text:
Imperfect

The imperfect (abbreviated ) is a verb form that combines past tense (reference to a past time) and imperfective aspect (reference to a continuing or repeated event or state). It can have meanings similar to the English "was walking" or "used to walk". It contrasts with preterite forms, which refer to a single completed event in the past.

Traditionally, the imperfect of languages such as Latin and French is referred to as one of the tenses, although it actually encodes aspectual information in addition to tense (time reference). It may be more precisely called past imperfective.

English has no general imperfective and expresses it in different ways. The term "imperfect" in English refers to forms much more commonly called past progressive or past continuous (e.g. "was doing" or "were doing"). These are combinations of past tense with specifically continuous or progressive aspect. In German, Imperfekt formerly referred to the simply conjugated past tense (to contrast with the Perfekt or compound past form), but the term Präteritum (preterite) is now preferred, since the form does not carry any implication of imperfective aspect.

"Imperfect" comes from the Latin imperfectus "unfinished", because the imperfect expresses an ongoing, uncompleted action. The equivalent Ancient Greek term was paratatikós "prolonged".

Germanic languages
Bavarian does not have Imperfect.

English
Imperfect meanings in English are expressed in different ways depending on whether the event is continuous or habitual.

For a continuous action (one that was in progress at a particular time in the past), the past progressive (past continuous) form is used, as in "I was eating"; "They were running fast." However certain verbs that express state rather than action do not mark the progressive aspect (see ); in these cases the simple past tense is used instead: "He was hungry"; "We knew what to do next."

Habitual (repeated) action in the past can be marked by used to, as in "I used to eat a lot", or by the auxiliary verb would, as in "Back then, I would eat early and would walk to school." (The auxiliary would also has other uses, such as expressing conditional mood.) However, in many cases the habitual nature of the action does not need to be explicitly marked on the verb, and the simple past is used: "We always ate dinner at six o'clock."

Latin
Conjugation of the imperfect indicative: Notes:
 * The imperfect is signified by the signs ba and ebā.
 * The imperfect forms of esse are used as auxiliary verbs in the pluperfect of the passive voice along with perfect passive participles.

Romance languages
In Romance languages, the imperfect is generally a past tense. Its uses include representing: A common mistake of beginners learning a Romance language is putting too much emphasis on whether the time the action occurred is known. This generally does not affect how the imperfect is used. For example, the sentence "Someone ate all of my cookies." (when translated) is not a good candidate for the imperfect. Fundamentally, it is no different from the sentence "We ate all the cookies." Note this fails the repeatability requirement of the imperfect, as it is only known to have happened once. On the other hand, the sentence "I used to have fun in the 1960s." is a good candidate for the imperfect, even though its period is known. In short, knowing when an action occurred is not nearly as important as how long it occurred (or was and still is occurring).
 * Repetition and continuity: an action that was happening, used to happen, or happened regularly in the past, as it was ongoing
 * A description of people, things, or conditions of the past
 * A time in the past
 * A relation between past happenings: a situation that was in progress in the past or a condition originated in a previous time, when another isolated and important event occurred (the first verb, indicating the status in progress or condition from the past using the imperfect, while the latter uses the preterite).
 * A physical or mental state or condition in progress in the past. Often used with verbs of being, emotion, capability, or conscience.

French
To form the imperfect for French regular verbs, take the first person plural present tense, the "nous" (we) form, subtract the -ons suffix, and add the appropriate ending (the forms for être (to be), whose "nous" form does not end in -ons, are irregular; they start with ét- but have the same endings). Verbs that terminate in a stem of -cer and -ger undergo minor orthographic changes to preserve the phonetic sound or allophone. Verbs whose root terminates in the letter "i" maintain the letter despite the consecutiveness in the "nous" and "vous" forms.

It is used to express the ideas of habitual actions or states of being; physical and emotional descriptions: time, weather, age, feelings; actions or states of an unspecified duration; background information in conjunction with the passé composé; wishes or suggestions; conditions in "si" clauses; the expressions "être en train de" and "venir de" in the past.

Italian
Conjugation of the imperfect indicative: Notes:
 * Dropping the -re suffix and adding -vo, -vi, -va, -vamo, -vate, and -vano form verbs.
 * Although dire and opporre (as all the composite forms of verb porre and dire) may seem irregular, they are a part of a verb family that has stronger roots to Latin equivalents (lat. pōnere/pōnēbam and dīcere/dīcēbam). Other verbs include fare(infinitive)/faccio(present tense)/facevo(imperfect) (lat.facere/facio/faciēbam), bere/bevo/bevevo (bibere/bibo/bibēbam), trarre/traggo/traevo (trahere/traho/trahēbam), durre/duco/ducevo[obs.] (dūcere/dūco/dūcēbam) and all their composite forms..
 * There is another imperfect in Italian formed by combining the imperfect of the verb stare (stavo, stavi, stava, stavamo, stavate, stavano) with the gerund. For example, "parlavo" could be said as "stavo parlando". The difference is similar to the difference between "I eat" and "I am eating" in English. However, English does not make this distinction in the imperfect.

Romanian
Conjugation of the imperfect indicative: Notes:
 * The imperfect is formed from the short infinitive form of the verbs (without the -re suffix) combined with the -am, -ai, -a, -am, -ați, and -au endings.
 * Short infinitives ending in „-a” (1st conjugation) don't double this letter: e.g. "pleca” in the first person singular is "plecam" and not "plecaam").
 * Short infinitives ending in "-i" take the pattern of those ending in "-e" (e.g. dormi becomes dormeam in 1st person imperfect), while short infinitives ending in "-î" take the pattern of those ending in "-a" (e.g. hotărî becomes hotăram in 1st person imperfect).
 * There is only one irregular verb in the imperfect: a fi, that is created from the radical era-, instead of fi-.

Spanish
In Spanish, the imperfect can be called the imperfecto or the copretérito. Conjugation of the imperfect indicative:
 * There are only three irregular verbs in the imperfect: ir, ser, and ver. Historically, ir — unlike other Spanish "-ir verbs" — failed to drop the -b- of the Latin imperfect. The imperfect of ser is likewise a continuation of the Latin imperfect (of esse), with the same stem appearing in tú eres (thanks to pre-classical Latin rhotacism). The imperfect of ver (veía etc.) was historically considered regular in Old Spanish, where the infinitive veer provided the stem ve-, but that is no longer the case in standard Spanish. In formal language, pronouns "tú" and "vosotros" are replaced by "usted" and "ustedes" (sometimes abbreviated as Ud./Vd. and Uds./Vds.), with the verb conjugated in third person. American Spanish always replaces "vosotros" with "ustedes", switching the verb accordingly. The countries that show the kind of voseo in which "tú" is replaced by "vos" use the same forms as for "tú" in this tense.
 * The first person singular and third person singular forms are the same for all verbs; thus, in cases of ambiguity where context is insufficient, a pronoun or subject noun is included for the sake of clarification.

Portuguese
In Portuguese, the imperfect indicative, called "pretérito imperfeito", is quite similar to Spanish:

There are four irregular verbs: "pôr" (to put), "ser" (to be), "ter" (to have) and "vir" (to come). Unlike in Spanish, the verbs "ver" (to see) and "ir" (to go) are regular in the Portuguese imperfect.

Like in Italian, it is also commonly formed by combining the imperfect of the verb estar (estava, estavas, estava, estávamos, estáveis, estavam) with the gerund (for example, "falando", the gerund form of "falar", to speak, to talk). In Brazilian Portuguese, both in informal oral speech and informal written language (for example, online or phone texting), it is more common to use the composite "estava falando" (commonly reduced to "tava falando"), than to use the synthetic "falava", which is more common in formal written forms.

Both in European and Brazilian Portuguese, the synthetic pluperfect ("eu falara" "I had spoken") is considered old-fashioned and never used in spoken communication – it is substituted by the composite "eu tinha falado", which is formed with the imperfect form of the verb "ter" (to have) (tinha tinhas tinha tínhamos tínheis tinham) plus the past participle ("falado"). Alternatively, the verb "ter" can be swapped with the imperfect form of the verb "haver" (to have) (havia havias havia haviamos havíeis haviam)

Galician
Similar to the closely related Portuguese, as well as to Spanish, but often called "copretérito" (from co-, same particle found in English "collaboration" and "coexistence", plus "pretérito", which is "past tense", in reference of it being a second past tense that exists along the regular one). Same as with them, in formal usage "ti" and "vós/vosoutros" change to "vostede" and "vostedes" and are followed by the third person. In verbs ended in -aer, -oer, -aír and -oír, the first and second person of the plural show the presence of a diaeresis.

Hindi
Hindi, an Indo-Aryan language, has indicative imperfect tense conjugation only for the verb होना (honā) [to be] and the rest of the verbs lack this conjugation. The indicative imperfect forms of होना (honā) comes from Sanskrit स्थित (stʰita) "standing, situated" which are derived from the PIE root *steh₂- (“to stand”). The imperfect conjugation is derived from a participle form and hence its conjugations agree only with the number and gender of the grammatical person and not the pronoun itself. So, the grammatically singular pronouns (e.g., मैं ma͠i "I" and तू tū "you" etc.) are assigned the singular imperfect forms (i.e. था thā or थी thī) depending on the gender of the person or the noun they refer to, and the grammatically plural pronouns (e.g. हम ham "we" etc.) are assigned the plural imperfect forms (थे thē and थीं thīm̊). An exception to this is the pronoun तुम (tum) which takes in the plural imperfect form (थे thē) in masculine gender but singular form (थी thī) in feminine gender.

These imperfect conjugations also act as copula to form the imperfect past forms for the three grammatical aspects that Hindi hasː Habitual, Perfective, and Progressive aspects.

Assamese
In Assamese, two imperfect forms are recognisedː present progressive and/or present perfect & past progressive and/or remote past. There is only one periphrastic tense which functions as both the present progressive and present perfect with reference to the setting in which is placed.

Persian
Like all other past tenses, imperfect is conjugated regularly for all verbs. Formation: [preverb] + mi- + past stem + past ending. Conjugation of the imperfect indicative for the first person singular is shown in the table belowː

Slavic languages
Most Slavic languages have lost the imperfect but it is preserved in Bulgarian and Macedonian. It is also officially retained in Serbian and Croatian but is considered old-fashioned and restricted to literature for poetic and stylistic reasons.

