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Khatri

Khatri is a caste originating from the Malwa and Majha areas of Punjab region of South Asia that is predominantly found in India, but also in Pakistan and Afghanistan. The Khatris claim they are warriors who took to trade. In the Indian subcontinent, they were mostly engaged in mercantile professions such as banking and trade. They were the dominant commercial and financial administration class of late-medieval India. Some in Punjab often belonged to hereditary agriculturalist land-holding lineages, while others were engaged in artisanal occupations such as silk production and weaving.

Khatris of Punjab, specifically, were scribes and traders during the medieval period, with the Gurumukhi script used in writing the Punjabi language deriving from a standardised form of the Lāṇḍa script used by Khatri traders; the invention of the script is traditionally ascribed to Guru Angad. During the medieval period, with the rise of Persian as an elite vernacular due to Islamic rule, some of the traditional high status upper-caste literate elite such as the Khatris, Kashmiri Brahmins and Kayasthas took readily to learning Persian from the times of Sikandar Lodi onwards and found ready employment in the Imperial Services, specifically in the departments of accountancy (siyaq), draftsmanship (insha) and offices of the revenue minister (diwan).

In the 15th century, the Sikh religion was founded by Guru Nanak, a Bedi Khatri. The second guru, Guru Angad was a Trehan Khatri. The third guru, Guru Amar Das was a Bhalla Khatri. The fourth through tenth gurus were all Sodhi Khatris. During the Sikh Empire, many Khatris formed the military vanguard of the Khalsa Army and its administrative class as Dewans of all the provinces. Hari Singh Nalwa, the commander-in-chief of the Sikh Khalsa Army, was an Uppal Khatri and responsible for most of the Sikh conquests up until the Khyber pass. Others such as Mokham Chand commanded the Sikh Army against the Durrani Empire at Attock while those such as Sawan Mal Chopra ruled Multan after wrestling it from the Afghans.

During the British colonial era, they also served as lawyers and engaged in administrative jobs in the colonial bureaucracy. Some of them served in the British Indian army after being raised as Sikhs.

During the Partition of British India in 1947, Khatris migrated enmasse to India from the regions that comprise modern-day Pakistan. Hindu Afghans and Sikh Afghans are predominantly of Khatri and Arora origin.

Khatris have played an active role in the Indian Armed Forces since 1947, with many heading it as the Chief of Army or Admiral of the Navy. Some such as Vikram Batra and Arun Khetarpal have won India's highest wartime gallantry award, the Param Vir Chakra.

Etymology
The word khatri, in the Hindi Language, comes from the Sanskrit "kshatriya", according to the Śabdasāgara Lexicon by Shyamasundara Dasa. According to B. N. Puri, philologists agree that the terms "khatri" and "kshatriya" are synonymous. The Sanskrit conjunct ksha (क्ष) turns into the Prakrit kha (ख), as per the grammarian Vararuchi. This change is not only accepted in Prakrit, but in all Indian vernaculars derived by it, such as Gujarati, Urdu, Gurumukhi as well as Farsi or Persian. Certain Sanskrit words have very close counterparts, such as: kshetra (kheta), kshama (khama), laksha (lakha), and iksha (ikha). The substituition of ri (ऋ) from riya is also seen, in the context of Hindi. Hence the change from kshatriya to khatri is in consonance with the Prakrit rule and Hindi usage. The same is also testified by scholars R. G. Bhandarkar and Shapurji Edalji.

As per historian W. H. McLeod and Louis Fenech, Khatri is a Punjabi form of the word Kshatriya. Peter Hardy and A. R. Desai also agree that Khatri is derived from Kshatriya. Despite the etymology, Hardy says that Khatri is "a mercantile class" and Desai says the Khatris were "traditionally tradesmen and government officials". Dr. Dharamvir Bharati comments that in Punjabi language, Kshatriya is pronounced as Khatri. As per Dr. GS Mansukhani and RC Dogra, "Khatri appears to be unquestionably a Prakritised form of Sanskrit word Kshatriya." According to philologist Ralph Lilley Turner, the Punjabi word "khattrī", meaning "warrior", derives from Sanskrit "kṣatriya", whereas the Gujarati word "khātrī", meaning "a caste of Hindu weavers", derives from Sanskrit "kṣattr̥", meaning "carver, distributor".

John Stratton Hawley and Mann clarify that although the word "Khatri" derives from the word "Kshatriya", in Punjab's context Khatri refers to a "cluster of merchant castes including Bedis, Bhallas and Sodhis". Purnima Dhavan sees the claim as originating from a conflation of the phonetically similar words khatri and kshatriya, but refers to Khatris as a "trading caste" of the Sikh Gurus.

Early history
Baij Nath Puri mentions that the modern descendants of these Kathaiois, Khathrois & Khatriaoi tribes mentioned by the Greeks in West Punjab are the Khatris of India. According to S. Sasikanta Sastri, Greek historians have mentioned that Alexander faced stiffed resistance from Indian army of "Kathiyo" warriors. Sastri further adds that "even in present day modern-India, a group of martial caste members called Khati (Khatri) exist in North-India". Michael Witzel, writing in his paper "Sanskritization of the Kuru State" states the Kathaiois were Kaṭha Brahmins.

Trans-regional trading history
The Khatris played an important role in India's trans-regional trade during the period, being described by Levi as among the "most important merchant communities of early modern India." Levi writes: "Stephen Dale locates Khatris in Astrakhan, Russia during the late 17th century and, in the 1830s, Elphinstone, was informed that Khatris were still highly involved in northwest India's trade and that they maintained communities throughout Afghanistan and as far away as Astrakhan". According to Kiran Datar, they often married Tatar local women in Astrakhan and the children from these marriages were known as Agrijan. As per Stephen Dale, the children born out of Indo-Turkic alliance were in sufficient number to form an Agrizhan suburb in the city.

Historian Stephen Dale states that most of the 10,000 (as estimated by Jean Chardin) Indian merchants and money-lenders in Isfahan (Iran) in 1670, belonged to the Khatri caste of Punjab and north-west India. In Iran's Bazaar's, Khatris sold cloth and various items and also practised money-lending. Dale believes that Khatris had possibly been travelling from Punjab via caravans since the era of Ziauddin Barani (around 1300 AD). Chardin specifically stereotyped and expressed disapproval of the money-lending techniques of the Khatri community. According to Dale, this racist criticism was ironic given Chardin's non-English background but adds that it was Chardin's way of giving an "ethnic explanation" to the economic disparity between Iran and India at that time.

Sikh theology
According to Bichitra Natak, traditionally said to be the autobiography of the last Sikh Guru, Gobind Singh, but possibly not so, the Bedi sub-caste of the Khatris derives its lineage from Kush, the son of Rama (according to Hindu epic Ramayana). Similarly, according to the same legend, the Sodhi sub-caste claims descent from Lav, the other son of Rama.

In Guru Granth Sahib, the primary scripture of Sikhism, Khatri is mentioned as one among the four varnas.

"ਖਤ੍ਰੀ ਬ੍ਰਾਹਮਣ ਸੂਦ ਵੈਸ ਉਪਦੇਸੁ ਚਹੁ ਵਰਨਾ ਕਉ ਸਾਝਾ ॥ (SGGS, ang 747) Khatri brahman sud vais updesu cahu varna ku sanjha Kshatriyas, Brahmins, Shudras and Vaishyas all have the same mandate"

Guru Gobind Singh, said the following in a swayya:

"Chattri ko poot ho, Baman ko naheen kayee tap aavat ha jo karon; Ar aur janjaar jito greh ko tohe tyaag, kahan chit taan mai dharon, Ab reejh ke deh vahey humko jo-oo, hau binti kar jor karoon ; Jab aao ki audh nidaan bane, att hi ran main tab jujh maroon. I am the son of a Chhatri (Khatri), not of a Brahmin and I will live according to my Dharma. All other complications of life are meaningless for me, and I set my heart on the path of righteousness. I humbly beseech thee God Almighty that when the time comes for me to fulfill my Dharma, may I die with honour in the field of battle."

Before partition
French traveller Thevenot visited India during the 1600s where he commented "At Multan, there is another sort of gentiles whom they call Catry, the town is properly their country and from thence they spread all over the Indies." According to Dr. Madhu Tyagi, Thevenot is referring to Hindu Khatri caste here.

The last caste-based census was conducted by the British in 1931 which regarded Khatri and Arora as a different caste. During 1931, Khatris were prominent in the West Punjab and North-Western Frontier Province (NWFP), which is now known as Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK). The Khatris spoke Hindko and Potohari language. Highest percentage concentration of Khatris (excluding Aroras) were in Potohar regions of Jhelum and Rawalpindi. In NWFP, the Khatris were found mainly in Peshawer and Hazara.

Arora-Khatris were centered in Multan and Derajat regions of Punjab and NWFP. In the NWFP, the Aroras which are considered a sub-caste of Khatris by some scholars were concentrated in the districts of Bannu, Kohat and Dera Ismail Khan. The Aroras spoke Jatki language which is the 9th century version of Saraiki (Multani) according to Ibbetson.

They were also found in Afghanistan at a population of 300,000 in 1880. According to an 1800s colonial source referred by Shah Hanifi, "Hindki is the name given to Hindus who live in Afghanistan. They are Hindus of Khatri class and are found all over Afghanistan even amongst the wildest tribes. They are wholly occupied in trade and form numerous portion of the population of all the cities and towns, and are also to be found in the majority of large villages."

After partition
Apart from Punjab, Khatris arrived in Delhi and Haryana among other regions after the partition where they make up 9% and 8.0% of the population respectively.

Clan organisation
Historically, Khatris were divided into various hierarchal endogamous sections. This includes urhai/dhai ghar, char ghar, barah ghar/bahri and bunjayee or bavanjah ghar which translated to House of 2.5, 4, 12 and 52 respectively. They formed the majority of Khatris and were deemed superior. This was followed by Sareen Khatris who formed a minority. Another sub-group of Khatris include Khukhrain which had split up from the bunjayees.

