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Rapa Nui people

The Rapa Nui (Rapa Nui:, Spanish: ) are the indigenous Polynesian peoples of Easter Island. The easternmost Polynesian culture, the descendants of the original people of Easter Island make up about 60% of the current Easter Island population and have a significant portion of their population residing in mainland Chile. They speak both the traditional Rapa Nui language and the primary language of Chile, Spanish. At the 2017 census there were 7,750 island inhabitants—almost all living in the village of Hanga Roa on the sheltered west coast.

As of 2011, Rapa Nui's main source of income derived from tourism, which focuses on the giant sculptures called moai.

Over the past decade, Rapa Nui activists have been fighting for self-determination and sovereignty over their lands. Protests in 2010 and 2011 by the indigenous Rapa Nui on Easter Island, objecting to the creation of a marine park and reserve, have led to clashes with Chilean police.

Pre-European contact (300–1722 CE)
Rapa Nui are believed to have settled Easter Island between 300 and 1200 CE. Previously, the date of arrival was estimated to be around 700–800 CE, but more-recent evidence from radiocarbon dating supports an arrival date as late as 1200 CE. The Rapa Nui People have been found to be of Polynesian origin through genetic analysis of mitochondrial DNA of pre-historic skeletons. Genetic analysis performed by Erik Thorsby and other geneticists in 2007 revealed genetic markers of European and Amerindian origin that suggest that the Rapa Nui had European and Amerindian contributions to their DNA during or before the early 1800s.

Early European contact (1722–1870 CE)
Jacob Roggeveen was the first European to record contact with the Rapa Nui. Roggeveen allegedly set sail either in search of Juan Fernández Islands or David's Island but instead arrived at Easter Island on April 5, 1722 (Easter Sunday). He remained on the island for about a week. Felipe González de Ahedo visited the Rapa Nui in 1770 and claimed the island for Spain on a document which the islanders wrote on in rongorongo, the now undecipherable Rapa Nui script. James Cook and Jean-François de Galaup, comte de Lapérouse, visited the island for a few days in 1774 and 1786, respectively.

Language
The Rapa Nui currently speak Spanish and the traditional Rapa Nui language. The Rapa Nui language, also known as Pascuan, is classified as an Eastern Polynesian language and is currently written in the Latin script. Rapa Nui is a minority language, as most Rapa Nui people speak Spanish as their first language. Spanish is the most widely spoken language on Easter Island and the primary language of education and administration. It is believed that Rapa Nui is currently undergoing a shift toward more Spanish sentence structure. Rongorongo, a system of glyphs discovered in the 1800s, is believed to represent an older version of the Rapa Nui language. However, the decipherment of rongorongo is an ongoing process and it is not yet clear whether Rongorongo is a form of writing or some other form of cultural expression.

Mythology
The main stories of Rapa Nui mythology are that of Hotu Matu'a, believed to be the first settler of Easter Island, and the Tangata manu. The Tangata manu is the mythology of the Birdman religion and cult which had creator god Makemake and competition with eggs to choose the birdman who would remain sacred for five months. More recent Rapa Nui mythology includes the story of the epic battle between the Hanau Epe and the Hanau Momoko.

The trans-Neptunian dwarf planet Makemake is named after this creator deity.

Moai
The best-known aspect of the Rapa Nui culture is the moai, the 887 human figures carved from rock between 1250 and 1500 CE and transported throughout Easter Island. The moai were believed to be the living faces of ancestors and had all been toppled by 1868. The moai rest on large stone platforms called ahu, the most famous of which are Ahu Tongariki, the largest ahu, and Ahu Vinapu. Some moai have hats of red volcanic stone known as Pukao. Currently, the Rapa Nui and the Chilean government are focused on preserving and restoring the statues, including denoting an area that includes many of the statues, Rapa Nui National Park, as a World Heritage site.

Art
The Rapa Nui have historically made feather headdresses, bark cloth, wood carvings, and stone carvings. Adzes, blunt round stones, were used to complete stone images and wood carvings. A distinguishing characteristic of Rapa Nui statues is the use of shell or coral inlaid with obsidian to represent eyes.

Music
Rapa Nui traditional music consists of choral singing and chanting accompanied by instruments including conch shell trumpets, percussive dancers, accordions, and kauaha, a percussion instrument created from the jaw bone of a horse. Modern Rapanui music has had Latin American influences creating new genres such as the Rapa Nui style of tango. Matato'a, one of the most famous musical groups on the island, promotes traditional styles of dance and music.

Tattoos
Like in other Polynesian islands, tattoos and body paintings had a fundamentally spiritual connotation. In some cases the tattoos were considered a receptor for divine strength or mana. They were manifestations of the Rapa Nui culture. Priests, warriors and chiefs had more tattoos than the rest of the population, as a symbol of their hierarchy. Both men and women were tattooed to represent their social class. Tattoos, as well as other forms of art in Rapa Nui, blends anthropomorphic and zoomorphic imagery. Nowadays, young people are bringing back Rapa Nui tattoos as an important part of their culture and local artists base their creations on traditional motifs.

The tattooing process was performed with bone needles and combs called Uhi made out of bird or fish bones. The ink was made out of natural products, primarily from the burning of Ti leaves (Cordyline terminalis) and sugar cane.

Cuisine
Pascuense cuisine, otherwise known as Easter Island cuisine or Rapa Nui cuisine incorporates the influences of the indigenous Rapa Nui people and Latin America. Notable ingredients include seafood such as fish, octopus (heke), eel, sea snails (pipi) and crustaceans (lobster), as well as sweet potato, taro, banana, pineapple, coconut, pumpkin, and poultry, pork and lamb meat.[1] Traditional foods include umu, meat, fish, vegetables and fruit wrapped in banana leaves and roasted in umu pae – an earth oven. Po'e, pudding made of mashed bananas, pumpkin and flour is baked in the umu pae as well.[1] Other favorite dishes are tunu ahi, fish grilled on hot stones, or ceviche. Pascuense cuisine also includes meat dishes, such as pork or mutton ribs.[2]

Interaction with the environment
A common hypothesis is held that the apparent decline of Rapa Nui culture and society before European arrival in 1722 was caused by the over-exploitation of the island's environment, most notably through deforestation of almost all the island's trees. The most prominent proponent of this explanation is Jared Diamond who proposes a scenario for the "ecocide" on Easter Island in his 2005 book Collapse.

This idea that Rapa Nui society collapsed came out of the imbalance between general resources present on the island, mainly population, timber and food sources, and the energy- and resource-intensive feat of transporting and raising the moai. Food resources may have been scarcer than in other areas of Polynesia because of factors like the cooler climate, lack of rainfall in comparison to other islands in the area, high winds and a lack of biodiversity, leading to common Polynesian crops not faring as well as they would in other areas of the Pacific. A source of good timber is also currently noticeably absent from the island, the tallest extant plant life averaging around 7 feet.

Although Easter Island currently has only 48 different kinds of plants as evidenced by botanical surveys of the island, it once possessed many more, shown through pollen analysis conducted on sediment layers from swamps or ponds. From these samples, 22 no longer present on the island were shown to have existed at some time there. These plants included a giant palm, the Rapa Nui Palm, that showed signs of being the largest palm species in the world, eclipsing the size of the Chilean Wine Palm if it were not extinct. There are also signs of Easter Island's once possessing a far more diverse collection of fauna. The skeletal remains of 25 different species of nesting bird have been located on the island, but have since been reduced to 16. This trend of extinction and extirpation is a common occurrence when humans populate a new area, because of tendencies to overhunt and overexploit resources.

Deforestation would have caused a decrease in crop yields due to soil erosion, loss of wood as a resource to construct fishing boats, among other things, and would have necessitated a halt to the construction of the moai erected around the island. Diamond hypothesizes that resource scarcity may have led to brutal civil war, creating a drop in population. He further hypothesizes that there were about 7,000 individuals pre-war, a number which fell to the 2,000 whom missionaries met when they showed up in the 19th century and conducted the first census of the island.

In recent years, this decline has been increasingly implicated not upon environmental destruction caused by the Rapa Nui people but instead upon the arrival of Europeans to the island and the diseases that commonly came with them like smallpox, with several researchers having instead noted that pre-colonial Rapa Nui society was rather stable.

Agriculture
Agriculture on Easter Island shows signs of intensification before European arrival, necessary because of its climate which had an excess of wind and a low amount of rainfall for the area. Archaeological finds show a multitude of composting pits and irrigation systems. Large boulders were also stacked to serve as barriers against the wind. In the fields, a system of agriculture called lithic mulch was employed. In this method, farmers would lay rocks out in patterns in their fields, forcing the plants to grow in certain areas. This method is known to increase soil moisture while decreasing soil erosion from wind, effectively combating the climate conditions.

Crops grown on Easter Island included sweet potatoes, yams, taro, bananas and sugarcane. Chickens were the sole domestic animal, though the "chicken coops" carved of stone which still dot the fields of the island were most likely tombs from which the chickens obtained calcium and phosphorus in the form of bone meal.

title: Rapa Nui people


text:
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title: Talk:Blackpool Tower


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Office of the Secretary of Defense Identification Badge

The Office of the Secretary of Defense Identification Badge is a military badge issued to members of the United States armed forces who are permanently assigned to the Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD) and its subordinate offices, and in addition, to some of the Defense Agencies and Department of Defense Field Activities.

History
The badge was first created in 1949 and was referred to as the "National Military Establishment Identification Badge." In 1950, the badge was renamed as "Department of Defense Identification Badge." On December 20, 1962 the badge was given its current name.

