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Jeanne Guyon

Jeanne-Marie Bouvier de La Motte Guyon (commonly known as Madame Guyon, ; 13 April 1648 – 9 June 1717) was a French Christian accused of advocating Quietism, which was considered heretical by the Roman Catholic Church. Madame Guyon was imprisoned from 1695 to 1703 after publishing the book A Short and Very Easy Method of Prayer.

Personal life
Guyon was the daughter of Claude Bouvier, a procurator of the tribunal of Montargis, 110 kilometers south of Paris and 70 kilometers east of Orléans. She was sickly in her childhood, and her education was neglected. Her childhood was spent between the convent, and the home of her affluent parents, moving nine times in ten years. Guyon's parents were very religious, thus they gave her an especially pious upbringing. Other important impressions from her youth came from reading the works of St. Francis de Sales, and being educated by nuns. Prior to her marriage, she had wanted to become a nun, but this desire did not last long.

In 1664, when she was 15 years old, after turning down many other marriage proposals, she was forced into an arranged marriage to a wealthy gentleman of Montargis, Jacques Guyon, aged thirty eight. During their marriage, Guyon suffered at the hands of her mother-in-law and maidservant. Adding to her misery were the deaths of her half-sister, followed by her mother, and her son. Her daughter and father then died within days of each other in July 1672. She bore another son and daughter shortly before her husband's death in 1676. After twelve years of being unhappily married and after the birth of five children, of whom three survived, Madame Guyon became a widow at the age of 28.

Date of birth
There is controversy surrounding the date of birth of Madame Guyon, but 18 April 1648 given in the (highly condensed) English translation of Madame Guyon's autobiography, published by Moody Press, appears to be a typographical error—all French editions of the autobiography from the earliest one on, published in 1720, state 13 April 1648 as her birthday. Her date of birth, however, nonetheless remains unclear since Madame Guyon writes ''Je naquis, à ce que disent quelques uns, la veille de Pâques, le 13. d'Avril [...] de l'année 1648'' ("I was born, as some say, on the Eve of Easter [...], the 13th of April of the year 1648"). The 13th of April 1648 was, however, the Monday after Easter of that year, and Holy Saturday did not fall on 13 April in the years around 1648 either.

Given that births in France were recorded only in the parish registers (registres paroissiaux) until 1792, it is possible that Madame Guyon was born on 11 April 1648 (Holy Saturday), but that her birth was not recorded in the parish register until 13 April (the Monday after Easter, which was established as a holiday only under Napoleon), and that the date of the entry (13 April 1648) was then handed down. It is, of course, also possible that those making the claims were mistaken, or that there were other reasons for naming the Eve of Easter as her birthday.

Career
Already during her marriage, Guyon retained belief in God's perfect plan, fiercely believing that she would be blessed in suffering. This became true especially after being introduced to mysticism by Fr. François Lacombe, the superior of the Barnabite house in Thonon in Savoy. After her husband's death, Madame Guyon initially lived quietly as a wealthy widow in Montargis, before re-establishing contact with François Lacombe in 1679.

After three mystical experiences, Madame Guyon felt drawn to Geneva. The Bishop of Geneva, Jean d’Arenthon d’Alex, persuaded her to use her money to set up a house for "new Catholics" in Gex, in Savoy, as part of broader plans to convert Protestants in the region. In July 1680, Madame Guyon left Montargis with her young daughter and travelled to Gex.

The project was problematic, however, and Guyon clashed with the sisters who were in charge of the house. The Bishop of Geneva sent Father Lacombe to intervene. At this point, Guyon introduced Lacombe to a mysticism of interiority. While her daughter was in an Ursuline convent in Thonon as a pensioner, Madame Guyon continued in Gex, experiencing illness and great difficulties, including opposition from her family. She gave over guardianship of her two sons to her mother-in-law and took leave of her personal possessions, although keeping a sizeable annuity for herself.

Because of Guyon's ideas on mysticism, the Bishop of Geneva, who had at first viewed her coming with pleasure, asked her to leave his diocese, and at the same time he expelled Father Lacombe, who then went to Vercelli.

Madame Guyon followed her director to Turin, then returned to France and stayed at Grenoble, where she spread her religious convictions more widely with the publication of "Moyen court et facile de faire oraison" in January 1685. The Bishop of Grenoble, Cardinal Le Camus, was perturbed by the appeal her ideas aroused and she left the city at his request, rejoining Lacombe at Vercelli. In July of the following year, the pair returned to Paris, where Madame Guyon set about to gain adherents for her mystical vision. The timing was ill-chosen; Louis XIV, who had recently been exerting himself to have the Quietism of Molinos condemned at Rome, was by no means pleased to it see gaining ground, even in his own capital, a form of mysticism which, to him, resembled that of Molinos in many of its aspects. By his order Lacombe was imprisoned in the Bastille, and afterwards in the castles of Oloron and of Lourdes. The arrest of Madame Guyon, delayed by illness, followed on 29 January 1688, brought about, she claimed, by Father de La Motte, her brother and a Barnabite.

She was not released until seven months later, after she had placed in the hands of the theologians, who had examined her book, a retraction of the propositions which it contained. Some days later she met, at Beyne, in the Duchess de Béthune-Charrost's country house, her cousin, François Fénelon, who was to be the most famous of her supporters. Fénelon was deeply impressed by her piety.

Through Fenelon, the influence of Madame Guyon reached and influenced religious circles powerful at court—the Beauvilliers, the Chevreuses, and the Montemarts—who followed his spiritual guidance. Madame de Maintenon and, through her, the young ladies of Saint-Cyr, were soon won over to the new mysticism. This was at the height of Madame Guyon's influence, most of all when Fénelon was appointed on 18 August 1688 to be the tutor to the Duke of Burgundy, the king's grandson. Before long, however, Paul Godet des Marais, Bishop of Chartres, in whose diocese Saint-Cyr was located, took alarm at the spiritual ideas which were spreading there. Warned by him, Madame de Maintenon sought the advice of persons whose piety and wisdom she valued, and these advisers were unanimous in their rejection of Madame Guyon's ideas. Madame Guyon then asked for an examination of her conduct and her writings by civil and ecclesiastical judges. The king consented that her writings should be submitted to the judgment of Bossuet, Louis-Antoine, Cardinal de Noailles, and of Tronson, superior of the Society of Saint-Sulpice.

After a number of secret conferences held at Issy, where Tronson was detained by a sickness, the commissioners presented in thirty-four articles the principles of Catholic teaching as to spirituality and the interior life (four of these articles were suggested by Fénelon, who in February had been nominated to the Archbishopric of Cambrai). But on 10 October 1694 François de Harlay de Champvallon, the Archbishop of Paris, who had been excluded from the conferences at Issy, anticipated their results by condemning the published works of Madame Guyon. She, fearing another arrest, took refuge for some months at Meaux, with the permission of Bossuet who was the presiding bishop there. After placing in his hands her signed submission to the thirty-four articles of Issy, she returned secretly to Paris. At Paris, the police, however, arrested her on 24 December 1695 and imprisoned her, first at Vincennes, then in a convent at Vaugirard, and then in the Bastille, where on 23 August 1699 she again signed a retraction of her theories and promised to refrain from spreading them further. From that time on she took no part, personally, in public discussions, but the controversy about her ideas only grew all the more heated between Bossuet and Fénelon.

Madame Guyon remained imprisoned in the Bastille until 21 March 1703, when after more than seven years of her final captivity, she went to live with her son in a village in the Diocese of Blois. There she passed some fifteen years surrounded by a stream of pilgrims, many from England and Scotland, and spending her time writing volumes of correspondence and poetry. She continued to be revered by the Beauvilliers, the Chevreuses, and Fénelon, who communicated with her when safe and discreet intermediaries were available. Among the pilgrims, Milord Chewinkle stayed in Blois with Guyon for 7 years. One visitor, Pierre Poiret, went on to publish many of Guyon's works.

One of her greatest works, published in 1717 by Pierre Poiret—Ame Amante de son Dieu, representée dans les emblems de Hermannus Hugo sur ses pieux desirs—features her poetry written in response to the striking and popular emblem images of the Jesuit Herman Hugo and the Flemish master Otto von Veen. Guyon herself states that she took these emblems into the Bastille.

Beliefs about prayer
Guyon believed that one should pray at all times and devote all of one's time to God. "Prayer is the key of perfection and of sovereign happiness; it is the efficacious means of getting rid of all vices and of acquiring all virtues; for the way to become perfect is to live in the presence of God. He tells us this Himself: 'walk before Me and be blameless' . Prayer alone can bring you into His presence, and keep you there continually." As she wrote in one of her poems: "There was a period when I chose a time and place for prayer. ... But now I seek that constant prayer, in inward stillness known ..."

Grace vs. works
In the Christian dispute regarding grace and works, Guyon defended the belief that salvation is the result of grace rather than works. Like St. Augustine, St. Thomas Aquinas, Calvin, and Martin Luther, she thought that a person's deliverance can only come from God as an outside source, never from within the person himself or herself. As a result of His own free will, God bestows his favour as a gift. In her autobiography, for example, Madame Guyon criticized self–righteous people who try to gain heaven through their works. She praised lowly sinners who merely submitted themselves to God's will. Of the so-called righteous, she wrote: "the righteous person, supported by the great number of works of righteousness he presumes to have done, seems to hold his salvation in his own hands, and regards heaven as the recompense due to his merits.... His Saviour is, for him, almost useless. "These 'righteous persons' expect God to save them as a reward for their good works." In contrast to the self-sufficient, "righteous" egoists, the sinners who have selflessly submitted to God "are carried swiftly by the wings of love and confidence into the arms of their Saviour, who gives them gratuitously what He has infinitely merited for them." God's "bounties are effects of His will, and not the fruits of our merits."

Death and legacy
In 1704, her works were published in the Netherlands, becoming popular. Englishmen and Germans visited her at Blois, among them Johann Wettstein and Lord Forbes. She spent the remainder of her life in retirement with her daughter, the Marquise de Blois, at Blois, where she died at the age of 69, believing that she had died submissive to the Catholic Church, from which she had never had any intention of separating herself.

Her published works, the Moyen Court and the Règles des associées à l'Enfance de Jésus, were both placed on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum in 1688. Fénelon's Maximes des saints was also condemned by both the Pope and the bishops of France.

An anonymous 18th-century manuscript, hand-written in French, entitled "Supplement to the life of Madame Guyon" exists in the Bodleian Library at Oxford University, which sets forth many fresh details about the Great Conflict which surrounded Madame Guyon.