Turkish
Turkish has separate tenses for past continuous and imperfect. To form the past continuous tense for Turkish verbs, after removing the infinitive suffix (-mek or -mak), take the present continuous tense suffix "-yor" without personal suffixes, and add the ending for the simple past plus the appropriate personal suffix
 * As -du (which has a rounded back vowel) succeeds -lar (which has an unrounded back vowel), instead of -yor (which has a rounded back vowel) when the subject is the third person plural onlar, it becomes -dı (which has an unrounded back vowel).
 * If a verb ends in t, it may change into d (especially gitmek and etmek).
 * If a verb ends in open vowels (a or e), the open vowels become closed while adding -yor (because of the closed auxiliary vowel -i-).
 * a becomes ı if the preceding vowel is unrounded, u if it is rounded (ağla -> ağlıyor, topla -> topluyor)
 * e becomes i if the preceding vowel is unrounded, ü if it is rounded (bekle -> bekliyor, söyle -> söylüyor)
 * If the verb ends in a consonant, the auxiliary vowel -i- must be added before -yor. It becomes -ı-, -u- or -ü- depending on the frontness and roundedness of the preceding vowel, because of the vowel harmony:
 * -i if the preceding vowel is e or i (front unrounded): gel -> geliyor
 * -ı if the preceding vowel is a or ı (back unrounded): bak -> bakıyor
 * -u if the preceding vowel is o or u (back rounded): kork -> korkuyor
 * -ü if the preceding vowel is ö or ü (front rounded): gör -> görüyor
 * r of -yor may be dropped in colloquial speech.

To form the negative of the past continuous tense, the negation suffix "-ma/-me", which becomes -mi, -mı, -mu, or -mü because of the closed auxiliary vowel and the vowel harmony, must be added before -yor.

Examples:

 * The epenthetic consonant y is inserted between -mu and -du.
 * As -mu and -du (which have a rounded back vowel) succeeds -lar (which has an unrounded back vowel) instead of -yor (which has a rounded back vowel) when the subject is the third person plural, onlar, they become -mı and -dı (which have an unrounded back vowel).

Semitic languages
Semitic languages, especially the ancient forms, do not make use of the imperfect (or perfect) tense with verbs. Instead, they use the imperfective and perfective aspects, respectively. Aspects are similar to tenses, but differ by requiring contextual comprehension to know whether the verb indicates a completed or non-completed action.

Malayalam
In Malayalam (verbs are never conjugated for grammatical person, which is indicated by a pronoun), there are two indicative imperfects, corresponding exactly with English:
 * 1 -ഉകയായിരുന്നു (ukayāyirunnu) endings (... was...), for example:
 * ഓടുകയായിരുന്നു (ōṭukayāyirunnu) ... was running
 * 2 -ഉമായിരുന്നു (umāyirunnu) endings (... used to ...), for example:
 * ഓടുമായിരുന്നു (ōṭumāyirunnu) ... used to run
 * To form the "was doing" imperfect, take the infinitive ending in ഉക (uka), for example ഓടുക (ōṭuka) – to run – and add the ending – യായിരുന്നു (yāyirunnu).
 * To form the "used to do" imperfect, take off the ക (ka) from the end of the "uka" form and add മായിരുന്നു (māyirunnu) in its stead.
 * To form the "was doing" imperfect, take the infinitive ending in ഉക (uka), for example ഓടുക (ōṭuka) – to run – and add the ending – യായിരുന്നു (yāyirunnu).
 * To form the "used to do" imperfect, take off the ക (ka) from the end of the "uka" form and add മായിരുന്നു (māyirunnu) in its stead.
 * To form the "used to do" imperfect, take off the ക (ka) from the end of the "uka" form and add മായിരുന്നു (māyirunnu) in its stead.

To make a verb in the imperfect negative, add അല്ല് (all) after the ഉകയ (ukaya) part of the ending for the "was doing" imperfect. For example, ഓടുകയല്ലായിരുന്നു (ōṭukayallāyirunnu) (...was not running). To do the same for the "used to do" imperfect, take off the ഉമ (uma) from the ending and add അത്തില്ല (attilla) instead. For example, ഓടത്തില്ലായിരുന്നു (ōṭattillāyirunnu) (...didn't use to run)

title: Imperfect


text:
Knap of Howar

The Knap of Howar on the island of Papa Westray in Orkney, Scotland is a Neolithic farmstead which may be the oldest preserved stone house in northern Europe. Radiocarbon dating shows that it was occupied from 3700 BC to 2800 BC, earlier than the similar houses in the settlement at Skara Brae on the Orkney Mainland.

The site
The farmstead consists of two adjacent rounded rectangular thick-walled stone buildings with very low doorways facing the sea. The larger and older structure is linked by a low passageway to the other building, which has been interpreted as a workshop or a second house. They were constructed on an earlier midden, and were surrounded by midden material which has protected them. There are no windows; the structures were presumably lit by fire, with a hole in the roof to let out smoke. Though they now stand close to the shore, they would have originally lain inland.

The stone walls of the buildings are preserved and while the roof is missing, it was likely made of wood and thatched or turfed. A hearth and a stone-built cupboard survive inside, and there may have been an external porch. Local stone splits into thin slabs, offering a ready source of construction material.

The walls still stand to an eaves height of 1.6 m, and the stone furniture is intact giving a vivid impression of life in the house. Fireplaces, partition screens, beds and storage shelves are almost intact, and post holes were found indicating the roof structure.

Evidence from the middens shows that the inhabitants were keeping cattle, sheep and pigs, cultivating barley and wheat and gathering shellfish as well as fishing for species which must have been line caught using boats.

Finds of finely-made and decorated Unstan ware pottery link the inhabitants to chambered cairn tombs nearby and to sites far afield including Balbridie and Eilean Domhnuill. The name Howar is believed to be derived from Old Norse word haugr  meaning  mounds or barrows. The site is in the care of Historic Scotland.

Other sources

 * Scotland Before History - Stuart Piggott, (Edinburgh University Press. 1982) ISBN 0-85224-348-0
 * Scotland's Hidden History - Ian Armit, Tempus (in association with Historic Scotland. 1998) ISBN 0-7486-6067-4
 * The Other Orkney Book - Gordon Thomson, (Northabout Publishing. 1980) ISBN 0-907200-00-1
 * "The Knap of Howar and the Origins of Geometry" - by Nicholas Cope & Keith Critchlow (Kairos publications 2016). ISBN 9780992682330 - www.ncope.co.uk

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Knap of Howar


text:
Domestic Airport railway station, Brisbane

Domestic Airport railway station is the terminus station of the Airport line in Queensland, Australia. It serves the Domestic Terminal at Brisbane Airport, opening on 5 May 2001 at the same time as the line.

The station along with the line is owned and operated by Airtrain Citylink under a BOOT scheme. It will pass to Queensland Rail ownership in 2036.

Services are operated by Queensland Rail's City network. Although Translink's go card is able to be used, the station is not included in the TransLink fare structure, with Airtrain able to charge a premium fare.

Connection to the airport terminal
The station is connected to the Brisbane Airport's domestic terminal by a covered elevated footbridge, with an elevator and escalators to the kerbside immediately in front of the entrance to the terminal.

Services
Domestic Terminal is served by City network Airport line services to Roma Street, Park Road and Varsity Lakes.


text:
User:Jengod/Joseph W. Barr

Joseph Walker Barr (January 17, 1918–February 23, 1996) was an American businessman and politician.

Born in Vincennes, Indiana, he graduated from DePauw University in 1939 and earned a master's degree in economics from Harvard University in 1941.

He served in the United States Navy from 1942 to 1945, during the Second World War, with subchaser duty in the Mediterranean Sea and Atlantic Ocean. He received a Bronze Star for sinking a submarine off Anzio Beach.

After he returned from the war he engaged in the operation of grain elevators, theaters, real estate and publishing businesses. He was elected as a Democrat to the 86th Congress (1959–1961). He lost the 1960 election was appointed assistant for congressional relations to the U.S. Secretary of the Treasury and then in 1963 was appointed Chairman of the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation. He was Undersecretary of the Treasury from 1965 to 1968 during the Lyndon Johnson and U.S. Secretary of the Treasury from December 21, 1968, to January 20, 1969, the shortest term of any Treasury Secretary.

He was president and chairman of American Security and Trust Company from 1969 to 1974 and chairman of Federal Home Loan Bank of Atlanta from 1977 to 1981.

He died in 1996 in Playa del Carmen, Mexico.

External link

 * US Treasury - Biography of Secretary Joseph W. Barr

title: User:Jengod/Joseph W. Barr


text:
Joseph W. Barr

Joseph Walker Barr (January 17, 1918 – February 23, 1996) was an American businessman and politician from Indiana. He served one term in the United States House of Representatives. He was also the United States Secretary of the Treasury from December 21, 1968 until January 20, 1969, in President Lyndon B. Johnson's cabinet. He was a member of the Democratic Party.

Early life and career
Barr was born in Vincennes, Indiana, on January 17, 1918, the son of Oscar Lynn Barr and Stella Florence Walker. He graduated from DePauw University, and married the former Beth Ann Williston in Indianapolis on September 3, 1939; they had five children: Bonnie Barr Gilliom, Cherry Ann Barr, Joseph Williston Barr, Elizabeth Eugenia Barr LoSasso and Lynn Hamilton Barr Fineberg. He was a member of the Phi Kappa Psi fraternity and earned a master's degree in economics from Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1941.

He served in the United States Navy from 1942 to 1945, during World War II, with subchaser duty in the Mediterranean Sea and Atlantic Ocean. He received a Bronze Star for sinking a submarine off Anzio Beach.

After Barr returned from the war, he engaged in the operation of grain elevators, theaters, real estate and publishing businesses.

Political career
In 1958, he defeated Charles B. Brownson for a seat in Congress from Indiana's 11th congressional district, a Republican stronghold. He was aided by Democratic gains that increased the party's majority from 35 to 129 seats. During his time in the House, he became friends with then-Senator John F. Kennedy. He served only one term before being defeated for re-election in 1960.

After his electoral defeat, President Kennedy appointed him as the Assistant to the Secretary of the Treasury for Congressional Relations. In 1963, he was appointed Chairman of the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation. Barr served as the Undersecretary of the Treasury from 1965 to 1968, during the administration of President Lyndon B. Johnson. When Henry H. Fowler resigned in December 1968, Johnson named Barr as the Secretary of the Treasury with a recess appointment, effective for the remainder of Johnson's term in office. His 28 days in the position was the shortest term of any Treasury Secretary. Given his short period in office, his signature appears only on the one-dollar bill.

Later years
After leaving office, he was named as the vice chairman of American Security and Trust Company. He then served as the president and the chairman from 1969 to 1974 and the chairman of Federal Home Loan Bank in Atlanta, Georgia from 1977 to 1981.

Barr died of a heart attack in Playa del Carmen, Mexico, and was interred in Leeds Episcopal Church Cemetery in Hume, Virginia.

title: Joseph W. Barr


text:
International Airport railway station, Brisbane

International Airport railway station is located on the Airport line in Queensland, Australia. It serves the International Terminal at Brisbane Airport, opening on 5 May 2001 at the same time as the line.

The station along with the line is owned and operated by Airtrain Citylink under a BOOT scheme. It will pass to Queensland Rail ownership in 2036.

