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History of whaling

This article discusses the history of whaling from prehistoric times up to the commencement of the International Whaling Commission (IWC) moratorium on commercial whaling in 1986. Whaling has been an important subsistence and economic activity in multiple regions throughout human history. Commercial whaling dramatically reduced in importance during the 19th century due to the development of alternatives to whale oil for lighting, and the collapse in whale populations. Nevertheless, some nations continue to hunt whales even today.

Early history
Humans have engaged in whaling since prehistoric times. Early depictions of whaling at the Neolithic Bangudae site in Korea, unearthed by researchers from Kyungpook National University, may date back to 6000BCE. The University of Alaska Fairbanks has described evidence for whaling at least as early as circa 1000BCE.

The oldest known method of catching cetaceans is dolphin drive hunting, in which a number of small boats are positioned between the animal and the open sea and the animals are herded towards shore in an attempt to beach them. This method is still used for smaller species such as pilot whales, beluga whales, porpoises and narwhals, as described in A Pattern of Islands, a memoir published by British administrator Arthur Grimble in 1952.

Another early method used a drogue (a semi-floating object) such as a wooden drum or an inflated sealskin tied to an arrow or a harpoon. Once the missile had been shot into a whale's body, the buoyancy and drag from the drogue would eventually cause the whale to tire, allowing it to be approached and killed. Cultures that practiced whaling with drogues included the Ainu, Inuit, Native Americans, and the Basque people of the Bay of Biscay. The Bangudae petroglyphs show sperm whales, humpback whales and North Pacific right whales surrounded by boats, and suggest that drogues, harpoons and lines were being used to kill small whales as early as 6000BCE. Cetacean bones of the same period were also found in the area, reflecting the importance of whales in the diet of prehistoric coastal people.

Whale bones recovered near the Strait of Gibraltar raise the possibility that whales were hunted in the Mediterranean Sea by ancient Rome.

Newfoundland and Labrador
Around 1525 Basques began whaling and fishing for cod off Newfoundland, Labrador, and similar places. In his History of Brittany (1582), the French jurist and historian Bertrand d'Argentré made the claim that the Basques, Bretons, and Normans were the first to reach the New World "before any other people". The Bordeaux jurist Etienne de Cleirac (1647) made a similar claim, stating that the French Basques, in pursuing whales across the North Atlantic, discovered North America a century before Columbus. The Belgian cetologist Pierre-Joseph van Beneden (1878, 1892) repeated such assertions by saying that the Basques, in the year 1372, found the number of whales to increase on approach of the Newfoundland Banks.

The first undisputed presence of Basque whaling expeditions in the New World was in the second quarter of the 16th century. It appears to have been the French Basques, following the lead of Breton cod-fishermen that reported finding rich whaling grounds in Terranova (Newfoundland). The Basques called the area they frequented Grandbaya (Grand Bay), today known as the Strait of Belle Isle, which separates Newfoundland from southern Labrador. Their initial voyages to this area were mixed cod and whaling ventures. Instead of returning home with whale oil, they brought back whale meat in brine. The French Basque ship La Catherine d'Urtubie made the first known voyage involving whale products in 1530, when she supposedly returned with 4,500 dried and cured cod, as well as twelve barrels of whale meat "without flippers or tail" (a phrase for whale meat in brine). After a period of development, expeditions were sent purely aimed at obtaining whale oil. The first establishments for processing whale oil in southern Labrador may have been built in the late 1530s, although it wasn't until 1548 that notarial documents confirm this.

By the 1540s, when the Spanish Basques began sending whaling expeditions to Newfoundland, the ventures were no longer experimental, but a "resounding financial success from their inception." By the end of the decade they were delivering large cargoes of whale oil to Bristol, London, and Flanders. A large market existed for "lumera", as whale oil used for lighting was called. "Sain" or "grasa de ballena" was also used (by mixing it with tar and oakum) for caulking ships, as well as in the textile industry. Ambroise Paré (1510–90), who visited Bayonne when King Charles IX (r. 1560–74) was there in 1564, said they used the baleen to "make farthingales, stays for women, knife-handles, and many other things".

Most documents dealing with whaling in Newfoundland concern the years 1548 to 1588, with the largest quantity dealing with the harbor of Red Bay or "Less Buttes"—both names in reference to the red granite cliffs of the region. The references include acts of piracy in the 1550s, the loss of a ship in 1565, a disastrous wintering in 1576–77, and, on Christmas Eve 1584, a will written for a dying Basque, Joanes de Echaniz; the first known Canadian will. The last overwintering in Red Bay was made in 1603. During their onshore stays, the whalers developed relations with North American natives that led to the establishment of a purpose-specific language with both American native and Basque elements.

United States of America
Beginning in the late colonial period, the United States grew to become the preeminent whaling nation in the world by the 1830s. American whaling's origins were in New York and New England, including Cape Cod, Massachusetts and nearby cities. Whale oil was in demand chiefly for lamps. By the 18th century whaling in Nantucket had become a highly lucrative deep-sea industry, with voyages extending for years at a time and traveling as far as South Pacific waters. During the American Revolution, the British navy targeted American whaling ships as legitimate prizes. In turn, many whalers fitted out as privateers against the British.

Whaling recovered after the war ended in 1783 and the industry began to prosper, using bases at Nantucket and then New Bedford. Whalers took greater economic risks in search of profit, expanding their hunting grounds. Investment and financing arrangements allowed managers of whaling ventures to share their risks by selling some equity, but retain a substantial portion of the profit. As a result, they had little incentive to plan their voyages to minimize risk.

Ten thousand seamen manned the ships, including more than 3,000 African American seamen. Early whaling efforts concentrated on right whales and humpbacks, which were found near the American coast. As these populations declined and the market for whale products grew, American whalers began hunting sperm whales. The sperm whale was particularly prized for spermaceti, a dense waxy substance that burns with an exceedingly bright flame that is found in the spermaceti organ, located forward and above the skull. Hunting sperm required longer whaling voyages.

Whale oil was essential for illuminating homes and businesses in the 19th century, and lubricated the machines of the Industrial Revolution. Baleen (the long keratin strips that hang from the top of whales' mouths) was used by manufacturers in the United States and Europe to make varied consumer goods.

British competition and import duties drove New England whaling ships out of the North Atlantic and into the southern oceans, ultimately making whaling into a global economic enterprise. The mid 19th century was the golden age of American whaling.

From the Civil War, when Confederate raiders targeted American whalers, through the early 20th century, the American whaling industry suffered economic competition, especially from kerosene, a superior fuel for lighting.

Localities
A number of New England towns were heavily involved in whaling, particularly Nantucket and New Bedford. Nantucket began whaling in 1690 after recruiting a whaling instructor, Ichabod Paddock. The south side of the island was divided into three and a half mile sections, each with a mast erected to look for the spouts of right whales. Once a whale was sighted, rowing boats were sent from the shore. If the whale was successfully killed it was towed ashore, flensed (i.e., the blubber was cut off), and the blubber boiled in cauldrons known as "try pots". Even when whales were caught far offshore, the blubber was still boiled on shore well into the 18th century. New Bedford whaling was established when prominent Nantucket whaling families moved their operations to the town for economic reasons, and made New Bedford the fourth busiest port in the United States. In Herman Melville's novel Moby-Dick the narrator begins his whaling voyage from New Bedford.

In the late 1870s, schooners began hunting humpbacks in the Gulf of Maine. In 1880, with the decline of menhaden fish, steamers began to switch to hunting fin and humpback whales using bomb lances. This has been called "shoot-and-salvage" because of the high-rate of loss due to whales sinking, lines breaking, etc. The first such whale hunting ship was the steamer Mabel Bird, which towed whale carcasses to an oil processing plant in Boothbay Harbor. At its height in 1885 four or five steamers were engaged in whale fishery at Boothbay Harbour, dwindling to one by the end of the decade. Over 100 whales were killed annually during some years. The fishery ended in the late 1890s.

Technological advancement
In the 1850s, the Euro–American whalemen began a serious attempt at catching rorquals such as the blue whale and fin whale. In the 1860s Captain Thomas Welcome Roys invented a rocket harpoon, making a significant contribution to the development of the California whaling industry. In 1877, John Nelson Fletcher, a pyrotechnist, and a former Confederate soldier, Robert L. Suits, modified Roys's rocket, marketing it as the "California Whaling Rocket". The rocket was highly effective in killing whales.

Danish naval officer Captain Otto C. Hammer and the Dutchman Captain C. J. Bottemanne also imitated Roys' rocket harpoon. Hammer formed the Danish Fishing Company, which operated from 1865 to 1871. Botteman formed the Netherlands Whaling Company, which operated from 1869 to 1872.

Legacy
In 1996, the New Bedford Whaling National Historical Park was established, offering exhibits on the history of the "City that Lit the World".

Pacific Northwest
Whaling on the Pacific Northwest Coast encompassed both aboriginal and commercial whaling. The indigenous peoples of this coast have whaling traditions dating back millennia. A memoir by John R. Jewitt, an English blacksmith who spent three years as a captive of the Nuu-chah-nulth people from 1802 to 1805, makes clear the importance of whale meat and oil to their diet. Whaling was integral to the cultures and economies of other indigenous people as well, notably the Makah and Klallam. For other groups, especially the Haida, whales appear prominently as totems.

Hunting of cetaceans continues by Alaska Natives (mainly beluga and narwhal, plus subsistence hunting of the bowhead whale) and to a lesser extent by the Makah (gray whale). Commercial whaling in British Columbia and southeast Alaska ended in the late 1960s.

Bering Strait
In the 1840s, large numbers of bowhead whale were discovered around the Bering Strait. In 1848, American whaler Thomas Welcome Roys returned with a significant catch which drew the industry's attention. More than 500 whales were caught the following year and more than 2,000 in 1850. The whaling boom drew more than 220 ships in 1852 but it collapsed almost as soon as it began, with catches severely diminishing in 1853.