Medieval history
Emperor Jahangir in his autobiography Jahangirnama while talking about the castes, he observed "The second highest caste (after Brahmins in the caste system) is the Chhatri which is also known as Khattri. The Chhatri caste's purpose is to protect the oppressed from the aggression of the oppressors".

Benares
According to scholars, the Khatri Hindus dominated the weaving industry in Benaras. When the first caravan of Muslim weavers arrived in Benaras, the Khatri, who were considered low-caste Hindus at the time, helped them. The Muslims had to depend on the Khatri weavers because the Muslims found it difficult to interact with the high-caste Hindus directly at the time. Since these new immigrant Muslims were cheap labour, the Khatris took over marketing and thus transited from weavers to traders over time. The Muslims, who learned the technique of weaving from them, soon came to be known as Chira-i-Baaf or 'fine cloth weavers'.

Bengal
In Bengal, Burdwan Raj (1657–1955) was a Khatri dynasty, which gained a high social position for Khatris in the region resulting in greater migration of Khatris from North to Bengal. When Guru Tegh Bahadur visited Bengal in 1666, he was welcomed by the local Khatris, thereby supporting earlier waves of migration of Khatris to Bengal as well.

Punjab
Historian Muzaffar Alam describes the Khatris of Punjab as a "scribe and trading caste". They occupied positions in revenue collection and record keeping and learnt Persian during Mughal era. However, this profession often created conflicts with the Brahmin scribes who discontinued the use of Persian and started using Marathi in the Deccan. According to McLane, them being a trading group, had spread into many parts of India, possibly long before the 1700s and to Bengal, possibly even before the Mughals arrived.

According to a 17th-century legend, Khatris continued their military service until the time of Aurangzeb, when their mass death during the emperor's Deccan Campaign caused him to order their widows to be remarried. The order was made out of sympathy for the widows but when the Khatri community leaders refused to obey it, Aurangzeb terminated their military service and said that they should be shopkeepers and brokers. This legend is probably fanciful: McLane notes that a more likely explanation for their revised position was that a Sikh rebellion against the Mughals in the early 1700s severely compromised the Khatri's ability to trade and forced them to take sides. Those who were primarily dependent on the Mughals went to significant lengths to assert that allegiance in the face of accusations that they were in fact favouring "Jat Sikh followers of the rebel leader, Banda". The outcome of their assertions - which included providing financial support to the Mughals and shaving their beards - was that the Khatris became still more important to the Mughal rulers as administrators at various levels, in particular because of their skills in financial management and their connections with bankers.

Khatri standards of literacy and caste status were such during the early years of Sikhism that, according to W. H. McLeod, they dominated it.

Gujarat
Historian Douglas E. Hanes states that the Khatri weavers in Gujarat trace their ancestry to either Champaner (Panch Mahals District) or Hinglaj (Sindh) and the community genealogists believe that the migration happened during the late sixteenth' century.

Suraiya Faroqhi, writes that, in 1742 Gujarat, the Khatris had protested the immigration of Muslim weavers by refusing to deliver cloth to the East India Company. In another case Khatris taught weaving to Kunbis due to receiving excessive orders who soon became strong competitors to the Khatris much to their chagrin. In the mid-1770s, the Mughal governor granted the Kunbi rivals rights to manufacture saris. This licence was later revoked in 1800 due to pressure from the British, after a deal was struck between the Khatris and the East India Company, in which the Khatris would weave only for the EIC until certain quotas were met.

The Gujarat Sultanate (1407–1523) was a medieval Muslim dynasty founded by Zafar Khan Muzaffar, a member of the Tank caste of Punjabi Khatris according to the contemporary historian Shiekh Sikander or Rajputs. He started as a menial but rose to the level of a noble in the Delhi Sultan's family and became the Governor of Gujrat. After Timur attacked the city, people fled to Gujarat and it became independent.

Afghanistan
According to historians Roger Ballard and Harjot Oberoi, Afghan Hindus and Sikhs descend from the members of the country's indigenous Khatri population who resisted the conversion from Buddhism to Islam between 9th and 13th centuries. Later, they aligned themselves to the teachings of Guru Nanak, himself a Khatri and converted to Sikhism. Hence, Khatris of Afghanistan are in no way of "Indian origin" but are components of the original population of the region. George Campbell says "I do not know the exact limits of Khatri occupation to the West, but certainly in all Eastern Afghanistan they seem to be just as much part of the community as they are in the Punjab. They find their way into Central Asia."

Sikh Empire
The Khatris took on a prominent role in the emerging Sikh milieu of post-Mughal Punjab. According to the Khalsa Durbar Records, Maharaja Ranjit Singh's army was composed of majorly Jats followed by Khatris. Sardar Gulab Singh Khatri founded the Dallewallia Misl, an independent 18th century Sikh sovereign state in Ludhiana and Jalandhar district that would later on join Maharaja Ranjit Singh's kingdom. In the Sikh Empire, Hari Singh Nalwa (1791–1837) an Uppal Khatri from Gujranwala, became the Commander-in-chief of the Sikh Khalsa Army. He led the Sikh conquests of Kasur, Sialkot, Attock, Multan, Kashmir, Peshawar and Jamrud. He was responsible for expanding the frontier of Sikh Empire to beyond the Indus River, up to the mouth of the Khyber Pass. At the time of his death, the western boundary of the empire was Jamrud.

Dewan Mokham Chand (1750-1814) became one of the most distinguished leaders of the Khalsa Army. He was the commander in chief of armies in Battle of Attock which defeated Durrani Empire Wazir Fateh Khan and Dost Mohammad Khan Other Khatris like Diwan Sawan Mal Chopra served as governors of Lahore and Multan, after helping conquer the region while his son Diwan Mulraj Chopra, (1814-1851) the last Punjabi ruler of Multan led a Sikh rebellion against British suzerainty over Multan after the fall of the Sikh Empire in the Anglo-Sikh Wars. He was arrested after the Siege of Multan and put to death.

Purnima Dhawan described that together with Jat community, the Khatris gained considerably from the expansion of the Mughal empire, although both groups supported Guru Hargobind in his campaign for Sikh self-government in the Punjab plains.

In the 1830s, Khatris were working as governors in the districts like Bardhaman, Lahore, Multan, Peshawar and Hazara, but independent from the Mughal rule.

Punjab
In Punjab, they were moneylenders, shopkeepers and grain-dealers among other professions.

Hyderabad
A Peshkari Khatri family in Hyderabad State would become part of the Hyderabadi nobility and occupy the post of Prime Minister of Hyderabad. Notable individuals of the family include Maharaja Kishen Prasad, GCIE who would serve as Prime Minister of the State twice. In Hyderabad, around the mid-20th century, Khatris and Padmasalis were the leading "Hindu weaving castes" who owned 43% of the looms. The Khatris specialised in silk, while the Padmasalis in cotton weaving.

Gujarat
In Gujarat, during the colonial rule, Khatris contributed greatly to the weaving industry there. They as well as the Muslim and Kunbi weavers purchased imported yarn in the 1840s. In Mandvi, the silk products were highly valued and the Khatri dyers would work in the pits on the bank of the river Rukmavati because the water was supposed to have special properties to give steadfast colours. These products were often exported to east Africa. In Dhamadka, Kutch, "block printing cloth" was the traditional occupation of the Khatri men since the seventeenth century.

Rajasthan
In the early 19th century, the Khatris, Bhatias and Lohanas were the main trading castes in Rajasthan, Delhi, Agra, Sind and Punjab. Banking, trading and business were considered "traditional occupations of the Khatri in Rajasthan".

Culture and lifestyle
According to Prakash Tandon, during Khatri weddings, a ritual is carried out to test the Khatri groom's strength. The groom is supposed to slice the thick branch or stem of a Jandi Tree (Prosopis cineraria) in one blow using a sword. During the pregnancy period of a female, a baby shower ceremony called "reetan" or "goadbharai" is carried out amongst Khatris and Aroras. During the event, gifts are showered to the pregnant mother from family and friends among other traditions.

Post-Independence
Harish Damodaran says the rise of Khatri industrialists in post-1947 India was a consequence initially of the cataclysmic Partition, which pushed them in droves towards Delhi and its neighbourhoods. This exodus opened new opportunities for them. A combination of enterprise, articulation, and strategic closeness to the national capital— which, in itself, was becoming a major growth hub - created conditions for Khatri capital to flourish in the post-Partition period.

Damodaran adds that the land Khatris originally belonged to had very little industry and rail infrastructure until the 20th century and hence were not comparable to merchant groups like Banias in terms of scale and spread of operation. Before independence they were only regional players and their rise in phenomenal proportions was a post-independence feature. Since then, they have produced leading entities in fields of pharmaceuticals, two-wheelers, tractors, paper, tyre-making and hotels with the groups of Ranbaxy, Hero, Mahindra, Ballarpur Industries, Apollo Tyres and Oberoi respectively. They have also co-founded companies like Snapdeal, Hotmail, YesBank, IndiaToday, AajTak, IndiGo Airlines, Sun Microsystems, Max Group etc.

Punjabi Khatris and others, together with the traditionally "urban and professional" castes, formed a part of the elite middle class immediately after independence in 1947. According to P. K. Verma, "Education was a common thread that bound together this pan Indian elite" and almost all the members of these upper castes communities could read and write English and were educated beyond school.

Delhi NCR
Delhi's population increased by 1.1 million in the period 1941–1951. This growth of 106% largely resulted from the influx of Partition migrants among other reasons. These were members of the Hindu and Sikh Khatri/Arora castes of the West Punjab. Many moved to the city for better economic opportunities.

