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Grifter (character)

Grifter (Cole Cash) is a superhero appearing in books published by Wildstorm Productions and DC Comics. Created by artist Jim Lee and writer Brandon Choi, he first appeared in WildC.A.T.s #1 (August 1992), as a member of that titular superhero team, during the period when Wildstorm and its properties were owned by Jim Lee. In that incarnation, Grifter is a former government operative and member of the military unit Team 7 and the espionage agency International Operations.

In 1999, Lee sold Wildstorm to DC Comics, and ownership of all Wildstorm characters, including Grifter, transferred to DC Comics. His backstory and continuity remained the same however, until DC's 2011 relaunch of their entire comics line, The New 52, which rebooted the continuity for most of its characters. Since then, the character has starred in his own DC series, and has also made appearances in numerous other DC titles, such as Voodoo, Legion Lost, Team 7, Animal Man and Deathstroke.

The character has been voiced by Colin O'Meara in Wild C.A.T.s, and Danny Jacobs in Justice League: The Flashpoint Paradox.

Publication history
The character debuted in WildC.A.T.S. #1 (August 1992). He was later a major character in the original Team 7 miniseries. In 1997, co-creator Brandon Choi picked this mini-series as his favorite Grifter story, explaining, "I really enjoyed [writer] Chuck Dixon's portrayal of the team members, especially Cole. He really wove Cole's background into the whole Team 7 story in a very believable fashion." *

In May 1995, the character starred in his own solo series, which was concluded in March 1996 with a total of ten issues. A second solo series ran from July 1996 to August 1997, with a total of 14 issues. The character also starred in the five-issue mini-series Point Blank.

In June 2011, DC Comics announced that Grifter would be incorporated into the DC Universe in a new ongoing series written by Nathan Edmondson and drawn by CAFU as part of its September 2011 relaunch of its comics properties. Beginning with Grifter #9 in May 2012, series writer Nathan Edmondson was replaced with Rob Liefeld. The title concluded in issue #16.

Team 7
From a young age, Cole Cash took part in his con man father Jacob Winston "Win" Cash's various grifts, until Cole witnessed his father's apparent murder at the hands of mobster Sam Del Gracci. Cole's mother went on to marry Del Gracci, who regularly beat Cole, while also doting on Cole's younger brother Max. As a teenager, Cole ran away from home and became the getaway driver for a crew of robbers. When his fellow criminals turned violent, Cole intervened, saving the life of F.B.I. agent Joseph Brockmeyer. He was apprehended, and Brockmeyer gave him the choice of either joining the clandestine agency known as International Operations or go to jail. Cole joined I.O., and received training from future Team 7 teammate Marc Slayton (who would eventually become the hero known as Backlash), as well as former members of I.O.'s previous covert operations team, Team 6. At some point, Cole may have been a part of the Army's Special Forces.

Cole joined Team 7, being given the codename Deadeye. The group was deliberately exposed to an experimental chemical called the Gen Factor, which activated a variety of psi powers in them, but which also detrimentally affected their mental health. After the experiment the survivors were classified as Gen 12. Cole suspected that, in fact, high-ranking I.O. officers were behind the experiment, while they claimed that it was an unknown chemical weapon. Cole grew more and more disgruntled with I.O.'s manipulations and secrecy and rebelled against teammates John Lynch and Slayton, particularly after Slayton killed an innocent scientist Cole had tried to rescue during a mission in Leningrad, which Slayton had done on their I.O. superiors' orders.

Most of Team 7 quit I.O. and went into hiding after they became aware that Craven was interested in using their children, the Gen13, who were believed to have inherited their fathers' powers, as weapons.

Cole struck out on his own, eventually crossing paths with the ancient Kherubim warrior Zealot. They fell in love, and she took the unprecedented measure of teaching him, a man, the ways of the Coda, the warrior order she had once belonged to. Her Coda-teachings stabilized Cole's sanity and removed what remained of his psionic powers. Cole and Zealot fought their own private war against members of the Daemonite race, as well as the Coda, Cole first taking the codename Grifter.

Wildcats and Grifter solo series
Cole and Zealot's relationship eventually came to an end, though they remained partners. Both eventually joined the Daemonite hunting team, the WildC.A.T.s. Cole still loved Zealot, though he was unwilling to rekindle their relationship, since he thought doing so would only bring him pain. To stop two Daemonite lords from acquiring a spaceship which could be used to destroy or conquer Earth, the WildC.A.T.s allied themselves with Hightower, a Daemonite who had killed Grifter's friend Lonely. Grifter voiced his objections and, once WildC.A.T.s founder Jacob Marlowe threatened to kick Grifter out of the team, Cole chose instead to quit on the spot. During the scramble for control of the spaceship, Grifter killed Hightower, avenging Lonely. The ship's self-destruct sequence was activated, however, and the other WildC.A.T.s were forced to enter it and try to defuse it. They succeeded, resulting in the ship entering warpspace, taking it and the WildC.A.T.s back to Khera, while Earth's post-human population, including Grifter, believed the team dead.

While another iteration of the WildC.A.T.s was created shortly thereafter, which included Cole's brother Max, operating under the codename Condition Red, Grifter opted to operate independently, eventually becoming a mercenary once again. Cole, with help from special agent Brockmeyer and I.O. officer and friend Alicia Turner, managed to get Del Gracci on tape confessing to Cole's father's murder. Grifter eventually found out from Max that his father had faked his own death, and confronted Winston in New Orleans. Winston revealed that he had stolen money from the Mafia, and had faked his own death to escape retaliation from the mob. Win tried to manipulate Grifter into protecting him from a man he had partnered on a con with and had come to the conclusion that Win was exploiting him. Grifter realized that his father was did not love him, and was a psychopath who was trying to use him. Cole then unraveled Win's latest con, and threatened to kill him if he ever came to Cole's attention again. Ultimately, letting his father escape before the police arrived.

The WildC.A.T.s eventually returned from Khera, and Grifter rejoined the team. Cole still had feelings for Zealot, and was particularly hurt when Zealot and John Colt, who had previously been Spartan until Colt's memories and personality implanted in him resurfaced, briefly rekindled their relationship. Cole and John Colt both insisted Zealot choose between them and, though she was initially unwilling to deal with the situation, she eventually decided she needed to choose to preserve the team's cohesion, and initially chose Colt out of a sense of loyalty as a Kherubim, eventually parting ways with him. Grifter began trying to seize the reins of the WildC.A.T.s and eventually became their leader during a period of time in which the team gained new members, including Olympia Atreidae, and Max Cash rejoined. Max was eventually murdered by a Coda assassin, and Grifter considered killing her in revenge, though Olympia, who had developed feelings for Max, murdered the assassin before the situation could come to a head.

After going their separate ways for a period of time, the Wildcats were reformed, only to disband once again after Zealot's apparent death during a mission. Grifter spent some time operating once more as a mercenary, before joining a new iteration of the Wildcats, formed to take down a mysterious figure with ties to the Kherubims and Daemonites called Kenyan. By this point, the John Colt identity had receded and Spartan's original personality had returned, and, as members of the new Wildcats team, Spartan and Grifter maintained a good working relationship, though Grifter seemed to hold some antipathy towards him. Around this time, Cole attended Team 7 member Alex Fairchild's funeral with other still living members of the team, Lynch and Jackson Dane, as well as the members of Gen13, which includes Fairchild's daughters Caitlin Fairchild and Roxanne Spaulding.

Grifter teamed-up with Backlash to help a group of animal-human hybrids called the Kindred. Tensions between the two remained high over what had occurred in Leningrad. Cole eventually came to the conclusion that Marc had changed, and opted to forgive him, and the two parted as friends.

Cole went on to have an encounter with Zealot, discovering she was alive, and managed to attain some closure. Spartan, now calling himself Jack Marlowe, came to an understanding with Cole, the two realizing they were like family, and would continue to work together in the future.

Point Blank, Wildcats 3.0 and Sleeper
After Team 7 field leader John Lynch was shot in the head, leaving him in a coma, Cole investigated the attack on Lynch, eventually coming to the conclusion that former WildC.A.T.S. member turned traitor Tao was involved in it. Cole discovered that Tao had created an organization made up of post-human criminals, and that Lynch had placed an undercover I.O. agent, Holden Carver in the organization, and vowed to help him leave the organization and clear his name. Tao eventually revealed that he had manipulated and brainwashed Cole into shooting Lynch, and then promptly forgetting about it. Tao then proceeded to erase this knowledge from Cole's mind once again, leaving him unaware of his role in Lynch's attack and Carver's status as an undercover agent.

During a mission for Jack Marlowe, Cole's legs were shattered by an FBI agent. Therefore, he could no longer operate as Marlowe's field agent. He trained accountant Edwin Dolby (Grifter) to take his place. Dolby turned out to be unsuitable for the violent life that Grifter planned for him and resigned from Halo. After Marlowe apologized to him, he rejoined, but strictly as an accountant. Grifter remodeled the robotic body of former teammate Ladytron as a remote-controlled body for himself.

Several months later, Grifter's legs were healed, a side effect of the dormant Gen-factor according to I.O. scientists. John Lynch, who had woken from his coma, restored Cole's memory. Cole was sent to take down Tao and working together with double-agent Holden Carver, Tao's organization was completely dismantled and Tao was imprisoned.

He later joined a makeshift team of former Wildcats to confront the assassin Nemesis.

 World's End

The Wildcats reformed after a near-extinction event nearly destroyed planet Earth. Grifter eventually left the team to join The Authority, and went on to enter into a romantic relationship with Flint.

The Wild Storm
Once a decorated soldier recruited by I.O. as yet another PMC in their ranks, Cole Cash had previously entered John Lynch's Thunderbook Program where he received Gen' Active implants that changed him into a post-human.

He later faked his own death after making contact with Lord Emp, masking his desertion as a disastrous mission gone awry. In the years that followed he came under the tutelage of Emp's fellow alien refugee, Zannah/Lucy Blaze and learned new combat techniques. After the incident where Angie Spica saved his life, Jacob Marlowe, CEO of HALO Industries, commissioned Cole's services to find her before I.O. did.

Grifter, Kenesha/Savant and Adrianna/Void (operating as a rogue Wild C.A.T. cell) planned how to best bring Spica in, having surmised she was currently hiding at an old I.O. station at Camp Hero, Montauk.

The three C.A.T.s used Void's transport method to warp themselves instantly to the safe-house. Adrianna tries to calm the visibly alarmed fugitive, while Cole urges her to come with them to a truly safe haven. But they all come under fire due to interception by an I.O Black Razor C.A.T (Covert Action Team) tasked with retrieving their wayward tech and Spica's murder. In the ensuing battle, Grifter employs steady gunplay while Spica charges up her cybernetic suit and makes a hasty retreat.

