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Villa of the Papyri

The Villa of the Papyri (Villa dei Papiri, also known as Villa dei Pisoni and in early excavation records as the Villa Suburbana) was an ancient Roman villa in Herculaneum, in what is now Ercolano, southern Italy. It is named after its unique library of papyri scrolls, discovered in 1750. The Villa was considered to be one of the most luxurious houses in all of Herculaneum and in the Roman world. Its luxury is shown by its exquisite architecture and by the large number of outstanding works of art discovered, including frescoes, bronzes and marble sculpture which constitute the largest collection of Greek and Roman sculptures ever discovered in a single context.

It was situated on the ancient coastline below the volcano Vesuvius with nothing to obstruct the view of the sea. It was perhaps owned by Julius Caesar's father-in-law, Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus. In 1908, Barker suggested that Philodemus may have been the owner.

In AD 79, the eruption of Vesuvius covered all of Herculaneum with up to 30 m of volcanic material from pyroclastic flows. Herculaneum was first excavated between 1750 and 1765 by Karl Weber by means of tunnels. The villa's name derives from the discovery of its library, the only surviving library from the Graeco-Roman world that exists in its entirety. It contained over 1,800 papyrus scrolls, now carbonised by the heat of the eruption, the "Herculaneum papyri".

Most of the villa is still underground. Parts have been cleared of volcanic deposits. Many of the finds are displayed in the Naples National Archaeological Museum. The Getty Villa museum in Malibu, California, is a reproduction of the Villa of the Papyri.

Layout
The villa is located a few hundred metres from the nearest house in Herculaneum. Although it now lies inland, before the volcanic eruption of October 79 AD, the structure occupied more than 250 m of coastline along the Gulf of Naples. On the other sides it was surrounded by a closed garden, vineyards and woods. The villa had four levels beneath the main floor, arranged in terraces overlooking the sea. It has recently been ascertained that the main floor was 16 m above sea level in antiquity.

The villa's layout is an expanded version of the traditional Campanian villa suburbana. One entered through the fauces and proceeded to the atrium, which functioned as an entrance hall and a means of communication with the various parts of the house. The entrance opened with a columned portico on the sea side.

After passing through the tablinum, one arrived at the first peristyle, made up of ten columns on each side, with a swimming pool in the centre. In this area were found the bronze herm adapted from the Doryphorus of Polykleitos and the herm of an Amazon made by Apollonios son of Archias of Athens. The large second peristyle could be reached by passing through a large tablinum in which, under a propylaeum, was the archaic statue of Athena Promachos. A collection of bronze busts were in the interior of the tablinum. These included the head of Scipio Africanus.

The living and reception quarters were grouped around the porticoes and terraces, giving occupants ample sunlight and a view of the countryside and sea. In the living quarters, bath installations were brought to light, and the library of rolled and carbonised papyri placed inside wooden capsae, some of them on ordinary wooden shelves and around the walls and some on the two sides of a set of shelves in the middle of the room.

The grounds included a large area of covered and uncovered gardens for walks in the shade or in the warmth of the sun. The gardens included a gallery of busts, hermae and small marble and bronze statues. These were laid out between columns amid the open part of the garden and on the edges of the large swimming bath.

Works of art
The luxury of the villa is evidenced not only by the many works of art, but especially by the large number of rare bronze statues found there, all masterpieces. The villa housed a collection of at least 80 sculptures of magnificent quality, many now conserved in the Naples National Archaeological Museum. Among them is the bronze Seated Hermes, found at the villa in 1758. Around the bowl of the atrium impluvium were 11 bronze fountain statues depicting Satyrs pouring water from a pitcher and Amorini pouring water from the mouth of a dolphin. Other statues and busts were found in the corners around the atrium walls.

Five statues of life-sized bronze dancing women wearing the Doric peplos sculpted in different positions and with inlaid eyes are adapted Roman copies of originals from the fifth century BC. They are also hydrophorai drawing water from a fountain.

Epicureanism and the library
The owner of the house, perhaps Calpurnius Piso, established a library of a mainly philosophical character. It is believed that the library might have been collected and selected by Piso's family friend and client, the Epicurean Philodemus of Gadara, although this conclusion is not certain. Followers of Epicurus studied the teachings of this moral and natural philosopher. This philosophy taught that man is mortal, that the cosmos is the result of accident, that there is no providential god, and that the criteria of a good life are pleasure and temperance.

Philodemus' connections with Piso brought him an opportunity to influence the young students of Greek literature and philosophy who gathered around him at Herculaneum and Naples. Much of his work was discovered in about a thousand papyrus rolls in the philosophical library recovered at Herculaneum. Although his prose work is detailed in the strung-out, non-periodic style typical of Hellenistic Greek prose before the revival of the Attic style after Cicero, Philodemus surpassed the average literary standard to which most epicureans aspired. Philodemus succeeded in influencing the most learned and distinguished Romans of his age. None of his prose work was known until the rolls of papyri were discovered among the ruins of the Villa of the Papyri.

At the time of the eruption of Vesuvius in AD 79, the valuable library was packed in cases ready to be moved to safety when it was overtaken by a pyroclastic flow; the eruption eventually deposited some 20–25 m of volcanic ash over the site, charring the scrolls but preserving them – the only surviving library of Antiquity – as the ash hardened to form tuff.

Excavations
The House of Bourbon under King Charles VII of Naples issued excavations following the re-discovery of Herculaneum in 1738. Excavation work at Herculaneum was done through digging tunnels, and piercing walls, in an attempt to find treasures like paintings, statues and other ornaments to be exhibited in the Museum Herculanense, part of the King's Royal Palace in Portici.

The Villa of the Papyri was discovered in 1750 by farmers when digging a well. The following excavation work was conducted first by Roque Joaquín de Alcubierre and later by the Swiss engineer Karl Jakob Weber, who worked under Alcubierre for King Charles VII of Naples. Initially the first papyri scrolls which were obtained in 1752 were thrown away due to the high number, then Bernardo Tanucci advised the King to study them. The King subsequently established a commission for the study of the papyri.

Camillo Paderni who took part at the excavations and was possibly the first to transcribe papyri, noted in a letter dated 1754, "...in five places, where we might have expected to meet with busts or statues, the antients had been digging before us, and taken them away. The method, whereby they regulated their searches, seems to have been this: where the ground was pretty easy to work, they dug through it and where they met with the solid lava they desisted. But whether they were in want of money, or of hands, they certainly did not perfect their intention; as is plain from the statues, which we have found."

Excavations were halted in 1765 due to complaints from the residents living above. The exact location of the villa was then lost for two centuries. In the 1980s work on re-discovering the villa began by studying 18th century documentation on entrances to the tunnels and in 1986 the breakthrough was made through an ancient well. The backfill from some of the tunnels was cleared to allow re-exploration of the villa when it was found that the parts of the villa that survived the earlier excavations were still remarkable in quantity and quality.

Excavation to expose part of the villa was done in the 1990s and revealed two previously undiscovered lower floors to the villa with frescoes in situ. These were found along the southwest-facing terrace of about 4 metres height. The first row of rooms lying below the arcade was evidenced by a series of rectangular openings along the façade.

Limited excavations recommenced at the site in 2007 to preserve the remains when carved parts of wood and ivory furniture were discovered. Since then limited public access became available.

, there were still 2,800 m$2$ left to be excavated of the villa. The remainder of the site has not been excavated because the Italian government is preferring conservation to excavation, and protecting what has already been uncovered. David Woodley Packard, who has funded conservation work at Herculaneum through his Packard Humanities Institute, has said that he is likely to be able to fund excavation of the Villa of the Papyri when the authorities agree to it; but no work will be permitted on the site until the completion of a feasibility report, which has been in preparation for some years. The first part of the report emerged in 2008 but included no timetable or cost projections, since the decision for further excavation is a political one. Politics involve excavation under inhabited areas in addition to unspecified but reported references to mafia involvement.

