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ArmaLite AR-15

The ArmaLite AR-15 is a select-fire, gas-operated, air-cooled, magazine-fed rifle manufactured in the United States between 1959 and 1964. Designed by American gun manufacturer ArmaLite in 1956, it was based on its AR-10 rifle. The ArmaLite AR-15 was designed to be a lightweight rifle and to fire a new high-velocity, lightweight, small-caliber cartridge to allow infantrymen to carry more ammunition.

In 1959, ArmaLite sold its rights to the AR-15 to Colt due to financial difficulties and limitations in terms of manpower and production capacity. After modifications (most notably, the charging handle was re-located from under the carrying handle like AR-10 to the rear of the receiver), Colt rebranded it the Colt 601, however, it still carried the Armalite markings due to contractual obligations to Armalite/Fairchild Aircraft Co. Colt marketed the redesigned rifle to various military services around the world and was eventually adopted by the U.S. military in January 1962 and subsequently designated as M16 rifle in December 1963, which went into production and service in 1964.

Colt continued to use the AR-15 trademark for its line of semi-automatic-only rifles marketed to civilian and law-enforcement customers, known as Colt AR-15. The Armalite AR-15 is the parent of a variety of Colt AR-15 and M16 rifle variants.

History
After World War II, the United States military started looking for a single automatic rifle to replace the M1 Garand, M1/M2 Carbines, M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle, M3 "Grease Gun" and Thompson submachine gun. However, early experiments with select-fire versions of the M1 Garand proved disappointing. During the Korean War, the select-fire M2 Carbine largely replaced the submachine gun in US service and became the most widely used Carbine variant. However, combat experience suggested that the .30 Carbine round was under-powered. American weapons designers concluded that an intermediate round was necessary, and recommended a small-caliber, high-velocity cartridge.

However, senior American commanders having faced fanatical enemies and experienced major logistical problems during WWII and the Korean War,    insisted that a single powerful .30 caliber cartridge be developed, that could not only be used by the new automatic rifle, but by the new general-purpose machine gun (GPMG) in concurrent development. This culminated in the development of the 7.62×51mm NATO cartridge.

The United States Army then began testing several rifles to replace the obsolete M1 Garand. Springfield Armory's T44E4 and heavier T44E5 were essentially updated versions of the Garand chambered for the new 7.62×51mm NATO round, while Fabrique Nationale submitted their FN FAL as the T48. ArmaLite entered the competition late, hurriedly submitting several AR-10 prototype rifles in the fall of 1956 to the United States Army's Springfield Armory for testing.

The ArmaLite AR-10 featured an innovative combination of a straight-line barrel/stock design, a new patent-filed gas-operated bolt, forged aluminum alloy receivers and with phenolic composite stocks resulting in a small arm significantly easier to control in automatic fire than other infantry rifles of the day. It had rugged elevated sights, an oversized aluminum flash suppressor and recoil compensator, and an adjustable gas system. The final prototype, featured an upper and lower receiver with the now-familiar hinge and takedown pins, and the charging handle was on top of the receiver placed inside of the carry handle. For a 1950s 7.62×51mm NATO rifle, the AR-10 was incredibly lightweight at only 6.85 lb empty. Initial comments by Springfield Armory test staff were favorable, and some testers commented that the AR-10 was the best lightweight automatic rifle ever tested by the Armory.

In the end, the United States Army chose the T44, which entered service as the M14 rifle, which was an improved M1 Garand with a 20-round magazine and automatic fire capability. The U.S. also adopted the M60 general purpose machine gun (GPMG). Its NATO partners adopted the FN FAL and HK G3 rifles, and the FN MAG and Rheinmetall MG3 GPMGs.

The first confrontations between the AK-47 and the M14 came in the early part of the Vietnam War. Battlefield reports indicated that the M14 was uncontrollable in full-auto and that soldiers could not carry enough ammo to maintain fire superiority over the AK-47. While the M2 Carbine offered a high rate of fire, it was under-powered and ultimately outclassed by the AK-47. A replacement was needed: a medium between the traditional preference for high-powered rifles, such as the M14, and the lightweight firepower of the M2 Carbine.

Scaling down the ArmaLite AR-10
As a result, the Army was forced to reconsider a 1957 request by General Willard G. Wyman, commander of the U.S. Continental Army Command (CONARC), to develop a .223 caliber (5.56 mm) select-fire rifle weighing 6 lb (2.7 kg) when loaded with a 20-round magazine. The 5.56mm round had to penetrate a standard U.S. M1 helmet at 500 yd and retain a velocity in excess of the speed of sound, while matching or exceeding the wounding ability of the .30 Carbine cartridge. This request ultimately resulted in the development of a scaled-down version of the ArmaLite AR-10, called the ArmaLite AR-15 rifle.

In 1958, ArmaLite submitted ten AR-15s and one hundred 25-round magazines for CONARC testing. The tests found that a five to seven man team armed with AR-15s had the same firepower as an 11-man team armed with M14s and soldiers armed with AR-15s could also carry three times more ammunition than those armed with M14s (649 rounds vs. 220 rounds). The AR-15 was found to be three times more reliable than the M14 rifle. However, General Maxwell Taylor, then Army Chief of Staff, "vetoed" the AR-15 in favor of the M14. In 1959, ArmaLite—now frustrated with the lack of results and suffering ongoing financial difficulties—sold its rights to the AR-10 and AR-15 to Colt.

Colt era
After acquiring the AR-15, Colt promptly redesigned the rifle to facilitate mass production. Based on the final ArmaLite design, most notably, the charging handle was re-located from under the carrying handle, like the earlier AR-10 to the rear of the receiver, like the later M16 rifle. Colt then renamed and rebranded the rifle "Colt ArmaLite AR-15 Model 01". After a Far East tour, Colt made its first sale of Colt ArmaLite AR-15 rifles to Malaya on September 30, 1959. Colt manufactured their first batch of 300 Colt ArmaLite AR-15 rifles in December 1959. Colt would go on to market the Colt ArmaLite AR-15 rifle to military services around the world.

In July 1960, General Curtis LeMay, then Vice Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force, was impressed by a demonstration of the AR-15 and ordered 8500 rifles. In the meantime, the Army would continue testing the AR-15, finding that the intermediate cartridge .223 (5.56 mm) rifle is much easier to shoot than the standard 7.62×51mm NATO M14 rifle. In 1961 marksmanship testing, the U.S. Army found that 43% of AR-15 shooters achieved Expert, while only 22% of M14 rifle shooters did so. Also, a lower recoil impulse, allows for more controllable automatic weapons fire.

In the summer of 1961, General LeMay was promoted to Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force and requested an additional 80,000 AR-15s. However, General Maxwell D. Taylor, now Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, (who repeatedly clashed with LeMay) advised President John F. Kennedy that having two different calibers within the military system at the same time would be problematic and the request was rejected. In October 1961, William Godel, a senior man at the Advanced Research Projects Agency, sent 10 AR-15s to South Vietnam. The reception was enthusiastic, and in 1962, another 1,000 AR-15s were sent. United States Army Special Forces personnel filed battlefield reports lavishly praising the AR-15 and the stopping-power of the 5.56 mm cartridge and pressed for its adoption.

By intentionally choosing a slow twist rate the 55 grain bullet used in the 5.56 Ball M193 cartridge was only just stable in flight. The damage caused by the 5.56 mm bullet was originally believed to be caused by instantaneous "tumbling" on impact and render a wide, incapacitating wound due to the slow 1 in 14 in rifling twist rate. However, any pointed lead core bullet will "tumble" after penetration in flesh, because the center of gravity is towards the rear of the bullet. The large wounds observed by soldiers in Vietnam were actually caused by bullet fragmentation, which was created by a combination of the bullet's velocity and construction. These wounds were so devastating that the photographs remained classified into the 1980s.

However, despite overwhelming evidence that the AR-15 could bring more firepower to bear than the M14, the Army opposed the adoption of the new rifle. U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara now had two conflicting views: the USAF's (General LeMay's) repeated requests for additional AR-15s and the ARPA report favoring the AR-15, versus the Army's position favoring the M14. Even President Kennedy expressed concern, so McNamara ordered Secretary of the Army Cyrus Vance to test the M14, the AR-15 and the AK-47. The Army reported that only the M14 was suitable for service, but Vance wondered about the impartiality of those conducting the tests. He ordered the Army Inspector General to investigate the testing methods used; the Inspector General confirmed that the testers were biased towards the M14.

In January 1963, Secretary McNamara received reports that M14 production was insufficient to meet the needs of the armed forces and ordered a halt to M14 production. At the time, the AR-15 was the only rifle that could fulfill a requirement of a "universal" infantry weapon for issue to all services. McNamara ordered its adoption, despite receiving reports of several deficiencies, most notably the lack of a chrome-plated chamber.