Cole manages to dispatch the Razor team but finds Ms. Tereshkova downed by a piece of glass shrapnel sticking out of her temple. Scant seconds later a C.A.T troops he'd shot prepared to use his last grenade. Kenehsa removed the shrapnel piece from Void's noggin just in time for her to warp them out.

Nonplussed that the mission was a failure, Kenesha and Cole bicker back and forth. Void decides to head out and find their missing charge on her own, without backup from a paramilitary group this time.

Upon their return, Cole and Kenesha express their gratitude to Void. Angie is still worried about I.O. finding her especially considering they're stationed so close to their headquarters (Cole is hiding out in Brooklyn). Back at home base, Cash wondered why Adrianna enjoyed reading a daily newspaper over digital news, when they received a call from John Colt. Colt was undercover within the Hightower locale belonging to I.O's invention & engineering division, but he had been compromised. He needed a quick exfiltration before I.O. security apprehended him, as his computer snooping had triggered shield protocols that blocked Void's transmatter teleportation and an impending general alarm. Cole was able to guide him to an open spot where he could jump privately before enemy agents tagged him. John revealed his intel concerned Machine Telepathy, a program in which phone apps, mobile programs or wireless appliances could read the minds of their users and transmit them to IO's servers.

Angela wakes from a nap, and scans all of her new friends with her stolen tech, seeing that Mr. Colt and Kenesha are as alien as Jacob under their human skins. The C.A.T's speculate about the possibility that I.O. has discovered that the owner & founder of HALO is Kheran. But John quickly rebuffs this, for any attempt to expose or target Marlowe would bring up questions for everyone.

Flashpoint
In the alternate timeline of the 2011 "Flashpoint" storyline, Grifter is the leader of the United Kingdom's resistance movement against the Amazons. In a flashback, Grifter assembles Team 7 to battle against terrorists in the Middle East, until they were killed. Grifter was saved by Penny Black (Britannia) and escapes from the Middle East. While Grifter was recovering, the United Kingdom is invaded by the Amazons. Grifter assembles the Resistance to fight against the Amazons. In the present, Lois Lane is rescued by the Resistance from a camp just before she is converted into an Amazon. It is revealed that the Resistance were helping to find Penny's armor prototype at Westminster, as it could turn the war around. While the Resistance are headed towards Westminster, Resistance member Miss Hyde betrays them and contacts the Female Furies. She then tries to make the Resistance surrender by holding a knife to the throat of Lois. However, Miss Hyde regains control of the body and fights the Amazons, allowing the Resistance to gain the upper hand. After they escape the Westminster Palace, Grifter gathers with Britannia, who has then recovered her armor and found a group of released prisoners. The two then lead the Resistance in an all-out battle against the Amazons. Grifter and the Resistance arrive to attack in the Atlantean/Amazon war, and Grifter heralds their arrival by helping Batman take down Black Manta. Grifter is killed in battle by Enchantress who is then killed by Superman.

The New 52
With The New 52, the 2011 relaunch of all of DC Comics' series that immediately followed "Flashpoint", Grifter is established to be a former U.S. Army Special Ops soldier who deserted and became a con-artist. During one of his latest cons, Cole Cash is assaulted and abducted by Daemonites, aliens who can "possess" human bodies. Cash is held for 17 days, while a Daemonite attempts to take possession of his body. For unknown reasons Cole wakens prematurely, aborting the transfer and leaving him with the ability to overhear the telepathic communication of Daemonites. He subsequently hijacks a plane and kills several Daemonites disguised as humans resulting in him being wanted for crimes and terrorism. Cash is now wanted by several intelligence agencies and his brother Max, also a military special operative, is tasked with apprehending him. Furthermore, the Daemonites also wish to retrieve Cash to maintain their secrecy. On the run from his many pursuers, Cash dons a costume from a costume shop to conceal his identity.

At some point in outer space, Grifter encounters Superman, who is in a battle against Helspont and the Daemonites. However, the interaction between the two is brief, for Grifter's ship hull is breached by Biomass. Superman knocks Biomass out into space, sealing the breach behind them with his heat vision.

Near the end of the New 52, Grifter is recruited by King Faraday to work with Deathstroke on Cadmus Island, where thousands of Earth 2 refugees are being inhumanely held captive, after experiencing their home planet being destroyed by Apokolips.

In the alternate timeline of the Future State crossover, Grifter teams up with Luke Fox, and encounters a hostile Helena Bertinelli, while trying to escape from Magistrate and the Black Mask Syndicate, to make it out of Gotham City. Being offered a payment of $75,000 in exchange for her help, Helena agrees to assist Grifter and Luke in leaving the city. Matters become more complicated, given that both Grifter and The Huntress are willing to use lethal force, while Luke lives by a moral code.

Infinite Frontier
Sometime following the "Joker War," Grifter begins to work as a bodyguard in Gotham City, being hired by Lucius Fox. Upon meeting Batman, the two fight until Lucius intervenes. After having a conversation with Lucius about The Joker, Punchline, and the Wayne family fortune, Batman warns Grifter that he knows who Grifter's real boss is, and that Gotham will always be under his watch.

In addition to being a bodyguard for Lucius, Grifter also begins his personal pursuit of Batman, looking to end the vigilante activities of the Caped Crusader. After conspiring with Deathstroke in a failed trap attempt to catch Batman, Grifter instead finds himself being chased by a misunderstood Superman, but manages to teleport away with the help of Void. It is shortly revealed that Zealot is helping Grifter with his bodyguard duties.

Wildstorm
As a result of exposure to the Gen-factor, Deadeye possesses strong powers of telekinesis and telepathy. These abilities came at a cost however as extraneous use of his Gen-Active attributes led to a debilitating effect on his mind and body dubbed The Rush; which were terrible side effects akin to a power-trip addiction threatening to wreak havoc on his and the rest of Team 7's psyches driving the users to madness when utilized unabated, chief among the flaws were loss of psionic's control which causes him to lash out in raw psychic force while reining them in at that time would cause blood vessels to rupture weakening him further still. The power began to burn out over the years and by the time of the Dead Reckoning mission, his telepathic assault was only enough to give an enemy agent a bloody nose.

Zealot taught Cole not only how to remove his powers, but also how bring them back, though he can also use them under other circumstances (usually the presence of another Team 7 member so that they can combine their powers). This training also makes it nearly impossible for individuals with psychic powers to enter Cole's mind. Additionally, John Lynch placed particularly strong psychic shields within Grifter's mind, making him immune to Tao and Peter Grimm's powers.

A side effect of his Gen-factor exposure seems to be accelerated regeneration. This healing factor also appears to have slowed his aging. He was the youngest member of Team 7, and though over 20 years have passed since his exposure to the substance, he still has the appearance and vitality of a man in his mid-to-late 20s. But its nature is fickle at best and rarely ever very effective, one moment healing a broken neck in seconds, to taking months for shattered legs to mend properly, albeit without any scarring. After the Worldstorm event his relatively dormant abilities have reasserted themselves in a far greater capacity, Mr. Cash being capable of more impressive psionic effects than when his powers first waxed & waned.

He's also an adept psionic intuit, able to perceive things well beyond the need of sensory input. Apart from these superhuman powers, Cole is a talented marksman and expert hand-to-hand combatant.

Skilled in both firearms and thrown weapon usage on top of his already impressive unarmed melee abilities, Grifter has been known to single-handedly take down large groups of armed opponents. Having been taught the Coda killing arts by Zealot, being the only man to have been fully trained in them. The extra conventional martial arts training from Marc Slayton and former Team 6 member Jung has made Cash a force to be reckoned with.

While Cole's specialty is firearms he is also highly skilled with knives; having killed a Daemonite armed only with a combat knife in the past, as well as managing to stab Paris, one of the best hand-to-hand combatants in the world. Cole is also an accomplished swordsman, having been trained by Zealot. He is also a very capable demolitionist often employing shaped charges like hand grenades or thermite whilst in pitched combat with large numbers of, or more skilled enemies. Grifter is also adept at black book operations with skills pertaining to the spy network ranging from; disguise mastery, infiltration, stealth, deception, tactics, survival, vehicular operation, sabotage and the like.

The Wild Storm
Grifter is ex-military, recruited out of the U.S. special forces by International Operations for teamwork initially, eventually upgrading to solo ops work.

Grifter was tutored in combat by Lucy Blaze A.K.A. Zannah of Khera, Cole at one point participated in the Thunderbook initiative. A program in which I.O. operatives were implanted with kherubim genetic material, which caused them to generate new auxiliary organs or modify natural biophysical structure to produce newfound superhuman facilities. It also has the side effect of instilling a secondary consciousness within their minds that influence their actions and abilities from within. As a combat specialist, Cole is an adept gun fighter with uncanny aim and body coordination. He has however been warned by Zannah that though she taught him all he knows, that's not all she knows.

Grifter is able to juggle concussion grenades back at their source with a few well placed pistol shots. Mr. Cash is quite skilled at combining acrobatics with his gunkata, able to make backflips, jumps and side leaps while firing off his pistols with pinpoint accuracy. Cole Cash is also an adept tactician and navigator, able to scope out a "gag"/operation based upon accumulated information on how best to proceed.

New 52
As part of DC Comics' 2011 reboot of its continuity, The New 52, Grifter is established to have been a trained soldier and ace marksmen long before he received his augmentations by the Daemonites. On top of his military training he was an experienced con artist who is quite skilled in theft, infiltration and misdirection in his own right. Shooting wise he's skilled enough to time his shots to block the firing chamber of an adversaries gun quite handily. After being experimented on by his Daemonite captors to be host of the collective leader, Cash had been biogenically altered to unknown degrees; he became able to hear the thought process as well as detect the presence of hosting Daemonites within his immediate vicinity. Even being able to see them as who and what they truly are as opposed to what they're pretending to be, he has even shown telepathic prowess beyond just sensing and seeing hosting alien beings able to read the thoughts of others besides just the minds of Daemonites.

He's fast enough and dexterous enough to snatch a speeding arrow out of the air and later is revealed to be telekinetic as well, using his powers to bring down an avalanche on his enemy as well as levitate and operate a host of heavy ordinance with his mind, turning his psychic powers inward he can enhance his physical abilities when/if need be. Able to deck the larger and stronger Daemonites with a mere-backhand, knock down and engage Midnighter in a fist fight whom he could barely even tickle before and much more. About 40 years in the future Cole seems to remain a man in his physical prime, meaning whatever experimentation done on him by his captors evidently extended his lifespan by decades at a time. In that expanse he's also gained a form of reality vision, his telepathy had expanded to the point where he could not only see and hear the thoughts of Daemonites or other possessing entities but could also detect beings from other realities as well.