Haryana
During 1947, Punjabis who migrated to Haryana during Partition were mostly Khatris or Aroras. As per a survey conducted by Maharishi Dayanand University, the migrant population were forced to live in camps under open sky. Only a meager 5% received "grossly undervalued claims against their properties in shape of very poorly cultivable land, while remaining 95% though entitled for compensation could not get any thing to sustain". This migrant population is also referred to as ‘refugee’ and ‘sharnarthi’ (शरणार्थी) in a derogatory manner by some locals. A Punjabi organisation had approached the Haryana government with a demand to ban both words and to enact a law on the lines of the SC/ST Act with similar penalties. The community has a high literacy rate and are not dependent on money-lending and shopkeeping. They are engaged as doctors, engineers, administrators etc.

Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh
Khatris of Kashmir, also known as "Bohras" were traders and had the second largest Hindu population after the Pandits. Many of these Khatris had to face the brunt of 1990 Kashmiri Hindu Exodus. Khatris of Himachal Pradesh are numerically most important commercial classes are mostly concentrated in Mandi, Kangra and Chamba.

Maharashtra
Anthropologist Karve, based on the post-Independence research of castes by a in Konkan, Maharashtra, classified Marathi Khatris as one of the "professional/advanced castes" as they were doctors, engineers, clerks, lawyers, teachers, etc. during independence. She states that their traditional professions were silk weaving and working as merchants although they had entered other professions later. Khatris in modern Maharashtra are divided into endogamous subgroups, such as the Brahmo Khatris and Kapur Khatris.

Varna status
M. N. Srinivas states that Khatri made different Varna claims at different times in the Census of India before Independence. In 1911, they did not make any Varna claim, while in 1921 they made a claimed a Kshatriya status but later in 1931 they claimed a Vaishya status.

However, most scholars do not agree with the Khatris' claims to Kshatriya varna. They consider castes in north India, like Khatri and Kayastha to be merchant castes who claim higher status based on the educational and economic progress they made in the past.

According to Yang, the Khatris in the Saran district of Bihar, were included in the list of "Bania" along with Agarwals and Rastogis of the Vaishya Varna. According to Yang, their position in the Varna system should be "just below" the twice-born varnas. Jacob Copeman writes "Agarwal, Khatri, and Bania usually denote people of merchant-trader background of middling clean-caste status, often of Vaishya varna".

While some historians agree with the claim of Khatris to be of Kshatriya varna,      many others don not.  According to some historians, even though they participated in mercantile or other occupationally diverse professions such as Agriculture, they were originally Kshatriyas. In Indian historian Satish Chandra's opinion, certain castes like Khatris and Kayasthas "do not quite fit" in the Hindu Varna system. According to him, Khatris are neither Vaishyas nor Kshatriyas but are "par excellence traders".

The Saraswat Brahmins are the purohits of Khatris and accept gifts only from them. Jürgen Schaflechner cites the historian Rowe who states that such Saraswat Brahmins who were considered a low caste, formed a symbiotic relationship with Vaishya castes such as Khatris, Lohanas, etc. who were trying to raise their varna status - which in turn would benefit the Saraswats as well. For this purpose, certain religious texts were written during the British Raj era

Susan Bayly states that the Khatris had scribal traditions and despite that Khatri caste organisations in the British Raj era tried to portray their caste as Kshatriyas. Similar caste glorifying ideas were written by the historian Puri who describes Khatris as "one of the most acute, energetic, and remarkable race [sic] in India", "pure descendants of the old Vedic Kshatriyas" and "true representatives of the Aryan nobility". Puri also tried to show the Khatris as higher than the Rajputs whose blood he considered "impure", mixed with ‘inferior’ Kolis or ‘aborigines’. She considers his views to represent those of "pre-Independence race theorists". Bayly further describes the Khatris as a "caste title of north Indians with military and scribal traditions". Hardip Singh Syan says Khatris considered themselves to be of pure Vedic descent and thus superior to the Rajputs, who like them claim the Kshatriya status of the Hindu varna system.

Punjab
Historian Kenneth W. Jones states that the Khatris of Punjab had some justification in claiming Kshatriya status from the British government. However, the fact that this claim was not granted at the time showing their ambiguous position in the varna system. Although Jones also classifies Khatris as one of the Vaishya caste of Punjabi Hindus, he shows that their social status was higher than the Arora, Suds and Baniyas in the 19th century Punjab. He quotes Ibbetson who states that the Punjabi Khatris who held prominent military and civil posts were traditionally different from the Aroras, Suds or Baniyas who were rural, of low status and mostly commercial. Punjabi Khatris, on the other hand, were urban, usually prosperous and literate. Thus, the Khatris led the vaishyas in seeking a higher social position in the flexible Varna hierarchy based on their superior achievements. Similar social mobility efforts were followed by other Hindus in Punjab McLane also describes them as a "mercantile caste who claimed to be Kshatriyas". In the 19th century, British failed to agree whether their claim of Kshatriya status should be accepted. Nesfield and Campbell were leaning towards accepting this claim but Risley and Ibbetson cast doubts on it. McLane opines that the confusion was caused since Khatris pursued mercantile occupations and not military ones. However, he adds that this Vaishya occupation fact was balanced by their origin myths, the "possible" derivation of the word Khatri from Kshatriya, their large physical stature, the superior status accorded to them by other Punjabis as well as the willingness of the Saraswat Brahmins, their chaplains, to accept cooked food from them.

In the case of Sikh Khatris, their Kshatriya claim reflects a contradictory attitude towards the traditional Hindu caste system. It is evident in Guru Granth Sahib, which on the one hand rises above the Hindu caste paradigm and on the other hand seeks to portray the Khatri gurus as a group of warrior-defenders of their faith, just as with the Kshatriya varna.

Majority of the male members of the Arya Samaj in the late 19th century Punjab came from the Arora and Khatri merchant castes. In Punjab, the Kshatriya castes who were ritually higher than the Aroras and Khatris had been disempowered and thus the Brahmins who had lost their patrons had to turn to these non-Kshatriya castes. Christophe Jaffrelot explains the attraction of these trading castes to the Arya Samaj as a means of social mobility associated with their prosperity during the British rule. He cites N. G. Barrier to show that the philosophy of the Arya Samaj founder, Dayananda Saraswati, was responsible for the aspirations of these Vaishya castes from Punjab to higher status:

"Dayananda's claim that caste should be determined primarily by merit not birth, opened new paths of social mobility to educated Vaishyas who were trying to achieve social status commensurate with their improving economic status"

Rajasthan, Gujarat and Maharashtra
Dasharatha Sharma described Khatris of Rajasthan as a mixed pratiloma caste of low ritual status but they could be a mixed caste born of Kshatriya fathers and Brahmin mothers. Banking, trading, agriculture and service are traditional occupations of the Khatris in Rajasthan. The literacy rate is appreciably high among them.

Ashok Malik, former press secretary to the President of India, says that there were two groups of Khatris in Gujarat, that arrived right after the Mughal invasion and during the reign of Akbar respectively. The latter considered themselves superior to the former and they called themselves "Brahmakshatriyas" after arriving in Gujarat. When the older Khatri community of Gujarat started prospering, they also started calling themselves "Brahmakshatriya", causing the new Khatri community to panic and adopt the name "Nayar Brahmakshatriyas" for themselves. In addition, another community - the Gujarati Telis, considered an Other Backward Class (OBC) in India began to call themselves Khatris. Malik calls this as Sanskritization.

Historian Vijaya Gupchup from the University of Mumbai states that in Maharashtra, Brahmins showed resentment in the attempt by the Marathi Khatris or Koshti to elevate themselves from ritually low status to Kshatriya by taking advantage of the British neutrality towards castes. She quotes a translation from a Marathi publication that gave a Brahminic opinion of this attempt:

"Everyone does what he wants, Sonars have become Brahmins, Treemungalacharya was insulted by throwing cowdung at him in Pune, but he has no shame and still calls himself a Brahmin. Similarly a Khatri or Koshti who are included in Panchal at places other than Bombay, call themselves Kshatriya in Bombay and say their needles are the arrows and their thimbles are the sheaths. How surprising that those Sonars and Khatris at the hands of whom even Shudras will not take water have become Brahmins and Kshatriyas. In short day by day higher castes are disappearing and lower castes are prospering."

Hindu Khatris
The vast majority of Khatris are Hindu. Many Hindu Khatris made their first newborn a Sikh. Daughters were married into both Hindu and Sikh families according to the Khatri sub-hierarchy rules. Hindu-Sikh intermarriages among Khatris and Aroras were common in the cities of Peshawar and Rawalpindi. They worship Hinglaj Mata, Chandi Mata, Shiva, Hanuman and Vishnu's avatars. Worship of totemistic symbols such as snakes and trees used to be common among them. Meditation upon the flame while reciting Vidhyavasini's hymns was a common practice and reverence was paid to the dead ancestors. They are both vegetarian and non-vegetarian depending on their affiliations with the sects of Vaishnavism and Shaktism respectively. Sects of Arya Samaj, Nirankari and Radhasoami are also followed.

Sikh Khatris
All the ten Sikh Gurus were from various Khatri clans. The early followers of Guru Nanak were Khatris but later a large number of Jats joined the faith. Khatris and Brahmins opposed "the demand that the Sikhs set aside the distinctive customs of their castes and families, including the older rituals."

Bhapa (pronounced as Pahpa) is a term used in a derogatory sense to denote Sikhs who left Potohar Region of modern-day Pakistan during Partition, specifically of Khatri and Arora caste. Bhapa translates to elder brother in the Potohari dialect spoken around Rawalpindi region. McLeod, referring to the Khatris and Aroras says "The term is typically used dismissively by Jats to express opprobrium towards Sikhs of these castes. Until recently it was never used in polite company or print, but today the word is used quite openly" According to Birinder Pal Singh, Jat Sikhs consider only themselves as Sikhs and consider Khatris as "bhapas". In Nicola Mooney's opinion, Jat Sikhs consider Arora Sikhs as "Hindu Punjabis" which reserves Sikhism for the Jats alone, denying even the fully baptised Arora as Sikhs.

