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Glacial erratic

A glacial erratic is a glacially deposited rock differing from the type of rock native to the area in which it rests. Erratics, which take their name from the Latin word  ("to wander"), are carried by glacial ice, often over distances of hundreds of kilometres. Erratics can range in size from pebbles to large boulders such as Big Rock (16,500 metric tons) in Alberta.

Geologists identify erratics by studying the rocks surrounding the position of the erratic and the composition of the erratic itself. Erratics are significant because:
 * They can be transported by glaciers, and are thereby one of a series of indicators which mark the path of prehistoric glacier movement. Their lithographic origin can be traced to the parent bedrock, allowing for confirmation of the ice flow route.
 * They can be transported by ice rafting, which allows quantification of the extent of glacial flooding resulting from ice dam failures which release the waters stored in proglacial lakes such as Lake Missoula. Erratics released by ice rafts that were stranded and subsequently melted, dropping their load, allow characterization of the high-water marks for transient floods in areas like temporary Lake Lewis.
 * Erratics dropped by icebergs melting in the ocean can be used to track Antarctic and Arctic-region glacial movements for periods prior to record retention. Also known as dropstones, these can be correlated with ocean temperatures and levels to better understand and calibrate models of the global climate.

Formation of erratics
The term "erratic" is commonly used to refer to erratic blocks, which geologist Archibald Geikie describes as: "large masses of rock, often as big as a house, that have been transported by glacier ice, and have been lodged in a prominent position in the glacier valleys or have been scattered over hills and plains. And examination of their mineralogical character leads the identification of their sources...". In geology, an erratic is material moved by geologic forces from one location to another, usually by a glacier.

Erratics are formed by glacial ice erosion resulting from the movement of ice. Glaciers erode by multiple processes including:

 * Abrasion/Scouring – debris in the basal ice scrapes along the bed, polishing and gouging the underlying rocks, similar to sandpaper on wood, producing smaller glacial till.
 * Plucking – pieces of bedrock are cracked off by glaciers, producing larger erratics.
 * Ice thrusting – the glacier freezes to its bed, moving large sheets of frozen sediment at its base along with it.
 * Glacially induced spalling – layers of rock are spalled off the rocks below the glacier during ice lens formation. This provides smaller debris, which is ground into the glacial basal material, to become till.

Evidence supports another possibility for the creation of erratics as well: rock avalanches onto the upper surface of the glacier (supraglacial). Rock avalanche–supraglacial transport occurs when the glacier undercuts a rock face, which fails by avalanche onto the upper surface of the glacier. The characteristics of rock avalanche–supraglacial transport includes:

 * Monolithologic composition – a cluster of boulders of similar composition are frequently found in close proximity. Commingling of the multiple lithologies normally present throughout the glaciated basin, has not occurred.
 * Angularity – the supraglacially transported rocks tend to be rough and irregular, with no sign of subglacial abrasion. The sides of boulders are roughly planar, suggesting that some surfaces may be original fracture planes.
 * Great size – the size distribution of the boulders tends to be skewed toward larger boulders than those produced subglacially.
 * Surficial positioning of the boulders – the boulders are positioned on the surface of glacial deposits, as opposed to partially or totally buried.
 * Restricted areal extents – the boulder fields tend to have limited areal extent; the boulders cluster together, consistent with the boulders landing on the surface of the glacier and subsequently deposited on top of the glacial drift.
 * Orientations – the boulders may be close enough that original fracture planes can be matched.
 * Locations of the boulder trains – the boulders appear in rows, trains or clusters along the lateral moraines as opposed to being located on the terminal moraine or in the general glacial field.

Glacier-borne erratic
Erratics provide an important tool in characterizing the directions of glacier flows, which are routinely reconstructed used on a combination of moraines, eskers, drumlins, meltwater channels and similar data. Erratic distributions and glacial till properties allow for identification of the source rock from which they derive, which confirms the flow direction, particularly when the erratic source outcrop is unique to a limited locality. Erratic materials may be transported by multiple glacier flows prior to their deposition, which can complicate the reconstruction of the glacial flow.

Ice-rafted erratic
Glacial ice entrains debris of varying sizes from small particles to extremely large masses of rock. This debris is transported to the coast by glacier ice and released during the production, drift and melting of icebergs. The rate of debris release by ice depends upon the size of the ice mass in which it is carried as well as the temperature of the ocean through which the ice floe passes.

Sediments from the late Pleistocene period lying on the floor of the North Atlantic show a series of layers (referred to as Heinrich layers) which contain ice-rafted debris. They were formed between 14,000 and 70,000 years before the present. The deposited debris can be traced back to the origin by both the nature of the materials released and the continuous path of debris release. Some paths extend more than 3000 km distant from the point at which the ice floes originally broke free.

The location and altitude of ice-rafted boulders relative to the modern landscape has been used to identify the highest level of water in proglacial lakes (e.g. Lake Musselshell in central Montana) and temporary lakes (e.g. Lake Lewis in Washington state). Ice-rafted debris is deposited when the iceberg strands on the shore and subsequently melts, or drops out of the ice floe as it melts. Hence all erratic deposits are deposited below the actual high water level of the lake; however, the measured altitude of ice-rafted debris can be used to estimate the lake surface elevation.

This is accomplished by recognizing that on a fresh-water lake, the iceberg floats until the volume of its ice-rafted debris exceeds 5% of the volume of the iceberg. Therefore, a correlation between the iceberg size and the boulder size can be established. For example, a 1.5 m boulder can be carried by a 3 m iceberg and could be found stranded at higher elevations than a 2 m boulder, which requires a 4 m iceberg.

Large erratics
Large erratics consisting of slabs of bedrock that have been lifted and transported by glacier ice to subsequently be stranded above thin glacial or fluvioglacial deposits are referred to as glacial floes, rafts (schollen) or erratic megablocks. Erratic megablocks have typical length to thickness ratios on the order of 100 to 1. These megablocks may be found partially exposed or completely buried by till and are clearly allochthonous, since they overlay glacial till. Megablocks can be so large that they are mistaken for bedrock until underlying glacial or fluvial sediments are identified by drilling or excavation. Such erratic megablocks greater than 1 km2 in area and 30 m in thickness can be found on the Canadian Prairies, Poland, England, Denmark and Sweden. One erratic megablock located in Saskatchewan is 30 x (and up to 100 m thick). Their sources can be identified by locating the bedrock from which they were separated; several rafts from Poland and Alberta were determined to have been transported over 300 km from their source.

Nonglacial erratics
In geology an erratic is any material which is not native to the immediate locale but has been transported from elsewhere. The most common examples of erratics are associated with glacial transport, either by direct glacier-borne transport or by ice rafting. However, other erratics have been identified as the result of kelp holdfasts, which have been documented to transport rocks up to 40 cm in diameter, rocks entangled in the roots of drifting logs, and even in transport of stones accumulated in the stomachs of pinnipeds during foraging.

History
During the 18th century, erratics were deemed a major geological paradox. Geologists identify erratics by studying the rocks surrounding the position of the erratic and the rock of the erratic itself. Erratics were once considered evidence of a biblical flood, but in the 19th century scientists gradually came to accept that erratics pointed to an ice age in Earth's past. Among others, the Swiss politician, jurist and theologian Bernhard Friedrich Kuhn saw glaciers as a possible solution as early as 1788. However, the idea of ice ages and glaciation as a geological force took a while to be accepted. Ignaz Venetz (1788–1859), a Swiss engineer, naturalist and glaciologist was one of the first scientists to recognize glaciers as a major force in shaping the earth.

In the 19th century, many scientists came to favor erratics as evidence for the end of the Last Glacial Maximum (ice age) 10,000 years ago, rather than a flood. Geologists have suggested that landslides or rockfalls initially dropped the rocks on top of glacial ice. The glaciers continued to move, carrying the rocks with them. When the ice melted, the erratics were left in their present locations.

Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology (v. 1, 1830) provided an early description of the erratic which is consistent with the modern understanding. Louis Agassiz was the first to scientifically propose that the Earth had been subject to a past ice age. In the same year, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Prior to this proposal, Goethe, de Saussure, Venetz, Jean de Charpentier, Karl Friedrich Schimper and others had made the glaciers of the Alps the subjects of special study, and Goethe, Charpentier as well as Schimper had even arrived at the conclusion that the erratic blocks of alpine rocks scattered over the slopes and summits of the Jura Mountains had been moved there by glaciers.

Charles Darwin published extensively on geologic phenomena including the distribution of erratic boulders. In his accounts written during the voyage of HMS Beagle, Darwin observed a number of large erratic boulders of notable size south of the Strait of Magellan, Tierra del Fuego and attributed them to ice rafting from Antarctica. Recent research suggests that they are more likely the result of glacial ice flows carrying the boulders to their current locations.

Australia

 * Exhumed erratics eroded from unconsolidated 270 Ma Permian glacial sediments can be found on the beach and in the park at Hallett Cove Conservation Park just south of Adelaide, and in other South Australian locations, such as Inman Valley.

Canada

 * Big Rock near Okotoks, Alberta, Canada. It is the largest erratic in the Foothills Erratics Train.
 * Bleasdell Boulder, southern Ontario, was described as "glacial" in origin by Reverend William Bleasdell in 1872.
 * The Foothills Erratics Train is a deposit of rocks of many sizes. These deposits stretch in a narrow belt for about 600 km from Alberta's Athabasca River Valley to the southwest of the province.
 * White Rock, British Columbia gets its name from a coastal erratic the size of a garage found on the beach at Semiahmoo Bay, right at the border with Washington.
 * Boulder in Green Timbers Urban Forest in Surrey, British Columbia, described as a glacial erratic on the city websiteErratic.jpg

Estonia

 * Ehalkivi (Sunset Glow Boulder) near Letipea, Estonia is the largest erratic boulder in the glaciation area of North Europe. Height 7 m, circumference 48.2 m, a volume of 930 m3 and a mass of approx 2,500 tonnes

Finland

 * Kukkarokivi, located close to Turku at the Ruissalo island in Southwest Finland. It is the largest in Finland; length about 40 m, width about 30 m, height 12 m, weight about 36,000 tonnes.

Germany

 * Colossus of Ostermunzel, Lower Saxony
 * Der Alte Schwede, found during dredging of the river Elbe near Hamburg in 1999; oldest in Germany
 * Giebichenstein, Stöckse, Lower Saxony
 * Glacial erratics on and around Rügen

Republic of Ireland

 * The Clonfinlough Stone, located in central Ireland, is covered with Bronze Age and medieval carvings

Latvia

 * Nīcgale Great Stone, located in Nīcgale Parish
 * Brodu quarry stone, located in Jēkabpils
 * Lauču stone, located in Lauči, Skulte parish, Limbaži municipality. Believed to have separated from a glacier in the Vyborg area of Southern Finland and Russia.