In other media

 * Grifter appears in Wild C.A.T.s, voiced by Colin O'Meara.
 * An alternate timeline incarnation of Grifter appears in Justice League: The Flashpoint Paradox, voiced by Danny Jacobs. This version comes from the "Flashpoint" timeline and is a member of a resistance movement working to stop an Atlantean/Amazonian war until he is killed by a group of Amazonian archers.
 * Grifter appears as a non-player character in Playmates Interactive's Super NES video game based on the Wild C.A.T.s TV series.
 * Grifter received a regular and "giant" figure from Playmates Toys, released in 1994 and 1995 respectively.

Reception
Sales for The New 52 version of Grifter struggled. Despite a strong launch that found the series debut selling 37,100 issues, sales quickly plummeted, selling 14,903 in March 2012. Issue #8, which was Edmondson's last as writer, sold 14,117 issues.

Critical reception for the series was mixed. The A.V. Club's Keith Phipps and Oliver Sava disagreed on the debut issue, with Phipps saying: "It reads like a book that could turn into something, but as a jumping-on point, this didn't really work for me," while Sava called it "a solid action thriller with a sci-fi twist." MTV Geek largely panned the opening issue, giving it a score of 10/52 and saying "Grifter feels like a series of sort of clever action beats that never got put together as a proper story".

title: Grifter (character)


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Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act

The Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act of 1976 (FSIA) is a United States law, codified at Title 28, §§ 1330, 1332, 1391(f), 1441(d), and 1602–1611 of the United States Code, that established criteria as to whether a foreign sovereign state (or its political subdivisions, agencies, or instrumentalities) is immune from the jurisdiction of the United States' federal or state courts. The Act also establishes specific procedures for service of process, attachment of property and execution of judgment in proceedings against a foreign state. The FSIA provides the exclusive basis and means to bring a civil suit against a foreign sovereign in the United States. It was signed into law by United States President Gerald Ford on October 21, 1976.

History
Foreign state immunity has a long history in U.S. courts. In an early case, The Schooner Exchange v. M'Faddon, 11 U.S. 116 (1812), the Supreme Court held that a private party could not sue the government of France. In that case, the Supreme Court concluded that a plaintiff cannot sue a foreign sovereign claiming ownership to a warship which had taken refuge in Philadelphia. Following international practice and common law principles, U.S. courts routinely refused to hear claims against foreign governments, even where those claims related to commercial activities. The U.S. State Department followed the absolute theory of immunity for foreign states, and courts generally relied on suggestions of immunity by the State Department in actions against foreign sovereigns. In 1952, the U.S. State Department, noting changes in international practice, adopted the restrictive theory of sovereign immunity according to which the public acts (jure imperii) of a foreign state are entitled to immunity, while the private acts (jure gestionis) are not.

The United States was the first country to codify the law of foreign sovereign immunity by statute. The FSIA had three broad objectives: (1) to transfer responsibility for immunity determinations from the Department of State to the judiciary; (2) to define and codify the "restrictive" theory of immunity; and (3) to provide a comprehensive, uniform regime for litigation against foreign states and governmental agencies.

Though the Act places the determination of sovereign immunity fully in the hands of the judiciary, many courts have expressed reluctance to find that a defendant is a sovereign if the "state" in question is one that the U.S. government has not officially recognized, even if the defendant may arguably satisfy the definition of statehood under international law.

The enactment of the Justice Against Sponsors of Terrorism Act in 2016 has allowed U.S. citizens to sue foreign powers over terrorist acts committed on U.S. soil.

Jurisdictional statute
The FSIA is a jurisdictional statute. It indicates what conditions must be met in order for a lawsuit against a foreign state to be instituted, not what conduct by a foreign sovereign is actionable. If a foreign defendant qualifies as a "foreign state" under the FSIA, the Act provides that it shall be immune to suit in any U.S. court—federal or state—unless a statutory exception to immunity applies. The applicability of an exception to immunity is a matter of subject-matter jurisdiction, meaning if there is no exception to immunity, a court cannot hear the claim and must dismiss the suit. In Verlinden B.V. v. Central Bank of Nigeria, the defendant challenged the jurisdiction of the district court, saying that FSIA could not give jurisdiction to the district court since it was not a case "arising under" federal law. The Supreme Court found that since any invocation of jurisdiction under the FSIA would necessarily involve analysis of the exceptions to FSIA, FSIA cases by definition arise under federal law.

Under the FSIA, the burden of proof is initially on the defendant to establish that it is a "foreign state" under the FSIA and therefore entitled to state immunity. "Foreign state" is defined at 28 U.S.C. § 1603(a),(b). Once the defendant establishes that it is a foreign state, for the lawsuit to proceed, the plaintiff must prove that one of the Act's exceptions to immunity apply. The exceptions define both the types of actions as to which immunity does not attach and the territorial nexus required for adjudication in U.S. courts. The Act creates a form of long-arm statute establishing jurisdiction over claims that meet the criteria. The exceptions are listed at 28 U.S.C. §§ 1605, 1605A, and 1607. The most common exceptions are when the foreign state waives immunity (§ 1605(a)(1)) or agrees to submit a dispute to arbitration (§ 1605(a)(6)), engages in a commercial activity (§ 1605(a)(2)), commits a tort in the United States causing "personal injury or death, or damage to or loss of property" (such as a common traffic collision) (§ 1605(a)(5)), or expropriates property in violation of international law (§ 1605(a)(3)). The FSIA also excludes immunity in cases involving certain counterclaims (§ 1607) and admiralty claims (§ 1605(b)). Section 221 of the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996 added an exception for U.S. victims of terrorism, for any government designated by the State Department as a state sponsor of terrorism. The Flatow Amendment was also added in 1996, named after lawyer Stephen Flatow who fought to sue Iran over the suicide bombing that killed his daughter Alisa in 1995, which made those responsible for such attacks liable in court.

In response to the decision of Cicippio-Puleo v. Islamic Republic of Iran that made it difficult to seek private cause of action lawsuits against foreign states even with the Flatow Amendment, the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2008 greatly expanded the terrorism exceptions by moving these as a whole to § 1605A, making foreign states liable for the actions of their officers in cause of action lawsuits, and expanding exceptions for torture, extrajudicial killing, aircraft sabotage, and hostage-taking.

In 2016, the Justice Against Sponsors of Terrorism Act removed the requirement that a state sponsor of terrorism be officially listed, so that victim families of the September 11 attacks could sue Saudi Arabia.

Retroactive application
In 2004, the Supreme Court held in Republic of Austria v. Altmann, 541 U.S. 677 (2004) that the FSIA applies retroactively. That case involved a claim by the descendants of owners of famous paintings against the Austrian government for return of those paintings, which were allegedly seized during the Nazi era. As a consequence of Altmann, for lawsuits filed after the enactment of the FSIA (1976), FSIA standards of immunity and its exceptions apply, even where the conduct that took place prior to enactment of the FSIA.

Exclusive basis for suit
In Argentine Republic v. Amerada Hess Shipping Corp., 488 U.S. 428 (1989), the Supreme Court held that the FSIA provides the "sole basis for obtaining jurisdiction over a foreign state". In that case, a Liberian-owned oil tanker which was traveling outside of the "war zones" designated by the United Kingdom and Argentina during the Falklands War in 1982 was struck by an air to surface rocket fired by an Argentine jet. The shipping company sued Argentina in federal court claiming that Argentina's actions violated the Alien Tort Statute 28 U.S.C. § 1350 and general admiralty law. Because the Court found that the FSIA provided the exclusive means of suing the foreign sovereign, the Court determined that the plaintiffs were not permitted to bring suit under the Alien Tort Statute or general admiralty law.

Definition of "foreign state"
The FSIA only applies to lawsuits involving a foreign state. The FSIA defines (28 U.S.C. § 1603(a)) "foreign state" to include three entities:
 * A foreign state
 * A political subdivision of a foreign state
 * An agency or instrumentality of a foreign state

"Agency or instrumentality" is then defined (28 U.S.C. § 1603(b)) as any entity which has a separate legal identity and is either:
 * an "organ of a foreign state or political subdivision", or
 * has a "majority of ... shares or other ownership interest" owned by a foreign state or political subdivision.

In Dole Food Co. v. Patrickson, 538 U.S. 468 (2003), the Supreme Court determined that in order for a government owned corporation to qualify as a foreign state under the FSIA because a majority of its "shares or other ownership interest" are owned by a foreign state or political subdivision, the foreign state must directly own a majority of the corporation's shares. In Dole, two chemical corporations indirectly owned by the Israeli government sought to remove a case from a Hawaii state court to the United States District Court for the District of Hawaii on the basis that the FSIA applied. The Supreme Court concluded that because the Israeli government did not directly own a majority of the companies shares, the corporations could not be considered foreign states and the FSIA therefore did not apply. The court specifically rejected the companies' argument that Israel's majority interest in the companies through indirect ownership qualified as an "other ownership interest" under the FSIA or that Israel's actual control over the corporations would qualify. In reaching its conclusion, the court also held that the determination as to whether a defendant qualifies as a foreign state is made at the time the plaintiff files the complaint.

There had been disagreement among the courts as to whether an individual government official is covered by the FSIA, and therefore immune to suit according to its provisions or whether traditional (pre-FSIA) common law rules of immunity apply. The majority of Federal Courts of Appeals had concluded that individuals are covered under § 1603(b) as "agencies or instrumentalities" of foreign states. See In re Terrorist Attacks on September 11, 2001, 538 F.3d 71 (2d Cir. 2008) (finding Saudi government officials to be entitled to immunity under the FSIA). Other courts however, noting that the language and structure of the FSIA and particularly § 1603(b) appear to contemplate that entities and not individuals are covered by the "agency or instrumentality" definition, had concluded that individuals are not entitled to immunity under the FSIA. See Yousuf v. Samantar, 552 F.3d 371 (4th Cir. 2009) (holding that former Somalian government official is not covered by, and therefore entitled to immunity under the FSIA and remanding to District Court to determine whether defendant is entitled to common law immunity).

However, the Supreme Court in 2010 decided that the Act does not extend immunity to a government official acting on behalf of a state. In the case of Samantar v. Yousuf decided in June 2010, the Supreme Court found that there is nothing to suggest that "foreign state" within the FSIA should be read to include an official acting on behalf of that state. Justice Stevens, with the unanimous support of the Supreme Court, made the decision into common law with his many paragraphs on the court case. This helped define what is considered to be a foreign state, which now included state officials acting within their jurisdiction.