Using multi-spectral imaging, a technique developed in the early 1990s, it is possible to read the burned papyri. With multi-spectral imaging, many pictures of the illegible papyri are taken using different filters in the infrared or in the ultraviolet range, finely tuned to capture certain wavelengths of light. Thus, the optimum spectral portion can be found for distinguishing ink from paper on the blackened papyrus surface.

Non-destructive CT scans will, it is hoped, provide breakthroughs in reading the fragile unopened scrolls without destroying them in the process. Encouraging results along this line of research have been obtained, which use phase-contrast X-ray imaging. According to authors, "this pioneering research opens up new prospects not only for the many papyri still unopened, but also for others that have not yet been discovered, perhaps including a second library of Latin papyri at a lower, as yet unexcavated level of the Villa."

J. Paul Getty Museum
In 1970, oil billionaire J. Paul Getty engaged the architectural firm of Langdon and Wilson to create a replica of the Villa dei Papiri to serve as a museum where his collection of antiquities would be displayed.

Based on Weber's plans published in Le Antichità di Ercolano, the museum was built on Getty's Malibu ranch in 1972–1974. Architectural consultant Norman Neuerburg and the curator of Getty's antiquities, Jiří Frel, worked closely with Getty and the architects to ensure the accuracy of the museum building's design.

Since the Villa dei Papiri was unexcavated, Neuerburg based many of the villa's architectural and landscaping details on elements from other ancient Roman houses in the towns of Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Stabiae. For example, the mosaic fountain in the museum's garden peristyle replicates the one in the Nymphaeum of the House of the Large Fountain at Pompeii.

In 1997, the Getty Museum was relocated to the Getty Center. The Malibu villa was renovated and reopened in 2006. The reconceived Getty Villa, as it is now called, serves as an annex dedicated to the display of the museum's antiquities and as a centre for the study of ancient art.

In modern literature
The opening pages of the 1850 fictional work A Few Days in Athens claim to be "the translation of a Greek Manuscript discovered in Herculaneum". The novel was written by Frances Wright, a female philosopher who was mentored by the Epicurean American founding father, Thomas Jefferson, and it unapologetically defends Epicurus' character, Epicurean philosophy, and secular values.

Several scenes in Robert Harris' bestselling novel Pompeii are set in the Villa of the Papyri, just before the eruption engulfed it. The villa is mentioned as belonging to Roman aristocrat Pedius Cascus and his wife Rectina. Pliny the Younger mentions Rectina, whom he calls the wife of Tascius, in Letter 16 of book VI of his Letters.

At the start of the eruption Rectina prepares to have the library evacuated and sends urgent word to her old friend, Pliny the Elder, who commands the Roman Navy at Misenum on the other side of the Bay of Naples. Pliny immediately sets out in a warship, and gets in sight of the villa, but the eruption prevents him from landing and taking off Rectina and her library – which is left for modern archaeologists to find.

Sculpture from the Villa
According to the 1908 publication Buried Herculaneum by Ethel Ross Barker, there were busts of Athene Gorgolopha, Archaistic Pallas, Archaic Apollo, Head of an Amazon, Dionysus or Plato (? Poseidon), Doryphorus, Mercury, Homer, Ptolemy Alexander (Alexander the Great?), Ptolemy Philadelphus, Ptolemy Soter I (Seleucus Nicator I), and the mythological Danaids and others.

Illustrations
Illustrations included scenes with, Head with the wreathed helmet (Pyrrhus of Epirus?), Archimedes (Archidamus III?), Attilius Regulus (Philetairus of Pergamum?), Pseudo-Seneca (Philetas of Cos?), Berenice, Heraclitus, Ptolemy Lathyrus, Ptolemy Soter II, Sappho, Warrior in a helmet, Scipio Africanus, Head of a Vestal (Woman unknown), Hannibal or Juba, and Head with a headdress.

Frescos
Frescoes included, Theseus victorious over the Minotaur, Telephus suckled by the hind, Chiron teaching Achilles the lyre, Perseus slaying Medusa, a charioteer, and papyri.

title: Villa of the Papyri


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title: User talk:Bigrick891203


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Mokotów Field

Mokotów Field (Polish: Pole Mokotowskie) is a large park in Warsaw, Poland. A part of the parkland is called the Marshal Józef Piłsudski Park.

Located between Warsaw's Mokotów district and the city center, the park is one of the largest in Warsaw. Contrary to its name, only a small part of the modern Mokotów Field is located in the Mokotów district. Most of the field (48.61 ha, almost 71%) is located in Ochota and Śródmieście. Landmarks within the park include the Polish National Library and the Monument in Memory of the Fallen Polish Pilots in World War II. The park is also famous for its bars. To the south is a Warsaw Metro station, the Pole Mokotowskie station.

History
From 1818 until World War II, on what was originally a 200 ha area, a major part was occupied by an airfield and the Warsaw Polytechnic aircraft works. The Mokotów Field was also, until 1934, the site of Warsaw Airport and, in the years 1884-1939, of the Warsaw Horse Racing Track. On May 17, 1935, the funeral of Józef Piłsudski took place on the Mokotów Field.

The current park was designed by Stanisław Bolek and created in the 1970s and 1980s. In 2010, a two-kilometer educational trail was opened named after Ryszard Kapuściński. In 2018, near the intersection of al. Niepodległości and ul. Wawelska Street, 45 apple trees were planted to commemorate prominent Polish women.

Fauna
Twenty-one families of beetles are found in the park. Most of them are species from the ladybug family, of which the Asian ladybug is the most numerous, accounting for almost two-thirds of the individuals found. The next species, Aphidecta obliterata, accounted for 9.3%.

Due to the periodic lack of water in the ponds, there are no stable fish populations in the Mokotów Field, although some freshwater fish can be observed, such as individuals of the genus Xiphophorus.

title: Mokotów Field


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Mokotów

Mokotów is a city quarter of Warsaw, the capital of Poland. It is densely populated, and hosts many companies and foreign embassies. Only a small part of the district is lightly industrialised (Służewiec Przemysłowy), while the majority is full of parks and green areas (Mokotów Field).

Although the area has been populated at least since the early Middle Ages, Mokotów was not incorporated into Warsaw until 1916. The origins of the area's name are unclear, first appearing as the village of Mokotowo in documents from the year 1367. It is hypothesised to have come from the name of a German owner of the village, who called himself Mokoto or Mokot, although no exact reference to such an individual has been found in historical records. Most of the area was urbanised and redeveloped throughout the 1930s in the style of modernism. The majority of buildings survived World War II, making it one of the few well-preserved pre-war areas of Warsaw. Mokotów Prison is located within the borough. Residential real estate in Mokotów, particularly in the neighbourhoods of Stary Mokotów and Wyględów, ranks among the most expensive in Warsaw.

Administrative units
The following lower-level administrative units (osiedle) are established within Mokotow (they do not cover the whole district).

 * Sadyba
 * Służewiec Południowy (Southern Sluzewiec)
 * Wierzbno

City Information System
Administratively defined in 1996, this district is divided into following areas:

 * Stary Mokotów
 * Sielce
 * Czerniaków
 * Siekierki
 * Augustówka
 * Sadyba
 * Stegny
 * Wierzbno
 * Ksawerów
 * Służew
 * Służewiec
 * Wyględów

Historical
While the following subdivisions have no formal, administrative status, they are recognised in everyday life.