Services are operated by Queensland Rail's City network. Although TransLink's go card is able to be used, the station is not included in the TransLink fare structure, with Airtrain able to charge a premium fare.

Connection to the airport terminal
The railway station is directly connected to Level 3 of the Brisbane Airport's international terminal by a covered elevated footbridge.

Services
International Terminal is served by City network Airport line services to Roma Street, Park Road, Varsity Lakes and Domestic Terminal.


text:
Active

Active may refer to:

Music

 * Active (album), a 1992 album by Casiopea
 * Active Records, a record label

Ships

 * Active (ship), several commercial ships by that name
 * HMS Active, the name of various ships of the British Royal Navy
 * USCS Active, a US Coast Survey ship in commission from 1852 to 1861
 * USCGC Active, the name of various ships of the US Coast Guard
 * USRC Active, the name of various ships of the US Revenue Cutter Service
 * USS Active, the name of various ships of the US Navy

Computers and electronics

 * Active Enterprises, a defunct video game developer
 * Sky Active, the brand name for interactive features on Sky Digital available in the UK and Ireland
 * Active (software), software used for open publishing by Indymedia; see Independent Media Center

Sciences

 * Thermodynamic activity, measure of an effective concentration of a species in a mixture.
 * Activation, in chemistry the process whereby something is prepared for a subsequent reaction
 * Active (pharmacology), the fraction of a dose of unchanged drug that reaches systemic circulation

Other

 * Active, Alabama, a community in the US
 * Active, the original name of the early steam locomotive Locomotion No. 1
 * "Actives", current members of fraternities and sororities
 * Active living, a lifestyle characterized by frequent or various activities

title: Active


text:
Middle

Middle or The Middle may refer to:
 * Centre (geometry), the point equally distant from the outer limits.

Places

 * Middle (sheading), a subdivision of the Isle of Man
 * Middle Bay (disambiguation)
 * Middle Brook (disambiguation)
 * Middle Creek (disambiguation)
 * Middle Island (disambiguation)
 * Middle Lake (disambiguation)
 * Middle Mountain, California
 * Middle Peninsula, Chesapeake Bay, Virginia
 * Middle Range, a former name of the Xueshan Range on Taiwan Island
 * Middle River (disambiguation)
 * Middle Rocks, two rocks at the eastern opening of the Straits of Singapore
 * Middle Sound, a bay in North Carolina
 * Middle Township (disambiguation)
 * Middle East

Music

 * "Middle" (song), 2015
 * "The Middle" (Jimmy Eat World song), 2001
 * "The Middle" (Zedd, Maren Morris and Grey song), 2018
 * "Middle", a song by Rocket from the Crypt from their 1995 album Scream, Dracula, Scream!
 * "The Middle", a song by Demi Lovato from their debut album Don't Forget
 * "The Middle", a song by The Doubleclicks from their album President Snakes
 * "The Middle", a song by Lauren Alaina from her album Wildflower
 * "The Middle", a song by Trampled by Turtles from their album Life Is Good on the Open Road

Other uses

 * The Middle (TV series)
 * Middle Road (disambiguation)
 * Middle school, an educational stage in some countries

title: Middle


text:
User:Morwen/notes

Work plan
the original work plan is

 * 1) Avon, Gloucestershire, Somerset, Cleveland, County Durham, Humberside, Lincolnshire, North Yorkshire, Isle of Wight
 * 2) Cambridgeshire, Cumbria, Lancashire, Devon, Hampshire, Leicestershire, Nottinghamshire, Staffordshire
 * 3) Bedfordshire, Berkshire, Oxfordshire, Buckinghamshire, Cheshire, East Sussex, West Sussex, Kent, Northamptonshire
 * 4) Dorset, Essex, Hereford and Worcester, Norfolk, Suffolk, Wiltshire
 * 5) Cornwall, Hertfordshire, Northumberland, Shropshire, Surrey, Warwickshire

1992

 * Local Government Act 1992 recieves royal assent

1994

 * January 28: Lancashire got the "revised guidance" declared illegal - change to allow the status quo to be retained.
 * April - the Wight order is put before the house
 * June - Cleveland County Council's judicial review application is turned down
 * July 5 - The Local Government (Wales) Act 1994 recieves Royal Assent
 * December - The Cleveland, Humberside and Avon orders are put before the House
 * November 3 - The Local Government etc. (Scotland) Act 1994 recieves Royal Assent

1995

 * early: John Banham resigns as chair of the Commission.

 * March 21 - John Gummer makes a statement in the house. David Cooksey is to be the chair of the new Commission.

John Gummer announces that he is going to accept the recommendations of the commission with respect to
 * Derbyshire - Derby to become unitary
 * Staffordshire - Stoke to become unitary
 * Wiltshire - Thamesdown to become unitary
 * East Sussex - Brighton and Hove to merge and become unitary
 * Devon - Torbay and Plymouth to become unitary
 * Nottinghamshire - Nottingham to become unitary
 * Essex - Southend to become unitary
 * Herefordshire to become unitary
 * Leicestershire - Leicester and Rutland to become unitary

with the reservation that certain districts will be referred back.

In some areas he disagrees
 * Hampshire - Portsmouth and Southampton to become unitary, but New Forest is not
 * Dorset - Bournemouth and Poole to become unitary, but the rest to remain two-tier (what exactly did they recommend?)
 * Berkshire - all unitary. proposal to merge Bracknell Forest and Windsor and Maidenhead rejected.

He decides to add Norwich and The Wrekin to the list of districts to be reconsidered.

 * April - the Wight order takes effect

 * December 19 the recommendations of the Commission are made to the government.

Basildon, Broxtowe, Dartford, Exeter, Gedling, Gloucester, Gravesham, Huntingdonshire, Northampton, Norwich, Rushcliffe, and Spelthorne - no change. Blackburn with Darwen, Blackpool, Medway (Gillingham/Rochester), Halton, Warrington, Peterborough, Thurrock, Telford and the Wrekin - the commission consents to change here.

1996

 * 1996: Cleveland, Humberside, Avon reorganised

Oxfordshire

Three options
 * 3 unitary districts (june 13, 1994) - Oxford, merged South and Vale, merged West and Cherwell
 * unitary county
 * status quo

Durham

initial review
 * Unitary Durham and Darlington

after status quo to be considered

 * unitary in Darlington, status quo elsewhere

title: User:Morwen/notes


text:
Perfective aspect

The perfective aspect (abbreviated ), sometimes called the aoristic aspect, is a grammatical aspect that describes an action viewed as a simple whole, i.e., a unit without interior composition. The perfective aspect is distinguished from the imperfective aspect, which presents an event as having internal structure (such as ongoing, continuous, or habitual actions). The term perfective should be distinguished from perfect (see below).

The distinction between perfective and imperfective is more important in some languages than others. In Slavic languages, it is central to the verb system. In other languages such as German, the same form such as ich ging ("I went", "I was going") can be used perfectively or imperfectively without grammatical distinction. In other languages such as Latin, the distinction between perfective and imperfective is made only in the past tense (e.g., Latin veni "I came" vs. veniebam "I was coming", "I used to come"). However, perfective should not be confused with tense—perfective aspect can apply to events in the past, present, or future.

The perfective is often thought of as for events of short duration (e.g., "John killed the wasp"). However, this is not necessarily true—a perfective verb is equally right for a long-lasting event, provided that it is a complete whole; e.g., Tarquinius Superbus regnavit annos quinque et viginti (Livy) "Tarquin the Proud reigned for 25 years." It simply "presents an occurrence in summary, viewed as a whole from the outside, without regard for the internal make-up of the occurrence."

The perfective is also sometimes described as referring to a "completed" action, but it would be more accurate to say that it refers to an action or situation that is seen as a complete whole; e.g., the Russian perfective future я убью тебя "I shall kill you" refers to an event that has not yet been completed.

The essence of the perfective is an event seen as a whole. However, most languages that have a perfective use it for various similar semantic roles—such as momentary events and the onsets or completions of events, all of which are single points in time and thus have no internal structure. Other languages instead have separate momentane, inchoative, or cessative aspects for those roles, with or without a general perfective.

Equivalents in English
English has neither a simple perfective nor imperfective aspect; see imperfective for some basic English equivalents of this distinction.

When translating into English from a language that has these aspects, the translator sometimes uses separate English verbs. For example, in Spanish, the imperfective sabía can be translated "I knew" vs. the perfective supe "I found out", podía "I was able to" vs. pude "I succeeded", quería "I wanted to" vs. quise "I tried to", no quería "I did not want to" vs. no quise "I refused". The Polish perfective aspect is translated into English as a simple tense and the imperfective as a continuous; for example the imperfective oglądałem is translated into "I was watching", while the perfective obejrzałem is translated into "I watched". Such distinctions are often language-specific.

Marking
Languages may mark perfective aspect with morphology, syntactic construction, lexemes/particles, or other means.
 * Older Germanic languages: the aspect prefixes ge- (in Old English), gi- (in Old Saxon and Old High German), and ga- (in Gothic) indicate perfective aspects of verbs.
 * Thai: the aspect marker ขึ้น, grammaticalized from the word for "ascend," indicates a certain type of underconstrained perfective aspect when it follows a main verb
 * Hindi: the perfective aspect is marked using the perfective aspect participle. The perfective participle is constructed as shown in the table below, the consonant -य्- (-y-) is added to the perfective suffix when the verb root ends in a vowel.

Perfective vs. perfect
The terms perfective and perfect should not be confused.

A perfect tense (abbreviated ' or ') is a grammatical form used to describe a past event with present relevance, or a present state resulting from a past situation. For example, "I have put it on the table" implies both that I put the object on the table and that it is still there; "I have been to France" conveys that this is a part of my experience as of now; and "I have lost my wallet" implies that this loss is troublesome at the present moment. A perfect tense does not necessarily have to be perfective in aspect. For example, "I have been waiting here for an hour" and "I have been going to that doctor all my life" are perfect but also imperfective in aspect.

There are some languages, however, such as Modern Greek, in which the perfect tense is always perfective.

Hindustani
Hindustani (aka Hindi-Urdu) has 3 grammatical aspects: Habitual, Perfective and Progressive. Each aspect is constructed from its participle and a number of auxiliary verbs can be used with the aspectual participles such as: honā (to be, to happen), rêhnā (to stay, to remain), jānā (to go), ānā (to come), and karnā (to do). These verbs themselves can be made into aspectual participles and can be used with the default auxiliary verb honā (to be), hence forming sub-aspects that combine the nuance of two aspects. The auxiliary rêhnā (to stay) gives a nuance of continuity of the perfective state, jānā (to go) is used to construct the passive voice (in its habitual subaspect) and also shows that the action is completed (in its perfective subaspect), karnā (to do) gives the nuance that the perfective action is repeated habitually.