Works

 * Vie de Madame Guyon, Ecrite Par Elle-Même (Life of Madame Guyon, Written by Herself)
 * 3 vols, Paris, 1791
 * The Autobiography of Madame Guyon, tr Thomas Taylor Allen, (London, 1897)
 * (date and translator uncertain; additional ISBNs for Moody translation: ISBN 0802451357, ISBN 9780802451354)
 * La Vie de Madame Guyon écrite par elle-même, ed Benjamin Sahler, (Paris: Dervy-Livres, 1983).

 * Opuscules spirituels (Spiritual Opuscules),
 * 2 vols, Paris, 1790

 * Les Torrents Spirituels (Spiritual Torrents), (1682)
 * Les Torrents et Commentaire au Cantique des cantiques de Salomon, ed Claude Morali, (Grenoble: J Millon, 1992)

 * Le Moyen Court Et Autres Écrits Spirituels (The Short and Easy Method of Prayer), (1685)
 * Commentaire au Cantique des cantiques de Salomon (A Commentary on the Song of Solomon), (1688)
 * The Song of Songs of Solomon with Explanations and Reflections Having Reference to the Interior Life by Madame Guyon, trans James W Metcalf, (New York: AW Dennett, 1879).
 * Les Torrents et Commentaire au Cantique des cantiques de Salomon, ed Claude Morali, (Grenoble: J Millon, 1992)

 * Commentaire sur Livre de Job (1714)
 * Règles des assocées à l'Enfance de Jésu
 * Guyon, Jeanne "Ame Amante de son Dieu, representée dans les emblems de Hermannus Hugo sur ses pieux desirs" (Pierre Poiret, Cologne, 1717)

Other modern editions
 * Madame Guyon, Selected Poems of Madame Guyon. ed. Li Jili, Foreword by Kelli M. Webert, TiLu Press, 2012; (ebook version).
 * Selections from the Autobiography of Madame Guyon, (New Canaan, CT: Keats Publishing, Inc.), ISBN 0-87983-234-7
 * Le Moyen court et autres écrits spirituals, ed Marie-Louis Gondal, (Grenoble: J Millon, 1995)
 * La Passion de croire, ed Marie-Louis Gondal, (Paris: Nouvelle Cité, 1990) [an anthology of excerpts from the writings of Madame Guyon]

Biographical publications in English

 * Nancy C. James, "Jeanne Guyon's Mystical Perfection through Eucharistic Suffering", Pickwick Publications (September 22, 2020) ISBN 978-1532684227
 * Nancy C. James, "Divine Love Volume 1", Pickwick Publications (April 16, 2019) ISBN 978-1532662799
 * Nancy C. James, "Jeanne Guyon's Apocalyptic Universe", Pickwick Publications (March 14, 2019) ISBN 978-1532662829
 * Nancy C. James, "Jeanne Guyon's Interior Faith", Pickwick Publications (February 4, 2019) ISBN 978-1532658693
 * Nancy C. James, "Jeanne Guyon's Christian World View", Pickwick Publications (November 1, 2017) ISBN 978-1532605000
 * Nancy C. James, "The Way of the Child Jesus", (Madame Guyon Foundation, 2015) ISBN 978-0986197109
 * Nancy C. James, "I, Jeanne Guyon", (Seed Sowers, 2014) ISBN 978-0-9778033-9-2
 * Nancy C. James, The Complete Madame Guyon (Paraclete Giants) – (Paraclete Press, 2011) ISBN 978-1-55725-923-3
 * Coslet, Dorothy Madame Jeanne Guyon: Child of Another World, (Christian Literature Crusade, 1984), ISBN 0-87508-144-4
 * Thomas Cogswell Upham, Life, religious opinions and experience of Madame Guyon (New York, 1854)
 * Patricia A Ward, 'Madame Guyon (1648-1717), in Carter Lindberg, ed, The Pietist Theologians, (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
 * Phyllis Thompson, "Madame Guyon: Martyr of the Holy Spirit", Hodder Christian Paperbacks, 1986 London, ISBN 0340 40175 3.
 * Patricia A Ward, Experimental theology in America: Madame Guyon, Fénelon, and their readers, (Waco, TX: Baylor University Press, 2009).
 * Jan Johnson, Madame Guyon: Her Autobiography (condensed & modernized) (Jacksonville, FL: Seedsowers, 1998). ISBN 978-0979751523

Biographical publications in French

 * Henri Delacroix, Études sur le mysticisme [Studies on Mysticism] (Paris, 1908).
 * Louis Guerrier, Madame Guyon, sa vie, sa doctrine, et son influence, (Paris dissertation, 1881), reviewed by Brunetière, Nouvelles Études critiques [New Critical Studies], vol. ii.
 * Françoise Mallet-Joris, Jeanne Guyon. (Paris: Flammarion, 1978). ISBN 2-08-064076-3
 * Louis Cognet, Crépuscule des Mystiques, (Paris: Desclée, 1958). [la plus grande partie de cet ouvrage devenu classique porte sur le vécu de Madame Guyon avant 1695].
 * Françoise Mallet-Joris, Jeanne Guyon, (Flammarion, 1978). [vivante évocation de la vie à la Cour, etc.]
 * Pierre-Maurice Masson, Fénelon et Mme Guyon, documents nouveaux et inédits, (Paris: Hachette, 1907).
 * Jean Orcibal, Le Cardinal Le Camus témoin au procès de Madame Guyon (1974) pp. 799–818 ; Madame Guyon devant ses juges (1975) pp. 819–834; 'Introduction à Jeanne Marie Bouvier de la Mothe-Guyon: les Opuscules spirituels' (1978) pp. 899–910, in Études d’histoire et de littérature religieuse, (Paris: Klincksieck, 1997).
 * Madame Guyon, Rencontres autour de la Vie et l’œuvre de Madame Guyon, (Grenoble: Millon, 1997). [contributions des meilleurs spécialistes]
 * Marie-Louise Gondal, Madame Guyon, 1648-1717, un nouveau visage, (Paris: Beauchesne, 1989). [reprend [L']Acte mystique, Témoignage spirituel de Madame Guyon (1648-1717), Thèse de doctorat en théologie : Facultés catholiques de Lyon : 1985].
 * Les années d'épreuves de Madame Guyon, Emprisonnements et interrogatoires sous le Roi Très Chrétien, (Paris: Honoré Champion, 2009). [Documents biographiques rassemblés et présentés chronologiquement par Dominique Tronc, Etude par Arlette Lebigre].
 * Dominique Tronc http://www.cheminsmystiques.fr/ENGLISH/guyon.html#_ftnref35

title: Jeanne Guyon


text:
Talk:Your Sinclair

Congratulations
Excellent article! - Mmartins 21:09, 24 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Thanks... it was the first thing I did on wikipedia, before I even registered a username. --Stevefarrell 14:41, 27 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Thanks very much Steve :) Hope someone keeps archives of issue scans and stuff - I know I will -- 203.133.255.34 00:55, 29 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Issue scans can be found at World of Spectrum. At least they used to be. --Stevefarrell 22:02, 20 June 2006 (UTC)

 * You can put in a request to have it assigned to your username here, though it'll prolly take a few weeks for them to process it - Mmartins 05:17, 28 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Just want to second my praise for this; I've never seen an article start as full and thorough as this one. Absolutely brilliant. Could we get away with finding a picture (front cover, say; or even the back cover of the last one ["Our work here is done"]) for it? Kinitawowi 14:44, Aug 25, 2004 (UTC)

Good article this. Surprised I got mentioned by name as I never appreciated how many late nights I spent reverse engineering Z80 assembler or typing up solutions. Ironically I haven't played a new game in well over ten years - turns out I was always more interested in code. Ritchie333 (talk) 15:05, 7 April 2008 (UTC)

Revamp
As the article's original author (as stated above) this time last year, in fact, I'm planning on doing a revamp of the whole article, expanding on 'legendary' writers, articles and other stuff, possibly including a 'where are they now?' section.

Basically because this article is looking rather thin in comparison to the one about AP, which expands on many key features and writers.

I'm wary of using any copyio stuff, but I'll certainly be using the likes of the YS Rock 'n' Roll Years as sources. I'm not saying I'll be able to get it up to the standard required for a feature article (not many people outside the UK will even have heard of YS, anyway) although that would be nice, just an improvement on what's already here.

Stay tuned. Or not. Whatever springs your lock.

Use this talk page for suggestions, if any.

--Stevefarrell 02:33, 19 July 2005 (UTC)

Wackymacs
The parts you removed from the article did not need to be removed. Especially the bit about issue 94. However, your username amuses me, so I'll let it go.

--Stevefarrell 13:01, 15 October 2005 (UTC)

 * The general tone of the article isn't very sufficient for an encyclopedia, thanks for the comment of my username ;), the article actually needs quite a cleanup. It has some issues with the wikification and tone. If you can make the information I removed sound better then rewrite it and add it back. — Wackymacs 13:17, 15 October 2005 (UTC)

Some suggested corrections
I'd like to suggest some corrections and updates to this article, as I was there (Pete Shaw, Deputy Editor of Your Spectrum/Your Sinclair and more often called Troubleshootin' Pete within the pages of YS).

End of the second paragraph. The language of YS was not culled from Monty Python or Viz (actually, I think Viz may have culled from YS, as an early edition was bundled with YS and that caused an outcry from parents who 'didn't expect to get that filt with little Tommy's computer magazine'). The language really was the invention of the first editor, Roger Munford, who stamped the personality on the publication which effectively lasted throughout its existance.

End of the 4th paragraph. The Flannel Panel was the internal name for the publishing info boilerplate (ie, the bit that told you who the editor was, who contributed, the address, etc). Don't think this was an exclusive YS term, as it was commonly used on all titles at Dennis Publishing.

Pete

 * Done and done. This article was my baby, so it pleases me no end to find an actual bona fide YS writer has read it (and is pointing out factual inaccuracies).