Muslim Khatris
According to Historian B. N. Puri, Muslim Khatris are commonly known as Khojas in Punjab. Khattak tribe of Pashtuns is credited with origin from the Khatris but was divided in belief to its descent according to the 1883 book "Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and North-West Frontier Province".

Literature and in popular culture
Khatris are mentioned in a popular Punjabi literature "Heer Ranjha" written by Waris Shah.

Heer's beauty slays rich Khojas and Khatris in the bazaar, like a murderous Kizilbash trooper riding out of the royal camp armed with a sword
 * — Waris Shah (Translated by Charles Frederick Usborne)

Arora
The Arora is a community that Levi describes as a sub-caste of Khatris. They originate in Punjab and Sindh region. The name is derived from their native place Aror and the community comprises both Hindus and Sikhs. As per W. H. McLeod, a historian of Sikhism, "traditionally the Aroras, though a relatively high caste were inferior to the Khatris, but the difference has now progressively narrowed. Khatri-Arora marriages are not unknown nowadays."

Lohana, Bhatia, and Bhanushali
According to Claude Markovits, castes such as Bhatia and Lohana were close to the Khatris and intermarried with them. Jürgen Schaflechner mentions that many Khatris and Bhatias were absorbed into Lohanas when they arrived in Sindh during the 18th century from cities in Punjab such as Multan. He further adds that the genealogy of communities such as Khatri, Lohana and Arora is described in the composition of Hiṃgulā Purāṇ that brings them all into one mytho-historic narrative. He also notes that common mythologies found among Khatris and Lohanas. Some members, around 10-15% of the Sindhi Lohanas began working for the local rulers and hence achieved a higher status than Khatris and Lohanas. These people came to known as "Amils" while the ones who continued with their merchant professions came to be known as "Bhaibands". The Amils then started to recruit members from the general Khatris and Lohanas.

Upendra Thakur mentions that there is a strong connection between the Khatris, Aroras, Lohanas and the Bhanushalis who all recruit the Saraswat Brahmins as their priests.

Gaddi
Gaddi is a nomadic shepherding tribe that resides in the mountainous terrains of the Himalayas. Gaddi is an amalgamation of various groups such as Khatris, Rajputs, Brahmins etc. Most Gaddis of Himachal Pradesh call themselves Khatris. There is a popular saying among them "Ujreya Lahore te baseya Bharmaur" meaning that when Lahore was deserted (possibly by the Muslim invasion), Bharmour was inhabited. Some Khatris clans are known to have settled there during Aurangzeb's reign.

title: Khatri


text:
User:JBradHicks

J. Brad Hicks is a native of Saint Louis, Missouri, and except for four years away at college and two years living full time in an RV, has lived there all his life. He self-identifies as a working-class intellectual. As of August 2006, he is 46 years old. Widely read, his interests include ancient Greece, countercultures, current events, the fiction of H. P. Lovecraft, Neopaganism, parties, politics, polyamory, and science fiction.

In 1982 he earned a Bachelor Arts in Mathematics/Computer Science from Taylor University in Upland, Indiana. He most recently worked as a telecommunications fraud analyst, having previously worked as a stock clerk, an electrician, a teacher, a computer programmer, a LAN/WAN engineer, a consultant, president of a non-profit civil rights organization, a licenced professional security officer, a hotel detective, and a sole proprietor of a short-lived traveling special-event souvenir stand selling "mind machines."

A registered Democrat and occasional Democratic Party volunteer, his politics are best summarized as "left libertarian," equally suspicious of large-scale concentrations of power whether financial, corporate, or government.

Brad Hicks first achieved limited Internet notoriety as the original sysop of a FidoNet BBS called WeirdBase, the author of pro-Pagan propaganda pamphlets such as "A Little Less Misunderstanding," the developer of the original HyperCard case-change XFCNs, a past contributor to Telecom Digest, the author of the (former) Low BS Guide to St. Louis website, and past editor of the Mind Machine FAQ. He is currently working on a proposal for a book on history and theory of the idea of "forbidden lore."

J. Brad Hicks 21:38, 17 Jul 2004 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:JBradHicks


text:
Alopecurus

Alopecurus, or foxtail grass, is a common and widespread genus of plants in the grass family. It is common across temperate and subtropical parts of Eurasia, northern Africa, and the Americas, as well as naturalized in Australia and on various islands.

Foxtails can be annual or perennial. They grow in tufts. They have flat leaves and blunt ligules (a small flap at the junction of leaf and stem). Their inflorescence is a dense panicle (a branching head without terminal flower) with 1-flowered spikelets. A few, particularly A. myosuroides, are considered weeds, others are very decorative and are used in bouquets of dried flowers.

 * Species
 * Alopecurus aequalis – Orange foxtail, shortawn foxtail – Eurasia, Americas
 * Alopecurus albovii – Caucasus
 * Alopecurus anatolicus – eastern Turkey
 * Alopecurus apiatus – Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Iraq, Iran
 * Alopecurus arundinaceus – Reed foxtail, creeping foxtail, creeping meadow foxtail – Eurasia, North Africa
 * Alopecurus aucheri – Caucasus, Turkey, Iran
 * Alopecurus baptarrhenius – Ethiopia
 * Alopecurus bonariensis – Argentina, Uruguay
 * Alopecurus borii – Turkmenistan
 * Alopecurus bornmuelleri – Palestine
 * Alopecurus brachystachus – Russia, China, Mongolia
 * Alopecurus bulbosus – Bulbous foxtail – Mediterranean, western Europe
 * Alopecurus carolinianus – tufted meadow foxtail – US, western Canada
 * Alopecurus creticus – Greece, Turkey, Balkans
 * Alopecurus dasyanthus – Caucasus, Iran
 * Alopecurus davisii – Samos Island in Greece
 * Alopecurus geniculatus – Bent foxtail, marsh meadow foxtail – Algeria, Eurasia
 * Alopecurus gerardii – Mediterranean
 * Alopecurus glacialis – Caucasus, Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan
 * Alopecurus × haussknechtianus – central + northwestern Europe
 * Alopecurus heliochloides – Chile
 * Alopecurus himalaicus – Himalayas, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iran, Central Asia, Xinjiang
 * Alopecurus hitchcockii – Peru, Bolivia, Jujuy
 * Alopecurus japonicus – China, Japan, Korea
 * Alopecurus laguroides – Caucasus, Turkey
 * Alopecurus lanatus – Turkey
 * Alopecurus longiaristatus – Heilongjiang, Primorye, Khabarovsk
 * Alopecurus magellanicus – northern Eurasia, North + South America, Falkland Is, South Georgia
 * Alopecurus × marssonii – Ukraine
 * Alopecurus mucronatus – Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan
 * Alopecurus myosuroides – Slender meadow foxtail, black grass, twitch grass, black twitch – Eurasia, North Africa
 * Alopecurus nepalensis – Himalayas, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan
 * Alopecurus × plettkei – France, Germany, Belgium, Netherlands
 * Alopecurus ponticus – Caucasus
 * Alopecurus pratensis – meadow foxtail – Eurasia from Azores to Mongolia
 * Alopecurus rendlei – central + southern Europe, Algeria, Libya, Turkey
 * Alopecurus saccatus – Pacific foxtail – United States (WA OR ID CA), Baja California
 * Alopecurus setarioides – France, Greece, Italy, Balkans, Turkey
 * Alopecurus textilis – Turkey, Caucasus, Syria, Iraq, Iran, Turkmenistan
 * Alopecurus turczaninovii – Siberia
 * Alopecurus × turicensis – France, Switzerland
 * Alopecurus utriculatus – Greece, Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine
 * Alopecurus vaginatus – Crimea, Caucasus, Turkey, Middle East, Iran, Afghanistan
 * Alopecurus × winklerianus – France, Switzerland, Germany, Poland

Numerous species once considered part of Alopecurus but now regarded as better suited to other genera: Agrostis, Cornucopiae, Crypsis, Koeleria, Milium, Muhlenbergia, Pennisetum, Perotis, Phleum, Polypogon, Rostraria, Setaria and, Tribolium.
 * formerly included

title: Alopecurus


text:
Jules Dupré

Jules Louis Dupré (April 5, 1811 – October 6, 1889) was a French painter, one of the chief members of the Barbizon school of landscape painters. If Corot stands for the lyric and Rousseau for the epic aspect of the poetry of nature, Dupré is the exponent of its tragic and dramatic aspects.

Biography
Dupré was born in Nantes. He exhibited first at the Salon in 1831, and three years later was awarded a second-class medal. In the same year, he came to England where he was impressed by the genius of Constable. From then on, he learned how to express movement in nature; and the districts around Southampton and Plymouth, with their wide, unbroken expanses of water, sky and ground, gave him good opportunities for studying the tempestuous motion of storm-clouds and the movement of foliage driven by the wind. He was named an Officer of the French Légion d'honneur in 1848. His daughter Therese-Marthe-Francoise also became a painter.

Dupré's colour is sonorous and resonant. He showed preference for using dramatic sunset effects and stormy skies and seas as the subjects of his paintings. Late in life he changed his style and gained appreciably in largeness of handling and arrived at greater simplicity in his colour harmonies. Among his chief works are the Morning and Evening at the Louvre, and the early Crossing the Bridge in the Wallace Collection.

title: Jules Dupré


text:
John Percival Postgate

John Percival Postgate, FBA (24 October 1853 – 15 July 1926) was an English classicist and academic. He was a fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge from 1878 until his death, and also taught at Girton College, Cambridge (1877–1909) and University College, London (1880–1908). Having been passed over for the Chair of Latin at the University of Cambridge, he was Professor of Latin at the University of Liverpool from 1909 to 1920. He was a member of the Postgate family.