Award criteria
It is issued as a permanent decoration and is to be worn for the remainder of an individual's military career, provided that a service member served at least one year (two years for Reserve personnel not on active duty) in or in support of OSD. Personnel who are awarded the badge include all military personnel, when they are assigned on a permanent basis to any of the following organizational elements:

 * The immediate offices of the Secretary and Deputy Secretary of Defense.
 * The offices of the Under Secretaries of Defense.
 * The offices of the Assistant Secretaries of Defense.
 * The Office of the General Counsel of the Department of Defense.
 * The Office of the Inspector General of the Department of Defense.
 * The offices of the Assistants to the Secretary of Defense or Deputy Secretary of Defense.
 * The Office of the Defense Advisor, U.S. Mission to NATO.
 * The offices of the Directors of Net Assessment
 * The Office of the Director of Administration and Management (DA&M)
 * The Office of the Director of Operational Test and Evaluation (OT&E)
 * Ballistic Missile Defense Organization (BMDO)
 * Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)
 * Defense Innovation Unit (DIU)
 * Defense Security Cooperation Agency (DSCA)

Notable recipients

 * Chappie James
 * Hal Moore
 * Colin Powell
 * Norman Schwarzkopf
 * Andria Slough
 * John F. Kelly
 * James Mattis
 * William N. Jackomis, PhD, MS

In popular culture

 * In the 1969 film Easy Rider, the leather jacket worn by Peter Fonda's character Wyatt ("Captain America") has an OSD Identification Badge affixed to the left breast.


text:
Wikipedia:Featured article candidates/Igor Stravinsky/archive1

Igor Stravinsky
Self nomination. Rewrote a short and poorly written article. Marlowe 19:57, 15 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Support. However, a nit: the portrait by Picasso is in BMP format; this should be changed to a more standard format.  81.168.80.170 20:20, 15 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Support. EXCELLENT.  small nit: city should be called St. P., not Saint P. (here's some trivia: locals never use the Saint except in officialese) A. Shetsen 04:45, 16 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Changed to 'St.'Marlowe 21:49, 16 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Thank you. No objection even before, full support. A. Shetsen 21:15, 17 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Support: really well written and structured article on a major figure. Bmills 10:11, 16 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Object reluctantly : lots of great content. However I think that someone with a golden quill needs to go over it for stylistic reasons; several sentences come across as containing too many commas, being too long or just being a bit clumsy. I've had a little go at fixing this but haven't finished (or done a particularly wonderful job). Lupin 11:10, 16 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Just spent some more time picking over text and constructions. Ommited some commas where extraneous, and left others where helped with clarity.  Also noticed that you and a few others have made some great edits.  Hopefullly this clears up your objection.Marlowe 21:49, 16 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Change vote to neutral. I've just gone over it again, and have made more changes. I think it reads better now, but someone else should read it again I feel. Also, the more I read it, the more the article reads like a eulogy. I think there must have been (and remain) critics of Stravinsky's work who should be given greater voice for the sake of NPOV. Lupin 12:50, 18 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * I don't think that there is a respectable view that he was a bad composer. (Some people don't like his music, but that's not the same thing as it being bad.)  We don't need to mention in every composer's article that some people might not care for his stuff. Markalexander100 02:50, 20 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * That some "people" may not "like" Stravinsky's music is not at all what Lupin was saying. Actually, among the pupils of Schoenberg and Stravinsky there was quite the animosity. Hyacinth 03:03, 20 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * There certainly were people who hated Stravinsky's work, and the riot at the premiere of The Rite of Spring is a good example. But, perhaps this is covered in the articles on specific works (i.e. The Rite article)?  This biographic article gives a good overview of the man and his music and is pretty scholarly, I think.  To me, it reads objectively, does not fawn over the music, but does state he was influential-- which is undeniable (i.e. the quintessential NPOV arguement: even if some hated the music, all would agree that he was a gigantic figure of the 20th century.  This is the view the article takes).  I suppose this is a long-winded way of saying I don't see any NPOV problems here.  Incidentally, could you cite this animosity between pupils of Schoenberg and Stravinsky? If true, that might be an interesting inclusion in this article. Marlowe 21:30, 20 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Support. (I've been doing the same as Marlowe). Markalexander100 11:31, 17 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Object - A good article but it still lacks a lead section which is a basic requirement of being featured. That section needs to be a concise summary of the whole article - where he was born and where he died needs to go in the biography section only. For an article this size there should be one to two paragraphs (a paragraph needs at least 3 sentences). --mav 20:07, 17 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Changing to Neutral and will change to Support once a slightly longer lead section is developed. --mav 20:15, 17 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Done (two paragraphs of two sentences each, but we can stick them together if you're counting;)). Markalexander100 02:59, 20 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Expanded lead further. Marlowe 21:30, 20 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Support'.
 * Support. Good article.  I might tweak the serialism section some more--needs Canticum Sacrum, Threni and Requiem Canticles.  Antandrus 03:12, 20 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Object. 1) Lead section needs expanding. 2) The music section mentions the "rediscovery of his Orthodox faith in the 1960s"; the "Biography" section doesn't mention this. Orthodox Judaism or Eastern Orthodox Christianity? — Matt 03:25, 20 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * exised the "rediscovered orthodox faith" line althogether. he "rediscovered" religion in 1926, not 1960s.Marlowe 15:21, 20 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Expanded lead further. Marlowe 21:30, 20 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Thanks; it would probably be worth mentioning his "rediscovery" of religion somewhere, — Matt 00:31, 21 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Support. Hyacinth 19:16, 21 July 2005 (UTC)


text: User talk:149.174.164.7

title: User talk:149.174.164.7


text:
Achnashellach Forest

Achnashellach Forest (Scottish Gaelic: Ach nan Seileach field of the willows ) is a large area of the Scottish Highlands lying between Glen Carron and Loch Monar.

It is accessible from the A890 road, which runs through it and from Achnashellach railway station.

title: Achnashellach Forest


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Exterior covariant derivative

In the mathematical field of differential geometry, the exterior covariant derivative is an extension of the notion of exterior derivative to the setting of a differentiable principal bundle or vector bundle with a connection.

Definition
Let G be a Lie group and P → M be a principal G-bundle on a smooth manifold M. Suppose there is a connection on P; this yields a natural direct sum decomposition $$T_u P = H_u \oplus V_u$$ of each tangent space into the horizontal and vertical subspaces. Let $$h: T_u P \to H_u$$ be the projection to the horizontal subspace.

If ϕ is a k-form on P with values in a vector space V, then its exterior covariant derivative Dϕ is a form defined by
 * $$D\phi(v_0, v_1,\dots, v_k)= d \phi(h v_0 ,h v_1,\dots, h v_k)$$

where vi are tangent vectors to P at u.

Suppose that ρ : G → GL(V) is a representation of G on a vector space V. If ϕ is equivariant in the sense that

 * $$R_g^* \phi = \rho(g)^{-1}\phi$$

where $$R_g(u) = ug$$, then Dϕ is a tensorial (k + 1)-form on P of the type ρ: it is equivariant and horizontal (a form ψ is horizontal if ψ(v0, ..., vk) = ψ(hv0, ..., hvk).)

By abuse of notation, the differential of ρ at the identity element may again be denoted by ρ:

 * $$\rho: \mathfrak{g} \to \mathfrak{gl}(V).$$

Let $$\omega$$ be the connection one-form and $$\rho(\omega)$$ the representation of the connection in $$\mathfrak{gl}(V).$$ That is, $$\rho(\omega)$$ is a $\mathfrak{gl}(V)$-valued form, vanishing on the horizontal subspace. If ϕ is a tensorial k-form of type ρ, then
 * $$D \phi = d \phi + \rho(\omega) \cdot \phi,$$

where, following the notation in , we wrote

(\rho(\omega) \cdot \phi)(v_1, \dots, v_{k+1}) = {1 \over (1+k)!} \sum_{\sigma} \operatorname{sgn}(\sigma)\rho(\omega(v_{\sigma(1)})) \phi(v_{\sigma(2)}, \dots, v_{\sigma(k+1)}). $$

Unlike the usual exterior derivative, which squares to 0, the exterior covariant derivative does not. In general, one has, for a tensorial zero-form ϕ,

 * $$D^2\phi=F \cdot \phi.$$

where F = ρ(Ω) is the representation in $$\mathfrak{gl}(V)$$ of the curvature two-form Ω. The form F is sometimes referred to as the field strength tensor, in analogy to the role it plays in electromagnetism. Note that D2 vanishes for a flat connection (i.e. when Ω = 0).

If ρ : G → GL(Rn), then one can write
 * $$\rho(\Omega) = F = \sum {F^i}_j {e^j}_i$$

where $${e^i}_j$$ is the matrix with 1 at the (i, j)-th entry and zero on the other entries. The matrix $${F^i}_j$$ whose entries are 2-forms on P is called the curvature matrix.

For vector bundles
Given a smooth real vector bundle $E → M$ with a connection $∇$ and rank $r$, the exterior covariant derivative is a real-linear map on the vector-valued differential forms which are valued in $E$:
 * $$d^\nabla:\Omega^k(M,E)\to\Omega^{k+1}(M,E).$$

The covariant derivative is such a map for $k = 0$. The exterior covariant derivatives extends this map to general $k$. There are several equivalent ways to define this object:
 * Suppose that a vector-valued differential 2-form is regarded as assigning to each $p$ a multilinear map $s_{p}: T_{p}M × T_{p}M → E_{p}$ which is completely anti-symmetric. Then the exterior covariant derivative $d^{∇} s$ assigns to each $p$ a multilinear map $T_{p}M × T_{p}M × T_{p}M → E_{p}$ given by the formula
 * $$\begin{align}\nabla_{x_1}(s(X_2,X_3))&-\nabla_{x_2}(s(X_1,X_3))+\nabla_{x_3}(s(X_1,X_2))\\ &-s([X_1,X_2],x_3)+s([X_1,X_3],x_2)-s([X_2,X_3],x_1).\end{align}$$
 * where $x_{1}, x_{2}, x_{3}$ are arbitrary tangent vectors at $p$ which are extended to smooth locally-defined vector fields $X_{1}, X_{2} X_{3}$. The legitimacy of this definition depends on the fact that the above expression depends only on $x_{1}, x_{2}, x_{3}$, and not on the choice of extension. This can be verified by the Leibniz rule for covariant differentiation and for the Lie bracket of vector fields. The pattern established in the above formula in the case $k = 2$ can be directly extended to define the exterior covariant derivative for arbitrary $k$.

