973) – for Olivetti machines, 16 singers and jazz drummer (1973) (10') Commissioned by Olivetti for the opening of a new training centre at Haslemere, England (designed by the world-famous architect James Stirling) as (a) part of a 'Venetian' concert conducted by Cary himself, and (b) the sound track of a film. Described by Cary as "friendly, undemanding music" which nevertheless he was nervous about performing, since the audience was composed of VIPs and included Yehudi Menuhin. The text of the piece consists of cardinal numbers in four languages. The performance: Premiered 21 June 1973 at Haslemere HQ of Olivetti, though the film version had already been previously recorded. Performed again in Adelaide 1974. Cary also extracted a piece from it without vocals – "Tracks from Divertimento" – in 1978. It is published on a disc – "Full Spectrum" (MOVE Records MS3027). The original Haslemere personnel were the Ambrosian Singers and Chris Karan (drums).
 * Two Nativity Songs from the Piae Cantiones (arr.) (1979)
 * I Am Here Soprano and Tape (1980)
 * Earth Hold Songs Soprano and Piano (1993)
 * Songs for Maid Marian Soprano, Piano (1959/98)

For analogue tape

 * Suite – the Japanese Fishermen (1955)
 * 4 5 – A Study in Limited Resources (1967)
 * Birth is Life is Power is Death is God is....(1967)
 * Continuum (1969)
 * Suite – Leviathan '99 (1972)
 * Steam Music (1978)

For computer

 * Nonet (1979)
 * Soft Walls (1980)
 * Trellises (1984)
 * The Impossible Piano (1994)

Films

 * The Ladykillers, Ealing Studios (1955)
 * Town on Trial, Columbia (1957)
 * Time Without Pity, Harlequin (1957)
 * The Flesh Is Weak (1957)
 * Tread Softly Stranger (1958)
 * She Didn't Say No! (1958)
 * The Little Island, Richard Williams (1958) (best experimental film, Venice 1958; best experimental film, British Film Academy 1959)
 * The Boy Who Stole a Million (dir. Charles Crichton) (1960)
 * The Prince and The Pauper (dir. Don Chaffey) (1962)
 * Sammy Going South, Michael Balcon (1963) (Royal Command Film Performance 1963)
 * The Silent Playground (1963)
 * EXPO 67 Montréal – All film soundtracks for Industrial Section, British Pavilion (1967)
 * A la Mesure de l'Homme, Canadian Government (1967)
 * Quatermass and the Pit, Hammer Films (1967)
 * A Twist of Sand, United Artists (1968)
 * Blood from the Mummy's Tomb, Hammer Films (1971)
 * A Christmas Carol, ABC Films (1972) (Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film)
 * The Fourth Wish, ABC (1976)
 * Katya and the Nutcracker: special arrangement of Tchaikovsky's Nutcracker Ballet for a 30' children's animated film (John Cary Films / Minotaur International)

Radio

 * The Children of Lir (Craig) (1959)
 * La Machine Infernale (Cocteau) (1960)
 * The End of Fear (Saurat) (1960)
 * King Lear (Shakespeare) (1960)
 * The Flight of the Wild Geese (Dillon) (1961)
 * The Ballad of Peckham Rye (Spark) (1962) Italia Prize
 * The Ha-Ha (Dawson) (1963)
 * The Rhyme of the Flying Bomb (Peake) (1964)
 * Leviathan '99 (Bradbury) (1968)

Television

 * Jane Eyre (Brontë) (1963)
 * The Daleks (Doctor Who serial) (1963) (also reused in The Rescue (1965), The Daleks' Master Plan (1966), The Ark (1966) & The Power of the Daleks (1966))
 * Madame Bovary (Flaubert) (1964)
 * The Ordeal of Richard Feverel (1964)
 * Marco Polo (Doctor Who serial) (1964)
 * Mill on the Floss (Eliot) (1964)
 * The Head Waiter (Mortimer) (1966)
 * The Daleks' Master Plan (Doctor Who serial) (1966) (also reused in The Power of the Daleks (1966))
 * The Gunfighters (Doctor Who serial) (1966)
 * The Paradise Makers (Winch) (1967)
 * The Million Pound Banknote (Twain) (1968)
 * Sinister Street (Mackenzie) (1969)
 * The Mutants (Doctor Who serial) (1972)