 * Górny Mokotów (Upper Mokotow)
 * Stary Mokotów
 * Wierzbno
 * Ksawerów
 * Wyględów
 * Królikarnia
 * Służew
 * Służewiec
 * Służewiec Przemysłowy
 * Dolny Mokotów (Lower Mokotow)
 * Sielce
 * Czerniaków
 * Siekierki
 * Augustówka
 * Stegny
 * Sadyba

title: Mokotów


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New Zealand Rugby

New Zealand Rugby (NZR) is the governing body of rugby union in New Zealand. It was founded in 1892 as the New Zealand Rugby Football Union (NZRFU), 12 years after the first provincial unions in New Zealand. In 1949 it became an affiliate to the International Rugby Football Board, now known as World Rugby, the governing body of rugby union for the world. It dropped the word "Football" from its name in 2006. The brand name New Zealand Rugby was adopted in 2013. Officially, it is an incorporated society with the name New Zealand Rugby Union Incorporated.

The organisation's main objectives, as displayed in the NZR Constitution, are to promote and develop rugby throughout New Zealand; arrange and participate in matches and tours in New Zealand and overseas; represent New Zealand in World Rugby; form and manage New Zealand representative teams; and encourage participation in the sport. NZR Headquarters are located in Wellington, New Zealand, with an office in Auckland.

Structure
New Zealand Rugby has a staff of approximately 90 people, mostly based in Wellington and Auckland but also working in locations all around New Zealand.

NZR was initially governed by a committee of delegates from the provincial unions until replaced in 1894 by a seven-member Wellington-based management committee. Administrative responsibilities were initially held by honorary secretaries, and then secretaries, from 1907. This was expanded 43 years later to create two entities, the ruling NZRU Council and an executive committee. In 1986, three geographical zones were formed to elect the members of the ruling council, and the executive committee was replaced by an administration committee. Since 1990, the NZRU has been managed by a CEO.

In 1996, the NZRU's ruling council was replaced by an expanded board to include independent members and an elected Maori representative. In 2015, the geographical zones were abolished so that vacant elective seats on the board could be contested by nominees from any provincial union in New Zealand without restriction on place of residence.

Patron and officers
New Zealand Rugby's Patron fills an honorary role as the figurehead for the organisation. The position of Patron is currently vacant following the death of Sir Brian Lochore in August 2019.

The President and Vice President are the Union's two officers who represent New Zealand Rugby at functions and events. Unlike the Patron, the President and Vice President may attend board meetings of New Zealand Rugby, although they are not entitled to vote on board matters. The President and Vice President are elected for two years each. The current President is Bill Osborne and the current Vice President is Max Spence.

Board
The Board is charged with setting strategy, direction and policy for the New Zealand Rugby Union, and is ultimately responsible for the decisions and actions of NZRU management and staff. Many of the decisions concerning New Zealand's national teams, domestic competitions, financial management and rugby traditions are made by the Board.

As of September 2018, the Board has nine members: six elected members (including one Maori representative) and three independent members. Any provincial union in New Zealand may nominate candidates for vacant elective positions. Nominations are passed to an Appointments and Remuneration Committee (ARC) which recommends two candidates per vacancy, to be voted on by delegates at the Annual General Meeting. The Maori representative is automatically appointed as New Zealand Rugby's representative on and Chairman of the New Zealand Maori Rugby Board.

The independent board members must be independent of any provincial union and are not nominated for the role. Instead, independent members must apply for the position and are selected on the basis of their professional qualifications and experience by a committee from the Board of New Zealand Rugby.

Executive management team and staff
New Zealand Rugby's management and staff reports to an executive team headed by the Chief Executive Officer. This team includes various managers for all aspects of New Zealand Rugby ranging from community and provincial rugby to the All Blacks teams. The Chief Executive Officer (CEO), working with the Board, is responsible for the establishment of the vision and strategy for the organisation, and acts as the key link between the Board and the staff. The CEO is ultimately responsible for the administrative and operational aspects of New Zealand Rugby. The current CEO is Mark Robinson, who took up the post in January 2020, succeeding Steve Tew.

History
The New Zealand Rugby Union (NZRU) was formed in 1892 to administer the game of rugby union at the national level. At that time, the national union was known as the New Zealand Rugby Football Union or NZRFU. The name was officially shortened in 2006 with the removal of the word "Football". The brand name New Zealand Rugby was adopted in 2013 for "everyday" use because it was seen as less "stuffy" and the word "Union" had some negative connotations.

The first rugby match to be played in New Zealand took place in Nelson in May 1870, between Nelson College and Nelson Football Club. The game spread quickly and in September 1875 the first interprovincial match took place in Dunedin, between Auckland Clubs and Dunedin Clubs. In 1879, the first provincial unions were formed in Canterbury and Wellington.

Formation and early years
On Saturday 16 April 1892, in a meeting held in Wellington, the New Zealand Rugby Union was formed. Inaugural members were the provincial unions of Auckland, Hawke's Bay, Manawatu, Marlborough, Nelson, South Canterbury, Taranaki, Waiararapa, Wanganui and Wellington. At the time, three major South Island provincial unions – Canterbury, Otago and Southland – resisted the central authority of the NZRU.

In 1893, the NZRU formally adopted the black jersey as the national playing strip and selected the first NZRU-sanctioned national team, for a tour of Australia. However, the earlier New Zealand team selected to tour New South Wales in 1884 is recognised as a New Zealand team and its players recognised as All Blacks.

By 1895, with the additions of the Bush, Canterbury, Horowhenua, Otago, Poverty Bay, Southland and West Coast unions, the NZRU was considered to be a complete and united collection of all New Zealand rugby players. However, the New Zealand rugby map would be repeatedly redrawn in the following decades.

At the Annual Meeting in 1921, the NZRU elected its first Life Member, George Dixon, manager of the 1905 “Originals” All Blacks and the NZRU's first Chairman, appointed in 1904. In another innovation, provincial delegates met prior to the Annual Meeting to arrange representative fixtures for the season ahead, introducing a new level of national coordination.

Provincial rugby
In 1976, the National Provincial Championship was formed to help organise matches between provincial unions, it had two divisions in its first year of play but the format was repeatedly reorganized throughout its 30-year history, notably in 1992 the bonus points system was brought in to determine the top placed team. Auckland have been the most successful team in the NPC's history with 16 championships including the last in 2005.

At the conclusion of the NPC there were three divisions and 27 unions under the NZRU's jurisdiction, it was replaced by the Air New Zealand Cup and Heartland Championship in 2006 with 14 teams in the top competition, including the new Tasman Makos, who formed with the amalgamation of the Marlborough and Nelson Bays Rugby Unions, and 12 teams in the amateur Heartland Championship. After changes in sponsorship in 2010, 2016 and 2021, the Air New Zealand Cup became the ITM Cup, Mitre 10 Cup and is now the Bunnings NPC.

All Blacks
The All Blacks are New Zealand's number one national rugby side and have rated among the best in the world for well over 100 years. Their name and distinctive all black playing strip have become well known to rugby and non-rugby fans worldwide.

The first New Zealand team was selected in 1884, for a tour to New South Wales. The team played its first match at home, against a Wellington XV, before recording eight wins in eight matches in Australia. Otago prop James Allan, who played eight matches for the 1884 team, has the title of All Black No 1.

In 1893, the first official NZRU-sanctioned New Zealand team was selected, for an 11-match tour to Australia. The team lost just once, to New South Wales in Sydney.

In 1894, an official New Zealand team hosted visiting opposition on home soil for the first time, in a match against New South Wales at Christchurch won 8–6 by the visitors, two years later, New Zealand beat Queensland at Wellington to record its first home win against visiting opposition.