 * The exterior covariant derivative may be characterized by the axiomatic property of defining for each $k$ a real-linear map $Ω^{k}(M, E) → Ω^{k + 1}(M, E)$ which for $k = 0$ is the covariant derivative and in general satisfies the Leibniz rule
 * $$d^\nabla(\omega \wedge s) = (d\omega) \wedge s + (-1)^k \omega \wedge (d^\nabla s)$$
 * for any differential $k$-form $ω$ and any vector-valued form $s$. This may also be viewed as a direct inductive definition. For instance, for any vector-valued differential 1-form $s$ and any local frame $e_{1}, ..., e_{r}$ of the vector bundle, the coordinates of $s$ are locally-defined differential 1-forms $ω_{1}, ..., ω_{r}$. The above inductive formula then says that
 * $$\begin{align}

d^\nabla s&=d^\nabla(\omega_1\wedge e_1+\cdots+\omega_r\wedge e_r)\\ &=d\omega_1\wedge e_1+\cdots+d\omega_r\wedge e_r-\omega_1\wedge \nabla e_1-\cdots-\omega_r\wedge\nabla e_r.\end{align}$$
 * In order for this to be a legitimate definition of $d^{∇}s$, it must be verified that the choice of local frame is irrelevant. This can be checked by considering a second local frame obtained by an arbitrary change-of-basis matrix; the inverse matrix provides the change-of-basis matrix for the 1-forms $ω_{1}, ..., ω_{r}$. When substituted into the above formula, the Leibniz rule as applied for the standard exterior derivative and for the covariant derivative $∇$ cancel out the arbitrary choice.

This definition may alternatively be expressed in terms of an arbitrary local frame of $s$ but without considering coordinates on $E$. Then a vector-valued differential 2-form is expressed by differential 2-forms $s^{α}_{ij}$ and the connection is expressed by the connection 1-forms, a skew-symmetric $i, j, k$ matrix of differential 1-forms $s^{α}_{ij} = −s^{α}_{ji}$. The exterior covariant derivative of $M$, as a vector-valued differential 3-form, is expressed relative to the local frame by $E$ many differential 3-forms, defined by
 * A vector-valued differential 2-form $E$ may be regarded as a certain collection of functions $k = 2$ assigned to an arbitrary local frame of $s$ over a local coordinate chart of $k$. The exterior covariant derivative is then defined as being given by the functions
 * $$(d^\nabla s)^\alpha{}_{ijk}=\nabla_is^\alpha{}_{jk}-\nabla_js^\alpha{}_{ik}+\nabla_ks^\alpha{}_{ij}.$$
 * The fact that this defines a tensor field valued in $E$ is a direct consequence of the same fact for the covariant derivative. The further fact that it is a differential 3-form valued in $M$ asserts the full anti-symmetry in $s^{1}, ..., s^{r}$ and is directly verified from the above formula and the contextual assumption that $s$ is a vector-valued differential 2-form, so that $r × r$. The pattern in this definition of the exterior covariant derivative for $θ_{α}^{β}$ can be directly extended to larger values of $r$.
 * $$(d^\nabla s)^\alpha=d(s^\alpha)+\theta_\beta{}^\alpha\wedge s^\beta.$$

In the case of the trivial real line bundle $ℝ × M → M$ with its standard connection, vector-valued differential forms and differential forms can be naturally identified with one another, and each of the above definitions coincides with the standard exterior derivative.

Given a principal bundle, any linear representation of the structure group defines an associated bundle, and any connection on the principal bundle induces a connection on the associated vector bundle. Differential forms valued in the vector bundle may be naturally identified with fully anti-symmetric tensorial forms on the total space of the principal bundle. Under this identification, the notions of exterior covariant derivative for the principal bundle and for the vector bundle coincide with one another.

The curvature of a connection on a vector bundle may be defined as the composition of the two exterior covariant derivatives $Ω^{0}(M, E) → Ω^{1}(M, E)$ and $Ω^{1}(M, E) → Ω^{2}(M, E)$, so that it is defined as a real-linear map $F: Ω^{0}(M, E) → Ω^{2}(M, E)$. It is a fundamental but not immediately apparent fact that $F(s)_{p}: T_{p}M × T_{p}M → E_{p}$ only depends on $s(p)$, and does so linearly. As such, the curvature may be regarded as an element of $Ω^{2}(M, End(E))$. Depending on how the exterior covariant derivative is formulated, various alternative but equivalent definitions of curvature (some without the language of exterior differentiation) can be obtained.

It is a well-known fact that the composition of the standard exterior derivative with itself is zero: $d(dω) = 0$. In the present context, this can be regarded as saying that the standard connection on the trivial line bundle $ℝ × M → M$ has zero curvature.

Example

 * Bianchi's second identity, which says that the exterior covariant derivative of Ω is zero (that is, DΩ = 0) can be stated as: $$d\Omega + \operatorname{ad}(\omega) \cdot \Omega = d\Omega + [\omega \wedge \Omega] = 0$$.

title: Exterior covariant derivative


text:
User talk:Doomstars

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title: User talk:Doomstars


text: User talk:68.60.100.71

title: User talk:68.60.100.71


text:
On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church

Prelude on the Babylonian Captivity of the Church (De captivitate Babylonica ecclesiae, praeludium Martini Lutheri, October 1520) was the second of the three major treatises published by Martin Luther in 1520, coming after the Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation (August 1520) and before On the Freedom of a Christian (November 1520). The book-length work was theological, and as such was published in Latin as well as German, the language in which the treatises were written.

Context
The book was circulating in print not quite a week when the papal bull against Luther arrived in Wittenberg in October 1520. The bull and the book were being prepared simultaneously.

Luther accuses the Catholic Church and the papacy of keeping the church in captivity, equating Rome with the biblical Babylon that exiled the Israelites from their homeland, holding them captive in Babylon. According to Luther, the pope was holding the church in captivity through the use of the sacramental system and Catholic theology.

In 1521, Luther was requested to either confess or recant his books, including his treatise The Babylonian Captivity of the Church. It still defines the Confessional Lutheran relationship to the number of sacraments.

Content
In this work Luther examines the seven sacraments of the Catholic Church in the light of his interpretation of the Bible. With regard to the Eucharist, he advocates restoring the cup to the laity, dismisses the Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation but affirms the real presence of the body and blood of Christ in the Eucharist, and rejects the teaching that the Mass is a sacrifice offered to God.

With regard to baptism, he writes that it brings justification only if conjoined with saving faith in the recipient; however, it remains the foundation of salvation even for those who might later fall and be reclaimed.

As for penance, its essence consists in the words of promise (absolution) received by faith. Only these three can be regarded as sacraments because of their divine institution and the divine promises of salvation connected with them; but strictly speaking, only Baptism and the Eucharist are sacraments, since only they have "divinely instituted visible sign[s]": water in Baptism and bread and wine in the Eucharist. Luther claimed that Confirmation, Matrimony, Holy Orders, and Extreme Unction are not sacraments.

Luther wrote that marriage was not a sacrament because, in his interpretation of the Bible, God the Father gave marriage to Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden and Jesus did not give humans the ability to marry. He also defended the marriages of Muslims and Jews, and thought they were valid under God just as much as Christian marriages.

The titular "captivity" is firstly the withholding the cup in the Lord's Supper from the laity, the second the doctrine of transubstantiation, and the third, the Roman Catholic Church's teaching that the Mass was a sacrifice and a good work.

The work is angry in tone, attacking the papacy, and at some points, even defending some practices of Muslims and Jews. Although Luther had made a link tentatively in the address To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation, this was the first time he forthrightly accused the pope of being the Antichrist. It certainly heralded a radicalisation of Luther's views — only a year before he had defended the validity of the sacraments, yet was now attacking them fiercely.

Although published in Latin, a translation of this work was quickly published in German by Luther’s opponent, the Strasbourg Franciscan Thomas Murner. He hoped that by making people aware of the radical nature of Luther’s beliefs, they would realise their foolishness in supporting him. In fact, the opposite proved true, and Murner’s translation helped to spread Luther’s views across Germany. The virulence of Luther's language however, was off-putting to some. After the publication of this work, with its harsh condemnation of the papacy, the renowned humanist Erasmus, who had previously been cautiously supportive of Luther's activities, became convinced that he should not support Luther's calls for reform.


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List of war crimes

This article lists and summarizes the war crimes that have violated the laws and customs of war since the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907.

Since many war crimes are not prosecuted (due to lack of political will, lack of effective procedures, or other practical and political reasons), historians and lawyers will frequently make a serious case in order to prove that war crimes occurred, even though the alleged perpetrators of these crimes were never formally prosecuted because investigations cleared them of all charges.

Under international law, war crimes were formally defined as crimes during international trials such as the Nuremberg Trials and the Tokyo Trials, in which Austrian, German and Japanese leaders were prosecuted for war crimes which were committed during World War II.

1899–1902 Second Boer War
The term "concentration camp" was used to describe camps operated by the British Empire in South Africa during the Second Boer War in the years 1900–1902. As Boer farms were destroyed by the British under their "scorched earth" policy, many tens of thousands of women and children were forcibly moved into the concentration camps. Over 26,000 Boer women and children were to perish in these concentration camps.

Six officers from the Bushveldt Carbineers were court-martialed for massacring POWs and civilians. Lieutenants Harry Morant, Peter Handcock, and George Witton were each found guilty of murder and sentenced to death. Morant and Handcock were executed, while Witton was reprieved and served a short prison sentence. Two of the other defendants, Major Robert Lenehan and Lieutenant Henry Picton, were found guilty of lesser charges. They were dismissed from the military and deported from South Africa after being found guilty of neglecting one's duty and manslaughter, respectively. The last defendant, Captain Alfred Taylor, was acquitted.