Theatre and miscellaneous

 * Macbeth Old Vic Theatre (1960)
 * Henry IV, Pt.I Old Vic Theatre (1961)
 * La Contessa (Druon, dir: Helpmann) (1965)
 * Die Ballade von Peckham Rye Salzburg Festival (1965)
 * Escalator Music and Centre Music EXPO 67, Montreal
 * Hamlet Theatre Roundabout, (1968)
 * Music for Light Olympia London (1968)
 * "H" (Wood) National Theatre (1969)
 * Echoes till Sunset – 3-hour open air entertainment, Adelaide Festival (1984)

Books

 * Dictionary of Musical Technology (1992) (also known as the Illustrated Compendium of Musical Technology)

Published references

 * Oliver, Michael. "Miscellany: Justin Connolly – Jonathan Harvey – Roger Smalley – Anthony Payne – Tristram Cary – Anthony Milner – Christopher Headington – Robin Holloway – David Ellis" in British Music Now: A Guide to the Work of Younger Composers, ed. Lewis Foreman, 1975. London: Paul Elek. ISBN 0-236-30933-1
 * The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians Macmillan 1980
 * The Grove Concise Dictionary of Music Macmillan 1988
 * New Oxford Companion to Music Oxford University Press 1983
 * The Oxford Companion to Australian Music Oxford University Press 1997
 * Dictionary of 20th Century Music Thames & Hudson 1974
 * Halliwell's Who's Who in the Movies HarperCollins (freq. reprinted)

title: Tristram Cary


text:
Inclosure Acts

The Inclosure Acts created legal property rights to land previously held in common in England and Wales, particularly open fields and common land. Between 1604 and 1914 over 5,200 individual acts enclosing public land were passed, affecting 28,000 km2.

History
Before the enclosures in England, a portion of the land was categorized as "common" or "waste". "Common" land was under the control of the lord of the manor, but certain rights on the land such as pasture, pannage, or estovers were held variously by certain nearby properties, or (occasionally) in gross by all manorial tenants. "Waste" was land without value as a farm strip – often very narrow areas (typically less than a yard wide) in awkward locations (such as cliff edges, or inconveniently shaped manorial borders), but also bare rock, and similar. "Waste" was not officially used by anyone, and so was often farmed by landless peasants.

The remaining land was organised into a large number of narrow strips, each tenant possessing a number of disparate strips throughout the manor, as would the manorial lord. Called the open-field system, it was administered by manorial courts, which exercised some collective control. What might now be termed a single field would have been divided under this system among the lord and his tenants; poorer peasants (serfs or copyholders, depending on the era) were allowed to live on the strips owned by the lord in return for cultivating his land. The system facilitated common grazing and crop rotation.

Any individual might possess several strips of land within the manor, often at some distance from one another. Seeking better financial returns, landowners looked for more efficient farming techniques. Enclosure acts for small areas had been passed sporadically since the 12th century, but advances in agricultural knowledge and technology in the 18th century made them more commonplace. Because tenants, or even copyholders, had legally enforceable rights on the land, substantial compensation was provided to extinguish them; thus many tenants were active supporters of enclosure, though it enabled landlords to force reluctant tenants to comply with the process.

With legal control of the land, landlords introduced innovations in methods of crop production, increasing profits and supporting the Agricultural Revolution; higher productivity also enabled landowners to justify higher rents for the people working the land. In 1801, the Inclosure (Consolidation) Act was passed to tidy up previous acts. In 1845, another General Inclosure Act instituted the appointment of Inclosure Commissioners, who could enclose land without submitting a request to Parliament.

The powers granted in the Inclosure Act 1773 of the Parliament of Great Britain were often abused by landowners: the preliminary meetings where enclosure was discussed, intended to be held in public, often took place in the presence of only the local landowners, who regularly chose their own solicitors, surveyors and commissioners to decide on each case. In 1786 there were still 250,000 independent landowners, but in the course of only thirty years their number was reduced to 32,000.

The tenants displaced by the process often left the countryside to work in the towns. This contributed to the Industrial Revolution – at the very moment new technological advances required large numbers of workers, a concentration of large numbers of people in need of work had emerged; the former country tenants and their descendants became workers in industrial factories within cities.

A poem from the 18th century reads as a protest against the inclosure acts:

They hang the man and flog the woman Who steals the goose from off the common Yet let the greater villain loose That steals the common from the goose.

The law demands that we atone When we take things we do not own But leaves the lords and ladies fine Who take things that are yours and mine.

The poor and wretched don't escape If they conspire the law to break This must be so but they endure Those who conspire to make the law.