Biography
Postgate was born on 24 October 1853 in Birmingham, England, to John Postgate. He was educated at King Edward's School, Birmingham, an independent all-boys school, where he became head boy. He matriculated into Trinity College, Cambridge in 1872 as a sizar, where he read for the Classical Tripos. He was awarded a scholarship in 1874. He graduated from the University of Cambridge with a first class Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree in 1876. As per tradition, his BA was promoted to a Master of Arts (MA Cantab) degree.

Postgate was a college lecturer in classics Girton College, Cambridge from 1877 to 1909; the student's of the all-women college were often left in tears following his classes. He was elected a fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge in 1878; he held the post until his death. He was additionally Professor of Comparative Philology at University College London from 1880 to 1908. At Trinity College, he was a college lecturer in classics 1884 to 1903 and then a senior lecturer from 1903 to 1909. He was deputy reader in comparative philology at the University of Cambridge from 1889 to 1890. He was a possible candidate to succeed John E. B. Mayor as Professor of Latin, but he likely (and rightly) assumed the chair would got to A. E. Housman instead. In 1909, he left Cambridge and was appointed Professor of Latin at the University of Liverpool. His salary for the Liverpool chair was £500 a year plus a share in student fees (anywhere between £600 and £1000), thereby totalling more than £1000; in contrast a chair at Cambridge only paid £300.

He was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society in 1886. In 1907, he was elected a Fellow of the British Academy (FBA), the United Kingdom's national academy for the humanities and social sciences.

He established himself as a creative editor of Latin poetry with published editions of Propertius, Lucan, Tibullus and Phaedrus. His major work was the two-volume Corpus Poetarum Latinorum, a triumph of editorial organisation. An influential work was his often reprinted "The New Latin Primer", 1888, much used in British schools over subsequent decades. While at Cambridge, he edited the Classical Review and the Classical Quarterly. He was the first honorary secretary (1903–1906) of the Classical Association, an educational organisation founded to promote the study of classical subjects in schools and universities, and was its president from 1924 to 1925.

He retired in 1920, and was made professor emeritus by the University of Liverpool. He then moved back to Cambridge.

Personal life
In June 1891, Postgate married Edith Allen (1863–1962), a former student of his. She was the sister of T. W. Allen, a classical scholar. Together, they had six children among whom were Raymond Postgate (a journalist, historian, novelist and food writer), and Margaret Cole (a Fabian politician). Through Raymond, he was grandfather to the animator and puppeteer Oliver Postgate and the microbiologist John Postgate FRS (1922–2014).

Postgate's relationship with his son Raymond and daughter Margaret were strained when they championed pacificism during the First World War. While he attempted to use his influence behind the scenes to support his son when he was prosecuted for his beliefs, he otherwise disowned him and refused to acknowledge his marriage to Daisy Lansbury. He also wrote Raymond and Margaret out of his will except for a £100 a year pension for each from the age of 55.

On 14 July 1926, he was injured in a cycling accident, when he was knocked off his bicycle by a lorry in Cambridge. He was taken to Addenbrooke's Hospital but died of his injuries the following day. He was worth £33,029 at the time of his death, the majority of which (£27,000) was donated to the University of Liverpool; it had first been offered to Trinity College, Cambridge, but they refused the legacy.

Published works

 * The New Latin Primer (London, 1888)
 * Sermo Latinus. A Short Guide to Latin Prose Composition (London, 1889; revised and enlarged ed. 1913)
 * (ed.) Corpus Poetarum Latinorum, 2 vols. (London, 1905–1920)
 * (ed.) Tibulli Aliorumque Carminum Libri Tres. Oxford Classical Texts (Oxford, 1905)
 * (1908)
 * (ed. and tr., with F.W. Cornish and J.W. Mackail) Catullus, Tibullus and Pervigilium Veneris. Loeb Classical Library (London, 1912)
 * (ed. with notes) M. Annaei Lucani De Bello Civili Liber VII (Cambridge, 1917; rev. ed. by O.A.W. Dilke, Bristol, 1978)
 * (ed. with notes) M. Annaei Lucani De Bello Civili Liber VIII (Cambridge, 1917)
 * Translation and Translations. Theory and Practice (London, 1922)
 * Prosodia Latina. An Introduction to Classical Latin Verse (Oxford, 1923)
 * A Short Guide to the Accentuation of Ancient Greek (Liverpool, 1924)
 * (ed.) Phaedri Fabulae Aesopiae. Oxford Classical Texts (Oxford, 1934)

title: John Percival Postgate


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Syed Hussain

Old discussion begins here

This appears to be a page created mainly as an advertisment or as a vanity page. It is largely content free, but for various illsorted quotes of the great master Refdoc 19:42, 17 Jul 2004 (UTC) I have tried to search for him on the web. Apart from the promotional websites underneath of this article he does not exist. Also there were some highly suspicious additions in Sufism claiming him to be a famous Sufi. Refdoc 21:37, 17 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Sure is hard to sort out. It has enthusiast language, at the very least.  Whether it's an ad or a wide-eyed homage, I don't know, but the table with CAM Sufism, links to all sorts of alternative medicine, etc., make it look advertising.  Weak delete at this point.  Geogre 21:13, 17 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Note also the Discussion page for this article argues that this is not a belief system nor philosophy. Sufi is not part of a belief system?  That does make this revolutionary. Makes it sound like Jazzercise.  Geogre 21:16, 17 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Also the page has no active links apart from teh self-promotional ones which were all added by the same user Refdoc 23:27, 17 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * The problem with these mysticism-related articles is that they all sound like promotional pamphlets, are invariably worded in vague terms, and, in my opinion, reek of new age (my bias is showing....) There's no way to objectively evaluate them.  That said, my vote is to delete, on different grounds: the article is just a placeholder for its external links.  --Ardonik 03:13, Jul 18, 2004 (UTC)

 * it is undisputed that he is one of the first modern teachers who brought the ancient teachings of the east back to the eastern and western audiences, in a form palatable to the modern discerning mind, planting a seed for further self growth, a role which had also been played by spiritual teachers from time immemorial? _ I suppose it's hard to dispute something that is incomprehensible. Delete.  RickK 20:28, Jul 18, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete strange promotionalish article. -- Cyrius|✎
 * Delete as nonsense. What the heck is going on with these made-up Middle Easterners?  There are at least two others up for debate! - Lucky 6.9 23:41, 21 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Old discussion ends here
 * Doubts about the veracity of the information in this entry. delete Arevich 04:02, 23 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, but there appears to have been an actually notable Syed Hussain (not a Sufi in a suit, alas) that might be worth an article.

New discussion begins here

Sigh. As per the above, this article was deleted as vanity; User:192.193.210.34 has resurrected the article, copying and pasting the same content as before. I guess he figures we have short memories or something. The anonymous user also marred the Sufi whirling article again; I have reverted the changes, but the article could still use cleaning up. --[[User:Ardonik|Ardonik(talk)]] 21:02, Aug 23, 2004 (UTC)

 * comment: If it was previously deleted and reposted, shouldn't it be speedied?   — Gwalla | Talk 21:22, 23 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * speedy delete. probably not necessary to ban author, just watch the pages.  Ban him if he starts vandalising anything else. Dunc_Harris|☺ 22:16, 23 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * And away it goes. The author is an IP, doubtful that we will need to ban it at this point, but all those who look at New Pages should keep an eye peeled for yet another return.  At that point, I'd nominate the IP for banning. Geogre 00:15, 24 Aug 2004 (UTC)


text:
Sandringham line

The Sandringham line is a commuter railway line in the city of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. Operated by Metro Trains Melbourne, it is the city's fourth shortest metropolitan railway line at 17.9 km. The line runs from Flinders Street station in central Melbourne to Sandringham station in the south-east, serving 14 stations via South Yarra, Balaclava, Elsternwick, and Brighton. The line operates from approximately 5am to 12am, daily, with 24 hour service available on Friday and Saturday nights. Services run every 7–8 minutes during peak hour, with services running every 15 minutes during the inter-peak period on weekdays, and every 20 minutes at night and during the day on weekends (with the exception of early Sunday mornings when services run every 40 minutes). Additionally, services run every 60 minutes overnight on Friday and Saturday nights as part of the Night Network.

Sections of the Sandringham line opened as early as 1859, with the line fully extended to Sandringham in 1887. A limited number of stations were first opened, with infill stations progressively opened between 1860 and 1912. The line was built to connect Melbourne with the suburbs of Balaclava, Elsternwick, Brighton, and Sandringham, amongst others. Minor upgrades have occurred since its opening, including historical level crossing removal works and regular infrastructure upgrades.

19th century
The Melbourne and Suburban Railway Company opened their line from Princes Bridge (later amalgamated with Flinders Street station) to a temporary station on Punt Road in February 1859, then to Cremorne (now closed) in December of that year. Shortly after, the St Kilda and Brighton Railway Company opened their railway line from St Kilda to Bay Street (now North Brighton) in December 1859. Twelve months after that, the Melbourne and Suburban Railway Company extended their line from Cremorne to Chapel Street (now Windsor) station, on the St Kilda and Brighton Railway Company's line, providing a second route to the city from the Brighton line. The following year, again in December, the St Kilda and Brighton Railway Company extended their line to Beach (now Brighton Beach).

The link between St Kilda and Windsor, disused since 1862, was dismantled in 1867, although part of it at the Windsor end was used as a siding for some time afterwards. In 1865, the Melbourne and Hobson's Bay Railway Company, who owned the St Kilda line, purchased the Melbourne Suburban Railway Company and became the Melbourne and Hobson's Bay United Railway Company, and subsequently bought the St Kilda and Brighton Railway Company, which was in financial difficulties, for £99,500. The Victorian Government acquired the United railway company in July 1878.