 * 1 The auxiliary jānā (to go) can only be used with the perfective aspect participle if the verb is transitive, or intransitive but volitional. So, *huā jānā is not valid construction. marnā (to die) is intransitive but it's a volitional action and hence marā jānā is a valid construction.
 * Note: Most nuances generated by the auxiliaries are not uniquely expressed in English and hence many verbs above have the same translation in English but don't have the same nuances in Hindi-Urdu.

Conjugating the auxiliary verbs which are in the infinitive form above into their aspectual forms using the auxiliary honā (to be) gives the following subaspectual forms of the perfective aspect in their infinitive form:

title: Perfective aspect


text:
Imperfective aspect

The imperfective (abbreviated or more ambiguously ) is a grammatical aspect used to describe ongoing, habitual, repeated, or similar semantic roles, whether that situation occurs in the past, present, or future. Although many languages have a general imperfective, others have distinct aspects for one or more of its various roles, such as progressive, habitual, and iterative aspects. The imperfective contrasts with the perfective aspect, which is used to describe actions viewed as a complete whole.

English
English is an example of a language with no general imperfective. The English progressive is used to describe ongoing events, but can still be used in past tense, such as "The rain was beating down". Habitual situations do not have their own verb form (in most dialects), but the construction "used to" conveys past habitual action, as in I used to ski. Unlike in languages with a general imperfective, in English the simple past tense can be used for situations presented as ongoing, such as The rain beat down continuously through the night.

A contrast between the progressive and imperfective is seen with stative verbs. In English, stative verbs, such as know, do not use the progressive (*I was knowing French is ungrammatical), while in languages with an imperfective (for instance, French), stative verbs frequently appear in the imperfective.

African American Vernacular English does have an imperfective aspect for present tense formed by adding "be" before the present continuous of a verb, such as "he be working", or "they be eating".

Indo-Aryan languages
Verbs in Hindi-Urdu (Hindustani) have their grammatical aspects overtly marked. Periphrastic Hindi-Urdu verb forms (participle verb forms) consist of two elements, the first of these two elements is the aspect marker and the second element (the copula) is the common tense-mood marker. There are two independent imperfective aspects in Hindi-Urdu: Habitual Aspect, and Progressive Aspect. These two aspects are formed from their participle forms being used with the copula verb of Hindi which is होना honā (to be). However, the aspectual participles can also have the verbs रहना rêhnā (to stay/remain), आना ānā (to come) & जाना jānā (to go) as their copula. The table below shows three verbs होना honā (to be), करना karnā (to do), and मरना marnā (to die) in their aspectual infintive forms using different copulas. '' Some translations are approximate, and the nuance cannot be expressed exactly in English. Some aspectual forms also have the same translations in English but are not interchangeable in Hindi-Urdu. ''

Now, these copula verbs (besides होना honā) can themselves be converted into their participle forms and put into one of the three different aspects of Hindi-Urdu, which are habitual, progressive, and perfective aspects, hence generating sub-aspectual infinitive forms. This way a verb form combining two grammatical aspects is constructed. The table below shows the combined aspectual forms: '' The perfective subaspect of the habitual main aspect (habitual) also is imperfective (habitual). Also, these sub-aspects are even more nuanced that it is not possible to translate each of them into English in a unique way. Some translations don't even make sense in English. ''

Slavic languages
Verbs in Slavic languages have a perfective and/or an imperfective form. Generally, any of various prefixes can turn imperfectives into perfectives; suffixes can turn perfectives into imperfectives. The non-past imperfective form is used for the present, while its perfective counterpart is used for the future. There is also a periphrastic imperfective future construction.

Other languages
The imperfective aspect may be fused with the past tense, for a form traditionally called the imperfect. In some cases, such as Spanish and Portuguese, this is because the imperfective aspect occurs only in the past tense; others, such as Georgian and Bulgarian, have both general imperfectives and imperfects. Other languages with distinct past imperfectives include Latin and Persian.

Perfective
The opposite aspect is the perfective (in Ancient Greek, generally called the aorist), which views a situation as a simple whole, without interior composition. (This is not the same as the perfect.) Unlike most other tense–aspect category oppositions, it is typical for a language not to choose either perfective or imperfective as being generally marked and the other as being generally unmarked.

In narrative, one of the uses of the imperfective is to set the background scene ("It was midnight. The room was dark.  The rain was beating down.  Water was streaming in through a broken window.  A gun lay on the table."), with the perfective describing foregrounded actions within that scene ("Suddenly, a man burst into the room, ran over to the table, and grabbed the gun.").

English does not have these aspects. However, the background-action contrast provides a decent approximation in English:
 * "John was reading when I entered."

Here 'entered' presents "the totality of the situation referred to [...]: the whole of the situation is presented as a single unanalysable whole, with beginning, middle, and end all rolled into one; no attempt is made to divide this situation up into the various individual phases that make up the action of entry." This is the essence of the perfective aspect: an event presented as an unanalyzed whole.

'Was reading', however, is different. Besides being the background to 'entered', the form 'reading' presents "an internal portion of John's reading, [with] no explicit reference to the beginning or to the end of his reading." This is the essence of the imperfective aspect. Or, to continue the quotation, "the perfective looks at the situation from the outside, without necessarily distinguishing any of the internal structure of the situation, whereas the imperfective looks at the situation from inside, and as such is crucially concerned with the internal structure of the situation, since it can both look backwards towards the start of the situation, and look forwards to the end of the situation, and indeed it is equally appropriate if the situation is one that lasts through all time, without any beginning and without any end."

This is why, within the past tense, perfective verbs are typically translated into English as simple past, like 'entered', whereas imperfective verbs are typically translated as 'was reading', 'used to read', and the like. (In English, it is easiest to illustrate aspect in the past tense. However, any tense is possible: Present "John is reading as I enter", future "John will be reading when I enter", etc.: In each tense, the aspectual distinction is the same.)

This aspectual distinction is not inherent to the events themselves, but is decided by how the speaker views them or wishes to present them. The very same event may be described as perfective in one clause, and then imperfective in the next. For example,
 * "John read that book yesterday; while he was reading it, the postman came,"

where the two forms of 'to read' refer to the same thing. In 'John read that book yesterday', however, John's reading is presented as a complete event, without further subdivision into successive temporal phases; while in 'while he was reading it', this event is opened up, so that the speaker is now in the middle of the situation of John's reading, as it is in the middle of this reading that the postman arrives.

The perfective and imperfective need not occur together in the same utterance; indeed they more often do not. However, it is difficult to describe them in English without an explicit contrast like "John was reading when I entered."

Combination
The two aspects may be combined on the same verb in a few languages, for perfective imperfectives and imperfective perfectives. Georgian and Bulgarian, for example, have parallel perfective-imperfective and aorist-imperfect forms, the latter restricted to the past tense. In Bulgarian, there are parallel perfective and imperfective stems; aorist and imperfect suffixes are typically added to the perfective and imperfective stems, respectively, but the opposite can occur. For example, an imperfect perfective is used in Bulgarian for a simple action that is repeated or habitual: vecher sedn-eshe na chardak-a

evening sit.PFV-PST.IPFV on veranda-DEF

In the evening, he would sit down on the veranda.

Here each sitting is an unanalyzed whole, a simple event, so the perfective root of the verb sedn 'sat' is used. However, the clause as a whole describes an ongoing event conceived of as having internal structure, so the imperfective suffix -eshe is added. Without the suffix, the clause would read simply as In the evening he sat on the veranda.

title: Imperfective aspect


text: User:François-Dominique~enwiki

title: User:François-Dominique~enwiki


text:
Standesamt Zachasberg

Standesamt Zachasberg was a civil registration district (Standesamt) located in Kreis Kolmar, province of Posen of the German Empire (1871-1918) and administered the communities of:

Kol = Kolmar; Mar = Margonin; Sam = Samotschin; Zac = Zachasberg

title: Standesamt Zachasberg


text:
Ye (Cyrillic)

E (Е е; italics: Е е ), known in Russian and Belarusian as Ye, Je, or Ie, is a letter of the Cyrillic script. In some languages this letter is called E. It commonly represents the vowel or, like the pronunciation of $\langlee\rangle$ in "yes". It was derived from the Greek letter epsilon (Ε ε), and the shape is very similar to the E|Latin letter E or another version of E (Cyrillic).

Ye is romanized using the E|Latin letter E for Bulgarian, Serbian, Macedonian, Ukrainian and Rusyn, and occasionally Russian (Озеро Байкал, Ozero Baykal), Je for Belarusian (Заслаўе, Zaslaŭje), Ye for Russian (Европа, Yevropa), and Ie occasionally for Russian (Днепр, Dniepr) and Belarusian (Маладзе́чна, Maladziečna).

Russian and Belarusian

 * At the beginning of a word or after a vowel, Ye represents the phonemic combination (phonetically  or ), like the pronunciation of $\langleye\rangle$ in "yes". Ukrainian uses the letter $\langleє\rangle$ (see Ukrainian Ye) in this way.
 * Following a consonant, Ye indicates that the consonant is palatalized, and represents the vowel (phonetically  or ), like the pronunciation of $\langlee\rangle$ in "yes".

In Russian, the letter $\langleе\rangle$ can follow unpalatalized consonants, especially $\langleж\rangle$, $\langleш\rangle$, and $\langleц\rangle$. In some loanwords, other consonants before $\langleе\rangle$ (especially $\langleт\rangle$, $\langleд\rangle$, $\langleн\rangle$, $\langleс\rangle$, $\langleз\rangle$, and $\langleр\rangle$) are also not palatalized, see E (Cyrillic). The letter $\langleе\rangle$ also represents (as in "yogurt") and  after palatalized consonants, $\langleж\rangle$, and $\langleш\rangle$. In these cases, $\langleё\rangle$ may be used, see Yo (Cyrillic). In unstressed syllables, $\langlee\rangle$ represents reduced vowels like, see Russian phonology and Vowel reduction in Russian.

Bulgarian, Serbian, Macedonian, Ukrainian and Rusyn
This letter is called E, and represents the vowel phoneme (phonetically  or ), like the pronunciation of $\langlee\rangle$ in the word "set".

Mongolian
The letter represents the sound at the beginning of words (yo represents ), and also represents  at the beginning of some words and in the middle or end of words and  in Russian loanwords and transcriptions of foreign names.

Turkic languages and Tajik
In Turkic languages utilizing the Cyrillic script (such as Kazakh, Kyrgyz and Uzbek) and in Tajik, Ye is used to represent the phoneme ~, both word-finally and medially. Isolated, word-initially, or vowel-succeeding, this letter is substituted with the letter Э. If the letter Ye occurs word-initially, isolated, or vowel-succeeding, it represents the phoneme /je/~/jɛ/.

title: Ye (Cyrillic)


text:
Ze (Cyrillic)

Ze (З з; italics: З з ) is a letter of the Cyrillic script.

