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Thomas Gilovich

Thomas Dashiff Gilovich (born January 16, 1954) an American psychologist who is the Irene Blecker Rosenfeld Professor of Psychology at Cornell University. He has conducted research in social psychology, decision making, and behavioral economics, and has written popular books on these subjects. Gilovich has collaborated with Daniel Kahneman, Richard Nisbett, Lee Ross and Amos Tversky. His articles in peer-reviewed journals on subjects such as cognitive biases have been widely cited. In addition, Gilovich has been quoted in the media on subjects ranging from the effect of purchases on happiness to people's most common regrets, to perceptions of people and social groups. Gilovich is a fellow of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry.

Early history and education
Gilovich earned his B.A. from the University of California, Santa Barbara and his PhD from Stanford University. After hearing Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman give a lecture about judgment and decision making in his very first classroom experience there, Gilovich changed his program of research to focus on the intersection of social psychology and judgment and decision making. He went on to earn his Ph.D. in psychology from Stanford in 1981.

Research in social and cognitive psychology
Gilovich is best known for his research in heuristics and biases in the field of social psychology. He describes his research as dealing with "how people evaluate the evidence of their everyday experience to make judgments, form beliefs, and decide on courses of action, and how they sometimes misevaluate that evidence and make faulty judgments, form dubious beliefs, and embark on counterproductive courses of action." According to Google Scholar, he has an h-index of 77 for all his published academic papers, which is considered exceptional. The focus of Gilovich's work is reflected in two influential texts, Heuristics and Biases: The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment (with Dale Griffin and Daniel Kahneman) and Social Psychology (with Serena Chen, Dacher Keltner and Robert Nisbett), both of which are used as textbooks in academic courses in psychology and social psychology throughout the USA. Summarizing the research in an interview when asked what the benefits are, he responded, "I think that field has an enormous amount to offer, because we make consequential decisions all the time, and they aren't always easy, we don't always do them well," and that his research program is about trying to figure out how the mind works so we "understand why some decisions are easy, and we tend to do certain things very well, and why some decisions are difficult, and we tend to do them poorly." He further explained that his hope is that he and his colleagues are "providing lots of information to help us understand those difficult decisions, and give people the tools so that they can make better decisions so they less often in life are going down paths that don't serve them well."

Gilovich condensed his academic research in judgement and decision making into a popular book, How We Know What Isn't So. Writing in Skeptical Inquirer, Carl Sagan called it "a most illuminating book" that "shows how people systematically err in understanding numbers, in rejecting unpleasant evidence, in being influenced by the opinions of others. We're good in some things, but not in everything. Wisdom lies in understanding our limitations." Reviewing the book for The New York Times, George Johnson wrote, "Over time, the ability to infer rules about the way the world works from skimpy evidence confers a survival advantage, even if much of the time the lessons are wrong. From evolution's standpoint, it is better to be safe than sorry." In an interview, Gilovich summarized the thesis of How We Know What Isn't So as people "thinking we really have the evidence for things, [that] the world is telling us something, but in fact the world is telling us something a little more complicated, and how is it that we can misread the evidence of our everyday experience, and be convinced that something is true when it really isn't." He further elaborated on some of the erroneous beliefs his book discusses, including the sophomore jinx, the idea that things such as natural disasters come in threes, and the belief that the lines we are in slow down but the lines we leave speed up. In the same interview he called confirmation bias the "mother of all biases."

Notable contributions in biases and heuristics research
Through his published work in biases and heuristics, Gilovich has made notable contributions to the field through the following concepts:

Hot hands
Gilovich's research in the alleged "hot hand" effect, or the belief that success in a particular endeavor, usually sports, will likely be followed by further success, has been particularly influential. A paper he wrote with Amos Tversky in 1985 became the benchmark on the subject for years. Some of the research from the 1985 paper has been contested recently, with a new journal article arguing that Gilovich and his coauthors themselves fell victim to a cognitive bias in interpreting the data from the original study. Specifically, that in a truly random situation, a hit would be expected to be followed by another hit less than 50 percent of the time, but if one hit followed another at 50 percent, that would be evidence for the hot hand.

Spotlight effect
The spotlight effect, the phenomenon where people tend to believe that they're noticed more than they really are, is a term Gilovich coined. In a paper he wrote with two graduate students in 1999, he explained that "because we are so focused on our own behavior, it can be difficult to arrive at an accurate assessment of how much–or how little–our behavior is noticed by others. Indeed, close inspection reveals frequent disparities between the way we view our performance (and think others will view it) and the way it is actually seen by others." For the paper, Gilovich and his coauthors conducted an experiment asking college students to put on a Barry Manilow shirt and walk into a room of strangers facing the door. The researchers predicted that the students would assume that more people would notice their T-shirt than was actually true. The results were as predicted, with participants thinking that roughly half the strangers would have recognized the Barry Manilow shirt, when in fact the number was closer to 20 percent.

Bias blind spot
Gilovich has contributed to an understanding of bias blind spot, or the tendency to recognize biases in other people, but not in ourselves. Several studies he coauthored found that people tend to believe that their own personal connection to a given issue is a source of accuracy and enlightenment, but that such personal connections in the case of others who hold different views are a source of bias. Similarly, he has found that people look to external behavior in evaluating biases in others, but engage in introspection when evaluating their own. Two examples he gave in a talk are that both older and younger siblings felt the other were held to a higher standard, and that Democrats and Republicans both felt that the electoral college helped the other side more than their own party.

Clustering illusion
Gilovich was an early author in the clustering illusion, which is closely related to the "hot hand" fallacy, and is the tendency to see "clusters" of data in a random sequence of data as nonrandom. In How We Know What Isn't So, Gilovich explains how people want to see a sequence such as xoooxoooxooxxxoxxoo as planned, even though it was arbitrary. In addition, he stated that people tend to misjudge randomness, thinking that rolling the same number on dice 4 times in a row is not truly random, when in fact it is.