Moreover, the potential of the FSIA to undermine foreign policy goals of the executive branch has been an ongoing concern.

Commercial activity exception
The most important exception to sovereign immunity is the commercial activity exception, 28 U.S.C. § 1605(a)(2). This section provides three bases on which a plaintiff can sue a foreign state:

 * When the plaintiff's claim is based upon a commercial activity carried on in the United States by the foreign state.
 * When the plaintiff's claim is based upon an act by the foreign state which is performed in the United States in connection with commercial activity outside the United States.
 * When the plaintiff's claim is based upon an act by the foreign state which is performed outside the United States in connection with commercial activity outside the United States and which causes a direct effect in the United States.

In determining whether a foreign state's activities are commercial, the FSIA requires that courts look to the nature of the act itself, rather than the purpose for which the foreign sovereign engaged in the act (28 U.S.C. § 1603(d)). For example, the operation of a fee-based transportation system would likely be a commercial act, while imposing fines for parking tickets would be a public act, even if the former was undertaken to provide a public service, and the latter was initiated to raise revenue.

Republic of Argentina v. Weltover, 504 U.S. 607 (1992), concerned a breach of contract claim asserted by the bond-holder (two Panamanian corporations and a Swiss bank) against the government (Argentina) that issued the bonds arising from Argentina's default on the bond payments. Under the terms of the bonds, the bond-holders were given the option of having the bonds paid in London, Frankfurt, Zürich, or New York. Because the case concerned a default in Argentina on bonds issued in Argentina (i.e., an act performed outside the United States in connection with activity outside the United States), in order to establish jurisdiction, the plaintiff's could only rely on the third basis to sue Argentina under the commercial activity exception. Argentina made two primary arguments as to why the FSIA commercial activity exception should not apply: (1) the issuance of sovereign debt to investors was not a "commercial" activity and (2) the alleged default could not be considered to have had a "direct effect" in the United States. In a unanimous opinion written by Justice Antonin Scalia, the Supreme Court held that Argentina was not entitled to sovereign immunity. Reasoning that "when a foreign government acts, not as regulator of a market, but in the manner of a private player within it, the foreign sovereign's actions are 'commercial, the Court concluded that Argentina's issuance of the bonds was of a commercial character. As for the "direct effect" in the United States, the Court rejected the suggestion that under the FSIA the effect in the United States necessarily needed to be "substantial" or "foreseeable", and instead concluded that in order to be "direct", the effect need only follow "as an immediate consequence of the defendant's activity". Because New York was the place where payment was supposed to be made, and payment "was not forthcoming", the Court concluded that the effect was direct, notwithstanding the fact that none of the plaintiffs were situated in New York.

The District Court for the District of Columbia held in Upton v Empire of Iran (1978) that "direct effect" is to be given its common sense interpretation: a direct effect "has no intervening element, but, rather, flows in a straight line without deviation or interruption".

The involvement of a US citizen or a body incorporated in the United States is not in itself sufficient to establish a "direct effect" in the United States if a case involves no other form of direct connection.

In 2015, the Supreme Court unanimously held in OBB Personenverkehr AG v. Sachs that the purchase of a rail ticket from an authorized agent in the US does not fall within the commercial activity exception when the lawsuit concerns a rail accident in a foreign country. Carol Sachs, a US resident, purchased a Eurail pass on the internet from a US-based travel agent. She used the pass to board a train operated by the Austrian national railway, ÖBB Personenverkehr AG (ÖBB), but during the process she fell onto the tracks and her legs were crushed by the moving train, requiring the amputation of both of her legs. Sachs sued ÖBB in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California for damages related to the incident. She reasoned that the suit was not barred by the FSIA because it was "based upon" the sale of the ticket by the US-based travel agent. The court ruled that the suit did not fall within the commercial activities exception. It was appealed to the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, which reversed the judgment, holding that the purchase of the ticket from a US-based travel agent established agency. The Supreme Court looked at the "particular conduct on which the [lawsuit] is based" and held that, because that conduct occurred in Austria, the case did not fall within the commercial activities exception.

Genocidal takings
One student's note has argued that matters of genocidal takings are regarded as exceeding the jurisdictional limits of the FSIA's international takings exception. In June 2017, a divided panel of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit found the FSIA did not prevent the survivors of a Holocaust victim from suing to recover art stolen by Nazi plunderers. However, the ruling was challenged by Germany to the United States Supreme Court, which ruled in a unanimous decision in February 2021 that FSIA does not permit legal action to be taken against foreign states for property taken from individuals by foreign states, as the provisions of FSIA are directed towards state property taken by other states, and vacated the lower court rulings. The case, Germany v. Philipp, dealt with the applicability of the FSIA for heirs of victims of the Holocaust to sue Germany in the United States court systems for compensation for items that were taken by the Nazi Party during World War II. The court unanimously ruled that FSIA does not allow these survivors to sue Germany in U.S. court, reasoning that the sale was an act of expropriation of property rather than an act of genocide, although granting that other means of recovery are still potentially available. The decision also concluded a related case, Hungary v. Simon, which was decided per curiam on the ruling of Germany.

Industrial espionage by state-owned enterprises
FSIA has been invoked by state-owned enterprises as well as their subsidiaries and joint ventures, particularly those owned by the People's Republic of China, accused of industrial espionage and intellectual property theft, as a defense from legal action.

Notable legal cases
Cicippio-Puleo v. Islamic Republic of Iran in 2004 was heard after the additions of the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996 and the Flatow Amendment to FSIA, which were related to punitive damages from emotional distress from family members of a surviving Lebanon hostage crisis from Iran. While an earlier case by the hostage was successful in winning compensatory damages in his original suit, the DC Circuit Court ruled that the amended FSIA did not allow for a private cause of action against a foreign state, only against individuals. This decision filtered through the other circuit courts, which prompted Congress to significantly modify the exemptions related to terrorism in the 2008 NDAA to specifically allow for foreign states to be sued on a private cause of action, retroactively applying this to the other legal cases pending at the time.

In 2008, Saudi Arabia invoked the FSIA to preclude a lawsuit filed by families and victims of the September 11 attacks who alleged that the Saudi leaders had indirectly financed al-Qaeda. Congress responded in 2016 by overriding President Obama's veto of the Justice Against Sponsors of Terrorism Act (JASTA), amending FSIA and allowing the families' suit against Saudi Arabia to proceed in U.S. courts.

In John V. Doe v. Holy See, 557 F.3d 1066 (9th Cir. 2009), the Holy See invoked the FSIA in a lawsuit related to child abuse incidents in various U.S. churches. The ruling ultimately did not rely on state immunity.

In Republic of Argentina v. NML Capital, Ltd., the Supreme Court ruled on June 16, 2014, against Argentina's appeal of a lower court ruling that Argentina's government must uphold its contractual obligation to pay in full those bondholders who refused to accept reduced payments negotiated in foreign debt restructurings carried out by Argentina in 2005 and 2010 after that state's government defaulted on its debt in 2001. Later the same day, the U.S. Supreme Court, in a 7–1 ruling (Associate Justice Sonia Sotomayor recused herself from both cases without giving a reason for doing so), gave permission for those bondholders to seek information on Argentina's assets in the United States and abroad by issuing subpoenas to banks to trace those assets.

In Republic of Sudan v. Harrison, the Supreme Court ruled in March 2019 that the FSIA requires that civil process (court summons and civil complaints) be addressed and delivered directly to the foreign minister of a foreign state, and that delivery to an embassy in the US is not sufficient.

In Opati v. Republic of Sudan, the Supreme Court unanimously ruled in May 2020 that FSIA allowed for punitive damages on a cause of action from conduct before the enactment of the FSIA, in a case related to the 1998 United States embassy bombings.

In Germany v. Philipp, the Supreme Court ruled in 2021 that the FSIA does not allow for survivors or heirs of victims of the Holocaust and Nazi Germany to sue Germany for compensation for possessions taken or forced into sale by the Nazi Party.

Proposed amendments
On March 25, 2014, U.S. Representative Steve Chabot introduced the Foreign Cultural Exchange Jurisdictional Immunity Clarification Act (H.R. 4292; 113th Congress) into the United States House of Representatives. According to a legislative digest provided by House Republicans, the bill "narrowly amends the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act (FSIA) to make it easier for U.S. cultural and educational institutions to borrow art and other culturally significant objects from foreign countries". However, the changes made by the bill would not provide any immunity to art or objects that were "taken in violation of international law by Nazi Germany between January 30, 1933 and May 8, 1945". The Congressional Budget Office reported that "under current law, works of art loaned by foreign governments generally are immune to certain decisions made by federal courts and cannot be confiscated if the President, or the President's designee, determines that display of the works is in the national interest. However, commercial activity in which foreign governments are engaged does not have immunity in federal courts. H.R. 4292 would clarify that importing works of art into the United States for temporary display is not a commercial activity, and thus that such works would be immune from seizure". The bill was scheduled to be voted on under suspension of the rules on May 6, 2014. In May 2016 the Senate passed a bill called the Justice Against Sponsors of Terrorism Act which also was passed by the house shortly after. Obama vetoed the bill in September 2016, but the Senate overrode the veto in a 97–1 vote. With the bill becoming a law it added an amended the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act to allow the families of 9/11 to sue the sponsors of "terrorist attacks on U.S. soil", as chairman Goodlatte said on the override vote.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act


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Wikipedia is run by the non-profit Wikimedia Foundation, which operates several other multilingual and free-content projects:

title: Template:Wikipediasister (text only)


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Stuart Foxen

Only google hits for "Stuart Foxen" are for a footballer, no reference of supposed transgender marriage. No google hits for "Stuart Andrew Foxen". As contributor's only other edit seems to have been a (since deleted) profanity about a UK football team, I suspect this may be someones idea of a sense of humour. -- Infrogmation 16:13, 5 Aug 2004 (UTC) + keep. stuart foxen is the footballer on the google page - they are one and the same person.
 * Delete: Hmm, the EU did standardize laws, but, to my knowledge, few EU nations had any laws on the books doubting a sexually reassigned person's ability to marry. I think this is a mix of fact and fiction, and I hope those more knowledgeable about the shifting status, and retrograde legal movements, of the issue pipe up with the real first ts marriage. Geogre 16:25, 5 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep - If the cross-gendered marriage thing is true, then he's notable enough. Might need some fact-checking, though. [[User:Mike Storm|Mike ∞ Storm]] 18:13, 5 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete unless existence can be verified. [[User:Meelar|Meelar (talk)]] 20:11, 2004 Aug 5 (UTC)
 * Delete. The creator is obviously not going to provide verification, and if no one else does, it's not worth having around. Quadell (talk) 20:23, Aug 5, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete unless verified. Unable to find anything relevant googling for Zoe Pickford or Gavin Pickford either, and tried unsuccessfully to track down anything about the EU directive mentioned in the article. --Michael Snow 23:05, 5 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete unless verified. Am I the only one who finds the repeated mention of "cross-gendered marriage" as a first here funny? Ambi 09:07, 6 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete unless verified. This is notable if true. But I find absence of google hits very suspicious, particularly because the article talks about very recent events. Andris 10:49, Aug 6, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Unlikely to be true in ther face of lack of Google hits. Only contribution yet by this anon. Andrewa 12:39, 6 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * Comment was by User:217.206.214.197, whose only other actions were to vandalize two user pages. Geogre 14:09, 9 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Comment: Now back under a different IP, and again with the user page vandalism. Geogre 14:46, 10 Aug 2004 (UTC)

I am affraid to tell you all that Stuart Foxen is in fact both the footballer you refer to as "Golden Balls" and the man who married Zoe Pickford. This seems to have spiralled a little out of control since Geogre decided to try and wow us with his knowledge. Sorry though mate, would appear you've made a mistake on this one. Oh well not to worry you (@*[ (sorry just realised shouldnt really swear). By the way I love wikipedia......keep up the good work.