1899–1902 Philippine–American War
Reported American war crimes and atrocities during the Philippine–American War included the summary execution of civilians and prisoners, burning of villages, and torture. 298,000 Filipinos were also moved to concentration camps, where thousands died.

In November 1901, the Manila correspondent of the Philadelphia Ledger wrote: "The present war is no bloodless, opera bouffe engagement; our men have been relentless, have killed to exterminate men, women, children, prisoners and captives, active insurgents and suspected people from lads of ten up, the idea prevailing that the Filipino as such was little better than a dog".

In response to the Balangiga massacre, which wiped out a U.S. company garrisoning Samar town, U.S. Brigadier General Jacob H. Smith launched a retaliatory march across Samar with the instructions: "I want no prisoners. I wish you to kill and burn, the more you kill and burn the better it will please me. I want all persons killed who are capable of bearing arms in actual hostilities against the United States".

1904–1908: Herero Wars
In August, German General Lothar von Trotha defeated the Ovaherero in the Battle of Waterberg and drove them into the desert of Omaheke, where most of them died of dehydration. In October, the Nama people also rebelled against the Germans, only to suffer a similar fate. Between 24,000 and 100,000 Hereros, 10,000 Nama and an unknown number of San died in the parallel Herero and Namaqua genocide. Once defeated, thousands of Hereros and Namas were also imprisoned in concentration camps, where the majority died of diseases, abuse, and exhaustion. German soldiers also regularly engaged in gang rapes before killing the women or leaving them in the desert to die; a number of Herero women were also forced into involuntary prostitution.

1912-1913: Balkan Wars
The Balkan Wars were marked by ethnic cleansing with all parties being responsible for grave atrocities against civilians and helped inspire later atrocities including war crimes during the 1990s Yugoslav Wars.

Massacres of Albanians in the Balkan Wars were perpetrated on several occasions by Serbian and Montenegrin armies and paramilitaries. According to contemporary accounts, between 10,000 and 25,000 Albanians were killed or died because of hunger and cold during that period; many of the victims were children, women and the elderly. In addition to the massacres, some civilians had their tongues, lips, ears and noses severed. Philip J. Cohen also cited Durham as saying that Serbian soldiers helped bury people alive in Kosovo. American relief commissioner Willar Howard said in a 1914 Daily Mirror interview that General Carlos Popovitch would shout, "Don't run away, we are brothers and friends. We don't mean to do any harm." Peasants who trusted Popovitch were shot or burned to death, and elderly women unable to leave their homes were also burned. Yugoslavia from a Historical Perspective, a 2017 study published in Belgrade by the Helsinki Committee for Human Rights in Serbia, said that villages were burned to ashes and Albanian Muslims forced to flee when Serbo-Montenegrin forces invaded Kosovo in 1912. Some chronicles cited decapitation as well as mutilation.

Serbian army also brutally suppressed the Tikveš uprising and terrorized the Bulgarian population in the rebelling regions. According to some sources 363 civilian Bulgarians were killed in Kavadarci, 230 - in Negotino and 40 - in Vatasha.

1914–1918: World War I
World War I was the first major international conflict to take place following the codification of war crimes at the Hague Convention of 1907, including derived war crimes, such as the use of poisons as weapons, as well as crimes against humanity, and derivative crimes against humanity, such as torture, and genocide. Before, the Second Boer War took place after the Hague Convention of 1899. The Second Boer War (1899 until 1902) is known for the first concentration camps (1900 until 1902) for civilians in the 20th century.

1915–1920: First and Second Caco War

 * During the First (1915) and Second (1918–1920) Caco Wars waged during the United States occupation of Haiti (1915–1934), human rights abuses were committed against the native Haitians population. Overall, American troops and the Haitian gendarmerie killed several thousands of Haitian civilians during the rebellions between 1915 and 1920, though the exact death toll is unknown.
 * Mass killings of civilians were allegedly committed by United States Marines and their subordinates in the Haitian gendarmerie. According to Haitian historian Roger Gaillard, such killings involved rape, lynchings, summary executions, burning villages and deaths by burning. Internal documents of the United States Army justified the killing of women and children, describing them as "auxiliaries" of rebels. A private memorandum of the Secretary of the Navy criticized "indiscriminate killings against natives". American officers who were responsible for acts of violence were given Creole names such as "Linx" for Commandant Freeman Lang and "Ouiliyanm" for Lieutenant Lee Williams. According to American journalist H. J. Seligman, Marines would practice "bumping off Gooks", describing the shooting of civilians in a manner which was similar to killing for sport.
 * During the Second Caco War of 1918–1919, many Caco prisoners were summarily executed by Marines and the gendarmerie on orders from their superiors. On June 4, 1916, Marines executed caco General Mizrael Codio and ten others after they were captured in Fonds-Verrettes. In Hinche in January 1919, Captain Ernest Lavoie of the gendarmerie, a former United States Marine, allegedly ordered the killing of nineteen caco rebels according to American officers, though no charges were ever filed against him due to the fact that no physical evidence of the killing was ever presented.
 * The torture of Haitian rebels and the torture of Haitians who were suspected of rebelling against the United States was a common practice among the occupying Marines. Some of the methods of torture included the use of water cure, hanging prisoners by their genitals and ceps, which involved pushing both sides of the tibia with the butts of two guns.

1921–1927: Rif War

 * During the Rif War, Spanish forces used chemical weapons against Berber rebels and civilians in Morocco. These attacks marked the first widespread employment of gas warfare in the post-WWI era. The Spanish army indiscriminately used phosgene, diphosgene, chloropicrin and mustard gas against civilian populations, markets and rivers. Spain signed the Geneva Protocol in 1925, that prohibited chemical and biological warfare, while simultaneously employing these weapons across the Mediterranean.
 * According to Miguel Alonso, Alan Kramer and Javier Rodrigo in the book Fascist Warfare, 1922–1945: Aggression, Occupation, Annihilation: "Apart from deciding not to use chemical weapons, Franco's campaign to 'cleanse Spain' resembled that in Morocco: intelligence-gathering through torture, summary executions, forced labour, rape, and the sadistic killing of military prisoners."
 * Spanish mutilations of captured Moroccans were reported, including castration and severing heads, noses and ears, which were collected by Spanish legionnaries as war trophies and worn as necklaces or spiked on bayonets.
 * On August 9, 1921, the Massacre of Monte Arruit occurred, in which 2,000 soldiers of the Spanish Army were killed by Riffian forces after surrendering the Monte Arruit garrison near Al Aaroui following a 12-day siege.

1923–1932: Pacification of Libya

 * The Pacification of Libya resulted in mass deaths of the indigenous people in Cyrenaica by Italy. 80,000 or over a quarter of the indigenous people in Cyrenaica perished during the pacification.
 * 100,000 Bedouin citizens were ethnically cleansed by expulsion from their land.
 * Specific war crimes alleged to have been committed by the Italian armed forces against civilians include deliberate bombing of civilians, killing unarmed children, women, and the elderly, rape and disembowelment of women, throwing prisoners out of aircraft to their death and running over others with tanks, regular daily executions of civilians in some areas, and bombing tribal villages with mustard gas bombs beginning in 1930.

1927-1949: Chinese Civil War

 * During the Chinese Civil War both the Nationalists and Communists carried out mass atrocities, with millions of non-combatants deliberately killed by both sides. Benjamin Valentino has estimated atrocities in the Chinese Civil War resulted in the death of between 1.8 million and 3.5 million people between 1927 and 1949.
 * Over several years after the 1927 Shanghai massacre, the Kuomintang killed between 300,000 and one million people, primarily peasants, in anti-communist campaigns as part of the White Terror. During the White Terror, the Nationalists specifically targeted women with short hair who had not been subjected to foot binding, on the presumption that such "non-traditional" women were radicals. Nationalist forces cut off their breasts, shaved their heads, and displayed their mutilated bodies to intimidate the populace. From 1946 to 1949, the Nationalists arrested, tortured, and killed political dissidents via the Sino-American Cooperative Organization.
 * During the December 1930 Futian incident, the communists executed 2,000 to 3,000 members of the Futian battalion after its leaders had mutinied against Mao Zedong. Between 1931 and 1934 in the Jiangxi–Fujian Soviet, the communist authorities engaged in a widespread campaign of violence against civilians to ensure compliance with its policies and to stop defection to the advancing KMT, including mass executions, land confiscation and forced labor. According to Li Weihan, a high-ranking communist in Jiangxi at the time, in response to mass flight of civilians to KMT held areas, the local authorities authorities would "usually to send armed squads after those attempting to flee and kill them on the spot, producing numerous mass graves throughout the CSR [Chinese Soviet Republic in Jiangxi] that would later be uncovered by the KMT and its allies." Zhang Wentian, another high-ranking communist, reported that "the policy of annihilating landlords as an exploiting class had degenerated into a massacre" The population of the communist controlled area fell by 700,000 from 1931 and 1935, of which a large proportion were murdered as “class enemies,” worked to death, committed suicide, or died in other circumstances attributable to the communists.
 * During the Siege of Changchun the People's Liberation Army implemented a military blockade on the KMT-held city of Changchun and prevented civilians from leaving the city during the blockade; this blockade caused the starvation of tens to 150 thousand civilians. The PLA continued to use siege tactics throughout Northeast China.
 * At the outbreak of the Chinese Civil War in 1946, Mao Zedong began to push for a return to radical policies to mobilize China against the landlord class, but protected the rights of middle peasants and specified that rich peasants were not landlords. The 7 July Directive of 1946 set off eighteen months of fierce conflict in which all rich peasant and landlord property of all types was to be confiscated and redistributed to poor peasants. Party work teams went quickly from village to village and divided the population into landlords, rich, middle, poor, and landless peasants. Because the work teams did not involve villagers in the process, however, rich and middle peasants quickly returned to power. The Outline Land Law of October 1947 increased the pressure. Those condemned as landlords were buried alive, dismembered, strangled and shot.
 * In response to the aforementioned land reform campaign; the Kuomintang helped establish the "Huanxiang Tuan", or Homecoming Legion, which was composed of landlords who sought the return of their redistributed land and property from peasants and CCP guerrillas, as well as forcibly conscripted peasants and communist POWs. The Homecoming legion conducted its guerrilla warfare campaign against CCP forces and purported collaborators up until the end of the civil war in 1949.