Illusion of transparency
Building on his research on the spotlight effect, Gilovich helped to discover the illusion of transparency, or the tendency to overestimate the extent to which people telegraph their inner thoughts and emotions. In a study he conducted with two coauthors in 1998, individuals read questions from index cards and answered them out loud. They either lied or told the truth based on what the card said to do on a label only they could see. Half of the liars thought they had been caught, but in fact only a quarter were, hence the illusion of transparency. In addition, they found in the same study that in an emergency situation, people assumed the emergency and concern would show in their expression and behavior, but it didn't, which the authors believe partially explains the bystander effect: "When confronted with a potential emergency, people typically play it cool, adopt a look of nonchalance, and monitor the reactions of others to determine if a crisis is really at hand. No one wants to overreact, after all, if it might not be a true emergency. However, because each individual holds back, looks nonchalant, and monitors the reactions of others, sometimes everyone concludes (perhaps erroneously) that the situation is not an emergency and hence does not require intervention."

Regret
Gilovich has researched the causes of regret. A study he conducted in 1994 found that specific actions people wish they hadn't taken are regretted more in the short run, but ultimately, inactions are regretted more in the long run. He has continued to emphasize that people tend to regret the things they don't do more than the things they did.

Anchoring
Following Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman, Gilovich and his colleagues have conducted research in anchoring, the tendency to anchor on information that comes to mind and adjust until a plausible estimate is reached when making decisions. A study he co-authored with Nicholas Epley found that anchoring is actually several different effects, and the multiple causes are at play. Another study that Gilovich and Nicholas Epley coauthored found that once an anchor is set, people adjust away from it, though their adjustments tend to be insufficient, so their final guess is close to the initial anchor.

Self-handicapping
In his social psychology research, Gilovich discovered the phenomenon of self-handicapping, which he described as "attempts to manage how others perceive us by controlling the attributions they make for our performance." An example of self-handicapping, according to Gilovich, would be drawing attention to elements that inhibit performance, and so discount failure in others' eyes, or make success the result of overcoming insurmountable odds. The self-handicapping can either be real (failing to study or drinking excessively), or faked (merely claiming that there were difficult obstacles present). Gilovich has stated that the strategy is most common in sports and undergraduate academics, but that it often backfires.

Research in behavioral economics
Besides his contributions to the field of social psychology, Gilovich's research in cognitive psychology has influenced the field of behavioral economics. Gilovich has written a popular book condensing his academic research in the field, and which touches on many of the topics in How We Know What Isn't So, The Wisest One in the Room: How You Can Benefit from Social Psychology's Most Powerful Insights. In an interview with Brian Lehrer, Gilovich discussed the book and the subjects it touches on, such as the difference between intelligence and wisdom, the latter being knowledge of other people and how to connect with them, the negative impact of income inequality on happiness, motivation, and what can create "virtuous cycles" in a university environment. Kirkus Reviews gave it a positive review, writing, "The authors leap from personal behavior and motivation in the first half into societal, cultural, and even international change in the second, offering suggestions, if not necessarily a working blueprint, for how to achieve goals such as global environmental responsibility. None of this is riveting reading, but it rarely lapses into academic jargon."

Experiential purchases
A major recurring theme in Gilovich's work in behavioral economics is the importance of experience over ownership of material things. For instance, a paper he co-authored with Leaf Van Boven found that people overwhelmingly preferred "experiential purchases" to "material purchases." Writing for The Atlantic, James Hamblin noted the growing body of research, pioneered by Gilovich, showing that experiences tend to bring people more happiness than possessions: "It's the fleetingness of experiential purchases that endears us to them. Either they're not around long enough to become imperfect, or they are imperfect, but our memories and stories of them get sweet with time. Even a bad experience becomes a good story." In a talk about barriers to gratitude, Gilovich further noted that a survey of his students at Cornell found that they enjoyed their conversations about their experiences than their material purchases, and that happiness from experiential purchases is more enduring than that from material purchases. The reason being that experiences make for better stories, cultivate personal identity more, and connect people to each other. Gilovich explained that the implication is that experiential purchases lead to more gratitude and thus to more pro-social behavior. In addition, Gilovich has emphasized the importance of being active and seeking goals: "We evolved to be goal-striving creatures. You’ll regret more the things that you didn’t do rather than the things you did." Along similar lines, in one talk he urged his audience, "mind your peaks and ends. You won’t remember the length of your vacation experience, but you’ll remember the intensity. And do something special at the end."

Books

 * Gilovich, T., & Ross, L. (2015). The wisest one in the room: How you can benefit from social psychology's most powerful insights. New York: Simon & Schuster.  ISBN 978-1-4516-7754-6
 * Gilovich, T., Keltner, D., & Nisbett, R.E. Social Psychology. New York: W.W. Norton.  ISBN 0-393-97875-3
 * Gilovich, T., Griffin, D. W. & Kahneman, D. (Eds.). (2002). Heuristics and Biases : The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-79679-2
 * Belsky, G., & Gilovich, T. (1999).  Why smart people make big money mistakes-and how to correct them: Lessons from the new science of behavioral economics.  New York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 0-684-85938-6
 * Gilovich, T. (1991). How we know what isn't so: The fallibility of human reason in everyday life.  New York: The Free Press. ISBN 0-02-911706-2. Summary.

Awards and recognition

 * Fellow of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry.
 * Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
 * Fellow of the American Psychological Association
 * Fellow of the Association for Psychological Science
 * Fellow of the Society of Experimental Social Psychology
 * Fellow of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology
 * 1998-99 Russell Distinguished Teaching Award at Cornell University

Personal life
Thomas Gilovich is married to Karen Dashiff Gilovich, with whom he has two daughters, Ilana and Rebecca. Gilovich stated in an interview that the best part about being a scientist is going to work every day asking "what do I want to do today?" and not so often "what do I have to do today?" and that the best quality of a scientist is knowing how to respond to failure.

title: Thomas Gilovich


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Jessie Tuggle

Jessie Lloyd Tuggle Jr. (born April 4, 1965) is an American former professional football player who spent his entire career as a linebacker for the Atlanta Falcons of the National Football League (NFL) from 1987 to 2000. He played college football for the Valdosta State Blazers. He appeared in the Pro Bowl five times, and played in Super Bowl XXXIII. His nickname is "the Hammer", because of the impact of his tackles.