The law locks up the man or woman Who steals the goose from off the common And geese will still a common lack Till they go and steal it back.

— Anonymous

List of acts

 * The Inclosure Act 1773 (13 Geo. 3. c. 81)

The Inclosure Acts 1845 to 1882 mean:
 * The Inclosure Act 1845 (8 & 9 Vict. c. 118)
 * The Inclosure Act 1846 (9 & 10 Vict. c. 70)
 * The Inclosure Act 1847 (10 & 11 Vict. c. 111)
 * The Inclosure Act 1848 (11 & 12 Vict. c. 99)
 * The Inclosure Act 1849 (12 & 13 Vict. c. 83)
 * The Inclosure Commissioners Act 1851 (14 & 15 Vict. c. 53)
 * The Inclosure Act 1852 (15 & 16 Vict. c. 79)
 * The Inclosure Act 1854 (17 & 18 Vict. c. 97)
 * The Inclosure Act 1857 (20 & 21 Vict. c. 31)
 * The Inclosure Act 1859 (22 & 23 Vict. c. 43)
 * The Inclosure, etc. Expenses Act 1868 (31 & 32 Vict. c. 89)
 * The Commons Act 1876 (39 & 40 Vict. c. 56)
 * The Commons (Expenses) Act 1878 (41 & 42 Vict. c. 56)
 * The Commons Act 1879 (42 & 43 Vict. c. 37)
 * The Commonable Rights Compensation Act 1882 (45 & 46 Vict. c. 15)

title: Inclosure Acts


text:
Twatt

Twatt may refer to:

 * Twatt, Orkney, Scotland
 * Twatt, Shetland, Scotland

title: Twatt


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Protecus

Delete this advertisement. Lupo 21:50, 25 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Yet Another Internet Forum. Delete. Ianb 21:55, 25 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Wikipedia is not a f'n web directory. Delete. -- Cyrius|✎ 00:43, 26 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Alexa traffic 154,453. Folks, a site has to be notable, and for the English Wikipedia, preferably in English.  Delete.  SWAdair | Talk  02:58, 26 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * An advert for a minor internet forum in German? This has no place in English language Wikipedia. Delete. Average Earthman 12:20, 26 Jul 2004 (UTC)


text:
User:Jengod/George M. Humphrey

George Magoffin Humphrey (March 8, 1890–January 20, 1970) was an American lawyer, businessman and Cabinet secretary.

Admitted to the Michigan State Bar in 1912, Mr. Humphrey had practiced law for five years in Saginaw, Michigan, with his father's firm. In 1917, he started an association with steel manufacturer M. A. Hanna and Company, that lasted 35 years.

As Secretary of the Treasury in the first Republican Administration in 20 years, Humphrey was, without question, one of the most influential of President Dwight D. Eisenhower's Cabinet members, and according to many, was the man most respected and trusted by the President.

Humphrey died in 1970 and is buried at Lake View Cemetery, Cleveland, Ohio.

title: User:Jengod/George M. Humphrey


text:
Talk:Leoš Janáček

Was Janacek a Czech or Moravian composer?
I am surprised to see the last undo and the note in the article that Janáček was a Czech composer and that this is supported by sources. So let me open a discussion on this issue, let's do this in a civil way and support our claims by suitable references. As I have no sources that I can quote I will not take a stand but I am willing to learn something new about my beloved composer. TomyDuby (talk) 21:11, 8 March 2011 (UTC)