1935–1937: Second Italo-Abyssinian War

 * Italian use of mustard gas against Ethiopian soldiers in 1936 violated the 1925 Geneva Protocol, which bans the use of chemical weapons in warfare.
 * Crimes by Ethiopian troops included the use of dum-dum bullets (in violation of the Hague Conventions), the killing of civilian workmen (including during the Gondrand massacre), and the mutilation of captured Eritrean Ascari and Italians (often with castration), beginning in the first weeks of war.
 * Yekatit 12—In response to the unsuccessful assassination of Rodolfo Graziani on 19 February 1937, thousands of Ethiopians were killed, including all of the monks residing at Debre Libanos, and over a thousand more detained at Danan who were then exiled either to the Dahlak Islands or Italy.
 * The Ethiopians recorded 275,000 combatants killed in action, 78,500 patriots (guerrilla fighters) killed during the occupation, 17,800 civilians killed by aerial bombardment and 30,000 in the February 1937 massacre, 35,000 people died in concentration camps, 24,000 patriots executed by Summary Courts, 300,000 people died of privation due to the destruction of their villages, amounting to 760,300 deaths.

1936–1939: Spanish Civil War
At least 50,000 people were executed during the Spanish Civil War. In his updated history of the Spanish Civil War, Antony Beevor writes, "Franco's ensuing 'white terror' claimed 200,000 lives. The 'red terror' had already killed 38,000." Julius Ruiz concludes that "although the figures remain disputed, a minimum of 37,843 executions were carried out in the Republican zone with a maximum of 150,000 executions (including 50,000 after the war) in Nationalist Spain."

César Vidal puts the number of Republican victims at 110,965. In 2008 a Spanish judge, Baltasar Garzón, opened an investigation into the executions and disappearances of 114,266 people between 17 July 1936 and December 1951. Among the murders and executions investigated was that of poet and dramatist Federico García Lorca.

1946–1954: Indochina War
The French Union's struggle against the independence movement backed by the Soviet Union and China claimed 400,000 to 1.5 million Vietnamese lives from 1945 to 1954. In the Haiphong massacre of November 1946, about 6,000 Vietnamese were killed by French naval artillery. The French employed electric shock treatment during interrogations of the Vietnamese, and nearly 10,000 Vietnamese perished in French concentration camps.

According to Arthur J. Dommen, the Viet Minh assassinated 100,000–150,000 civilians during the war, while Benjamin Valentino estimates that the French were responsible for 60,000 to 250,000 civilian deaths.

About French massacres and war crimes during the conflict, Christopher Goscha wrote on The Penguin History of Modern Vietnam: "Rape became a disturbing weapon used by the Expeditionary Corps, as did summary executions. Young Vietnamese women who could not escape approaching enemy patrols smeared themselves with any stinking thing they could find, including human excrement. Decapitated heads were raised on sticks, bodies were gruesomely disemboweled, and body parts were taken as 'souvenirs'; Vietnamese soldiers of all political colors also committed such acts. The non-communist nationalist singer, Phạm Duy, wrote a bone-chilling ballad about the mothers of Gio Linh village in central Vietnam, each of whom had lost a son to a French Army massacre in 1948. Troops decapitated their bodies and displayed their heads along a public road to strike fear into those tempted to accept the Democratic Republic of Vietnam's sovereignty. Massacres did not start with the Americans in My Lai, or the Vietnamese communists in Hue in 1968. And yet, the French Union's massacre of over two hundred Vietnamese women and children in My Tratch in 1948 remains virtually unknown in France to this day."

1947–1948: Malagasy Uprising
During the French suppression of the pro-independence Malagasy Uprising, numerous atrocities were carried out such as mass killings, village burnings, torture, war rape, collective punishment, and throwing live prisoners out of airplanes (death flights). Between 11,000 and 90,000 Malagasy died in the fighting, along with about 800 French soldiers and other Europeans.

1948 Arab–Israeli War
Several massacres were committed during this war which could be described as war crimes. Nearly 15,000 people, mostly combatants and militants, were killed during the war, including 6,000 Jews and about 8,000 Arabs (mostly Muslims).

1945–1949: Indonesian War of Independence

 * South Sulawesi Campaign, about 4,500 civilians killed by Pro-Indonesian and Indonesian forces and pro-Dutch and Dutch colonial forces (KNIL).
 * Rawagede massacre: about 431 civilians killed by Dutch forces
 * Bersiap massacre: about 25,000 Indo-European civilians, Dutch, and loyalists killed by Indonesian nationalist forces.
 * Indonesian National Revolution: About 100–150,000 Chinese, Communists, Europeans (French, German, British), pro-Dutch etc. were killed by Indonesian nationalist forces and Indonesian youth.

1948–1960: Malayan Emergency

 * War crimes: In the Batang Kali massacre, about 24 unarmed villagers were killed by British troops. The British government claimed that these villagers were insurgents attempting to escape but this was later known to be entirely false as they were unarmed, nor actually supporting the insurgents nor attempting to escape after being detained by British troops. No British soldier was prosecuted for the murder at Batang Kali.
 * War crimes: includes beating, torturing, and killing by British troops and communist insurgents of non-combatants.
 * War crimes: As part of the Briggs Plan devised by British General Sir Harold Briggs, 500,000 people (roughly ten percent of Malaya's population) were eventually removed from the land and interned in guarded camps called "New Villages". The intent of this measure was to isolate villagers from contact with insurgents. While considered necessary, some of the cases involving the widespread destruction went beyond justification of military necessity. This practice was prohibited by the Geneva Conventions and customary international law which stated that the destruction of property must not happen unless rendered absolutely necessary by military operations.

North Korean perpetrated crimes

 * Rudolph Rummel estimated that the North Korean Army executed at least 500,000 civilians during the Korean War with many dying in North Korea's drive to conscript South Koreans to their war effort. Throughout the conflict, North Korean and Chinese forces routinely mistreated and tortured U.S. and UN prisoners of war. Mass starvation and diseases swept through the Chinese-run POW camps during the winter of 1950–51. About 43 percent of all U.S. POWs died during this period. In violation of the Geneva Conventions which explicitly stated that captor states must repatriate prisoners of war to their homeland as quickly as possible, North Korea detained South Korean POWs for decades after the ceasefire. Over 88,000 South Korean soldiers were missing and the Communists' themselves had claimed they had captured 70,000 South Koreans.

1952–1960: Mau Mau uprising

 * In attempt to suppress the insurgency in Kenya, British colonial authorities suspended civil liberties within the country. In response to the rebellion, many Kikuyu were relocated. According to British authorities 80,000 were interned. Caroline Elkins estimated that between 160,000 and 320,000 were moved into concentration camps. Other estimates are as high as 450,000 interned. Most of the remainder – more than a million – were held in "enclosed villages". Although some were Mau Mau guerillas, many were victims of collective punishment that colonial authorities imposed on large areas of the country. Thousands suffered beatings and sexual assaults during "screenings" intended to extract information about the Mau Mau threat. Later, prisoners suffered even worse mistreatment in an attempt to force them to renounce their allegiance to the insurgency and to obey commands. Significant numbers were murdered; official accounts describe some prisoners being roasted alive. Prisoners were questioned with the help of "slicing off ears, boring holes in eardrums, flogging until death, pouring paraffin over suspects who were then set alight, and burning eardrums with lit cigarettes". The British colonial police used a "metal castrating instrument" to cut off testicles and fingers. "By the time I cut his balls off", one settler boasted, "he had no ears, and his eyeball, the right one, I think, was hanging out of its socket. Too bad, he died before we got much out of him." According to David Anderson, the British hanged over 1,090 suspected rebels: far more than the French had executed in Algeria during the Algerian War. Another 400 were sentenced to death but reprieved because they were under 18 or women. The British declared some areas prohibited zones where anyone could be shot. It was common for Kikuyu to be shot because they "failed to halt when challenged."
 * The Chuka Massacre, which happened in Chuka, Kenya, was perpetrated by members of the King's African Rifles B Company in June 1953 with 20 unarmed people killed during the Mau Mau uprising. Members of the 5th KAR B Company entered the Chuka area on June 13, 1953, to flush out rebels suspected of hiding in the nearby forests. Over the next few days, the regiment had captured and executed 20 people suspected of being Mau Mau fighters for unknown reasons. It is found out that most of the people executed were actually belonged to the Kikuyu Home Guard – a loyalist militia recruited by the British to fight an increasingly powerful and audacious guerrilla enemy. The commanding officer of the soldiers responsible, Major Gerald Griffiths, was court-martialed for murder. He was found guilty and sentenced to 7 years in prison. In an atmosphere of atrocity and reprisal, the matter was swept under the carpet and nobody else ever stood trial for the massacre.
 * The Hola massacre was an incident during the conflict in Kenya against British colonial rule at a colonial detention camp in Hola, Kenya. By January 1959 the camp had a population of 506 detainees of whom 127 were held in a secluded "closed camp". This more remote camp near Garissa, eastern Kenya, was reserved for the most uncooperative of the detainees. They often refused, even when threats of force were made, to join in the colonial "rehabilitation process" or perform manual labour or obey colonial orders. The camp commandant outlined a plan that would force 88 of the detainees to bend to work. On 3 March 1959, the camp commandant put this plan into action – as a result, 11 detainees were clubbed to death by guards. 77 surviving detainees sustained serious permanent injuries. The British government accepts that the colonial administration tortured detainees, but denies liability.
 * The Lari massacre in the settlement of Lari occurred on the night of 25–26 March 1953, in which Mau Mau militants herded Kikuyu men, women and children into huts and set fire to them, killing anyone who attempted to escape. Official estimates place the death toll from the Lari massacre at 74 dead.
 * Mau Mau militants also tortured, mutilated and murdered Kikuyu on many occasions. Mau Mau racked up 1,819 murders of their fellow Africans, though again this number excludes the many additional hundreds who 'disappeared', whose bodies were never found.