New Zealand's 1905–06 tour to the United Kingdom, France and North America might be considered the most important in New Zealand rugby history. The team played 35 matches in total, the only team to beat them was Wales. In the United Kingdom especially, the team's largely confident, attractive and comfortable wins made a strong statement about the quality of rugby in the colonies and New Zealand in particular. Moreover, the 1905–06 tour gave rise to the famous “All Blacks” moniker, as the fame surrounding the black-clad team spread. Nowadays, this team is known as “the Originals” – they were the first team to demonstrate the power and skill of New Zealand rugby, the first to make rugby a part of New Zealand's cultural identity, and the first to be known as All Blacks.

In 1924–25, the All Blacks embarked on a 32-match tour to the United Kingdom, France and Canada. Going one better than the 1905–06 Originals, this team won all 32 matches, including Test wins over Ireland, Wales, England and France, and earned the nickname “the Invincibles”.

In 1956, the All Blacks won a Test series against South Africa for the first time. The Springboks were the All Blacks’ greatest traditional rivals and had delivered some of the All Blacks’ worst defeats.

In 1978, the All Blacks achieved a Grand Slam for the first time. For southern hemisphere sides like New Zealand, a Grand Slam includes victories over the four Home Unions – England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales – in the course of a single tour. The team achieved a second Grand Slam in 2005 and a third in 2008

In 1987, the All Blacks won the inaugural Rugby World Cup against France, hosted by New Zealand and Australia. New Zealand also won the Rugby World Cup in 2011, after an 8–7 victory over France in front of a home crowd, and in 34–17 victory over Australia at Twickenham in 2015. The latter win made the All Blacks the first side ever to successfully defend a Rugby World Cup title and to win three World Cups.

Professional era
In 1995, following the Rugby World Cup tournament in South Africa, international rugby turned professional with the IRB's repeal of all amateurism regulations. For the first time, the NZRU negotiated with and contracted New Zealand rugby players.

The NZRU also joined with the national unions of Australia and South Africa to form SANZAR, which sold the television rights for major southern hemisphere rugby competitions and helped to build the commercial foundation on which professional rugby is based. SANZAR, renamed SANZAAR with the 2016 entry of Argentina as a full member of the body, remains an important rugby organisation and organises The Rugby Championship (originally the Tri Nations) and the Super Rugby competition.

National teams
The NZRU has several teams under its control.

Men

 * All Blacks – the national men's rugby union team of New Zealand
 * All Blacks XV – the second national team behind the All Blacks and not an age graded side.
 * Sevens – the national rugby sevens team of New Zealand. Established in 1983, when the first full international side was sent to the Hong Kong Sevens tournament.
 * Māori All Blacks – the national men's Māori team of New Zealand. Members of this team must have at least 1/16 Māori ancestry (equivalent to one great-great-grandparent).
 * Under 20s – an age graded side created after World Rugby (then known as the IRB) folded its former under-19 and under-21 World Championships into an under-20 competition currently known as the World Rugby Under 20 Championship. Currently the country's top age-grade side, and also sometimes referred to as the "Baby Blacks."
 * Heartland XV – established in 1988 to expose players from Divisions Two and Three in the Air New Zealand NPC to rugby at a higher level. After the 2006 reorganisation of the NPC into the fully professional Air New Zealand Cup, now Mitre 10 Cup, and the nominally amateur Heartland Championship, the team now consists solely of players from the Heartland Championship.
 * NZ Schools – a development team of school players who move up to the Under 20s and ultimately the All Blacks.

Women

 * Black Ferns – the national women's rugby union team of New Zealand.
 * Sevens – the national women's rugby sevens team of New Zealand.

Referees
The New Zealand Rugby Union have a number of contracted referees who officiated in levels from Heartland matches to ITM Cup and Super Rugby. The system in which referees are selected, appointed to matches and progress through to the next stage is very structured with a number of referee coaches, viewers and managers assisting them with their performances. However, only 5 referees are on professional contracts, Glen Jackson, Brendon Pickerill, Ben O'Keeffe, Paul Williams, Nick Briant and Mike Fraser. The professionals are appointed to refereeing Super Rugby matches by SANZAAR with some refereeing test rugby.

Provincial unions
The NZRU comprises 17 North Island provincial unions and 9 South Island provincial unions.

North Island
The North Island provincial unions are:

South Island
The South Island provincial unions are:

title: New Zealand Rugby


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Jim Gentile

James Edward Gentile (born June 3, 1934), also nicknamed "Diamond Jim", is an American former professional baseball first baseman. He played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Brooklyn / Los Angeles Dodgers, Baltimore Orioles, Kansas City Athletics, Houston Astros, and Cleveland Indians between 1957 and 1966.

Early career
Born in San Francisco, California, Gentile was a powerful, left-handed slugger listed at 6' 4", 215 lb. He was signed by the Brooklyn Dodgers as a high school pitcher in 1952. He played his first minor league season as a pitcher, earning a 2-6 win–loss record. The next year he was converted into a first baseman. He languished for eight years in the minors for a Dodgers team that already had All-Star Gil Hodges at first base and Norm Larker. He dominated the minors, leading two separate leagues in home runs.

On September 24, 1957, Gentile started at first base for the Dodgers at Brooklyn's famed Ebbets Field in the final game played there. He was replaced by Pee Wee Reese in the top of the fifth inning with Reese going to third base and Gil Hodges moving from third to first. The game's final batter, Pittsburgh's Dee Fondy, hit a ground ball to Don Zimmer at shortstop and Zimmer threw to Hodges at first base for the game's final out.

Baltimore
Gentile was traded to Baltimore in 1960, where he was named to the 1960 All-Star Game his first full season. He enjoyed his best season in 1961, hitting career highs of .302 batting average, 46 home runs, 141 runs batted in (see below), 96 runs, 147 hits, 25 doubles, 96 walks, .423 on-base percentage, .646 slugging average and 1.069 OPS. He finished third in the MVP ballot (behind Mickey Mantle and Roger Maris). In addition, Gentile hit five grand slams — (including two straight in one game) — setting an American League record that stood until Don Mattingly belted six in 1987.

In a nine-season career, Gentile batted .260 (759-for-2922) with 179 home runs, 549 RBI, 434 runs, 113 doubles, six triples, and three stolen bases in 936 games. Following his major league career, he played one season in Japan for the Kintetsu Buffaloes in 1969.

Gentile managed the Fort Worth Cats when they returned to baseball in 2001 and 2002. Jim also managed the 2005 Mid-Missouri Mavericks of the Frontier League.

Gentile was inducted into the Baltimore Orioles Hall of Fame in 1989.

1961 RBI record keeping error
Gentile's 141 RBI in 1961 was second only to Roger Maris' 142 RBI, however, analysis by Retrosheet determined Maris was incorrectly credited with an RBI in a game on July 5, 1961. Maris reached base on an error by numerous accounts. Therefore, Gentile and Maris both had 141 RBI in 1961. Gentile's contract with the Orioles in 1961 called for a $5,000 bonus if he led the league in RBI. The Orioles made good on that deal 50 years later and presented Gentile with a check for $5,000 at a game in 2010.

Gentile now lives in Edmond, Oklahoma.

title: Jim Gentile


text:
Talk:Man'yōgana

place name examples
Antonius contributed this sentence:
 * Man'yōgana continues to exist in some regional names of present-day Japan. In these cases, the pronunciation of these kanjis is obcure.[sic]

I am not sure what you had in mind when you wrote this. Could you please give examples in your next edit? Are these extremely rare cases? --69.212.98.38 09:59, 5 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * Places like Nara (奈良, what?-good), for example. See also many place names in Hokkaido, borrowed from Ainu, but spelled with Kanji.  A good many place names have kanji that seem to be completely senseless, and are probably the result of such kanji-spellings.  Also, there are "respelled" names like Hitachi Province, historically Hi-tachi (Sun-rise), but spelled Hita-chi (常陸), literally "Always land".