Basque Country (Spain and France)
The first mention of Basque whaling was made in 1059, when it was said to have been practiced at the Basque town of Bayonne. The fishery spread to what is now the Spanish Basque Country in 1150, when King Sancho the Wise of Navarre granted petitions for the warehousing of such commodities as whalebone (baleen). At first, they hunted the North Atlantic right whale, using watchtowers (known as vigias) to look for their distinctive twin vapor spouts.

By the 14th century, Basque whalers were making "seasonal trips" to the English Channel and southern Ireland. The fishery spread to Terranova (Labrador and Newfoundland) in the second quarter of the 16th century, and to Iceland by the early 17th century. They established whaling stations in Terranova, mainly in Red Bay, and hunted bowheads as well as right whales.

The fishery in Terranova declined for a variety of reasons, including the conflicts between Spain and other European powers during the late 16th and early 17th centuries, attacks by hostile Inuit, declining whale populations, and perhaps the opening up of the Spitsbergen fishery in 1611.

The first voyages to Spitsbergen by the English, Dutch, and Danish relied on Basque specialists, with the Basque provinces sending out their own whaler in 1612. The following season San Sebastián and Saint-Jean-de-Luz sent out a combined eleven or twelve whalers to the Spitsbergen fishery, but most were driven off by the Dutch and English. Two more ships were sent by a merchant in San Sebastián in 1615, but both were driven away by the Dutch. Conflict over the Spitsbergen whaling grounds between the English, French, Dutch and Danish continued until 1638.

Whale fishing in Iceland and Spitsbergen continued at least into the 18th century, but Basque whaling in those regions appears to have ended in 1756 at the beginning of the Seven Years' War.

Greenland and Spitsbergen

Encouraged by reports of whales off the coast of Spitsbergen, Norway, in 1610, the English Muscovy Company (also known as the Russian Company) sent a whaling expedition there the following year. The expedition was a disaster, with both ships sent being lost. The crews returned to England in a ship from Hull. The following year two more ships were sent. Other countries followed suit, with Amsterdam and San Sebastian each sending a ship north. The latter ship returned to Spain with a full cargo of oil. Such a fabulous return resulted in a fleet of whaleships being sent to Spitsbergen in 1613. The Muscovy Company sent seven, backed by a monopoly charter granted by King James I. They met with twenty other whaleships (eleven or twelve Basque, five French, and three Dutch), as well as a London interloper, which were either ordered away or forced to pay a fine of some sort. The United Provinces, France, and Spain all protested against this treatment, but James I held fast to his claim of sovereignty over Spitsbergen. The following three and a half decades witnessed numerous clashes between the various nations (as well as infighting among the English), often merely posturing, but sometimes resulting in bloodshed. This jealousy stemmed as much from the mechanics of early whaling as from straightforward international animosities. In the first years of the fishery England, France, the United Provinces and later Denmark–Norway shipped expert Basque whalemen for their expeditions. At the time Basque whaling relied on the utilization of stations ashore where blubber could be processed into oil. In order to allow a rapid transference of this technique to Spitsbergen, suitable anchorages had to be selected, of which there were only a limited number, in particular on the west coast of the island. Early in 1614, the Dutch formed the Noordsche Compagnie (Northern Company), a cartel composed of several independent chambers (each representing a particular port). The company sent fourteen ships supported by three or four men-of-war this year, while the English sent a fleet of thirteen ships and pinnaces. Equally matched, they agreed to split the coast between themselves, to the exclusion of third parties. The English received the four principal harbors in the middle of the west coast, while the Dutch could settle anywhere to the south or north. The agreement explicitly stated that it was only meant to last for this season. In 1615 the Dutch arrived with a fleet of eleven ships and three men-of-war under Adriaen Block, occupied Fairhaven, Bell Sound, and Horn Sound by force, and built the first permanent structure on Spitsbergen: a wooden hut to store their equipment in. The ten ships sent by the Muscovy Company were relegated to the south side of Fairhaven, Sir Thomas Smith's Bay, and Ice Sound. The Danes meanwhile sent a fleet of five sail under Gabriel Kruse to demand a toll from the foreign whalers and in doing so assert Christian IV's claim of sovereignty over the region, but both the English and Dutch rebuffed his efforts—two ships from Bordeaux chartered by a merchant in San Sebastian were also sent away by the Dutch. The following year, 1616, the English, with a fleet of ten ships, occupied all the major harbors, appropriated the Dutch hut, and made a rich haul, while the Dutch, preoccupied with Jan Mayen, only sent four ships to Spitsbergen, which "kept together in odd places... and made a poor voyage." In 1617 a ship from Vlissingen whaling in Horn Sound had its cargo seized by the English vice-admiral. Angry, the following season the Dutch sent nearly two dozen ships to Spitsbergen. Five of the fleet attacked two English ships, killing three men in the process, and also burned down the English station in Horn Sound. Negotiations between the two nations followed in 1619, with James I, while still claiming sovereignty, would not enforce it for the following three seasons. When this concession expired, the English twice (in 1623 and 1624 ) tried to expel the Dutch from Spitsbergen, failing both times. In 1619 the Dutch and Danes, who had sent their first whaling expedition to Spitsbergen in 1617, firmly settled themselves on Amsterdam Island, a small island on the northwestern tip of Spitsbergen; while the English did the same in the fjords to the south. The Danish–Dutch settlement came to be called Smeerenburg, which would become the centre of operations for the latter in the first decades of the fishery. Numerous place names attest to the various nations' presence, including Copenhagen Bay (Kobbefjorden) and Danes Island (Danskøya), where the Danes established a station from 1631 to 1658; Port Louis or Refuge Français (Hamburgbukta), where the French had a station from 1633 to 1638, until they were driven away by the Danes (see below); and finally English Bay (Engelskbukta), as well as the number of features named by English whalemen and explorers—for example, Isfjorden, Bellsund, and Hornsund, to name a few. Hostilities continued after 1619. In 1626 nine ships from Hull and York destroyed the Muscovy Company's fort and station in Bell Sound, and sailed to their own in Midterhukhamna. Here they were found by the heavily armed flagship of the London whaling fleet; a two-hour battle ensued, resulting in defeat for the Hull and York fleet and their expulsion from Spitsbergen. In 1630 both the ships of Hull and Great Yarmouth, who had recently joined the trade, were driven away clean (empty) by the ships from London. From 1631 to 1633, the Danes, French, and Dutch quarreled with each other, resulting in the expulsion of the Danes from Smeerenburg and the French from Copenhagen Bay. In 1634 the Dutch burned down one of the Danes' huts. There were also two battles this season, one between the English and French (the latter won) and the other between London and Yarmouth (the latter won, as well). In 1637 and again in 1638 the Danes drove the French out of Port Louis and seized their cargoes. In the former year they also seized a French ship in the open sea and detained it in Copenhagen Bay, while in the latter year they also held two Dutch ships captive in the same bay for over a month, which led to protests from the Dutch. Following the events of 1638 hostilities, for the most part, ceased, with the exception of a few minor incidents in the 1640s between the French and Danes, as well as between Copenhagen and Hamburg and London and Yarmouth, respectively. The species hunted was the bowhead whale, a baleen whale that yielded large quantities of oil and baleen. The whales entered the fjords in the spring following the breakup of the ice. They were spotted by the whalemen from suitable vantage points, and pursued by shallops, chaloupes or chalupas, which were manned by six men. (These terms derive from the Basque word "txalupa", used to name the whaling boats that were widely utilized during the golden era of Basque whaling in Labrador in the 16th century.) The whale was harpooned and lanced to death and either towed to the stern of the ship or to the shore at low tide, where men with long knives would flense (cut up) the blubber. The blubber was boiled in large copper kettles and cooled in large wooden vessels, after which it was funneled into casks. The stations at first only consisted of tents of sail and crude furnaces, but were soon replaced by more permanent structures of wood and brick, such as Smeerenburg for the Dutch, Lægerneset for the English, and Copenhagen Bay for the Danes. Beginning in the 1630s, for the Dutch at least, whaling expanded into the open sea. Gradually whaling in the open sea and along the ice floes to the west of Spitsbergen replaced bay whaling. At first, the blubber was tried out at the end of the season at Smeerenburg or elsewhere along the coast, but after mid-century the stations were abandoned entirely in favor of processing the blubber upon the return of the ship to port. The English meanwhile stuck resolutely to bay whaling, and didn't make the transfer to pelagic (offshore) whaling until long after. In 1719, the Dutch began "regular and intensive whaling" in the Davis Strait, between Greenland and Canada's Baffin Island. The British South Sea Company financed 172 whaling voyages to Greenland from London's Howland Dock between 1725 and 1732. Beginning in 1733, the British Government offered a 'bounty' for whale oil, leading to further expansion. However, due to reductions in the bounty and wars with America and France, London's Greenland fleet fell to 19 in 1796.

During the 17th and 18th century North Frisian Islanders had a reputation of being very skilled mariners, and most Dutch and English whaling ships bound for Greenland and Svalbard would recruit their crew from these islands. Around the year 1700, Föhr island had a total population of roughly 6,000, of whom 1,600 were whalers. In 1762, 25% of all shipmasters on Dutch whaling vessels were people from Föhr, and the South Sea Company's commanding officers and harpooners were exclusively from Föhr. Sylt island and Borkum island were also notable homes of whaling personnel.

The British would continue to send out whalers to the Arctic fishery into the 20th century, sending their last on the eve of the First World War.

Japan
The oldest written mention of whaling in Japanese records is from Kojiki, the oldest Japanese historical book, which was written in the 7th century CE. This book describes whale meat being eaten by Emperor Jimmu. In Man'yōshū, an anthology of poems from the 8th century CE, the word "Whaling" (いさなとり) was frequently used in depicting the ocean or beaches.