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Hornet (disambiguation)

A hornet is an insect. It may also mean:

Insects

 * a colloquial term for American wasps, particularly the bald-faced hornet
 * a colloquial term for certain Australian potter wasp species, including the Australian hornet

Air

 * McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet, a jet combat aircraft
 * McDonnell Douglas CF-18 Hornet, a Canadian variant
 * De Havilland Hornet, a World War II-era combat aircraft
 * Hornet, original name of the Hawker Fury British biplane fighter
 * Hornet, unofficial name of the Curtiss 18 Model 18B triplane fighter
 * AGM-64 Hornet, an experimental American missile
 * ABC Hornet, a World War I aircraft engine
 * Messerschmitt Me 410 Hornisse ("Hornet"), a World War II German aircraft
 * Aérospatiale SA 321 Super Frelon ("Super Hornet") helicopter, also known in the Israeli Air Force as Tzir'a ("Hornet")
 * SNCASE SE.3200 Frelon ("Hornet") helicopter (precursor of the Aérospatiale SA 321 Super Frelon)
 * nickname of 443 Maritime Helicopter Squadron, a Royal Canadian Air Force unit
 * 113 Squadron (Israel), an Israeli Air Force unit also known as the Tayeset Ha'Tsira'a ("Hornet Squadron")

Sea

 * HMS Hornet, ten ships of the Royal Navy
 * USS Hornet, eight ships of the U.S. Navy

Land

 * Medium Mark C Hornet, a British First World War tank
 * Humber Hornet, a British armoured car
 * M93 Hornet mine, an American anti-tank mine

Air

 * Firebird Hornet, a German paraglider design
 * Glasflügel 206 Hornet 1970s glider
 * US Light Aircraft Hornet, an ultralight aircraft
 * Hiller YH-32 Hornet, an American ultralight helicopter
 * Harkness Hornet, 1920s Australian aircraft engine
 * Pratt & Whitney R-1690 Hornet, aero engine produced 1926–1942
 * Vintage Ultralight SR-1 Hornet, an American 1980s ultralight aircraft design

Land

 * AMC Hornet, a compact car manufactured from 1970 to 1977
 * Dodge Hornet (concept car), a concept car revealed in 2006
 * Hudson Hornet, a car manufactured from 1951 to 1957
 * Wolseley Hornet six, a 1930s saloon, coupé, sports and racing car
 * Wolseley Hornet (Mini), a variant of the original Mini car
 * Honda CB250F, a motorcycle known as the Hornet, first 'Hornet' released by Honda
 * Honda CB600F, a motorcycle known as the Hornet in Europe and Brazil
 * Honda CB900F, a motorcycle known as the Hornet 900 in Europe
 * BSA Hornet, a British motorcycle for export to the United States from 1964 to 1965

Sea

 * Hornet (clipper), an 1851 clipper ship which raced Flying Cloud around Cape Horn
 * Hornet (dinghy), a type of sailing dinghy
 * Hornet, a steamer involved in the Hornet incident (an 1871 diplomatic incident)

Fictional characters

 * Hornet (comics), a name shared by three Marvel characters
 * Hornet (DC Thomson), a British comic of the 1960s-1970s
 * Hornet Squadron, an RAF squadron in a series of books by Derek Robinson
 * Hornet (Gobots), an alien cyborg shapeshifter
 * A character in the video game Hollow Knight
 * Robot henchmen in Buzz Lightyear of Star Command

University and high school teams

 * Alabama State University Hornets
 * California State University, Sacramento Hornets
 * the teams of Concordia College Alabama
 * Delaware State University Hornets
 * Emporia State Hornets and Lady Hornets, Kansas
 * Kalamazoo College Hornets, Michigan
 * Surrattsville High School Hornets, Maryland
 * Midwood High School Hornets, New York
 * Hamilton High School West Hornets, New Jersey
 * Herndon High School Hornets, Virginia

Ice hockey teams

 * Bracknell Hornets, a team in the English National Hockey League
 * Cambridge Hornets, a Canadian Senior "AAA" team from Cambridge, Ontario
 * Herlev Hornets, a Danish AL-Bank Ligaen team
 * Huntington Hornets, an American International Hockey League team in the 1956–57 season
 * Langley Hornets, a former name of the Canadian Junior "A" team West Kelowna Warriors
 * Pittsburgh Hornets, a former American minor league team (1936–56, 1961–67)
 * Thunder Bay Hornets, a former Canadian Junior "A" team (1982-86)

Other teams

 * Charlotte Hornets (disambiguation), several sports teams
 * Cleveland Hornets, former baseball team
 * Dandy Town Hornets F.C., Bermuda soccer team
 * Howick Hornets, New Zealand, rugby league team
 * Hull Hornets, British American-football team
 * Montreal Hornets, former Canadian rugby union team
 * New Orleans Hornets, former National Basketball Association team
 * Rochdale Hornets, professional rugby league team
 * Rochdale Hornets (speedway), former speedway team
 * Watford F.C., known as "the Hornets" after their yellow and black kit

American football stadiums

 * Hornet Stadium (Montgomery), on the campus of Alabama State University
 * Hornet Stadium (Sacramento), on the campus of California State University, Sacramento

Other uses in sports

 * The Hornet, a professional wrestler from the United States Wrestling Association
 * Hornet, the puck used in the Swiss sport Hornussen

Places

 * Hornet Township, Beltrami County, Minnesota
 * Hornet, Missouri, an unincorporated community
 * Hornet Peak, Queen Maud Land, Antarctica

Student newspapers

 * The Hornet, the student newspaper of Delaware State University
 * The Hornet, the student newspaper of Fullerton College
 * The State Hornet, the student newspaper of California State University, Sacramento

Other uses

 * Hornet (roller coaster), an amusement ride in Amarillo
 * Hornet (Hewlett-Packard), a codename for an 80186-compatible embedded processor for the HP 100LX, 200LX and 1000CX palmtop PCs
 * Hornet (app), a gay dating app
 * .17 Hornet, a type of rifle cartridge
 * .22 Hornet, a type of rifle cartridge

title: Hornet (disambiguation)


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FSIA

FSIA may refer to:
 * Food Safety Institute of the Americas
 * Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act
 * Seychelles International Airport, its ICAO airport code

title: FSIA


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Kingdom of Hungary

The Kingdom of Hungary was a monarchy in Central Europe that existed for nearly a millennium, from the Middle Ages into the 20th century. The Principality of Hungary emerged as a Christian kingdom upon the coronation of the first king Stephen I at Esztergom around the year 1000; his family (the Árpád dynasty) led the monarchy for 300 years. By the 12th century, the kingdom became a European power.

Due to the Ottoman occupation of the central and southern territories of Hungary in the 16th century, the country was partitioned into three parts: the Habsburg Royal Hungary, Ottoman Hungary, and the semi-independent Principality of Transylvania. The House of Habsburg held the Hungarian throne after the Battle of Mohács in 1526 continuously until 1918 and also played a key role in the liberation wars against the Ottoman Empire.

From 1867, territories connected to the Hungarian crown were incorporated into Austria-Hungary under the name of Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen. The monarchy ended with the deposition of the last king Charles IV in 1918, after which Hungary became a republic. The kingdom was nominally restored during the "Regency" of 1920–46, ending under the Soviet occupation in 1946.

The Kingdom of Hungary was a multiethnic state from its inception until the Treaty of Trianon and it covered what is today Hungary, Slovakia, Transylvania and other parts of Romania, Carpathian Ruthenia (now part of Ukraine), Vojvodina (now part of Serbia), the territory of Burgenland (now part of Austria), Međimurje (now part of Croatia), Prekmurje (now part of Slovenia) and a few villages which are now part of Poland. From 1102 it also included the Kingdom of Croatia, being in personal union with it, united under the King of Hungary.

According to the demographers, about 80 percent of the population was made up of Hungarians before the Battle of Mohács, however in the mid-19th century out of a population of 14 million less than 6 million were Hungarian due to the resettlement policies and continuous immigration from neighboring countries. Major territorial changes made Hungary ethnically homogeneous after World War I. More than nine-tenths of the population of modern Hungary is ethnically Hungarian and speaks Hungarian as their mother tongue.

Today, the feast day of the first king Stephen I (20 August) is a national holiday in Hungary, commemorating the foundation of the state (Foundation Day).

Names
The Latin forms Regnum Hungariae or Ungarie (Regnum meaning kingdom); Regnum Marianum (Kingdom of Mary); or simply Hungaria, were the names used in official documents in Latin from the beginning of the kingdom to the 1840s.

The German name Königreich Ungarn was used officially from 1784 to 1790 and again between 1849 and the 1860s.

The Hungarian name (Magyar Királyság) was used in the 1840s, and then again from the 1860s to 1946. The unofficial Hungarian name of the kingdom was Magyarország, which is still the colloquial, and also the official name of Hungary.

The names in the other native languages of the kingdom were: Królestwo Węgier, Regatul Ungariei, Kraljevina Ugarska, Kraljevina Ugarska, Kraljevina Ogrska, Uhorské kráľovstvo, and Italian (for the city of Fiume), Regno d'Ungheria.

In Austria-Hungary (1867–1918), the unofficial name Transleithania was sometimes used to denote the regions of the Kingdom of Hungary. Officially, the term Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen was included for the Hungarian part of Austria-Hungary, although this term was also in use prior to that time.