 * this is really interesting- does anyone have more examples? brain 04:02, 11 April 2007 (UTC)

Addition on 26 Jun 06
I've added a section from the Japanese article on manyogana. I welcome any corrections or expansions to it. I was considering adding the chunk "江戸時代の和学者、春登上人は「万葉用字格」（文化15年）の中で、万葉仮名を五十音順に整理し＜正音・略音・正訓・義訓・略訓・約訓・借訓・戯書＞に分類した. " but: adamrice 15:49, 26 June 2006 (UTC)
 * I'm not sure how to romanize 春登上人. Haruto Shounin?
 * Note how he came up with 8 categories for classifying manyogana, but there are really only 7 in the article. I'm not exactly sure how 春登上人's categories correspond to those in the article, which is the odd one out, or how best to translate those category names.

 * 春登 is to be read as Shuntō, not Shūtō. There is no need to transliterate 上人, which is not a name but rather means monk or priest. He was a phonetician living between 1769 and 1836. Bendono 08:19, 5 October 2006 (UTC)

 * 春登上人 is not a standard Japanese name, it is a given scholastic name, the proper reading for this is : Shūtōshōnin. Sudachi 12:11, 27 June 2006 (UTC)

Re: Ateiji
A phenomenon similar to man'yōgana, called ateji (当て字), still occurs, where words (including loanwords) are spelled out using kanji for their phonetic value: for example, 倶楽部 (kurabu, club).

While I am not knowledgeable about the use of the kanji 倶楽部 to denote a "club" in Japanese, I would like to point out that 倶楽部 originates from the Chinese, and in fact does mean a "club". Therefore, I wonder whether this is indeed a good an example of Ateiji.
 * Interesting. Does the Japanese 倶楽部 in fact come from the Chinese, or is it a case of convergence? I have no idea what the etymology of this word is in Japanese. We could certainly change it to something else (although this example has propagated to other articles and other language versions of this article already, so that horse has left the barn). Also, please sign your comments by typing 4 tildes at the end like this (without the spaces): ~ ~ ~ ~. adamrice 13:13, 17 August 2006 (UTC)
 * Wow, that is interesting... the meaning of the kanji used there could certainly quite logically be taken to mean "club," but they also just so happen to have the readings of ku-ra-bu. 面白い. LordAmeth 08:29, 1 October 2006 (UTC)
 * 倶楽部 is not a Chinese word, or at least it's not in any online Chinese dictionary. Considering a common alternative spelling is クラブ I would think that it's more likely an English borrowing, with kanji applied after the fact. Compare 阿蘭陀 / 和蘭陀 which was borrowed form Portuguese. If 倶楽部 is occasionally used in China, it could be borrowed from Japanese. Shinobu 02:46, 5 September 2007 (UTC)

orientation of charts
Notice the katakana chart runs in one orientation, and the hiragana chart runs in the other... I think it would be clearer if there were more parallelism between the two charts. Maybe nitpicky, but there it is. brain 03:59, 11 April 2007 (UTC)

Table of 80
Like the hiragana and katakana often shown in the "Table of 50", it may be a bit less confusing if the Man'yōgana are shown in the "Table of 80" (arising from the old 8-vowels a, i, ï, u, e, ë, o and ö), as in the early Man'yōgana the vowel harmony was still retained, while in their later usages, the vowel harmony was lost and the 8 vowels were consolidated into the current 5 vowel system. If I find a reference, I will add it, but if someone ones to start one, that would be good, too. CJLippert (talk) 22:35, 15 December 2007 (UTC)
 * Found some. CJLippert (talk) 02:23, 16 December 2007 (UTC)

/g b d z/
When did distinct characters for voiced syllables disappear? It seemes peculiar that, if man'yōgana had distinct voiced characters that modern kana should have lost them, and created a diacritic for that purpose. Nik42 (talk) 02:51, 18 December 2007 (UTC)

 * They did not disappear. However, initially there was no orthographic way to indicate it with kana. That developed a little later. Bendono (talk) 02:57, 18 December 2007 (UTC)

 * But, what I mean is, this article shows distinct man'yogana characters used for, e.g., /ga/ as opposed to /ka/. What happened to those characters?  Did they become used interchangeably?  Did the voice-specific ones fall out of use? Nik42 (talk) 03:04, 18 December 2007 (UTC)

 * During the transition from man'yōgana to hentaigana, a particular set of characters were used more frequently than others, and without a concrete way to indicate voicing, these characters were used for both voiceless and voiced sounds. Thus, /ka/ could be [ka] or [ga]. Dakuten marks can be found during the Heian period in limited specialized texts, but it is not until the late Kamakura period until it becomes fairly widespread and common. Bendono (talk) 03:27, 18 December 2007 (UTC)

i2 and o2
Were these distinct vowels? Or dipthongs? 69.182.52.86 (talk) 01:40, 4 May 2008 (UTC)

 * Short answer: we don't know. Initial research suggested various vowel types, but research since the 70s has been generally suggesting that the kō/otsu distinctions represented a kind of glide (/j, w/). There is no consensus within the academic community and it is strongly debated today. Bendono (talk) 09:10, 7 May 2008 (UTC)

Hiragana origin picture
Isn't this hentaigana?Moocowsrule (talk) 05:37, 3 October 2008 (UTC)moocowsrule

Derivation Of Katakana Characters Pictures
Hi,

From the original:

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Katakana_origine.png

to

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/Katakana_origine.svg

I noticed a few mistakes:

The last (bottom) stroke in the top radical in the kana for "sa" in the svg is highlighted red. That is incorrect

"te" also has a problem: the length of the descending left stroke between the horizontal strokes are highlighted red. This is also incorrect. Can you amend the svg, upload, replace, delete the links to the files in the corresponding articles (wikipedia and anywhere else), and copypasta? Thanks.174.3.103.39 (talk) 05:14, 9 June 2009 (UTC)

What's the difference between "complete" and "partial"?
In the section "Types", in the subsections of "Shakuon kana" and "Shakkun kana", there are these tables giving some examples of how characters are mapped to certain sounds. But I have to ask, why do these tables have "partial" and "complete" characters? VulpesVulpes42 (talk) 18:19, 25 August 2016 (UTC)

Use of modernized kanji?
You recently various edits by an IPv6 anon who had changed certain kanji from the modernized shinjitai to the more-historically-accurate and pre-reform kyūjitai. We know that various glyphs such as 満 and 真 were simplified in relatively recent times from the older forms of 滿 and 眞. For an article discussing the origins of man'yōgana and describing usage within its historical context, it would seem to make more sense to use the older, historically attested forms, no? ‑‑ Eiríkr Útlendi │Tala við mig 17:12, 15 June 2022 (UTC)

 * Hello Eirikr,
 * Sorry, I reverted because it didn't correspond to the Japanese Wikipedia's table and some sources I found:.
 * As for the kyūjitai/shinjitai characters, the characters changed by the IPv6 (齒, 滿, 眞, 蘿 and 鷄) do not appear in the Japanese sources I found, if you have a reliable source where we can find these characters, feel free to add it, otherwise it would be WP:OR. Thibaut (talk) 11:46, 16 June 2022 (UTC)