Lithuania

 * Puntukas, one of national symbols of Lithuania, near Anykščiai city

Poland

 * Trygław, Tychowo
 * Devil Stone, Kashubia

England

 * The Crosby Erratic, Coronation Park, Liverpool, England; unearthed in a field nearby in 1898.
 * The Great Stone of Fourstones, at the county boundary between North Yorkshire and Lancashire, has fifteen steps carved in its side to enable it to be climbed.

 * The Hitching Stone in North Yorkshire. It is the largest erratic block in the county.
 * The Merton Stone, Merton, Norfolk
 * The Norber erratics in the Yorkshire Dales are one of England's finest sets of glacial erratics.
 * Soulbury Stone, located in Soulbury, Buckinghamshire

Scotland

 * Jim Crow Rock, glacial erratic in Hunters Quay, situated on the foreshore of the Firth of Clyde. The rock has been the subject of controversy because of an allegedly racist face painted on it.

Northern Ireland

 * Cloughmore, near Rostrevor in County Down, Northern Ireland, is a glacial erratic found on the mountain high above the village. Located on the slopes of Slieve Martin, the stone overlooks Carlingford Lough and the Cooley Peninsula.

United States

 * Bubble Rock, perched on the edge of a cliff near the summit of South Bubble mountain in Acadia National Park, Maine.
 * Doane Rock, the largest exposed boulder in Cape Cod, Massachusetts.
 * Fantastic Erratic, a fern-covered erratic the size of a two-car garage, is found on Cougar Mountain near Seattle.
 * Glen Rock, a boulder weighing 570 ST in Glen Rock, New Jersey, believed to have been carried to the site by a glacier that picked up the rock 15,000 years ago near Peekskill, New York.
 * Indian Rock in Montebello, New York is a large glacial erratic boulder of granite gneiss, formed in the Proterozoic (Precambrian) era, 1.2 billion to 800 million years ago. It is estimated to weigh ≈17,300 tons.
 * Madison Boulder, a 5000 ST glacial erratic the size of a large house in Madison, New Hampshire.
 * Olmsted Point in Yosemite National Park is noteworthy for having granite hills covered in numerous small glacial erratics.
 * Plymouth Rock, the site in Plymouth, Massachusetts on which the Mayflower Pilgrims landed in 1620. It is an important symbol in American history.
 * Rollstone Boulder, a 110-ton porphyritic granite boulder that was originally located at the summit of Rollstone Hill in Fitchburg, Massachusetts. It was carried by the last glaciation from central New Hampshire. Threatened by quarrying operations, it was moved to Litchfield Park in downtown Fitchburg in 1929–1930.
 * The northern portion of the town of Waterville, Washington has a large number of large basalt erratics, particularly along the moraine running east–west from McNeil Canyon.
 * Tripod Rock in Kinnelon, New Jersey is noteworthy for being perched on three smaller boulders.
 * Balance Rock in Princeton, Massachusetts is located at the base of Mount Wachusett, on the northwest side.

Flood-borne erratics
If glacial ice is "rafted" by a flood such as that created when the ice dam broke during the Missoula floods, then the erratics are deposited where the ice finally releases its debris load. One of the more unusual examples is found far from its origin in Idaho at Erratic Rock State Natural Site just outside McMinnville, Oregon. The park includes a 40 ST specimen, the largest erratic found in the Willamette Valley.

title: Glacial erratic


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Tarsus, Mersin

Tarsus (Hittite: 𒋫𒅈𒊭 Tārša; Ταρσός Tarsós; Tarson; طَرسُوس Ṭarsūs) is a municipality and district of Mersin Province, Turkey. Its area is 2,029 km2, and its population is 350,732 (2022). It is a historic city, 20 km inland from the Mediterranean Sea. It is part of the Adana-Mersin metropolitan area, the fourth-largest metropolitan area in Turkey. Tarsus forms an administrative district in the eastern part of Mersin Province and lies at the heart of the Çukurova region.

With a history going back over 6,000 years, Tarsus has long been an important stop for traders and a focal point of many civilisations. During the Roman Empire, it was the capital of the province of Cilicia. It was the scene of the first meeting between Mark Antony and Cleopatra, and the birthplace of Paul the Apostle.

Tarsus is served by Adana Şakirpaşa Airport and is connected by Turkish State Railways to both Adana and Mersin.

Etymology
The ancient name Tarsos is derived from Tarsa, the original name given to the city by the Hittites, who were among the earliest settlers of the region. That in turn was possibly derived from the name of the storm god Tarḫunz. During the Hellenistic era Tarsus was known as Antiochia on the Cydnus (Αντιόχεια του Κύδνου, Antiochia ad Cydnum), to distinguish it from Syrian Antioch. The Romans knew it as Juliopolis, while it was Darson in Western Armenian and Tarson in Eastern Armenian.

According to the Suda, the city was founded by Perseus after he fought the Isaurians and the Cilicians. An oracle told him to found a city in the place where the flat (ταρσός) of his foot would touch the earth while he was dismounting from his horse after the victory.

Geography
Located on the mouth of the Berdan River (Cydnus in antiquity), which empties into the Mediterranean, Tarsus sits at a junction where land and sea routes connecting the Cilician plain (today called Çukurova), central Anatolia and the Mediterranean Sea meet. The climate is typical of the Mediterranean region, with very hot, humid summers and chilly, damp winters.

Tarsus has a long history of commerce, and is still a commercial centre today, trading in the produce of the fertile Çukurova plain. Tarsus is also a thriving industrial centre for refining and processing for export. Industries include agricultural machinery, spare parts, textiles, fruit-processing, brick-making and ceramics.

Agriculture is an important source of income with half the local land area farmland (1,050 km2) and most of the remainder forest or orchard. The farmland is mostly well-irrigated, fertilised and managed with up-to-date equipment.

Foundation and prehistory
Excavation of the mound of Gözlükule revealed that the prehistoric development of Tarsus reached back to the Neolithic Period and continued unbroken through the Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Ages.

The settlement stood at the crossing of several important trade routes linking Anatolia to Syria and beyond. Because most of the ruins lie under the modern city, archaeology has barely touched the ancient city. As an important port in a merchant marine trade network spanning the eastern Mediterranean and beyond from before the third millennium, the city was always an important centre for cultural interchange with traces of its influence visible from pre-Homeric Greek evidence onwards. The city may have been of Anatolian or Semitic origin; it is first mentioned as Tarsisi in Neo-Assyrian records of the campaigns of Esarhaddon, as well as several times in the records of Shalmaneser I and Sennacherib, the latter having had the city rebuilt. A Greek legend connects it with the memory of the Assyrian king Sardanapalus (Ashurbanipal), still preserved in the Dunuk-Tach, called 'tomb of Sardanapalus', a monument of unknown origin. During the Hellenistic era it was a centre for exchange between Neo-Platonic, Gnostic and Mystery traditions.

Stephanus of Byzantium quotes Athenodorus of Tarsus on another legend:

Much of this legendary account of the foundation of Tarsus, however, appeared in the Roman era, and it is not reliable. The geographer Strabo states that Tarsus was founded by people from Argos who were exploring this coast. Another legend claims that Bellerophon fell off his winged horse Pegasus here, hurting his foot in the process, and that the city was named tar-sos (the sole of the foot) in memory of his accident. Other candidates for legendary founder of the city include the hero Perseus and Triptolemus, son of the earth-goddess Demeter, doubtless because the countryside around Tarsus is such good farmland. Later the coins of Tarsus bore the image of Hercules due to another tale in which the hero was held prisoner here by the local god Sandon. Tarsus has been suggested as a possible site for the biblical Tarshish, to which the prophet Jonah wanted to flee, but Tartessos in Spain has also been offered as a possible location for this. (See further )

Early antiquity
In historical times, the city was first ruled by the Hittites, followed by Assyria, and then by the Persian Empire. As the principal town of Cilicia, Tarsus was the seat of a Persian satrapy from 400 BC onward. Indeed, Xenophon records that in 401 BC, when Cyrus the Younger marched against Babylon, the city was governed by King Syennesis in the name of the Persian monarch.

At this period the god of the city was Sandon, of whom a large monument existed at Tarsus at least until the 3rd century AD. Coins showed Sandon standing on a winged and horned lion, and it is now thought likely that the Lion of Saint Mark on the pillar in the Piazza San Marco in Venice was in origin a winged lion-griffin copied from such a monument in Tarsus.

Alexander the Great passed through with his army in 333 BC and nearly met his death here after bathing in the Cydnus. By this time Tarsus was already largely influenced by Greek language and culture, and as part of the Seleucid Empire it became more and more Hellenised. Strabo praised the cultural level of Tarsus in this period with its philosophers, poets and linguists. The schools of Tarsus rivalled those of Athens and Alexandria. A reference in the Bible (2 Maccabees (4:30)) records the city's revolt against Antiochus IV Epiphanes in about 171 BC .The king had renamed the town Antiochia on the Cydnus although the name did not stick due because too many cities were named Antioch. At this time the library of Tarsus held 200,000 books, including a huge collection of scientific works.

Roman period

After crushing the feared Cilician pirates, Pompey brought Tarsus under Roman rule In 67 BC, and it became the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia. To flatter Julius Caesar, it was briefly named Juliopolis. Cassius Longinus planned to kill him here as early as 47 BC, and Cleopatra and Mark Antony met and was the scene of the celebrated feasts they gave during the construction of their fleet (41 BC). In William Shakespeare's 1606 play Antony and Cleopatra (Act 5, Scene 2) Cleopatra says she is going to Cydnus to meet Antony after his death, (i.e. she will commit suicide to meet him in the afterlife). "Go fetch / My best attires: I am again for Cydnus, / To meet Mark Antony."

In the Roman period, the city was an important intellectual centre, boasting its own academy. One of its leading lights, the philosopher Athenodorus Cananites, was the tutor of the first Roman emperor, Augustus, a fact which secured continuous imperial patronage for the city.

When the province of Cilicia was divided, Tarsus remained the civil and religious metropolis of Cilicia Prima, a grand city with palaces, marketplaces, roads and bridges, baths, fountains and waterworks, a gymnasium on the banks of the Cydnus, and a stadium. Tarsus was later eclipsed by nearby Adana but remained important as a port and shipyard. Several Roman emperors were interred here: Marcus Claudius Tacitus, Maximinus II and Julian the Apostate, who planned to move his capital here from Antioch if he returned from his Persian expedition.

Early Christian and Byzantine eras
Tarsus was the city where, according to the Acts of the Apostles, Saul of Tarsus was born, although he was brought up in Jerusalem. He was a Roman citizen (Acts 21:39; Acts 22:25–29) "of Tarsus, a city in Cilicia, a citizen of no mean city". Saul, who eventually became Paul the Apostle after his professed encounter with Jesus, returned here after his conversion. About eight years later, Barnabas retrieved him from Tarsus to help with the work of preaching and teaching in Syrian Antioch.