One of the first records of whaling using harpoons is from the 1570s at Morosaki, a bay attached to Ise Bay. This method of whaling spread to Kii (before 1606), Shikoku (1624), northern Kyushu (1630s), and Nagato (around 1672).

Kakuemon Wada, later known as Kakuemon Taiji, was said to have invented net whaling sometime between 1675 and 1677. This method soon spread to Shikoku (1681) and northern Kyushu (1684)

Using the techniques developed by Taiji, the Japanese mainly hunted four species of whale: the North Pacific right, the humpback, the fin, and the gray whale. They also caught the occasional blue, sperm, or sei/Bryde's whale.

In 1853, the US naval officer Matthew Perry forced Japan to open up to foreign trade. One purpose of his mission was to gain access to ports for the American whaling fleet in the north-west Pacific Ocean. Japan's traditional whaling was eventually replaced in the late 19th century and early 20th century with modern methods.

Britain
Britain's involvement in whaling extended from 1611 to the 1960s and had three phases. The Northern (or Arctic) whale fishery lasted from 1611 to 1914 and involved whaling primarily off Greenland, and particularly the Davis Strait. The Southern (or South Seas) whale fishery was active from 1775 to 1859 and involved whale hunting first in the South Atlantic, then in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. British law defined and differentiated the two trades. Finally, modern British involvement in whaling extended from 1904 to 1963. Each of these three trades involved different species of whales as targets.

Northern whale fishery
From 1753 to 1837 whalers from Whitby were active in the Davis Strait. In 1832 the Phoenix was the only vessel to go out, returning with a record 234 tons of oil. The owners of the Phoenix, the Chapmans, therefore sent out two ships in 1833, the Camden and the Phoenix. Both vessels returned with large volumes of oil, but the price of whale oil and whalebone had fallen. After unsuccessful voyages in 1837 both ships were withdrawn from whaling, ending whaling from Whitby.

Southern whale fishery
The Southern fishery was launched when Samuel Enderby, along with Alexander Champion and John St Barbe, using American vessels and crews, sent out twelve whaleships in 1776. In 1786, the Triumph was the first British whaler to be sent east of the Cape of Good Hope, and in 1788, the whaler Emilia was sent west around Cape Horn into the Pacific Ocean to become the first ship of any nation to conduct whaling operations in the Southern Ocean. Emilia returned to London in 1790 with a cargo of 139 tons of whale oil. The first sperm whale killed in the Southern fishery was taken off the coast of Chile on 3 March 1789.

In 1784 the British had 15 whaleships in the southern fishery, all from London. Between 1793 and 1799 there was an average of 60 vessels in the trade, increasing to 72 in 1800–1809. The first sperm whale off the coast of New South Wales, Australia, was taken by the ship Britannia (Commander Thomas Melvill) in October 1791.

In 1819 the British whaler Syren, under Frederick Coffin of Nantucket, sailed to the coastal waters of Japan. She returned to London on 21 April 1822, with 346 tons of whale oil. By 1825 the British had 24 vessels there.

The number of vessels being fitted out annually for the southern fishery declined from 68 in 1820 to 31 in 1824. In 1825, there were 90 ships in the southern fishery, but by 1835 it had dwindled to 61 and by 1843 only 9 vessels left for the southern fishery. In 1859 the trade from London ended.

Antarctic whaling
The shore stations on the island of South Georgia were at the center of the Antarctic whaling industry from its beginnings in 1904 until the late 1920s when pelagic whaling increased. The activity on the island remained substantial until around 1960, when Norwegian–British Antarctic whaling came to an end.

France
In 1786, William Rotch, Sr. established a colony of Nantucket whalemen in Dunkirk. By 1789 Dunkirk had 14 whaling ships sailing to Brazil, Walvis Bay, and other areas of the South Atlantic to hunt sperm and right whales. In 1790 Rotch sent the first French whalers into the Pacific. The majority of the French whaling ships were lost during the Anglo-French War (1793-1802). Whaling began to revive after the war ended, but when Napoleon came to power Rotch's holdings in Dunkirk were seized.

After the Napoleonic Wars the government issued subsidies in an attempt to revive whaling, and in 1832 this effort succeeded. In 1835 the first French whaleship, the Gange, reached the Gulf of Alaska and found abundant right whales. In 1836, the first French whaler reached New Zealand. In 1851, the French government passed a law to encourage whaling but this was not successful. Whaling in France ended in 1868.

Iceland
In 1883 the first whaling station was established in Alptafjordur, Iceland, by a Norwegian company. Between 1889 and 1903 nine more companies established themselves in Iceland. Catching peaked in 1902, when 1,305 whales were caught to produce 40,000 barrels of oil. Whale hunting had largely declined by 1910, when only 170 whales were caught.

A ban on whaling was imposed by the Althing in 1915. In 1935 an Icelandic company established a whaling station that shut down after only five seasons. In 1948, another Icelandic company, Hvalur H/F, purchased a naval base at the head of Hvalfjörður and converted it into a whaling station. Between 1948 and 1975, an average of 250 Fin, 65 Sei, and 78 sperm whales were taken annually, as well as a few blue and humpback whales. Unlike the majority of commercial whaling at the time, this operation was based on the sale of frozen meat and meat meal, rather than oil. Most of the meat was exported to England, while the meal was sold locally as cattle feed.

Scandinavia
There is strong evidence of active, large-scale whaling in Scandinavia from the 6th century onwards.

Scandinavia's whaling industry invented many new techniques in the 19th century, with most inventions occurring in Norway. Jacob Nicolai Walsøe was probably the first person to suggest mounting a harpoon gun in the bows of a steamship, while Arent Christian Dahl experimented with an explosive harpoon in Varanger Fjord (1857–1860). In 1863 Svend Foyn invented a harpoon with a flexible joint between the head and shaft and adapted Walsøe and Dahl's ideas, initiating the modern whaling era.

Later, cannon-fired harpoons, strong cables, and steam winches were mounted on maneuverable, steam-powered catcher boats. They made possible the targeting of large and fast-swimming whale species that were taken to shore-based stations for processing. Breech-loading cannons were introduced in 1925; pistons were introduced in 1947 to reduce recoil. These highly efficient devices reduced whale populations to the point where large-scale commercial whaling became unsustainable.

Finnmark
In February 1864, Svend Foyn began his first whale-hunting trip to Finnmark in the schooner-rigged, steam-driven whale catcher Spes et Fides (Hope & Faith). The ship had seven guns on her forecastle, each firing a harpoon and grenade separately. Several whales were seen, but only four were captured. After two unsuccessful trips in 1866 and 1867, he invented a harpoon gun that fired a grenade and harpoon at the same time and was able to catch thirty whales in 1868. He patented his grenade-tipped harpoon gun two years later.

Foyn was given a virtual monopoly on the trade in Finnmark in 1873, which lasted until 1882. Despite this, local citizens established a whaling company in 1876, and soon others defied his monopoly and formed companies. Unrestricted hunting began in 1883, triggering a large increase in the number of whale catchers. At the peak, in 1896–1898, between 1,000 and 1,200 whales were caught each year. The last station closed down in 1904.

Spitsbergen
In 1903, the wooden steamship Telegraf (737 gross tons) embarked on a whale catching trip to Spitsbergen. She returned with 1,960 barrels of oil produced from a catch of 57 whales, of which 42 were blue whales. By 1905, there were eight companies operating around Spitsbergen and Bear Island, and 559 whales (337 blue) were caught to produce 18,660 barrels. Operations were suspended in 1912.

Faroe Islands
Whaling stations in the Faroe Islands have included Gjánoyri on Streymoy (est. 1894), Norðdepil on Borðoy (1898–1920), Lopra on Suðuroy (1901–1953), Funningsfjørður on Eysturoy (est. 1901), and Við Áir (1905–1984) on Streymoy.

Peak catching was reached in 1909, when 773 whales were caught to produce 13,850 barrels of oil. In 1917, with the war and poor catches, whaling was suspended. The islanders' main interest in whaling was cheap meat, while 90% of the proceeds from the oil went abroad, mostly to Norway. Four Norwegian companies resumed catching in 1920 but quickly stopped. In 1933 the two remaining whaling stations in Lopra and Við Áir were taken over by Faroese owners. From 1977 to 1984 the whaling station Við Áir was owned and operated by the Faroese government.

The buildings and the equipment of Við Áir whaling station are still in existence. The Faroese Ministry of Culture (Mentamálaráðið) recommended conservation in 2007, suggesting that the whaling station be made into a maritime museum with activities for the visitors.

Twentieth century

By 1900, bowhead, gray, and right whales were nearly extinct, and whaling had declined. It revived with the invention of harpoons shot from cannons, explosive tips and factory ships, which allowed distant whaling. Whaling expanded in the northern hemisphere, then in the southern hemisphere. As each species was reduced to the point where it was hard to find, whalers moved on to the next species, catching blue whales, fin whales, sperm whales, sei whales and minke whales in sequence.

The League of Nations held a conference on whaling in 1927, and in 1931, 27 countries signed a convention for the regulation of whaling. The convention was not enforceable, and a record ~43,000 whales were caught in 1931. In 1932, whaling companies formed a cartel, which cut harvests for two years, but then failed. A 1937 convention agreed to shorter seasons and to sparing bowhead, gray and right whales, and whales under a minimum size. Ships killed faster to harvest as many as possible in the shorter season.

In 1946, 15 whaling nations formed the International Whaling Commission, with membership also open to non-whaling nations. It prohibited killing gray, humpback and right whales, limited hunting seasons, and set an Antarctic limit of 16,000 "Blue Whale Units" per year, but again had no enforcement ability. In 1949–1952 more than 2,000 humpbacks per year were harvested in the Antarctic, despite an annual quota of 1,250. In 1959–1964, there were disagreements over a moratorium on blue whales and humpbacks, with scientific advice eventually recommending a limit of 2,800 blue whale units. The IWC adopted quotas of 8,000. In 1970 the United States prohibited import of whale products by adding all commercial whales to its Endangered Species List.