It commonly represents the voiced alveolar fricative, like the pronunciation of $⟨z⟩$ in "zebra".

Ze is romanized using the Latin letter $⟨z⟩$.

The shape of Ze is very similar to the 3|Arabic numeral three $⟨3⟩$, and should not be confused with the Cyrillic letter E $⟨Э⟩$.

History and shape
Ze is derived from the Greek letter Zeta (Ζ ζ).

In the Early Cyrillic alphabet its name was (zemlja), meaning "earth". The shape of the letter originally looked similar to a Greek letter Ζ or Latin letter Z with a tail on the bottom. Though a majuscule form of this variant is encoded in Unicode, historically it was only used as caseless or lowercase.

In the Cyrillic numeral system, Zemlja had a value of 7.

Medieval Cyrillic manuscripts and Church Slavonic printed books have two variant forms of the letter Zemlja: з and. Only the form was used in the oldest ustav (uncial) writing style; з appeared in the later poluustav (half-uncial) manuscripts and typescripts, where the two variants are found at proportions of about 1:1. Some early grammars tried to give a phonetic distinction to these forms (like palatalized vs. nonpalatalized sound), but the system had no further development. Ukrainian scribes and typographers began to regularly use З/з in an initial position, and otherwise (a system in use till the end of the 19th century). Russian scribes and typographers largely abandoned the widespread use of the variant in favor of з in the wake of Patriarch Nikon's reforms. They still used the older form mostly in the case of two З's in row: (the system in use till the mid-18th century).

The civil (Petrine) script knows only one shape of the letter: З/з. However, shapes similar to Z/z can be used in certain stylish typefaces.

In calligraphy and in general handwritten text, lowercase з can be written either fully over the baseline (similar to the printed form) or with the lower half under the baseline and with the loop (for the Russian language, a standard shape since the middle of the 20th century).

Phonetic value
The letter Ze may represent:
 * , the voiced alveolar sibilant (Macedonian, Bulgarian, Bosnian, Serbian, Montenegrin, Russian, Ukrainian, Rusyn and Belarusian);
 * , if followed by $⟨ь⟩$ or any of the palatalizing vowels, as in Russian зеркало (“mirror”);
 * , the voiceless alveolar sibilant (in final position or before voiceless consonants);
 * , if followed by $⟨ь⟩$ in final position or before voiceless consonants;
 * or (Iron dialect of Ossetian, but  in Digoron and Kudairag);
 * clusters $⟨зж⟩$ and $⟨зш⟩$ are pronounced in Russian as if they were $⟨жж⟩$ and $⟨шш⟩$, respectively (even if $⟨з⟩$ is the last letter of a preposition, like in Russian без жены “without wife” or из школы “from school”);
 * cluster $⟨зч⟩$ (sometimes also $⟨здч⟩$) is pronounced in Russian as if it was $⟨щ⟩$ (рассказчик “narrator”, звёздчатый “stellar, star-shaped”, без чая “without tea”);
 * cluster $⟨дз⟩$ can be pronounced (mostly in Ukrainian, Rusyn and Belarusian) as the voiced alveolar affricate (Ukrainian дзеркало “mirror”) or its palatalized form  (Belarusian гадзіннік “clock”), but if $⟨д⟩$ and $⟨з⟩$ belong to different morphemes, then they are pronounced separately. In the standard Iron dialect of Ossetian, this cluster simply stands for ; other dialects treat it as the affricate.
 * , the voiceless alveolar affricate in Mongolian, similar to German z.

Zhuang
A letter that looks like Cyrillic Ze (actually, a stylization of digit 3) was used in the Latin Zhuang alphabet from 1957 to 1986 to represent the third (high) tone. In 1986, it was replaced by $⟨j⟩$.

Other related letters and similar characters

 * 3 : Digit Three
 * Ζ ζ : Ζ|Greek letter Zeta
 * Z z : Z|Latin letter Z
 * Ʒ ʒ : Ʒ|Latin letter Ezh
 * Ȝ ȝ : Ȝ|Latin letter Yogh
 * Ɜ ɜ : Latin letter reversed open E
 * Ҙ ҙ : Ҙ|Cyrillic letter Dhe or Ze with descender
 * Ӡ ӡ : Ӡ|Cyrillic letter Abkhazian Dze
 * Ԑ ԑ : Ԑ|Cyrillic letter Reversed Ze

title: Ze (Cyrillic)


text:
Short I (Cyrillic)

Short I or Jot (Й й; italics: Й й or Й й ; italics: Й й ) (sometimes called I kratkoe, и краткое, Ukrainian: йот) or I with breve, Russian: и с бреве) is a letter of the Cyrillic script. It is made of the Cyrillic letter И with a breve.

The short I represents the palatal approximant, like the pronunciation of $\langlej\rangle$ in hallelujah.

Depending on the romanization system in use and the Slavic language that is under examination, it can be romanized as $\langlej\rangle$. For more details, see romanization of Russian, romanization of Ukrainian, romanization of Belarusian and romanization of Bulgarian.

History
Active use of $\langleЙ\rangle$ (or, rather, the breve over $\langleИ\rangle$) began around the 15th and 16th centuries. Since the middle of the 17th century, the differentiation between $\langleИ\rangle$ and $\langleЙ\rangle$ is obligatory in the Russian variant of Church Slavonic orthography (used for the Russian language as well). During the alphabet reforms of Peter I, all diacritic marks were removed from the Russian writing system, but shortly after his death, in 1735, the distinction between $\langleИ\rangle$ and $\langleЙ\rangle$ was restored. $\langleЙ\rangle$ was not officially considered a separate letter of the alphabet until the 1930s.

Because $\langleЙ\rangle$ was considered to be a vowel and not a consonant, it was not required to take a hard sign when it came at the end of a word in pre-reform orthography.

Usage
In Russian, it appears predominantly in diphthongs like in широкий (shirokij 'wide'),  in край (kraj 'end', 'krai'),  in долей (dolej 'portion'),  in горой (goroj 'mountain'), and  in буйство (bujstvo 'rage'). It is used in other positions only in foreign words, such as Йopк (Jork), including fellow Slavic words like Йовович (Jovovich).

In Kazakh, the letter is used to represent a short ɪ sound (e.g. берейік (tr. (Let us) give)). The letter, much like the other 11 Cyrillic letters, does not have another Latin version and merges with Ии (İi).

In Serbo-Croatian and Macedonian, the Cyrillic letter Јe is used to represent the same sound. Latin-based Slavonic writing systems, such as Polish, Czech and the Latin version of Serbo-Croatian use the J|Latin letter J, for that purpose.

Related letters and other similar characters

 * И и : Cyrillic letter I
 * Ы ы : Ы|Cyrillic letter Yery
 * Η η: Η|Greek letter Eta
 * H h : H|Latin letter H
 * І і : І|Cyrillic letter І
 * I i : I|Latin letter I
 * Ĭ ĭ : Ĭ|Latin letter Ĭ
 * J j : J|Latin letter J
 * Ј ј : Ј|Cyrillic letter Je
 * Y y : Y|Latin letter Y
 * Ў ў : Ў|Cyrillic letter Short U
 * ̆ Combining breve U+0306

Note that breve in Й may be quite different from ordinary breve, the former having a thinner central part and thicker ends (the opposite holds for ordinary breve). This is often seen in serif fonts, cf. Й (Cyrillic Short I) and Ŭ (Latin U with breve).

title: Short I (Cyrillic)


text:
Talk:Courland

I removed the following sentence because I doubt whether that is true.

The Baltic provinces - Estonia, Livonia and Courland - ceased to exist in 1876, to form collectively one general government.

Two different encyclopedias give different claims. 1911 Britannica makes the claim above. 10-volume Latvian Soviet Encyclopedia published in 1980s does not mention that and keeps referring to Estonia, Livonia and Courland as separate provinces until October Revolution. Both of them are fairly respectable sources. Britannica is well known and Latvian Soviet Encyclopedia was written by best Latvian historians of that time.

Is there anything else we can check? The claim really contradicts what I have learned about Latvian history but, since it's from Britannica, I don't quite want to dismiss it without checking carefully. Andris 08:26, Jul 24, 2004 (UTC)

 * I checked google and it appears that some change was made in 1876 but the provinces did not cease to exist. The first source says

 * In 1819 the Russian governments of Courland, Estonia and Livonia were grouped into a Government General. This lasted until 1876 when the three governments again became directly and separately depended of the Russian ministry of Home Affairs.

 * An online version of 1918 book JAMES W. GERARD. FACE TO FACE WITH KAISERISM says
 * The three provinces were governed semi-independently, until 1876, when they became in all respects an integral part of the Russian Empire.
 * I will leave the claim out for now, since I'm less and less sure what actually happened. Feel free to put it back in, if you can decisively research this question. Andris 08:37, Jul 24, 2004 (UTC)

Population
The article gives good information on what the population breakdown once WAS. Can we have some up-to-date figures, please?

Land of Crane
Please add to the article also Finnish name for Courland which is "Kuurinmaa", also known as "The Land of Crane".

JN

 * There is a Livonian name in the article and the Finnish name is included in the links. I doubt that the Finnish name is needed in the article, though I'm myself a Finno-Ugric. --Yomal Sidoroff-Biarmskii 12:30, 18 November 2016 (UTC)

Independant?
Can we consider Courland a de facto independant state if Liepaja regionalist is the incumbant prime minister of Latvia? --Yomal Sidoroff-Biarmskii 12:22, 18 November 2016 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the nomination page. —Community Tech bot (talk) 20:54, 25 October 2022 (UTC)
 * Kurland6pf20apr1945.jpg

title: Talk:Courland


text:
Ca' d'Oro

The Ca' d'Oro or Palazzo Santa Sofia is a palace on the Grand Canal in Venice, northern Italy. One of the older palaces in the city, its name means "golden house" due to the gilt and polychrome external decorations which once adorned its walls. Since 1927, it has been used as a museum, as the Galleria Giorgio Franchetti.

It has long been regarded as the best surviving palazzo in Venetian Gothic architecture, retaining all the most characteristic features, despite some losses. On the facade, the loggia-like window group of closely spaced small columns, with heavy tracery with quatrefoil openings above, uses the formula from the Doge's Palace that had become iconic. There are also the byzantine-inspired decoration along the roofline, and patterning in fancy coloured stone to the flat wall surfaces. The smaller windows show a variety of forms with an ogee arch, capped with a relief ornament, and the edges and zone boundaries are marked with ropework reliefs.

The third act of Amilcare Ponchielli's opera La gioconda is set in the palace.

History
The palace was built between 1428 and 1430 for the Contarini family, who provided Venice with eight Doges between 1043 and 1676. The architects of the Ca d'Oro were Giovanni Bon and his son Bartolomeo Bon.