By then, a Christian community probably already existed although the first recorded bishop, Helenus, dates only from the 3rd century. Owing to the importance of Tarsus, many martyrs were put to death there, including Saint Pelagia of Tarsus, Saint Boniface of Tarsus, Saint Marinus of Tarsus, Saint Diomedes, Saint Quiricus and Saint Julitta.

The city remained largely pagan, however, until the time of Julian the Apostate (r. 361–363), who reportedly planned to make it his capital. Following his death during his campaign against Sassanid Persia, he was buried next to the city walls, opposite the earlier tomb of the Tetrarch Maximinus Daza. Emperor Justinian I (r. 527–565) undertook public works in the city, altering the course of the Cydnus river and rebuilding the bridge. Towards the end of his reign, the city suffered from riots stirred up by the Hippodrome Blues faction.

A cave near Tarsus is one of several places said to be the location of the legend of the Seven Sleepers, common to Christianity and Islam.

Middle Ages
Following the Muslim conquest of the Levant in the 630s, the city came into contact with the forces of the Rashidun Caliphate. It is unclear when the town was first captured by the Arabs, but it is clear that it, and the wider region of Cilicia, remained contested between the Byzantines and the new Caliphate for several decades, up to the early 8th century. According to Muslim sources, as he was retreating the Byzantine emperor Heraclius ((r. 610 – 641)) deliberately withdrew the population and devastated the region between Antioch and Tarsus, creating a no man's land between the two empires.

It was not until the early Abbasid period that Tarsus, by then lying in ruins, was reoccupied and refortified, this time as an advance strongpoint within the fortified zone of the al-ʿAwāṣim, stretching from Tarsus northeast to Malatya, and as an assembly point for expeditions against the Byzantine Empire. The first attempt was undertaken by al-Hasan ibn Qahtaba al-Ta'i in 778/9 but was apparently unsuccessful and the city was not fully restored until 787/8, by Abu Sulaym Faraj on the orders of Caliph Harun al-Rashid ((r. 786 – 809)). Three thousand Khurasanis and 2,000 Syrians (a thousand each from Antioch and al-Massisa) were given houses and land in the new fortress city. Tarsus was apparently recovered by the Byzantines soon after, at some point around the turn of the century. The city probably remained in Byzantine hands during the Abbasid civil war of the Fourth Fitna, but returned to Muslim control by 830 when Caliph al-Ma'mun ((r. 813 – 833)) recommenced offensive campaigns against Byzantium using the city as a base.

Henceforth and until the Byzantine reconquest in the 10th century, Tarsus was one of the main centres for the holy war (jihād) against Byzantium, comprising annual raids (ṣawāʿif) into Byzantine lands through the Cilician Gates when the mountain snows had melted and passage was possible. These raids were mounted by the local garrisons, maintained by the taxation not only of the frontier zone of the al-ʿAwāṣim but also by generous subsidies from the caliphal government, and large numbers of volunteer warriors of the faith (mujahidun or ghazis). Tarsus remained under direct Abbasid control until 878/9, when it and the wider Cilician border zone were given to the autonomous ruler of Egypt, Ahmad ibn Tulun. The local governor Yazaman al-Khadim returned the city to the direct allegiance of Baghdad from 882 on, but was forced to recognise the Tulunids again in 890. Tulunid possession of the border zone lasted until the death of Ibn Tulun's heir Khumarawayh in 896, after which Caliph al-Mu'tadid ((r. 892 – 902)) re-asserted direct control. The area remained under Abbasid rule for the next four decades. After a brief period when the border zone was under Ikhshidid control, in 946/7, Tarsus recognised the overlordship of the Hamdanid emir Sayf al-Dawla of Aleppo, who had become the new master of northern Syria and the Byzantine borderlands. Facing a resurgent Byzantium, he was able to stem the tide for a while, but in 965,the Byzantine emperor Nikephoros II Phokas ((r. 963 – 969)) captured the city, ending Muslim rule there. Throughout this period, the governors of Tarsus also operated an active mint in the city.

The terms of the city's surrender allowed any Muslim who wished to leave with as many of his possessions as he could carry. Many of those who left eventually settled, according to al-Muqaddasi, at Baniyas. Most of those who remained behind became Christians and the main mosque was either torn down or turned into a stable. The city remained under Byzantine rule until 1085. It was thereafter disputed between Latin Crusaders, Byzantines (1137–1172), Seljuk Turks and the Armenians of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia (Kingdom of Lesser Armenia). The city was the capital of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia between 1080 and 1198. The Armenians became definitive masters until about 1359 when the city was captured by the Ramadanid Emirate and Mamluk Sultanate. Finally, the area was brought under the control of the Ottoman Empire by Selim I in 1516.

In the Middle Ages, Tarsus was renowned throughout the Middle East; a number of Arab writers praised it as a beautiful and well-defended city, its walls having two layers of fortifications with five gates and earthworks outside, surrounded by rich farmland and watered by the river and the lake.

Ottoman and modern period
Under Ottoman rule, Tarsus initially formed part of the Eyalet of Aleppo. After the Ottoman conquest of Cyprus in 1571 it became the seat of a sanjak (sub-province) within the Cyprus Eyalet, before being transferred in 1608 to the sanjak of Adana as a kaza (district).

Visiting in 1671 the traveller Evliya Çelebi recorded "a city on the plain, an hour from the sea, surrounded by strong walls two-storeys high, moated on all sides, with three distinct neighbourhoods inside the walls".

Despite its excellent defences, Tarsus was captured from the Ottomans in 1832 by the Mamluks of Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt, son of Muhammad Ali, and remained for eight years in Egyptian hands. The Egyptians began growing cotton on the surrounding plain. Following the return of Ottoman rule this cotton drove substantial growth in the local economy, due to increased world demand for the crop during shortages caused by the U.S. Civil War. A new road was built to the port in Mersin and the city of Tarsus grew and thrived. Still today many large houses in the city stand as reminders of the wealth generated during this period.

However, after 3,000 years as a flourishing port, by the end of the 19th century neglect meant Tarsus lost its access to the sea as the delta became a swamp. At this point it was a typical Ottoman city with communities of Muslim Turks, Christian Greeks and Armenians. With the founding of the Turkish Republic in the 1920s, the swamp was drained and the River Berdan was dammed to build Turkey's first hydro-electric power station. Irrigation, roadworks and a railway brought the economy of Tarsus back to life, with new factories particularly producing textiles.

Composition
There are 180 neighbourhoods in Tarsus District:

 * 82 Evler
 * Ağzıdelik
 * Akarsu
 * Akçakocalı
 * Akgedik
 * Akşemsettin
 * Aladağ
 * Aliağa
 * Alibeyli
 * Aliefendioğlu
 * Alifakı
 * Altaylılar
 * Anıt
 * Ardıçlı
 * Arıklı
 * Atalar
 * Atatürk
 * Avadan
 * Bağlar
 * Baharlı
 * Bahçe
 * Bahşiş
 * Ballıca
 * Baltalı
 * Barbaros
 * Belen
 * Beydeğirmeni
 * Beylice
 * Boğazpınar
 * Böğrüeğri
 * Bolatlı
 * Boztepe
 * Büyükkösebalcı
 * Çağbaşı
 * Çağlayan
 * Çakırlı
 * Çamalan
 * Camilimanda
 * Caminur
 * Çamtepe
 * Çatalca
 * Çavdarlı
 * Çavuşlu
 * Çevreli
 * Çiçekli
 * Çiftlik
 * Cin
 * Cırbıklar
 * Çiriştepe
 * Çokak
 * Çöplü
 * Çukurbağ
 * Cumhuriyet
 * Dadalı
 * Damlama
 * Dedeler
 * Dorak
 * Duatepe
 * Egemen
 * Eminlik
 * Emirler
 * Ergenekon
 * Esenler
 * Eskiömerli
 * Eskişehir
 * Fahrettinpaşa
 * Fatih
 * Ferahimşalvuz
 * Fevzi Çakmak
 * Gaziler
 * Gazipaşa
 * Girne
 * Göçük
 * Gömmece
 * Gözlükule
 * Gülek
 * Günyurdu
 * Hacıbozan
 * Hacıhamzalı
 * Halitağa
 * Hasanağa
 * Heleke
 * Hürriyet
 * İbrişim
 * İncirgediği
 * İncirlikuyu
 * İnköy
 * İsmetpaşa
 * Kaburgediği
 * Kadelli
 * Kaklıktaşı
 * Kaleburcu
 * Kanberhüyüğü
 * Karaçerçili
 * Karadiken
 * Karadirlik
 * Karakütük
 * Karayayla
 * Kargılı
 * Karsavran
 * Kavaklı
 * Kayadibi
 * Kefeli
 * Kelahmet
 * Kemalpaşa
 * Kerimler
 * Keşli
 * Kırıt
 * Kırklarsırtı
 * Kızılçukur
 * Kızılmurat
 * Kocaköy
 * Koçmarlı
 * Konaklar
 * Körlü Beyi
 * Kösebalcı
 * Köselerli
 * Kozoluk
 * Kulak
 * Kumdere
 * Kurbanlı
 * Kurtçukuru
 * Kuşçular
 * Kütüklü
 * Mahmutağa
 * Mantaş
 * Meşelik
 * Mithatpaşa
 * Muratlı
 * Nemiroğlu
 * Öğretmenler
 * Olukkoyağı
 * Özbek
 * Özlüce
 * Pirömerli
 * Reşadiye
 * Sağlıklı
 * Şahin
 * Sandal
 * Sanlıca
 * Sarıveli
 * Sayköy
 * Şehit Kerim
 * Şehit Mustafa
 * Şehitishak
 * Şehitler Tepesi
 * Simithacılı
 * Sıraköy
 * Sucular
 * Takbaş
 * Taşçılı
 * Taşkuyu
 * Taşobası
 * Tekeliören
 * Tekke
 * Tepeçaylak
 * Tepeköy
 * Tepetaşpınar
 * Topaklı
 * Topçu
 * Tozkoparanzahit
 * Ulaş
 * Verimli
 * Yalamık
 * Yanıkkışla
 * Yaramış
 * Yarbay Şemsettin
 * Yazlık
 * Yeni Ömerli
 * Yeniçay
 * Yenice
 * Yeniköy
 * Yenimahalle
 * Yeşilevler
 * Yeşilmahalle
 * Yeşiltepe
 * Yeşilyurt
 * Yüksek
 * Yunusemre
 * Yunusoğlu

Cuisine
The distinctive local cuisine includes chargrilled chicken, hummus (sometimes heated and served with pastırma), şalgam, tantuni, miniature lahmacun called "fındık lahmacun", and cezerye, a dessert made from carrots.

Sports
Tarsus has two football stadiums, Tarsus City Stadium and Burhanettin Kocamaz Stadium, and an arena, Tarsus Arena. The local football club is Tarsus Idman Yurdu.

Main sites
Tarsus city centre is home to the magnificent homes of wealthy traders, some of them restored, some still waiting a saviour. Additionally it is home to several historic sites although some are in need of restoration and research. These sites have been described by travellers for well over a century. For instance Blackwood's Magazine (Edinburgh) in 1890, and H. V. Morton's In the Steps of St Paul in 1936.