Proposals for 10-year moratoria were rejected in 1971, 1972 and 1974, but species quotas were adopted and reduced. Consumer boycotts focused on Japanese and Russian products began in 1974, to protest the hunting of large whales by these countries. In 1978, the IWC called for an end to international trade in whale products. In 1982, the IWC adopted a ban on commercial whaling, to start in 1986. Japan, Norway and the USSR filed objections so the moratorium would not apply to them. Chile and Peru also filed objections, but Peru later agreed to be covered, and Chile stopped whaling.

No international quotas were ever put on beluga whales and narwhals; 1,000 to 2,000 of each have been killed each year to the present, mostly in Alaska, Canada and Greenland.

Catches by country and year
Sources: IWC Summary Catch Database version 6.1, July 2016, which includes great whales, orcas (mostly caught by Norway and USSR), bottlenose whales (mostly Norway), pilot whales (mostly Norway), and Baird's Beaked Whales (mostly Japan). This database also has some pre-1900 counts, not shown here.

The IWC database is supplemented by Faroese catches of pilot whales, Greenland's and Canada's catches of Narwhals (data 1954–2014), Belugas from multiple sources shown in the Beluga whale article, Indonesia's catches of sperm whales, bycatch in Japan 1980–2008,  and bycatch in Korea 1996–2017. The IWC database includes illegal whaling from USSR and Korea. This is supplemented by academic findings on Korea for 1999–2003.

Note that most species of dolphins are omitted. Otherwise the main areas of missing data are: bycatch in countries other than Japan and Korea (generally much smaller), narwhals before 1954; belugas in Canada and USA before 1970, and in Nunavut (Canada) for all years; belugas in USSR in Bering, East Siberian and Laptev Seas and Sea of Okhotsk outside Amur River area.

Catches by country and species
Sources: same as counts by year, above.

North America

 * Allen, Everett S. Children of the Light: The Rise and Fall of New Bedford Whaling and the Death of the Arctic Fleet. (1973). 302 pp.
 * Busch, Briton Cooper. "Whaling Will Never Do for Me": The American Whaleman in the Nineteenth Century. (1994). 265 pp
 * Creighton, Margaret S. Rites and Passages: The Experience of American Whaling, 1830–1870. (1995). 233 pp. excerpt and text search
 * Davis, Lance E.; Gallman, Robert E.; and Gleiter, Karin. In Pursuit of Leviathan: Technology, Institutions, Productivity, and Profits in American Whaling, 1816–1906. (NBER Series on Long-Term Factors in Economic Development.) 1997. 550 pp. advanced quantitative economic history
 * Dickinson, Anthony B. and Sanger, Chesley W. Twentieth-Century Shore-Station Whaling in Newfoundland and Labrador. 2005. 254 pp.
 * George, G. D. and R. G. Bosworth. 1988. Use of Fish and Wildlife by Residents of Angoon, Admiralty Island, Alaska. Division of Subsistence. Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Juneau, Alaska.
 * Gidmark, Jill B. Melville Sea Dictionary: A Glossed Concordance and Analysis of the Sea Language in Melville's Nautical Novels (1982) online edition
 * Lytle, Thomas G. Harpoons and Other Whalecraft. New Bedford: Old Dartmouth Historical Society, 1984. 256 pp.
 * Morison, Samuel Eliot. The Maritime History of Massachusetts, 1783–1860 (1921) 400pp full text online
 * Reeves, R. R., T. D. Smith, R. L. Webb, J. Robbins, and P. J. Clapham. 2002. Humpback and fin whaling in the Gulf of Maine from 1800 to 1918. Mar. Fish. Rev. 64(1):1–12.
 * Morison, Samuel Eliot. The Maritime History of Massachusetts, 1783–1860 (1921) 400pp full text online
 * Reeves, R. R., T. D. Smith, R. L. Webb, J. Robbins, and P. J. Clapham. 2002. Humpback and fin whaling in the Gulf of Maine from 1800 to 1918. Mar. Fish. Rev. 64(1):1–12.

title: History of whaling


text:
Kosmos-3M

The Kosmos-3M (Космос-3М meaning "Cosmos", GRAU index 11K65M) was a Russian space launch vehicle, member of the Kosmos rocket family. It was a liquid-fueled two-stage launch vehicle, first launched in 1967 and with over 420 successful launches to its name.

The Kosmos-3M used UDMH fuel and AK27I oxidizer (red fuming nitric acid) to lift roughly 1400 kg of payload into orbit. It differed from the earlier Kosmos-3 in its finer control of the second-stage burn, allowing operators to tune the thrust and even channel it through nozzles that helped orient the rocket for the launching of multiple satellites at one time.

PO Polyot manufactured these launch vehicles in the Russian city of Omsk for decades. It was originally scheduled to be retired from service in 2011; however, in April 2010 the Commander of the Russian Space Forces confirmed that it would be retired by the end of 2010. One further launch, with Kanopus-ST, was planned; however, this was cancelled in late 2012 as the launch vehicle had exceeded its design life while in storage ahead of the launch.

Accidents
A total of 446 Kosmos 3Ms were launched from 1967 to 2010, with 22 failures. Some of the more noteworthy ones:

On 22 December 1970, a launch of a target vehicle for ASAT tests lost thrust at liftoff and fell back onto the pad at Plesetsk, exploding and badly damaging it.

On 26 June 1973, a Kosmos 3M exploded on the pad at Plesetsk during a propellant loading accident, killing nine people.

An attempted launch of an Intercosmos scientific satellite on 3 June 1975 failed 84 seconds into the launch when the first stage engine shut down.

An attempted launch of a military radar calibration satellite on 25 January 1983 suffered another first stage failure about 40 seconds into launch when the RD-219 started losing thrust. The onboard computer automatically shut the engine off and the launch vehicle fell into the Northern Dvina. Due to the tense relations between the U.S. and Soviet Union at this time, the U.S. military was widely suspected of having shot down the launch vehicle and General Secretary Yuri Andropov personally informed of this possibility. However, a group of locals ice fishing in the Dvina had witnessed the booster plunge into the river and reported what they'd seen to authorities. After this and a quick examination of telemetry, sabotage was ruled out. The failure was traced to high-frequency combustion instability, which had been a problem with the RD-219 engine and was also responsible for the 1970 and 1975 Kosmos 3M failures. The engine was redesigned and no further launches were lost due to first stage engine failures.

More recently, on 21 November 2000, a Kosmos 3M launcher failed to place the QuickBird 1 satellite into orbit due to a failure of its second stage. The launch vehicle and satellite reentered the atmosphere over Uruguay, and an inquest into the accident was inconclusive.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Kosmos-3M


text:
Cranberry morpheme

In linguistic morphology a cranberry morpheme (also called unique morpheme or fossilized term) is a type of bound morpheme that cannot be assigned an independent meaning and grammatical function, but nonetheless serves to distinguish one word from another.

Etymology
The eponymous archetypal example is the cran of cranberry. Unrelated to the homonym cran with the meaning "a case of herrings", this cran actually comes from crane (the bird), although the connection is not immediately evident. Similarly, mul (from Latin morus, the mulberry tree) exists only in mulberry. Phonetically, the first morpheme of raspberry also counts as a cranberry morpheme, even though the word "rasp" does occur by itself. Compare these with blackberry, which has two obvious unbound morphemes ("black" + "berry"), and to loganberry and boysenberry, both of which have first morphemes derived from surnames (James Harvey Logan and Rudolph Boysen, respectively).

Examples
Other cranberry morphemes in English include:

 * cob in cobweb, from the obsolete word  ("spider").
 * Many elements in English toponyms, such as "-ing" ("Reading", "Dorking", "Washington") from an Old English term meaning "the people of..." or "belonging to..." (Note, however, that the "-ing" at the end of words such as "reading", the verb, is not a cranberry morpheme but rather an affixed morpheme.)
 * dew in dewlap, assuming that the particle popularly associated with literal dew is folk etymology and not lost.

Emergence
Cranberry morphemes can arise in several ways:
 * A dialectal word can become part of the standard language in a compound, but not in its root form: e.g. blather'skite'' ("one who talks nonsense"), as Scots has the word ' ("contemptible person").
 * A word can become obsolete in its root form but remain current in a compound: e.g. lukewarm from Middle English luke ("tepid").
 * A compound loanword may have a recognisable native cognate for one element but not the other: e.g. hinterland is from German hinter ("behind") + land ("land").
 * A loanword may have one part misanalysed to a false cognate: e.g. a taff'rail'' is a type of rail, but the word comes from Dutch ' ("carved panel").

title: Cranberry morpheme


text: Category:Parsing algorithms

title: Category:Parsing algorithms


text:
Latécoère 28

The Latécoère 28 was a long distance monoplane aircraft designed and produced by the French aircraft manufacturer Latécoère.

First flown in 1927, it had a fixed tailwheel undercarriage and an enclosed cockpit for its crew of two. When configured for airline use, the Latécoère 28 could accommodate up to eight seated passengers. It was produced in both land and floatplane configurations, being marketed towards the civilian market both as a mail plane and passenger airliner.

During its operating life, the Latécoère 28 became the main-stay of Air France's predecessor, Aéropostale, which heavily used the aircraft during the 1930s in its efforts to establish intercontinental air mail services and support French colonialism and French cultural influence during the Interwar period. Its pilots included famous poets and French men of letters, such as Antoine de Saint-Exupéry and Jean Mermoz, along with numerous veteran pilots from the First World War.