In September 1887, the Brighton line was extended to Sandringham.

20th century
The Sandringham line became the first line in Victoria to be provided with automatic signals, with the line as far as Elsternwick converted in stages from 1915 to 1918. Then in 1919, the Sandringham line became, with the line to Essendon, the first line in the country to be electrified (apart from a test installation on the Flemington Racecourse line). Automatic signalling was provided the rest of the way to Sandringham in two stages in during 1926.

When the underground City Loop line was designed, it was not intended to cater for trains on the Port Melbourne, St Kilda, and Sandringham lines. However, a crossover was installed near Richmond to allow Sandringham trains to cross to the tracks used by the Frankston, Pakenham, and Cranbourne line trains, which had access to the underground loop. In 1985, two Sandringham trains each way were altered to run via the underground loop, and in 1987, with the Port Melbourne and St Kilda lines converted to light rail operation, all off-peak and many peak trains were routed via the underground loop. The commencement of operations involved the service stopping at three new stations—Parliament, Melbourne Central (formally Museum), and Flagstaff. The Loop follows La Trobe and Spring Streets along the northern and eastern edges of the Hoddle Grid. The Loop connects with Melbourne's two busiest stations, Flinders Street and Southern Cross, via the elevated Flinders Street Viaduct. From 2021, Sandringham line services stopped operating through the loop as part of a timetable restructure.

21st century
In 2021, the metropolitan timetable underwent a major rewrite, resulting in all Sandringham line trains terminating at Flinders Street without operating through the City Loop.

Network reconfiguration
When the new cross-city rail corridor being built by the Metro Tunnel opens in 2025 there will be a reorganisation of the Melbourne rail network. The Victorian Department of Transport and Planning plans to return the Frankston line to the City Loop, with dedicated use of the Caulfield group tunnel track. This will mean Frankston line trains will no longer through-run with Werribee and Williamstown line trains, and will again stop at City Loop stations Flagstaff, Melbourne Central and Parliament. As part of the reconfiguration, the Sandringham line would instead begin through-running services to Werribee and Williamstown lines for the first time.

Stage 4 of the Network Development Plan – Metropolitan Rail proposed that the Upfield and Sandringham lines be joined via a reconfigured City Loop sometime in the 2030s.

Services
Services on the Sandringham line operates from approximately 5:00am to 12:00am (midnight) daily and all night on Friday and Saturday nights. Services run every 7–8 minutes during peak hour, with services running every 15 minutes during the inter-peak period on weekdays, and every 20 minutes at night and during the day on weekends (with the exception of early Sunday mornings when services run every 40 minutes until 10:00am). Additionally, services run every 60 minutes overnight on Friday and Saturday nights as part of the Night Network. Services don't run via the City Loop, instead they run direct to Flinders Street.

Stopping patterns
Legend — Station status
 * ◼ Premium Station – Station staffed from first to last train
 * ◻ Host Station – Usually staffed during morning peak, however this can vary for different stations on the network.

Legend — Stopping patterns Services do not operate via the City Loop
 * ● – All trains stop
 * ◐ – Some services do not stop
 * ▲ – Only inbound trains stop
 * | – Trains pass and do not stop

Operators
The Sandringham line has had a total of 11 operators since its opening in 1859. The line was initially operated by the Melbourne and Suburban Railway Company, the St Kilda and Brighton Railway Company, the Melbourne Railway Company, and the Melbourne and Hobson's Bay Railway Company over the course of 19 years from 1859 till nationalisation in 1878. The majority of operations throughout its history have been government run: from 1878 until the 1999 privatisation of Melbourne's rail network, four different government operators have run the line. These operators, Victorian Railways, the Metropolitan Transit Authority, the Public Transport Corporation and Bayside Trains have a combined operational length of 121 years.

Bayside Trains was privatised in August 1999 and later rebranded M>Train. In 2002, M>Train was placed into receivership and the state government regained ownership of the line, with KPMG appointed as receivers to operate M>Train on behalf of the state government. Two years later, rival train operator Connex Melbourne took over the M>Train operations including the Sandringham line. Metro Trains Melbourne, the current private operator, then took over the operations in 2009. These private operators have had a combined operational period of 24 years. * Operated part of the route

Route
The Sandringham line forms a somewhat linear route with minor curves from the Melbourne central business district to its terminus in Sandringham. The route is 17.9 km long and is predominantly doubled tracked, however between Flinders Street station and Richmond, the track is widened to 12 tracks, narrowing to 6 tracks between Richmond and South Yarra before again narrowing to 2 tracks between South Yarra and Sandringham. After departing from its terminus at Flinders Street, the Sandringham line traverses mainly flat country with few curves and fairly minimal earthworks for most of the line. However, sections of the line have been elevated or lowering into a cutting to eliminate level crossings. Despite historical removals, there are numerous level crossings still present on the line with no current plans to remove them.

The line follows the same alignment as the Cranbourne, Pakenham, and Frankston lines with the four services splitting onto different routes at South Yarra. The Sandringham line continues on its south eastern alignment, whereas the Cranbourne, Pakenham, and Frankston lines takes an eastern alignment towards their final destinations. From Balaclava, the line is never more than ~2 km from the eastern shore of Port Phillip. All of the rail line goes through built-up suburbs towards its terminus in Sandringham.

Stations
The line serves 14 stations across 17.9 km of track. The stations are a mix of elevated, lowered, and ground level designs. The majority of stations are at ground level, with elevated or lowered stations constructed in conjunction with historical level crossing removals works.

Rolling stock
The Sandringham line is operated by Siemens Nexas multiple unit trains operating in a two three-car configuration.

The Siemens Nexas EMUs contain two doors per side on each carriage and can accommodate up to 432 seated passengers in each six car configuration. The trains were originally built between 2002 and 2005 with a total of 72 three-car sets constructed.

Alongside the passenger trains, Sandringham line tracks and equipment are maintained by a fleet of engineering trains. The four types of engineering trains are: the shunting train; designed for moving trains along non-electrified corridors and for transporting other maintenance locomotives, for track evaluation; designed for evaluating track and its condition, the overhead inspection train; designed for overhead wiring inspection, and the infrastructure evaluation carriage designed for general infrastructure evaluation. Most of these trains are repurposed locomotives previously used by V/Line, Metro Trains, and the Southern Shorthaul Railroad.

Former rolling stock
When the line was electrified, the Sandringham line initially used a fleet of Swing Door and Tait EMUs. Until the 2000s, the line generally used all types of EMUs operating in Melbourne.

From 1982, as the Comeng EMUs entered service, the remaining Tait stock were cascaded onto the Sandingham line, as well as on the Port Melbourne and St Kilda lines as they were banned from running in the City Loop. At the same time, the refurbished Harris trains were put into service on those said three lines. From 1991, the line went back to using the regular Hitachi and Comeng trains until its displacement with the Siemens EMU.

Hitachi EMUs were removed from the line in December 2013 and the Comeng EMUs were removed in June 2024.

Accessibility
In compliance with the Disability Discrimination Act of 1992, all stations that are new-built or rebuilt are fully accessible and comply with these guidelines. The majority of stations on the corridor are fully accessible, however, there are some stations that haven't been upgraded to meet these guidelines. These stations do feature ramps, however, they have a gradient greater than 1 in 14. Stations that are fully accessible feature ramps that have a gradient less than 1 in 14, have at-grade paths, or feature lifts. These stations typically also feature tactile boarding indicators, independent boarding ramps, wheelchair accessible myki barriers, hearing loops, and widened paths.

Individual upgrade projects designed around improving station accessibility have occurred in recent years, with works making significant strides in improving network accessibility, with more than 71% of Sandringham line stations classed as fully accessible.

Signalling
The Sandringham line uses three position signalling which is widely used across the Melbourne train network. Three position signalling was first introduced in 1915, with the final section of the line converted to the new type of signalling in 1926. The Sandringham line was the first line in Victoria to be equipped with this technology and was also the first (along with part of the Craigieburn line) to have a regular electric service.

title: Sandringham line


text:
Fairfax Moresby

Admiral of the Fleet Sir Fairfax Moresby GCB (29 November 1786 – 21 January 1877) was a Royal Navy officer. As a junior officer he took part in the unsuccessful expedition to capture Ferrol in Spain during the French Revolutionary Wars. He later saw action during the blockade of Brest during the Napoleonic Wars before becoming commanding officer of a sloop which was sent to the Aegean Sea to defend the population of Malta from pirates; the grateful people presented him with a sword. He then sailed to the Adriatic Sea where he led a naval brigade providing artillery support to the Austrian forces during the siege of Trieste. He went on to be senior naval officer at the Cape of Good Hope and then senior officer at Mauritius, with orders to suppress the slave trade: he concluded the Moresby Treaty with Seyyid Said, the imam of Muscat, restricting the scope of local slave trading and conferring on English warships the right of searching and seizing local vessels.

Moresby later became Commander-in-Chief of the Pacific Station. His main responsibility was to protect British commercial interests in Valparaíso in the face of unrest among the people of Chile. He also took an interest in Pitcairn Islands at this time and planned the emigration of the islanders to Norfolk Island.

Early career
Moresby was born on 29 November 1786 in Calcutta, part of the Bengal Presidency in British India, the son of Mary (née Rotton, 1767–1830) and Lieutenant Colonel (with 2nd Stratfordshire Militia) Fairfax Moresby Sr (1753-1820) of Lichfield.