Following the fall of the Venetian Republic in 1797, the palace changed ownership several times. In 1846, Alessandro Trubetzkoi, purchased the palace, which was in a ruinous state, as a gift for ballet dancer Marie Taglioni. The reckless renovation of the architect resulted in his imprisonment under charges of vandalism. In the end, many of the Gothic features, including the stairway of the inner courtyard and the balconies which overlooked the courtyard, were removed.

In 1894, the palace was acquired by its last owner, baron Giorgio Franchetti; throughout his lifetime, he amassed an important art collection and personally oversaw its extensive restoration, including the reconstruction of the stairway and the Cosmatesque courtyard with ancient marbles. In 1916, Franchetti bequeathed the Ca' d'Oro to the Italian State. It is now open to the public as a gallery: Galleria Giorgio Franchetti alla Ca' d'Oro.

During the 2019 Venice flood, waters reached the top of the wellhead in the inner courtyard.

Description
The principal façade of Ca' d'Oro facing onto the Grand Canal is built in the Bons' floral Venetian Gothic style. Other nearby buildings in this style are Palazzo Barbaro and the Palazzo Giustinian. This linear style favoured by the Venetian architects was not superseded by Venetian Renaissance architecture until the end of the 15th century, or later.

On the ground floor, a recessed colonnaded loggia gives access to the entrance hall (portego de mezo) directly from the canal. Above this colonnade is the enclosed balcony of the principal salon on the piano nobile. The columns and arches of this balcony have capitals which in turn support a row of quatrefoil windows; above this balcony is another enclosed balcony or loggia of a similar yet lighter design.

The palace has (like other similar buildings in Venice) a small inner courtyard. The neighboring palace is Palazzo Giustinian Pesaro.

Francis H. Kimball, the famed American architect behind landmarks like the Empire State Building, used the Ca' d'Oro as inspiration for the Montauk Club, a social club in Brooklyn, New York.

Museum
The gallery houses the collection of works of art collected by Giorgio Franchetti in his life. Following the donation to the Italian State in 1916 and in preparation for the museum, the Franchetti collection was accompanied by some state collections from which most of the bronzes and sculptures on display come from, as well as numerous Venetian and Flemish paintings.

Among the most valuable works are the San Sebastiano by Andrea Mantegna and the Portrait of Marcello Durazzo by Antoon van Dyck.

In addition to the exhibition rooms, the museum houses various laboratories for the conservation and restoration of works of art.

title: Ca' d'Oro


text:
MC-CDMA

MC-CDMA may stand for:
 * Multi-carrier code-division multiple access, a multiple access technology used in telecommunication systems based on OFDM.
 * A variant of the mobile communication standard CDMA2000, where three or more pairs of 1.25 MHz radio channels are used together so that higher data rates can be achieved.

title: MC-CDMA


text:
Ka (Cyrillic)

Ka (К к or K k; italics: К к or K k or К к or K k; italics: К к or K k ) is a letter of the Cyrillic script.

It commonly represents the voiceless velar plosive /k/, like the pronunciation of ⟨k⟩ in "king" or "kick".

History
The Cyrillic letter Ka was derived from the Greek letter Kappa (Κ κ).

In the Early Cyrillic alphabet its name was (kako), meaning "as".

In the Cyrillic numeral system, Ka had a value of 20.

Form
The Cyrillic letter Ka looks very similar, and corresponds to the K|Latin letter K. In many fonts, Cyrillic Ka is differentiated from its Latin and Greek counterparts by drawing one or both of its diagonal spurs with curved instead of straight. Also in some fonts the lowercase form of Ka has the vertical bar elongated above x-height, resembling the Latin lowercase k.

Usage
In Russian, the letter Ka represents the plain voiceless velar plosive or the palatalized one ; for example, the word короткий ("short") contains both the kinds:. The palatalized variant is pronounced when the following letter in the word is ь, е, ё, и, ю, or я. In Macedonian and Serbian it always represents the sound.

Related letters and other similar characters

 * Κ κ/ϰ : Κ|Greek letter Kappa
 * K k : K|Latin letter K
 * Q q : Q|Latin letter Q
 * C c : C|Latin letter C
 * X x : X|Latin letter X

title: Ka (Cyrillic)


text:
Yu (Cyrillic)

Yu or Ju (Ю ю; italics: Ю ю ) is a letter of the Cyrillic script used in East Slavic and Bulgarian alphabets.

In English, Yu is an commonly romanized as $\langleyu\rangle$ or $\langleju\rangle$. In turn, $\langleю\rangle$ is used, where available, in transcriptions of English letter $\langleu\rangle$ (in open syllables), and also of the $\langleew\rangle$ digraph. The sound, like $\langleu\rangle$ in French and $\langleü\rangle$ in German, may also be approximated by the letter $\langleю\rangle$.

Pronunciation
Sometimes, it is referred to as "Iotated O" because it is a so-called iotated vowel, pronounced in isolation as, like the pronunciation of $\langleu\rangle$ in "human". After a consonant, no distinct sound is pronounced, but the consonant is softened. The exact pronunciation of the vowel sound of $\langleю\rangle$ in Russian depends also on the succeeding sound because of allophony. Before a soft consonant, it is, the close central rounded vowel, as in 'rude'. Before a hard consonant or at the end of a word, the result is a back vowel, as in "pool".

History
Apart from the form I-O, in early Slavonic manuscripts the letter appears also in a mirrored form O-I. It is the latter form that is probably the original, precisely displaying the Greek combination omicron-iota (οι). At the time that the Greek alphabet was adapted to the Slavonic language giving rise to the Cyrillic alphabet, it denoted the close front rounded vowel in educated Greek speech. The close front rounded vowel does not appear in East Slavic. See above.

There was another way for it to lead to the modern form. By the analogy to several 'iotated' letters Ѥ, Ꙗ, Ѩ and Ѭ, the ancient ligature (or letter) Uk $\langleоѵ\rangle$/$\langleоу\rangle$ possibly had its iotated form $\langleіоѵ\rangle$/$\langleіоу\rangle$.

Also, the iotated big Yus $\langleѬ\rangle$ merged itself to $\langleю\rangle$ in East Slavic languages.

Related letters and other similar characters

 * У у : Cyrillic letter U
 * Ү ү : Cyrillic letter Ue
 * Û û : Û|Latin letter U with circumflex
 * Ū ū : Ū|Latin letter U with macron
 * Ǔ ǔ : Ǔ|Latin letter U with caron

title: Yu (Cyrillic)


text:
Peter I of Serbia

Peter I (Петар I Карађорђевић; 11 July 1844 – 16 August 1921) was King of Serbia from 15 June 1903 to 1 December 1918. On 1 December 1918, he became King of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, and he held that title until his death three years later. Since he was the king of Serbia during a period of great Serbian military success, he was remembered by Serbians as King Peter the Liberator and also as the Old King.

Peter was the fifth child and third son of Alexander Karađorđević, Prince of Serbia, and his wife, Persida Nenadović. Prince Alexander was forced to abdicate in 1858, and Peter lived with his family in exile. He fought with the French Foreign Legion in the Franco-Prussian War. He joined as a volunteer under the alias Peter Mrkonjić (Петар Мркоњић) in the Herzegovina uprising (1875–1877) against the Ottoman Empire. In 1883, Prince Peter married Princess Ljubica, daughter of King Nicholas I of Montenegro. Ljubica became known as Princess Zorka upon her marriage. Peter and Zorka had five children: Helen, Milena, George, Alexander, and Andrew. After his father died in 1885, Peter became head of the Karađorđević dynasty.

After King Alexander I Obrenović was murdered during the May Coup of 1903, Peter Karađorđević became the new king of Serbia. As king, he advocated a constitutional setup for the country and was famous for his liberal politics. Peter's rule was marked with the great exercise of political liberties, freedom of the press, national, economical and cultural rise, and it is sometimes dubbed a "golden" or "Periclean age". Peter was the supreme commander of the Royal Serbian Army in the Balkan Wars. On 24 June 1914, the aging king proclaimed his son and heir Alexander as regent. In World War I, the King and his army retreated across the Principality of Albania. Peter died in 1921 aged 77.

Early life
Peter was born in Belgrade on 11 July 1844. He was the fifth of ten children born to Prince Alexander Karađorđević and his consort, Persida Nenadović. He was the grandson of Karađorđe, the leader of the First Serbian Uprising (1804–1813) and the founder of the Karađorđević dynasty. Peter was not born in the Royal Court, which was undergoing renovations at the time, but at the home of merchant Miša Anastasijević, whose daughter Sara (1836-1931) was later married to Peter's first cousin Prince George Karađorđević (1827–1884). His birth was not met with much celebration because he was his parents' third son and his older brother Svetozar was the heir to the throne.

His parents' oldest son, Aleksa, had died three years prior to Peter's birth, aged five, at which point Svetozar became heir. Peter did not become heir until Svetozar's death in 1847 at the age of six. Besides Belgrade, Peter spent much of his childhood in the town of Topola, from where the Karađorđević dynasty originated. He received his elementary education in Belgrade.

Post-secondary education and Franco-Prussian War
In 1858, just as the fourteen-year-old Peter was preparing to depart for Geneva to attend high school, his father was forced to abdicate the throne. The Karađorđević dynasty's rivals, the Obrenović dynasty, were reinstated, and an Obrenović prince, Mihailo, claimed the throne. The two dynasties had been vying for power since 1817, when Karađorđe was assassinated on the orders of Miloš Obrenović,  the founder of the Obrenović dynasty.

Peter left Geneva for Paris in 1861 and enrolled in the Collège Sainte-Barbe, located in the heart of the city's Latin Quarter. The following year, Peter enrolled in the Saint-Cyr, France's most prestigious military academy. He graduated from the academy in 1864, and continued living in Paris for some time thereafter. During this period, he pursued interests such as photography and painting, and read works of political philosophy, learning about liberalism, parliamentarism and democracy. In 1866, he entered the Higher Military School in Metz, which he attended until the following year. Two years later, his Serbian-language translation of John Stuart Mill's On Liberty was published.

At the outbreak of the 1870–71 Franco-Prussian War, Peter joined the French Foreign Legion under the pseudonym Petar Kara, together with relative Nikola Nikolajević. During his service, Peter held the rank of either lieutenant or second lieutenant, depending on the source, and fought with the 1st Foreign Regiment. He participated in the Second Battle of Orléans on 3–4 December 1870, as well as the Battle of Villersexel on 9 January 1871. He was awarded the Legion of Honour for his conduct during the two battles, but was captured by the Prussians shortly thereafter. He managed to escape captivity and returned to the front. Peter was involved in the Paris Commune in the spring of 1871, together with close friend and relative Vladimir Ljotić, though the exact nature of his involvement remains unknown.