Development
The Latécoère 28 was a development of the Latécoère 26. A total of about fifty aircraft of several versions were produced between 1927 and 1932. The seaplane version, the Latécoère 28-3, was the first to make a postal delivery crossing of the South Atlantic when Jean Mermoz flew from Dakar to Natal in 21 hours and a half aboard the Comte-de-La Vaulx (prototype n° 919) on 12 May 1930. Unfortunately, the plane was lost at sea during the return flight (with no loss of life, nor of mail).

Early examples had been furnished with Renault 12Jbr engines; however, all use of this powerplant was quickly substituted for by Hispano Suiza 12, which waw capable of providing up to 500 hp (370 kW). The floatplane version was equipped with the Hispano Suiza 12Lbr, which could generate to up 650 hp (480 kW).

Design
The Latécoère 28 was a long-range high-wing single-engined monoplane. The fuselage, which was highly streamlined and largely supported by light-metal tubing, was internally divided into three sections, each with its own distinct structure and function. The main landing gear comprised two independent wheels mounted on axles joined to the fuselage and supported by elastic struts that incorporated shock absorbers. The recoil from landing was absorbed via a light-metal strut in the plane of the axle, supported at one end by the axle's bend and hinged to the fuselage at the other end; atypically strong carbon-injected steel, which was hardened and tempered after machining, was used. A hinged elastic tail skid was also used to dampen the landing forces.

The forwardmost section of the aircraft was the bow, the double tubular framework of which constitutes the engine bed in the form of a girder cradle. Two struts are used to deliver power to the propeller, while various accessories of the engine, including the radiator, fire extinguishers, control lines, fuel piping, and oil tank. Maintenance access to the engine was achieved via a removable aluminium hood. Directly behind the engine was two spaces, the pilot's room and the first baggage hold, the former being above the latter. The pilot's room was provisioned with an ample windshield, and was well ventilated via two sliding overhead doors that was intended to be used for emergency egress if such a circumstance required it; typical access was via a pair of side doors. The chief pilot would be seated on the left, provisioned with an instrument board complete with electric light switches, while the position on the right was equipped with a radio set.

The majority of the central section was divided from the pilot's room via two substantial bulkheads, between which were located the fuel tanks; these bulkheads were also the attachment points for both the wings and landing gear. Aft of the bulkhead was the passenger cabin, to the rear of which was the lavatory and a second baggage hold. Both the doors and windows had reinforced metal frames; a total of ten openable windows, along with washable fabric walls, a carpeted floor, ten baggage nets, and three ceiling lights for night flying were present in the passenger cabin. The rear section comprised a relatively simple arrangement of four girders that supported the tail unit; these were braced with piano wires and enclosed in a light wood cowling. The wing of the Latécoère 28, which was furnished with a pair of ailerons and elliptical wingtips, was rigidly attached to the fuselage via a set of oblique struts. The structure comprised two spars composed of rectangular metal tubing, which was intentionally lightened via numerous holes and reinforced using riveted channel flanges; the distance between the spars was maintained by metal tubing braced by highly-resistant steel wiring. The ribs, which were triangularly-braced spruce girders with birch plywood gussets, determined the wing's profile via their curvature. Reinforced box ribs gave the wing rigidity of the wing at key attachment points, such as with the fuselage and towards the ends of the ailerons; the wing was primarily attached to the fuselage via four bolts, two for each spar. Each of the ailerons, which had an all-metal framework, were fitted with a light-metal horn. As to achieve the desired profile of the elliptical wingtips, the adjacent ribs were reshaped. In anticipation of a potential wing strike, the wing's design incorporated a damage control measure in the form of the spars terminating at two slightly weaker tip sections that would break off in the event of contact.

The vertical empennage of the tail was outfitted with a triangular fin and a balanced semi-circular rudder. The fin was supported at either end by a cross piece attached to the upper longerons of the fuselage and was braced via four wires running to the triangular horizontal stabilizer. The structure of the tail largely comprised light-metal tubular members and stamped ribs, the majority of which was joined using rivets. The exterior was mainly covered by fabric. Both the rudder and the elevator were balanced. The aircraft's flight controls comprised a rudder bar, a wheel for the ailerons and a control stick for the elevator.

Operational service
The first aircraft were used by Aéropostale on the African mail routes connecting Casablanca and Dakar. The aircraft also inaugurated a Paris-Madrid service. The Latécoère 28 became famous in South America because of the regular mail service it performed between France and Argentina, amongst other destinations. This aircraft's introduction made it possible to send a letter from Paris to Santiago de Chile in what seemed then like an astonishingly short four days. Previously, the mail steamships had taken weeks or months.

The Latécoère 28 was also operated in a military capacity. Venezuela purchased three aircraft for use as bombers while the French government supplied several to the Second Spanish Republic during the Spanish Civil War.

Variants

 * Laté 28.0
 * Initial production with a 500 hp Renault 12Jbr engine, 17 built (some later converted to 28.1).

 * Laté 28.1
 * Further production with a 500 hp Hispano-Suiza 12Hbxr engine, 29 built.

 * Laté 28.2
 * Mail carrier, one built (n°948).

 * Laté 28.3
 * Mail carrier floatplane, five built. Three entered service with Air-France under the erroneous designation Latécoère 28.1/H

 * Laté 28.3/H
 * A wheeled landing gear version of the 28.3, one built.

 * Laté 28.3-I
 * A passenger version of the 28.3, powered by a 700 hp Gnome et Rhône 14Kb Mistral Major radial engine, one built.

 * Laté 28.4-I
 * A development of the 28.3 with a 650 hp Hispano-Suiza 12Nbr engine, one built

 * Laté 28.5
 * Structurally strengthened version with a 650 hp Hispano-Suiza 12Nbr engine.

 * Laté 28.6
 * For Venezuela powered by a 650 hp Hispano-Suiza 12Nbr engine, three built.

 * Laté 28.8
 * One 28.0 modified with an enlarged wingspan

 * Laté 28.9
 * Three-seat landplane bomber for Venezuela, three built.

Civil

 * Aeropostala Argentina
 * Aéropostale
 * Air France
 * Aviacon Aeropostal Venezolana
 * Linea Aeropostal Venezolana
 * Aviacon Aeropostal Venezolana
 * Linea Aeropostal Venezolana
 * Linea Aeropostal Venezolana

Military

 * Spanish Republic
 * Spanish Republican Air Force
 * Venezuelan Air Force
 * Venezuelan Air Force

title: Latécoère 28


text: Category:Gothic

title: Category:Gothic


text:
Talk:Christopher J. Date

Remark
Appropriate to mention that he doesn't really have the Internet so it is nearly impossible to contact?
 * So that's the reason? Has it been told somewhere? I was starting to think that there might be other reasons not to explain what his recent books are exactly for and which are still current and which supplant which...78.14.34.138 (talk) 14:20, 29 May 2013 (UTC)
 * I previously made this comment, if someone wonders I found out that the relationships among the recent books are stated in the books' prefaces, be sure to read them on Google Books or something like that before buying.
 * Essentially at the time of writing the only that's officially been supplanted is "Database in Depth: Relational Theory for Practitioners", by "SQL and Relational Theory, How to Write Accurate SQL Code" (of which there's a second edition), although they are quite different one with each other.
 * The others have several parts similar but the only really alternative to each other are "SQL and Relational Theory" and the latest "Relational Theory for Computer Professionals - What Relational Databases Are Really All About": the former is theoretically geared to "practitioners", with a working knowledge of SQL, the latter to "computer professionals", with no knowledge of databases.
 * The other one that can be confusing is "Database Design and Relational Theory - Normal Forms and All That Jazz". This is about database design theory, in the form of normalization - thus not ER or interviews but normal forms, dependencies and such. It is derived from an appendix of the first edition of "SQL and Relational Theory", that is not present anymore in the second edition - thus normalization is not really treated there. It makes frequent references to "SQL and Relational Theory", you should theoretically have read that before this.
 * Then there's "The Relational Database Dictionary", that's a small dictionary that can be convenient if you have 5$ spare, and the others I know of are more clearly defined.
 * The classic "Introduction to Database Systems" (last edition in 2004) is still the comprehensive theoretical tome that probably serious students should refer to, although Date in some places says he regrets some of the choices he made in that edition and he changed idea on some issues. I actually still haven't read it so I can't say much.
 * 78.14.34.91 (talk) 16:45, 10 June 2013 (UTC)

Notability?
Is the notability tag a joke? C.J. Date is mentioned in about every relational database article in Wikipedia. The article itself states one book sold 700,000 copies of "Introduction to Database Systems". From the notability guidelines: "The person is regarded as an important figure or is widely cited by their peers or successors". Pukkie 13:14, 7 September 2007 (UTC)

 * No, it's a request for citations to independent secondary sources that establish notability. Mention in wikipedia articles is not useful in this respect.  Please see WP:V, WP:RS, and WP:NOTE.  Reference some books that cite him; his own book will not do either. Dicklyon 15:21, 7 September 2007 (UTC)

 * Done. Bob Badour 23:16, 12 September 2007 (UTC)

 * All you added was an ext. link to citeseer to show that his book is widely referenced. That's not the same as citations of articles about him.  It's a component of notability, but certainly you can do better.  Dicklyon 23:21, 12 September 2007 (UTC)

 * There's a tag for references - fine, maybe some need adding. Notability on the hand! Do me a favour! This guy is world renowned with or without references. Placing a notability tag on this article is laughable; I've removed it. 86.27.54.199 19:48, 2 November 2007 (UTC)

List of works
I don't know what criterion is employed in the choice of books to mention but "Database in Depth: Relational Theory for Practitioners, ISBN 0-596-10012-4" should most likely be deleted if "SQL and Relational Theory, 2nd Edition: How to Write Accurate SQL Code, ISBN 1-4493-1640-9" is present, as this replace the former. 78.14.34.91 (talk) 16:55, 10 June 2013 (UTC)

Assessment comment
Substituted at 11:42, 29 April 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Christopher J. Date


text:
Oud-Vossemeer

Oud-Vossemeer (Zeelandic: Ou-Vossemaer) is a village on the island of Tholen in the Dutch province of Zeeland. It is a part of the municipality of Tholen, and lies about 13 km northwest of Bergen op Zoom, close to the Eendracht, part of the Scheldt-Rhine Canal.