After minor modifications, the new redesigned rifle was renamed the "Rifle, Caliber 5.56 mm, M16". Meanwhile, the Army relented and recommended the adoption of the M16 for jungle warfare operations. However, the Army insisted on the inclusion of a forward assist to help push the bolt into battery in the event that a cartridge failed to seat into the chamber. The Air Force, Colt and Eugene Stoner believed that the addition of a forward assist was an unjustified expense. As a result, the design was split into two variants: the Air Force's M16 without the forward assist, and the "XM16E1 (AKA: M16A1)" with the forward assist for the other service branches.

In November 1963, McNamara approved the U.S. Army's order of 85,000 XM16E1s; and to appease LeMay, the Air Force was granted an order for another 19,000 M16s. In March 1964, the M16 rifle went into production and the Army accepted delivery of the first batch of 2129 rifles later that year, and an additional 57,240 rifles the following year.

The Colt ArmaLite AR-15 was discontinued with the adoption of the M16 rifle. Most AR-15 rifles in U.S. service have long ago been upgraded to M16 configuration. The Colt ArmaLite AR-15 was also used by the United States Secret Service and other U.S. federal, state and local law enforcement agencies.

Shortly after the United States military adopted the M16 rifle, Colt introduced its line semi-automatic-only Colt AR-15 rifles, which it markets to civilians and law enforcement. Colt continues to use the AR-15 name for these rifles.

Colt ArmaLite AR-15 (Model 601 and 602)
Colt's first two models produced after the acquisition of the rifle from ArmaLite were the 601 and 602, and these rifles were in many ways clones of the original ArmaLite rifle (in fact, these rifles were often found stamped Colt ArmaLite AR-15, Property of the U.S. Government caliber .223, with no reference to them being M16s).

The 601 and 602 are virtually identical to the later M16 rifle without the forward-assist. Like the later M16 rifle their charging handle was re-located from under the carrying handle like AR-10 to the rear of the receiver. They were equipped with triangular fore-stocks and occasionally green or brown furniture. Their front sight had a more triangular shape. They had flat lower receivers without raised surfaces around the magazine well. Their bolt hold open device lacked a raised lower engagement surface and had a slanted and serrated surface that had to be engaged with a bare thumb, index finger, or thumb nail because of the lack of this surface. Their fire-selector was also changed from upward = safe, backward = semi-auto and forward = full-auto, to the now familiar forward = safe, upward = semi-auto, and backward = full-auto of the M16 rifle.

The only major difference between the 601 and 602 is the switch from the original four grooves, right-hand 1:14-inch (1:355.6 mm or 64 calibers) rifling twist rate to the more common four grooves, right-hand 1:12-inch (1:304.8 mm or 54.8 calibers) twist. This was done as the original 1:14-inch twist rate to just stabilize the 55 grain bullet used in the 5.56 Ball M193 cartridge under unfavorable conditions could induce too much yaw and due to the resulting excessive in flight bullet destabilization become inaccurate. The one turn in 12 inches increased accuracy and was optimized to adequately stabilize the M193 ball and longer M196 tracer bullets.

Design details
The ArmaLite AR-15 internal piston action was derived from the original ArmaLite AR-10 action and was later used in the M16 rifle action. This internal piston action system designed by Eugene Stoner is commonly called a direct impingement system, but it does not utilize a conventional direct impingement system. In, the designer states:

The gas system, bolt carrier, and bolt-locking design were patented at for the time and is ammunition specific, since it does not have an adjustable gas port or valve to adjust the weapon to various propellant and projectile or barrel length specific pressure behavior.

The AR-15 is a modular weapon system. It is easy to assemble, modify and repair using a few simple hand tools, and a flat surface to work on. The AR-15's upper receiver incorporates the fore stock, the charging handle, the gas operating system, the barrel, the bolt and bolt carrier assembly. The lower receiver incorporates the magazine well, the pistol grip and the buttstock. The lower receiver also contains the trigger, disconnector, hammer and fire selector (collectively known as the fire control group). The AR-15's "duckbill" flash suppressor had three tines or prongs and was designed to preserve the shooter's night vision by disrupting the flash. Early AR-15's had a 25-round magazine. Later model AR-15s used a 20-round waffle-patterned magazine that was meant to be a lightweight, disposable item. As such, it is made of pressed/stamped aluminum and was not designed to be durable.

The AR-15's most distinctive ergonomic feature is the carrying handle and rear sight assembly on top of the receiver. This is a by-product of the design, where the carry handle serves to protect the charging handle. The AR-15 rifle has a 500 mm (19.75 inches) sight radius. The AR-15 uses an L-type flip, aperture rear sight and it is adjustable with two settings, 0 to 300 meters and 300 to 400 meters. The front sight is a post adjustable for elevation. The rear sight can be adjusted for windage. The sights can be adjusted with a bullet tip or pointed tool.

The AR-15's straight-line recoil design, where the recoil spring is located in the stock directly behind the action, and serves the dual function of operating spring and recoil buffer. The stock being in line with the bore also reduces muzzle rise, especially during automatic fire. Because recoil does not significantly shift the point of aim, faster follow-up shots are possible and user fatigue is reduced.

title: ArmaLite AR-15


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User talk:Strother

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Matthew Lillard

Matthew Lyn Lillard (born January 24, 1970) is an American actor and businessman. His early film work includes Chip Sutphin in Serial Mom (1994), Emmanuel "Cereal Killer" Goldstein in Hackers (1995), Stu Macher in Scream (1996), Stevo in SLC Punk! (1998), Brock Hudson in She's All That (1999), Dennis Rafkin in Thirteen Ghosts (2001), and Jerry Conlaine in Without a Paddle (2004). He is best known for portraying Shaggy Rogers in Scooby-Doo (2002), its sequel Scooby-Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed (2004), and in animation, where he has been the voice of Shaggy since Casey Kasem retired from the role in 2009.

In 2023, he gained renewed recognition for his role as William Afton, a manipulative serial killer, in Five Nights at Freddy's. U.S. entertainment publication The Hollywood Reporter stated that he had entered "his Renaissance era" in popular culture, noting that the movie had the third highest ever domestic box office return during its opening weekend for a horror film. Lillard has been labeled as a "scream king" due to his influence in the genre.

While much of his work is comedic in nature, Lillard has also given dramatic performances in projects such as The Descendants (2011), Trouble with the Curve (2012), Match (2014), and Twin Peaks: The Return (2017). Lillard also starred as Dean Boland in the television series Good Girls (2018–2021). He made his directorial debut with the coming-of-age drama Fat Kid Rules the World (2012).

Early life
Lillard was born in Lansing, Michigan, on January 24, 1970, the son of Paula and Jeffrey Lillard (b. 1948),  and grew up in Tustin, California. He has a younger sister, Amy, and attended Foothill High School in North Tustin, California. He later attended Fullerton College and then went to the American Academy of Dramatic Arts in Pasadena, California, with fellow actor Paul Rudd. He also attended Circle in the Square Theatre School in New York City.

Career
After high school, Lillard was co-host of a short-lived TV show titled SK8-TV, and afterwards was hired as an extra in Ghoulies 3: Ghoulies Go to College (1991). In 1994, he was cast in the John Waters black comedy Serial Mom. The following year he was cast in five films, including Hackers, a thriller about a group of high school kids who thwart a multimillion-dollar corporate extortion conspiracy. In 1996, he was cast as Stu Macher in the horror film Scream. He also played Stevo in the independent film SLC Punk!, and supporting character Dennis Rafkin in Thirteen Ghosts. He was originally meant to reprise his role of Stu Macher in 2000's Scream 3 but the plans were changed.

Lillard was cast as Norville "Shaggy" Rogers in the 2002 live-action film Scooby-Doo: The Movie, a role he later reprised in the 2004 sequel Scooby-Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed. When Casey Kasem, who had voiced the character from the show's debut in 1969, retired in 2009 due to declining health, Lillard was chosen as his replacement and voiced Shaggy in the three subsequent animated series, Mystery Incorporated, Be Cool Scooby-Doo!, and Scooby-Doo and Guess Who?, as well as every animated direct-to-video film since 2010's Scooby-Doo! Abracadabra-Doo. Lillard, however, did not voice Shaggy in the animated 2020 Scooby-Doo reboot Scoob!, with the character instead being voiced by SNL alum Will Forte. Although Lillard was disappointed with the casting decision, he still wished the film good luck.

In 2011, Lillard guest starred on the Fox series House. In 2011, he produced and directed his first feature film, Fat Kid Rules the World, based on the K. L. Going book of the same name. Later that year, he appeared in the comedy-drama film The Descendants. Lillard also reprised the voice role of Shaggy in the crossover episode in the television series Supernatural in 2018.