Early life
Tuggle was born in 1965 in Spalding County, Georgia, and attended Griffin High School. He played football at Griffin as an outside linebacker and offensive guard.

Tuggle was considered "too small" (five-foot-10 and 180 pounds) and "too slow" to play Division I college football. He was not recruited by any Division I programs and received only two Division II offers. He accepted an offer from Valdosta State University and was a four-year starter at linebacker from 1983 to 1986. He broke Valdosta's career record with 340 tackles. He was a three-time All-Gulf South Conference selection and his No. 88 was retired less than a decade after Tuggle left.

In 2007, he was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame.

Atlanta Falcons
After going undrafted, Tuggle signed with the Atlanta Falcons through a chance encounter. During training camp, myriad injuries at linebacker gave Tuggle playing time and a shot at making the roster (which he did).

After being a role player his rookie season, he recorded 108 tackles by virtue of eight starts. Becoming a bona fide star on the Atlanta defense, marked by the 1989-1993 period in which Tuggle racked up 969 tackles. During that stretch, he made his first Pro Bowl appearance in 1992. Even while the Falcons languished, Tuggle never thought of leaving in free agency, even when he would meet former teammates like Brett Favre. This endeared him to many Atlanta fans, who consider him one of the greatest and most beloved Falcons of all time.

After being with the Falcons through some tough years, the high point in Tuggle's career was 1998, when he played in Super Bowl XXXIII and was voted to the Pro Bowl.

Tuggle retired during training camp in 2001 after injuries plagued the end of his career.

In his 14 NFL seasons, Tuggle appeared in 209 games (189 as a starter) and recorded 1,640 tackles (164 assisted), 21 sacks, six interceptions, which he returned for 106 yards and a touchdown, 10 forced fumbles and 37 pass deflections. He also recovered 10 fumbles, returning them for 155 yards and an NFL record five touchdowns.

He and his former teammate Clay Matthews Jr. are the only two players to lead the NFL in tackles four times. Tuggle also holds the record for most tackles from 1990 to 1999 with 1,293. At the time of his retirement, he held the NFL record for touchdowns via fumble recoveries with five.

Personal life
Tuggle's oldest son, Justin Tuggle, played at Kansas State University and is a former linebacker in the NFL and Canadian Football League. He participated in the 2013 NFL Draft, but was undrafted, and eventually signed with the Houston Texans.

His youngest son, Grady Jarrett, played defensive end in college football at Clemson University. Jarrett went on to be selected as the first pick in the 5th round (137th overall) of the 2015 NFL Draft by his father's former team, the Atlanta Falcons.

Tuggle has experienced some concussion-related symptoms like memory loss.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Jessie Tuggle


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Jim Edmonds

James Patrick Edmonds (born June 27, 1970) is an American former professional baseball center fielder and a broadcaster for Bally Sports Midwest. He played for the California/Anaheim Angels, St. Louis Cardinals, San Diego Padres, Chicago Cubs, Milwaukee Brewers, and Cincinnati Reds of Major League Baseball (MLB) from 1993 to 2010.

Edmonds was well known for his defensive abilities, earning eight Gold Glove Awards. He also was a prolific hitter, batting .284 with 393 home runs and an on-base plus slugging percentage (OPS) of .903. He is affectionately known by Cardinal fans as "Jimmy Baseball" or "Jimmy Ballgame".

Early life
Edmonds was born on June 27, 1970, in Fullerton, California. His parents divorced when he was a child and had joint custody. His father's home was within a few miles of Anaheim Stadium. He attended Diamond Bar High School in Diamond Bar, in eastern Los Angeles County.

1988–1993: Minor leagues
Edmonds was selected in the seventh round of the 1988 Major League Baseball draft by the California Angels. He had injured his shoulder in his senior year of high school, causing him to fall in the draft.

Following the draft, he was assigned to the Bend Bucks, the Angels' A-Short Season affiliate in the Northwest League. In 1988, he played in 35 games for the Bucks and hit .221 with no home runs and 13 runs batted in. The following year, he was promoted to the Quad Cities Angels, the team's Class-A affiliate in the Midwest League. He played in 31 games and hit .261 with 1 home run and 4 RBIs.

In 1990, Edmonds advanced to the Palm Springs Angels, the Angels' High-A affiliate in the California League. He played 91 games and hit .293 with 3 home runs and 56 RBIs. He remained with Palm Springs for the 1991 season, playing 60 games while batting .294 with two home runs and 27 RBIs. In 1992, he was promoted to Double-A with the Midland Angels in the Texas League. He hit .313 with eight home runs and 32 RBIs in 70 games for Midland. He was promoted again in 1992, moving up to the Triple-A Edmonton Trappers for 50 games, batting .299 with six home runs and 36 RBIs. In 1993, Edmonds played for the new Angels Triple-A affiliate, the Vancouver Canadians. He played 95 games for the team, batting .315 and hitting nine home runs with 74 RBIs.

1993–1996: Emergence as a power hitter
On September 7, 1993, the Angels promoted Edmonds to the majors for the first time. He made his MLB debut on September 9, starting in left field against the Detroit Tigers at Tiger Stadium, going 0-for-4 with two strikeouts. Edmonds collected his first major league hit on September 10 against the Toronto Blue Jays in the SkyDome, a pinch-hit double in the ninth inning off of Duane Ward. Edmonds collected his first major league RBI on September 14 against Seattle Mariners pitcher Roger Salkeld, driving in Chad Curtis with a single. In his September call-up 1993 season, Edmonds batted .246 in 61 at-bats across 18 games.

Despite the signings of outfielders Bo Jackson and Dwight Smith in the offseason, Edmonds made the Angels' 1994 Opening Day roster. Edmonds received sporadic playing time for the first half of the season, often pinch hitting and rarely starting games. He did not hit his first major league home run until May 11, 1994, in a game against the Texas Rangers where he hit a two-run shot off Rick Helling. Through his first 50 games in 1994, Edmonds was batting .328 with a .405 on-base percentage. By June, Edmonds began to receive more regular playing time, serving as the primary left fielder after Bo Jackson had been benched and Dwight Smith had been traded to Baltimore. Midway through the season, Edmonds was considered by the media to be a prime candidate for the AL Rookie of the Year Award. Although Edmonds's high averages regressed as he played more games, he finished the strike-shortened season batting .273 with five home runs and 37 RBIs. He placed eighth in AL Rookie of the Year voting.