History
The village was first mentioned in 1410 as Vosmer, and means "old fresh water stream". Oud (old) has been added to distinguish from Nieuw-Vossemeer. Oud-Vossemeer is a circular church village which developed after the Kerkepolder was poldered in 1411. Up to the 16th century, it formed a heerlijkheid with Nieuw-Vossemeer. In 1576, it was burnt by the Dutch States Army.

The tower of the Dutch Reformed church dates from 1450. The church was heavily damaged by the 1576 fire. It was rebuilt in 1595, and the tower was placed inside the church. The church was extensively modified between 1913 and 1915. The Catholic St Willibrordus Church is an aisleless church with wooden tower from 1841. The interior was modified in 1928.

The former forge dates from 1786. The façade contains a "smith's clock" from c. 1805 with carved wooden figures, and has a wooden ringer with a brass bell. Above the clock is tunnel with cavalry figures. The clock was restored in 1960. Since 2015, the Roosevelt Information centre is housed in the forge.

Oud-Vossemeer was home to 1,364 people in 1840. It includes the previous municipality and hamlet of Vrijberge. In 1944, Oud-Vossemeer and the surrounding country side was inundated the Germans. Oud-Vossemeer was a separate municipality until 1971, when it was merged with Tholen.

Notable people
The ancestors of the American presidential family Roosevelt may have lived in Oud-Vossemeer. A monument honouring the Four Freedoms (formulated by Franklin Delano Roosevelt) was placed in the centre of the village.

title: Oud-Vossemeer


text: User talk:64.12.116.148

title: User talk:64.12.116.148


text:
Angus Tait

Sir Angus McMillan Tait (22 July 1919 – 7 August 2007) was a New Zealand electronics innovator and businessman.

Tait had a childhood fascination for electronics and during and after high school at Waitaki Boys' High School, he worked in a friend's (Kempton Collett) radio store. He served with the Royal New Zealand Air Force and also the Royal Air Force instructing as a second lieutenant on radar in Britain, during World War II.

After the war, he designed and built mobile radio equipment, although his first company went into receivership. In 1969, he founded Tait Electronics Ltd, now operating as Tait Radio Communications, Christchurch (New Zealand), with men who had decided to remain loyal and see him through; now his company is considered a world leader in mobile radio. He had persisted in keeping his manufacturing base in New Zealand, with 95 per cent of production exported to 160 countries.

In the 1992 New Year Honours, Tait was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire, for services to manufacturing and export. In 1996, he was inducted into the New Zealand Business Hall of Fame. He was awarded the IEEE Ernst Weber Engineering Leadership Recognition in 1998. In the 1999 Queen's Birthday Honours, he was appointed a Knight Companion of the New Zealand Order of Merit, for services to technology, manufacturing and export. In 2003 he was the Inaugural New Zealand High Tech Award Winner. Presently, Tait's company employs in excess of 850 people. In March 2009, Tait was commemorated as one of the Twelve Local Heroes, and a bronze bust of him was unveiled outside the Christchurch Arts Centre.

He died in 2007, at the age of 88.

title: Angus Tait


text:
Talk:The Global Trap

Untitled
Good idea, your direction. But it seems to me that the article still don't explain if the book, which I didn't hear about before (I don't live in an English-speaking country), is a sci-fi novel or a research work.

If it is the later case, the article doesn't show what the book presents as the probable causes of the predicted trap, and the relation between those causes and globalization.

You know, I'm always surprised that many meople demonize globalization as the scapegoat and source of all evils, while for me it is a step towards mankind unity and democracy (I did the democratic globalization article), away from nation-states dominance which was the main source of massacres, selfishness and divisions in history.

Thanks. --Pgreenfinch 08:20, 13 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Yardcock, I find it questionable that you have merged the 20-80 Society page into this one. The book was written in 1997 and it references a conference organized by the Gorbachev Foundation in 1995. As far as I know the terms 80-20 society and tittytainment appeared first in this coference, therefore they are independent from the book and they deserve their own page (it can be argued that tittytainment does not need its own page and it can be merged with the 20-80 society).

The result of a quick google search (look for Gorbachev's name on the pages):

[] [] []

PT

title: Talk:The Global Trap


text:
HDR

HDR may refer to:

Science and technology

 * Hard disk recorder, for digital audio or video
 * HD Radio, digital audio broadcasting system
 * High Data Rate (disambiguation)
 * High dynamic range, in audio or video
 * High-dynamic-range rendering, in computer graphics
 * High-dynamic-range imaging, in digital photography
 * High-dynamic-range video, in video
 * Homology directed repair, a DNA repair system in cells
 * Hot dry rock, a form of geothermal energy production
 * GATA3, a protein also named HDR

Organizations

 * HDR, Inc., an American architectural and engineering firm
 * HevyDevy Records, a Canadian record label
 * High Dive Records, an American record label
 * Honicknowle Defence Regiment, a criminal organization from Honicknowle, Plymouth, England

Places

 * Hyderabad Junction railway station (station code), in Sindh, Pakistan
 * Hadrian Road Metro station (station code), in England

Other uses

 * Habilitation à diriger des recherches (accreditation to supervise research), an academic qualification in France
 * Human Development Report, an annual United Nations publication
 * Humanitarian daily ration, an air-dropped ration for disasters

title: HDR


text:
Selwyn Toogood

Selwyn Featherston Toogood (4 April 1916 – 27 February 2001) was a New Zealand radio and television personality.

Early life and family
Born in Wellington on 4 April 1916, Toogood was the son of Henry Featherston Toogood and Ethel Lois Copus "Noonie" Toogood (née Butler). Through his mother, Toogood was the great-grandson of John Howell, who established a whaling station at Riverton, and his second wife, Caroline Brown, whose mother was Māori from the Ngāi Tahu iwi. Toogood did not learn of his Māori ancestry until he was 18 years old.

Toogood was educated at Wellesley College and Wellington College, where he had an inauspicious career, apart from excelling in the dramatic arts.

On 30 June 1948, Toogood married Cynthia Holden Webb at St Peter's church, in Willis Street, Wellington. Cynthia's brother was Sir Richard Webb, who served as the New Zealand Chief of Defence Staff between 1971 and 1976. The Toogoods went on to have two sons, including Kit Toogood, who was appointed a Queen's Counsel in 1999 and a High Court judge in 2011.

Military service
Toogood joined the army following the outbreak of World War II. As an ammunition officer, he saw active service in Greece, North Africa and Italy, rising to the rank of major. He was mentioned in dispatches in 1944, in recognition of gallant and distinguished service in Italy.

In 1953, Toogood was awarded the Efficiency Decoration.

Acting and broadcasting career
After leaving school, Toogood became involved in theatre and radio, including a role in New Zealand's first radio soap opera. On a troopship on the way home from World War II, he ran his first quiz show. After the war, Toogood picked up where he had left off as a stage actor, voice-over artist and radio announcer.

He began his career as a radio host in 1946 and was the originator of the game show It's in the Bag, in which he popularised the catch-phrases, "By hokey", and "What will it be, customers - the money or the bag?", in New Zealand. It's in the Bag eventually moved on to network television, where it was equally successful. He published his autobiography Out Of The Bag in 1979. Toogood hosted numerous other TV shows for the Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand and Television New Zealand, including the panel show Beauty and the Beast and the children's quiz show W3. He retired from It's in the Bag in the 1980s, handing over the mantle to radio and TV host John Hawkesby.

In the 1977 New Year Honours, Toogood was appointed a Companion of the Queen's Service Order for community services. Toogood was awarded a special lifetime achievement award by the New Zealand Academy of Film and Television Arts in New Zealand in 1999.

Death
Toogood died in Auckland in 2001, and his ashes were buried in Karori Cemetery. Cynthia Toogood died in 2005.

title: Selwyn Toogood


text:
Jabesh-Gilead

Jabesh-Gilead (יָבֵשׁ גִּלְעָד Yāḇēš Gilʿāḏ), sometimes shortened to Jabesh, was an ancient Israelite town in Gilead, in northwest Jordan. Jabesh is mentioned several times in the Hebrew Bible primarily in connection with King Saul's battles against the Ammonites and Philistines.

Jabesh means "dry" in Hebrew, a name possibly attributed to the site's well-draining soil. Gilead means 'heap [of stones] of testimony'. There is also an alternative theory that it means 'rocky region'. [Smith's Bible Dictionary, "Gil'e-ad"]

In the Hebrew Bible
Jabesh-Gilead is mentioned in the Book of Judges, in the first and second  Books of Samuel, and in the Book of Chronicles.

Benjaminite War
Jabesh is mentioned in the biblical episode of the Levite's concubine, also known as the Benjamite War, during which eleven tribes of Israel had massacred the Tribe of Benjamin. The eleven tribes relented from wiping out the whole tribe, and decided that they needed to find wives for the 600 remaining Benjaminite men since all other people in Benjamin had been killed. However, they had taken an oath not to give their daughters to a Benjaminite, so they found the one city in Israel that had not joined the fight: Jabesh. The city's inhabitants were executed under the Herem except for 400 virgins. They brought back 400 virgins from Jabesh and gave them to the men on Rimmon Rock.

Nahash of Ammon
Jabesh-Gilead is a central setting of. After Saul is anointed by Samuel, Nahash of Ammon attacks Jabesh-Gilead. Having subjected the town to a siege, its inhabitants sought terms for surrender, but were told by Nahash that they had a choice of death by sword or having their right eyes gouged out. The population obtained seven days' grace from Nahash, during which they would be allowed to seek help from the Israelites, after which they would have to submit to the terms of surrender. The town's inhabitants sought help from the people of Israel, sending messengers throughout the whole territory, and Saul responded by raising an army which decisively defeated Nahash and his cohorts at Bezek. After the war is over, the Israelites assemble at Gilgal to renew Saul's kingship over Israel.