In 2012, Lillard guest-starred in the Criminal Minds episode "The Apprenticeship". The following year, he played the role of Daniel Frye on the American TV series The Bridge. In 2014, Lillard starred as Peter in the animated film Under Wraps, alongside Brooke Shields and Drake Bell. In 2017, Lillard starred as William Hastings in the third season of Twin Peaks. The next year, he began co-starring as Dean Boland on the NBC series Good Girls.

In 2016, Lillard landed the recurring role of FBI undercover agent Luke Goshen in the Amazon Series, Bosch. In 2022, Lillard was cast for the live-action movie adaptation of the Five Nights at Freddy's video game series. The film came out the following year.

He gained renewed recognition for his role as William Afton, a manipulative serial killer, in Five Nights at Freddy's. U.S. entertainment publication The Hollywood Reporter stated that he had entered "his Renaissance era" in popular culture, noting that the movie had the third highest ever domestic box office return during its opening weekend for a horror film. Lillard has credited his children as inspiring him both to take on the role and to give an dominating, assertive performance as the franchise's overarching villain.

In an interview, Lillard elaborated, "The hard part about playing this part is the pressure I put on myself to honor the fans, to deliver a great performance in an iconic role. There are millions of kids worldwide, and people that started playing as kids and are now adults, that have an expectation that this film will deliver on a really great level. So, being this iconic bad guy, the amount of pressure I put on myself to not suck is pretty extraordinary. That’s the hardest part."

In 2023, as well, Matthew Lillard was cast in Mike Flanagan's The Life of Chuck.

Personal life
On August 26, 2000, Lillard married Heather Helm, with whom he has three children. They reside in Los Angeles.

In October 2005, he participated in a Dungeons & Dragons tournament, against members of the Quest Club Gaming Organization, at the Magic Castle in Hollywood, California. Lillard has also played Dungeons & Dragons with the online series Dice, Camera, Action with Christopher Perkins as the Dungeon Master; as well as with the Critical Role cast at a special one-shot with Sam Riegel as the Dungeon Master.

Lillard was one of the co-founders of Beadle and Grimms, a company that publishes licensed expanded products, usually of a limited edition, from Wizards of the Coast games including Dungeons and Dragons and Magic: The Gathering.

As a businessman, Lillard is also known for developing and selling specialized alcoholic beverages. For example, his team has developed a drink titled "Quest’s End", which is a type of whiskey related to gaming.

title: Matthew Lillard


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Mileena

Mileena is a character in the Mortal Kombat fighting game franchise by Midway Games and NetherRealm Studios. Introduced in Mortal Kombat II (1993), Mileena was initially depicted as a clone of the Edenian princess Kitana, created by Shang Tsung with the blood of the fictional Tarkatan species, and raised alongside her "sister". Following the time-travelling actions of Raiden in Mortal Kombat 9 (2011), Mileena's background as a Tarkatan clone of Kitana remains the same, although she was only recently awoken, rather than raised alongside Kitana. Mortal Kombat X (2015) depicts her attempts to regain her throne as Empress of Outworld, following her overthrow by Kotal Kahn.

In a third timeline, created by Liu Kang and depicted in Mortal Kombat 1 (2023), significant changes were made to Mileena's character and background. Rather than a clone, Mileena is the biological daughter of Sindel and older twin sister of Kitana, making her heir to the throne. However, she was infected with the Tarkatan virus—as Baraka and other victims—resulting in her developing the deformed facial features of the Tarkatan, which she at times conceals with a mask.

Mileena is featured as a prominent villain throughout the series and uses a pair of sai as her primary weapons. Despite some criticism for her revealing character designs, Mileena has received a positive reception for her unique appearance and personality. She has been featured in various media outside of the games and is one of the franchise's most popular characters.

Mortal Kombat games
After conquering Edenia and merging it with his realm, Outworld's emperor Shao Kahn took Edenian princess Kitana and raised her as his own. While she grew up not knowing her true heritage, Shao nonetheless feared she would eventually discover the truth and turn against him. To remedy this, he tasked the sorcerer Shang Tsung with creating a vicious yet loyal clone of her to take her place if necessary. In creating the clone however, Shang Tsung used Tarkatan essence, which resulted in Mileena taking on a Tarkatan mouth. Due to this, Shao introduced her to Kitana as her long-lost twin sister as a means of spying on Kitana and ensuring she remains loyal to him. Mileena and Kitana would grow up to become Shao's personal assassins, though the former became bitter and jealous towards the latter, who Shao favored over her.

In Mortal Kombat II, after Kitana discovers her true heritage and joins forces with Earthrealm's warriors to fight him, Shao orders Mileena to watch over her. While Mileena is determined to stop her twin at any cost, she is killed by Kitana. In an alternate take of the story depicted in Mortal Kombat: Shaolin Monks, in which she appears as a boss, Mileena joins Kitana and Jade in fighting Liu Kang and Kung Lao, only to be defeated and forced to flee to the Wasteland to seek help from Goro.

In Ultimate Mortal Kombat 3, having been damned to the Netherrealm following her death, Mileena swears fealty to its ruler Shinnok. Shao later resurrects her to help him defeat Earthrealm's warriors and grants her the ability to read Kitana's thoughts. Seizing the opportunity, Shinnok allows her to be resurrected so he can use her to spy on Earthrealm. Following Shao's defeat, Mileena is forced back to the Netherrealm. In Mortal Kombat Gold, she assists Shinnok in his invasion of Edenia, but allows Kitana to escape from imprisonment. After Shinnok is defeated, Mileena attempts to seize Kitana's power over Edenia, only to be defeated by her and imprisoned.

During the events of Mortal Kombat: Deception, Mileena's ally Baraka frees her before she joins Onaga, who tasks her with posing as Kitana to misdirect his enemies. Secretly, she also plots to take control of Edenia's forces and Onaga's undead army.

In Mortal Kombat: Armageddon, Mileena seizes Shao's fortress and maintains her deception, intending to wait until she feels the Edenian forces are ready to serve her under her true identity. When Shao resurfaces to reinstate himself as Outworld's ruler however, she is forced to reveal herself and surrenders to him. While capturing Shujinko to coerce Onaga into joining forces with Shao, Mileena continues secretly plotting to take Edenia's throne for herself before she is killed by Shang Tsung amidst the titular Armageddon.

In Mortal Kombat (2011), after Raiden alters the timeline to avert Armageddon, Shang Tsung uses the "Flesh Pits" to create Mileena, who is introduced during an early Mortal Kombat tournament initially to serve as Kitana's replacement. However, due to her physical and mental damage, animalistic rage, and lascivious behavior, Shao uses Mileena to lure and devour victims. Additionally, he views her as his "true daughter".

Mileena returns as a playable character in Mortal Kombat X (2015). In flashbacks, she succeeded Shao as empress of Outworld, but was betrayed by Reptile and overthrown by Kotal Kahn. Refusing to accept this, she set out to acquire Shinnok's amulet in the hopes of using its power to reclaim her throne. In the present, she joins forces with Rain, Tanya, and Kano in an attempt to assassinate Kotal, only to be captured. Mileena uses Shinnok's amulet to survive her execution, but is overcome by its power before Rain rescues her. She is later re-apprehended by Cassie Cage and D'Vorah, with the latter stealing the amulet and successfully executing Mileena on Kotal's orders.

Mileena appears as a downloadable playable character in Mortal Kombat 11 (MK11) via the "Kombat Pack 2" DLC.

Mileena appears as a playable character in Mortal Kombat 1 (MK1). After Fire God Liu Kang creates a second new timeline, she is rewritten to become Kitana's biological elder twin sister, daughter of Empress Sindel and Emperor Jerrod, crown princess of Outworld, and lover of Umgadi warrior Tanya. Additionally, Mileena secretly suffers from the Tarkat virus, a disease that slowly transforms the afflicted into feral monsters, with a serum developed by Shang Tsung keeping it at bay. While helping Liu Kang foil Titan Shang Tsung's plot to absorb their timeline, Mileena defeats Ermac, allowing Jerrod's soul to take control, but loses Sindel, who appoints Mileena her successor before dying. Following Titan Shang Tsung's defeat, Mileena becomes empress of Outworld and works to mend relations with others who share her condition.

Other media
Mileena appeared briefly in the 1997 feature film Mortal Kombat Annihilation, played by martial artist Dana Hee and identified by name only in the closing credits. She has a slightly larger part in the film's novelization, in which she joins forces with Smoke before both are defeated by Sonya and Jax. Megan Brown played Mileena in one episode of the 1998 television series Mortal Kombat: Conquest, in which she has no direct relation to Kitana. Sisi Stringer played Mileena in the 2021 reboot film Mortal Kombat, in which the character serves as Shang Tsung's main enforcer.