 * Strictly speaking I suppose he was "Austrian" since in 1854, when he was born in Hukvaldy, the Czech Republic did not exist? But if Moravia could be considered more of a "country" than the Austrian Empire, in 1854, then I guess he could be more accurately be considered as "Moravian". But I would certainly give most weight to any sources which might indicate what nationality Janáček felt himself to be. 22:54, 8 March 2011 (UTC)
 * Thanks for starting the discussion. I'm one of the major contributors to the article, so here is the start of my explanation: Janáček's nationality is a sensitive topic, it was discussed widely on various forums and the article here was affected as well. In my opinion, we should follow the most authoritative sources/dictionaries of English, German and Czech musicology. The main sources are in my opinion: The New Grove Dictionary of Music, Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart ("MGG") and Československý hudební slovník (Czechoslovak Music Dictionary). I don't have access to Grove or MGG, but I own Czechoslovak Music Dictionary (1963). The book was created by the musicologists closely associated with Janáček and Brno: Gracián Černušák, Vladimír Helfert and Bohumír Štědroň. It is slightly out of date and contains errors, but it is still the most authoritative dictionary of Czech music, as far as I know (I noticed that some entries in Grove are almost identical translations of CMD). Leoš Janáček is labelled here as a Czech composer, organically integrated into the Czech musical tradition, together with Smetana and Dvořák the most original creator of Czech music. (... zůstává organicky začleněn do české hudební tradice a je vedle Smetany a Dvořáka nejmocnějším a nejpůvodnějším jejím tvůrcem). Recently I bought an old book containing memoirs of Janáček's contemporaries and collaborators, and one person (I can't remember the name but I'll find it out) explained in detail Janáček's approach to Czech/Moravian question. The result was clear: Janáček considered himself Czech composer, and he explained the matter simply, from linguistic point of view: Czechs and Moravians speak the same language, with minor variations (my vague recollection). I'll add proper citation/translation as soon as possible, the book is not in my hands right now. For further information see this link, but it is rather my personal opinion, not a sourced information. I read a lot about Janáček's life and music and I know about his Moravian roots and inspirations. In the article, I attempted to emphasize this in various sections. However, I'm not the only bearer of truth or a leading world's expert on Janáček and I'm willing to listen to reasonable arguments of others. --Vejvančický (talk | contribs) 08:59, 9 March 2011 (UTC)
 * Grove by the way begins its article on Janáček with the statement 'Czech composer'. It continues '[...]he is regarded not only as a Czech composer worthy to be ranked with Smetana and Dvořák, but also as one of the most substantial, original and immediately appealing opera composers of the 20th century. Janáček was born into the Czech cantor tradition [...]'.--Smerus (talk) 12:55, 9 March 2011 (UTC)

 * Janáček vzpíral se tomu, aby byl zván skladatelem moravským - prohlašoval se skladatelem českým. Plným právem. Jako jediná je česká mluva - tak také jest jediný náš jazyk v tónech po česku hovořící. Oba jazyky znají jen krajové odchylky - nářečí.
 * translation: Janáček refused to be called a Moravian composer, he claimed to be a Czech composer. With all justification. There's the only Czech speech and there the only language speaking in Czech in tones. Both the speech and the language know only regional variants - dialects.

 * The above mentioned (and loosely translated) quote is from the book Leoš Janáček. Vzpomínky, dokumenty, korespondence a studie, edited by Bohumír Štědroň and published by Editio Supraphon in 1986 (p. 137). It was originally published by Národní listy on 12 February, 1938. The author is Antonín Šilhan (1875-1952), Czech music critic, . Vejvančický (talk | contribs) 22:00, 10 March 2011 (UTC)

 * Re: your edit summary - yes, that's clear, and could be nearest to a contemporary, reliable source on the matter. Well found. Haploidavey (talk) 22:13, 10 March 2011 (UTC)

He was a Moravian. Obviously. He was born and lived his life in Moravia. Why should others cash in on his nationality (which in any case, if anything, was Austrian as Moravia was then Austrian Crown Land). 2A00:23C4:B617:7D01:1515:1B5E:86A6:731 (talk) 09:50, 21 June 2022 (UTC)

 * Janáček's letter to Karel Kovařovic from 9 February, 1904:

 * Žaluji jen, že bylo nespravedlivé odmítnouti Její pastorkyni. Žaluji si na to jako český skladatel, jemuž nechce se dopřáti sluchu.
 * translation: I complain that it was unfair to refuse Jenůfa. I complain as a Czech composer who is not heard. (Alt.: whose [pleas or compositions ?] aren't heard.)

 * Published in:

 * Vogel, Jaroslav (1997). Leoš Janáček. Prague: Academia (p. 58). (Czech). (First Czech edition: 1963, English: 1962, German: Alkor, Kassel, 1958)
 * Ort, Jiří (2005). Pozdní divoch. Láska a život Leoše Janáčka v operách a dopisech. Prague: Mladá fronta (p. 52). ISBN 80-204-1256-5. (Czech)
 * available online (without proper attribution): The International Festival Janáček Brno

 * I think the entry in Grove should be the most authoritative source for Wikipedia. Vejvančický (talk | contribs) 08:25, 11 March 2011 (UTC)