Saul's Death
After Saul falls on his sword during the Battle of Gilboa, the victorious Philistines recover his body as well as those of his three sons who also died in the battle, decapitate them and display them on the wall of Beit She'an. At night, the inhabitants of Jabesh-Gilead retrieve the bodies, showing their devotion to the rescuer of the city. Following a funeral pyre, the bones of Saul and his sons were buried under the tamarisk tree in Jabesh. When David learns it was the men of Jabesh-Gilead who had brought Saul to a honorable burial, he sent messengers to bless them. Later, David takes the bones of Saul and of his son Jonathan from Jabesh and buries them in Zela, in the tomb of Saul's father.

House of Shallum
In the Books of Kings Shallum of Israel's father is identified as Jabesh. However, the passage may instead mention a toponym, identifying that Shallum was "the son" of a city called Jabesh. In this view, Shallum may have originated from Jabesh-Gilead.

Later years
In his Antiquities of the Jews (c. 93–94 CE), Josephus describes Jabesh Gilead as a metropolis in the Transjordan. In the early-4th century CE, Greek scholar Eusebius mentioned "Iabeis Galaad" in his Onomasticon as a "village beyond the Jordan located on the mountains six miles from the city of Pella on the road to Gerasa."

Identification
The exact location of Jabesh-Gilead is debated. Most scholars identify it with Tell el-Maqlub,    but Tell Abu al-Kharaz is also frequently suggested. Both sites were inhabited during the Iron Age and lie along Wadi al-Yabis, a stream believed to preserve the town's ancient name.

title: Jabesh-Gilead


text:
Ian Mune

Sir Ian Barry Mune (born 1941) is a New Zealand character actor, director, and screenwriter. His screen acting career spans four decades and more than 50 roles. His work as a film director includes hit comedy Came a Hot Friday, an adaptation of classic New Zealand play The End of the Golden Weather, and What Becomes of the Broken Hearted?, the sequel to Once Were Warriors.

Early life and family
Mune was born in Auckland, and educated at Wesley College in the same city. He was married to the writer Josie Mune until her death in 2015.

Acting
Mune acted on stage while training to be a teacher in Wellington. After time acting in the UK, he returned to his native New Zealand and won a Feltex award in 1975 after starring in one-off television drama Derek. Another award followed for playing Leo Moynihan, the secretary of a trade union in television series Moynihan. In 1987 he appeared in the TVNZ documentary mini-series Erebus: The Aftermath for which he won the award for Best Male in a Dramatic Role.

In 1994 Mune won another New Zealand television award after playing Prime Minister Sir Robert Muldoon in television mini-series Fallout, which depicted the end of the Muldoon-led National Government.

Mune featured in a documentary about the making of Shakespeare's King Lear called In The Shadow of King Lear by New Zealand company Theatre at Large giving insight into his acting process.

He has gone on to appear in a range of New Zealand feature films, including A Song of Good, Savage Honeymoon and I'm Not Harry Jenson. He played Winston Churchill in American telemovie Ike: Countdown to D-Day, and Buster Keaton in Lucy: The Lucille Ball Story.

Mune was a support role in the Australian drama Wanted, opposite Rebecca Gibney and Robyn Malcolm that premiered in 2016.

Directing and writing
Mune took multiple creative roles on 1976 anthology series Winners and Losers, which saw him collaborating with director Roger Donaldson. The two first collaborated on Derek; Mune directed and wrote some episodes of the new series, and acted in others. Having helped script Donaldson's first feature film, dystopian thriller Sleeping Dogs, Mune also appeared on-screen alongside its star, Sam Neill.

Mune's other writing credits include adapting classic Ian Cross novel The God Boy into a well-regarded telemovie, the movie version of children's fable The Silent One, and co-writing Goodbye Pork Pie, the first New Zealand feature to win large audiences in its home country.

In 1985 he made his feature debut as a director with hit comedy Came a Hot Friday. Based around the escapades of two smalltown conmen in 50s era New Zealand, the film is based on the novel by Ronald Hugh Morrieson.

Mune won further acclaim in 1991 for directing 'coming of age' drama The End of the Golden Weather, an adaptation of parts of Bruce Mason's classic one-man play. Mune spent a number of years developing this passion project and seeking finance, working with Mason on the project before Mason died.

What Becomes of the Broken Hearted? won nine of its 13 New Zealand Film Award nominations in 1999. The film is the sequel to hard-edged drama Once Were Warriors, which became New Zealand's most successful feature film soon after release. It remains Mune's biggest commercial success to date.

Mune's other directorial projects include a feature-length documentary on comedian (and Came a Hot Friday actor) Billy T James, teenage drama The Whole of the Moon, and UVF thriller The Grasscutter. For television, he directed episodes of comedy series Letter to Blanchy and anthology series The Ray Bradbury Theater. He was one of a large team of second unit directors on Peter Jackson's adaptation of The Lord of the Rings and played a small cameo in the first film.

In 2008 Mune directed depression-era telefeature movie Life's A Riot. Mune also had a cameo role as a judge, after the actor cast in the role did not show up.

Mune: An Autobiography was published in 2010.

Honours, awards and nominations

 * 2008 – Qantas Film and Television Awards - Nominated for Best Supporting Actor - Film: for A Song of Good
 * 2000 – Qantas Film and Television Awards - Rudall Hayward Award
 * 1999 – Nokia New Zealand Film Awards - Best Director: for What Becomes of the Broken Hearted?
 * 1998 – TV Guide Television Awards - Best Actor: for Home Movie
 * 1996 – TV Guide New Zealand Film and Television Awards - Best Screenplay - Film (shared with Richard Lymposs): for The Whole of the Moon
 * 1996 – TV Guide New Zealand Film and Television Awards -Best Supporting Actor - Television: for Cover Story, episode 3
 * 1996 – Giffoni International Film Festival (Children's Film Festival, Italy) - First Prize (Golden Gryphon): The Whole of the Moon
 * 1995 – New Zealand Film and Television Awards - Best Actor - Television: for Fallout
 * 1993 – CableAce Awards (United States) - Best Directing for a Dramatic Series: for The Ray Bradbury Theatre, 'Great Wide World Over There' episode
 * 1993 – Young Artist Awards (United States) - Outstanding Foreign Film: The End of the Golden Weather
 * 1992 – New Zealand Film Awards - Best Film: The End of the Golden Weather
 * 1992 – New Zealand Film Awards - Best Director: for The End of the Golden Weather
 * 1992 – Giffoni International Film Festival - First Prize (Golden Gryphon): The End of the Golden Weather
 * 1991 – Appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire, for services to film and theatre, in the 1991 New Year Honours
 * 1988 – Listener Film and Television Awards - Best Male Performance in a Dramatic Role - Television: for Erebus: The Aftermath
 * 1986 – National Mutual GOFTA Awards - Best Film: Came a Hot Friday
 * 1986 – National Mutual GOFTA Awards - Best Director - Film: for Came a Hot Friday
 * 1986 – National Mutual GOFTA Awards - Best Screenplay Adaptation - Film (shared with Dean Parker): for Came a Hot Friday
 * 1981 – Feltex Television Awards (New Zealand) - Best Script (with John Banas): for Little Big Man Takes a Shot at the Moon
 * 1979 – Feltex Television Awards - Best Drama: The Mad Dog Gang Meets Rotten Fred and Ratsguts
 * 1977 – Feltex Television Awards - Best Actor: for Winners and Losers and Moynihan
 * 1977 – Feltex Television Awards - Best Script: The God Boy
 * 1976 – Feltex Television Awards - Best Script (shared with Peter Hansard): for The Woman at the Store
 * 1976 – Feltex Television Awards - Nominated for Best Actor: The Woman at the Store
 * 1975 – Feltex Television Awards - Best Drama: Derek
 * 1975 – Feltex Television Awards - Best Actor: for Derek

In the 2024 New Year Honours, Mune was appointed a Knight Companion of the New Zealand Order of Merit, for services to film, television and theatre.

title: Ian Mune


text:
Sweeper

Sweepers are small, tropical marine (occasionally brackish) perciform fish of the family Pempheridae. Found in the western Atlantic Ocean and Indo-Pacific region, the family contains about 26 species in two genera. One species (Pempheris xanthoptera) is the target of subsistence fisheries in Japan, where the fish is much enjoyed for its taste. Sweepers are occasionally kept in marine aquaria.

Description
Deeply keeled, compressed bodies and large eyes typify sweepers, their form somewhat like hatchetfish; both cycloid and ctenoid scales may be present. The small, short dorsal fin begins before the body's midpoint and may have four to seven spines; the anal fin is extensive and usually has three spines. The mouth is subterminal and strongly oblique. Species of the genus Parapriacanthus have much more cylindrical bodies.

Some species possess photophores. All but the curved sweeper (Pempheris poeyi) possess a gas bladder. The largest species is the common bullseye (Pempheris multiradiata) at 28 cm long; most other species measure 16 cm or less. Colouration is relatively subdued.

Behaviour
Characteristically shallow water, schooling fish (especially as juveniles), sweepers are nocturnal and seek shelter under ledges or in the caves, nooks, and crannies of reefs or eroded, rocky shorelines during the day. They are often found sharing these hiding places with cardinalfishes and bigeyes, also nocturnal species. At night, sweepers forage for zooplankton, their primary food.

At least one species, the small-scale bullseye (Pempheris compressa) of Australia, is known to enter coastal estuaries whilst young.