The best known include:
 * Cleopatra's Gate – to the west of the city, the only ancient city gate still standing, where Antony and Cleopatra entered the city in 41 BC, though the "restoration" of this structure has covered much of it with shiny new stone (see for a picture of the gate before the work was done).
 * Roman bridge of Justinian over the Berdan River. It remains in good condition.
 * Tarsus Museum, containing many ancient coins and a severed mummified arm
 * Roman road north of Tarsus
 * Ancient road another Roman road in the town centre
 * Kızlar Kalesi, a medieval castle ruin
 * Gözlükule - slight remains of original settlement mound

Sites of religious interest and pilgrimage include:
 * St. Paul's Church and well (it is a museum, but occasionally Christian services take place here).
 * Mosque said to be the burial place of the Prophet Daniel.

From the Turkish period:
 * Tarsus Grand Mosque (Ulu Cami), 16th-century mosque
 * Kırkkaşık Bedesten and Bilal Habeşi Masjid
 * The old baths; the dark brown spots on the white marble walls are said to be the bloodstains of Shahmeran, the legendary Snake King who was killed in an ambush in the baths. (see Shahmeran Hamam)
 * "Nusret (Nusrat)", the minelayer used to defend the Straits before the Battle of Gallipoli

Places of natural beauty include:
 * Tarsus Waterfall
 * Karabucak Forest, popular picnic place a few kilometres south of the city centre

Notable residents

 * Paul the Apostle (Saul of Tarsus), Christian apostle, missionary, martyr, and saint, was born here and returned for a brief period later in life.
 * Antipater, Stoic philosopher
 * Archedemus of Tarsus, Stoic philosopher
 * Chrysippus, Stoic philosopher
 * Hagnon of Tarsus, rhetor and philosopher
 * Hermogenes of Tarsus, rhetor
 * Zeno of Tarsus, philosopher
 * Saints Cyricus and Julitta
 * Saint Nerses of Lambron, Archbishop of Tarsus in the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia
 * Saint Theodore of Tarsus, Archbishop of Canterbury
 * Oral Çalışlar, journalist
 * Ümit Yaşar Oğuzcan, poet and author
 * Former CEO of the Coca-Cola Company, Muhtar Kent, graduated from Tarsus American College
 * Emine Ülker Tarhan, former judge and politician
 * Mehmet Emin Karamehmet, chairman of Çukurova Holding
 * Manuş Baba, singer
 * Tuğba Şenoğlu, volleyball player
 * Derya Cebecioğlu, volleyball player

International relations
Tarsus is twinned with:
 * 🇩🇪 Langen, Germany
 * 🇹🇷 Muğla, Turkey
 * 🇹🇷 Antalya, Turkey
 * Akanthou, Northern Cyprus

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Tarsus, Mersin


text:
Valerie Pitts

Ann Valerie, Lady Solti (née Pitts; 19 August 1937 – 31 March 2021) was a British television presenter who was one of the BBC's original team of presenters during the 1950s. She left the programme in 1960 to marry James Sargent who was stage manager of the Sadler's Wells Opera Company. She also worked at Granada Television. She later married the conductor Sir Georg Solti.

Life and career
In 1961 Pitts appeared as a patient in the comedy film Dentist on the Job. She met Georg Solti in September 1964 when she interviewed him, fortuitously, as a last minute alternative to replace a missing news item. Solti pursued her romantically and finally persuaded her to leave her husband. They married on 11 November 1967, and had two daughters, Gabrielle and Claudia. She appeared on children's television, as a presenter of Play School and then at Granada a series for older children, ExtraOrdinary, which covered strange-but-true stories from science and the arts. She gave up her career as a presenter, though she continued to appear occasionally on television (such as on the quiz show, Face The Music) and worked with Solti for various charities.

Pitts was the patroness of the World Orchestra for Peace, which her husband founded and whose first concert at the United Nations he conducted. In addition, she has devoted time to other cultural organizations, including the Sadler's Wells Theatre Trust, the Mariinsky Theatre Trust, the Chicago Symphony Orchestra, Musica Nel Chiostro, Batignano Italy, the Hungarian Cultural Centre (London), Liszt Academy (Budapest), the Harrogate International Festivals as Vice Patron, and the W11 Opera children's opera company in London.

After Sir Georg Solti's death on 5 September 1997, Pitts and her two daughters began The Solti Foundation to assist young musicians. In 2002, a website dedicated to Georg Solti was launched, under the instigation of Lady Solti.

Lady Solti died at home in London in March 2021 at the age of 83.

Archives

 * Unpublished sound recordings (C1227) at the British National Archives

title: Valerie Pitts


text:
Todd Martin

Todd Martin (born July 8, 1970) is an American retired tennis player. He reached the men's singles final at the 1994 Australian Open and the 1999 US Open and achieved a career-high singles ranking of world No. 4.

Playing career
Martin was born in Hinsdale, Illinois, and played tennis for two years at Northwestern University before turning professional in 1990. His parents lived in Lansing, Michigan, where Martin went to nearby East Lansing High School. At Northwestern, he was a member of the Delta Tau Delta fraternity. He won his first top-level singles title in 1993 at Coral Springs, Florida. Martin traveled with good friend David Helfer for much of the '92 season. Helfer went on to play at Kalamazoo College.

Coached by Robert Van't Hof, 1994 proved to be a breakout year for Martin. At the year's first Grand Slam tournament, he reached the men's singles final at the Australian Open, where he lost in straight sets to No. 1 Pete Sampras. At Wimbledon, he made it to the semifinals, before falling to the eventual champion Sampras; the set that Martin took from Sampras in the match was the only set that Sampras lost during the entire tournament. Martin's third Grand Slam semifinal of 1994 came at the US Open, where he again fell to the eventual champion, this time Andre Agassi. He also captured singles titles at Queen's Club and the Regions Morgan Keegan Championships in Memphis, the latter of which was the first back-to-back titles.

Martin was a member of the US team Davis Cup for nine consecutive years and part of the championship squad in 1995 (beating Russia 3–2 in the final). He also reached the final of the 1995 Grand Slam Cup, where he lost in straight sets to Goran Ivanišević. He reached the Wimbledon semifinals again in 1996, but eventually lost 10-8 in the fifth set against MaliVai Washington, after holding a 5–1 lead in the final set and serving for the match twice. Martin would later reflect on the outcome and admit that he choked during the crucial moments of the match.[1] He missed most of the 1997 season due to injury, but came back to win two singles titles in Barcelona and Stockholm in 1998.

In 1999, Martin had a solid year, reaching the quarterfinals of both the Australian Open and Wimbledon, and reached his second Grand Slam final at the US Open. Along the way, Martin had a memorable battle with Greg Rusedski in the fourth round, in which Rusedski held numerous advantages, including a two sets to love lead, serving for the match in the third set, and a 4–1 advantage in the fifth. Yet, Martin was able to prevail in five sets. Martin won 20 of the final 21 points of the match, despite playing with a heavily bandaged leg and dealing with dehydration.[2] In the final, he faced Andre Agassi in a five-set contest, which Agassi eventually won. Martin won another singles title in Sydney that year, and reached his career-high singles ranking of No. 4.

In 2000, Martin again turned in a strong performance at the US Open, reaching the semifinals before falling to the eventual champion, Marat Safin, in straight sets. As with the previous year's tournament, Martin made another grueling comeback from a two-set deficit in the fourth round, this time against Carlos Moyà.

Martin was named the ATP's Most Improved Player in 1993, and won its Sportsmanship Award in 1993 and 1994. He was president of ATP Players Council for 1995–97 and 1998–99.

From 1994 to 1996, Martin was coached by Robert Van't Hof, from 1997 to 2002, he was coached by Dean Goldfine.

In his career, Martin won eight singles and five doubles titles. He retired from the professional tour in 2004. He was the CEO of the International Tennis Hall of Fame until the end of 2022. He is currently the Tournament Director for the Western & Southern Open and is also the Head of Tennis for Beemok Sports and Entertainment.

Post-playing
Martin participates on the Outback Champions Series tennis event for the former members of the ATP tour.[1] Martin finished 2006 ranked third and 2007 ranked first in the Outback Series.

Senior tour titles

 * 2006: Champions Cup Boston – defeated John McEnroe 6–3, 4–6, [10–8]
 * 2007: Gibson Guitars Champions Cup – defeated McEnroe 7–5, 7–5
 * 2008: The Oliver Group Champions Cup – defeated McEnroe 6–3, 6–1

Coaching
After his playing career, Martin coached Mardy Fish, World #18 from 2004-2007 then Novak Djokovic, World#1 from 2009-2010. Martin credits his own development to coaches Rick Ferman, youth coach and mentor; Jose Higueras, coach and teacher throughout professional career; and Dean Goldfine who coached Martin for seven years.

In 1993, he founded Todd Martin Youth Leadership, in his hometown of Lansing, Michigan that serves at risk youth and provides tennis, education and leadership programming to over 10,000 children to date. He continues to volunteer his time and visits when able.

CEO, International Tennis Hall of Fame
The ITHF stewards the history of tennis, honors the players and contributors to the sport of tennis. As CEO, Martin drives globalization, leading all elements of the 501c3 nonprofit business, strategic planning, revenue generation, and ambassadorial duties. He is responsible for the day-to-day operations of the seven-acre national historic landmark including an American Alliance of Museums accredited museum, a 20 court public tennis facility, an ATP Tour professional tournament, and enshrinement process.

Volunteer Service
Martin's foray into leadership came as president of the ATP Player's Council. Elected by the players, Martin served as the primary player advisor to ATP player relations, executive leadership and board of directors. He was the media spokesperson for all ATP Tour players' affairs and led meetings of the player council and general player body. Martin volunteered his time for the board of directors of the USTA (post-playing career) for more than a decade.

Martin serves on the board of directors for the Tennis Industry Association, and he is on the Oracle US Tennis Awards advisory council.

After his playing career, he did public speaking for corporations and organizations such as Mayo Clinic - Jacksonville, USTA and ITA. He was a booth and studio analyst for various television, radio and web broadcasters to include CBS Sports Net, ESPN.com, and Tennis Channel. Martin wrote several publications for USA Today and Tennis Magazine. He participated and consulted for a variety of events for charities, schools and corporations to include Goldman Sachs, Wells Fargo, and Fidelity Investments.

He remains as board director of the Tennis Industry Association and is a member of advisory staff for RacquetFit.

Honors and awards
Martin has been inducted into several Halls of Fame including those of Northwestern University (2001), Greater Lansing Sports (2002), Intercollegiate Tennis Association (2007), and the USTA Midwest (2008).

Martin was the recipient of the ATP's Most Improved Player Award (1993), ATP Sportsmanship Award (1993, 1994) and the International Club’s prestigious Jean Borotra Sportsmanship Award (2002) and the ATP World Team Cup Fair Play Award (2003).