In director Kevin Tancharoen's web series Mortal Kombat: Legacy, Mileena was played in the 2011 first season by martial artist Jolene Tran in her acting debut. She and Kitana are featured in a two-part episode that features both animated and live-action sequences, and in which Mileena is a clone like in the games with a scarred but otherwise normal-looking mouth. She is shown sparring against Kitana and losing to her, causing her to kill and devour a palace guard in a fit of insanity. When the two are later sent by Shao Kahn on a mission to assassinate Kitana's father King Jerrod, Mileena kills him while he is talking to Kitana. Mileena returned for one episode in the 2013 second season, and was played by Michelle Lee. She defeats Johnny Cage during the events of the Mortal Kombat tournament before being slain by Kitana.

Mileena had a brief role in the 1994 Midway-published Mortal Kombat II comic book that was written and illustrated by series co-creator John Tobias. She was a recurring secondary character in Malibu Comics' Mortal Kombat series that was published from 1994 to 1995, in the Goro: Prince of Pain miniseries, and in the 1995 Battlewave miniseries. She and Kitana were additionally featured in a 1995 one-shot issue titled Kitana and Mileena: Sister Act. In DC Comics' 2015 Mortal Kombat X prequel miniseries set before the events of the game, Mileena battles Kotal Kahn for the Outworld throne before they temporarily join forces to stop Reiko, Havik and the Red Dragon clan. However, at the series' conclusion, Mileena loses the throne; writer Shawn Kittelsen explained, "Kotal didn’t overthrow Mileena in some macho power play; he overthrew her out of genuine concern for the safety and well being of Outworld and its citizens."

Merchandise and promotion
In October 2004, Mileena was featured in a spread in the special edition of Playboy magazine that spotlighted provocative video game characters. A famous promotional picture of her, known as "Sexy Mileena" (a topless picture in her alternative costume from Mortal Kombat: Deception) was created for this purpose by Midway Games artist Pav Kovacic. This image was used as an unlockable picture for an in-game gallery.

A figurine of Mileena ("the evil twin") from Mortal Kombat II came out exclusively with a special issue of the Argentinian magazine Top Kids in 1995. A 7.5-inch action figure that was also based on her design in this game was released by Infinite Concepts in 1999, with a detachable mask. A ten-inch polystone statue of her Mortal Kombat 2011 incarnation was released in Syco Collectibles' Enchanted Warriors series in 2012. Pop Culture Shock Collectibles released a 1/4 scale statue of "Klassic" Mileena from Ultimate Mortal Kombat 3 in 2015, followed by a 1/3 scale (28 in / 71 cm tall) statue from Mortal Kombat X in 2018.

Mileena was one of the faces of Mortal Kombat: Deception during and after its release, including the game's special edition for the Xbox that featured her likeness, and a promotional metal card with her biography. She was featured in the 1995 collectible card game Mortal Kombat Kard Game, as well as in the 2006 crossover collectible card game Epic Battles where she is one of the characters representing the Mortal Kombat universe that were featured already in the Premiere Edition. An electronic music track called "Mileena's Theme" by Tokimonsta was released in 2011 as the first of three singles that were compiled on the album Mortal Kombat: Songs Inspired by the Warriors. Mileena is one of several MK characters featured on 2.5" x 3.5" collectible magnets by Ata-Boy and Halloween costumes of her have been also sold.

Design
Mortal Kombat co-creator and producer Ed Boon described Mileena and Kitana as the "female versions of Scorpion and Sub-Zero", two palette-swapped ninja characters from the original game. Character creator John Tobias chose Mileena's name as he felt "it had a pleasant sound to it, which either helped hide her grotesque appearance or exposed a hidden inner beauty", while hers and Kitana's storylines were borne from "the conflicts of sibling rivalry and rebelling against authority". Mileena's signature weapon in the series is a pair of sai, along with recurring teleport-kick and ground-rolling-attack special moves while she utilizes either her sai or cannibalistic tendencies in most of her Fatalities. She typically wears pink or purple.

Mileena was portrayed by martial artist Katalin Zamiar in Mortal Kombat II, and as a palette-swapped character, she was physically identical to Kitana and hidden character Jade save for her pink outfit and large gnashing teeth, which were created only for one of her Fatalities in MKII in which Mileena consumes her defeated opponent and spits out their bones. She was excluded from Mortal Kombat 3 along with the series' other ninja characters, but returned in the upgrade Ultimate Mortal Kombat 3, in which the female ninjas were played by Becky Gable. Her motion capture actors for 3D games have included Carlos Pesina in Deception and Armageddon, but in MK2011 she was played by a female actor. In Mortal Kombat X, her facial appearance was redesigned in which she has a human-like mouth with her facial deformities relocated to her cheeks. Her alternate costume in the 2011 reboot is composed of bandages wrapped around her otherwise naked form.

Gameplay
Mileena has been commonly perceived as one of the top characters of Mortal Kombat II in gameplay terms. She was ranked as the game's best overall fighter by Sega Visions for her high speed and reach as well as her teleport kick that can uniquely dodge the opponent's projectiles. Super Play too called her "the best MKII character" as she is "fast, with a good range of attacks, and the potential for the most awesome combo in the game." EGM noted about how this "deadly woman...can hold her own against any man in the game" as her players can use her "lightning speed" and the sai blasts to overcome other players, while C+VG evaluated all of MKII characters as "well-balanced" and "potentially excellent", but still the teleport kick of the "very fast" Mileena was singled out by them as "the best surprising move in the game." According to CU Amiga, Mileena was "third only to Jax and Liu Kang for sheer brilliance," being a "somewhat misleading character" whose moves need to be "learnt the right way to put them all together to be devastating." Hyper verdicted that in the hands of the skilled players, all three "Mileena, Jax and Liu Kang are almost unstoppable," and Amiga Concept chose the "almost unassailable" Mileena as the game's best character alongside Jax. In GamePro test, the "queen of the hill" Mileena was effective against all characters, and especially versus Jax (who shared tier 1 with her in their ranking), Reptile and Shang Tsung. GamePro testers opined that "although Jax is the better overall characters against Tiers 2-4, Mileena's massive advantage over him makes her number one. Neither suffers disadvantages against anyone else. With her rapid sai-throwing ability, teleport attacks, and deadly combos, this beautiful assassin lands atop our rankings." In Amiga Format test matches, both Mileena and Kitana were always "so much faster" that "poor Jax...ended getting his head kicked in every time."

Mileena is a hidden playable character in Ultimate Mortal Kombat 3, for which she needs to be unlocked with a special "Kombat Kode", but is available from the start in the compilation game Mortal Kombat Trilogy (appearing as seen in UMK3). Sega Saturn Magazine stated "she's pretty much identical to the last time," meaning MKII. According to Nintendo Power, Mileena's original powers "may prove insufficient" for using her with the same effectiveness in UMK3 in which most of the other characters got some additional special moves. On the other hand, Total 64 wrote that Mileena of Trilogy (directly based on UMK3 version) is "a damn good fighter [with] plenty of powerful moves" making her "an all round classy fighting star."

According to GameSpy's guide to Mortal Kombat: Deception, Mileena "has some solid offensive tools" and "a few solid combos up her sleeve, as well as a few pop-up attacks that are extremely quick and open up brief juggle opportunities," however she now also has severe weaknesses such as a very short range of her sai and poor ranged attack abilities. Prima Games' official guide for a Deception-based Mortal Kombat Armageddon gave Mileena an overall rating of 6/10, calling her a "punisher" type character and a better fighter than Kitana ("seems to have the upper hand between the two"), but while she "is able to punish from any range and even interrupt high attacks and projectiles, the damage she inflicts is minor." Mileena is not playable in Mortal Kombat: Shaolin Monks wherein she only appears as a sub-boss character with Kitana and Jade.

In Prima Games' official guide for the 2011 Mortal Kombat reboot, Mileena was judged to be well-balanced and universal, displaying neither particular weaknesses nor advantages that would result in a one-sided battle against anyone else. In Mortal Kombat X, Mileena's fighting style is split into three variations like those of the game's other playable characters. Prima Games evaluated her as a "solid character" with "several great ways to stop opponents from jumping toward her," but who is "not as safe as some of the other characters, which means she has to take a few risks."

Cultural impact
Mileena has made several homage cameo appearances outside of the Mortal Kombat franchise, including in the comic book series Gen13 in 1995, in the episode "Another Bad Thanksgiving" of the animated series The Cleveland Show in 2010, and in a comedy sketch by Animation Domination High-Def in 2015.

According to People, "Mileena" proved a popular baby name in 2015. In November 2020, rapper Megan Thee Stallion dressed up as Mileena to promote the character's addition as downloadable content in Mortal Kombat 11: Ultimate Edition.

Popularity
Mileena's addition to the series was well received and she quickly became one of the most popular and recognizable Mortal Kombat characters. Her debut appearance in Mortal Kombat II was met with a favorable critical reception, with for example Nintendo Power characterizing her as "beautiful, graceful, beguiling and strong, but most of all, deadly." UGO rated Mileena 17th on their 2012 list of the top 50 Mortal Kombat characters, citing her then-rare presence as an evil female player character while stating that her brutal attacks and "slutty" outfits made her a fan favorite. Den of Geek placed Mileena fifth (14 spots ahead of Kitana) in their 2015 rating of the series' 73 playable characters. CraveOnline's Dread Central called her "without question" one of the "most beloved" characters in the Mortal Kombat universe.