Origins
The Hungarians, led by Árpád, settled the Carpathian Basin in 895 and established the Principality of Hungary (896–1000). The Hungarians led several successful incursions to Western Europe, until they were stopped by Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor in Battle of Lechfeld.

High Middle Ages

The principality was succeeded by the Christian Kingdom of Hungary with the coronation of St Stephen I (son of principal Géza. Originally called Vajk until baptized) at Esztergom on Christmas Day 1000. The first kings of the kingdom were from the Árpád dynasty. He fought against Koppány and in 998, with Bavarian help, defeated him near Veszprém. The Catholic Church received powerful support from Stephen I, who with Christian Hungarians and German knights wanted a Christian kingdom established in Central Europe. Stephen I of Hungary was canonized as a Catholic saint in 1083 and an Eastern Orthodox saint in 2000. Around the 11th century, the Kingdom of Hungary became a Christian state, and Catholicism in the Hungarian Kingdom was a state religion.

After his death, a period of revolts and conflict for supremacy ensued between the royalty and the nobles. In 1051 armies of the Holy Roman Empire tried to conquer Hungary, but they were defeated at Vértes Mountain. The armies of the Holy Roman Empire continued to suffer defeats; the second greatest battle was at the town now called Bratislava, in 1052. Before 1052 Peter Orseolo, a supporter of the Holy Roman Empire, was overthrown by king Samuel Aba of Hungary.

This period of revolts ended during the reign of Béla I. Hungarian chroniclers praised Béla I for introducing new currency, such as the silver denarius, and for his benevolence to the former followers of his nephew, Solomon. The second greatest Hungarian king, also from the Árpád dynasty, was Ladislaus I of Hungary, who stabilized and strengthened the kingdom. He was also canonized as a saint. Under his rule Hungarians successfully fought against the Cumans and acquired parts of Croatia in 1091. Due to a dynastic crisis in Croatia, with the help of the local nobility who supported his claim, he managed to swiftly seize power in northern parts of the Croatian kingdom (Slavonia), as he was a claimant to the throne due to the fact that his sister was married to the late Croatian king Zvonimir who died without an heir.

However, kingship over all of Croatia would not be achieved until the reign of his successor Coloman. With the coronation of King Coloman as "King of Croatia and Dalmatia" in Biograd in 1102, the two kingdoms of Croatia and Hungary were united under one crown. Although the precise terms of this relationship became a matter of dispute in the 19th century, it is believed that Coloman created a kind of personal union between the two kingdoms. The nature of the relationship varied through time, Croatia retained a large degree of internal autonomy overall, while the real power rested in the hands of the local nobility. Modern Croatian and Hungarian historiographies mostly view the relations between Kingdom of Croatia (1102–1526) and Kingdom of Hungary from 1102 as a form of a personal union, i.e. that they were connected by a common king. Also, one of the greatest Hungarian jurists and statesmen of the 16th century, István Werbőczy in his work Tripartitum treats Croatia as a kingdom separate to Hungary.

Especially Arabic and Byzantine travelers from this time praised the richness country, the dense pastures, the nicely cultivated lands, the plentiful animals in waters and forests. They said that the wheat is cheap, the markets are populous, the cities flourish and the folk are wealthy. Although it is hardly credible that they refer to all layers of society, the documents were inspired by the reality.

In 1222 Andrew II of Hungary issued the Golden Bull which laid down the principles of law.

Mongol invasion

In 1241, Hungary was invaded by the Mongols and while the first minor battles with Subutai's vanguard probes ended in seeming Hungarian victories, the Mongols finally destroyed the combined Hungarian and Cuman armies at the Battle of Muhi. In 1242, after the end of the Mongol invasion, numerous fortresses to defend against future invasion were erected by Béla IV of Hungary. In gratitude, the Hungarians acclaimed him as the "Second Founder of the Homeland", and the Hungarian Kingdom again became a considerable force in Europe. In 1260 Béla IV lost the War of Babenberg Succession, his army was defeated at the Battle of Kressenbrunn by the united Bohemian forces. However, in 1278, Ladislaus IV of Hungary and Austrian troops fully destroyed the Bohemian army at the Battle on the Marchfeld.

Late Middle Ages
The Árpád dynasty died out in 1301 with the death of Andrew III. Subsequently, Hungary was ruled by the Angevins until the end of the 14th century, and then by several non-dynastic rulers – notably Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor and Matthias Corvinus – until the early 16th century.

The Anjou Age

When Andrew III's predecessor, Ladislaus IV, was assassinated in 1290, another nobleman was set up as titular King of Hungary: Charles Martel of Anjou. Charles Martel was the son of King Charles II of Naples and Mary of Hungary, the sister of Ladislaus IV. However, Andrew III took the crown for himself and ruled without inconvenience after Charles Martel's death in 1295. Upon Andrew's death in 1301, the country was divided between powerful lords hostile to each other. A coalition of some of these oligarchs first crowned Wenceslaus III, who quickly fled from the anarchy, then Otto III, who was forced to leave by the Kán family. Charles, remaining as the only candidate, was finally crowned King Charles I in 1310. His famous battle at Rozgony, described as "most cruel battle since the Mongol invasion of Europe" by the Chronicon Pictum, ended his war of reunification.

He implemented considerable economic reforms and defeated the remaining nobility who were in opposition to royal rule, led by Máté Csák III. The kingdom of Hungary reached an age of prosperity and stability under Charles I. The gold mines of the Kingdom were extensively worked and soon Hungary reached a prominent standing in European gold production. The forint was introduced as a currency, replacing the denars, and soon after Charles's reforms were implemented, the economy of the Kingdom started to prosper again, having fallen into a parlous state following the Mongol invasion.

Charles exalted the cult to Saint Ladislaus I, using him as a symbol of bravery, justice and purity. He also venerated his uncle, Saint Louis of Toulouse. On the other hand, he gave importance to the cults of the princesses Saint Elizabeth and Saint Margaret, which added relevance to the lineage inheritance through the feminine branches.

Charles restored the royal power which had fallen into feudal lords' hands, and then made the lords swear loyalty to him. For this, he founded in 1326 the Order of Saint George, which was the first secular chivalric order in the world, and included the most important noblemen of the Kingdom.

Charles married four times. His fourth wife was Elizabeth, the daughter of Władysław I of Poland. When Charles died in 1342, his eldest son by Elizabeth succeeded him as Louis I. In the first years of his reign, Louis was advised closely by his mother, making her one of the most influential personalities in the Kingdom.

Charles had arranged the marriage of his second son, Andrew, with his cousin Joanna, the granddaughter of King Robert of Naples, in 1332. Robert died in 1343, bequeathing his kingdom to Joanna but excluding the claim of Andrew. In 1345, a group of noble Neapolitan conspirators murdered Andrew at Aversa. Almost immediately, Louis declared war on Naples, conducting a first campaign in 1347–1348 and a second in 1350. He eventually signed peace with Joanna in 1352. Louis also waged wars against the Serbian Empire and the Golden Horde, restoring the Hungarian monarchs' authority over territories along the frontiers which had been lost during the previous decades.

In 1370 Louis's uncle, Casimir III of Poland, died without male issue. Louis succeeded him, thus establishing the first union of Hungary and Poland. This lasted until 1382 when Louis himself died without male issue; his two daughters, Mary and Jadwiga, then ascended the thrones of Hungary and Poland respectively.

The Age of Sigismund

Louis I of Hungary always kept good and close relationships with the Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV of Luxembourg and finally proclaimed Charles's son Sigismund of Luxembourg to succeed him as King of Hungary. Sigismund became a renowned king who created many improvements in the Hungarian law system and who rebuilt the palaces of Buda and Visegrád. He brought materials from Austria and Bohemia and ordered the creation of the most luxurious building in all of central Europe. In his laws can be seen the traces of the early mercantilism. He worked hard to keep the nobility under his control. A great part of his reign was dedicated to the fight with the Ottoman Empire, which started to extend its frontiers and influence to Europe. In 1396 was fought the Battle of Nicopolis against the Ottomans, which resulted in a defeat for the Hungarian-French forces led by Sigismund and Philip of Artois, Count of Eu. However, Sigismund continued to successfully contain the Ottoman forces outside of the Kingdom for the rest of his life.

Losing popularity among the Hungarian nobility, Sigismund soon became victim of an attempt against his rule, and Ladislaus of Anjou-Durazzo (the son of the murdered King of Naples Charles II of Hungary) was called in and crowned. Since the ceremony was not performed with the Hungarian Holy Crown, and in the city of Székesfehérvár, it was considered illegitimate. Ladislaus stayed only few days in Hungarian territory and soon left it, no longer an inconvenience for Sigismund. In 1408 he founded the Order of the Dragon, which included most of the relevant monarchs and noblemen of that region of Europe at that time. This was just a first step for what was coming. In 1410 he was elected King of the Romans, making him the supreme monarch over the German territories. He had to deal with the Hussite movement, a religious reformist group that was born in Bohemia, and he presided at the Council of Constance, where the theologist founder Jan Hus, was judged. In 1419 Sigismund inherited the Crown of Bohemia after the death of his brother Wenceslaus of Luxembourg, obtaining the formal control of three medieval states, but he struggled for control of Bohemia until the peace agreement with the Hussites and his coronation in 1436. In 1433 was crowned as Holy Roman Emperor by the Pope and ruled until his death in 1437, leaving as his only heir his daughter Elizabeth of Luxembourg and her husband. The marriage of Elizabeth was arranged with the Duke Albert V of Austria, who was later crowned as King Albert of Hungary in 1437.

Hunyadi family

The Hungarian kingdom's golden age was during the reign of Matthias Corvinus (1458–1490), the son of John Hunyadi. His nickname was "Matthias the Just". He further improved the Hungarian economy and practised astute diplomacy in place of military action whenever possible. Matthias did undertake campaigning when necessary. From 1485 until his death, he occupied Vienna, aiming to limit the influence and meddling of the Holy Roman Empire in Hungary's affairs.

At the time of the initial Ottoman encroachment, the Hungarians successfully resisted conquest. John Hunyadi was leader of the Crusade of Varna, in which the Hungarians tried to expel the Turks from the Balkans. Initially, they were successful, but later at the Battle of Varna, the Ottomans won a decisive if Pyrrhic victory. Wladyslaw III was decapitated during this battle.

In 1456, John Hunyadi delivered a crushing defeat of the Ottomans at the Siege of Belgrade. The Noon Bell commemorates the fallen Christian warriors. In the 15th century, the Black Army of Hungary was a modern mercenary army, with the Hussars the most skilled troops of the Hungarian cavalry. In 1479, under the leadership of Pál Kinizsi, the Hungarian army destroyed the Ottoman and Wallachian troops at the Battle of Breadfield. The army of Hungary destroyed its enemies almost every time when Matthias was king.