With the departure of Chad Curtis in the offseason, Edmonds became the Angels' everyday center fielder for the 1995 season. In his new role as the team's primary center fielder, Edmonds also emerged as a formidable power hitter; he only had 29 home runs in his six-year minor league career and five in his true rookie season, leading to him being initially recognized as a contact hitter when coupled with his high batting averages. Edmonds did not hit any home runs through the first 17 games of the 1995 season, but hit six with an .857 slugging percentage in an eight-game stretch from May 15 to May 23. Edmonds received his first All-Star Game selection in 1995 and was batting .291 with 13 home runs and 52 RBIs at the All-Star break. Edmonds finished the 1995 season batting .290 with 33 home runs and 107 RBIs.

Edmonds returned to the Angels in 1996 as one of the team's best all-around hitters. On March 7, he agreed to a four-year, $9.5 million contract extension with the Angels that included a team option in the fifth year. He suffered groin and stomach injuries on May 25, sidelining him for a month. Edmonds returned to the field on June 10 but sprained his thumb the following day, causing him to be out for another month. He returned to action on July 18, going 2-for-5 with a home run against the Seattle Mariners. Edmonds finished the 1996 season batting .304 with 27 home runs and 66 RBIs.

1997–1999: Gold Glove selections
Edmonds, along with Tim Salmon, Garret Anderson, and Darin Erstad, comprised a group of four outfielders that emerged as viable options for the Angels in the mid-1990s. This created a dilemma for the team's front office, who sought to have all four players serve as everyday starters. As a result, the Angels traded designated hitter Chili Davis and first baseman J. T. Snow for pitching in the 1996–97 offseason in order to create playing time for all four outfielders. Amid the positional shakeup, Edmonds was able to stay in center field while Erstad moved to first base. Edmonds received recognition for his defensive prowess in 1997, often making highlight reels. During a June 10, 1997, game against the Kansas City Royals, Edmonds ran straight back towards the center field wall of Kauffman Stadium and dove outstretched for a fly ball over his head, making the catch on the warning track. The catch is widely viewed as one of the greatest defensive plays in baseball history, with Joe Posnanski of The Athletic ranking it as the 29th-greatest moment in all of baseball history. In the 1997 season, Edmonds batted .291 and hit 26 home runs with 80 RBIs. Following the season, he received his first career Gold Glove Award.

In September 1998, the division-leading Angels fell behind the Texas Rangers in the standings, ultimately losing the division and missing out on the playoffs. Edmonds, despite batting .340 that month with five home runs and 20 RBIs, was criticized by some teammates for his purported nonchalance towards the Angels' late-season elimination. In an interview, Edmonds said that he wasn't "going to come in the next day and want to kill himself" if the Angels were mathematically eliminated. In 1998, Edmonds played a career-high 154 games, hitting .307 with 25 home runs and 91 RBIs. He received his second career Gold Glove Award.

During spring training in 1999, Edmonds tore the labrum in his right shoulder while lifting weights, aggravating an injury he had been playing through for several years prior. He underwent surgery to correct the injury, sidelining him for the first half of the season. In addition to the deactivating surgery, tensions were also rising in the clubhouse as some teammates were taking exception to Edmonds's alleged nonchalant, dismissive attitude. These factors created doubt that the Angels would bring back Edmonds after the 1999 season. Team newcomer Mo Vaughn, who had yet to share the field with Edmonds, accused him of not accepting responsibility for team struggles. Edmonds returned to the field as a designated hitter on August 2, 1999, going 2-for-4 against the Texas Rangers with a double. He returned to center field on August 7. He finished his abbreviated 1999 season batting .250 with 5 home runs and 23 RBIs in 55 games.

2000–2003: Immediate production
On March 23, 2000, the Angels traded Edmonds to the St. Louis Cardinals for second baseman Adam Kennedy and pitcher Kent Bottenfield. Five days prior, Angels general manager Bill Stoneman had told Edmonds that he would not be traded, but plans purportedly changed when St. Louis made Kennedy available.

Edmonds made his Cardinals debut on April 3, 2000, going 0-for-3 with 2 walks against the Chicago Cubs. He recorded his first hit, home run, and RBI as a Cardinal the following day. Through his first 50 games, Edmonds batted .371 with 16 home runs and 39 RBIs. He received his second career All-Star selection, starting in the game in place of the injured Ken Griffey Jr., going 1-for-2 with a hit off David Wells. Edmonds finished the year batting .295 with 42 home runs and 108 RBIs. He received his third career Gold Glove Award and finished fourth in National League Most Valuable Player Award voting. In the postseason, Edmonds batted .361 with 3 home runs and 12 RBIs in 8 games.

In 2001, Edmonds batted .304 with 30 home runs and 110 RBIs. He received his second consecutive Gold Glove Award, the fourth of his career. In the 2001 National League Division Series, Edmonds batted .235 with two home runs and three RBIs.

In 2002, Edmonds batted a career-high .311 with 28 home runs and 83 RBIs. He was awarded his third consecutive Gold Glove Award, the fifth of his career. In the 2002 postseason, Edmonds batted .355 with two home runs and six RBIs through eight games.

In 2003, Edmonds received his third career All-Star selection. Through the All-Star break, he batted .303 with 28 home runs and 67 RBIs. Edmonds started in center field in the All-Star game and batted second, going 1-for-2 with a first-inning single off AL starter Esteban Loaiza. Edmonds slumped after the All-Star break, batting .214 with 11 home runs and 22 RBIs. He finished the season batting .275 with 39 home runs and 89 RBIs. He received his fourth consecutive Gold Glove Award, the sixth of his career.