In spite of her disfigured face, Mileena has been often rated among the most attractive characters in video games. UGO Networks counted Mileena among the best-looking female ninja-type characters in all media, further ranking her as the "seventh-finest" female fighter in 2010, despite "that big scary demon mouth she keeps under the skarf." Alongside Mileena and Jade, Kitana was included on the list of the "hottest chicks" of 2011 by Univision. Larry Hester of Complex ranked Mileena herself as the "eighth-hottest" video game character in 2012, writing "Mileena is what some guys would call a paper bagger" due to the stark contrast between her body and her mouth. She was one of the most searched game characters on Pornhub in 2016.

Mileena has been renowned as a notable female villain in video gaming. Complex ranked her eighth on their list of the "most diabolical video game she-villains" in 2011, while Polish web portal Wirtualna Polska featured Mileena among the top ten villainesses in gaming in 2014. Placing Mileena 18th on his 2013 list of the most brutal fighters in Mortal Kombat, Hanuman Welch of Complex described her as a "deadly mixture of Kitana's agility and seduction, and Baraka's impulsive behavior." Márcio Pacheco Alexsandro of Brazil's GameHall placed them both at second spot of his top list of female ninja characters in games, calling Mileena "beautiful and monstrous" and adding that there was nothing more "cool" than a ninja who is both sexy and insane.

An often commented, and referenced, aspect of Mileena is her cannibalistic tendencies. The University of Sydney's Kate Robertson analyzed Mileena's cannibalism as one of examples how "the connection between women and cannibalism reflects the common trope of the danger inherent within the female body" regarding "allure, fear and revulsion provoked by such a display of female power." X360 chose her MK2011 Fatality, "in which she tears a man's head off then chows down upon it," to represent cannibalism on their list of the top ten video game crimes. GamesMaster opined one "simply cannot watch" Mileena decapitate an opponent "and then take repeated bites out of his face ... without deeply desiring this game." In 2015, Andrea Subissati from horror magazine Rue Morgue selected "making out with Mileena" as one of the best Fatalities in the 23 years of Mortal Kombat.

Mileena was described by Computer and Video Games as "equally erotic and repulsive." According to IGN, "at first blush she seems like your quintessential sultry video-game vixen, but the mask comes off and she's got a gaping mouth filled to the brim with dagger-like teeth." Comparing the Mortal Kombat characters to the seven deadly sins in Dante's Inferno, Chris Holt of GamePro chose Mileena to represent Envy. Virgin Media included her on their list of the ten "game girls you wouldn't dare to date" for being attractive "until she rips off her veil and reveals her monstrous form beneath." On the other hand, EGM's Eric L. Patterson wrote that Mileena's face is actually one of the reasons why he prefers her over Kitana. Ranking Mileena as second on his 2013 list of ugliest video game characters, Alex Langley of Arcade Sushi wrote: "If ever there were a time to use the term 'butterface' it would be with Mileena because everything about her is hot...but her face."

Other reception and criticism
Mileena was noted for her alternate costume apparel, in particular, her unmasked and near-naked "Flesh Pits" outfit from MK2011 as reported by Destructoid's Hamza Aziz. Other writers also found such design ridiculous and unfitting for a fighting game character. On the other hand, UGO ranked the "Sexy Mileena" from Deception as second-best on the 2011 list of the gaming's "most stylin' alternate costumes". Kotaku's Patrick Klepek, in 2015, recalled hearing about "Mileena’s sexuality" while playing the game at arcades.

Mileena was one of the characters cited by Guy Aoki as allegedly perpetuating existing stereotypes of Asians as martial arts experts. In their 1996 book Interacting With Video, which condemned the violence of video games as supposedly affecting social behavior and causing real-life violence, Patricia Marks Greenfield and Rodney R. Cocking used the "two Asian twin sisters, Mileena and Kitana," as an example of a "highly eroticized dragon lady" trope, with Mileena's "Man-Eater" Fatality described as "a high-powered kiss that evokes vagina dentata." The authors wrote that despite the inclusion of "characters of color" such as the two and Jax, "we cannot assume that this greater diversity represents a more progressive identity politics, for one could argue that it merely increases the racist and sexist potential of individual fights."

Some commentators admitted that they found themselves too distracted by her mouth. Joystiq's Alexander Sliwinski wrote about Mileena that instead of "focusing on her fighting style, or assets," they simply could not "get past one thing: how does she pronounce the letter P without touching her lips together?" When American radio host Howard Stern mocked a Mortal Kombat fan who admitted that he masturbates to Mileena, Matt Helgeson of Game Informer called the latter "insane" as "onanism and Mileena should not mix."

title: Mileena


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Jeff Wilson

Jeff Wilson may refer to:

 * Jeff Wilson (footballer) (born 1964), English footballer
 * Jeff Wilson (sportsman) (born 1973), New Zealand rugby and cricket player
 * Jeff Wilson (Canadian politician) (born c. 1978), Canadian politician
 * Jeff Wilson (Washington politician), member of the Washington Senate
 * Jeff Wilson (racing driver), British auto racing driver
 * Jeff Wilson (professor), American professor and academic dumpster diver
 * Jeff Wilson (American football), American football player
 * Jeff Wilson (Vermont politician), member of the Vermont House of Representatives
 * Jeff Wyatt Wilson, American film director, screenwriter and producer
 * Jeff Wilson (born 1983/84), American contestant on Survivor: Palau
 * Jeff Wilson (fl. 2000s), American musician, past member of band Nachtmystium

title: Jeff Wilson


text:
User talk:Kasia713

Hi, regarding the image you uploaded, please indicate the licence it's under. For example, if you want to put it into the public domain, go to the image page and enter ; for the GFDL, type. Thanks. Now. Hello and welcome to Wikipedia! Hope you like it here, and stick around.

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 * If you need help, post a question at the Help Desk
 * Follow the Simplified Ruleset
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Remember Neutral point of view
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and, most importantly, have fun!

Good luck!

Please claim your upload(s): File:Footbridge (Białowieża, Poland, 18 June 2004).jpg
Hi, This image was seemingly uploaded prior to current image polices, Thank you.

However, as part of ongoing efforts to ensure all media on English Wikipedia is correctly licensed and attributed it would be appreciated if you were able to confirm, that it was your own work, by marking it as own, amending the information added by a third party, and by changing the license to an appropriate "self" variant. You can also add  to the media by uploader tag if it is present to indicate that you've acknowledged the image, and license shown (and updated the information where appropriate).

This will assist those reviewing the many many "free" images on commons that have not yet been transfered to Commons. Sfan00 IMG (talk) 14:46, 8 August 2016 (UTC)

title: User talk:Kasia713


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Talk:La Vérendryes

Is Pierre Gaultier de Varennes et de la Vérendrye the explorer that you are referring to with this article? --Timc 19:23, 16 Aug 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:La Vérendryes


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Nancy Spero

Nancy Spero (August 24, 1926 – October 18, 2009) was an American visual artist known for her political and feminist paintings and hand pulled prints.

Born in Cleveland, Ohio, Spero lived for much of her life in New York City. She married and collaborated with artist Leon Golub. As both artist and activist, Nancy Spero had a career that spanned fifty years. She is known for her continuous engagement with contemporary political, social, and cultural concerns. Spero chronicled wars and apocalyptic violence as well as articulating visions of ecstatic rebirth and the celebratory cycles of life. Her complex network of collective and individual voices was a catalyst for the creation of her figurative lexicon representing women from prehistory to the present in such epic-scale paintings and collage on paper as Torture of Women (1976), Notes in Time on Women (1979) and The First Language (1981). In 2010, Notes in Time was posthumously reanimated as a digital scroll in the online magazine Triple Canopy. Spero has had a number of retrospective exhibitions at major museums.

Early years
Spero was born in Cleveland, Ohio in 1926. A year later her family moved to Chicago, where she grew up. After graduating from New Trier High School, she studied at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago, and graduated in 1949. Among Spero's peers at the Art Institute was a young GI who had returned from service in World War II, Leon Golub. Spero and Golub exhibited at the Hyde Park Art Center in Chicago as part of the group the Monster Roster. After graduating from the Art Institute of Chicago, Spero continued to study painting in Paris at the École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts and at the Atelier of André Lhote, an early Cubist painter, teacher and critic. Soon after her return to the United States in 1950, she married Leon Golub, and the two artists settled in Chicago.