Genera
The following genera are classified within the family Pempheridae:

 * Parapriacanthus Steindachner, 1870
 * Pempheris Cuvier, 1829

title: Sweeper


text:
Medieval Hebrew

Medieval Hebrew was a literary and liturgical language that existed between the 4th and 19th century. It was not commonly used as a spoken language, but mainly in written form by rabbis, scholars and poets. Medieval Hebrew had many features distinguishing it from older forms of Hebrew. These affected grammar, syntax, sentence structure, and also included a wide variety of new lexical items, which were either based on older forms or borrowed from other languages, especially Aramaic, Koine Greek and Latin.

History
In the Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain, important work was done by grammarians in explaining the grammar and vocabulary of Biblical Hebrew; much of this was based on the work of the grammarians of Classical Arabic. Important Hebrew grammarians were Judah ben David Hayyuj and Jonah ibn Janah. A great deal of poetry was written, by poets such as Dunash ben Labrat, Solomon ibn Gabirol, Judah Halevi, David Hakohen Abraham ibn Ezra and Moses ibn Ezra, in a "purified" Hebrew based on the work of these grammarians, and in Arabic quantitative metres (see piyyut). This literary Hebrew was later used by Italian Jewish poets. The need to express scientific and philosophical concepts from Ancient Greek and medieval Arabic motivated Medieval Hebrew to borrow terminology and grammar from these other languages, or to coin equivalent terms from existing Hebrew roots, giving rise to a distinct style of philosophical Hebrew. Many have direct parallels in medieval Arabic. The ibn Tibbon family, and especially Samuel ibn Tibbon, were personally responsible for the creation of much of this form of Hebrew, which they employed in their translations of scientific materials from the Arabic. At that time, original Jewish philosophical and theological works produced in Spain were usually written in Arabic, but as time went on, this form of Hebrew was used for many original compositions as well.

Another important influence was Maimonides, who developed a simple style based on Mishnaic Hebrew for use in his law code, the Mishneh Torah. Subsequent rabbinic literature is written in a blend between this style and the Aramaicized Mishnaic Hebrew of the Talmud.

By late 12th and early 13th centuries the cultural center of Mediterranean Jewry was transferred from an Islamic context to Christian lands. The written Hebrew used in Northern Spain, Hachmei Provence (a term for all of Occitania) and Italy was increasingly influenced by Latin, particularly in philosophical writings, and also by different vernaculars (Provençal, Italian, French etc.). In Italy we witness the flourishing of a new genre, Italian-Hebrew philosophical lexicons. The Italian of these lexicons was generally written in Hebrew characters and are a useful source for the knowledge of Scholastic philosophy among Jews. One of the earliest lexicons was that by Moses b. Shlomo of Salerno, who died in the late 13th. century; it was meant to clarify terms that appear in his commentary on Maimonides' The Guide for the Perplexed. Moses of Salerno's glossary was edited by Giuseppe Sermoneta in 1969. There are also glossaries associated with Jewish savants who befriended Giovanni Pico della Mirandola. Moses of Salerno's commentary on the Guide also contains Italian translations of technical terms, which brings the Guide's Islamic-influenced philosophical system into confrontation with 13th-century Italian scholasticism.

Hebrew was also used as a language of communication among Jews from different countries, particularly for the purpose of international trade.

Mention should also be made of the letters preserved in the Cairo Geniza, which reflect the Arabic-influenced Hebrew of medieval Egyptian Jewry. The Arabic terms and syntax that appear in the letters constitute a significant source for the documentation of spoken medieval Arabic, since Jews in Islamic lands tended to use colloquial Arabic in writing rather than classical Arabic, which is the Arabic that appears in Arabic medieval sources.

title: Medieval Hebrew


text:
Rzip

rzip is a huge-scale data compression computer program designed around initial LZ77-style string matching on a 900 MB dictionary window, followed by bzip2-based Burrows–Wheeler transform and entropy coding (Huffman) on 900 kB output chunks.

Compression algorithm
rzip operates in two stages. The first stage finds and encodes large chunks of duplicated data over potentially very long distances (900 MB) in the input file. The second stage uses a standard compression algorithm (bzip2) to compress the output of the first stage.

It is quite common these days to need to compress files that contain long distance redundancies. For example, when compressing a set of home directories several users might have copies of the same file, or of quite similar files. It is also common to have a single file that contains large duplicated chunks over long distances, such as PDF files containing repeated copies of the same image. Most compression programs won't be able to take advantage of this redundancy, and thus might achieve a much lower compression ratio than rzip can achieve.

The intermediate interface between the two stages is made of a byte-aligned data stream of which there are two commands, a literal ("add") with length and data:

type:8      = 0 => literal/add range of count bytes count:16    = 1..65535 data:8..∞   = literal data to be inserted (n whole bytes)

and a match ("copy") with length and offset parameters:

type:8      = 1 => match/copy range of count bytes count:16    = 31..65535 offset:32   = offset to position to be copied from

Literal or match/copy lengths of greater than 65,535 bytes are split into multiple instructions. End-of-stream is indicated with a zero-length literal/add (type=0,count=0) command and immediately followed by a 32-bit CRC checksum.

Reference implementation
A rolling-checksum algorithm based on the one in rsync is used to locate potential matches from over such a large dataset. As the hash buckets fill up, previous hashes ("tags") are discarded based on twice. The tags are discarded in such a manner as to provide fairly good coverage, with a gradually decreasing match granularity as the distance increases. This implementation does not search for match lengths of fewer than 31 consecutive bytes.

Advantages
The key difference between rzip and other well known compression algorithms is its ability to take advantage of very long distance redundancy. The well known deflate algorithm used in gzip uses a maximum history buffer of 32 KiB. The Burrows–Wheeler transform block sorting algorithm used in bzip2 is limited to 900 KiB of history. The history buffer in rzip can be up to 900 MiB long, several orders of magnitude larger than gzip or bzip2. Rzip is often much faster than bzip2, despite using the bzip2 library as a back end. This is because rzip feeds bzip2 with shrunken data, so that bzip2 has to do less work. Simple comparisons (although too small for it to be an authoritative benchmark) have been produced.

Disadvantages
rzip is not suited for every purpose. The two biggest disadvantages of rzip are that it cannot be pipelined (so it cannot read from standard input or write to standard output), and that it uses a high amount of memory: a typical compression run on a large file might use hundreds of megabytes of RAM. If there is a lot of RAM to spare and a very high compression ratio is required, rzip should be used, but if these conditions are not satisfied, alternate compression methods such as gzip and bzip2, which are less memory-intensive, should be used instead of rzip. There is at least one patch to enable pipelining.

History
rzip was originally written by Andrew Tridgell as part of his PhD research.

lrzip
lrzip (Long Range ZIP) is an improved version of rzip. Its file format is incompatible with rzip's. It has the following improvements:
 * Choice of LZMA, LZO, DEFLATE, Bzip2, and ZPAQ compression (as opposed to Bzip2 only)
 * No dictionary limit, not even limited by available RAM
 * Ability to test data for compressibility before compressing, preventing the computer from wasting time by trying to compress incompressible data
 * Ability to be pipelined from standard input / standard output (with a loss in compression ratio)
 * Ability to disable last-stage compression for use with another compressor
 * Optional AES-128 encryption

The lrzip distribution comes with a pair of programs to use it with tar,  and.

rzip64
rzip64 is an extension of rzip for very large files that can utilize multiple CPU cores in parallel. There are benchmark results. Most important, however, is the ability of rzip64 to be interrupted at any time. Thereby a running compression task (that may easily take several hours for large files) survives even a system maintenance reboot without losing already completed work and can be resumed later. The file format of rzip64 is identical to the original rzip.

REP
REP is an alternative implementation of rzip algorithm by Bulat Ziganshin used in his FreeArc archiver as preprocessor for LZMA/Tornado compression algorithms. In FreeArc, REP finds large-distance matches and then LZMA compress the remaining data. For example, on computer with 2 GB RAM, REP finds matches that is at least 512 bytes long at the distances up to 1 GB, and then LZMA finds any remaining matches at the distances up to 128 MB. So, working together, they provide the best compression possible on 2 GB RAM budget.

Being optimized for stream decompression and collaborative work with LZMA, REP has some differences from the original RZIP implementation. First, by default it finds only matches that are 512+ byte long, since benchmarking proved that this is optimal setting for overall REP+LZMA compression. Second, it uses a sliding dictionary that's about 1/2 RAM long, so decompression doesn't need to reread data from decompressed file. REP's advantage is its multiplicative rolling hash that is both quick to compute and has near-ideal distribution.

Larger minimal match length (512 bytes compared to 32 bytes in rzip) allowed for additional speed optimizations, so that REP provides very fast compression (about 200 MB/s on Intel i3-2100).

SREP
SREP (SuperREP) is an implementation of Tridgell's idea of LZ compressor that doesn't store its dictionary in RAM, using instead SHA1 hashes of processed blocks to compare their contents. It allows the program to compress files that are about 10x larger than RAM available. Decompression performed either by reading data from decompressed part of file, or by storing in the memory future matches (future-LZ compression algorithm). Of course, future-LZ compression requires 2 passes over input file but decompression needs tiny memory. In one experiment, 22 GB file compressed with minimum match length of 512 bytes and full 22 GB dictionary required just 2 GB of RAM for decompression.

title: Rzip


text:
Pine Grove, Oregon

Pine Grove, Oregon may refer to:

 * Pine Grove, Hood River County, Oregon, a populated place
 * Pine Grove, Klamath County, Oregon, a populated place
 * Pine Grove, Umatilla County, Oregon, a locale
 * Pine Grove, Wasco County, Oregon, a census-designated place
 * Pine Grove, Washington County, Oregon, a former post office

title: Pine Grove, Oregon


text:
Talk:Ivan Lendl

Tony Roche
Roche was Lendl's coach for a long time right? I tried to quickly find out how long but without success and people with access to tennis resources may know more. Is it worth including something along these lines? Tigerman2005 (talk) 05:12, 3 December 2013 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ivan Lendl