Guerrilla activities
With the outbreak of the Great Eastern Crisis of 1875–78, which erupted after Bosnian Serb rebels in Nevesinje staged a revolt against the Ottoman Empire, Peter returned to the Balkans and fought the Ottomans in northwestern Bosnia. He adopted the nom de guerre of Petar Mrkonjić, and upon reaching the regions of Banija and Kordun in Austria-Hungary, took control of guerrilla unit of about 200 men.

He arrived at Bosanska Dubica in August 1875, but received a cold welcome. He discovered that Prince Milan of Serbia was plotting to assassinate him fearing that Peter would attempt to wrest back the throne from the Obrenović dynasty. This revelation, combined with a string of battlefield defeats, compelled Peter and his followers to leave Bosnia and withdraw to Austria-Hungary.

They were subsequently detained by the Austro-Hungarian Army in the village of Bojna, near Glina. Peter escaped, returned to Bosnia and organized another band of rebels. Once again, his involvement in the fighting aroused suspicion in Belgrade, and by May 1876 his presence proved divisive. The rebels split into three separate camps: one that supported Peter, another that supported Milan and a third that advocated Austro-Hungarian arbitration. Not wishing to cause further divisions among the rebels, Peter agreed to leave Bosnia. Prior to his departure, he wrote a letter to Milan explaining why he was leaving the battlefield and offering to make peace with the Obrenović dynasty.

Despite his attempts to make peace with Milan, accusations of treason continued to be levelled against Peter. He decided to travel to Kragujevac, the seat of the Royal Serbian Government, and address the National Assembly in an attempt to clear his name. In 1877, an anti-government uprising erupted in the Toplica region of southern Serbia, for which Milan blamed Peter and Karađorđević sympathizers. Peter was accused of treachery and collaboration with the Ottomans.

In the summer of 1878, he illegally crossed the border between Serbia and Austria-Hungary at Golubac via the Danube. Peter and his guide became lost in the Homolje mountains and were forced to hide from the authorities in the wilderness. Peter returned to Austria-Hungary shortly thereafter, but was arrested by the Austro-Hungarian police and interned at the Karađorđević family home in Bokszeg. In 1878, he was allowed to leave Bokszeg. He first went to Budapest and then to Paris. During this period, he was closely monitored by Austro-Hungarian spies, who took note of all his movements.

In January 1879, court proceedings were initiated against Peter and his closest companions in Smederevo. The plaintiff, Prince Milan, alleged that Peter and his followers had attempted to overthrow the Obrenović dynasty and place a Karađorđević on the throne. Peter and his companions were charged with high treason, for which the mandatory penalty was death. As he was living in Paris at the time of the proceedings, Peter was convicted in absentia and sentenced to death by hanging.

Move to Cetinje
In 1883, Peter moved to Cetinje, the capital of the second independent Serb state, Montenegro, with the intention of marrying the eldest daughter of Montenegro's ruler, Prince Nicholas. Peter and Ljubica Petrović-Njegoš were married in Cetinje in the summer of 1883. The marriage upset the region's volatile geopolitical balance, causing great unease in the Austro-Hungarian, Russian and Serbian capitals. Belgrade perceived it as a sign of increasing closeness between the Petrović-Njegoš and Karađorđević dynasties. Relations between the two Serb states worsened, as did relations between Austria-Hungary and Russia, which had been vying for power in the Balkans for decades.

When his father died in the spring of 1885, Peter became the head of the House of Karađorđević and took the title of prince. Serbia, previously a principality, was declared a kingdom in 1882, and henceforth, the Serbian monarch used the title King of Serbia. Ljubica died during childbirth in March 1890. The couple had five children, three of whom reached adulthood: Helen (Jelena), Milena, George (Đorđe), Alexander (Aleksandar), and Andrew (Andrej). Milena died in infancy and Andrew died along with his mother during childbirth.

Following his father's death, Peter's financial situation deteriorated and he became dependent on his father-in-law, as well as Russia and his brother George, for support. Following the Royal Serbian Army's rout in the Serbo-Bulgarian War of 1885, Peter and Nicholas devised a plan to invade Serbia and overthrow the Obrenović dynasty. At the last minute, Nicholas abandoned the idea. Peter felt betrayed by the Prince's decision to back out, leading to long lasting animosity. Nevertheless, he remained in Cetinje until 1894, devoting himself to his surviving children, who finished their primary education there.

In 1894, Peter moved to Geneva with his three children, where he was to remain until 1903. In 1899, Tsar Nicholas II invited Prince George and Prince Alexander, as well as Peter's nephew Paul, to attend the Corps des Pages military academy in Saint Petersburg free of charge. Due to his poor financial standing, which prevented him from sending the boys to private schools in Switzerland, Peter accepted the Tsar's offer.

May Coup
In July 1900, King Alexander, Milan's 23-year-old son, married Draga Mašin, a widowed lady-in-waiting twelve years his senior with a reputation for promiscuity. Mašin was also believed to be infertile, raising questions as to the viability of the Obrenović line. The marriage sparked outrage among the officer corps and led to a plot to remove Alexander from the throne. The officers, led by Dragutin Dimitrijević ("Apis"), initially sought to expel Alexander and Draga but realized that doing so would precipitate a conflict between the pro-Karađorđević and pro-Obrenović camps within the country.

By the autumn of 1901, the conspirators resolved to kill the King and Queen, thereby averting a possible civil war. Some officers proposed placing an English or German prince on the throne. Another suggested Prince Mirko, the second son of Nicholas of Montenegro, and others advocated forming a republic. Political conditions in Europe were such that the proclamation of a republic would only have increased the ire of the Great Powers towards Serbia in case Alexander was overthrown, giving Austria-Hungary a pretext to invade.

Preparations for the coup took place between 1901 and 1903. The conspirators decided to place Peter on the throne in November 1901, but Peter had little trust in them and their initial offers were rebuffed. He accepted their offers on the condition that officers he trusted would take part in the plot and insisted that he would not take any part himself. He also told the officers that he would agree to take the throne only if his ascent was approved by the National Assembly.

At the time of the coup, Peter was vacationing with his children and planning visits to Russia and Romania, suggesting that he was not aware of what was to occur. The officers raided the royal palace late in the evening of 10 June 1903 and shot the King and Queen, mutilating their corpses with sabres and tossing them from a third-floor balcony. The murders resulted in the extinction of the Obrenović line and resolved the century-long feud between the Karađorđević and Obrenović dynasties.

Peter expressed satisfaction with the outcome of the plot, as well as regret for the bloodshed that had occurred, describing it as "neither gentlemanly, nor worthy of the 20th century". On 15 June 1903, by decision of the National Assembly, Peter was summoned to assume the Serbian throne. He arrived in Belgrade on 26 June 1903.

Peter's ascent to the throne was met with great enthusiasm by South Slav nationalists, who believed he would succeed in uniting the South Slavs living in Serbia, Montenegro, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire. In Vienna, en route to Belgrade, he was welcomed by a crowd of euphoric Serb and Croat students, who hailed him as "the first Yugoslav king".

Accession
The royal couple's murder upset and shocked most of Europe, but many Serbs reacted enthusiastically. Russia immediately recognized the National Assembly's decision declaring Peter the next King of Serbia and expressed satisfaction that the inter-dynastic intrigues which had plagued the country since the early-19th century had been brought to an end. Austria-Hungary declared its neutrality on the matter, but privately, policymakers in Vienna expressed hope that Peter's accession would have a placating effect.

The United Kingdom demanded that the chief conspirators be severely punished, and when the Royal Serbian Government neglected to carry out this request, the British severed all diplomatic ties. Several other European nations followed in the United Kingdom's footsteps and severed ties as well. Peter lacked the power or authority to punish the conspirators. He also felt a deep sense of obligation towards them, acknowledging that he would not have been able to assume the throne were it not for their actions.

Coronation
Peter was crowned in St. Michael's Cathedral in Belgrade, on 21 September 1904. The coronation ceremony, the first in Serbia's modern history, aimed to demonstrate that a new era had begun. The year-long interval between Peter's return to Serbia and his coronation deliberately made the ceremony coincide with the 100th anniversary of the First Serbian Uprising with the hope of giving European statesmen time to come to terms with the palace coup. Nevertheless, only representatives of Montenegro and Bulgaria attended. New royal regalia, consisting of a crown, sceptre, orb and royal mantle, were commissioned specially for the occasion from the Parisian jewelers Falize Frères. Arnold Muir Wilson, the honorary Serbian consul in Sheffield, and his cameraman, Frank Mottershaw, filmed King Peter's procession and a parade following the coronation. This is the oldest surviving film recorded in Belgrade. According to film historian Paul Smith, it is also likely the first newsreel in history.

Foreign affairs
During the reign of Peter I the Kingdom of Serbia expanded to the south, incorporating much of Sandžak and Kosovo and Metohija in 1912 in the First Balkan War. Serbia temporarily controlled northern parts of Albania, but had to give away those parts to Albania in 1912-1913. In November 1918, shortly before the founding of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes in December 1918, Serbia acquired some new territories like Srem, Banat, Bačka and Montenegro and which later became part of the new kingdom.

The most prominent prime minister during the reign of Peter I was Nikola Pašić. At the beginning of Peter's reign Pašić opposed the new king, calling his accession to the throne unlawful. However, he quickly changed his mind after seeing that the Serbian people accepted King Peter. As it turned out, the only conflict he had with Peter during the 18-year reign concerned the king's salary. Peter I of Serbia saw Imperial Russia as Serbia's main ally. Russia opposed the previous politics of the Obrenović dynasty which heavily relied on Austria-Hungary, which the Serbian public detested.

First Balkan War
The First Balkan War began in October 1912 and ended in May 1913. It involved military actions of the Balkan League (Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece and Montenegro) against the Ottoman Empire. The combined armies of the Balkan states overcame the numerically inferior and strategically disadvantaged Ottoman armies and achieved rapid success. As a result of the war, the allies captured and partitioned almost all remaining European territories of the Ottoman Empire.

In May 1912 the Albanian Hamidian revolutionaries, who wanted to re-install Sultan Abdul Hamit II to power, drove the Young Turkish forces out of Skopje and pressed south towards Manastir (present day Bitola), forcing the Young Turks to grant effective autonomy over large regions in June 1912. Serbia, which had helped arm the Albanian Catholic and Hamidian rebels and had sent secret agents to some of the prominent leaders, took the revolt as a pretext for war. Serbia, Montenegro, Greece, and Bulgaria had all been in talks about possible offensives against the Ottoman Empire before the Albanian revolt of 1912 broke out; a formal agreement between Serbia and Montenegro had been signed on 7 March.