2004–2007: Postseason success
The 2004 season was among the statistically best for Edmonds. He hit .301, had a .643 slugging percentage, 42 home runs, and 111 RBI; all but batting average were career highs. As a result, he earned a Silver Slugger Award, a Gold Glove Award, and was fifth in the voting for the NL Most Valuable Player Award. During a Chicago Cubs-Cardinals game at Wrigley Field on July 19, 2004, pitcher Carlos Zambrano was ejected from the game for throwing at Edmonds. Zambrano screamed at Edmonds as he rounded the bases on a home run, earning Zambrano a five-game suspension. Edmonds, along with Albert Pujols and Scott Rolen, earned the nickname "MV3" for their standout 2004 seasons. Edmonds was on the cover of video game MLB Slugfest in 2004. A defining moment of Edmonds' career came in the 2004 National League Championship Series, in which Edmonds hit a twelfth-inning home run to win Game 6. In Game 7, Edmonds made a spectacular defensive play in center, helping the Cardinals win the pennant.

In 2005, Edmonds hit .263 with 29 home runs and 89 RBIs, earning his fourth career All-Star selection. During Game 4 of the 2005 National League Championship Series, Edmonds was ejected in the eighth inning for arguing a strike call made by home plate umpire Phil Cuzzi. Edmonds later said that he "wasn't trying to show up" Cuzzi and said that Cuzzi responded profanely, a claim that was not contested. In 9 postseason games in 2005, Edmonds batted .267 with a home run, one RBI, and three doubles.

On Mother's Day in 2006, Edmonds was one of more than 50 hitters who used a pink bat to benefit the Susan G. Komen for the Cure foundation. Late in the 2006 season, Edmonds began having trouble with fielding that plagued the rest of his tenure with St. Louis. On June 21, he crashed into the wall of U.S. Cellular Field while playing against the Chicago White Sox trying to rob a home run ball. Intermittent bouts of nausea, dizziness, and blurred vision followed in the next few weeks for him, particularly intensifying on diving attempts. Two months after the crash, he was diagnosed with post-concussion syndrome. In the 2006 postseason, Edmonds helped the St. Louis Cardinals win their first World Series title since 1982 while having 13 total hits in the postseason with two home runs while batting in all 16 games.

He batted .252 in 117 games in 2007 while hitting 12 home runs with 53 runs batted in.

2008–2009: Padres, Cubs, and off-year
On December 14, 2007, the Cardinals traded Edmonds to the San Diego Padres in exchange for prospect David Freese. As part of the deal, the Cardinals also agreed to pay part of Edmonds's 2008 salary. Edmonds' 241 home runs with the Cardinals are the fourth-most in franchise history. On May 9, 2008, the Padres released him after hitting only .178 with one home run in 90 at-bats.

On May 14, 2008, the Chicago Cubs, in need of a left-handed bat, signed Edmonds to a one-year contract of which the Cubs were only responsible for the league minimum. He started the next day against his former team, the Padres, and went 1-for-4. Edmonds was not well-received initially by the fans in Chicago, but after joining the Cubs, he hit over .300 with eight home runs in his first six weeks. On June 21, 2008, Edmonds hit two home runs in the fourth inning against the Chicago White Sox.

Edmonds did not play in 2009 because he did not receive what he considered a good offer. In January 2010, he announced his intention to return to the majors, saying, "Last year was a mistake. I should have played somewhere."

2010–2011: Return and retirement
On January 28, 2010, Edmonds signed a minor league deal with the Milwaukee Brewers. The Brewers added him to the major league roster on March 25.

On August 9, 2010, Edmonds was traded to the Cincinnati Reds in exchange for Chris Dickerson. Both Edmonds and Dickerson had to clear waivers because the non-waiver trade deadline had already passed.

On February 4, 2011, Edmonds signed a minor league contract with the St. Louis Cardinals; however, after continuing symptoms from a strained Achilles tendon suffered during the 2010 season, Edmonds officially announced his retirement from baseball on February 18, 2011.

Broadcasting career
On March 14, 2013, Fox Sports Midwest announced that they had hired Edmonds to join their St. Louis Cardinals broadcasting crew. Edmonds initially served as an analyst during Cardinals Live pre-game and post-game broadcasts. He replaced Cal Eldred, a former Cardinal pitcher who had broadcast for FSM for four years and was moving on to become a special assistant in the Cardinals organization. Since 2016, Edmonds has alternated between the "Cardinals Live" studio role and serving as a color commentator in the booth for certain games.

Edmonds has expressed a desire to one day be a part of the Cardinals ownership group.

Personal life
Edmonds has two daughters from his first marriage, to Lee Ann Horton, who died of cancer in 2015.

He has a son and a daughter from his second marriage, to Allison Jayne Raski, which lasted from 2008 to 2014.

Edmonds married Meghan O'Toole King on October 24, 2014. She joined the cast of The Real Housewives of Orange County in 2015; Edmonds appeared on the show. They welcomed a daughter on Thanksgiving Day 2016 and twin boys on June 5, 2018. On October 25, 2019, the day after their fifth wedding anniversary, Edmonds filed for divorce.

Edmonds married Kortnie O'Connor in 2022.

Edmonds and his family live in Frontenac, Missouri, a suburb of St. Louis.

Business ventures
Edmonds opened several restaurants with business partner Mark Winfield. The pair opened their first restaurant in 2007, while Edmonds was still playing for the Cardinals. Called Jim Edmonds 15 Steakhouse, it closed in September 2013. Within a few months, they opened a new restaurant in the space called The Precinct; it would close in May 2015.

In 2015, they opened a BBQ-style restaurant called Winfield's Gathering Place in Kirkwood, Missouri; it closed on July 2, 2016.

Awards
Edmonds' fielding ability has earned him recognition from Major League coaches and managers, who voted him a Rawlings Gold Glove winner eight times in nine seasons from 1997 to 2005.

ESPN's Rob Neyer lists Edmonds as No. 12 of the top 100 players of the first decade of the 21st century due to his productivity at the plate and gold-glove skills in center field.