 * I was supposed to grow up to write for YS, but that boat seems to have sailed now, what with it not being published any more and me not having an English degree --Stevefarrell 20:23, 15 March 2006 (UTC)

A crazy idea
Is anyone up for trying to get this to 'featured article' type quality? I know it's unlikely that a British magazine that's been dead for thirteen years would ever actually get featured on the front page, but I feel like this article has potential to be "good", in Wikipedia terms. --Stevefarrell 01:56, 18 May 2006 (UTC)

Where are they now?
Marcus Berkmann crops up all over the place, he's written a few books and I think I saw him on University Challenge a few months back. --84.64.76.94 08:28, 18 June 2006 (UTC)

YS italics
If YS2 and YS3 get italics, shouldn't YS itself also be in italics? --Oscarthecat 20:14, 31 August 2006 (UTC)

 * Maybe not every instance (since it's used several times throughout), but certainly at the beginning of the article. --Stevefarrell 20:20, 31 August 2006 (UTC)

ISSN
I've removed the ISSN needed tag since I retrieved it from portal.issn.org. Unfortunately, WorldCat does not seem to know about this ISSN ... --Keesiewonder talk 23:25, 8 March 2007 (UTC)

Cleanup
While I must admit the article is excellently written, especially the 'Content' section, I still believe there is room for expanding some areas. I'm a firm believer of placing the contents box right after the initial introduction, then starting the first section 'History', then 'Content' etc. Paragraphs 2, 3, 4 & 6 could be placed under a 'History' section and expanded, while paragraph 5 could be moved into the 'Content' section. -- Nreive 10:06, 4 October 2007 (UTC)

Other subjects
Also other subjects might need mentioning...
 * covertapes?

 * I'm sure I made mention of the covertape in the body of the text. I don't think there needs to be anything expanded on beyond "YS had a covertape. Sometimes there were games on it". I think that's what you mean, anyway; and I'm pretty sure that's already there. I don't think there should be a big list of what was on every covertape. Although, sadly, I do remember most of them. --Steve Farrell (talk) 20:27, 20 December 2007 (UTC)

 * circulation figures -- Nreive 10:06, 4 October 2007 (UTC)

 * Ehh. We could make some comment as to how the circulation dropped rapidly between 1990 and 1993, which was a major factor (aside from the commercial death of the Spectrum) in the closing of the magazine, but again I don't think a list of circulation figures for every year the magazine was published is necessary. --Steve Farrell (talk) 20:27, 20 December 2007 (UTC)

Where Are They Now?
This section is liable to constant change as ex-staff can move around a lot, and indeed parts are out of date. e.g. Dave Golder is back at SFX as special projects editor. Perhaps this section could be renamed to 'Editorial Staff' or something similar, detailing what they did on YS and where they went, not necessarly 'where they are now'. -- Nreive 10:06, 4 October 2007 (UTC)

 * I do agree, but I've been too lazy of late to change it (my contributions have mostly involved reverting unnecessary additions to a list on the Keyboardist article for the past few months). It should also probably be restricted to more important staff members, such as editors and those who clocked up a number of reviews and articles and have a big reputation with readers (e.g. Marcus Berkmann) --Steve Farrell (talk) 20:25, 20 December 2007 (UTC)

Your Sinclair special edition magazine
Can anyone explain this 2004 publication referenced in the Official Top 100 section? I can find no evidence of it. Was it a retro gamer special? Marasmusine (talk) 17:38, 2 January 2011 (UTC)
 * Never mind, found it here - it was a Retro Gamer thing after all. This says the "50 Best Spectrum Games" by Dan Whitehead was unpublished, so should we really be citing it? Marasmusine (talk) 17:37, 6 January 2011 (UTC)

Megagame logo
Should somebody upload the Megagame logo? We could use it in multiple places http://www.worldofspectrum.org/showmag.cgi?mag=YourSinclair/Issue50/Pages/YourSinclair5000014.jpg — Preceding unsigned comment added by 86.175.37.100 (talk) 21:15, 22 January 2012 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Your Sinclair


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User:IbPedersen

I am living in south of Denmark.

title: User:IbPedersen


text:
Olivetti

Olivetti S.p.A. is an Italian manufacturer of computers, tablets, smartphones, printers and other such business products as calculators and fax machines.

Headquartered in Ivrea, in the Metropolitan City of Turin, the company has been part of the Telecom Italia Group since 2003.

The company is known for its product design, ranging from its first commercial programmable desktop calculators, the Programma 101, introduced in 1964 — to the Olivetti Valentine typewriter of 1969, which won the Compasso d'Oro  from Italy's Association of Industrial Design (ADI) in 1970. Olivetti has won 16 of the Compasso d'Oro over its history.

Founding

The company was founded as a typewriter manufacturer by Camillo Olivetti in 1908 in the Turin commune of Ivrea, Italy. The firm was mainly developed by his son Adriano Olivetti.

Olivetti opened its first overseas manufacturing plant in 1930, and its Divisumma electric calculator was launched in 1948. Olivetti produced Italy's first electronic computer, the transistorised Elea 9003, in 1959, and purchased the Underwood Typewriter Company that year. In 1964 the company sold its electronics division to the American company General Electric. In order to qualify for new loans, bankers made it a condition that the company's electronic division be sold to General Electric. It continued to develop new computing products on its own; one of these was Programma 101, one of the first commercially produced programmable calculators. In the 1970s and 1980s, they were the biggest manufacturer for office machines in Europe and 2nd biggest PC vendor behind IBM in Europe. Olivetti also inspired Thomas J. Watson Jr. to change IBM's approach to industrial design beginning in the 1950s.

In 1980, Olivetti began distributing in Indonesia through Dragon Computer & Communication.

In 1981, Olivetti installed the electronic voting systems for the European Parliament in Strasburg and Luxembourg.

In 1986, the company acquired Triumph-Adler, a major office equipment manufacturer based in Germany that also produced typewriters, from Litton Industries of the United States. With this acquisition, Olivetti grabbed 50 percent of the European typewriter market.

In September 1994, the company launched Olivetti Telemedia chaired by Elserino Piol.

Since 2003, Olivetti has been part of the Telecom Italia Group through a merger.

Design
"[A] preoccupation with design developed into a comprehensive corporate philosophy, which embraced everything from the shape of a space bar to the color scheme for an advertising poster."

Olivetti became famous for the meticulous attention it paid to the design of its products, through collaborations with notable architects and designers, over a nearly 60-year period starting in the late 1930s. An early example is the portable 1932 Olivetti MP1 (Modello Portatile in Italian).

From the 1940s to the 1960s, Olivetti industrial design was led by Marcello Nizzoli, who was responsible for the Lexicon 80 and the portable Lettera 22 typewriters, which were released in 1948 and 1950 respectively. The architect and designer Ettore Sottsass began consulting for Olivetti in the late 1950s and designed a series of products including the Tekne 3 typewriter in 1958, the Elea 9003 computer in 1959, and later, the Praxis 48 typewriter in 1964 and the Valentine portable typewriter in 1969.

In 1954, Mario Tchou joined Olivetti and was in put in charge of a team responsible for creating a commercial computer. In 1957, the team created the Elea 9001. Tchou went on to lead a team of 500 engineers, and decided to include transistors in the Elea 9003.

Mario Bellini joined Sottsass at Olivetti in 1963. He designed the Programma 101 (1965), the Divisumma 18 (1973), and the Logos 68 (1973) calculators, and in 1966 the TCV-250 video display terminal. Mario Bellini and Ettore Sottsass, who by then directed design for Olivetti, hired designers such as George Sowden and James Irvine. Sowden worked for Olivetti from 1970 until 1990 and designed the company's first desktop computer, the Olivetti L1, in 1978 (following ergonomic research lasting two years). In 1991, Sowden's design for the Olivetti fax OFX420 won the ADI Compasso d'Oro Award. In 1999 Michele De Lucchi designed the Art Jet 10 inkjet printer, which was also awarded the Compasso d'Oro, and in 2001, the Gioconda calculator.

In 1952, the Museum of Modern Art in New York (MoMA) held an exhibit titled "Olivetti: Design in Industry" Another exhibit was mounted by the Musée des Arts Décoratifs in Paris in 1969 and later toured five other cities. Many Olivetti products and archival material related to design are held in museum collections including the MoMA design collection, the Cooper Hewitt in New York, and the Centre Pompidou in Paris. Between 1954 and 2001, Olivetti won 16 Compasso d'Oro awards for design. In May 2022, ADI Design Museum in Milan paid tribute to this achievement with an exhibition titled Podium 16.

Olivetti paid attention to more than product design. Graphic design and architectural design was also considered pivotal to the company, which engaged architects and designers such as Gae Aulenti, Walter Ballmer (graphic designer), BBPR, Egon Eiermann, Figini e Pollini, Ignazio Gardella, Louis Kahn, Le Corbusier, Carlo Scarpa, Giovanni Pintori, Bob Noorda, and Lella and Massimo Vignelli to design factories, office buildings, showrooms, and publicity materials.

Giovanni Pintori was hired by Adriano Olivetti in 1936 to work in the publicity department. Pintori was the creator of the Olivetti logo and many promotional posters used to advertise the company and its products. During his activity as Art Director from 1950, Olivetti's graphic design obtained several international awards, and he designed works that created the Olivetti image and became emblematic Italian reference in the history of 20th-century design.

Those designers also created the Olivetti Synthesis office furniture series which mainly were used to be installed in the firm's own headquarters, worldwide branch offices and showrooms. Olivetti also produced some industrial production machinery, including metalworking machines of the Horizon series.

Typewriters
Olivetti began with mechanical typewriters when the company was founded in 1909, and produced them until the mid-1990s. Until the mid-1960s, they were fully mechanical, and models such as the portable Olivetti Valentine were designed by Ettore Sottsass.

With the Tekne/Editor series and Praxis 48, some of the first electromechanical typewriters were introduced. The Editor series was used for speed typing championship competition. The Editor 5 from 1969 was the top model of that series, with proportional spacing and the ability to support justified text borders. In 1972 the electromechanical typeball machines of the Lexicon 90 to 94C series were introduced, as competitors to the IBM Selectric typewriters, the top model 94c supported proportional spacing and justified text borders like the Editor 5, as well as lift-off correction.

In 1978 Olivetti was one of the first manufacturers to introduce electronic daisywheel printer-based word processing machines, called TES 401 and TES 501. Later the ET series typewriters without (or with) LCD and different levels of text editing capabilities were popular in offices. Models in that line were ET 121, ET 201, ET 221, ET 225, ET 231, ET 351, ET 109, ET 110, ET 111, ET 112, ET 115, ET 116, ET 2000, ET 2100, ET 2200, ET 2250, ET 2300, Et 2400 and ET 2500. For home users in 1982 the Praxis 35, Praxis 40 and 45D were some of the first portable electronic typewriters. Later, Olivetti added the Praxis 20, ET Compact 50, ET Compact 60, ET Compact 70, ET Compact 65/66, the ET Personal series and Linea 101. The top models were 8 lines LCD based portables like Top 100 and Studio 801, with the possibility to save the text to a 3.5-inch floppy disk.