Matthias died without legitimate heir, and was thus succeeded by Vladislaus II Jagiellon (1490–1516), the son of Casimir IV of Poland. In turn, Vladislaus was succeeded by his son Louis II (1516–26).

In 1526, at the Battle of Mohács, the forces of the Ottoman Empire led by Suleiman the Magnificent annihilated the Hungarian army. In trying to escape, Louis II drowned in the Csele Creek. The leader of the Hungarian army, Pál Tomori, also died in the battle.

The divided kingdom
Due to a serious defeat by the Ottomans (Battle of Mohács) the central authority collapsed. The majority of Hungary's ruling elite elected John Zápolya (10 November 1526). A small minority of aristocrats sided with Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor, who was Archduke of Austria, and was related to Louis by marriage. Due to previous agreements that the Habsburgs would take the Hungarian throne if Louis died without heirs, Ferdinand was elected king by a rump diet in December 1526.

Although the borders shifted frequently during this period, the three parts can be identified, more or less, as follows:
 * Royal Hungary, which consisted of northern and western territories where Ferdinand I was recognized as king of Hungary. This part is viewed as defining the continuity of the Kingdom of Hungary. The territory along with Ottoman Hungary suffered greatly from the nearly constant wars taking place.
 * Ottoman Hungary: The Great Alföld (i.e. most of present-day Hungary, including south-eastern Transdanubia and the Banat), partly without north-eastern present-day Hungary.
 * Eastern Hungarian Kingdom under the Szapolyai. This territory, often under Ottoman influence, was different from Transylvania proper and included various other territories sometimes referred to as Partium. Later the entity was called Principality of Transylvania.

On 29 February 1528, King John I of Hungary received the support of the Ottoman Sultan. A three-sided conflict ensued as Ferdinand moved to assert his rule over as much of the Hungarian kingdom as he could. By 1529 the kingdom had been split into two parts: Habsburg Hungary and the "eastern-Kingdom of Hungary". At this time there were no Ottomans on Hungarian territories, except Srem's important castles. In 1532, Nikola Jurišić defended Kőszeg and stopped a powerful Ottoman army. By 1541, the fall of Buda marked a further division of Hungary into three areas. The country remained divided until the end of the 17th century.

In 1547, the Truce of Adrianople was signed between Charles V and Suleiman the Magnificent. Through this treaty, Ferdinand I of Austria and Charles V recognized total Ottoman control of Hungary, and agreed to pay to the Ottomans a yearly tribute of 30,000 gold florins for their Habsburg possessions in northern and western Hungary.

On 1 May 1566, Suleiman I led an Ottoman invasion of Habsburg-controlled Hungary, the Ottoman forces of which was one of the most sizable armies he had led in his rule of 46 years. After reaching Belgrade and met with John II Sigismund Zápolya on 27 June, Suleiman I learned that a Croatian-Hungarian nobleman, Nikola IV Zrinski, Ban of Croatia, accomplished an attack on an Ottoman military camp at Siklós. Suleiman I held off his attack of Eger for the time being, and began to set off towards Nikola IV Zrinski's fortress at Szigetvár. From 2 August to 7 September, the Ottoman forces had laid siege to the fortress with a force, at the least, of 150,000 against Zrinski's 2,300 defenders. While the siege turned into a victory for the Ottomans, it came at the cost of: 25,000 Ottoman soldiers and Suleiman I, who before the final battle of Szigetvár, due to natural causes of old age and illness.

In the following centuries there were numerous attempts to push back the Ottoman forces, such as the Long War or Thirteen Years' War (29 July 1593 – 1604/11 November 1606) led by a coalition of Christian forces. In 1644 the Winter Campaign by Miklós Zrínyi burnt the crucial Suleiman Bridge of Osijek in eastern Slavonia, interrupting a Turkish supply line in Hungary. At the Battle of Saint Gotthard (1664), Austrians and Hungarians defeated the Turkish army.

After the Ottoman siege of Vienna failed in 1683, the Habsburgs went on the offensive against the Turks. By the end of the 17th century, they managed to invade the remainder of the historical Kingdom of Hungary and the principality of Transylvania. For a while in 1686, the capital Buda was again free from the Ottoman Empire, with the aid of other Europeans.

The Kuruc age

Rákóczi's War for Independence (1703–1711) was the first significant freedom fight in Hungary against absolutist Habsburg rule. It was fought by a group of noblemen, wealthy and high-ranking progressives who wanted to put an end to the inequality of power relations, led by Francis II Rákóczi (II. Rákóczi Ferenc in Hungarian). Its main aims were to protect the rights of the different social orders, and to ensure the economic and social development of the country. Due to the adverse balance of forces, the political situation in Europe and internal conflicts the freedom fight was eventually suppressed, but it succeeded in keeping Hungary from becoming an integral part of the Habsburg Empire, and its constitution was kept, even though it was only a formality.

After the departure of the Ottomans, the Habsburgs dominated the Hungarian Kingdom. The Hungarians' renewed desire for freedom led to Rákóczi's War for Independence. The most important reasons of the war were the new and higher taxes and a renewed Protestant movement. Rákóczi was a Hungarian nobleman, son of the legendary heroine Ilona Zrínyi. He spent a part of his youth in Austrian captivity. The Kurucs were troops of Rákóczi. Initially, the Kuruc army attained several important victories due to their superior light cavalry. Their weapons were mostly pistols, light sabre and fokos. At the Battle of Saint Gotthard (1705), János Bottyán decisively defeated the Austrian army. The Hungarian colonel Ádám Balogh nearly captured Joseph I, the King of Hungary and Archduke of Austria.

In 1708, the Habsburgs finally defeated the main Hungarian army at Battle of Trencsén, and this diminished the further effectiveness of the Kuruc army. While the Hungarians were exhausted by the fights, the Austrians defeated the French army in the War of the Spanish Succession. They could send more troops to Hungary against the rebels. Transylvania became part of Hungary again starting at the end of the 17th century, and was led by governors.

Age of Enlightenment
In 1711, Austrian Emperor Charles VI became the next ruler of Hungary. Throughout the 18th century, the Kingdom of Hungary had its own diet (parliament) and constitution, but the members of the Governor's Council (Helytartótanács, the office of the palatine) were appointed by the Habsburg monarch, and the superior economic institution, the Hungarian Chamber, was directly subordinated to the Court Chamber in Vienna.

The Hungarian language reform started under the reign of Joseph II. The reform age of Hungary was started by István Széchenyi a Hungarian noble, who built one of the greatest bridges of Hungary, the Széchenyi Chain Bridge. The official language remained Latin until 1836, when Hungarian was introduced. Between 1844 and 1849, and from 1867 onward, Hungarian became the exclusively used official language.

Hungarian Revolution of 1848
The European revolutions of 1848 swept into Hungary, as well. The Hungarian Revolution of 1848 sought to redress the long suppressed desire for political change, namely independence. The Hungarian National Guard was created by young Hungarian patriots in 1848. In literature, this was best expressed by the greatest poet of the revolution, Sándor Petőfi.

As war broke out with Austria, Hungarian military successes, which included the campaigns of the Hungarian general, Artúr Görgey, forced the Austrians on the defensive. One of the most famous battles of the revolution, the Battle of Pákozd, was fought on 29 September 1848, when the Hungarian revolutionary army led by Lieutenant-General János Móga defeated the troops of the Croatian Ban Josip Jelačić. Fearing defeat, the Austrians pleaded for Russian help. The combined forces of the two empires quelled the revolution. The desired political changes of 1848 were again suppressed until the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867.

Population 1910 (Kingdom of Hungary without Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia)

Population 1910 (Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen)

Austria-Hungary (1867–1918)
Following the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, the Habsburg Monarchy became the "dual monarchy" of Austria-Hungary. The Austro-Hungarian economy changed dramatically during the existence of the Dual Monarchy. Technological change accelerated industrialization and urbanization. The capitalist way of production spread throughout the Empire during its fifty-year existence and obsolete medieval institutions continued to disappear. By the early 20th century, most of the Empire began to experience rapid economic growth. The GNP per capita grew roughly 1.45% per year from 1870 to 1913. That level of growth compared very favorably to that of other European nations such as Britain (1.00%), France (1.06%), and Germany (1.51%).

The lands of the Hungarian Crown (comprising the Kingdom of Hungary proper, into which Transylvania was fully incorporated, and the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia, which maintained a distinct identity and internal autonomy) were granted equal status with the Austrian Empire. Each of the two states comprising Austria-Hungary exercised considerable independence, with certain institutions, notably the reigning house, defence, foreign affairs, and finances for common expenditures, remaining under joint management. This arrangement lasted until 1918, when the Central Powers went down in defeat in World War I.

Two short-lived republics
The Hungarian Soviet Republic or Hungarian Republic of Councils (Magyarországi Tanácsköztársaság or Magyarországi Szocialista Szövetséges Tanácsköztársaság ) was a short-lived independent communist state established in Hungary.

It lasted only from 21 March until 1 August 1919. The state was led by Béla Kun and was not recognized by France, the UK or the US. It was the second socialist state in the world to be formed after the October Revolution in Russia brought the Bolsheviks to power. The Hungarian Republic of Councils had military conflicts with the Kingdom of Romania (see Hungarian–Romanian War), the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes and the evolving Czechoslovakia. It collapsed on 1 August 1919 when Hungarians sent representatives to negotiate their surrender to the Romanian forces and Béla Kun, together with other high-ranking Communists, fled to Austria.

A 1919 attempt to form a federation with the Kingdom of Romania also failed, when the Romanian King ultimately refused to accept the Hungarian Crown.

The restoration of the Kingdom
After the pullout of occupation forces of Romania in 1920 the country went into civil conflict, with Hungarian anti-communists and monarchists purging the nation of communists and others by whom they felt threatened. On 29 February 1920, after the pullout of the last of the Romanian occupation forces, the Kingdom of Hungary was restored, a coalition of right-wing political forces united and reinstated Hungary's status as a constitutional monarchy. Selection of the new King was delayed due to civil infighting, and a regent was appointed to represent the monarchy, former Austro-Hungarian navy admiral Miklós Horthy.

Treaty of Trianon (1920)

The new borders set in 1920 by the Treaty of Trianon ceded 72% of the territory of the Kingdom of Hungary to the neighbouring states. The main beneficiaries were Romania, the newly formed states of Czechoslovakia, and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, but Austria, Poland and Italy also gained smaller territories. The areas that were allocated to neighbouring countries in total (and each of them separately) possessed a majority of non-Hungarian population, but more than 3.3 million ethnic Hungarians were left outside the new borders of Hungary. Many view this as contrary to the terms laid out by US President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points, which were intended to honour the ethnic makeup of the territories. As President Wilson left the conference to emphasize his disagreement, and because the US Congress did not ratify the treaty, the United States of America and the Kingdom of Hungary signed a separate peace treaty on 29 August 1921.