From 1956 to 1957, Spero and Golub lived and collaborated in Italy, while raising their three sons. Spero and Golub were equally committed to exploring a modernist representation of the human form, with its narratives and art historical resonances, even as Abstract Expressionism was becoming the dominant idiom. In Florence and Ischia, Spero became intrigued by the format, style and mood of Etruscan and Roman frescoes and sarcophagi which would have influence on her later work. Finding a more varied, inclusive and international atmosphere in Europe than in the New York art world of the time, Spero and her family moved to Paris, living there from 1959 to 1964. Spero's third son was born in Paris, and the artist had major solo exhibitions in Paris at Galerie Breteau in 1962, 1964, and 1968. During this period, Spero painted a series titled Black Paintings depicting themes including mothers and children, lovers, prostitutes, and hybrid, human-animal forms. This collection of works has a more personal meaning for her, rather than political.

Later years
Spero and Golub returned to New York in 1964, where the couple remained to live and work. The Vietnam War was raging and the Civil Rights Movement was exploding. Affected by images of the war broadcast nightly on television and the unrest and violence evident in the streets, Spero began her War Series from 1966 to 1970. These small gouache and inks on paper, executed rapidly, represented the obscenity and destruction of war. The War Series is among the most sustained and powerful group of works in the genre of history painting that condemns war and its real and lasting consequences.

An activist and early feminist, Spero was a member of the Art Workers Coalition (1968–69), Women Artists in Revolution (1969), and Ad Hoc Committee of Women Artists (1971) the work of which developed into the first women's cooperative gallery, A.I.R. Gallery (Artists in Residence) in SoHo, of which she was a founding member. It was during this period that Spero completed her "Artaud Paintings" (1969–70), finding her artistic "voice" and developing her signature scroll paintings, the Codex Artaud (1971–1972), in which she directly quoted the writings of the poet and playwright Antonin Artaud. Uniting text and image, printed on long scrolls of paper, glued end-to-end and tacked on the walls of A.I.R., Spero violated the formal presentation, choice of valued medium and scale of framed paintings. Although her collaged and painted scrolls were Homeric in both scope and depth, the artist shunned the grandiose in content as well as style, relying instead on intimacy and immediacy, while also revealing the continuum of shocking political realities underlying enduring myths. In a 2008 interview in The Brooklyn Rail with publisher Phong Bui, Spero says of her early identification with Artaud: "For me, the spoken words were part of the body, as if whatever I was trying to paint, and my own awareness of pain and anger—you can call it the destruction of the self—was an integral part, that duality. Things get split up right in the middle, which I was very much interested in at that moment in my life."

In 1974, Spero chose to focus on themes involving women and their representation in various cultures. Her Torture in Chile (1974) and the long scroll, Torture of Women (1976, 20 inches x 125 feet), interweave oral testimonies with images of women throughout history, linking the contemporary governmental brutality of Latin American dictatorships (from Amnesty International reports) with the historical repression of women. Spero re-presented previously obscured women's histories, cultural mythology, and literary references with her expressive figuration. Rarely exhibited, Torture of Women was translated into book form in 2009.

Spero manifested a desire for women to be a part of the art conversation. Spero's most mature work lives along the lines of a peinture feminine. This is when a woman is the subject as well as the "artistic consciousness". Spero's open-ended, thought provoking compositions of ruthless uncomfortable subject matter was depicted in hangings and friezes. This is seen in Helicopter, Victim, Astronaut, made in 1968 of gouache and ink on paper. Spero uses the crimes and assaults on women from all eras and cultures to provide intense and emotional imagery for her art and text. Political violence, sexism, and life-threatening situations that women endure are subjects she explored throughout her career, but especially in the 1960s and 19702. These interests are evidence of Spero's conviction that "the personal and the political are indistinguishable." Spero was influenced by Jean Dubuffet, Antonin Artaud, Simone de Beauvoir; and Hélène Cixous.

Developing a pictographic language of body gestures and motion, a bodily hieroglyphics, Spero reconstructed the diversity of representations of women from pre-history to the present. From 1976 through 1979, she researched and worked on Notes in Time on Women, a 20 inch by 210 foot paper scroll. She elaborated and amplified this theme in The First Language (1979–81, 20 inches by 190 feet), eschewing text altogether in favor of an irregular rhythm of painted, hand-printed, and collaged figures, thus creating her "cast of characters." In 1983, Spero began using, in her large scroll paintings, an exuberantly vaginal female figure going by the name of Sheela-na-gig. The acknowledgement of Spero's international status as a preeminent figurative and feminist artist was signaled in 1987 by her traveling retrospective exhibitions in the United States and United Kingdom. By 1988, she developed her first wall installations. For these installations, Spero extended the picture plane of the scrolls by moving her printed images directly onto the walls of museums and public spaces.

Harnessing a capacious imaginative energy and a ferocious will, Spero continued to mine the full range of power relations. In 1987, following retrospective exhibitions in the United Kingdom, the United States and Canada, the artist created images that leapt from the scroll surface to the wall surface, refiguring representational forms of women over time and engaging in a dialogue with architectural space. Spero's wall paintings in Chicago, Vienna, Dresden, Toronto, and Derry form poetic reconstructions of the diversity of representations of women from the ancient to the contemporary world, validating a subjectivity of female experience.

Spero expressed her art once in this way: "I've always sought to express a tension in form and meaning in order to achieve a veracity. I have come to the conclusion that the art world has to join us, women artists, not we join it. When women are in leadership roles and gain rewards and recognition, then perhaps 'we' (women and men) can all work together in art world actions."

Nancy Spero died of heart failure in Manhattan on October 18, 2009. She is buried in Green-Wood Cemetery, in Brooklyn, New York.

She was interviewed for the 2010 film !Women Art Revolution.

Honors
2006 2005 2003 1995 1995
 * Elected a member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters.
 * Lifetime Achievement Award from the College Art Association
 * Honor Award from the Women's Caucus for Art
 * Hiroshima Art Prize (awarded jointly to Spero and Golub) from the Hiroshima City Museum of Contemporary Art
 * Skowhegan Medal from the Skowhegan School of Painting and Sculpture

Media appearances

 * Spero as herself, Nancy Spero: Becoming an Artist, 2008
 * Spero as herself, !Women Art Revolution, 2010
 * Spero as herself, Nancy Spero: Collaboration, 2012
 * Spero as herself, Nancy Spero: Paper Mirror, 2019

title: Nancy Spero


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Talk:Endorheic basin

Terminal Lake deserves its own entry
Terminal lake now refers to endorheic basin, but a basin is not a lake. A lake can be found in the bottom of a drainage basin, but they are not one and the same. Furthermore, the term terminal lake is easily a factor hundred thousand or more widespread and known than endorheic lake, so the choice of principal word seems somewhat odd for me as a geographer. -- 66.176.181.109 21:25, 11 November 2007 (UTC)

Etymology
copied from Reference desk by Finlay McWalter

Hey latin-speakers. If my (google-based) latin is correct, "endo-rheic" means roughly "acid inside", yet an endorheic lake is invariably alkaline. Does rheic really mean "caustic" rather than "acidic", or am I missing something? -- Finlay McWalter | Talk 23:21, 26 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Well, your basic problem is that endorheic is Greek rather than Latin, and means something like "flowing in" because they have no outlet to the sea. I don't think it has any relationship to pH. Alteripse 00:01, 27 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * "relating to or characterized by interior drainage, i.e., the condition of a region in which little or none of the surface drainage reaches the sea" --Merriam-Webster's Third New International Dictionary Unabridged on CD-ROM. --Gelu Ignisque
 * The roots are Greek endo-, "inside" (maybe from en, "in," + domos, "house"); rhein, "to flow"; and the English combining form -ic, from French -ique, partially from Latin -icus and partially from Greek -ikos.