Family
Martin married his wife in December 2000. Together, the pair have three children, Jack, Cash & Gwen.

title: Todd Martin


text:
James L. Buckley

James Lane Buckley (March 9, 1923 – August 18, 2023) was an American politician and judge who served in the United States Senate as a member of the Conservative Party of New York State in the Republican caucus from 1971 to 1977 and additionally held multiple positions within the Reagan administration. He was also the Republican nominee in the 1980 Connecticut Senate race, but he was defeated by Democrat Chris Dodd.

In 1970, Buckley was elected to the U.S. Senate as the nominee of the Conservative Party of New York; he won the race with 39% of the vote and served from 1971 until 1977. During the first Reagan administration, Buckley served as Undersecretary of State for International Security Affairs. He was also President of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty from 1982 to 1985.

Buckley was nominated by President Ronald Reagan to a seat on the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit on October 16, 1985. He was confirmed by the U.S. Senate on December 17, 1985, and he received his commission on December 17, 1985. Buckley assumed senior status on August 31, 1996. He was one of the few people in modern times to have served in the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of the American federal government.

Early life, education, and early career
James Lane Buckley was born on March 9, 1923, in Manhattan, New York City, to Aloise Steiner and William Frank Buckley Sr., the fourth of ten children to the couple. Because their home language was Spanish, Buckley and siblings learned Spanish before they learned English. He was the older brother of the late conservative writer William F. Buckley Jr. and the uncle of Christopher Taylor Buckley. He was also the uncle of Brent Bozell III and political consultant William F. B. O'Reilly. His mother, from New Orleans, was of Swiss-German, German, and Irish descent, while his paternal grandparents, from Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, were of Irish ancestry.

Buckley attended Millbrook School, and in 1943 earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in English from Yale University, where he was a member of Skull and Bones. He enlisted in the United States Navy in 1942, and during World War II he participated in the battles of Leyte, Lingayen Gulf, and Okinawa. Buckley was discharged with the rank of Lieutenant (junior grade) in 1946. After receiving his Bachelor of Laws from Yale Law School in 1949, he was admitted to the bar of Connecticut in 1950 and practiced law until 1953, when he joined The Catawba Corporation as vice president and director. In 1965, he managed his brother's campaign for Mayor of New York. Meanwhile, in May 1953, he married Ann Frances Cooley, with whom he had six children. She died on December 30, 2011.

1968
In 1968, Buckley ran for the senatorial nomination of the Conservative Party of New York State, after his brother William F. Buckley Jr. had served as the party's mayoral nominee in the 1965 New York City mayoral election. Buckley won the party's nomination on April 2, 1968, with the unanimous support of all forty state committeemen. Buckley placed third in the general election behind Republican nominee Jacob Javits and Democratic nominee Paul O'Dwyer after receiving 1,139,402 votes (17.31%).

1970
On March 16, 1968, Robert F. Kennedy announced that he would seek the presidential nomination of the Democratic Party for the 1968 presidential election. After winning four primaries Kennedy was assassinated by Sirhan Sirhan in Los Angeles, California, on June 6.

Kennedy's death left a vacancy in the United States Senate that would be filled through an appointment by Governor Nelson Rockefeller. John W. Gardner, John Lindsay, Burke Marshall, C. Douglas Dillon, Charles Goodell, Ogden Reid, and Whitney Young were all mentioned as possible candidates for the appointment. On August 11, a spokesman for Rockefeller stated that the main choices for the appointment were Gardner, Goodell, and Reid. On September 10, Rockefeller appointed Goodell, a member of the House of Representatives from the 38th congressional district, to fill the vacancy.

On April 6, 1970, Buckley announced that he would seek the Conservative Party's senatorial nomination again. The Conservative State Committee convened inside Hotel McAlpin in Manhattan, New York City, on April 7, to select the party's nominees in the general election. Kevin P. McGovern attempted to force a primary campaign between himself and Buckley but failed to receive the 25% of delegate votes necessary for a primary. Buckley received nearly ninety percent of the delegate votes and the remainder was split between McGovern and abstaining delegates.

On June 20, F. Clifton White, Buckley's campaign manager, announced that Buckley's campaign would circulate petitions in an attempt to gain another ballot line named the Independent Alliance Party. Enough valid signatures were collected to gain the additional ballot line, but New York Secretary of State John P. Lomenzo ruled that the Independent Alliance's emblem, an outline of New York with Buckley's name inside, was illegal as New York's election law limited the number of times that a candidate's name could appear on a ballot line to one. Lomenzo later allowed the party onto the ballot after the emblem was changed to a shield with the letter "I" inside.

In the general election Buckley defeated Goodell, and Richard Ottinger. Although the Independent Alliance Party received over 100,000 votes in the general election, more than the 50,000 votes required to become an official party and automatic ballot access, it did not become an official party as its only candidate was Buckley, who ran in the Senate election and not in the gubernatorial election where the 50,000 votes were required to come from.

1976
In 1971, Buckley spoke to the Republican National Finance committee about running for reelection in the 1976 elections with the Republican nomination. Peter A. Peyser challenged him in the Republican primary, but Buckley defeated him. Buckley gained Rockefeller's support by agreeing to not support Ronald Reagan's campaign against Gerald Ford in the Republican presidential primaries. Buckley lost the general election to Democratic nominee Daniel Patrick Moynihan by a margin of 54% to 45%.

Tenure
During his tenure in the United States Senate Buckley's political affiliation was referred to as Conservative-Republican of New York (C-R-N.Y). The Republican caucus in the Senate voted 36 to 3 in favor of admitting Buckley into their caucus, with Senators Jacob Javits, John Sherman Cooper, and William B. Saxbe all opposing Buckley's admittance to the caucus.

In 1971, Buckley was appointed to the air and water pollution, roads, and economic development sub-committees within the United States Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works. Buckley supported Richard Nixon during the 1972 presidential election and called for the Conservative Party, which had not supported Nixon during the 1968 presidential election, to support Nixon in the current election cycle.

In 1974, Buckley proposed a Human Life Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. If passed, the Amendment would have defined the term "person" in the Fourteenth Amendment to include the embryo. His enacted legislation includes the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) that governs use of student records and the Protection of Pupils' Rights Act (PPRA) which requires parent notification, right to review, and consent for administration of student surveys to minors if the survey collects information on any of eight specified topics.

In the spring of 1974, with the Watergate scandal continuing to grow in magnitude and seriousness, Buckley surprised and, in some cases, angered some of his allies among Republicans when he called upon the increasingly-embattled Richard M. Nixon to voluntarily resign the presidency. Buckley said that in doing so, he was making no judgment as to Nixon's technical legal guilt or innocence of the accusations made against him and in fact denounced those "in and out of the media who have been exploiting the Watergate affair so recklessly" in what he called an effort "to subvert the decisive mandate of the 1972 election." However, he said that the burgeoning scandal might result in an impeachment process that would tear the country even further apart and so he declared: "There is one way and one way only by which the crisis can be resolved, and the country pulled out of the Watergate swamp. I propose an extraordinary act of statesmanship and courage—an act at once noble and heartbreaking; at once serving the greater interests of the nation, the institution of the Presidency, and the stated goals for which he so successfully campaigned"—Nixon's resignation. Buckley was the first major conservative figure to call for resignation. Nixon did not resign at that time but eventually did lose the support of key Republican figures, including Senator Barry Goldwater. Nixon ultimately resigned on August 9, 1974.

Buckley was the lead petitioner in a landmark Supreme Court case, Buckley v. Valeo (1976), which "shaped modern campaign-finance law".

1976 Republican National Convention
During the 1976 Republican National Convention, then-Senator Jesse Helms encouraged a "Draft Buckley" movement in an effort to stop the nomination of Ronald Reagan for president. (Reagan had announced that Pennsylvania Senator Richard Schweiker would be his running mate; Helms objected to this decision, believing Schweiker to be too liberal.) The "Draft Buckley" movement was rendered moot when President Gerald Ford narrowly won the party's nomination on the first ballot.

Post-Senate career
After his loss in the 1976 election, Buckley worked for Donaldson, Lufkin & Jenrette, becoming a member of the executive committee and of its board of directors and eventually advancing to the position of corporate director.

After his 1980 loss in Connecticut, Buckley served in the Reagan administration, first as an undersecretary of State for security assistance, managing military aid to strategically located countries, and then as President of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty in Munich from 1982 to 1985.

Federal judicial service
On October 16, 1985, Buckley was nominated by President Ronald Reagan to a seat on the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. The seat had previously been held by Judge Edward Allen Tamm. Buckley was confirmed by the United States Senate on December 17, 1985, and received his commission on December 17, 1985. He assumed senior status on August 31, 1996.

Later life and death
During the 2016 presidential election Buckley was critical of Democratic nominee Hillary Clinton and Republican nominee Donald Trump. He stated that his brother William and Reagan would have been shocked by Trump's actions. He suggested that he mostly agreed with Libertarian nominee Gary Johnson.

Buckley became the oldest living former senator following the deaths of Jocelyn Burdick and Fritz Hollings in 2019.

Buckley turned 100 on March 9, 2023. He died from injuries suffered in a fall, in Washington, D.C., on August 18, 2023, at age 100.

Political positions
Buckley introduced and led the passage of the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act, but later in 2010 he publicly supported amendment of the legislation due to college athletic departments using the legislation to hide sexual abuse allegations. He voted against a minimum wage increase in 1974. Buckley was one of eight senators to vote against the Equal Rights Amendment.

Publications

 * If Men Were Angels: A View from the Senate (1975)
 * Gleanings from an Unplanned Life (2006)
 * Freedom at Risk: Reflections on Politics, Liberty, and the State (2010)
 * Saving Congress from Itself: Emancipating the States & Empowering Their People (2014)

title: James L. Buckley


text:
Richey Reneberg

Richey Reneberg (born October 5, 1965) is an American former professional tennis player.

He attended Southern Methodist University, where he was a three-time All-American and reached the 1986 National Collegiate Athletics Association finals.

He was the ATP Newcomer of the Year when he turned professional in 1987.

He and his partner Jim Grabb were ranked world No. 1 in doubles and won the 1992 US Open doubles title. His career-high singles ranking in the ATP Tour was world No. 20. He won a second doubles Grand Slam title with Jared Palmer, at the 1995 Australian Open.