Interwar period

The new international borders separated Hungary's industrial base from its sources of raw materials and its former markets for agricultural and industrial products. Hungary lost 84% of its timber resources, 43% of its arable land, and 83% of its iron ore. Furthermore, post-Trianon Hungary possessed 90% of the engineering and printing industry of the Kingdom, while only 11% of timber and 16% iron was retained. In addition, 61% of arable land, 74% of public road, 65% of canals, 62% of railroads, 64% of hard surface roads, 83% of pig iron output, 55% of industrial plants, 100% of gold, silver, copper, mercury and salt mines, and 67% of credit and banking institutions of the prewar Kingdom of Hungary lay within the territory of Hungary's neighbors.

Because most of the country's pre-war industry was concentrated near Budapest, Hungary retained about 51% of its industrial population and 56% of its industry. Horthy appointed Count Pál Teleki as Prime Minister in July 1920. His government issued a numerus clausus law, limiting admission of "political insecure elements" (these were often Jews) to universities and, in order to quiet rural discontent, took initial steps towards fulfilling a promise of major land reform by dividing about 3,850 km2 from the largest estates into smallholdings. Teleki's government resigned, however, after Charles IV unsuccessfully attempted to retake Hungary's throne in March 1921. The return of King Charles produced split parties between conservatives who favored a Habsburg restoration and nationalist right-wing radicals who supported election of a Hungarian king. Count István Bethlen, a non-affiliated right-wing member of the parliament, took advantage of this rift forming a new Party of Unity under his leadership. Horthy then appointed Bethlen prime minister. Charles IV died soon after he failed a second time to reclaim the throne in October 1921. (For more detail on Charles's attempts to retake the throne, see Charles IV of Hungary's conflict with Miklós Horthy.)

As prime minister, Bethlen dominated Hungarian politics between 1921 and 1931. He fashioned a political machine by amending the electoral law, providing jobs in the expanding bureaucracy to his supporters, and manipulating elections in rural areas. Bethlen restored order to the country by giving the radical counterrevolutionaries payoffs and government jobs in exchange for ceasing their campaign of terror against Jews and leftists. In 1921, he made a deal with the Social Democrats and trade unions (called Bethlen-Peyer Pact), agreeing, among other things, to legalize their activities and free political prisoners in return for their pledge to refrain from spreading anti-Hungarian propaganda, calling political strikes, and organizing the peasantry. Bethlen brought Hungary into the League of Nations in 1922 and out of international isolation by signing a treaty of friendship with Italy in 1927. The revision of the Treaty of Trianon rose to the top of Hungary's political agenda and the strategy employed by Bethlen consisted by strengthening the economy and building relations with stronger nations. Revision of the treaty had such a broad backing in Hungary that Bethlen used it, at least in part, to deflect criticism of his economic, social, and political policies.

The Great Depression induced a drop in the standard of living and the political mood of the country shifted further toward the right. In 1932 Horthy appointed a new prime-minister, Gyula Gömbös, who changed the course of Hungarian policy towards closer cooperation with Germany. Gömbös signed a trade agreement with Germany that drew Hungary's economy out of depression but made Hungary dependent on the German economy for both raw materials and markets. On 2 November 1938, as the result of the First Vienna Award parts of Czechoslovakia – Southern Slovakia and a part of Carpathian Ruthenia – were returned to Hungary, an area amounting to 11,927 km2 and a population of 869,299 (86.5% of which were Hungarians according to the 1941 census). Between 5 November and 10 November, Hungarian armed forces peacefully occupied the newly transferred territories. Hitler later promised to transfer all of Slovakia to Hungary in exchange for a military alliance, but his offer was rejected. Instead, Horthy chose to pursue a territorial revision to be decided along ethnic lines. In March 1939, the Czecho-Slovak Republic was dissolved, Germany invaded it, and the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia was established. On 14 March, Slovakia declared itself to be an independent state.

On 15 March, Carpatho-Ukraine declared itself to be an independent state. Hungary rejected the independence of Carpatho-Ukraine and, between 14 March and 18 March, Hungarian armed forces occupied the rest of Carpathian Ruthenia and ousted the government of Avgustyn Voloshyn. By contrast, Hungary recognized the Nazi puppet state of Slovakia led by the Clerical Fascist Jozef Tiso. In September 1940, with troops massing on both sides of the Hungarian-Romanian border, war was averted by the Second Vienna Award. This award transferred the northern half of Transylvania to Hungary, with a total area of 43,492 km2 and a total population of 2,578,100 with a 53.5% Hungarian majority according to the 1941 census. By dividing Transylvania between Romania and Hungary, Hitler was able to ease tensions in Hungary. In October 1940, the Germans initiated a reciprocity policy between Romania and Hungary which was continued until the end of World War II. The region of Sub-Carpathia was given special autonomous status with the intention that (eventually) it would be self-governed by the Ruthenian minority.

During World War II 1941–1945

After being granted part of southern Czechoslovakia and Subcarpathia by the Germans and Italians in the First Vienna Award of 1938, and then northern Transylvania in the Second Vienna Award of 1940, Hungary participated in their first military maneuvers on the side of the Axis powers in 1941. Thus, the Hungarian army was part of the invasion of Yugoslavia, gaining some more territory and joining the Axis powers in the process. On 22 June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa. Hungary joined the German effort and declared war on the Soviet Union on 26 June, and entered World War II on the side of the Axis. In late 1941, the Hungarian troops on the Eastern Front experienced success at the Battle of Uman. By 1943, after the Royal Hungarian Army suffered extremely heavy losses at the river Don, the Hungarian government sought to negotiate a surrender with the Allies. On 19 March 1944, as a result of this duplicity, German troops occupied Hungary in what was known as Operation Margarethe. By then it was clear that Hungarian politics would be suppressed according to Hitler's intention to hold the country in the war on the side of the Nazi Third Reich because of its strategic location. On 15 October 1944, Horthy made a token effort to disengage Hungary from the war. The Germans launched Operation Panzerfaust and Horthy's regime was replaced by a fascist puppet government under the pro-German Arrow Cross leader Ferenc Szálasi, thus effectively ending the possibility for independent actions in the war. However, the form of government was only changed to a republic two years later.

Transitioning into a republic
Following its occupation of Hungary in 1944, the Soviet Union imposed harsh conditions allowing the Soviets to seize important material assets and control internal affairs. After the Red Army set up police organs to persecute "class enemies", the Soviets assumed that the impoverished Hungarian populace would support the Communists in the coming elections. The Communists fared poorly, receiving only 17% of the vote, resulting in a coalition government under Prime Minister Zoltán Tildy. Soviet intervention, however, resulted in a government that disregarded Tildy, placed communists in important ministries, and imposed restrictive and repressive measures, including banning the victorious Independent Smallholders, Agrarian Workers and Civic Party. In 1945, Soviet Marshal Kliment Voroshilov forced the freely elected Hungarian government to yield the Interior Ministry to a nominee of the Hungarian Communist Party. Communist Interior Minister László Rajk established the ÁVH secret police, which suppressed political opposition through intimidation, false accusations, imprisonment and torture. In 1946 the form of government was changed to a republic. Soon after the monarchy was abolished, the Soviet Union pressed Hungarian leader Mátyás Rákosi to take a "line of more pronounced class struggle." What emerged was a communist state lasting until 23 October 1956 when the Soviet occupation was swept away by the Hungarian uprising, victorious until 10 November 1956. The Soviet occupation was then restored, lasting until 1989 when the Communists agreed to give up their monopoly on power, paving the way for free elections in March 1990. In today's republic, the Kingdom is regarded as one long stage in the development of the state. This sense of continuity is reflected in the republic's national symbols such as the Holy Crown of Hungary and the coat of arms of Hungary, which are the same as when the monarchy was still in place. Several holidays, the official language (Hungarian), and the capital city Budapest have also been retained. The official Hungarian name of the country is Magyarország (simply Hungary) since 2012; it was also the common name of the monarchy. The millennium of the Hungarian statehood was commemorated in 2000 and codified by the Millennium Act of 2000.

title: Kingdom of Hungary


text:
Talk:White House (Moscow)

I think it is common on english Wikipedia to use a comma and then the place where a building is located. Gryffindor 19:35, 23 November 2005 (UTC)
 * Support. [[Image:Flag of Austria.svg|15px]] ナイトスタリオン ✉ 01:20, 27 November 2005 (UTC)

I have no time for expanding things like image of the house, name of architector, construction date etc. Besides, it may not be interesting worldwide since the building is relatively modern. AlexPU

This article has been renamed as the result of a move request. Dragons flight 05:04, 19 December 2005 (UTC)

Sentence: The renovated White House now houses the Russian government.
I find it rather likely this building did previously house the entire Russian government until April 2022.

Jdhalbert (talk) 01:56 April 2022(UTC)

 * "Government" in this case is used synonymously with "Cabinet", as is not uncommon in European usage. oknazevad (talk) 23:12, 27 November 2008 (UTC)

 * I had the same question as User:Jdhalbert - it's not clear that "government" means "cabinet." Even if it was, that's still ambiguous: which parts of the cabinet? The cabinet ministers (all of them? Some of them? Which?) and their senior staffs? The cabinet ministers and the broader leadership of each department? The departments in toto? None of this is sourced, either, in Russian or English, which doesn't help the ambiguity. I'd really like to get a clearer understanding, but I'm not sure where to start. - Simon Dodd { U·T·C·WP:LAW } 00:40, 17 July 2009 (UTC)

Coup?
From the article: "The building stood damaged for some time after the coup was overthrown."

Which coup? The 1991 coup?

A Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 19:23, 7 October 2018 (UTC)
 * Boris Yeltsin 19 August 1991-1.jpg

Показали какой-то барак в лесу ..
На эксковаторе стеклопакеты привезли ..

Ничего не понял !!

176.59.199.229 (talk) 02:43, 30 December 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:White House (Moscow)


text:
User:Chris Wood

Hi hi hi. I've been a user since February 2004.

Todo

 * Pronunciation policy re ]
 * Improved article on stopwords/stop words.
 * Article on reverse dictionaries (human).
 * Misspellings: renaissance
 * Put "applet" higher up page on Java programming language
 * Changes to CamelCase article
 * Rearrange template associated with Otherware

title: User:Chris Wood