Phonetic Transcription of Name
The article says (first syllable stressed) but in the audio sample the stress seems clearly on the second syllable – ??? Dan ☺ 13:52, 10 March 2014 (UTC)
 * Despite the efforts of numerous BBC Radio 3 presenters, I've always assumed the correct pronunciation is as in the audio sample, with the second syllable stressed. (But then I do come from Newport, lol). Czech language tells us that: "The primary stress is always fixed to the first syllable of a stressed unit, which is usually identical to a word." (but with some exceptions). But the accent makes that /aː/ a long vowel, which thus takes the stress. Martinevans123 (talk) 14:23, 10 March 2014 (UTC)
 * Yes, it is correct, apart from the pronunciation at the end of this fantastic performance by BBC symphony and Pierre Boulez. --Vejvančický (talk / contribs) 16:08, 10 March 2014 (UTC)

 * There's a difference between Janaček and Janáček, that has nothing to do with whether the first syllable is stressed or not. The first syllable is stressed in both words.  In Janaček, the second syllable is more like a schwa (ə), while in Janáček it's more like -ah-.  But just because the vowel is lengthened in the 2nd case, does not mean it is stressed.  --   Jack of Oz   [pleasantries]  20:17, 10 March 2014 (UTC)

 * I'd agree that, in principle, stress and length are not the same thing. But you'd need someone more expert than me to demonstrate that. In my view the audio samples are correct. It's a matter of how that pronunciation is shown by means of the phonetic transcription. Perhaps you could advise? Martinevans123 (talk) 21:37, 10 March 2014 (UTC)

In the audio file, both the first and second syllables seem to have roughly equal stress to me. For what it's worth, It probably would have been [jaˈnaːtʃɛk] in his local dialect. – filelakeshoe (t / c)   09:40, 3 October 2017 (UTC)

I am sure the first syllable is stressed, while the second has a long vowel. In Czech, word stress and vowel length are two quite different and distinct things. The stressed 'Ja-' is marked with a slightly higher pitch. This is Czech, not Italian!... 153.19.31.79 (talk) Wojciech Żełaniec

In the first audio sample (female voice) the stress is clearly on the first (short) syllable, whereas the second syllable is long and unstressed. The standard Czech pronunciation is definitely [ˈlɛoʃ ˈjanaːt͡ʃɛk] (fixed first-syllable stress). However there are some Czech-Silesian dialects with the fixed penult stress (like in Polish). It may be the case of the dialect spoken in Janáček's native Hukvaldy, but most Czechs pronounce Janáček's last name "normally" with stress on the first syllable. Bibulus (talk) 07:28, 11 June 2019 (UTC)

In the both pronunciations, in this great musician's surname, I discern the stress clearly on the second syllable; i.e. I hear it as [jaˈnaːtʃɛk] not [ˈjanaːtʃɛk]. Besides this, I have heard it many times with a strong stress on the second syllable. Please check out this website too. Is here also the issue of long and short vowels discussed in Czech, as has been mentioned above? In this case, I have no Czech phonological knowledge. – Hamid Hassani (talk) 11:23, 28 September 2023 (UTC)

 * Yes, the first pronunciation on that website clearly has the accent on the first syllable - distinguished by pitch - and a long vowel in the second. The audio file used here is less clear. This is all explained in the Tyrell ref given next to the pronunciation. See also Czech language. – filelakeshoe (t / c) 🐱 14:04, 13 January 2024 (UTC)
 * The Tyrrell book seems to be available for preview online. Thanks. Martinevans123 (talk) 14:24, 13 January 2024 (UTC)

Ordering of sections
I wonder if anyone else feels, as I do, that sections 4 through 6 are perhaps out of order. I'm hesitant to make a change unless there is a consensus. It seems in particular that sections 4 and 6 fall in the wrong order; shouldn't inspiration precede legacy? I think, too, that section 5 is unduly prominent, especially in view of the fact that these criticisms look rather misguided when we consider current estimations of this composer. I feel a more natural order would be 4 -- Inspiration, 5 -- Legacy, 6 -- Criticism. Ishboyfay (talk) 00:07, 2 February 2018 (UTC)

 * Your proposal makes sense, Ishboyfay. As an editor who worked significantly on the article in the past, I agree with the sections reordering. --Vejvančický (talk / contribs) 09:44, 4 February 2018 (UTC)

 * OK, I've done it. Ishboyfay (talk) 22:49, 8 February 2018 (UTC)

Citation 42
Hey, so I don't know how to properly add links here, but citation 42 is listed as a dead link and I found it on the Wayback Machine. https://web.archive.org/web/20130613153353/http://www.leosjanacek.com/glagolitic.htm — Preceding unsigned comment added by CSU150-HistoryIntern (talk • contribs) 06:09, 27 February 2020 (UTC)