The right-hander represented the United States at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta where he was defeated as the 11th seed in the first round by India's Leander Paes. He also played on the American Davis Cup team.

title: Richey Reneberg


text: Category:Dutch explorers

title: Category:Dutch explorers


text:
List of 1988 Canadian incumbents

Crown

 * Head of State - Queen Elizabeth II

Federal government

 * Governor General - Jeanne Sauvé

Cabinet

 * Prime Minister - Brian Mulroney
 * Deputy Prime Minister - Don Mazankowski
 * Minister of Finance - Michael Wilson
 * Secretary of State for External Affairs - Joe Clark
 * Secretary of State for Canada - David Crombie then Lucien Bouchard
 * Minister of National Defence - Perrin Beatty
 * Minister of National Health and Welfare - Jake Epp
 * Minister of Regional Industrial Expansion - Robert de Cotret
 * Minister of the Environment - Thomas McMillan then Lucien Bouchard
 * Minister of Justice - Ray Hnatyshyn then Joe Clark (acting)
 * Minister of Transport - John Crosbie then Benoît Bouchard
 * Minister of Communications - Flora MacDonald then Lowell Murray (acting)
 * Minister of Fisheries and Oceans - Tom Siddon
 * Minister of Agriculture - John Wise then Don Mazankowski
 * Minister of Public Works - Stewart McInnes then Otto Jelinek
 * Minister of Employment and Immigration - Benoît Bouchard then Barbara McDougall
 * Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development - Bill McKnight
 * Minister of Energy, Mines and Resources - Marcel Masse
 * Minister of Veterans Affairs - Gerald Merrithew

Parliament
See: 33rd Canadian parliament then 34th Canadian parliament

Party leaders

 * Progressive Conservative Party of Canada - Brian Mulroney
 * Liberal Party of Canada - John Turner
 * New Democratic Party- Ed Broadbent

Supreme Court Justices

 * Chief Justice: Brian Dickson
 * William McIntyre
 * Bertha Wilson
 * Antonio Lamer
 * Gérard V. La Forest
 * John Sopinka
 * Jean Beetz
 * Claire L'Heureux-Dubé
 * Gerald Eric Le Dain

Other

 * Speaker of the House of Commons - John Allen Fraser
 * Governor of the Bank of Canada - John Crow
 * Chief of the Defence Staff - General P.D. Manson

Premiers

 * Premier of Alberta - Don Getty
 * Premier of British Columbia - Bill Vander Zalm
 * Premier of Manitoba - Howard Pawley then Gary Filmon
 * Premier of New Brunswick - Frank McKenna
 * Premier of Newfoundland - Brian Peckford
 * Premier of Nova Scotia - John Buchanan
 * Premier of Ontario - David Peterson
 * Premier of Prince Edward Island - Joe Ghiz
 * Premier of Quebec - Robert Bourassa
 * Premier of Saskatchewan - Grant Devine
 * Premier of the Northwest Territories - Dennis Patterson
 * Premier of Yukon - Tony Penikett

Lieutenant-governors

 * Lieutenant-Governor of Alberta - Helen Hunley
 * Lieutenant-Governor of British Columbia - Robert Gordon Rogers then David Lam
 * Lieutenant-Governor of Manitoba - George Johnson
 * Lieutenant-Governor of New Brunswick - Gilbert Finn
 * Lieutenant-Governor of Newfoundland and Labrador - James Aloysius McGrath
 * Lieutenant-Governor of Nova Scotia -Alan Abraham
 * Lieutenant-Governor of Ontario - Lincoln Alexander
 * Lieutenant-Governor of Prince Edward Island - Robert Lloyd George MacPhail
 * Lieutenant-Governor of Quebec - Gilles Lamontagne
 * Lieutenant-Governor of Saskatchewan - Frederick W. Johnson then Sylvia Fedoruk

Mayors

 * Toronto - Art Eggleton
 * Montreal - Jean Doré
 * Vancouver - Gordon Campbell
 * Ottawa - James A. Durrell

Religious leaders

 * Roman Catholic Bishop of Quebec - Cardinal Archbishop Louis-Albert Vachon
 * Roman Catholic Bishop of Montreal - Cardinal Archbishop Paul Grégoire
 * Roman Catholic Bishops of London - Bishop John Michael Sherlock
 * Moderator of the United Church of Canada - Anne M. Squire then Sang Chul Lee

title: List of 1988 Canadian incumbents


text:
USS Sigourney (DD-81)

USS Sigourney (DD–81) was a Wickes-class destroyer in the United States Navy during World War I. She was the first ship named for James Butler Sigourney.

Construction and commissioning
Sigourney was laid down on 25 August 1917 by the Fore River Shipbuilding Company, Quincy, Massachusetts, launched on 16 December 1917, sponsored by Mrs. Granville W. Johnson, and commissioned on 15 May 1918.

United States Navy
On 27 May, Sigourney sailed from the United States escorting a troopship to France. On arrival at Brest, she was assigned to Commander Naval Forces, France; and, for the remainder of World War I, she escorted convoys through the submarine danger zone extending approximately 500 miles west of Brest. During most of her convoys, Sigourney was the flagship of the screen commander but did not herself have any confirmed submarine contacts.

After the Armistice with Germany on 11 November, she performed miscellaneous duties in European waters, including service in early December as flagship of the four-destroyer screen that escorted SS George Washington on the middle part of that transport's voyage to carry President Woodrow Wilson from the United States to France for the Versailles Peace Conference. Sigourney sailed from Brest for the United States on 26 December 1918 and arrived at Boston on 8 January 1919. After overhaul at Boston and summer training at Newport, Sigourney was placed in reserve status at Philadelphia on 1 November 1919, and decommissioned there on 26 June 1922.

Royal Navy and Royal Norwegian Navy
Sigourney was recommissioned at Philadelphia on 23 August 1940 and sailed to Halifax, Nova Scotia. There, on 26 November, she was decommissioned and turned over to a Canadian care-and-maintenance party. Commissioned by the British as HMS Newport on 5 December, she was transferred as part of the Destroyers for Bases Agreement. Sigourney was struck from the Navy list on 8 January 1941.

After engine repairs in England, as HNoMS Newport, she operated on convoy duty as a unit of the exiled Royal Norwegian Navy from March 1941 to June 1942. She then reverted to the British, and after repairs, served as an aircraft target ship from June 1943 until placed in reserve in January 1945. Newport was scrapped at Granton, Scotland, on 18 February 1947.

title: USS Sigourney (DD-81)


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Jimmy Arias

James Arias (born August 16, 1964) is a retired tennis touring professional player from the United States.

Biography
Arias was born in Grand Island, New York on August 16, 1964.

A baseliner, Arias turned pro at age 16 in 1980. His peak year was 1983, when as a 19-year-old he finished the year ranked World No. 6, having reached the U.S. Open semi-finals by defeating Jonathan Canter, Tom Gullikson, Gianni Ocleppo, Joakim Nyström and Yannick Noah, and then lost to Ivan Lendl. He also won the Italian Open and three other tour grand prix events.

He reached his career high ranking of World No. 5 in April 1984. He retired from the tour in 1994, having amassed a 286–223 singles playing record and over $1,800,000 in prize money.

With former World No. 2 tennis player, Andrea Jaeger, he won the 1981 French Open Mixed Doubles Championship.

Broadcast work
Arias serves as a commentator for ESPN International and Tennis Channel. Arias served as an analyst for NBC Sports coverage of Tennis at the 2008 Summer Olympics. In Canada, he has worked as an analyst for Rogers Sportsnet and the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation on the broadcasts of the Rogers Cup.

title: Jimmy Arias


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Ministry of Economics and Finance (France)

The Ministry of Economics, Finance and Industrial and Digital Sovereignty (Ministère de l'Économie, des Finances et de la Souveraineté industrielle et numérique, pronounced ), informally referred to as Bercy, is one of the most important ministries in the Government of France. Its minister is one of the most prominent cabinet members after the prime minister. The name of the ministry has changed over time; it has included the terms "economics", "industry", "finance" and "employment" throughout its history.

Responsibilities
The Minister of Economics and Finance oversees:
 * the drafting of laws on taxation by exercising direct authority over the Tax Policy Board (Direction de la législation fiscale) of the General Directorate of Public Finances (Direction générale des Finances publiques), formerly the Department of Revenue (Direction générale des impôts);
 * national funds and financial and economic system, especially with the Office of the Treasurer and Receiver General (Direction générale du Trésor or French Treasury), not to be confused with the Public Treasury (Trésor public), that is the Office of the Comptroller-General (Direction générale de la comptabilité publique) under the authority of the Minister of Public Action and Accounts);
 * the development, regulation and control of economics including industry, tourism, small business, competition, and consumer security, and other matters excluding energy, industrial security, environmental affairs and transportations which are under the authority of the Ministry of Ecology;
 * employment policies and career education.

The officeholder, who has authority on the financial assets of the state, the financial and economic national system and the taxation rules overall, also represents France in the Economic and Financial Affairs Council (ECOFIN).

Location
The Ministry of Economics and Finance is situated in Bercy, in the 12th arrondissement of Paris. The building it shares with the Ministry of Public Action and Accounts extends to the Seine, where there is an embarcadero with fast river boats for faster liaisons to other government agencies. It is also served by Paris Métro lines 6 and 14 at Bercy station.

The saying "the Bercy Fortress" (French: la forteresse de Bercy) refers to the ministry as a dark department with obscure civil servants, especially of high rank. This is emphasised by the impressive look of the building.

During the Grands Projets of François Mitterrand, it was decided that the Ministry of Finance would leave the Louvre's Richelieu wing where it had officiated for the past 110 years. 40 other offices of the Ministry spread around the capital would be reunited in the new building. After an architectural contest, Paul Chemetov and Borja Huidobro were selected in December 1982 to design the buildings Colbert, Necker and Vauban, and Louis Arretche and Roman Karasinski were selected in July 1983 to design the Tugot and Sully buildings. Construction started in 1984. In 1989, the Ministry's employees left the Louvre to move into the new building. Pierre Bérégovoy was the first finance minister to move in the new building.

The 5-hectare complex is made of five buildings: Sully and Turgot buildings (both occupied by the Directorate-General of the Taxes), the Necker building (along the railways), the Vauban building, and the Colbert building (housing the Ministries). The Colbert building contains two 70-meter long arches weighting 8000 tons each (weight of the Eiffel Tower). It is the only administrative building in Paris to have been built at a perpendicular angle against the Seine, and the only one that has part of its foundations in the Seine's water.

Organisation
Bruno Le Maire has been Minister of Economics and Finance since 2017. In the government of Prime Minister Jean Castex, he is assisted by three junior ministers: Olivier Dussopt as Minister for Public Accounts, Agnès Pannier-Runacher as Minister for Industry and Jean-Baptiste Lemoyne as Minister for Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises.