On August 8, 2014, Edmonds was inducted into the St. Louis Cardinals Hall of Fame. He was announced as a candidate for the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum on November 9, 2015, but was removed from the ballot on January 6, 2016, after only receiving 2.5% of the vote in his first year of eligibility.

title: Jim Edmonds


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Clarence J. Brown

Clarence James Brown Sr. (July 14, 1893 – August 23, 1965), was an American newspaper publisher and politician; he represented Ohio as a Republican in the United States House of Representatives from 1939 until his death in Bethesda, Maryland in 1965. Long representing conservative views, near the end of his life, he helped gain House passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which he voted for to provide enforcement of the right to vote for all citizens, while also voting in favor of the Civil Rights Act of 1957, 1960, and 1964.

As president of Brown Publishing Company from 1920, he created a huge media company that lasted for 90 years. In 1918, at age 25, Brown was elected as the 36th lieutenant governor of Ohio, the youngest man to gain that post.

Life and career
Brown was born in Blanchester, Clinton County, Ohio or West Union, Clermont County, Ohio, the son of Owen and Ellen Barerre (née McCoppin) Brown. He attended the Blanchester public schools, and then attended law school at Washington and Lee University, in Lexington, Virginia, from 1913 to 1915.

On his twenty-first birthday, Brown married Ethel McKinney. He worked as state statistician in 1915 and 1916 in the Ohio Secretary of State's office.

Brown began newspaper work in Blanchester in 1917, where he published several country newspapers. He became president of the Brown Publishing Company in Blanchester, and also owned and operated several large farms in the Blanchester area. He directed Brown Publishing for the rest of his life.

Political career
In 1918, at 25, Brown was elected as the 36th Lieutenant Governor of Ohio, serving from 1919 to 1923; he was the youngest man ever to hold the office. In 1926, he was elected Ohio Secretary of State and served from 1927 to 1933.

In 1921, at the height of the Ku Klux Klan's power in Ohio, Brown supported federal civil rights legislation to stop the lynching of African-Americans. In 1938, prior to his first election as U.S. representative, he was one of only 67 (of 870) candidates for U.S. House along with only 8 (out of 96) sitting Senators to pledge support to the NAACP for federal anti-lynching legislation, the legislative precursor to modern civil rights legislation. In 1940, during debate of the anti-lynching bill he stated:

We hear much of the struggle throughout the world to maintain democracy. From the lips of those who oppose this measure comes... at other times... the loudest protestations of belief in democracy. Let me say, here and now, that if democracy is to continue to live throughout the world, and here in our beloved America, those of us who have the ability and power to do so must see to it that the full rights of the weak and defenseless are safeguarded against the violence and the intolerance of the strong and the mighty.

In 1947, during floor debate involving Adam Clayton Powell Jr. (D–NY) and John E. Rankin (D–MS), Brown forced a rule change from Speaker Joseph W. Martin Jr. (R–MA) to prohibit racially offensive language from being used on the House floor.

Brown twice ran for governor of Ohio. In 1932, he lost the primary. In 1934, he won the Republican nomination but lost the general election. Brown was a delegate to the Republican National Conventions in 1936, 1940, 1944 and 1948 and a member of the Republican National Committee from 1944.

Brown was elected in 1938 as a Republican to the Seventy-sixth and to the thirteen succeeding Congresses, serving from January 3, 1939 until his death in 1965. While in Congress, he was chairman of the Select Committee on Newsprint in the Eightieth Congress; he was a personal friend of Democrat Speaker of the House Sam Rayburn of Texas.

In the 1930s and 1940s, Brown staunchly opposed President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal policies to expand the federal bureaucracy. He also opposed expanding U.S. foreign military entanglements until the attack on Pearl Harbor. However, in March 1941 he voted in favor of providing increased military aid to the United Kingdom during that country's war against Nazi Germany. Following World War II, Brown warned against the continuation and expansion of foreign aid programs that were meant to be temporary. When Harry S. Truman became president, Brown opposed his Fair Deal, viewing it as corrupt cronyism through the expansion of federal bureaucracy.

Brown cosponsored legislation to create the Hoover Commission to study and reform the federal government and served on the commission, formally the Commission on the Organization of the Executive Branch of Government.

By the 1950s, Brown was the ranking minority member of the important Rules Committee in Congress. In the 1960s, he worked with its chairman, the Democrat Howard W. Smith of Virginia, to block expansive federal legislation sought by Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson. Smith was a senior member of the Southern Bloc, which was established by white Democrats at the turn of the 20th century, when the former Confederate States disfranchised blacks. However, near the end of his life, Brown convinced the segregationist Smith to allow landmark civil rights legislation to reach the House floor for a vote.

He checked out of the hospital to help shepherd the Voting Rights Act of 1965 through Smith's Rules Committee, and he contributed to the achievements of the Civil rights movement.

Brown died from uremic poisoning due to kidney failure at Bethesda Naval Hospital, Bethesda, Maryland on August 23, 1965. He was buried in the I.O.O.F. Cemetery, Blanchester, Ohio.

Brown was a member of the Masons, K. of P., I.O.O.F., Moose, and M.W.A.

Brown and his wife Ethel had three children — Betty, Dorothy and Clarence J. "Bud" Brown Jr.

His son, Bud, won the special election in 1965 to fill his father's seat in Congress. His grandson is Clancy Brown, an actor. He is not related to the film director of the same name.

title: Clarence J. Brown


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Lee Ross

Lee David Ross (August 25, 1942 – May 14, 2021) was a Canadian-American professor. He held the title of the Stanford Federal Credit Union Professor of Humanities and Sciences at Stanford University and was an influential social psychologist who studied attributional biases, shortcomings in judgment and decision making, and barriers to conflict resolution, often with longtime collaborator Mark Lepper. Ross was known for his identification and explication of the fundamental attribution error and for the demonstration and analysis of other phenomena and shortcomings that have become standard topics in textbooks and in some cases, even popular media. His interests included ongoing societal problems, in particular protracted inter-group conflicts, the individual and collective rationalization of evil, and the psychological processes that make it difficult to confront societal challenges. Ross went beyond the laboratory to involve himself in conflict resolution and public peace processes in the Middle East, Northern Ireland, and other areas of the world.