 * Cheers @Thibaut120094, thank you for the reply.
 * Digging through my local copy of the Man'yōshū (MYS) HTML files from http://jti.lib.virginia.edu/japanese/manyoshu/, I get the following hit counts (note that there are a couple instances where one poem might have multiple hits):
 * 齒: 28 hits in 8 of the MYS books
 * Book 1, poems 1, 10 -- used for phoneme ba in the modern reading gloss (in poem 1) -- might be a modernization, where it was actually pronounced as pa in the Old Japanese; c.f. theorized derivation of conditional -ba. Used for yo in poem 10, apparently from the alternative reading yowai related to youth and weakness.
 * Book 2, poem 210 -- used for phoneme ba in the modern reading gloss -- might be a modernization, where it was actually pronounced as pa in the Old Japanese; c.f. theorized derivation of conditional -ba
 * Book 3, poem 284 -- used for phoneme ba in the modern reading gloss -- might be a modernization, where it was actually pronounced as pa in the Old Japanese; c.f. theorized derivation of conditional -ba
 * Book 4, poem 674 -- used for phoneme pa
 * Book 7, poems 1134, 1135, 1137, 1240, 1382, 1400, 1405 -- used for phoneme pa (with one instance parsed as conditional -ba in the modern reading gloss)
 * Book 11, poems 2624, 2696, 2773, 2782 -- used for phoneme pa, conditional -ba, and in case for yo
 * Book 12, poems 2947, 2986 -- used for phoneme pa (with one instance parsed as conditional -ba in the modern reading gloss)
 * Book 16, poems 3860 through 3869 in the [左注] notes (which appear to be written in kanbun)
 * 滿: 0 hits. However, shinjitai version 満 appears 104 times, making it likely that the kyūjitai version 滿 appears in other editions.
 * 眞: 0 hits. However, shinjitai version 真 appears 417 times, making it likely that the kyūjitai version 眞 appears in other editions.
 * 蘿: 14 hits in 5 of the MYS books:
 * Book 2, poem 113 title, 228 -- used as an ideograph for koke "moss", not as man'yōgana for the sound ra
 * Book 6, poem 962 -- used as an ideograph for koke "moss", not as man'yōgana for the sound ra
 * Book 7, poems 1120, 1214, 1334 -- used as an ideograph for koke "moss", not as man'yōgana for the sound ra
 * Book 11, poems 2630, 2750 -- used as an ideograph for koke "moss", not as man'yōgana for the sound ra
 * Book 13, poems 3227, 3228 -- used as an ideograph for koke "moss", not as man'yōgana for the sound ra
 * 鷄: 12 hits in 6 of the MYS books:
 * Book 2, poem 105 -- used in compound 鷄鳴 (literally "birdcall") as a kind of jukujikun for 暁 (akatoki, "dawn")
 * Book 3, poems 312, 382, 460, 479 -- used for phoneme ke1, and as an ideogram for "bird / chicken" (tori) in poem 382
 * Book 4, poem 553 -- used for phoneme ke1
 * Book 5, poems 813, 814 in the title notes (which appear to be written in kanbun)
 * Book 6, poems 963, 1015 -- used for phoneme ke1
 * Book 7, poems 1081, 1413 -- used for phoneme ke1
 * The two characters 滿 and 眞 might be used in the Nihon Shoki, Kojiki, or other ancient texts, but I do not have similar searchable access to copies of these.  If you're aware of any such copies, I'm all ears.  :)  ‑‑ Eiríkr Útlendi │Tala við mig 18:52, 16 June 2022 (UTC)

Table showing evolution from kanji->grass style->hiragana is off
Not to be mean to anyone, but the characters depicted in red in this table are all very poorly drawn depictions. The table should be replaced with authentic depictions of the 草書 characters. I don’t know how to do that, otherwise I’d do it myself. — Jim_Lockhart (talk) 15:01, 15 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Man'yōgana


text:
Ralph McQuarrie

Ralph Angus McQuarrie (June 13, 1929 – March 3, 2012) was an American conceptual designer who worked in film and television. His career included work on the original Star Wars trilogy, the original Battlestar Galactica television series, the film E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial, and the film Cocoon, for which he won an Academy Award.

Early life
Ralph McQuarrie was born on June 13, 1929, in Gary, Indiana, and was raised on a farm near Billings, Montana. He served in the United States Army during the Korean War, surviving a shot to the head. After returning from the war, McQuarrie moved to California in the 1960s, studying at the Art Center School, then in downtown Los Angeles.

Career
McQuarrie initially worked for a dentistry firm, illustrating teeth and equipment, before working as an Artist and Preliminary Design Illustrator for the Boeing Company, where he drew diagrams for a manual on constructing the 747 Jumbo Jet, as well as designing film posters and animating CBS News' coverage of the Apollo space program at the three-man company Reel Three. While there, McQuarrie was asked by Hal Barwood to produce some illustrations for a film project he and Matthew Robbins were starting.

Star Wars
The young filmmaker George Lucas was impressed by McQuarrie's work and met with him to discuss his plans for a space-fantasy film, The Star Wars. Lucas sought visual reference material to support his pitch to film studios and purchased pieces of science fiction artwork by John Berkey. In 1975, Lucas commissioned McQuarrie to illustrate several scenes from the script of the film. McQuarrie may have been inspired by some of Berkey's works, in particular a painting of a rocket-plane diving down through space towards a gigantic mechanical planet (the image had been used as cover art for the 1972 reprint of the short story anthology Star Science Fiction Stories No.4).

McQuarrie's concept paintings were instrumental in helping Lucas to win approval from 20th Century Fox; armed with vivid illustrations of his planned movie, Lucas was able to convince Fox executives to take a gamble and fund his Star Wars project. Despite their scepticism, it became a huge success upon release in 1977. Among McQuarrie's Star Wars portfolio were concept paintings depicting scenes on the planet Tatooine, inside the Mos Eisley cantina, inside the Death Star and on the moon of Yavin. During filming, Lucas ensured that many shots reproduced McQuarrie's paintings exactly, such was his esteem for McQuarrie's work. McQuarrie has said of his work on Star Wars, "I thought I had the best job that an artist ever had on a film, and I had never worked on a feature film before. ... I still get fan mail — people wondering if I worked on Episode I or just wanting to have my autograph."

McQuarrie designed many of the film's characters, including Darth Vader, Chewbacca, R2-D2 and C-3PO and drew many concepts for the film's sets. His production painting of R2-D2 and C-3PO wandering in the desert on the planet Tatooine was the first to be completed. His early concept for C-3PO was visibly inspired by the Art Deco Maschinenmensch robot from Fritz Lang's 1927 film Metropolis. The painting had a particular impact on actor Anthony Daniels, who was about to turn down the part of C-3PO; "He had painted a face and a figure that had a very wistful, rather yearning, rather bereft quality, which I found very appealing," stated Daniels, and the appeal of McQuarrie's image convinced him to accept the role.

At Lucas' suggestion, McQuarrie designed a breathing apparatus for Darth Vader to wear. In an interview with Star Wars Insider Magazine, McQuarrie stated that Lucas' artistic direction was to portray a malevolent figure in a cape with samurai armour. "For Darth Vader, George [Lucas] just said he would like to have a very tall, dark fluttering figure that had a spooky feeling like it came in on the wind." McQuarrie noted that the script indicated that Vader would travel between spaceships and needed to survive in the vacuum of space, and he proposed that Vader should wear some sort of space suit. Lucas agreed, and McQuarrie combined a full-face breathing mask with a samurai helmet, thus creating one of the most iconic designs of space fantasy cinema. A 1975 production painting of Darth Vader engaged in a lightsaber duel with Deak Starkiller (a character prototype for Luke Skywalker) depicts Vader wearing black armour, a flowing cape and an elongated, skull-like mask and helmet. Its similarity to the final design of Vader's costume demonstrates that McQuarrie's earliest conception of Vader was so successful that very little needed to be changed for production. Working from McQuarrie's artwork, the costume designer John Mollo devised a costume that could be worn by an actor on-screen using a combination of clerical robes, a motorcycle suit, a German military helmet and a gas mask. The prop sculptor Brian Muir created the helmet and armour used in the film from McQuarrie's designs.