1954–1962: Algerian War
The insurgency began in 1945 and was revived in 1954, winning independence in the early 1960s. The French army killed thousands of Algerians in the first round of fighting in 1945. After the Algerian independence movement formed a National Liberation Front (FLN) in 1954, the French Minister of the Interior joined the Minister of National Defense in 1955 in ordering that every rebel carrying a weapon, suspected of doing so, or suspected of fleeing, must be shot. French troops executed civilians from nearby villages when rebel attacks occurred, tortured both rebels and civilians, and interned Arabs in camps, where forced labor was required of some of them. 2,000,000 Algerians were displaced or forcibly resettled during the war, and over 800 villages were destroyed from 1957 to 1960.

Other French crimes included deliberate bombing, torture and mutilation of civilians, rape and sexual assaults, disembowelment of pregnant women, imprisonment without food in small cells, throwing detainees from helicopters and into the sea with concrete on their feet, and burying people alive.

The FLN also indulged in a large amount of atrocities, both against French pieds-noirs and against fellow Algerians whom they deemed as supporting the French or simply as refusing to support the Liberation effort. These crimes included killing unarmed children, women and the elderly, rape and disembowelment or decapitation of women and murdering children by slitting their throats or banging their heads against walls. French sources estimated that 70,000 Muslim civilians were killed, or abducted and presumed killed, by the FLN during the war. The FLN also killed 30,000 to 150,000 in people in post-war reprisals.

United States perpetrated crimes
During the war 95 U.S. Army personnel and 27 U.S. Marine Corps personnel were convicted by court-martial of the murder or manslaughter of Vietnamese.

 * "Vietnam War Crimes Working Group" – Briefly declassified (1994) and subsequently reclassified (2002) documentary evidence compiled by a Pentagon task force detailing endemic war crimes committed by U.S. soldiers in Vietnam. Substantiating 320 incidents by Army investigators, includes seven massacres from 1967 through 1971 in which at least 137 South Vietnamese civilians died (not including the ones at My Lai), 78 other attacks on noncombatants in which at least 57 were killed, 56 wounded and 15 sexually assaulted, and 141 instances in which U.S. soldiers tortured civilian detainees or prisoners of war.

North Vietnamese and Vietcong perpetrated crimes

 * Up to 155,000 refugees fleeing the final North Vietnamese Spring Offensive were alleged to have been killed or abducted on the road to Tuy Hòa in 1975.

1965 Indo-Pakistani War

 * Sepoy Maqbool Hussain was a Pakistani soldier who was wounded and captured by Indian forces during the 1965 War. For the next 40 years, Maqbool was deprived of his rights and was subjected to violent torture during which his Indian counterparts pulled out his finger nails, cut out his tongue since he didn't chant anti Pakistan slogans and various other brutal acts which would've been a violation of the Geneva accords.

Late 1960s – 1998: The Troubles

 * War crimes: Various unarmed male civilians (some of whom were named during a 2013 television programme) were shot, two of them (Patrick McVeigh, Daniel Rooney) fatally, in 1972, allegedly by the Military Reaction Force (MRF), an undercover military unit tasked with targeting Irish Republican Army paramilitaries during the last installment of the Troubles. Two brothers, whose names and casualty status were not mentioned in an article regarding the same matter in The Irish Times, ran a fruit stall in west Belfast, and were shot after being mistaken for IRA paramilitaries.
 * War crimes: The British security forces employed widespread torture and waterboarding on prisoners in Northern Ireland during interrogations in the 1970s. Liam Holden was wrongfully arrested by the security forces for the murder of a British Army soldier and became the last person in the United Kingdom to be sentenced to hang after being convicted in 1973, largely on the basis of an unsigned confession produced by torture. His death sentence was commuted to life imprisonment and he spent 17 years behind bars. On 21 June 2012, in the light of CCRC investigations which confirmed that the methods used to extract confessions were unlawful, Holden had his conviction quashed by the Court of Appeal in Belfast, at the age of 58. Former Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) interrogators during the Troubles admitted that beatings, the sleep deprivation, waterboarding, and the other tortures were systematic, and were, at times, sanctioned at a very high level within the force.
 * War crimes: The British Army and the RUC also operated under a shoot-to-kill policy in Northern Ireland, under which suspects were alleged to have been deliberately killed without any attempt to arrest them. In four separate cases considered by the European court of human rights – involving the deaths of ten IRA men, a Sinn Féin member and a civilian – seven judges ruled unanimously that Article 2 of the European Convention on Human Rights guaranteeing a right to life had been violated by Britain.
 * War crimes: British soldiers and police colluded with loyalist paramilitaries, such as the attacks by the Glenanne group, which carried out a string of attacks against Irish Catholics and nationalists in an area of Northern Ireland known as the "murder triangle" and also carried out some attacks in the Republic of Ireland. Evidence suggests that the group was responsible for the deaths of about 120 civilians. The Cassel Report investigated 76 killings attributed to the group and found evidence that British security forces were involved in 74 of those. One former member, RUC officer John Weir, said his superiors knew of the group's activities but allowed it to continue. Attacks attributed to the group include the Dublin and Monaghan bombings (which killed 34 civilians), the Miami Showband killings, the Reavey and O'Dowd killings and the Hillcrest Bar bombing.

1970–1975: Cambodian civil war
The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia for the Prosecution of Crimes Committed During the Period of Democratic Kampuchea, commonly known as the Cambodia Tribunal, is a joint court established by the Royal Government of Cambodia and the United Nations to try senior members of the Khmer Rouge for crimes against humanity committed during the Cambodian Civil War. The Khmer Rouge killed many people due to their political affiliation, education, class origin, occupation, or ethnicity.

1975-1999: Indonesian invasion and occupation of East Timor
During the 1975 invasion and the subsequent occupation, a significant portion of East Timor's population died. Researcher Ben Kiernan says that "a toll of 150,000 is likely close to the truth", although estimates of 200,000 or higher have been suggested.

1978–2021: Civil war in Afghanistan
This war has ravaged the country for over 40 years, with several foreign actors playing important roles during different periods. From 2001 until 2021, US and NATO troops took part in the fighting in Afghanistan in the "War on Terror" that is also treated in the corresponding section below.

During the war against the Coalition and Afghan government, the Taliban committed war crimes including massacres, suicide bombing, terrorism, and targeting civilians. United Nations reports have consistently blamed the Taliban and other anti-government forces for the majority of civilian deaths in the conflict, with the Taliban responsible for 75% of civilian deaths in 2011. The Taliban also perpetrated mass rapes and executions of surrendered soldiers.

Following the Taliban takeover of Afghanistan in 2021, the Taliban has also executed civilians and captured insurgents during the ongoing Republican insurgency in Afghanistan.

1980–1988: Iran–Iraq War
Over 100,000 civilians other than those killed in Saddam's genocide are estimated to have been killed by both sides of the war by R.J.Rummel.

1986–1994: Uganda
The Times reports (November 26, 2005 p. 27):

"Almost 20 years of fighting... has killed half a million people. Many of the dead are children... The LRA [a cannibalism cult] kidnaps children and forces them to join its ranks. And so, incredibly, children are not only the main victims of this war, but also its unwilling perpetrators... The girls told me they had been given to rebel commanders as 'wives' and forced to bear them children. The boys said they had been forced to walk for days knowing they would be killed if they showed any weakness, and in some cases forced even to murder their family members... every night up to 10,000 children walk into the centre of Kitgum... because they are not safe in their own beds... more than 25,000 children have been kidnapped ...this year an average of 20 children have been abducted every week."
 * The International Criminal Court has launched an investigation and has issued indictments against LRA leaders.

1991–1995: Croatian War of Independence
Also see List of ICTY indictees for a variety of war criminals and crimes during this era.

1990–2000: Liberia / Sierra Leone
From The Times March 28, 2006 p. 43:
 * "Charles Taylor, the former Liberian President who is one of Africas most wanted men, has gone into hiding in Nigeria to avoid extradition to a UN war crimes tribunal... The UN war crimes tribunal in Sierra Leone holds Mr Taylor responsible for about 250,000 deaths. Throughout the 1990s, his armies and supporters, made up of child soldiers orphaned by the conflict wreaked havoc through a swath of West Africa. In Sierra Leone he supported the Revolutionary United Front (R.U.F) whose rebel fighters were notorious for hacking off the limbs of civilians.

 * Current action – Indicted on 17 counts of war crimes and crimes against humanity by the UN, which has issued an international warrant for his arrest. As of April 2006 located, extradited, and facing trial in Sierra Leone but then transferred to the Netherlands as requested by the Liberian government. As of the status of the main state actor in the war crimes in Liberia, Sierra Leone and the ongoing war crimes tribunal in the Hague for violating the UN sanctions, Libya's Muamar Gaddafi was elected to the post of President of the African Union. As of late January, 2011, Exxon/Mobile has resumed explorationary drilling in Libya after the exchange of the Lockerbie bombing terrorist was returned to Libya and Libya was taken off terrorist list by the Bush administration with the legal stipulation that Libya could never be prosecuted for past war crimes(regardless of guilt)in the future.