Life
Ross was born in Toronto on August 25, 1942. He earned his B.A. degree in psychology at the University of Toronto in 1965 and his Ph.D. in social psychology at Columbia University in 1969 under the supervision of Stanley Schachter. His primary interests include biases in human inference, judgment, and decision-making; intergroup relations and dispute resolution; political psychology; and points of contact between psychology, law, and ethics.

Ross first came into prominence in 1977 when he coined the term "fundamental attribution error" to describe the finding that people are predisposed towards attributing another person's behavior to individual characteristics and attitudes, even when it is relatively clear that the person's behavior was a result of situational demands (Ross, 1977; This effect is closely linked to, but somewhat broader than, "correspondence bias" identified by Jones & Davis, 1965). With Robert Vallone and Mark Lepper he authored the first study to describe the hostile media effect. He has also collaborated with Richard Nisbett in books on human judgment (Nisbett & Ross, 1980) and the relation between social situations and personality (i.e. "the person and the situation"; Ross & Nisbett, 1991). His 1977 chapter, on "The Intuitive Psychologist and his Shortcomings" has been one of the most cited articles in social psychology over the past four decades.

Author of over 100 journal articles and book chapters, Ross, co-authored two influential books with Richard Nisbett: Human Inference (1980), which deals with the tasks, strategies, and shortcomings of the intuitive psychologist and The Person and the Situation (Ross & Nisbett, 1991; reissued in 2011 with a foreword by Malcolm Gladwell, who commented that "all of my books have been, in some sense, intellectual godchildren of the Person and the Situation"). Most recently, Ross has co-authored, with Tom Gilovich, The Wisest One in the Room, which explores what the authors consider to be the most important and the most personally and societally useful ideas to have emerged from social psychology and related disciplines.

Ross died on May 14, 2021, at the age of 78 from heart and kidney failure at his home in Palo Alto. He was survived by his wife Judith (née Spinks) Ross, and their four adult children.

Awards

 * 1994: Elected to American Academy of Arts
 * 2003: American Psychological Society William James Fellow
 * 2004: Elected to American Academy of Sciences
 * 2008: Distinguished Scientist Award from Society of Experimental Social Psychology
 * 2010: Elected to the National Academy of Science

Research
Lee Ross was interested in – and has influenced – many fields of psychology, including attitude formation and change, social cognition, judgment and decision, influence, intergroup relations and political psychology. His research generally focused on sources of bias and error and strategies to ameliorate them. With an interdisciplinary group of researchers, Ross was a co-founder of the Stanford Center on International Conflict and Negotiation (SCICN). The motivational, cognitive, and perceptual barriers that thwart efforts to ease conflict and achieve mutually beneficial agreements has been a major focus both of his research and applied work over the past two decades.

His earliest work involved the under-appreciation of situational influences on actions and outcomes, and on the role of "construal" or subjective interpretation of the situations and choices one faces. For example, one study on the "fundamental attribution error" demonstrated that observers are relatively insensitive to role-conferred advantages and disadvantages in evaluating actions and outcomes. A study on the role of situational construal and the impact of situational labeling showed that the decision of research participants to cooperate vs defect when playing the classic Prisoner's Dilemma game could be heavily influenced by the "name of the game" (i.e. the Wall Street Game versus the Community Game). Much of his subsequent work focused on these influences, and related ones, that govern a wide range of interferential and judgmental tasks, and the interactions between individuals and between groups.

Ross and his colleagues subsequently conducted ground-breaking work on other errors and biases in judgment and decision-making and in the attribution process, including biased assimilation of information and resulting belief perseverance, the false consensus effect, the hostile media effect, reactive devaluation, and most recently "naive realism" or the illusion of personal objectivity.

Books and chapters

 * Ross, L. (1977). The intuitive psychologist and his shortcomings: Distortions in the attribution process. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (vol. 10). New York: Academic Press.
 * Nisbett, R. E., & Ross, L. (1980). Human inference: Strategies and shortcomings of social judgment. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
 * Human inference: Strategies and shortcomings of social judgment. Prentice-Hall, Century Series, 1980 (with R.E. Nisbett).
 * Flavell, J. & Ross, L. (eds.) 1981 Cognitive social development: Frontiers and possible futures. 1981 Cambridge Press.
 * Ross, L & Nisbett, R.E. (1991) The Personal and the Situation: McGraw-Hill (re-issued, 2011, with a new introduction by Malcolm Gladwell, Pinter and Martin).
 * Griffin, D.W. & Ross, L. Subjective construal, social inference, and human misunderstanding. In M. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology, (Vol. 24). New York: Academic Press, 1991.
 * Ross, L and Nisbett, R.E. The person and the situation. McGraw Hill, 1991 (with R.E. Nisbett). Reissued with new foreword by Malcolm Gladwell and afterword by the authors, 2011.
 * Arrow, K., Mnookin, R., Ross, L., Tversky, A. & Wilson, R. (Eds.) Barriers to conflict resolution, Norton, 1995.
 * Mnookin, R.H. & Ross, L. Strategic, psychological, and institutional barriers: An introduction. In K. Arrow, R. Mnookin, L. Ross, A. Tversky, & R. Wilson (Eds.), Barriers to conflict resolution. New York: Norton, 1995.
 * Ross, L. The reactive devaluation barrier to dispute resolution. In K. Arrow, R. Mnookin, L. Ross, A. Tversky, & R. Wilson (Eds.), Barriers to conflict resolution. New York: Norton, 1995.
 * Ross, L & Ward, A. Psychological barriers to dispute resolution. In M. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology, (Vol. 27). New York: Academic Press, 1995.
 * Ross, L. & Ward, A. Naive realism in everyday life: Implications for social conflict and misunderstanding. In T. Brown, E. Reed, & E. Turiel (Eds.), Values and knowledge. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1996.
 * Ross, L., Lepper, M. & Ward, A. a history of social psychology: Insights, contributions, and challenges. In S. Fiske & D. Gilbert (Eds.) Handbook of social psychology (4th ed., Vol. 1) New York: Random House, 2010.
 * Ross, L. Perspectives on disagreement and dispute resolution: Lessons from the lab and the real world. In E. Shafir (Ed.) The behavioral foundations of public policy. 2014 Princeton University & Russell Sage Foundation Press, Princeton, NJ: 2012.
 * Gilovich, T. & Ross, L. The wisest one in the room – How you can benefit from social psychology's most powerful insights, Free Press, 2015.