IPA error?
Am I not understanding something, or does the IPA pronunciation shown here, incorrectly show the accent on the first syllable of Janáček instead of on the second syllable? Bhami (talk) 20:52, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

 * This matter is fully discussed under 'Phonetic Transcription of Name' above. Geierstein41 (talk) 19:22, 23 August 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Leoš Janáček


text:
Civilization III: Conquests

Civilization III: Conquests is the second and final expansion pack for the video game Civilization III (2001), first released in 2003. Like the first expansion pack, Play the World, it added eight more playable civilizations, introduced new gameplay concepts, and added two new types of government.

List of features and concepts

 * Seven new civilizations: Byzantines, the Dutch, the Hittites, the Incans, the Mayans, the Portuguese and the Sumerians (plus the Austrians through an editor). The total number of playable civilizations rose to 31 total, the maximum supported by the game engine.
 * Two special "civilization traits" were added: seafaring and agricultural. Some of the original civilizations had their traits changed for this release; the English were changed from Expansionist/Commercial to Seafaring/Commercial.
 * Two new government types were added: Feudalism and Fascism
 * New bonus resources, types of terrain, and buildings (Wonders of the World) were added.

A new feature introduced was called scenarios, which were intended for multiplayer gaming. The scenarios are shorter than the main game, take less time to finish, and mainly focus on a specific period in history.

Nine "Conquests," or scenarios, were added to this game. They were: Mesopotamia, the Rise of Rome, the Fall of Rome, the Middle Ages in Europe, Mesoamerica, the Age of Discovery, the Napoleonic Wars, the Sengoku period in Japan, and the Pacific Theater of World War II.

Conquests was the second and final expansion. In 2004, Civilization III: Complete was released, compiling the base game and both expansions into one package.

Reception
Civilization III: Conquests was a runner-up for Computer Games Magazine's "Expansion of the Year" award, which ultimately went to EverQuest: Lost Dungeons of Norrath.

title: Civilization III: Conquests


text:
Murdoch Mackay

Murdoch Mackay (April 30, 1884 – December 18, 1962) was a Manitoba politician. He led the Manitoba Liberal Party from 1931 to 1932, and brought the party into an alliance with John Bracken's Progressives.

Biography
Mackay was born on Boularderie Island, Nova Scotia, the son of John Mackay and Anna MacAulay. He subsequently moved to Manitoba, and was elected to the provincial legislature in the general election of 1927. A Liberal, Mackay defeated Progressive incumbent Clifford Barclay by 18 votes in the riding of Springfield.

The provincial Liberals fared poorly in this election, winning only seven seats in a 55-member legislature. Party leader Hugh Robson stepped down in 1930. After a brief period in which James Breakey led the parliamentary caucus, Mackay was chosen over Fred C. Hamilton as party leader in 1931.

MacKay brought the Manitoba Liberals into an alliance with the governing Progressives in 1932. By this time, the Liberals and Progressives of Manitoba were already co-operating at the federal level; national Liberal leader William Lyon Mackenzie King wanted the same alliance at the provincial level to prevent a Conservative victory in the next election. The Liberals joined the government in early 1932, and two members of the party were brought into cabinet. Mackay himself was made a Minister without Portfolio on May 27, 1932.

His term in office was brief. The united "Liberal-Progressives" easily defeated the Conservatives in the election, but Mackay was defeated by Barclay (now running as an "Independent Farmer-Labour" candidate) in Springfield. He resigned from cabinet, and left provincial politics. Mackay attempted a comeback in 1945, but lost to CCF candidate George Olive by over one thousand votes.

As well as being a politician, MacKay was known by many as a prominent local physician in the town of Transcona, with a reputation for kindness and a great sense of humour. He graduated from Manitoba Medical School in 1916 and married Ruby Gowland the following year. They had four daughters who all graduated from the University of Manitoba. Throughout his career, MacKay was well known for his compassion - accepting food from patients that could not afford to pay upfront. He remains a community hero and his commitment to the Transcona area was honoured in his 2005 nomination as "The Greatest Transconian".

MacKay died at Saint Boniface Hospital in Winnipeg on December 18, 1962, and was buried at Transcona Cemetery.

MacKay had a great love of learning and, as such, Murdoch MacKay Collegiate, a high school in Winnipeg, was named in his honour in 1964.

title: Murdoch Mackay