The professional line was upgraded with the ETV series video typewriters based on CP/M operating system, ETV 240, ETV 250, ETV 300, ETV 350 and later MS-DOS operating system based ETV 260, ETV 500, ETV 2700, ETV 2900, ETV 4000s word processing systems having floppy drives or hard disks. Some of them (ETV 300, 350, 500, 2900) were external boxes that could be connected through an optional serial interface to many of the ET series office typewriters, the others were fully integrated with an external monitor which could be installed on a holder over the desk. Most of the ET/ETV/Praxis series electronic typewriters were designed by Marion Bellini.

By the 1970s and 1980s, the typewriter market had matured under the market dominance of large companies from Europe and the United States. Before the advent of dailywheel and electronic machines (and subsequently the personal computers and word processing software) — Olivetti and the other major manufacturers faced strong competition from typewriters from Asia, including Brother Industries and Silver Seiko Ltd. of Japan.

By 1994, Olivetti stopped production of typewriters, as most users had transitioned to personal computers.

Computers
Between 1955 and 1964 Olivetti developed some of the first transistorized mainframe computer systems, such as the Elea 9003. Although 40 large commercial 9003 and over 100 smaller 6001 scientific machines were completed and leased to customers to 1964, low sales, loss of two key managers and financial instability caused Olivetti to withdraw from the field in 1964.

In 1965 Olivetti released the Programma 101, considered one of the first commercial desktop programmable calculators. It was saved from the sale of the computer division to GE thanks to an employee, Gastone Garziera, who spent successive nights changing the internal categorization of the product from "computer" to "calculator", so leaving the small team in Olivetti and creating some awkward situations in the office, since that space was now owned by GE. In 1974 the firm released the TC800, an intelligent terminal designed to be attached to a mainframe and used in the finance sector. It was followed in 1977 by the TC1800.

During the 1970s Olivetti also manufactured and sold two ranges of minicomputers. The 'A' series started with the typewriter-sized A4 through to the large A8, and the desk-sized DE500 and DE700 series.

Olivetti's first modern personal computer, the M20, featuring a Zilog Z8000 CPU, was released in 1982. The M20 was followed in 1983 by the M24, a clone of the IBM PC using DOS and the Intel 8086 processor (at 8 MHz) instead of the Intel 8088 used by IBM (at 4.77 MHz). The M24 was sold in North America as the AT&T 6300. Olivetti also manufactured the AT&T 6300 Plus, which could run both DOS and Unix. The M24 in the US also was sold as Xerox 6060. The Olivetti M28 was the firm's first PC to have the Intel 80286 processor. The same year Olivetti produced its M10 laptop computer, a 8085-based workalike of the successful Radio Shack TRS-80 Model 100, which it marketed in Europe. These were the first laptops to sell in million-unit quantities, though the Olivetti M10 itself only attained sales figures in the tens of thousands and went out of production within two years.

During the 1980s and 1990s Olivetti continued to release PC compatible machines, facing mounting competition from other brands. It turned to laptops, introducing in 1991 the D33, a laptop in a carry case, and continuing with the M111, M211, S20, D33, Philos and Echos series. A very interesting subnotebook was the Quaderno, about the same size as an A5 paper – it was the grandfather of the netbooks introduced 20 years later.

Olivetti did attempt to recover its position by introducing the Envision in 1995, a full multimedia PC, to be used in the living room; this project was a failure. Gateway also introduced a similar product in the U.S., called the Destination 2000, around the same period, to a similarly mixed commercial reception.

The company continued to develop personal computers until it sold its PC business in 1997.

End of Olivetti as a separate company
In the 1990s, Olivetti's computer businesses were in great difficulty, reportedly because of the competition from US vendors and new cheap manufacturers for PC components in Taiwan like ASUS, MSI, Gigabyte and so on from which local system builders profited much to offer cheaper PCs than Olivetti did with their own designs. It was on the brink of collapse and had needed government support to stay afloat.

In 1992, Digital Equipment Corporation announced its intention to invest in Olivetti, approximating to a 10% stake valued at around $300 million, amidst a wave of investment in European companies by their US counterparts. Digital were already reselling Olivetti personal computer models in Europe, and the investment presented an opportunity for the adoption of Digital's Alpha processor in Olivetti's workstation products. The investment programme was to be conducted in two steps over an 18 month period, augmented by additional share purchases. The partnership between the companies, regarded as a way of supporting Olivetti whilst cementing a development relationship around Digital's Alpha platform, developed in the following two years, although the balance of revenue from selling products to each other was reported as being strongly in Olivetti's favour, it having generated 125.3 billion lire from Digital in 1993, but with Digital only selling products worth 9.9 billion lire to Olivetti. Digital remained a significant purchaser of laser printers and laptops from Olivetti, but had begun to manufacture its own personal computers and planned to produce its own laptop products. Meanwhile, Olivetti had been slow to introduce Alpha-based products, eventually shipping models based on Digital's own products. With Digital's finances under pressure, posting quarterly losses and incurring costs around redundancies, the company sold its stake – noted as amounting to 7.8% – for $150 million.

A company in transition, it had moved out of the typewriter business into personal computers before embracing telecoms between 1997 and 1999, spinning off its personal computer business in 1997 and divesting its computer services business in 1998. In the process it had lost around three-quarters of its staff.

In 1999, The Luxembourg-based company Bell S.A. acquired a controlling stake in Olivetti, but sold it to a consortium including the Pirelli and Benetton groups two years later. Olivetti then launched a hostile bid for Telecom Italia in February 1999, despite being less than a seventh of the size of its target. In a take-over battle against Deutsche Telekom and other potential bidders that initially seem to have been settled in Deutsche Telecom's favour, with an $82 billion merger reportedly agreed in April 1999, Olivetti won out and controlled 52.12% of former monopoly Telecom Italia, Italy's #1 fixed-line and mobile phone operator. However, the ownership structure of the merged Olivetti / Telecom Italia was complex and multi-layered with Olivetti took on around $16 billion of extra debt. It was then referred to as the "Olivetti/Telecom Italia affair" because of the unpleasant secret affairs behind.

After a 2003 reorganization, Olivetti became the office equipment and systems services subsidiary of Telecom Italia. In 2003 Olivetti was absorbed into the Telecom Italia group, maintaining a separate identity as Olivetti Tecnost.

Rebirth and resumption of computer production
In 2005, Telecom Italia relaunched the company in the information technology sector, investing €200 million, at first restoring the original Olivetti brand, then replacing it with Olivetti Tecnost in 2003. In 2007, Olivetti launched the "LINEA_OFFICE", designed by Jasper Morrison for Olivetti; a new line of PCs, notebooks, printers, fax machines and calculators. Olivetti today operates in Italy and Switzerland, and has sales associates in 83 countries. Research and development are located in Agliè, Carsoli and Scarmagno in Italy, and Yverdon, Switzerland.

In March 2011 Olivetti began producing the OliPad, its first tablet computer, featuring a ten-inch screen, 3G, WiFi, Bluetooth connectivity, Nvidia Tegra 2, Android 2.2.2 and a 1024 x 600 display. It also features an application store, with apps specifically designed by Olivetti for 'business & government'. In 2014 the R&D department in Arnad was sold to SICPA.

Smartphones
In 2013, Olivetti launched a series of smartphones called Oliphone:
 * Olivetti Oliphone M8140
 * Olivetti Oliphone Q8145
 * Olivetti Oliphone Q8150
 * Olivetti Oliphone Q9047
 * Olivetti Oliphone WG451
 * Olivetti Oliphone WG501

title: Olivetti


text:
Talk:Josep Borrell

Untitled
I think that he is in the PSC (federated with PSOE) Llull 21:10, 24 Jul 2004 (UTC)

What I just removed comes from. Even if it isn't a copyvio I don't think we should have it here, --SqueakBox 22:41, May 4, 2005 (UTC)

Name
I have changed his first name from Josep to José, as this is his real name and how all his acquaintances call him: José or Pepe.

Sexuality
A question: is Josep Borrell really gay or bisexual? Where do you have this information? 22:43, July 7 2005 (CEST)
 * I can't seem to find any evidence of this either... I'm trying to subcategorize Category:LGBT politicians and need to "pin him down." Unfortunately, I'm lost in a flood of Rocco Buttiglione scandal news. Cleduc 12:39, 17 July 2005 (UTC)

 * Josep Borrell is not gay or at least he has never recognized that. --Juan Hernando 09:59, 12 November 2005 (UTC)

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 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20090703063600/http://enkidumagazine.com/art/2006/010506/E_044_010506.htm to http://www.enkidumagazine.com/art/2006/010506/E_044_010506.htm

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title: Talk:Josep Borrell


text:
Presley O'Bannon

Presley O'Bannon (c. 1776 – September 12, 1850) was a first lieutenant in the United States Marine Corps, famous for his exploits in the First Barbary War (1801–1805). In recognition of his bravery, he was presented a sword for his part in attempting to restore Prince Hamet Karamanli to his throne as the Bey of Tripoli. This sword became the model for the Mameluke Sword, adopted in 1825 for Marine Corps officers, which is part of the formal uniform today.

Biography
Presley Neville O'Bannon was born in Fauquier County, Virginia, to William O'Bannon, a captain of the Continental Army in the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), and Anne Neville, a sister of General John Neville, commander of Fort Pitt (formerly French Fort Duquesne, later Pittsburgh in western Pennsylvania) during the Revolution. O'Bannon was probably named after Neville's son Presley, who was aide-de-camp to the Marquis de Lafayette.

O'Bannon entered the Marine Corps on January 18, 1801. As a first lieutenant assigned to USS Argus (1803), he commanded a detachment of seven Marines and two Navy midshipmen in diplomatic Consul General William Eaton's (1764–1811) small army during the Tripoli campaign of the First Barbary War (1801–1805). In the combined operations with the U.S. Navy, he led the successful attack at the Battle of Derna, a coastal town in eastern modern Libya on April 27, 1805, giving the Marines' Hymn its line "to the shores of Tripoli." Lieutenant O'Bannon became the first man to raise a United States flag over foreign soil in time of war; O'Bannon's superior, William Eaton (1764–1811), a former Army officer, had raised the American flag several months earlier while traveling on the Nile River from Alexandria to Cairo, but it had not been in a time of war. According to Marine Corps legend, Hamet Karamanli was so impressed with O'Bannon's bravery that he gave him a Mameluke sword as a gesture of respect.

O'Bannon resigned from the Marine Corps on March 6, 1807. He moved to Logan County, Kentucky, making his home in Russellville. He served in the Kentucky State Legislature in 1812, 1817, and 1820–21, and in the Kentucky State Senate from 1824 to 1826.