Journal articles

 * Ross. L., Rodin, J., Zimbardo, P. Toward an attribution therapy: The reduction of fear through induced cognitive-emotional misattribution. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1969, 12, 279–288.
 * Ross, L., Lepper, M. & Hubbard, M. Perseverance in self-perception and social perception: Biased attributional processes in the debriefing paradigm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1975, 32, 880–892.
 * Ross, L., Amabile, T. & Steinmetz, J. Social roles, social control, and biases in social perception processes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1977, 35, 485–494.
 * Ross, L. The intuitive psychologist and his shortcomings: Distortions in the attribution process. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology, (Vol. 10). New York: Academic Press, 1977.
 * Ross, L. & Stillinger, C. Barriers to conflict resolution. Negotiation Journal, 1991, 7, 389–404.
 * Cohen, G., Steele, C., Ross L. The mentor's dilemma: Providing critical feedback across the racial divide. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 1999, 25(10), 1302–1318.
 * Pronin, E., Kruger, J., Savitsky, K. & Ross, L. You don't know me, but I know you: The illusion of asymmetric insight. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2001, 81, 639–656.
 * Pronin, E., Lin, D. & Ross, L. The bias blindspot: Perceptions of bias in self and others. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 2002, 28, 369–381.
 * Maoz, I., Ward, A., Katz, M., Ross, L. Reactive devaluation of an "Israeli" vs a "Palestinian" peace proposal. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 2002, 46, 515–546.
 * Liberman, V., Samuels, S. & Ross, L. The name of the game: Predictive of reputations vs. situational labels in determining Prisoner’s Dilemma game moves power. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 2004, 30, 1175–1185.
 * Bryan, C., Dweck, C., Ross, L. Kay, A. & Mislavsky, N. Political mindset: Effects of schema priming on liberal–conservative political positions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 2009, 45, 890–895.
 * Liberman. V., Anderson, N.R. & Ross, L. Achieving difficult agreements: Effects of positive expectations on negotiation processes and outcomes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 2010, 46, 494–504.
 * Liberman, V., Minson, JA, Bryan, CJ, Ross, L. Naïve realism and capturing the "wisdom of dyads." Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 2011, 48, 507–512.
 * Ross, L. & Shestowski, D. Two psychologists’ reflections on situationism and the criminal justice system. In Ideology, Psychology, and Law. J. Hanson (ed). Oxford University Press, 2012.
 * Ross, L., Lelkes, Y. & Russell A. How Christians reconcile their personal political views and the teachings of their faith: Projection as a means of dissonance reduction. Proceeding of the National Academy of Science, 2012, 109 (10), 3616–3622.
 * Ross, L, Arrow, K., Cialdini, R., Diamond, J Diamond-Smith, N., Dunne, J; Ehrlich, P., Feldman, M., Horn, R., Murphy, C.N., Pirages, P., Smith, K.R. & York, R. The Climate Change Challenge and Barriers to the Exercise of Foresight Intelligence. BioScience, (2016) DOI: 10.1093/biosci/biw025.
 * Ross, L. From the fundamental attribution error to the truly fundamental attribution error and beyond: My research journey. (In Press Perspectives in Psychology).
 * Bland, B. & Ross, L Pursuing a shared future in the face of globalization: Four essential questions. (In press International Journal of Law and Public Administration).
 * Ross, L., Kahn, D, & Liberman V. The objectivity illusion in responses to perceived dissimilarity in political views and sentiments: An extension of naïve realism. (Manuscript under revision. Journal of Conflict Resolution).
 * Bryan, C., Dweck, C., Ross, L. Kay, A. & Mislavsky, N. Political mindset: Effects of schema priming on liberal–conservative political positions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 2009, 45, 890–895.
 * Liberman. V., Anderson, N.R. & Ross, L. Achieving difficult agreements: Effects of positive expectations on negotiation processes and outcomes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 2010, 46, 494–504.
 * Liberman, V., Minson, JA, Bryan, CJ, Ross, L. Naïve realism and capturing the "wisdom of dyads." Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 2011, 48, 507–512.
 * Ross, L. & Shestowski, D. Two psychologists’ reflections on situationism and the criminal justice system. In Ideology, Psychology, and Law. J. Hanson (ed). Oxford University Press, 2012.
 * Ross, L., Lelkes, Y. & Russell A. How Christians reconcile their personal political views and the teachings of their faith: Projection as a means of dissonance reduction. Proceeding of the National Academy of Science, 2012, 109 (10), 3616–3622.
 * Ross, L, Arrow, K., Cialdini, R., Diamond, J Diamond-Smith, N., Dunne, J; Ehrlich, P., Feldman, M., Horn, R., Murphy, C.N., Pirages, P., Smith, K.R. & York, R. The Climate Change Challenge and Barriers to the Exercise of Foresight Intelligence. BioScience, (2016) DOI: 10.1093/biosci/biw025.
 * Ross, L. From the fundamental attribution error to the truly fundamental attribution error and beyond: My research journey. (In Press Perspectives in Psychology).
 * Bland, B. & Ross, L Pursuing a shared future in the face of globalization: Four essential questions. (In press International Journal of Law and Public Administration).
 * Ross, L., Kahn, D, & Liberman V. The objectivity illusion in responses to perceived dissimilarity in political views and sentiments: An extension of naïve realism. (Manuscript under revision. Journal of Conflict Resolution).
 * Bland, B. & Ross, L Pursuing a shared future in the face of globalization: Four essential questions. (In press International Journal of Law and Public Administration).
 * Ross, L., Kahn, D, & Liberman V. The objectivity illusion in responses to perceived dissimilarity in political views and sentiments: An extension of naïve realism. (Manuscript under revision. Journal of Conflict Resolution).

Notable contributions

 * Attitude polarization
 * Attribution theory
 * Naive realism
 * False consensus effect
 * Fundamental attribution error
 * Hostile media effect

title: Lee Ross