Largest system
Our article in Lake Eyre Basin says its the world's largest inland basin, but my understanding is that the central asian basin that includes the Caspian and Aral seas much surely be larger. As finding ordered lists of the lakes is easy, but information about the basins is hard, I removed the claim in this article about the Eyre basin, but didn't assert anything about the asian one. Hopefully someone can figure out which is the case (and ideally find some numbers to back it up). -- Finlay McWalter | Talk 23:54, 16 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * Tannin reverted the claim about the Lake Eyre Basin being the largest, and the same claim is present on the Lake Eyre Basin itself. Is the claim true? Sivamo 00:52, 29 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * If the Lake Eyre Basin drains 1.2 million square kilometers (as wikipedia says), I don't see how it can be the largest. The Volga system drains more than that (according to something I see on the Internet :)), and the drainage system involving the Caspian Sea must be at least as large as the drainage system of the Volga, I think :) Also, I suspect that the Aral drainage system is even larger than that of the Caspian drainage system. The Amu alone contributes several hundred thousand square kilometers. I'll guess 2 million square kilometers for the Aral drainage system? Sivamo 01:02, 29 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * Moreover, Tarim Basin (and lots of Chinese web resources) claim it is the largest basin. This page says "Covering five per cent of the total area of China, the Tarim Basin...".  If one takes the area of "China" to be that described in People's Republic of China (yeah, I know, not necessarily the same thing, but still) that would make Tarim about 480,000 square kilometers.  I think both Eyre and Tarim should cite a reliable source before making a claim to be the biggest. Searching on the Internet isn't terribly definitive - the world, it seems, is full of lake-size-nationalists. - Lakeman
 * Based on data at http://earthtrends.wri.org/ the Aral Sea basen is 1.3 million sq. km. so I'm going to remove Lake Eyre's claim. Kmusser 20:12, 28 April 2006 (UTC)

Was the Mediterranean Sea ever closed at Gibraltar? If so, was it an endorheic lake? -- SGBailey 15:30, 2005 Feb 8 (UTC)

 * Yes, it was, several times over the past four million years. It even dried up substantially, though maybe (probably?) not completely. There are still salt deposites on the floor of the Med from when that happened. At that time there were four independent ocean basins in the world: the Ocean Sea, Med, Black, & Caspian. kwami 01:15, 2005 Jun 18 (UTC)

What about Africa?
I think some of the African Rift Valley Lakes are also endorheic and should be mentioned here. Right? richarddd
 * Lake Turkana is already mentioned. All the other major Rift Valley lakes have outlets - Tanganyika via the Congo, Malawi via the Shire, Albert via the Nile, Kivu connects to Tanganyika... Not sure about Rukwa, that might qualify. But since the main ones don't qualify, it definitely doesn't need its own section.   Aapold (talk) 15:40, 7 June 2009 (UTC)

 * Naturally there are many endorheic systems in Africa, but I don't know of a terribly reliable source of hydrological information. There are numerous (small, I think) endorheic basins in the Sahara, there's much of the Etosha National Park, and as you say the rift valley lakes seem to be endorheic too (from reading their article).  Ideally I'd have a decent reference about the drainage basins of africa - in particular because I guess those lakes are probably part of a larger inland basin system. -- Finlay McWalter |  Talk 10:33, July 17, 2005 (UTC)

Utah's Great Salt Lake
Isn't Utah's Great Salt Lake considered one two?

 * Yes, and its already mentioned in the article. -- Finlay McWalter | Talk 10:28, July 17, 2005 (UTC)

Caspian Ocean
By what definition of ocean is the Caspian Sea "actually a small ocean"? Just because it's saltwater? --Angr 17:50, 25 January 2006 (UTC)

 * It's not. I've heard this from numerous people before who just can't grasp the idea of a large, saline lake.  Unless someone provides some strong evidence, I'm going to delete this.  (And a couple of weirdo web citations won't do--it must be a cite indicating the sentiments of serious geographers.) Unschool 14:20, 22 March 2006 (UTC)

Article Name
Shouldn't this article be at Endorheic basin since that it was it is about? Endorheic seems odd as an article namefor te topic since it technically is an adjective. Eluchil404 22:24, 6 August 2006 (UTC)
 * Yes it should. I'll fix it. —Pengo 03:26, 9 February 2007 (UTC)

Zeller See
Would the Zeller See in Austria not count? It has no outflows. I'm not expert enough on the definition to make the change to the article myself. jlang 17:28, 21 February 2007 (UTC)

 * This article's definition of an endorheic system precludes any underground drainage. The Zeller See article says that for that lake "water loss is solely by evaporation or underground seepage."  That would seem to exclude it from being described as an endorheic system.  (I'm not an expert on either the definition of endorheic or the hydrology of the Zeller See.) --Kbh3rd talk  20:20, 22 March 2007 (UTC)

Colorado River
Isn't the Colorado River an endorheic basin? After all, it dries up before making it to the Gulf of California. If yes, this is a great example to discuss, since it is endorheic purely because of human activity. If you account for this human activity, this actually would make the Salton Sea the low point of the Colorado River endorheic basin, since this is where the irrigation canals are directing most of the water that would otherwise reach the sea. (Most other diversions lead back to the river, such as diversion into Phoenix, which return via the Gila River).

I'm not sure how folks view this idea, but it's certainly worth some discussion.

On this topic of uniqueness, Crater Lake should maybe be mentioned as a rare example of a wet climate endorheic basin. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 63.231.60.142 (talk) 04:33, 25 February 2007 (UTC).

 * Don't know, but if I had to guess I would think it isn't considered a basin (see Mojave River for something vaguely similar, or rather would be similar if it headed towards the ocean). In any event, what matters is not where you and I would draw the line, but where reliable sources draw the line. So this is more a matter of research than discussion as such. Kingdon 17:25, 21 June 2007 (UTC)

 * The map appears to show the Colorado River basin in North America as endorheic which to me seems rather misleading. The Colorado River after all used to flow permanently into the Gulf of California. Now it only flows into the sea intermittently because of human activity such as damming and water extraction. However it does still flow into the sea reasonably regularly, the change is only recent and human induced, which to me would tend to make me think of it not as an endorheic basin. Booshank 17:37, 31 August 2007 (UTC)

 * I believe that you are misinterpretting the map, which shows the Great Basin, not the Colorado River basin. They border each other, and both squeeze into that area in southern California near where the Colorado enters the Gulf of California -- relatively near, given the scale of that map.  The Salton Sea, e.g., is in that area and is certainly endorheic.  See the maps on the Great Basin page.  --Kbh3rd talk  02:30, 1 September 2007 (UTC)

 * Once in a blue moon, the Okavango has enough flow to reach the Cuando River, which connects to the Zambezi, and hence the sea. This is entirely natural (as its normal state of not making it there.  But if you start including intermittent areas you run into gray areas like this.  I think most would argue the Okavango qualifies and is indeed a prime example of an endorheic basin. Aapold (talk) 15:47, 7 June 2009 (UTC)

 * Back to the comment about the Mojave River in Southern California, I believe its water ended up in Death Valley during the Pleistocene, as did water from Mono Lake and the Owens Valley. LADave (talk) 19:26, 8 April 2011 (UTC)

Asia section
There is total confusion between "basin" and "lake". This makes no sense at all: Much of western and Central Asia is a single, giant inland basin. It contains several lakes, including:

The Central Asian Internal Drainage Basin, the largest of the three major basins covering Mongolia. Brianhep (talk) 04:50, 2 November 2008 (UTC)

Great Basin Lakes section
Shouldn't Lake Tahoe also be included in the list of North America's Great Basin lakes? While it does have outflow, the outflow terminates in Pyramid Lake, which is an endorheic terminal lake. Ityllux (talk) 04:39, 9 February 2009 (UTC)
 * List of endorheic basins expresses it as the "Pyramid Lake-Truckee River-Lake Tahoe (California, Nevada)" system. LADave (talk) 19:29, 8 April 2011 (UTC)

Hispañola
There are a couple ones on Hispañola, the largest of which is Lago Enriquillo on the Dominican side. I'm not sure but heard someone claim it is the largest endorheic lake on an island. Others include Etang Saumâtre and Trou Caïman in Haiti. Aapold (talk) 15:40, 7 June 2009 (UTC)

Diffusion vs Seepage
The article states that normal drainage basins can outflow by diffusion through permeable rock. How is seepage outflow of an Endorheic basin different from diffusion through permeable rock? Panscient (talk) 15:12, 12 December 2009 (UTC)

Crater Lake
This body of water drains through aquafers into the Klamath River Basin, which drains into the Pacific Ocean. It wouldn't be an endorheic basic with the defination given. I illegally drank some of the water, it was soft as snow melt. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 72.160.103.216 (talk) 20:54, 3 December 2010 (UTC)

Dubious map
The western part of inland central Australia is shown in pink, as if it drains to the sea. This is incorrect. Most of this area has no drainage to the sea at all, even in abnormal rain conditions. If a lot of water arrives, it ends up in the countless dry salt pans.Eregli bob (talk) 16:41, 17 August 2013 (UTC)

closed hydrologic systems
The article states that "Endorheic regions, in contrast to exorheic regions which flow to the ocean in geologically defined patterns, are closed hydrologic systems." I disagree, based on my understanding of hydrologic, namely that it includes evapotranspiration and rainfall. If my understanding is correct, rain evaporated from other basins would fall in an endorheic basin and water would indeed escape the endorheic basin and fall elsewhere in the world. 209.2.20.17 (talk) 17:00, 16 September 2013 (UTC) -- Sorry: that was me, D. F. Schmidt (talk) 17:01, 16 September 2013 (UTC)

Endorheic Farm Ponds
I have been trying to find information regarding farm ponds. Man made farm ponds are often endorheic and my mother-in-laws farm pond is one such pond. It has a very small catchment area, almost never runs over, and the soil in the area is clay, so there's probably little or no seepage. The water level varies, being low during dry seasons and higher during rainy seasons. I have found very little information regarding testing for salinity levels, fish, plants. 162.40.172.185 (talk) 06:26, 2 November 2013 (UTC)