Some time before 1826, he married Matilda Heard, daughter of Major James Heard and Nancy Morgan, a daughter of American Revolutionary War general Daniel Morgan, commander at the Battle of Cowpens in South Carolina in 1781.

O'Bannon died in 1850 at age 74 in Pleasureville, Kentucky, where his daughter and nephew lived. In 1919, his remains were moved to the Frankfort Cemetery in Kentucky's state capital.

Mameluke sword
Because of O'Bannon's distinguished record during the Derna campaign, Marine Corps Commandant Archibald Henderson in 1825 adopted the Mameluke sword for wear by all Marine Corps commissioned officers. Since the initial distribution in 1826, the Mameluke sword has been worn except for the years 1859–1875, when regulations temporarily required Marine officers to wear the model U.S. Army M1850 foot officers' sword. Mameluke swords are worn by Marine Corps officers as prescribed with all uniforms except the evening dress and utility uniform.

Namesakes
Three Navy ships have been named USS O'Bannon in his honor:
 * USS O'Bannon (DD-177), a Wickes-class destroyer which was launched in 1919 and struck in 1936;
 * USS O'Bannon (DD-450), a Fletcher-class destroyer which was launched in 1942 and struck in 1970; USS O'Bannon(DD-450) in service during WWII and according to legend attacked a Japanese submarine with potatoes.
 * USS O'Bannon (DD-987), a Spruance-class destroyer, which was launched in 1978 and struck in 2005.

O'Bannon Hall, at the Basic School in Quantico, Virginia is named in honor of Presley O'Bannon.

title: Presley O'Bannon


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Ish

Speedily deleted, none of those in a straw poll could see how it qualified a a speedy deletion, so undeleted. Listed here as required for an undeletion for an out of process deletion. This is neither supporting nor opposing the deletion of this article - it's purely due process. Jamesday 21:13, 24 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: Not sufficiently widespread for Wiktionary, not the primary topic for an encyclopedia article. A topic of censorship, euphemism, and "clean versions" might warrant articles & include "one slang term for 'shit' was 'ish,'" but "ish" can't lead the band.  Geogre 21:20, 24 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Definitely not a speedy delete candidate. However, it does fall into the slang / dicdef / neologism category, and I concur with the statement from Geogre. Delete.Ianb 21:25, 24 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * shit is mostly about censorship; merge and redirect. Dunc_Harris|☺ 21:26, 24 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * This has been redeleted as an out-of-process undeletion. Consensus on Votes for undeletion was to keep deleted.  RickK 21:59, Jul 24, 2004 (UTC)
 * For the record, delete slang dicdef. -- Cyrius|✎ 01:40, 25 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * What Cyrius said: DDDS. - UtherSRG 03:36, 26 Jul 2004 (UTC)

title: Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Ish


text:
Talk:Laurussia

= 	Poll about whether we should keep either Euramerica or Laurussia	 =

I accidently duplicated Laurussia in Euramerica. Since you contributed to these articles, I invite you to a pool on my TalkPage about how to remedy this.

Ŭalabio 21:14, 2004 Jul 24 (UTC)

 * The article Laurussia will merge and redirect to Euramerica.

 * Ŭalabio 23:08, 2004 Aug 15 (UTC)

title: Talk:Laurussia


text:
Anzani

Anzani was an engine manufacturer founded by the Italian Alessandro Anzani (1877–1956), which produced proprietary engines for aircraft, cars, boats, and motorcycles in factories in Britain, France and Italy.

Overview
From his native Italy, Anzani moved to France where he became involved in cycle racing. He moved on to motorcycles and designed and built a record-breaking lightweight engine. In 1907, he set up a small workshop in Paris with three staff and while they were building his engines, he designed a hydrofoil powered by one of his engines and propellers.

Aircraft engines
He supplied one of his engines to Enrico Forlanini and developed it further into a three-cylinder, air-cooled, radial engine ideal for the new aeroplanes. One of the early engines, the 25 hp Anzani W-3 or Fan type, was supplied to Louis Blériot who used it on his successful first aircraft crossing of the English Channel in 1909.

Types

 * Anzani 3-cyl. Fan 10-12 hp 3.35" × 3.35"
 * Anzani 3-cyl. Fan 12-15 hp 3.35" × 3.94"
 * Anzani 3-cyl. Fan 25-30 hp 4.13" × 5.12"
 * Anzani 3-cyl. Fan 30-35 hp 4.73" × 5.12"
 * Anzani 3-cyl. Fan 40-45 hp 5.32" × 5.92"
 * Anzani 3-cyl. Fan 45-50 hp
 * Anzani 3-cyl. Y (Radial) 30hp
 * Anzani 4-cyl. V 30-35 hp (water-cooled) 35 hp at 1,600 rpm
 * Anzani 4-cyl. V 60-70 hp (water-cooled)
 * Anzani 5-cyl. Radial 45hp
 * Anzani 5-cyl. Radial 60hp
 * Anzani 6-cyl. Radial 45hp at 1,300 rpm
 * Anzani 6-cyl. Radial 70hp
 * Anzani 7-cyl. Radial 95hp
 * Anzani 10-cyl. Radial 100hp
 * Anzani 14-cyl. Radial 160hp
 * Anzani 20-cyl. Radial 200hp

New factories
Demand for the engines continued to grow and the original Paris workshop was replaced by a new factory at Courbevoie, Paris, and one in London was also added as well as licensed production by other makers. Another factory at Monza, Italy was added in 1914.

Motor racing
In 1920, Anzani turned to motor racing and built a small car with one of his 750 cc two-cylinder engines, air-cooled of course, which won several competitions. They also made a 1098 cc cyclecar between 1923 and 1924, as used in the T.B. Sports cyclecar.

Sale of factories
On his 50th birthday in 1927, Anzani decided to sell his factories in Paris and London, keeping only the Monza works for sentimental reasons, and managed by Natale Baccanti.

British Anzani
In the UK, British Anzani outsourced the manufacture of their engines to Coventry Ordnance Works Ltd. In the 1920s, it was refinanced as British Vulpine Engine Company, and then again as British Anzani Engineering Company, concentrating on small engines and car and motorcycle powerplants. They supplied AC Cars with the 1496cc side-valve four-cylinder (that would become AC's famous 2-litre motor), Frazer-Nash with a 1496cc side valve engine, (latterly supercharged) Morgan Motor Company with a V-twin, and Squire with the R1 twin cam engine. Berkeley Cars used small Anzani motorcycle engines in some models. British Anzani's best known products were motorcycle, lawnmower and outboard engines. Cotton, Tandon and Greeves motorcycles used Anzani motors.

In later years, the company diversified. In the years after World War II, the company's main product was the 'Iron Horse' - a two-wheeled pedestrian-controlled ploughing engine and light tractor. In time, four-wheeled versions with the driver sitting on the front of the vehicle were produced. The company became the British Anzani Group, and was trading under that name when it went into liquidation in 1980.

The trademark 'British Anzani' was re-registered in 2003 and the company, Anzani Ltd, in 2006. The company is supplying classic spares through Dolphin Engines of Launceston (Cornwall, UK) and is planning a return to the automotive, marine and transport industries, with products designed by Bo Zolland.

title: Anzani


text:
William I of Württemberg

William I (Friedrich Wilhelm Karl; 27 September 1781 – 25 June 1864) was King of Württemberg from 30 October 1816 until his death.

Upon William's accession, Württemberg was suffering crop failures and famine in the "Year Without a Summer", in 1816. After taking office, he initiated sweeping reforms, resulting in the approval of the Estates of Württemberg to a constitution on 25 September 1819. In his 48-year reign, the kingdom moved from one that was created from different denominational principalities and a heterogeneous agricultural country, into a constitutional state with a common identity and a well-organised management.

In addition to his successful domestic policy, he pursued throughout his reign an ambition focused on German and European foreign policy. Alongside the great powers of Prussia and Austria, he imagined a third major German power in the form of Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover and Württemberg. Although this plan never succeeded, it ensured a consistent, coherent and targeted policy during his reign.

William was the only German monarch who was forced to recognise the Frankfurt Constitution of 1848. After the failure of the March Revolution of 1848, he pursued reactionary policies that counteracted his liberal image from before the revolution. He died in 1864 at Rosenstein Castle in Bad Cannstatt and is buried in the Württemberg Mausoleum.

Youth
Born at Lüben (after 1945 Lubin, Poland) on 27 September 1781, Frederick William (known as "Fritz" until the beginning of his reign) was the son of Duke Frederick William Charles of Württemberg (1754–1816) and his wife, Augusta of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (1764–1788).

The relationship between his mother and father was one of strife and discord. His father had entered the Prussian Army in 1774, then moved shortly after William's birth to the service of the Russian Empress, Catherine the Great, who appointed him Governor of Eastern Finland. Although William's mother gave birth in 1783 to his sister Catharina Frederica, then later that year to Sophia Dorothea, and Paul in 1785, the relationship between the parents continued to deteriorate. Augusta sought sanctuary from her abusive marriage and asked the Empress for protection in 1786. Catherine forced Frederick and his children to leave Russia and placed Augusta in the custody of a former royal huntsman, Reinhold Wilhelm von Pohlmann, by whom she allegedly later became pregnant. In the exhumation ordered by William himself, several years after, this was proven wrong. She died in 1788. In 1790, Frederick and his two sons moved to Ludwigsburg Palace. He made sure that his sons' educators were from Württemberg and their education, at the behest of their father, was regulated and very strict.

Charles Eugene, Duke of Württemberg died on 24 October 1793. He had ruled for 56 years and as he had no legitimate offspring, the duchy passed to his brothers, Louis Eugene in 1793, then two years later to Frederick II Eugene, who was Frederick William's grandfather. Frederick William's father thus became Hereditary Prince (Erbprinz) in 1795, then duke on 23 December 1797. In 1797, Duke Frederick's father married Charlotte, Princess Royal, the daughter of King George III of Great Britain. They then began to look for a wife for Frederick William and potential brides included the Holy Roman Emperor's sister, Archduchess Maria Amalia, and the Grand Duchesses Alexandra Pavlovna and Maria Pavlovna.

Duke Frederick's relationship with his son also deteriorated. Frederick William often rebelled against his upbringing and his father. In 1799, Frederick William's escape plans were discovered and his father had him temporarily arrested. After his release, Frederick William began studying at the University of Tübingen. After the War of the Second Coalition erupted and France marched under Napoleon in the spring of 1800, Frederick William, who had joined as a volunteer in the Austrian army, participated in the Battle of Hohenlinden in December 1800. In 1803 he attained the rank of Imperial Major General. Contemporaries have credited him with profound military knowledge, courage and bravery.