1991–2000/2002: Algerian Civil War
During the Algerian Civil War of the 1990s, a variety of massacres occurred through the country, many being identified as war crimes. The Armed Islamic Group (GIA) has avowed its responsibility for many of them, while for others no group has claimed responsibility. In addition to generating a widespread sense of fear, these massacres and the ensuing flight of population have resulted in serious depopulation of the worst-affected areas. The massacres peaked in 1997 (with a smaller peak in 1994), and were particularly concentrated in the areas between Algiers and Oran, with very few occurring in the east or in the Sahara.

1994–1996/1999–2009: Russia-Chechnya Wars
During the First Chechen War (1994–1996) and Second Chechen War (1999–2000 battle phase, 2000–2009 insurgency phase) there were many allegations of war crimes and terrorism against both sides from various human rights organizations.

1998–2006: Second Congo War

 * Civil war 1998–2002, est. 5 million deaths; war "sucked in" Rwanda, Uganda, Angola, Zimbabwe and Namibia, as well as 17,000 United Nations peacekeepers, its "largest and most costly" peace mission and "the bloodiest conflict since the end of the Second World War."
 * Fighting involves Mai-Mai militia and Congolese government soldiers. The Government originally armed the Mai-Mai as civil defence against external invaders, who then turned to banditry.
 * 100,000 refugees living in remote disease ridden areas to avoid both sides
 * Estimated 1000 deaths a day according to Oxfam:
 * "The army attacks the local population as it passes through, often raping and pillaging like the militias. Those who resist are branded Mai-mai supporters and face detention or death. The Mai-mai accuse the villagers of collaborating with the army, they return to the villages at night and extract revenge [sic]. Sometimes they march the villagers into the bush to work as human mules."

 * In 2003, Sinafasi Makelo, a representative of Mbuti Pygmies, told the UN's Indigenous People's Forum that during the Congo Civil War, his people were hunted down and eaten as though they were game animals. Both sides of the war regarded them as "subhuman". Makelo asked the UN Security Council to recognise cannibalism as a crime against humanity and an act of genocide.

2003–2017: Iraqi conflict
During the Iraq War
 * Blackwater Baghdad shootings On September 16, 2007, Blackwater military contractors shot and killed 17 Iraqi civilians in Nisour Square, Baghdad. The fatalities occurred while a Blackwater Personal Security Detail (PSD) was escorting a convoy of US State Department vehicles en route to a meeting in western Baghdad with United States Agency for International Development officials. The shooting led to the unraveling of the North Carolina-based company, which since has replaced its management and changed its name to Xe Services.
 * Beginning in 2004, accounts of physical, psychological, and sexual abuse, including torture, rape, sodomy, and homicide of prisoners held in the Abu Ghraib prison in Iraq (also known as Baghdad Correctional Facility) came to public attention. These acts were committed by military police personnel of the United States Army together with the CIA. In January 2014, evidence accuses British troops of being involved in widespread torture and abuse towards Iraqi civilians and prisoners.
 * War crimes: 2006 al-Askari Mosque bombing by Al-Qaeda. The bombing was followed by retaliatory violence with over a hundred dead bodies being found the next day and well over 1,000 people killed in the days following the bombing – by some counts, over 1,000 on the first day alone.
 * The Mahmudiyah rape and killings were the gang-rape and murder of 14-year-old Iraqi girl Abeer Qassim Hamza al-Janabi and the murder of her family by United States Army soldiers on March 12, 2006. It occurred in the family's house to the southwest of Yusufiyah, a village to the west of the town of Al-Mahmudiyah, Iraq. Other members of al-Janabi's family murdered by Americans included her 34-year-old mother Fakhriyah Taha Muhasen, 45-year-old father Qassim Hamza Raheem, and 6-year-old sister Hadeel Qassim Hamza Al-Janabi. The two remaining survivors of the family, 9-year-old brother Ahmed and 11-year-old brother Mohammed, who were at school during the massacre, were orphaned by the event.
 * War crimes: Iraqi insurgent groups have committed many armed attacks and bombings targeting civilians. According to Iraqi Interior Minister Bayan Jabr insurgents killed over 12,000 Iraqis from January 2005 to June 2006, giving the first official count for the victims of bombings, ambushes and other deadly attacks. Iraq Body Count project data shows that 33% of civilian deaths during the Iraq War resulted from execution after abduction or capture. These were overwhelmingly carried out by unknown actors including insurgents, sectarian militias and criminals. See: Iraq War insurgent attacks, List of suicide bombings in Iraq since 2003 and List of massacres of the Iraq War for a more comprehensive list.

2006 Lebanon War
Allegations of war crimes in the 2006 Lebanon War refer to claims of various groups and individuals, including Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, and United Nations officials, who accused both Hezbollah and Israel of violating international humanitarian law during the 2006 Lebanon War, and warned of possible war crimes. These allegations included intentional attacks on civilian populations or infrastructure, disproportionate or indiscriminate attacks in densely populated residential districts.

According to various media reports, between 1,000 and 1,200 Lebanese citizens (including Hezbollah fighters) were reported dead; there were between 1,500 and 2,500 people wounded and over 1,000,000 were temporarily displaced. Over 150 Israelis were killed (120 military); thousands wounded; and 300,000–500,000 were displaced because of Hezbollah firing tens of thousands of rockets at major cities in Israel.

2003–2020 War in Darfur and Chadian Civil War
During the War in Darfur and the Chadian Civil War, reports of humans rights abuses and genocide surfaced, accusing the Sudanese Armed Forces and Janjaweed militias in Darfur and Eastern Chad.

Sudanese authorities claim a death toll of roughly 19,500 civilians while many non-governmental organizations, such as the Coalition for International Justice, claim over 400,000 people have been killed.

In September 2004, the World Health Organization estimated there had been 50,000 deaths in Darfur since the beginning of the conflict, an 18-month period, mostly due to starvation. An updated estimate the following month put the number of deaths for the six-month period from March to October 2004 due to starvation and disease at 70,000; These figures were criticised, because they only considered short periods and did not include deaths from violence. A more recent British Parliamentary Report has estimated that over 300,000 people have died, and others have estimated even more.

2008–2009 Gaza War
There were allegations of war crimes by both the Israeli military and Hamas. Criticism of Israel's conduct focused on the proportionality of its measures against Hamas, and on its alleged use of weaponised white phosphorus. Numerous reports from human right groups during the war claimed that white phosphorus shells were being used by Israel, often in or near populated areas. In its early statements the Israeli military denied using any form of white phosphorus, saying "We categorically deny the use of white phosphorus". It eventually admitted to its limited use and stopped using the shells, including as a smoke screen. The Goldstone report investigating possible war crimes in the 2009 war accepted that white phosphorus is not illegal under international law but did find that the Israelis were "systematically reckless in determining its use in build-up areas". It also called for serious consideration to be given to the banning of its use as an obscurant.

1983 - 2009 Sri Lankan Civil War
There are allegations that war crimes were committed by the Sri Lankan military and the rebel Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam during the Sri Lankan Civil War, particularly during the final months of the conflict in 2009. The alleged war crimes include attacks on civilians and civilian buildings by both sides; executions of combatants and prisoners by the government of Sri Lanka; enforced disappearances by the Sri Lankan military and paramilitary groups backed by them; acute shortages of food, medicine, and clean water for civilians trapped in the war zone; and child recruitment by the Tamil Tigers.

A panel of experts appointed by UN Secretary-General (UNSG) Ban Ki-moon to advise him on the issue of accountability with regard to any alleged violations of international human rights and humanitarian law during the final stages of the civil war found "credible allegations" which, if proven, indicated that war crimes and crimes against humanity were committed by the Sri Lankan military and the Tamil Tigers. The panel has called on the UNSG to conduct an independent international inquiry into the alleged violations of international law. The Sri Lankan government has denied that its forces committed any war crimes and has strongly opposed any international investigation. It has condemned the UN report as "fundamentally flawed in many respects" and "based on patently biased material which is presented without any verification".

2011–present: Syrian civil war
International organizations have accused the Syrian government, ISIL and other opposition forces of severe human rights violations, with many massacres occurring. Chemical weapons have been used many times during the conflict as well. The Syrian government is reportedly responsible for the majority of civilian casualties and war crimes, often through bombings. In addition, tens of thousands of protesters and activists have been imprisoned and there are reports of torture in state prisons. Over 470,000 people were killed in the war by 2017.

2015–present: Kurdish–Turkish conflict
According to the U.S. State Department 2016 Human Rights Report, in February 2016, Turkish security forces killed at least 130 people, including unarmed civilians, who had taken shelter in the basements of three buildings in the town of Cizre. A domestic NGO, The Human Rights Association (HRA), said the security forces killed more than 300 civilians in the first eight months of 2016. In March 2017, the United Nations voiced "concern" over the Turkish government's operations and called for an independent assessment of the "massive destruction, killings and numerous other serious human rights violations" against the ethnic Kurdish minority.

2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war
UN Secretary-General António Guterres stated that "indiscriminate attacks on populated areas anywhere, including in Stepanakert, Ganja and other localities in and around the immediate Nagorno-Karabakh zone of conflict, were totally unacceptable". Amnesty International stated that both Azerbaijani and Armenian forces committed war crimes during recent fighting in Nagorno-Karabakh, and called on Azerbaijani and Armenian authorities to immediately conduct independent, impartial investigations, identify all those responsible, and bring them to justice.

2020–2022: Tigray War
During the Tigray War, which included fighting between the Ethiopian National Defense Force (ENDF) soldiers and Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF) forces in the Tigray Region, the Ethiopian Human Rights Commission (EHRC) described the 9–10 November 2020 Mai Kadra massacre committed by Tigray youth group "Samri" in its 24 November 2020 preliminary report as "grave human rights violations which may amount to crimes against humanity and war crimes".