He joined the Royal Navy in December 1799. He was assigned to the second-rate HMS London as an able seaman but was promoted to midshipman and took part in the unsuccessful expedition to capture Ferrol in Spain in August 1800 during the French Revolutionary Wars. He transferred to the first-rate HMS Royal George later that year, to the sixth-rate HMS Alarm in the Channel Squadron in March 1802 and to the fifth-rate HMS Amazon in the Mediterranean Fleet in November 1802. In HMS Amazon he took part in the pursuit of the French Fleet, under the command of Admiral Pierre-Charles Villeneuve, to the West Indies and back in Summer 1805. He became a master's mate in the third-rate HMS Puissant at Portsmouth in December 1805 and then transferred to the first-rate HMS Hibernia, flagship of the Earl St Vincent, and saw action during the blockade of Brest during the Napoleonic Wars.

Promoted to lieutenant on 10 April 1806, Moresby was appointed to the first-rate HMS Ville de Paris and, after transferring to the third-rate HMS Kent in 1807, took part in the blockade of Rochefort. He subsequently transferred to the third-rate HMS Repulse in the Mediterranean Fleet and later to the third-rate HMS Sultan. He was then made acting commanding officer first of the sloop HMS Eclair and then of the sloop HMS Acorn observing French and Venetian ships in the Adriatic Sea in Spring 1811. Promoted to commander on 18 April 1811, he became commanding officer of the sloop HMS Wizard and was sent to the Aegean Sea to defend the population of Malta from pirates; the grateful people presented him with a sword. He then returned to the Adriatic Sea where he led a naval brigade providing artillery support to the Austrian forces during the siege of Trieste in October 1813. He was appointed a Knight of the Austrian Military Order of Maria Theresa on 23 May 1814 and, having been promoted to captain on 7 June 1814, was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath on 4 June 1815.

Moresby became commanding officer of the sixth-rate HMS Menai in April 1819 and went on to be senior naval officer at the Cape of Good Hope early in 1820 and then senior officer at Mauritius in 1821, with orders to suppress the slave trade: he concluded the Moresby Treaty with Seyyid Said, the imam of Muscat in September 1822 restricting the scope of local slave trading and conferring on English warships the right of searching and seizing local vessels. In one action he boarded the schooner Camilla and freed 140 slaves. Moresby became commanding officer of the third-rate HMS Pembroke in the Mediterranean Fleet in January 1837 and commanding officer of the third-rate HMS Canopus in the Channel Squadron in March 1845.

Senior command
Promoted to rear admiral 20 December 1849, Moresby became Commander-in-Chief of the Pacific Station, with his flag in the fourth-rate HMS Portland in August 1850. His main responsibility was to protect British commercial interests in Valparaíso in the face of unrest among the people of Chile. He also took an interest in Pitcairn Islands at this time and planned the emigration of the islanders to Norfolk Island which took place in 1856. Moreover, he proposed the establishment of the Esquimalt Naval Base on the West Coast of Canada, a recommendation which was taken up by the Admiralty in 1860.

Moresby was advanced to Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath on 5 July 1855, promoted to vice-admiral on 12 November 1856 and promoted to full admiral on 12 April 1862. He was advanced again to Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath on 28 March 1865 and appointed Rear-Admiral of the United Kingdom on 20 April 1867 and then Vice-Admiral of the United Kingdom on 17 July 1869. He was promoted to Admiral of the Fleet on 21 January 1870.

Moresby died at his home near Exmouth in Devon on 21 January 1877 and was buried at St Margaret and St Andrew's Church, Littleham. After his death Port Moresby in Papua New Guinea and Fairfax Harbour on which it stands were named after him, as were the Moresby Islands in British Columbia.

Family
In August 1814, Moresby married in Malta with Eliza Louisa Williams, youngest daughter of John Williams of Bakewell, Derbyshire: they had two daughters: Ellen Mary (1820-) and Mary (1824-1908), and three sons: Commander Fairfax Moresby (1826–1858) who died in the wreck of the brig HMS Sappho off the coast of Victoria, Matthew Fortescue Moresby (1828-1918), a photographer in Australia, and Rear Admiral John Moresby (1830-1922) who surveyed the coast of New Guinea). A descendant was Admiral Sir Hugo Moresby White, Governor of Gibraltar from 1995 to 1997.

title: Fairfax Moresby


text:
User talk:Marsian~enwiki

The metric unit for weight is kg. The metric unit for thrust is kN. Forget about kgf, it is rarely used anymore. For official examples, see:

http://www.raf.mod.uk/rafwittering/harrier.htm http://www.baesystems.com/facts/programmes/airsystems/eurofighter.htm

 * Thank you for your information.
 * Firstly, for weight, I thought "kgf" and "kg" are the same units both discribed in SI as "kg m/s2". You can use whichever you like but I prefer to cralify that "this is not mass but weight".  I believe we should use "kgf" for weight.  Otherwise, I'd like to use mass.
 * When I was a high school student, I was so confused by "kg for weight" and later noticed it's better to use "kgf" insead of "kg". This is wiki, so some might rewrite my "kgf" in table to "kg" but I don't think "kgf" is harmful.
 * So, in my opinion, RAF and BAEsys both use "kgf for weight" but they write it just "kg".

 * Secondly, for thrust, some still use kgf(or kg) in Japan... See:Mitsubish Heavy Industries Aerospace Headquarters or JASDF fact sheets.
 * Now I think it's better to use SI so I myself prefer "kg for mass" and "kN for thrust". However, especially for thrust, Japanese readers may not like kN... --Marsian 07:24, 2004 Jul 18 (UTC)

Thank you for the reply and the examples. The word 'weight' is ambiguous. That is because it is older than our modern understanding of physics which divides things into mass and force. Thus it is wrong to say weight=force always, or weight=mass always. But the more common usage is weight=mass. There are plenty of references about this. For example, the US organisation in charge of measurement says:
 * http://physics.nist.gov/Pubs/SP811/sec08.html
 * ''In commercial and everyday use, and especially in common parlance, weight is usually used as a synonym for mass. Thus the SI unit of the quantity weight used in this sense is the kilogram (kg) and the verb "to weigh" means "to determine the mass of" or "to have a mass of".
 * Examples:
 * "the child's weight is 23 kg"
 * "the briefcase weighs 6 kg"
 * "Net wt. 227 g"

The British laboratory for standards says:
 * http://www.npl.co.uk/force/faqs/forcemassdiffs.html
 * ''In the trading of goods, weight is taken to mean the same as mass, and is measured in kilograms ... unfortunately, weight has three meanings [force, mass, calibrated weightpiece] and care should always be taken to appreciate which one is meant in a particular context.

To take each of your points in turn... 1. Quote [I thought "kgf" and "kg" are the same units both discribed in SI as "kg m/s2".]. When Mitsubishi says that the Japanese F1 fighter has a thrust of 3,200 kg, they should have written 3,200 kgf (but better as 31 kN). So you are correct to think it is force.

When Mitsubishi says it has a "Gross weight of 13,000 kg", that is a correct SI reference to the mass of the aircraft. So you are not correct to think it is force.

2. Quote [You can use whichever you like but I prefer to cralify that "this is not mass but weight''". I believe we should use "kgf" for weight. Otherwise, I'd like to use mass.''] No. Remember that the word 'weight' is ambiguous. In most cases it is a synonym for mass. So when you see that the weight of an aircraft is 26,000 lb, then you must translate that into kg.

3. Quote [''When I was a high school student, I was so confused by "kg for weight" and later noticed it's better to use "kgf" insead of "kg". This is wiki, so some might rewrite my "kgf" in table to "kg" but I don't think "kgf" is harmful.''] It is understandable that you are confused, lots of people are. This topic is widely discussed. Just remember that the word 'weight' is ambiguous but it usually refers to mass. So it is correct to describe the 'weight' of the aircraft as kg.

3. Quote [for thrust, some still use kgf(or kg) in Japan] You are correct to think that thrust described in terms of kg actually means kgf. It would be better still to calculate the kN value (1 kgf = 9.8 N) and write that.

4. Quote [especially for thrust, Japanese readers may not like kN] Do not underestimate your readers. I did a quick search of google for Japan and found that kN is sometimes used for thrust. However, if you feel that is the way that you want to do it, then make sure it is kgf (not kg) for thrust and kg (not kgf) for weight.

5. Quote [RAF and BAEsys both use "kgf for weight" but they write it just "kg"] No. They are using the word 'weight' to mean mass and are using kg correctly. They describe thrust in kN correctly too.

I hope that helps. Bobblewik 14:19, 18 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Thank you very much. I'm so astonished to know "the more common usage is weight=mass"!  I didn't know that!
 * Japanese usage is completely different. In Japanese, we never use "Jyuryo(translation of weight maybe) = Shitsuryo(translation of mass)".
 * I mean, "Jyuryo" is always [kg m/s2] and "Shitsuryo" is always [kg]. They are definitely not the same.
 * Now I understand RAF and BAEsys are both using SI, right?
 * Again, I'm grateful for your help. --Marsian 15:18, 2004 Jul 18 (UTC)

 * Quote [RAF and BAEsys are both using SI]
 * In the case of 'weight' in kg and 'thrust' in kN, yes they are both using SI.

Bobblewik 12:07, 21 Jul 2004 (UTC)

RLM aircraft designation system
Hi - although it's quite common to find Ju87, Ju-87, Ju.87 in various sources (including some German ones from the period) "Ju 87" is simply the most correct form, since it's the one that the RLM assigned.

The best sources on this are in print (and in German), but on-line you can find the specification explained here and here. Hope this helps! --Rlandmann 23:21, 26 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * No problem. One thing, though - it seems to me that Ju87, Fw190, Bf109 seem to be the normal way of writing these designations in Japanese publications - I note it seems to be the norm in the various Shiwaku Nohara works and Koku Fan issues that I've seen. Japanese Wikipedia might have to choose between strict accuracy to the German standards and what's going to be familiar to Japanese readers.