While McQuarrie was working on visualisation work for Lucas, he was also commissioned by an executive of Ballantine Books, Judy-Lynn del Rey, to produce the cover art of the forthcoming novelization of Star Wars. The first edition of Star Wars: From the Adventures of Luke Skywalker went to press in 1976 featuring McQuarrie's version of Darth Vader's helmet on the cover. Like the film, the book was a runaway success, and McQuarrie began a long relationship with the publisher, producing the artwork for 22 further titles for Del Rey Books between 1978 and 1987.

Star Trek
Around the time that McQuarrie was completing his work on Star Wars, he was brought on board the design team for a planned cinematic production based on Gene Roddenberry's science fiction television series, Star Trek. Titled Star Trek: Planet of the Titans, the film was to feature a redesigned USS Enterprise starship, and McQuarrie was recruited to provide the visualizations. His triangular ship design has been likened to the appearance of the Star Destroyers featured in Star Wars. Star Trek: Planet of the Titans did not make it past the pre-production phase and the project was cancelled in 1977. The design was later used in 2017's Star Trek: Discovery as the basis of the titular ship.

Star Wars sequels
When Lucas began work on his sequel to Star Wars, The Empire Strikes Back (1980), McQuarrie was once again brought in to supply previsualization artwork. His sketches and production paintings established the appearance of some of the saga's most enduring elements, such as the gigantic AT-AT Walkers in the battle on the ice planet Hoth and the wizened elf creature Yoda. McQuarrie's design for Cloud City, a floating city in the clouds, actually originated from his early sketches for Star Wars from 1975, when he was illustrating a concept for the planet Alderaan, as described in Lucas' 1975 draft script, Adventures of the Starkiller as taken from the Journal of the Whills, Saga I: The Star Wars. McQuarrie made an uncredited cameo appearance in The Empire Strikes Back, when he appeared in the film's opening sequence in the Rebel base on Hoth as a character named General Pharl McQuarrie. In 2007, McQuarrie became part of the Star Wars action figure range when an action figure in his likeness as "General McQuarrie" was produced for the Star Wars 30th anniversary in 2007. Action figures were also produced based on McQuarrie's concept art, including conceptual versions of the Imperial Stormtrooper, Chewbacca, R2-D2 and C-3PO, Darth Vader, Han Solo, Boba Fett, Obi-Wan Kenobi, Yoda and other characters.

By the time McQuarrie was engaged on Lucas' third Star Wars picture, Return of the Jedi (1983), he had begun to experience creative fatigue. "It became less fun as time went on. I had done the best part already and I was just rehashing everything. I kept meeting myself in my thinking. It became more and more difficult to keep my enthusiasm up," McQuarrie has said. Despite his earlier success, fewer of his design ideas were included in the final cut of the film.

Other film and TV work
McQuarrie designed the alien ships in Steven Spielberg's films Close Encounters of the Third Kind (1977) and E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982), while his work as the conceptual artist on the 1985 film Cocoon earned him the Academy Award for Visual Effects. He also worked on the 1978 TV series Battlestar Galactica, and the films Raiders of the Lost Ark, Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home and *batteries not included.

Retirement
Rick McCallum offered McQuarrie a role as designer for the Star Wars prequel trilogy, but he declined, noting he had "run out of steam" and Industrial Light & Magic animator Doug Chiang was appointed instead. McQuarrie retired and his Star Wars concept paintings were subsequently displayed in art exhibitions, including the 1999 Star Wars: The Magic of Myth. Several of McQuarrie's unused designs from the original trilogy were utilized for the Star Wars: The Clone Wars and Star Wars Rebels animated TV series, including the planet Orto Plutonia, which was based on McQuarrie's original design of Hoth, and the characters Zeb Orrelios and Chopper, based on his original designs for Chewbacca and R2-D2, respectively.

Personal life
McQuarrie married Joan Benjamin in 1983 and stayed married until his death at age 82 on March 3, 2012, in his Berkeley, CA home. McQuarrie died from complications of Parkinson's disease.

Critical assessment
Christian Blauvelt of Entertainment Weekly praised McQuarrie's works as "pioneering of the 'used future' aesthetic" which unlike other science-fiction, "imagined a lived-in galaxy that was gritty, dirty, and in advance states of decay." He described McQuarrie's style as "strongly geometric subjects rendered in muted colors against a flat, purposefully compressed backdrop. A McQuarrie Star Wars design looks like what would have resulted if Salvador Dalí had sketched concepts for Universal's 1936 Flash Gordon serial by way of Sergio Leone's Old West."

Neil Kendricks of The San Diego Union-Tribune emphasised McQuarrie's importance to the Star Wars franchise, saying that the artist "holds a unique position when it comes to defining much of the look of the "Star Wars" universe."

After McQuarrie's death, George Lucas said: "His genial contribution, in the form of unequalled production paintings, propelled and inspired all of the cast and crew of the original Star Wars trilogy. When words could not convey my ideas, I could always point to one of Ralph's fabulous illustrations and say, 'do it like this'."

Legacy
The current Lucasfilm creative team is employing parts of McQuarrie's original unused concept art from the seventies and eighties in the development of new Star Wars-related media.

For Star Wars Day in 2023, Lego Star Wars: The Skywalker Saga released a free DLC character named Luke Starkiller, based on McQuarrie's design.

Filmography

 * Star Wars (1977) (production illustrator)
 * Close Encounters of the Third Kind (1977) (Mother Ship designer)
 * Battlestar Galactica (1978) (production and concept illustrator)
 * Star Wars Holiday Special (1978) (illustrator)
 * The Empire Strikes Back (1980) (design consultant and conceptual artist)
 * Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981) (ILM illustrator)
 * E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982) (scenic artist/spaceship design)
 * Return of the Jedi (1983) (conceptual artist)
 * Cocoon (1985) (conceptual artist)
 * Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home (1986) (visual consultant)
 * *batteries not included (1987) (conceptual artist)
 * Nightbreed (1990) (conceptual artist)
 * Back to the Future: The Ride (1991) (conceptual artist) (uncredited)

Actor

 * The Empire Strikes Back (1980)—General McQuarrie (uncredited)

title: Ralph McQuarrie


text:
Bury

Bury may refer to:
 * The burial of human remains
 * -bury, a suffix in English placenames

England

 * Bury, Cambridgeshire, a village
 * Bury, Greater Manchester, a town, historically in Lancashire
 * Bury (UK Parliament constituency) (1832–1950)
 * Bury and Radcliffe (UK Parliament constituency) (1950–1983)
 * Bury North (UK Parliament constituency), from 1983
 * Bury South (UK Parliament constituency), from 1983
 * County Borough of Bury, 1846–1974
 * Metropolitan Borough of Bury, from 1974
 * Bury Rural District, 1894–1933
 * Bury, Somerset, a hamlet
 * Bury, West Sussex, a village and civil parish
 * Bury (UK electoral ward)
 * Bury St Edmunds, a town in Suffolk, commonly referred to as Bury
 * New Bury, a suburb of Farnworth in the Bolton district of Greater Manchester

Elsewhere

 * Bury, Hainaut, Belgium, a village in the commune of Péruwelz, Wallonia
 * Bury, Quebec, Canada, a municipality
 * Bury, Oise, France, a commune

Sports

 * Bury (professional wrestling), a slang term used in the world of wrestling
 * Bury F.C., a professional football team in Bury, northern England
 * Bury Town F.C., a football team from Bury St Edmunds, south-east England

Other uses

 * Bury (surname)
 * Bury (The Fall song)
 * HMS Bury (1919), a Royal Navy First World War minesweeper
 * Horace Bury, a character in the science fiction novel The Mote in God's Eye

title: Bury


text:
Boardwalk (music club)

The Boardwalk was a nightclub in Manchester, England, which was open from 1986 to 1999. This medium-sized club, owned by David, Colin and Donald Sinclair, was a popular live music venue and nightclub in the late 1980s and early 1990s. It had multiple floors, with a rehearsal space in the basement.