After returning to Württemberg in 1801, Frederick William and his brother Paul began liaisons with the daughters of the landscape architect, Konradin von Abel. Frederick William fell in love with Therese von Abel, four years his senior. At that time there were clashes between Duke Frederick and the Estates of Württemberg (the Landstände) on domestic and foreign policy issues. Konradin von Abel represented the foreign policy interests of the estates and was supported by Frederick William, who moved against the interests of his father's policies. In 1803 Frederick William fled Württemberg to Paris, Vienna, Schaffhausen and Saarburg. In Saarburg, Therese gave birth to twins, who died shortly after birth. Now Elector of Württemberg, Frederick wanted to bring his son back to Württemberg. Frederick William went in October to Paris, where he was received on 14 October by Napoleon. Elector Frederick prevented the planned marriage of his son with Therese von Abel through diplomatic interventions, though separating the two did not happen until the autumn of 1804. During his time in Paris, Frederick William received financial support from the Landstände and later from Napoleon.

Heir to the throne
On 11 September 1805 Frederick William left Paris and returned (after a visit to his grandparents, the Duke and Duchess of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel in Brunswick) to Stuttgart, where in November he met his father for the first time in a few years. His return was mainly due to the change in the political climate. The United Kingdom, which had been at war with Napoleon since 1803, formed an alliance with Russia and Austria. Napoleon had Württemberg's neighbours of Baden and Bavaria on his side, so Württemberg was forced, after some hesitation, to yield to French pressure and also enter into an alliance with Napoleon. The French Foreign Minister Talleyrand suggested a coup against Elector Frederick, in which his son was to replace him, but Frederick William opposed the suggestion. This act is regarded as the main reason for William's subsequent aversion to Napoleon. Frederick refused to involve his son in the affairs of state, but gave him his own court headed by his friend, Ernst von Pfuel-Riepurr, who had accompanied him in his time out of the country. Frederick William took the time to further his education, including acquiring a knowledge of agriculture.

From 1 January 1806, the territorial gains as a result of the German mediatization enlarged the Electorate of Württemberg and it became a kingdom upon the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1806, Prussia joined the coalition against Napoleon and was defeated and occupied within a few weeks. Napoleon wanted Württemberg to be bound to him closer by marriage. On 13 August 1807 Frederick William's sister, Catherine, married Napoleon's brother Jérôme, the king of the newly created Kingdom of Westphalia. In order to prevent Napoleon arranging a marriage for him, Frederick William sought permission from his father to marry Charlotte (later Caroline) Augusta, the daughter of the Bavarian King Maximilian I Joseph. After lengthy negotiations took place, the pair were married on 8 June 1808 in Munich. Since it was purely a marriage of convenience and Frederick William had no interest in a deeper relationship with his wife, Charlotte became increasingly lonely in Stuttgart. Frederick often stayed in Kassel at the court of his brother-in-law, Jérôme. Here he met Jérôme's former lover, Blanche La Flèche, Baroness of Keudelstein. He began an affair with her, which he later continued as king.

In 1809, Napoléon had Württemberg commit troops for his war against Austria, while safeguarding its own eastern borders. Frederick William received the command of the troops deployed for border defence. During Napoleon's Russian campaign, Frederick William was again in command of troops. The campaign was devastating for the Army of Württemberg. Of the 15,800 soldiers, only a few hundred returned to Württemberg. After the Battle of Leipzig from 16 to 19 October 1813, Württemberg moved to the side of the coalition against Napoleon. Frederick William then took over the command of the Army of Württemberg, which was reinforced by Austrian troops in November. On 30 December the army crossed the Rhine at Hüningen.

Despite having suffered heavy losses in 1812 and 1813 fighting as an ally of France, Württemberg agreed to raise an army for the Allies of 12,250 regular infantry, 2,900 cavalry and 12,250 militia. By strenuous efforts this quota was filled. At first, the Württemberger contingent was designated the German VI Corps, but in a subsequent reorganization it became the IV Corps in the main Allied army of Austrian Field Marshal Karl Philipp, Prince of Schwarzenberg. It marched to war with 14,000 men and 24 artillery pieces. Frederick William directed his corps in the First Battle of Bar-sur-Aube on 24 January 1814. One source asserted that IV Corps suffered 900 casualties in this combat while their Austrian allies lost 837. French losses were about 1,200. The IV Corps participated in the Allied victory over Napoleon at the Battle of La Rothière on 1 February.

On 18 February 1814, Schwarzenberg ordered Frederick William to hold Montereau until evening. Accordingly, the Crown Prince placed 8,500 foot soldiers, 1,000 horsemen and 26 artillery pieces on the north bank of the Seine River. The defending force included an Austrian brigade. The first French attacks in the morning were driven off, but by the mid-afternoon Napoleon was on the scene with 30,000 troops and 70 cannons. Frederick William ordered a retreat, but the movement quickly degenerated into a mad dash for safety across the single bridge with French cavalry in hot pursuit. The Allies lost 2,600 killed and wounded, plus 3,400 soldiers and 15 field pieces captured. The French lost 2,000 but captured the vital bridge intact. The Württembergers reported 806 killed and wounded, not counting prisoners.

On 25 March, the main Allied army came upon a 19,000-man French corps by surprise in the Battle of Fère-Champenoise. Leading the advance, Frederick William decided not to wait for his infantry to catch up but to attack with his cavalry alone. The result was a crushing Allied victory as the French corps suffered losses of 2,000 killed and wounded while losing 4,000 prisoners, 45 cannons and 100 ammunition wagons. A nearby 4,300-strong French division with 16 cannons was also caught and completely wiped out. The Allies sustained 2,000 casualties out of 28,000 men and 80 guns engaged. At the Battle of Paris on 30 March, 6,500 Württembergers fought, losing 160 killed, wounded and captured.

With the fall of Napoleon, Frederick William took the opportunity to begin divorce proceedings from his wife. He had been in the United Kingdom in June 1814 with his cousin Grand Duchess Catherine of Russia, the widow of Duke George of Oldenburg, and the two were in love. After Charlotte, King Frederick and King Maximilian Joseph had agreed to the divorce, a divorce court was convened by King Frederick on 31 August 1814. Both parties had indicated that the marriage was not consummated because of animosity. Annulment by Pope Pius VII, which was necessary because Charlotte was Catholic, did not take place until over a year later on 12 January 1816, shortly before the wedding of Frederick William and Catherine. Charlotte then married on 10 November 1816, the Austrian Emperor Francis I.

Frederick William and Catherine also attended the Congress of Vienna from September 1814, where diplomats drew up a new Europe following Napoleon's downfall. After the return of Napoleon and the subsequent war in 1815, Frederick William commanded the Austrian III Corps which in one of the minor campaigns invaded France and besieged General Jean Rapp in Strasbourg. He was the only member of the ruling German royal families who participated actively as a military commander in the wars of 1814 and 1815. Wilhelm Hauff celebrated this in his poem Prinz Wilhelm.

On 24 January 1816, Frederick William married Catherine in St. Petersburg. The newly-weds stayed in Russia for a few months and arrived in Stuttgart on 13 April 1816.

Accession
King Frederick died on 30 October 1816, at 1:30 am. On the same day, Catherine, who already had two sons from her first marriage, gave birth to their daughter Marie Friederike Charlotte. Although in King Frederick's declining years, he and his son no longer had any political and personal conflicts, Frederick William was eager to display a new era of political change and power. As such, he did away with his first name of Frederick and chose his second name of Wilhelm (William) as his regnal name. He reduced the monarchical titles to simply Wilhelm, by the Grace of God, King of Württemberg. The national coat of arms was also simplified and he reduced the colours of the state flag of black, red and gold, to simply black and red. He also announced an amnesty for civil and military prisoners. William dismissed most of the ministers of state, made the Privy Council his government and gave new senior positions at court and in the civil service.

Measures against economic hardship
William's accession to the throne fell into a time of great economic hardship. In April 1815, Mount Tambora erupted in the Dutch East Indies, which led to a long-term deterioration of global weather conditions. In the spring and summer of 1816 there was nowhere in Europe without a storm, rain or hail. In October the first snow fell in Württemberg. The year 1816 became known as the Year Without A Summer. In Württemberg, there were crop failures which gave rise to food prices. In the winter of 1816/1817, famine broke out. To alleviate the plight, the government fixed maximum prices for food, made exporting difficult and later banned it. Large amounts of grain were brought from outside the country. The famine was alleviated by the King and Queen, whose policies were aimed at long-term improvement in the economic situation of all social classes. William implemented agricultural reforms, while Catherine devoted her care to the poor. On 20 November 1818 William set up an Agricultural Academy in Hohenheim to radically improve general nutrition in the kingdom through teaching, experimentation and demonstration and, in so doing, laid the foundation for the University of Hohenheim. To help people to help themselves, the government planted alleys of fruit-trees. (Dienstbarkeit on private ground near streets). The tree farms from William, also the Moravian Church delivered for free.

In the same year he set up the Cannstatter Volksfest, which was to take place annually on 28 September, a day after the king's birthday. William bought cattle and sheep from abroad for farmers to raise them in Württemberg and he was known for his Arabian stallions that formed part of the Marbach stud. Around the country, Catherine set up charities, which were controlled by a national charity in Stuttgart. Donations were received from the private property of the royal couple, by Catherine's mother the Tsarina, and by other members of the royal family. The Württembergische Landessparkasse (Wurttemberg State Savings Bank) was established on 12 May 1818 on Catherine's initiative. At the same time, a poor relief authority was set up in the Ministry of Interior. The completion of the Katharinenhospital in 1828 was initiated via a donation by Catherine in 1817. The Mohrenköpfle is a breed of pig. On the orders of King William I, these "masked" pigs were imported from Central China in 1820/21, in order to improve pig breeding in the Kingdom of Württemberg. Cross-breeding local breeds with these "Chinese pigs" was particularly successful within stocks of domestic pigs in the Hohenlohe region and the area around the town of Schwäbisch Hall.