 * In the same way, English Wikipedia has had to choose between the strictly accurate "Type 97 Carrier Attack Bomber" and the more familiar "B5N" designation. --Rlandmann 06:34, 27 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Interwiki order
Regarding the order of interwikis: I still favor putting them on alphabetical order of code, however, the majority once decided for alphabetical order on alphabet, so that's what I programmed the bot to do. If there is a decision to change that, I'd gladly hear it, until then, I will keep to it, and let you do whatever you want. - Andre Engels 16:36, 2 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Really, 'a good model' is too much honour for me. At times I wonder how people here keep standing me with my irrational behaviour and angriness attacks. But I guess I've done so much by now that it compensates even that. - Andre Engels 22:28, 3 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Bristol 198
The images were scanned from a book, I believe it is called "the SST", but I can't remember. Is fair use the best tag then? I didn't put on the current tags.

Maury 1 July 2005 11:52 (UTC)

About aircraft drawings
Hello. I'm not sure at all that the images are actually PD-ineligible. It can be argued that they are. The data of the size and shape and dimentions of the planes is all in the public domain, so those images can be seen as a representation of that data. Of course the thickness of the lines could be "creative content", I suppose. This is a very difficult case, and I don't know the answer. – Quadell (talk) (sleuth) July 2, 2005 11:13 (UTC)

Infobox
There is a consensus discussion on Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Aircraft on adopting a non-specifications summary infobox for aircraft articles. Your comments would be appreciated. Thanks! - Emt147 Burninate!  18:37, 24 April 2006 (UTC)

Aviation Newsletter delivery
The March 2007 issue of the Aviation WikiProject newsletter has been published. You may read the newsletter, change the format in which future issues will be delivered to you, or unsubscribe from this notification by following the link. Thank you. Trevor MacInnis (Contribs) 16:20, 9 March 2007 (UTC)

An exciting opportunity to get involved!
As a member of the Aviation WikiProject or one of its subprojects, you may be interested in testing your skills in the Aviation Contest! I created this contest, not to pit editor against editor, but to promote article improvement and project participation and camraderie. Hopefully you will agree with its usefulness. Sign up here, read up on the rules here, and discuss the contest here. The first round of the contest may not start until September 1st-unless a large number of editors signup and are ready to compete immediately! Since this contest is just beginning, please give feedback here, or let me know what you think on my talkpage. -  Trevor  MacInnis   contribs  01:09, 23 August 2009 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Marsian. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Marsian~enwiki that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name. If you think you might own all of the accounts with this name and this message is in error, please visit Special:MergeAccount to check and attach all of your accounts to prevent them from being renamed.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 01:22, 20 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 16:00, 22 April 2015 (UTC)

ArbCom elections are now open!
Hi, You appear to be eligible to vote in the current Arbitration Committee election. The Arbitration Committee is the panel of editors responsible for conducting the Wikipedia arbitration process. It has the authority to enact binding solutions for disputes between editors, primarily related to serious behavioural issues that the community has been unable to resolve. This includes the ability to impose site bans, topic bans, editing restrictions, and other measures needed to maintain our editing environment. The arbitration policy describes the Committee's roles and responsibilities in greater detail. If you wish to participate, you are welcome to review the candidates' statements and submit your choices on the voting page. For the Election committee, MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 22:17, 30 November 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Marsian~enwiki


text:
Arthur Morgan (disambiguation)

Arthur Morgan is the main protagonist in the video game Red Dead Redemption 2.

Arthur Morgan may also refer to:
 * Arthur Morgan (Australian politician, born 1856) (1856–1916), Premier of Queensland, Australia
 * Arthur Ernest Morgan (1878–1975), American administrator, educator and engineer
 * Arthur Morgan (Australian politician, born 1881) (1881–1957), member for Darling Downs in the Australian Parliament, 1929–1931
 * Arthur Eustace Morgan (1886–1972), British professor of English and principal of University College Hull and McGill University
 * Arthur C. Morgan (1904–1994), American sculptor
 * Tony Morgan (sailor) or Arthur William Crawford Morgan (born 1931), British Olympic sailor
 * Arthur Morgan (Irish politician) (born 1954), Irish Sinn Féin politician and Teachta Dála for Louth, 2002–2011

title: Arthur Morgan (disambiguation)


text:
Arthur E. Morgan

Arthur E. Morgan may refer to:
 * Arthur Ernest Morgan (1878–1975), American administrator, educator and engineer
 * Arthur Eustace Morgan (1886–1972) British professor of English and principal of University College Hull and McGill University

title: Arthur E. Morgan


text:
Point of Order (film)

Point of Order! is a 1963 American documentary film by Emile de Antonio about the Senate Army–McCarthy hearings of 1954.

Background
The Army–McCarthy hearings came about when the Army accused Senator Joseph McCarthy of improperly pressuring the Army for special privileges for Private G. David Schine, formerly of McCarthy's investigative staff. McCarthy counter-charged that the Army was holding Schine hostage to keep him from searching for Communists in the Army. The hearings were broadcast live on television in their entirety and also recorded via kinescope. This film was created from those kinescope recordings.

Synopsis
The film uses selections from the hearings to show the overall development of the trial, beginning with introductions from several main participants, such as Joseph N. Welch and McCarthy. Each participant is shown in a still image with a brief audio recording, except for McCarthy, who is introduced with longer footage of a speech he made during the hearings.

In a sequence titled "Charge and Countercharge", Senator Stuart Symington summarizes the principle charge and counter-charge of the case. This sequence includes questioning of Roy Cohn for allegedly threatening to "wreck the army" if David Schine were not made a General, a statement Cohn denies. The film follows with a scene in which the Army counsel questions the origin of a photograph of that shows Schine in a meeting with Secretary of the Army Robert T. Stevens; the photograph is shown to be cropped to suggest a closer relationship between Schine and Stevens, but McCarthy's counsel denies any knowledge of photographic alteration.

A sequence titled "The Accusation" shows McCarthy accusing a member of Welch's law firm (Fred Fisher) of membership in the National Lawyer's Guild, which McCarthy and others accused of serving the interests of the Communist Party USA. The sequence includes a frequently quoted exchange from the hearings: Welch asks McCarthy, "Have you no sense of decency, sir, at long last? Have you left no sense of decency?" The film ends with a heated exchange between Symington and McCarthy that occurred when the hearings were about to adjourn for the day. Symington sharply questions the handling of McCarthy's secret files by his staff. McCarthy calls this a "smear" against the men on his staff; and, as Symington starts to leave, McCarthy accuses him of using "the same tactics that the Communist Party has used for too long." Symington returns to the microphone and says: "Apparently every time anybody says anything against anybody working for Senator McCarthy, he is declaring them and accusing them of being Communists!" Symington leaves and the hearings adjourn. McCarthy continues his passionate but repetitious defense of his staff and his attack on Symington, speaking to an increasingly empty chamber. The actual end to the hearings, in which McCarthy was cleared of any wrongdoing, does not appear in the film.

Production
Point of Order! was first imagined by Emile de Antonio and Daniel Talbot in 1961. De Antonio and Talbot thought a film about the Army–McCarthy hearings could be successful at Henry Rosenberg's New Yorker Theater. De Antonio persuaded Richard Ellison at CBS to help him find footage of the Army–McCarthy Hearings; Ellison informed de Antonio that the network held a complete set of kinescopes for the hearings. These kinescopes totaled nearly 188 hours. Talbot initially asked Orson Welles, then Irving Lerner to direct the film, but neither man agreed to do so. Talbot hired Paul Falkenberg to edit the film, and Falkenberg asked Richard Rovere to write narration for the film, to be read by Mike Wallace. However, when Falkenberg screened a rough cut of the film for the producers, they did not approve and decided to start over. De Antonio offered to direct the film for free, which Talbot accepted.

De Antonio hired a young editor named Robert Duncan to help edit the film. Their plan was to remove any narration, music, or added scenes and create a documentary using only the footage from the kinescopes of the hearings. This approach to filmmaking—which de Antonio would use on later films—was similar to the use of assemblage in the works of modern artists like Robert Rauschenberg, who was a friend of de Antonio. De Antonio said that his two main decisions with regard to making the film were "only footage from the actual hearings would be used" and "no preaching."

Exhibition
The film premiered in New York City in conjunction with the first New York Film Festival at the Museum of Modern Art in September 1963. It was released in New York on January 14, 1964. It was distributed by Continental Distributing in 103 theaters nationwide. In 1968 it was recut and shown on television, with an added introduction by Paul Newman, to provide context for audiences unfamiliar with the Army–McCarthy hearings.

Several versions of Point of Order! have appeared on the home video market in the United States. The version with the Newman introduction was released by Zenger Video in 1984, with added instructional materials for classroom use. This version ran 102 minutes. In 1986, MPI Home Video released an abridged 49-minute version (with the Newman Introduction) under the title McCarthy, Death of a Witch Hunter: a Film of the Era of Senator Joseph R. McCarthy. Point of Order! was released on DVD by New Yorker Films in 2005, in its original 97-minute cut.

Reception
The Museum of Modern Art suggested that Point of Order may not be strictly defined as a film. De Antonio wrote that Point of Order! "may have been the first political documentary in the U.S. after World War II as well as a documentary which, in opposition to prevailing trends, also changed the form of documentary."

Critical reception to the film was largely positive. Among its proponents were Dwight Macdonald, Susan Sontag, Brendan Gill, and Stanley Kaufmann. Even Roy Cohn wrote about the film's historical significance, despite disagreement over the film's portrayals of him and Senator McCarthy. Some film critics felt that what de Antonio made was different from what most understood as a documentary. Judith Crist wrote in the New York Herald Tribune that "the producers have excerpted a superdocumentary instead of creating one of their own."

Book tie-in
In 1964, W.W. Norton & Company published the book ''Point of Order! A Documentary of the Army–McCarthy Hearings'', in book form. The 108-page book featured still photos captured from the kinescopes of CBS. David T. Bazelon wrote the introduction and epilogue.

Honors
In 1993, this film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".

title: Point of Order (film)