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Webstacle

Neologism. No context. Hardly even a stub. I found no matches on google that weren't mirrors of this one. Joyous 20:44, Aug 1, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Elf-friend 21:12, 1 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. --Ianb 22:26, 1 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete neologism dicdef. -- Cyrius|✎ 22:26, 1 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, neologism. It would still be a neologism even if the article explained the concept well, but it doesn't—I don't even understand what the word is supposed to mean. (Although it did give me a moment of pleasure by calling to mind the Ogden Nash poem: "A girl who is bespectacled/She may not get her necktacled/But safety pins and bassinets/Await the girl who fassinets.") [[User:dpbsmith|dpbsmith (talk)]] 01:46, 2 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: You know, I was trying to clear some old U. fees.  I called the cashiers.  A computer voice told me to use the web.  I went to the web, and it asked for my current student ID.  I hadn't been at that U for 10 years, so I called the cashiers.  Their automatic voice told me to use the web. Repeat.  Now that's a webstacle.  This is an utter neologism.  The fact that the word ought to exist doesn't mean that it's in use. Geogre 13:45, 2 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. --Michael Snow 23:24, 5 Aug 2004 (UTC)


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Giovanni de' Bardi

Giovanni de' Bardi (5 February 1534 – September 1612), Count of Vernio, was an Italian literary critic, writer, composer and soldier.

Biography
Giovanni de' Bardi was born in Florence.

While he received a deep classical education, becoming proficient in Latin and Greek as well as learning the craft of music composition, his early years were largely spent as a soldier. Under Grand Duke Cosimo I of Tuscany he fought against Siena, and later he fought at the Siege of Malta (1565) against the Turks. After Malta, and now a captain, he assisted Maximilian II in defeating the Turks in Hungary. But when he was not away on military campaigns, he was busy in Florence and elsewhere as a patron of music and the arts.

Bardi is mainly famous for being host, patron, and inspiration to the group of composers, music theorists and scholars who made up the Florentine Camerata, the group which attempted to restore the aesthetic effect of ancient Greek music to contemporary practice. The group included Vincenzo Galilei (father of the astronomer Galileo), Giulio Caccini, and Pietro Strozzi (composer), and derived its inspiration from a correspondence with Girolamo Mei, the foremost scholar of ancient Greek drama and music at the time. The result of the association was the invention of monody, and shortly thereafter, opera; in addition, the innovations brought to music by the Camerata under the guidance of Bardi were one of the defining characteristics of what we now know as Baroque music.

Although he was also a composer, relatively few of his works survive: only a handful of madrigals. Curiously, he seems not to have tried his hand at the new monody himself. He also either organized or wrote parts for various intermedi in Florence, the popular court entertainments which took place between the acts of spoken dramas (and which included acting, singing, dancing, and mime — thus being another important precursor to opera). He also wrote plays, including some of the plays for which he also provided the intermedi.

Vincenzo Galilei thought highly of Bardi, and dedicated his famous Dialogo della musica antica et della moderna to him. In the Dialogo, Galilei condemns polyphony, praises monody, and expresses the wish that the musical practice of the ancient Greeks would be restored; corrupt and incomprehensible contemporary music would be replaced with an idealized version of the supposed music of the ancient time. The Counter-Reformation Council of Trent had just finished condemning polyphonic practice, for the same supposed fault (it was too hard to understand the sung text), but for spiritual rather than secular reasons.

References and further reading

 * "Camerata", "Giovanni de Bardi" in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie. 20 vol. London, Macmillan Publishers Ltd., 1980. ISBN 1-56159-174-2
 * Gustave Reese, Music in the Renaissance. New York, W.W. Norton & Co., 1954. ISBN 0-393-09530-4

title: Giovanni de' Bardi


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List of female United States Cabinet members

The Cabinet of the United States, which is the principal advisory body to the President of the United States, has had 65 female members altogether, with seven of them serving in multiple positions for a total of 72 cabinet appointments. Of that number, 38 different women held a total of 41 permanent cabinet posts, having served as the Vice President or heads of the federal executive departments; 31 more women held cabinet-level positions, which can differ under each president; and four officeholders served in both cabinet and cabinet-rank roles. No woman held a presidential cabinet position before the ratification of the 19th Amendment in 1920, which prohibits the federal government or any state from denying citizens the right to vote on the basis of sex.

Frances Perkins became the first woman to serve in a president's cabinet when she was appointed Secretary of Labor by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1933. Patricia Roberts Harris was the first African-American woman and the first woman of color to serve in a presidential cabinet when she was named Secretary of Housing and Urban Development by President Jimmy Carter in 1977. Two years later, Carter tapped her for Secretary of Health and Human Services, therefore making her the first woman to hold two different cabinet positions. Madeleine Albright, who was born in Czechoslovakia, became the first foreign-born woman to serve in a president's cabinet when she was picked by President Bill Clinton for United States Ambassador to the United Nations, a cabinet-rank position, in 1993. She was elevated to Secretary of State four years later, during Clinton's second term, thus becoming the highest-ranking woman in the federal government's history at the time.

On January 26, 2005, Condoleezza Rice assumed the post of Secretary of State under President George W. Bush, which made her the highest-ranked woman among cabinet secretaries to enter the presidential line of succession, standing fourth. Nancy Pelosi surpassed Rice on January 4, 2007, when her election as the first female Speaker of the House put her second in line to the presidency. Kamala Harris replaced Pelosi to become the highest-ranking woman ever to be in the line of succession upon being inaugurated as the first female Vice President on January 20, 2021, alongside President Joe Biden.

President Joe Biden named the most women as secretaries to his first-term Cabinet, with five: former Chair of the Federal Reserve Janet Yellen as Secretary of the Treasury; U.S. representative Deb Haaland (D-NM) as Secretary of the Interior; Rhode Island governor Gina Raimondo as Secretary of Commerce; U.S. representative Marcia Fudge (D-OH) as Secretary of Housing and Urban Development; and Michigan governor Jennifer Granholm as Secretary of Energy, exceeding by one the record set by President Barack Obama. However, including cabinet reshuffles during his second term in office, Obama still holds the record for most women appointed to permanent cabinet positions with eight, the most of any presidency, therefore surpassing George W. Bush's previous record of six appointees.

The Department of Labor has had the most female secretaries, with seven. The Department of Health and Human Services has had five; the Department of Commerce has had four; the Departments of Education, Housing and Urban Development, Interior, State, and Transportation have had three; the Departments of Energy, Homeland Security, and Justice have had two; and the Departments of Agriculture and Treasury have had one. The Departments of Defense and Veterans Affairs are the only existing executive departments that do not have female secretaries yet.

The totals for this list include only women presidential appointees confirmed (if necessary) by the U.S. Senate to cabinet or cabinet-level positions and taking their oath of office; they do not include acting officials or nominees awaiting confirmation.

Permanent cabinet members
The following list includes women who have held permanent cabinet positions, all of whom are in the line of succession to the presidency. The table below is organized based on the beginning of their terms in office. Officeholders whose terms begin the same day are listed according to the presidential order of succession.

 *  denotes the first female holder of that particular office

Former permanent cabinet members

 * The Secretary of War became defunct when the Department of War was split between the Department of the Army and the Department of the Air Force by the National Security Act of 1947, and both were absorbed into the Department of Defense in 1949. No woman had ever served while it was a cabinet post.
 * The Postmaster General ceased to be a member of the cabinet when the Post Office Department was re-organized into the United States Postal Service (USPS) by the Postal Reorganization Act of 1970. No woman had ever served while it was a cabinet post. Megan Brennan became the first woman to serve as Postmaster General in 2015. She was appointed after the USPS became an independent agency of the executive branch.
 * The Secretary of Commerce and Labor became renamed when the Department of Commerce and Labor was split between the Department of Commerce and the Department of Labor. The Department of Commerce is considered a continuation of the Department of Commerce and Labor under a new name. No woman had ever served under the original title of the position.
 * The Secretary of the Army ceased to be a member of the cabinet when the Department of the Army became a component of the Department of Defense in 1949. No woman had ever served while it was a cabinet post. Christine Wormuth became the first woman to serve as Secretary of the Army in 2021. She was appointed after it became a position beneath the Secretary of Defense.
 * The Secretary of the Navy ceased to be a member of the cabinet when the Department of the Navy became a component of the Department of Defense in 1949. No woman had ever served while it was a cabinet post. Susan Livingstone became the first woman to serve as acting Secretary of the Navy in 2003. She was appointed after it became a position beneath the Secretary of Defense.
 * The Secretary of the Air Force ceased to be a member of the cabinet when the Department of the Air Force became a component of the Department of Defense in 1949. No woman had ever served while it was a cabinet post. Sheila Widnall became the first woman to serve as Secretary of the Air Force in 1993. She was appointed after it became a position beneath the Secretary of Defense.

Cabinet-level positions
The president may designate or remove additional officials as members of the cabinet. These positions have not always been in the cabinet, so some female officeholders may not be listed.

The following list includes women who have held cabinet-level positions, which can vary under each president. They are not in the line of succession and are not necessarily officers of the United States. The table below is organized based on the beginning of their terms in office while it was raised to cabinet-level status. Officeholders whose terms begin the same day are listed alphabetically by last name.

 *  denotes the first female holder of that particular office


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Aaron Krickstein

Aaron Krickstein (born August 2, 1967), nicknamed "Marathon Man", is an American former professional tennis player who competed on the ATP Tour from 1983 to 1996. He currently competes on the Outback Champions Series Over-30 tour.

Krickstein reached his career high ATP ranking of World No. 6 on February 26, 1990. He achieved this ranking on the back of wins in Sydney and Los Angeles, as well as his best ever results at Wimbledon and the US Open. He is perhaps best known for his five-set, marathon loss to Jimmy Connors at the 1991 US Open, which ESPN called "an instant classic".

Personal life
Krickstein was born in Ann Arbor, Michigan, the son of Evelyn, a housewife, and Herb Krickstein, a pathologist. His sister, Kathy, won the Big Ten tennis championship in 1978. He is the uncle of LPGA golfer Morgan Pressel, Kathy's daughter.

Krickstein is Jewish and in the early 1990s was one of three highly ranked Jewish-American tennis players, along with Jay Berger and Brad Gilbert.

Krickstein has been the director of tennis at St. Andrews Country Club in Boca Raton, Florida, since 2002.

Junior
Krickstein started playing tennis when he was six. He became an active competitor on the high school tennis scene during his teens, and still holds the Michigan record for most consecutive match wins at this level (56). He played for University Liggett School.

Krickstein won the American National Under 16 championship in 1982. While still only 16, he was the US National Junior Tennis Association Champion, Clay Champion, and USTA National Champion in the 18s in 1983. He won five consecutive junior championships.

Professional
Krickstein set an ATP record for being the youngest player to win a singles title on the ATP Tour (at age 16, 2 months after his 16th birthday), in Tel Aviv. Krickstein set a record for being the youngest player to ever break the top 10 (at age 17). As of July 2024, both records still stand.

In 1984, he won the U.S. Pro Tennis Championship, becoming its youngest winner, and a clay court tournament in Boston. In 1989 he won the Tokyo Indoor Tennis Tournament and a hard court tournament in Sydney, Australia. In 1991, 1992, and 1993 he won the South African Open.

Krickstein had an injury-plagued career, which included stress fractures in his feet, problems with his knees and wrists in 1985 and 1986, and injuries suffered when he was hurt in a car accident in 1987.

His best finishes in a Grand Slam event were at the 1989 US Open, and at the 1995 Australian Open, where he reached the semi-finals.