Endorheic basin vs Closed sea
The page was recently moved to "Closed sea", however there was no discussion and the article was not modified to fit the new name. The name "closed sea" is not even mentioned in the article except for the dab at the top. This is about basins with no external drainage and most don't have a resident body of water or "sea" except temporarily. Given that - the name "closed sea" is simply a misnomer. Thoughts? Vsmith (talk) 15:49, 9 May 2017 (UTC)
 * Either way it should have stayed "Endorheic basin" until such a major change was discussed, and it should be someone willing to related work on the article doing such a move. Beyond that, I'm no expert on what the most common term is, or whether such a term is unambiguous. But they certainly are very different.  One is about basins, and only a small fraction of those include a sea.  North8000  (talk) 20:30, 9 May 2017 (UTC)

Underground drainage
I feel that the preamble should state explicitly if an E basin allows an underground drainage and/or a flood-time one. pietro151.29.191.205 (talk) 16:41, 5 September 2019 (UTC)

 * Agreed. The technical literature I've consulted seems to agree that endorheic lakes are defined by most water being lost by evaporation, and not by surface or subsurface flows. I will update the article, with sources. --Macrakis (talk) 20:16, 19 July 2020 (UTC)

 * If we get that solidly established, then the list is going to need changing. There are some in there that either stated or inevitably have subsurface drainage.  BTW  subsurface can be seepage rather than drainage.    Even the smallest amount or peculation through the soil (even the small amount through clay) makes the big difference on whether or not it is freshwater.   North8000 (talk) 21:46, 19 July 2020 (UTC)

Great Lakes in North America, in the past?
The Great Lakes are connected by canals to the St. Lawrence River and the Chicago River, but these are recent engineering feats. Does anyone know whether the Great Lakes were endorheic before the canals were dug, in the recent past? 2601:441:4400:1740:A93D:7AFA:2D6D:A52F (talk) 00:52, 16 September 2020 (UTC)

 * I'm going to guess that they never were.North8000 (talk) 01:29, 16 September 2020 (UTC)

Problematic recording of how to pronounce "endorheic"
Is there any way to change the speed of the pronunciation recording? It is spoken far too quickly to be readily understood. Bricology (talk) 23:16, 18 March 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Endorheic basin


text:
Glenn Highway

The Glenn Highway (part of Alaska Route 1) is a highway in the U.S. state of Alaska, extending 179 mi from Anchorage near Merrill Field to Glennallen on the Richardson Highway. The Tok Cut-Off is often considered part of the Glenn Highway, for a total length of 328 mi.

Route description
The longest stretch of freeway in Alaska runs mostly along the Glenn Highway, beginning in north Anchorage, continuing onto the Parks Highway at the interchange of the two roads, and ending in the city limits of Wasilla, for a total of approximately 38 miles (61 km). This 38 mi portion of the Glenn Highway is the only road access to Anchorage for most of the state (with the exception of the Kenai Peninsula on the Seward Highway), and as such is the main traffic corridor for Anchorage's suburbs in the Chugiak-Eagle River and Mat-Su areas. The highest point on the highway is 3332 ft at Eureka Summit, which sits on the divide between the Chugach and Talkeetna mountain ranges.

History
The highway originated as the Palmer Road in the 1930s, to reach the agricultural colony at Palmer. During World War II it was completed to Glennallen as part of a massive program of military road and base building that also resulted in the Alaska Highway, and connected Anchorage to the continental highway system.

It is named for Captain Edwin Glenn (1857–1926), leader of an 1898 U.S. Army expedition to find an Alaska route to the Klondike gold fields (the eventual Richardson Highway). The highway was paved in the 1950s.

Paleontology
The "Talkeetna Mountains Hadrosaur" specimen was discovered in 1994 in a quarry being excavated for road material. That fall, excavation began, and was resumed in the summer of 1996. The quarry is near the Glenn Highway, approximately 150 miles northeast of Anchorage. This specimen was the first associated skeleton of an individual dinosaur discovered in all of Alaska.

Interstate Highway System
Glenn Highway is part of the unsigned part of the Interstate Highway System as Interstate A-1.

title: Glenn Highway


text:
Dhobitalao

Dhobitalao (धोबीतलाव, "Washerman's Lake") is a neighborhood in the city of Mumbai (formerly Bombay) in India. Located in the South Mumbai area at an elevation of 11 m (31 ft), it used to be a location where linen was washed. In British times, dhobis used to wash the British soldiers clothes' here. It was filled up in the mid-17th century as the city began to expand. The lake used to be fed by a number of underground freshwater springs, which were recently uncovered while constructing the subway in the locality.

A public library stands over the land that was the lake. Just off the current site, is the famous Metro Adlabs (formerly Metro Cinema).

The north-eastern part of Dhobitalao is called Cavel, from the Koli name Kolwar. The Kolis of this village were converted to Christianity by the Portuguese in the 16th century. Cavel became a Christian enclave, and later immigrants of this religion, from Goa, Daman, Bassein and Salsette settled here. Other Christian enclaves in Dhobitalao are Sonapur and Dabul.

Dhobitalao is home to the highest number of kudds, Goan clubs that house migrants from Goan villages seeks opportunities and employment in Mumbai.

Institutions

 * Metro Adlabs
 * St Xavier's College
 * St. Xavier's High School, Fort
 * GT Hospital
 * ESIS Hospital

title: Dhobitalao


text:
First-countable space

In topology, a branch of mathematics, a first-countable space is a topological space satisfying the "first axiom of countability". Specifically, a space $$X$$ is said to be first-countable if each point has a countable neighbourhood basis (local base). That is, for each point $$x$$ in $$X$$ there exists a sequence $$N_1, N_2, \ldots$$ of neighbourhoods of $$x$$ such that for any neighbourhood $$N$$ of $$x$$ there exists an integer $$i$$ with $$N_i$$ contained in $$N.$$ Since every neighborhood of any point contains an open neighborhood of that point, the neighbourhood basis can be chosen without loss of generality to consist of open neighborhoods.

Examples and counterexamples
The majority of 'everyday' spaces in mathematics are first-countable. In particular, every metric space is first-countable. To see this, note that the set of open balls centered at $$x$$ with radius $$1/n$$ for integers form a countable local base at $$x.$$

An example of a space that is not first-countable is the cofinite topology on an uncountable set (such as the real line). More generally, the Zariski topology on an algebraic variety over an uncountable field is not first-countable.

Another counterexample is the ordinal space $$\omega_1 + 1 = \left[0, \omega_1\right]$$ where $$\omega_1$$ is the first uncountable ordinal number. The element $$\omega_1$$ is a limit point of the subset $$\left[0, \omega_1\right)$$ even though no sequence of elements in $$\left[0, \omega_1\right)$$ has the element $$\omega_1$$ as its limit. In particular, the point $$\omega_1$$ in the space $$\omega_1 + 1 = \left[0, \omega_1\right]$$ does not have a countable local base. Since $$\omega_1$$ is the only such point, however, the subspace $$\omega_1 = \left[0, \omega_1\right)$$ is first-countable.

The quotient space $$\R / \N$$ where the natural numbers on the real line are identified as a single point is not first countable. However, this space has the property that for any subset $$A$$ and every element $$x$$ in the closure of $$A,$$ there is a sequence in A converging to $$x.$$ A space with this sequence property is sometimes called a Fréchet–Urysohn space.

First-countability is strictly weaker than second-countability. Every second-countable space is first-countable, but any uncountable discrete space is first-countable but not second-countable.

Properties
One of the most important properties of first-countable spaces is that given a subset $$A,$$ a point $$x$$ lies in the closure of $$A$$ if and only if there exists a sequence $$\left(x_n\right)_{n=1}^{\infty}$$ in $$A$$ that converges to $$x.$$ (In other words, every first-countable space is a Fréchet-Urysohn space and thus also a sequential space.) This has consequences for limits and continuity. In particular, if $$f$$ is a function on a first-countable space, then $$f$$ has a limit $$L$$ at the point $$x$$ if and only if for every sequence $$x_n \to x,$$ where $$x_n \neq x$$ for all $$n,$$ we have $$f\left(x_n\right) \to L.$$ Also, if $$f$$ is a function on a first-countable space, then $$f$$ is continuous if and only if whenever $$x_n \to x,$$ then $$f\left(x_n\right) \to f(x).$$

In first-countable spaces, sequential compactness and countable compactness are equivalent properties. However, there exist examples of sequentially compact, first-countable spaces that are not compact (these are necessarily not metrizable spaces). One such space is the ordinal space $$\left[0, \omega_1\right).$$ Every first-countable space is compactly generated.

Every subspace of a first-countable space is first-countable. Any countable product of a first-countable space is first-countable, although uncountable products need not be.

title: First-countable space