Death of Queen Catherine
Catherine and William's second daughter Sophie, who later became Queen of the Netherlands, was born on 17 June 1818. Despite the outwardly harmonious marriage of William and Catherine, William had extramarital affairs. He took to his former lover Blanche La Flèche again. Eduard von Kallee, born on 26 February 1818 is thought to have been his illegitimate son. When Catherine found her husband in Scharnhausen on 3 January 1819, with a lover (presumably Blanche La Fleche), she travelled back to Stuttgart. She died of complications from pneumonia on 9 January. William had the Württemberg Mausoleum constructed for her on Württemberg Hill and she was buried in 1824. To cover up the circumstances of her death he tried to obtain her letters, which he suspected contained information about his love affairs. The main political reason for this was so Württemberg's relationship with Russia would not be strained. William wrote in a letter that he was considering abdication. He wanted his brother Paul to renounce his claim to the throne, in favour of Paul's son, Frederick. After their mother's death, Catherine's sons by her first marriage went to live with their grandfather, Peter, the-then regent and later Grand Duke of Oldenburg.

Family and private life
Soon after the death of Queen Catherine, William sought a new marriage. He looked again to a cousin, Pauline (1800–1873) who was the daughter of his uncle Louis and 19 years his junior. The wedding took place on 19 April 1820 at Stuttgart. Pauline tended to be rather pious and was a prude. For example, when her daughter was to be painted naked as a baby, Pauline refused it. The beginning of the marriage was outwardly harmonious and the royal couple undertook official duties and many activities together. On 24 August 1821 their first daughter Catherine was born. The birth of the heir Charles on 6 March 1823 was received by the people and the royal family with great joy. Their third child Augusta was born on 4 October 1826.

William continued to maintain extramarital relationships with other women. When travelling to Italy, he continued to meet with Blanche La Flèche. In the late 1820s, the royal couple became increasingly alienated. William began a relationship with the actress Amalie of Stubenrauch. Born in 1803, she started her acting career in 1823 at the Munich Court Theatre. After a stint in March 1827, in the autumn of 1828 she became permanent at the Stuttgart Court Theatre, where William soon became aware of her. William and Amelia would keep up their relationship until William's death in 1864.

Politics
In October 1820 a manuscript entitled Manuskript aus Süddeutschland (Manuscript from Southern Germany) was published in London. The book contained a review of the historical development and the political situation in Germany. It called for a further mediatisation of small countries in Germany to the four central states of Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover and Württemberg, which together should form a counterweight to the great powers of Prussia and Austria. It was suggested Württemberg should gain Baden, the principalities of Hohenzollern-Hechingen and Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, as well as Alsace. Soon it became known that the published name of the author and editor of the book were fake. The real author was Friedrich Ludwig Lindner (1772–1845), who was somewhat of a personal assistant to William. It was assumed that William was behind this idea and that Lindner acted as his ghostwriter. The manuscript caused diplomatic tensions between Prussia and Austria on one side and Württemberg on the other. At the Congress of Verona in 1822, the great powers of Austria, Prussia and Russia launched an isolation on Württemberg. In the spring of 1823, diplomatic relations were broken off, the foreign minister, Count Wintzingerode, and the Bundestag envoy, Freiherr von Wangenheim, resigned. The popularity of William rose in liberal circles. Reprisals, however, meant that William had to give in. In November 1824 Württemberg agreed to an extension of the anti-liberal Carlsbad Decrees.

After the successful French July Revolution of 1830, the Liberals were buoyant in most of Europe, as well as in Württemberg. The November Uprising in Congress Poland against Russia in 1830/1831 reinforced this trend. In December 1831, the Liberals won the elections to the second chamber of the Württemberg Landtag. At the Hambach Festival on 27 May 1832, in which Hambach Castle in the Rhineland-Palatinate was a backdrop for liberal and democratic rallies, the call for banned political gatherings was answered. William moved to convene the parliament elected in 1831 for over a year until 15 January 1833. After the dissolution of parliament on 22 March, elections were held in April, and Friedrich Römer's liberals again emerged victorious.

Diplomatic relations between Württemberg and Prussia and Austria were also limited at this time. From 1836 William tried to better relations with Prussia. In September 1836 Prince William, later German Emperor, visited Stuttgart. 1838 saw a return visit by King William to Berlin, where he and cousin, the Tsar Nicholas I met. From this point, a Prussian envoy in Württemberg was established. At various times William was interested in forming a "Third Germany" of smaller states outside the control of Vienna and Berlin, but this never took form.

One area of co-operation with Prussia was the Zollverein customs union. William signed a Bavaria–Württemberg Customs Union (BWCU) in 1828, with mixed results. In 1828–34 the BWCU signed commercial agreements and then became full members of the German Customs Union. Seen now as a precursor of German unity under Prussia in 1871, at the time it was hoped that stronger local economies would preserve the independence of the smaller states such as Württemberg.

The 1830s were characterised by an economic boom in Württemberg. Agriculture, trade and crafts flourished and debt and taxes were down. Shipping on the Neckar via the Wilhelmskanal had become possible in 1821, and the road network was expanded. Plans were produced for the construction of the first railways. William was very interested in the emerging industrialisation and visited, in 1837, the United Kingdom, the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution. For his Silver Jubilee in 1841, the kingdom was in excellent financial shape. On 27 September 1841 William celebrated his 60th birthday. On 28 September, a procession took place in Stuttgart with 10,390 participants, including 640 riders and 23 horses and wagons with teams of oxen from the entire kingdom. 200,000 spectators had come to the capital, which had 40,000 inhabitants. On the Schlossplatz a solid wooden column was built, which was replaced two years later by the central stone "Jubiläumssäule" (Jubilee Pillar). The whole town was decorated, fireworks were set off in the evening and bonfires were made all around the country. William was celebrated by patriotic poems and songs in the newspapers. The celebrations and participation around the country expressed how the country had become unified and connected under William's reign.

Revolution of 1848/1849

In 1846 and 1847, poor harvests in Württemberg gave rise to famine and increased emigration. The relatively satisfied mood of the population became sour. Liberal and democratic demands were expressed more forcefully. In January 1848 a protest in Stuttgart called for an all-German Federal Parliament, freedom of the press, freedom of association and assembly, introduction of jury trials and arming of the people. In February, a revolution broke out again in France. When Louis Philippe I abdicated and fled into exile to England, William recognised the urgency of the situation and tried the stop the revolution through concessions to the liberals and democrats. On 1 March he reinstated the liberal press law of 1817, which had been overturned previously by the Carlsbad Decrees in 1819. He tried to replace the Privy Council under the conservative Joseph von Linden, but this failed on 6 March as a result of further protests. William then agreed to forming a liberal government under Friedrich Römer. On 18 March 1848 the Württemberg army was sworn not to the king but to the Constitution. Although Römer never had the confidence of William, he made sure that during the revolution in Württemberg, a majority for the abolition of the monarchy was never formed. In April, the Württemberg army was involved in the crackdown on the Baden Revolution of Friedrich Hecker and Gustav von Struve in Baden. In June 1848, a new parliament was selected in which Römer's liberals again received the majority in the upper chamber. William visited Frankfurt in July 1848, where since 18 May that year the Frankfurt Parliament met and on 29 June 1848 and had chosen Archduke John of Austria to be regent. The parliament proposed, on 8 March 1849, that Frederick William of Prussia should be elected Emperor of Germany. Römer advised William to accept this choice, but if Frederick William refused, Römer advised William he had a good chance of being elected emperor himself. This flattery increased, however, only the mistrust of William against Römer.

On 20 April 1849 the Chamber of Deputies voted in the Landtag with only two dissenting votes in favour of recognising the constitution drafted by the Frankfurt Parliament on 28 March 1849. William refused to do so and justified his refusal in a supplement to the Schwäbischer Merkur (Swabian Mercury) with a circulation of 12,000 copies. Given the tricky situation of Stuttgart, he moved his court to the garrison city of Ludwigsburg. On 25 April, William decided to accept the constitution. But he felt it was imposed humiliation, which was multiplied when he realized that he was the only ruler of a larger German state who had accepted the Constitution.

After the Frankfurt Parliament had failed with the rejection of the German imperial crown by Frederick William IV of Prussia, on 30 May 1849 the remaining members decided to relocate the parliament to Stuttgart. Derisively known as the Rumpfparlament ("rump parliament"), on 6 June 1849, the remaining 154 deputies met initially under President Wilhelm Loewe in Stuttgart. Following its view of itself as the legitimate German parliament, the rump parliament called for tax resistance and military resistance against those states that did not accept the Paulskirche Constitution. Since this view also diminished the autonomy of Württemberg, and the Prussian army was successfully crushing the rebellions in the nearby Baden and the Palatinate, the Württemberg government rapidly distanced itself from the rump parliament.

On 17 June the president of the parliament was informed that the Württemberg government was no longer in a position to tolerate the meetings that had moved to its territory, nor the activities of the regency elected on the 6th, anywhere in Stuttgart or Württemberg. At this point, the rump parliament had only 99 deputies and did not reach a quorum according to its own rules. On 18 June the Württemberg army occupied the parliamentary chamber before the session started. The deputies reacted by organising an impromptu protest march which was promptly squashed by the soldiers without bloodshed. Those deputies that were not from Württemberg were expelled.

On 2 July William returned to Stuttgart. In August 1849 elections were held for a Constituent Assembly in which the democrats reached the majority against the moderate liberals. While the liberals called for the right to an income level and assets, the democrats demanded universal, equal and direct suffrage for all adult men. At the end of October 1849 the king dismissed the government under Friedrich Römer. On 7 December 1849 the principalities of Hohenzollern-Hechingen and Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen were incorporated into the Kingdom of Prussia. William's objective of mediatising these states into Württemberg therefore failed. The-then shattered relationship with Prussia was not normalised until 1852 with the resumption of diplomatic relations.

From 1850 William led a reactionary policy. His experience in the revolution led him to reject generally representative governments. He wanted the people to be "free from the periodic fever of elections". On 2 July 1850 he set up a new government with the conservative Joseph von Linden as Minister of the Interior. He was a more compliant rubber stamp for William's restoration policy. The old constitution was re-enacted, the army was sworn in again on the king rather than the Constitution, corporal punishment was reintroduced in 1852 and the death penalty in 1853. Linden's conservative cabinet remained until shortly after William's death in office.

Later years and death
In the 1850s, the polarity between Prussia and Austria came to a head in Germany. William pursued a foreign policy strategy shifting alliances and agreements with the major European powers. In the Crimean War between Russia on one hand and the Ottoman Empire, France and Great Britain on the other, he pushed for a neutrality of the German Confederation. This strengthened the position of the Württemberg ally of Russia. After the Crimean War, William tried to normalise his country's relations with France. The French emperor since 1852, Napoléon III, was the nephew of his brother-in-law, Jérôme Bonaparte.