On 18 October 1912, Peter I of Serbia issued a declaration, "To the Serbian People", which appeared to support Albanians as well as Serbs:

 * "The Turkish governments showed no interest in their duties towards their citizens and turned a deaf ear to all complaints and suggestions. Things got so far out of hand that no one was satisfied with the situation in Turkey in Europe. It became unbearable for the Serbs, the Greeks and for the Albanians, too. By the grace of God, I have therefore ordered my brave army to join in the Holy War to free our brethren and to ensure a better future. In Old Serbia, my army will meet not only upon Christian Serbs, but also upon Muslim Serbs, who are equally dear to us, and in addition to them, upon Christian and Muslim Albanians with whom our people have shared joy and sorrow for thirteen centuries now. To all of them we bring freedom, brotherhood and equality."

In a search for allies, Serbia negotiated a contract with Bulgaria. The agreement provided that, in the event of victory against the Ottomans, Bulgaria would receive all of Macedonia south of the Kriva Palanka-Ohrid line. Bulgaria accepted Serbian expansion to the north of the Shar Mountains (i.e., Kosovo). The intervening area was agreed to be "disputed"; it would be arbitrated by the Emperor of Russia in the event of a successful war against the Ottoman Empire. During the course of the war, it became apparent that the Albanians did not consider Serbia as a liberator, as suggested by King Peter I, nor did the Serbian forces observe his declaration of amity toward Albanians.

Peter I led the Serbian army alongside marshals like Radomir Putnik, Stepa Stepanović, Božidar Janković and Petar Bojović. Serbia sent 230,000 soldiers (out of the population of just 2,912,000 people) with about 228 guns, grouped in 10 infantry divisions.

Second Balkan War and aftermath
Dissatisfied with its share of the spoils of the First Balkan War, Bulgaria attacked its former allies, Serbia and Greece, and started the Second Balkan War on 16 (O.S.)/29 June 1913. Serbian and Greek armies repulsed the Bulgarian offensive and counter-attacked, entering Bulgaria. With Bulgaria also having engaged in territorial disputes with Romania, this war provoked Romanian intervention against Bulgaria. The Ottoman Empire took advantage of the situation to regain some territories lost as a result of the previous war.

When Romanian troops approached the Bulgarian capital, Sofia, Bulgaria asked for an armistice, resulting in the 1913 Treaty of Bucharest, in which Bulgaria had to cede portions of its First Balkan War gains to Serbia, Greece and Romania. The Second Balkan War left Serbia as the most militarily powerful state south of the Danube. Years of military investment financed by French loans had borne fruit. Central Vardar and the eastern half of the Sanjak of Novi Pazar were acquired. Its territory grew in extent from 18,650 to 33,891 square miles and its population grew by more than one and a half million.

Because of his constant and intense efforts in the Balkan Wars, Peter's health worsened. At the same time, the Black Hand represented a core of military opposition to the National Assembly. Acting from within the government and the military, members of the Black Hand forced Peter to disband the government of Nikola Pašić, even though the Radical Party held most of the seats in the National Assembly. Only after Russian intervention and with the help of the French capital, was the crisis solved in Pašić's favor. King Peter had to withdraw, allegedly because of his failing health, and, on 24 June 1914, he passed his royal powers and duties to his heir-apparent, Alexander.

Politics
The Western-educated King Peter attempted to liberalize Serbia with the goal of creating a Western-style constitutional monarchy. Peter I became gradually very popular for his commitment to parliamentary democracy that, in spite of certain influence of military cliques in political life, functioned properly. The 1903 Constitution was a revised version of the 1888 Constitution, based on the Belgian Constitution of 1831, considered one of the most liberal in Europe. The governments were chosen from the parliamentary majority, mostly from the People's Radical Party led by Nikola Pašić and from the Independent Radical Party led by Ljubomir Stojanović.

King Peter himself favored the idea of a broader coalition government that would boost Serbian democracy and help pursue an independent course in foreign policy. In contrast to the Austrophile Obrenović dynasty, King Peter I relied on Russia and France, which provoked rising hostility from expansionist-minded Austria-Hungary. King Peter I paid two solemn visits to Saint-Petersburg and Paris in 1910 and 1911 respectively, to be greeted as a hero both of democracy and of national independence in the troublesome Balkans.

The reign of Peter I, from 1903 to 1914, is remembered as the "Golden Age of Serbia", due to the unrestricted political freedoms, free press, and cultural ascendancy among South Slavs who finally saw in democratic Serbia a Piedmont of South Slavs. King Peter I was supportive to the movement of Yugoslav unification, hosting in Belgrade various cultural gatherings. The Grand School of Belgrade was upgraded into Belgrade University in 1905, with scholars of international renown such as Jovan Cvijić, Mihailo Petrović, Slobodan Jovanović, Jovan M. Žujović, Bogdan Popović, Jovan Skerlić, Sima Lozanić, Branislav Petronijević and several others.

King Peter I gained enormous popularity following the Balkan Wars in 1912 and 1913, which, from a Serb and South Slav perspective, proved greatly successful, heralded by the spectacular military victories over the Ottomans, followed by the liberation of "Old Serbia" (Kosovo Vilayet) and Macedonia (Manastir Vilayet).

The territory of Serbia doubled and her prestige among South Slavs (Croats and Slovenes in particular, and among the Serbs in Austria-Hungary, in Bosnia-Herzegovina, Vojvodina, the Military Frontier, Dalmatia, Slavonia, etc.) grew significantly, with Peter I as the main symbol of both political and cultural success. After the conflict between military and civilian representatives in the spring of 1914, King Peter chose to "retire" due to ill health, reassigning on 11/24 June 1914 his royal prerogatives to his second son heir apparent Crown Prince Alexander.

World War I and its aftermath
The retired King, spending most of his time in various Serbian spas, remained relatively inactive during the First World War, although occasionally, when the military situation became critical, he visited trenches on the front-line to check up on morale of his troops. His visit to the firing line prior to the Battle of Kolubara in late 1914 boosted the morale of the retreating Serbian forces and announced a counter-offensive, sparking victory against numerically superior Austro-Hungarian forces (December 1914). Another memorable visit in 1915 involved King Peter, by then 71, picking up a rifle and shooting at enemy soldiers. Following the invasion of Serbia by the joint forces of Germany, Austro-Hungary and Bulgaria in October 1915, King Peter I led the army and tens of thousands of civilian refugees through the high mountains of Albania to the Adriatic sea on a "Calvary known to few peoples".

After the dramatic retreat in a harsh winter through the hostile environment of the Albanian highlands from Prizren to the Albanian littoral, a march that took more than 100,000 lives, the King and his army, exhausted by cold and famine, were eventually transported by the Allies to the Greek isle of Corfu in early 1916. For the rest of World War I King Peter I, already in very poor health, remained on Corfu, which became the seat of the Serbian government-in-exile until December 1918.

On 1 December 1918 King Peter I was proclaimed King of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. King Peter stayed abroad until July 1919, then returned to Belgrade, where he died in 1921 at the age of 77. He was solemnly buried in his endowment in Oplenac, the Church of Saint George in the vicinity of Topola in Central Serbia, where his grandfather Karađorđe, the founder of the dynasty, had launched a large-scale insurrection against the Ottomans in 1804.

Legacy
Three cities in interwar Yugoslavia were named after King Peter I: Mrkonjić Grad in Bosnia-Herzegovina (former Varcar Vakuf), Petrovgrad in Vojvodina (Veliki Bečkerek, now Zrenjanin) and Petrovac na Moru (former Kaštel Lastva) in Montenegro. Dozens of monuments erected in his honor throughout Yugoslavia were destroyed after the communist takeover in 1945. Only one monument, in Zrenjanin (former Petrovgrad) was recently restored, as well as several smaller monuments in Belgrade and the rest of Serbia. The other monuments in honor to King Peter I were restored or erected in Republika Srpska, in Bosnia and Herzegovina where his cult status as a national hero is as strong as it is in Serbia.

In Paris, an avenue off the Champs-Élysées is named after him, Avenue Pierre 1er de Serbie. There is a modest monument dedicated to King Peter I of Serbia in Orléans, France, when he fought as a volunteer in the French army. A large monument to King Peter and his son Alexander I of Yugoslavia was also unveiled in 1936, at the Porte de la Muette in Paris. The film King Petar of Serbia was released in early December 2018 starring Lazar Ristovski as King Peter.

title: Peter I of Serbia


text:
James Dunn

James, Jim or Jimmy Dunn may refer to:

Politicians

 * James Dunn (Australian politician) (1887–1945), Australian Senator
 * James Dunn (Victorian politician) (1886–1975), member of the Victorian Parliament
 * James Clement Dunn (1890–1979), U.S. ambassador
 * James Dunn (British politician) (1926–1985), MP for Liverpool, Kirkdale
 * James B. Dunn (1927–2016), American politician
 * Jim Dunn (Washington politician) (born 1942), elected to the Washington State House, 2006
 * James Whitney Dunn (born 1943), U.S. Representative from the state of Michigan

Sportspeople

 * Jim Dunn (baseball owner) (1865–1922), owner of the Cleveland Indians baseball team
 * Jimmy Dunn (soccer) (1897–1987), American soccer player
 * Jimmy Dunn (sports executive) (1898–1979), Canadian multi-sport executive and Hockey Hall of Fame inductee
 * Jimmy Dunn (footballer, born 1900) (1900–1963), Scottish international footballer (Hibernian, Everton)
 * James W. Dunn (1911–1983), American football coach
 * Jimmy Dunn (footballer, born 1922) (1922–2005), Scottish footballer (Leeds United)
 * Jimmy Dunn (footballer, born 1923) (1923–2014), Scottish footballer (Wolves, Derby County)
 * Jim Dunn (pitcher) (1931–1999), American baseball pitcher
 * James Dunn (rugby league) (born 1933), English rugby league footballer
 * James Dunn (soccer) (born 1971), American soccer defender
 * James Dunn (sledge hockey) (born 2000), Canadian sledge hockey player

Others

 * J. C. Dunn or James Churchill Dunn (1871–1955), British army medical officer and author
 * James Francis Dunn (1874–1921), American architect
 * Sir James Hamet Dunn (1874–1956), 1st Baronet, Canadian financier and industrialist
 * James Philip Dunn (1884–1936), American composer and organist
 * James Dunn (actor) (1901–1967), actor who performed in Bad Girl and A Tree Grows In Brooklyn
 * James Dunn (diplomat) (1928–2020), Australian diplomat
 * James Dunn (theologian) (1939–2020), British Protestant New Testament scholar
 * James Nicol Dunn (1856–1919), Scottish journalist and newspaper editor
 * Jimmy Dunn (comedian), American stand-up comedian and actor
 * Jim Dunn (writer), television writer and producer
 * James Dunn, member of the R&B group The Stylistics

title: James Dunn


text:
Standesamt Podstolitz

Standesamt Podstolitz was a civil registration district (Standesamt) located in Kreis Kolmar, province of Posen of the German Empire (1871-1918) and administered the communities of:

Bud = Budsin; Kol = Kolmar; Mar = Margonin; Pods = Podstolitz

title: Standesamt Podstolitz