Krickstein is perhaps best remembered for his famous five-set match against Jimmy Connors on Labor Day at the 1991 US Open. Krickstein had led the match 2–1 in sets and was ahead 5–2 in the fifth set, before losing the match in a tiebreaker. The match lasted four hours and 41 minutes. According to ESPN, "The match was an instant classic." Before retractable roofs were constructed for use at the US Open, this match was the default television filler during tournament rain delays; because of this, it is probably the most viewed tennis match of all time. For about 24 years after the match, Krickstein and Connors only spoke a few words to each other. But in 2014, Krickstein called Connors to invite him to play a "reunion match" for members at the Florida country club where Krickstein was (and still is) the tennis director. They played in February 2015 and Krickstein won a pro set 8–5.

He had a record of 10 career wins from 0–2 set deficits. His nickname "Marathon Man" was a reference to his ability to make a comeback when behind in a match. Krickstein won 28 of his 37 career matches that went into a fifth set.

Krickstein defeated a number of top players, including Ivan Lendl (world #1) in 1990, Michael Stich (world #2 and #4) in 1994 and 1991, Stefan Edberg (world #3) in 1988 at the US Open, Boris Becker (world #3) in 1992, Mats Wilander (world #4) in 1984, Jimmy Arias (world #5) in 1984, and Sergi Bruguera (world #5) in 1994. He won against Pete Sampras and Andre Agassi.

Davis Cup
Krickstein was a member of the United States Davis Cup team from 1985 to 1987, and also was a member of the 1990 squad. He compiled a 6–4 record in singles play during Davis Cup ties. The highlight of Krickstein's Davis Cup career came in 1990 when he scored two, hard-fought victories in a World Group Quarterfinal tie against Czechoslovakia, leading his team to a 4–1 win.

Records

 * These records were attained in the Open Era of tennis.

title: Aaron Krickstein


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2005 Tour de France

The 2005 Tour de France was the 92nd edition of the Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. It took place between 2–24 July, with 21 stages covering a distance 3593 km. It has no overall winner—although American cyclist Lance Armstrong originally won the event, the United States Anti-Doping Agency announced on 24 August 2012 that they had disqualified Armstrong from all his results since 1 August 1998, including his seven Tour de France wins from 1999 to 2005. The verdict was subsequently confirmed by the UCI.

The first stages were held in the département of the Vendée, for the third time in 12 years. The 2005 Tour was announced on 28 October 2004. It was a clockwise route, visiting the Alps before the Pyrenees. Armstrong took the top step on the podium, for what was then the seventh consecutive time. He was accompanied on the podium by Ivan Basso and Jan Ullrich, but in 2012 Ullrich's results were annulled. The points classification was won by Thor Hushovd, and the mountains classification by Michael Rasmussen.

The race was seen by 15 million spectators along the road, and by 2 billion viewers on TV.

Teams

In 2005, the UCI had started the ProTour: 20 teams were given a ProTour licence, and were required to start in all ProTour races, which included the Tour de France. The Tour de France organisation was not happy with this rule, as they wanted to be able to decide which teams would join their race. While negotiations were still ongoing, it was decided to use the UCI rule for the 2005 Tour, so all 20 ProTour teams were automatically invited. The Tour organisation could invite one extra team with a wildcard, and used this to invite. All teams were composed of nine cyclists, so 189 riders in 21 teams commenced the 2005 Tour de France. Of them, 155 riders finished.

The teams entering the race were:

Pre-race favourites
The main favourite was (then) six-time winner Armstrong (now stripped of all his victories). Armstrong had had doubts if he should start the 2005 Tour, but decided in February 2005 that he would race. His main rival Ullrich was happy with this decision, as he thought it would be a better race with Armstrong present.

In previous years, Ullrich never had the full support of his team to win the general classification, as his team was also aiming for stage victories. In 2005, Erik Zabel, who had won the points classification six times, was left out of the team, and Ullrich was supported by Klöden and Vinokourov, who both had already reached the podium on the Tour.

On the day before the Tour started, Ullrich crashed into his team director's car, but was not seriously injured.

Route and stages
The Tour commemorated the death of Fabio Casartelli. During the 15th stage the riders passed the Col de Portet d'Aspet, where Casartelli died exactly 10 years earlier, in the 1995 Tour de France. The Tour also commemorated the first time there was an official mountain climb in the Tour, the Ballon d'Alsace. During the 9th stage this mountain was passed again, exactly 100 years after the first ascent in the Tour.

The 2005 Tour de France was divided into 21 stages. These stages belong to different categories: 8 were flat stages, 5 were medium mountain stages, 5 were high mountain stages, 2 were individual time trials and 1 was a team time trial. The distinction between flat stage, medium mountain stage and high mountain stage is important for the points classification. The highest point of elevation in the race was 2642 m at the summit of the Col du Galibier mountain pass on stage 11. There were two rest days, in Grenoble and in Pau.

The traditional prologue on the first day was replaced by an individual time trial of more than twice the length of a standard prologue. This stage crossed from the mainland of France to the Île de Noirmoutier. The most famous route to this island is the Passage du Gois, a road that is under water at high tide. This road was included in the 1999 Tour. Several of the favourites crashed there that year, and ended that stage 7 minutes behind the peloton. This year they took the bridge to the island. Later in the race, there was one more time trial, on the penultimate day. Also, there were just three uphill finishes (Courchevel, Ax-3 Domaines and Pla d'Adet), a lower number than in previous years. The finish line of the last stage was, as has been since 1975, on the Champs-Élysées in Paris.

In the stages that were not time trials, there were intermediate sprints. Cyclist who crossed the intermediate sprints first received points for the points classification, and bonification seconds for the general classification. Until stage 8, there were three intermediate sprints, and from stage 9 on there were two.

Race overview
In Stage 1, David Zabriskie, a former teammate of Lance Armstrong, beat Armstrong by two seconds. In the team time trial of stage 4, Zabriskie fell in the last kilometres, and Armstrong took over the lead.

Armstrong initially refused to wear the yellow jersey in the fifth stage but was forced by the Tour organisation, who threatened to remove him from the race.

In the tenth stage, the start was moved from Grenoble to Froges.

Before the 20th stage, an individual time trial, Michael Rasmussen occupied the third place in the general classification. During that stage, Rasmussen fell multiple times and changed bicycles multiple times, and lost so much time that he ended up at the seventh place in the general classification. All total throughout the stage he changed bikes twice, changed wheels twice, began to hesitate going through corners and went off the road. His final time during this ITT was still better than half the field.

The race jury invoked the 'rain rule' for the Champs-Élysées, meaning that Lance Armstrong became the winner of the General classification the first time the race passed the finish line, rather than the eighth time as normal. The time bonification for the winner of the stage was still given, and Alexander Vinokourov profited from this as he won the stage after an escape in the last kilometre (the first time since 1994 that the final stage did not end in a sprint ), and passed Levi Leipheimer in the general classification to end fifth.

During the final ceremonies in Paris, Armstrong was allowed to talk to the crowds, the first time in the Tour's history that a winner was given this chance. It has since become a regular occurrence.

Doping
During the race, 143 urine tests and 21 blood tests were conducted. None of them returned positive. Still, there were fears that banned substances were being used; the boss of the team (not racing in the 2005 Tour) questioned the increase in velocities.

In 2010, Hans Michael Holczer, the team boss of Gerolsteiner in 2005, said that the UCI had informed him that Leipheimer had shown blood values just under the doping limit, and that Holczer suspected that Leipheimer was doping. The UCI advised Gerolsteiner to find a reason to remove Leipheimer from the race, but Holczer refused, because his team was still facing bad publicity from a previous doping case.

The top five of the general classification of 2005 would not compete the 2006 edition. Armstrong had retired after the 2005 Tour, and a few days before the 2006 edition, after it became public that (among others) Basso, Ullrich and Mancebo were under investigation in the Operacion Puerto doping case, the Tour organisation and team leaders decided to exclude all cyclists under investigation from joining the Tour. Vinokourov, fifth-placed in 2005, was not under investigation, but his team was reduced to five cyclists, below the minimal required amount of six, so he could also not compete.

In February 2012, the Court of Arbitration for Sport found Ullrich guilty of being engaged in Fuentes' doping program, and decided that Ullrich's results since May 2005, including his results from the 2005 Tour de France, would be disqualified.

Subsequent to Armstrong's statement to withdraw his fight against United States Anti-Doping Agency's (USADA) charges, on 24 August 2012, the USADA said it would ban Armstrong for life and stripped him of his record seven Tour de France titles. Later that day it was confirmed in a USADA statement that Armstrong was banned for life and would be disqualified from any and all competitive results obtained on and subsequent to 1 August 1998, including forfeiture of any medals, titles, winnings, finishes, points and prizes. On 22 October 2012, the Union Cycliste Internationale endorsed the USADA sanctions, and decided not to award victories to any other rider or upgrade other placings in any of the affected events.

Michael Rasmussen, winner of the mountains classification, revealed in 2013 that in a doping test his value of immature red blood cells was below the minimum threshold, but that the UCI allowed him to continue in the race because they did not want an incident.

Classification leadership and minor prizes
There were four main individual classifications contested in the 2005 Tour de France, as well as a team competition. The most important was the general classification, which was calculated by adding each rider's finishing times on each stage, with time bonuses given at the end of each mass start stage. If a crash had happened within the final 3 km of a stage, not including time trials and summit finishes, the riders involved would have received the same time as the group they were in when the crash occurred. The rider with the lowest cumulative time was the winner of the general classification and was considered the overall winner of the Tour. The rider leading the classification wore a yellow jersey.

The second classification was the points classification. Riders received points for finishing in the highest positions in a stage finish, or in intermediate sprints during the stage. The points available for each stage finish were determined by the stage's type. The leader was identified by a green jersey.

The third classification was the mountains classification. Most stages of the race included one or more categorised climbs, in which points were awarded to the riders that reached the summit first. The climbs were categorised as fourth-, third-, second- or first-category, or hors catégorie for the most difficult climbs. The leader wore a white jersey with red polka dots.

The final individual classification was the young rider classification. This was calculated the same way as the general classification, but the classification was restricted to riders who were born on or after 1 January 1980. The leader wore a white jersey.

The final classification was a team classification. This was calculated using the finishing times of the best three riders per team on each stage; the leading team was the team with the lowest cumulative time. The number of stage victories and placings per team determined the outcome of a tie.

In addition, there was a combativity award given after each mass start stage to the rider considered, by a jury, to have "made the greatest effort and who has demonstrated the best qualities of sportsmanship". The winner wore a red number bib the following stage. At the conclusion of the Tour, Óscar Pereiro was given the overall super-combativity award. The Souvenir Henri Desgrange given in honour of Tour founder Henri Desgrange to the first rider to pass the summit of the Col du Galibier on stage 11. This prize was won by Alexander Vinokourov.

 * In stage 1, Lance Armstrong wore the green jersey.

title: 2005 Tour de France