The Holy Alliance between Russia, Austria and Prussia had ended on the outbreak of the Crimean War. On 27 September 1857 a meeting organised by William was held in Stuttgart between Napoléon III and Tsar Alexander II. The emperors agreed that Russia would not intervene in any war that France would have in assisting Sardinia in a war against Austria (later to become the Second Italian War of Independence). Especially in his old age, European princes often sought his advice. His biographer Paul Sauer therefore referred to him as "Nestor among the princes of Europe".

William's marriage looked happy to outsiders, but in actuality was completely shattered. He was constantly accompanied by his mistress, Amalie, on private visits. He did not trust his son, Prince Charles, to takeover governmental functions; Charles's homosexual inclinations troubled him. He was very fond of his daughter-in-law and niece, Crown Princess Olga. She often had to mediate between her husband and her father-in-law, which over long periods led to a tense relationship between her and William. His daughters from his marriage to Catherine both had marital disputes with their husbands, Alfred von Neipperg and William III of the Netherlands.

King William became increasingly hard of hearing with age and underwent frequent treatment from the 1850s. In the autumn of 1863, his condition deteriorated. He had little contact with his family, whereas his mistress Amalie was constantly with him. He was often visited by the writer Friedrich Wilhelm Hackländer. Before his death, he had his private letters and records destroyed. William died at 5:10 on the morning of 25 June 1864 at Rosenstein Palace in the presence of his personal physician, Dr. Karl Alsatian, and a valet. On the morning of 30 June, in the presence of his son and successor, King Charles and his stepson Peter of Oldenburg, he was buried alongside his second wife Catherine in the Württemberg Mausoleum. A few hours later, a memorial service was held there in which his widow Queen Pauline, his daughter-in-law Queen Olga, his daughters Queen Sophie of the Netherlands, Princess Catherine and Princess Augusta of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, his nephew Grand Duke Constantine of Russia and his stepson Peter of Oldenburg, were present.

While William did not mention his wife Pauline in his will, he made sure that his former mistresses Therese of Abel and Blanche La Flèche received pensions. Queen Pauline and King Charles insisted Amalie of Stubenrauch left court and she moved to an estate in Tegernsee, located next to the Villa Arco, which they had acquired in 1862. She died there on 14 April 1876 and was buried in Tegernsee.

Marriages and issue
He married thrice:
 * Firstly on 8 June 1808 in Munich to Caroline Augusta (1792–1873), daughter of King Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria (1756–1825) and Princess Augusta Wilhelmine of Hesse-Darmstadt (1765–1796). They divorced in 1814, without issue;
 * Secondly on 24 January 1816 in Saint Petersburg, Russia, he married his first cousin Grand Duchess Catherine Pavlovna of Russia (1788–1819), daughter of Emperor Paul I of Russia (1754–1801) and Princess Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg (1759–1828) by whom he had two daughters:
 * Princess Marie Friederike Charlotte of Württemberg (1816–1887) who married Alfred, Count von Neipperg (1807–1865);
 * Princess Sophie of Württemberg (1818–1877) who married King William III of the Netherlands (1817–1890).
 * Thirdly on 15 April 1820 in Stuttgart he married another first cousin, Duchess Pauline Therese of Württemberg (1800–1873), a daughter of Duke Louis of Württemberg (1756–1817) and Princess Henrietta of Nassau-Weilburg (1780–1857), by whom he had one son and heir and two further daughters:
 * Princess Catherine of Württemberg (1821–1898) who married Prince Frederick of Württemberg (1808–1870) by whom she was the mother of King William II of Württemberg (born 1848–1921) the last King of Württemberg who succeeded his uncle King Charles I of Württemberg and ruled from 1891 until the abolition of the kingdom in 1918.
 * King Charles I of Württemberg (born 1823–1891), who succeeded his father as king of Württemberg. A homosexual, he married Grand Duchess Olga Nikolaevna of Russia, the daughter of Tsar Nicholas I of Russia, and leaving no issue was succeeded by his nephew King William II of Württemberg (born 1848–1921);
 * Princess Augusta of Württemberg (1826–1898) who married Prince Hermann of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (1825–1901). One of her daughters, Pauline of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, married Charles Augustus, Hereditary Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach.

1st Cannstatter Volksfest 1818–2018
On 28 September 1818, one day after the king's 36th birthday, a big agricultural festival with horse races and prize-giving for outstanding cattle-breeding achievements was celebrated on the so-called Cannstatter Wasen site. Named the "Landwirtschaftliche Fest zu Kannstadt" (Kannstadt Agricultural Festival), it was therefore the 1st Cannstatter Volksfest. 200 years later Cannstatter Volksfest and the 100th Landwirtschaftliches Hauptfest are celebrated with a historical Volksfest on Stuttgart's Schlossplatz square. Cannstatter Volksfest and the 100th Landwirtschaftliches Hauptfest (an agricultural show)—the founding of the biggest festival in "Ländle", as the state of Baden-Württemberg is affectionately known, by King William I and his wife Katharina will be remembered in the heart of Stuttgart on the Schlossplatz square from 26 September to 3 October 2018. At the Historical Volksfest 2018 with King William I and his wife Katharina (actors) will be dressed in historical costumes dating back to 1818.

Sequoiadendron giganteum
In order to cultivate them for their wood, the King had some 5,000 Giant Sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum) grown from seed in 1865. He had the seeds sent from California. Today, after 159 years, the remaining examples have reached a height of over 30 m. Their older Californian relatives, with a height of 80 m and a trunk circumference of more than 30 m, are the largest living organisms on our planet. Of the original 5,000 trees, 123 of the Giant Sequoia remain as memorials of King William.

Honours
• Württemberg:

• * Knight of the Golden Eagle

• * Grand Cross of the Military Merit Order, 1800

• * Founder of the Friedrich Order, 1 January 1830

•  Austrian Empire:

• * Commander of the Military Order of Maria Theresa, 1814

• * Grand Cross of St. Stephen, 1830

•  Baden: Grand Cross of the House Order of Fidelity, 1813

•  Kingdom of Bavaria: Knight of St. Hubert, 1808

• 🇧🇪 Belgium: Grand Cordon of the Royal Order of Leopold

•  Brunswick: Grand Cross of Henry the Lion

• 🇩🇰 Denmark: Knight of the Elephant, 1 February 1817

•  French Empire: Grand Eagle of the Legion of Honour, 1805/06

•  Kingdom of Hanover:

• * Knight of St. George, 1852

• * Grand Cross of the Royal Guelphic Order

•  Grand Duchy of Hesse: Grand Cross of the Ludwig Order, 2 September 1815

• 🇳🇱 Netherlands: Grand Cross of the Military William Order, 27 August 1815

•  Oldenburg: Grand Cross of the Order of Duke Peter Friedrich Ludwig, with Golden Crown, 13 September 1847

•  Kingdom of Prussia:

• * Knight of the Black Eagle, 3 November 1812

• * Iron Cross, 2nd Class, 1813

•  Russian Empire:

• * Knight of St. Andrew, 3 May 1814

• * Knight of St. Alexander Nevsky, 3 May 1814

• * Knight of St. George, 2nd Class, 19 May 1814

•  Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach: Grand Cross of the White Falcon, 16 February 1829

•  Kingdom of Saxony: Knight of the Rue Crown, 1834

•  undefined:

• * Honorary Grand Cross of the Bath (military), 18 August 1815

• * Stranger Knight of the Garter, 26 July 1830

title: William I of Württemberg


text: Template:Sims class destroyer

title: Template:Sims class destroyer


text:
Apal

Apal is a small-scale automobile company originally from Belgium.

Phase 1 -APAL - s.à.r.l. Application Polyester Armé de Liège (1961–1998)
Glass-fibre specialist Edmond Pery founded this small automobile manufacturing company in Blegny-Trembleur, Liège Province, Belgium in 1961. Pery presented his first model, a GT coupé with gull-wing doors, propelled by Volkswagen or Porsche engines at the Brussels Autosalon (or Salon auto de Bruxelles) in 1962.

In 1965, Apal started producing a Formule V single-seater. The Apal Horizon GT was a mid-engined sports car and was made in a limited number in 1968 and 1969.

Between 1968 and 1981, about 5,000 glass-fibre bodies were produced for different buggy models such as Apal Buggy, Apal Rancho, Apal Jet, Apal Auki, and the Apal Corsa (a sporty version with gull-wing doors). The Jet was a copy of a buggy originally developed by Glassco Inc. of USA. This set of molds then made its way to England, where PABC/Eresbug built it in London, with the Four Seasons Buggy Company manufacturing it from 1971 on and finally GP Projects from 1975 until 1976. Apal traded the Auki buggy molds for the Jet molds and modified them, adding a T-bar and side skirts and replacing the curved Ford Anglia windshield (not as easy to acquire in continental Europe) with a flat unit.

The Apal 1200 Saloon was an attractive car based on Volkswagen beetle floorplan. It had a thrust-forward nose with a divided front bumper and a well-sloped curved one-piece windshield. The rear-mounted engine was air-cooled, with cooling air exhausting through a grille in the rounded tail, which also sported a divided rear bumper.

The company's most successful model was called the Apal Speedster and is a replica of the Porsche 356 Speedster, built on a VW Beetle floorplan. Altogether 700 were completed between 1981 and 1994.

In 1984 Apal also developed a two-seater sports coupé using Mercedes-Benz W201 underpinnings, called the Francorchamps after the Belgian racetrack. This was developed together with an American company with the aim of selling the car in the United States, but with the dollar rapidly losing value the project became untenable and only two copies were built. The company's last model, named the Apal Sport One, based on the Pontiac Fiero, appeared in 1992.

Edmond Pery also designed an all-road prototype for DAF in 1974 and another prototype for Volkswagen in 1992. The small firm produced and sold all models in limited numbers.

Specifications of 1966 Model Apal 1200 Saloon
Engine: four-cylinder air-cooled VW, 1192 cc, 7.0 compression ratio, rated at 40 PS Maximum speed: 80 mph (129 km/h) Overall length: 4250 mm Overall width: 1620 mm Height:         1250 mm Turning circle: 11 m Wheelbase:      2400 mm Front track:    1306 mm Rear track:     1288 mm Fuel tank capacity: 40 L Empty weight:  679 kg

Phase 2 - Apal Gmbh, Germany (1998- to date)
The original Belgian company closed in 1998. A German company, under the name Apal Gmbh and based in Ostercappeln (Lower Saxony), bought all the spare parts and restarted production of the Apal Speedster.

As of 2006 the company has stopped production of ready-built cars and only sold kits and spare parts.

As of 2017, the Apal Automobiles brand is the exclusive propriety of Belgian businessman Charles-Antoine Masquelin.

title: Apal