Colin Sinclair and his father bought the Boardwalk building, located on Little Peter Street, in 1985. Originally a school operated by St. Peter's church, the building's top floor had been used as a rehearsal space for the Hallé Orchestra under John Barbirolli, and, from the 1970s, as a home for an alternative theatre company, the Green Room (which later moved to Whitworth St West). The first live event at the Boardwalk took place 15 December 1985, although at the time the venue had no alcohol licence.

Along with other clubs like the Haçienda, and the International, the Boardwalk provided an important live venue for many bands, from local to national. Sue Langford organised in-house bookings at the Boardwalk, with various independent promoters also hosting shows at the venue (including Simon Moran). Bands such as Oasis and Northside made their live debuts at the Boardwalk. The Man From Delmonte, the Charlatans, Happy Mondays, Female Brothers and Dub Sex, were amongst the many Manchester bands that appeared frequently at the Boardwalk before acquiring international recognition or disappearing into obscurity. The venue also saw a variety of other acts including The Stone Roses, Hole, Sonic Youth, Chumbawamba, Jayne County, Verve, Bob Mould and Rage Against the Machine. The venue was also known as a focus of Britain's C86 music scene.

The basement of the venue served as a rehearsal space. The Membranes, James, Simply Red, and A Certain Ratio were among the acts who took rehearsal space at the Boardwalk in the 1980s. In the early 1990s, Oasis shared a rehearsal room with Sister Lovers.

Funkademia was started by DJ and promoter David Payne at The Boardwalk in 1995 and has since gone on to be Manchester's longest running club night, currently at the Mint Lounge. In later years, until the club closed in 1999, former Haçienda DJ Dave Haslam played the regular Yellow night at the Boardwalk on Fridays.

The nightclub site now has a blue plaque, featuring a smiley face, a symbol associated with acid house. Beneath the symbol is a description of The Boardwalk as a "Madchester Venue Nightclub and Rehearsal Rooms".

title: Boardwalk (music club)


text:
Three-component theory of stratification

The three-component theory of stratification, more widely known as Weberian stratification or the three class system, was developed by German sociologist Max Weber with class, status and party as distinct ideal types. Weber developed a multidimensional approach to social stratification that reflects the interplay among wealth, prestige and power.
 * Weber argued that power can take a variety of forms. A person's power can be shown in the social order through their status, in the economic order through their class, and in the political order through their party. Thus, class, status and party are each aspects of the distribution of power within a community.

Class, status and power have not only a great deal of effect within their individual areas but also a great deal of influence over the other areas.
 * Wealth: includes property such as buildings, lands, farms, houses, factories and as well as other assets – Economic Situation
 * Prestige: the respect with which a person or status position is regarded by others – Status Situation
 * Power: the ability of people or groups to achieve their goals despite opposition from others – Parties

According to Weber, there are two basic dimensions of power: the possession of power and the exercising of power.

This essay was written shortly before World War I and was published posthumously in 1922 as part of Weber's Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft. It was translated into English in the 1940s as "Class, Status, Party"; reproduced with modifications in Weber 1978:926–939. and has been re-translated as "The distribution of power within the community: Classes, Stände, Parties".

Possession of power
According to Weber, the ability to possess power derives from the individual's ability to control various "social resources". "The mode of distribution gives to the propertied a monopoly on the possibility of transferring property from the sphere of use as 'wealth' to the sphere of 'capital,' that is, it gives them the entrepreneurial function and all chances to share directly or indirectly in returns on capital". These resources can be anything and everything: they might include land, capital, social respect, physical strength, and intellectual knowledge.

Exercising of power
The ability to exercise power takes a number of different forms, but all involve the idea that it means the ability to get your own way with others, regardless of their ability to resist you. "For example, if we think about an individual's chances of realizing their own will against someone else, it is reasonable to believe that the person's social prestige, class position, and membership in a political group will have an effect on these chances". In terms of understanding the relationship between power and social stratification, Weber theorized the various ways in which societies are organized in hierarchical systems of domination and subordination using the several major concepts.

Class and power
"Class, at its core, is an economic concept; it is the position of individuals in the market that determines their class position. And it is how one is situated in the marketplace that directly affects one's life chances". This was theorized by Weber on the basis of "unequal access to material resources". For example, if someone possesses something that you want or need then this makes him potentially more powerful than you. He is in a dominant position and you are in a subordinate position because he controls access to a desired social resource. A classic illustration here is the relationship between an employer and employee.

Social power (status or Stände)
"The existence of status groups most often shows itself in the form of

 * 1) endogamy or the restricted pattern of social intercourse,
 * 2) sharing of food and other benefits within groups,
 * 3) status conventions or traditions, and
 * 4) monopolistic acquisition of certain economic opportunities or the avoidance of certain kinds of acquisitions.

If you respect someone or view him as your social superior, then he will potentially be able to exercise power over you (since you will respond positively to his instructions / commands). In this respect, social status is a social resource simply because he may have it while you may not. "Not all power, however entails social honor: The Typical American Boss, as well as the typical big speculator, deliberately relinquishes social honor. Quite generally, 'mere economic' power, and especially 'naked' money power, is by no means a recognized basis or social honor".

Note: The German word Stand, plural Stände (English, "status" or "status group") is sometimes left untranslated in Weber, in order to keep in view the origins of this concept in medieval guilds, professions, ethnic identities, and feudal classifications.

Political power (party)
Parties are associations that aim at securing "power within an organization [or the state] for its leaders in order to attain ideal or material advantages for its active members". This form of power can be related to the way in which the State is organized in modern social systems (involving the ability to make laws, for example). If you can influence this process of law creation then you will be in a potentially powerful position. Thus, by your ability to influence a decision-making process you possess power, even though you may not directly exercise that power personally. Political parties are the organizational means to possess power through the mechanism of the State and they include not just formally organized parties, but any group that is organized to influence the way in which power is exercised legitimately through the machinery of the State. "Since parties aim at such goals as getting their programs developed or accepted and getting positions of influence within organizations, it is clear that they operate only within a rational order within which these goals are possible to attain and only when there is a struggle for power".

Social action
Social action is in direct relation to "political or party power" in combination with the class situation. The influence of laws is based on the social action of members of the classes. "The direction of interests may vary according to whether or not social action of a larger or smaller portion of those commonly affected by the class situation, or even an association among them, e.g., a trade union, has grown out of the class situation, from which the individual may expect promising results for himself". "The degree in which "social action" and possibly associations emerge from the mass behavior of the members of a class is linked to general cultural conditions, especially to those of an intellectual sort. It is also likened to the extent of the contrasts that have already evolved". "Class-conscious action is most likely if, first, [Weber says] 'the connection between the causes and consequences of the "class situation"' are transparent, or clear. If individuals can plainly see that there is a connection between the structure of the economic system and what happens to them in terms of life chances, class action is more likely". The greater the numbers within these class positions, will increase the chance that they will rise up in action.

Mobility
"It is noncontroversial that the class situation in which each individual finds himself represents a limitation on his scope, tends to keep him within the class. It acts as an obstacle to any rise into a higher class, and as a pair of water wings with respect to the classes below...Class type, relations with class fellows, power over outward resources adapted to the class situation, and so on". In capitalist society movement between classes is a possibility. Hence the use of the term "The American Dream" to show the ability of people to ascend to a higher class through hard work and ingenuity. "Class composition is forever changing, to the point where there may be a completely new set of families".

Weber saw four classes: the propertied class, the non-propertied class, the petit bourgeoisie and the manual labourer class.