2022–present: Russian invasion of Ukraine

During the Russian invasion of Ukraine, multiple buildings such as airports, hospitals, kindergartens were bombed. There has been abuse of prisoners of war.

In April 2022 bodies of civilians murdered by Russian forces were found in the town of Bucha, which had been left after the occupation of the town. It was confirmed at least more than 300 bodies were in mass graves or stranded on the streets of the city. As of 22 April 2022 there have been more than 500 confirmed bodies.

The Siege of Mariupol started on 24 February 2022 and ended on 20 May 2022. It has been confirmed at thousands of lives have been claimed through the siege and that the city has been reduced to rubble.

On 21 April 2022, Satellite images showed mass graves around the besieged city of Mariupol. It has been confirmed at least 9,000+ bodies have been found since. On the same day Vladimir Putin ordered troops to blockade the Azovstal Steel Plant, the last Ukrainian controlled place in the besieged city of Mariupol. The steel plant had more than 1,000 Ukrainians confirmed inside of it.

On 17 March 2023, the International Criminal Court (ICC) issued arrest warrants for Vladimir Putin and Russia's Commissioner for Children's Rights Maria Lvova-Belova for war crimes of deportation and illegal transfer of children from occupied Ukraine to Russia.

On 13 June 2023, Russian troops murdered 6 civilians in Sumy Oblast near Seredyna-Buda, mutilated their bodies, and then mined the place to kill people who tried to retrieve their bodies. They also blocked retrieval of bodies for 2 more days. This case is currently being investigated by Ukrainian authorities.

2023–present: Israel–Hamas war
An ongoing armed conflict between Israel and Palestinian militant groups led by Hamas began on 7 October 2023 with a coordinated surprise attack on Israel.

In April 2024, the United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC) adopted a resolution calling for Israel to be held accountable for possible war crimes and crimes against humanity in the Gaza Strip, and demanding a halt to all arms sales to the country. 28 countries voted in favor, 13 abstained, and six voted against. Israel's ambassador accused the UN of anti-Israeli bias.

title: List of war crimes


text:
Soyuz 38

Soyuz 38 was a human spaceflight mission conducted by the Soviet Union during September, 1980. The Soyuz spacecraft brought two visiting crew members to the Salyut 6 space station, one of whom was an Intercosmos cosmonaut from Cuba.

Mission parameters

 * Mass: 6800 kg
 * Perigee: 199.7 km
 * Apogee: 273.5 km
 * Inclination: 51.63°
 * Period: 88.194 minutes

Mission highlights
12th expedition to Salyut 6. 7th international crew. Carried Intercosmos cosmonaut from Cuba. The Soyuz 38 docking occurred in darkness. As the spacecraft approached Salyut 6, the crew on the space station could see only its “headlights.” Ryumin filmed ignition and operation of the transport's main engine. Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez of Cuba and Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Romanenko docked without incident.

The purpose of the Soyuz 38 mission was to carry out nine experiments. They stimulated different areas of the brain to further understand the electrical activity in our brain. This was done using a customized helmet for each cosmonaut with silver electrodes and a tape recorder. The cosmonauts also wore special shoes to study the structure and motion of feet changes during weightlessness. They also collaborated with the Cuban Institute of Endocrinology and Metabolic Diseases to examine blood and urine samples throughout the entire launch, stay, and return to explore the psychological stress from preparation and working long hours under constant weightlessness. Another experiment they conducted was centered around studying changes in the levels of skeletal muscle structure. They used a Cuban made instrument to assess the adipose tissue and the stimulation of body fat. There was also a study on blood circulation, which sought to determine the impact weightlessness has on the human circulatory system. Tests had been carried out in previous flights and were repeated during this mission using a Chibis suit, a below-the-waist reduced-pressure device. Crew members completed exercise protocols wearing the Chibis to provide gravity-simulating stress to the body's cardiovascular/circulatory system and re-establishing the body's orthostatic tolerance after extended periods of microgravity. Negative pressure on the legs causes blood to accumulate in the lower extremities, which is the case in a gravity environment. Orthostatic intolerance has been a frequent complaint in humans returning from long-duration space flights. The other experiments attempted to study how cell division, the immune system, concentrations of antibodies and other proteins and minerals were affected after prolonged exposure to a weightless environment. This included measurements into the amount and rate at which humans lost water, fat, and other minerals.The cosmonauts also studied the growth of a single crystal of sucrose in the same environment.

title: Soyuz 38


text:
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title: User talk:Rhicks~enwiki


text:
52nd Street (Manhattan)

52nd Street is a 1.9 mi one-way street traveling west to east across Midtown Manhattan, New York City, United States. A short section of it was known as the city's center of jazz performance from the 1930s to the 1950s.

Jazz center

Following the repeal of Prohibition in 1933, 52nd Street replaced 133rd Street as "Swing Street" of the city. The blocks of 52nd Street between Fifth and Seventh Avenues became renowned for the abundance of jazz clubs and lively street life. The street was convenient to musicians playing on Broadway and the 'legitimate' nightclubs and was also the site of a CBS studio. Musicians who played for others in the early evening played for themselves on 52nd Street.

In the period from 1930 through the early 1950s, 52nd Street clubs hosted such jazz musicians as Louis Prima, Art Tatum, Fats Waller, Billie Holiday, Trummy Young, Harry Gibson, Nat Jaffe, Dizzy Gillespie, Thelonious Monk, Charlie Parker, Miles Davis, Marian McPartland, and many more. Although musicians from all schools performed there, after Minton's Playhouse in uptown Harlem, 52nd Street was the second most important place for the dissemination of bebop. In fact, a tune called "52nd Street Theme" by Thelonious Monk became a bebop anthem and jazz standard.

Virtually every great jazz player and singer of the era performed at clubs:

52nd Street, between 6th & 7th Avenues
 * Kelly's Stable, 137 W 52
 * The Hickory House, 144 W 52

52nd Street, between 5th & 6th Avenues
 * 21 Club, 21 W 52 (1929–2020)
 * Leon & Eddie's, 33 W 52
 * Famous Door
 * 35 W 52 (Mar 1935–May 1936)
 * 66 W 52 (Dec 1937–Nov 1943)
 * 201 W 52 (Nov 1943–1944)
 * 56 W 52 (1947–1950)
 * Note: The Cotton Club (unconnected to the defunct club with the same name) opened in 1943 on the site formerly occupied by the Famous Door; the club was initially managed by Russell Carter

 * Jimmy Ryan's, 53 W 52 (1934–1962)
 * 154 W 54th (1962–1983)

 * Spotlight Club, 56 W 52
 * Club Samoa
 * 62 W 52 (1940–1943)
 * became a strip club in 1943

 * The Onyx
 * 35 W 52 (1927–1933) (owned by Joe Helbock)
 * 72 W 52 (1933–1937) (owned by Joe Helbock)
 * 62 W 52 (1937–1939) (owned by Joe Helbock, et al.)
 * 57 W 52 (1942–1949) (unrelated to the original Onyx)
 * became a strip club in 1949

 * Yacht Club, 66 W 52
 * Club Downbeat, 66 W 52
 * Club Carousel, 66 W 52
 * 3 Deuces, 72 W 52

Disc jockey Symphony Sid frequently did live broadcasts from the street which were transmitted across the country.

By the late 1940s, the jazz scene began moving elsewhere around the city and urban renewal began to take hold of the street. By the 1960s, most of the legendary clubs were razed or fell into disrepair. The last jazz club there closed in 1968, though one remains as a restaurant. Today, the street is full of banks, shops, and department stores and shows little trace of its jazz history. The block from 5th to 6th Avenues is formally co-named "Swing Street" and one block west is called "W. C. Handys Place".

The 21 Club was the sole surviving club on 52nd Street that also existed during the 1940s. It closed in 2020. The venue for the original Birdland at 1674 Broadway (between 52nd & 53rd), which came into existence in 1949, is now a strip club. The current Birdland is on 44th Street, between 8th and 9th Avenues.

Notable places on 52nd Street
This is a list of notable places within one block of 52nd Street.

West Side Highway

 * The route begins at the West Side Highway (New York Route 9A). Opposite the intersection is the New York Passenger Ship Terminal and the Hudson River
 * Hustler Club on south side
 * De Witt Clinton Park on north (the whole west side neighborhood of Clinton derives its name from the park
 * Studios of The Daily Show broadcast (south)

Eleventh Avenue
The section between Eleventh and Tenth Avenues is signed "Joe Hovarth Way" in tribute to Joseph Hovarth (1945–1995) who located the Police Athletic League William J. Duncan Center on the block after moving from its original location. The Duncan Center is named for a patrolman who was shot while chasing a stolen car in the neighborhood on May 17, 1930.

Tenth Avenue

 * Closed Midtown Branch of Saint Vincent's Catholic Medical Center (formerly St. Clares Hospital) (south)

Ninth Avenue

 * The Manhattan School – Public School 35, special ed. (317 West 52nd) (north)
 * Radio City Station Post Office (zip code 10019) (south)
 * The Link (south), 43-story, 215–unit, glass tower condominium (height = 471 feet), opened in 2007 on site of the S.I.R. (Studio Instrument Rentals, Inc.) building at 310 W 52nd, known as the Palm Gardens Building. S.I.R. occupied the building from 1974 until 2004. Cheetah, the well-known club that had once been at 53rd and Broadway, occupied the Palm Gardens building from 1968 to 1974. Cheetah became a popular Latin-American dance club that helped popularize Salsa to mainstream America.

Eighth Avenue

 * Neil Simon Theatre (south)
 * August Wilson Theatre (north)
 * Gallagher's Steak House (south)
 * Novotel 26-floor, 272 ft hotel opened in 1984 (south)
 * 1675 Broadway - 35-floor, 485 ft office building opened in 1990 (north)

Broadway

 * Sheraton Manhattan Hotel at Times Square, 22-story, 225 ft opened in 1962 (south)

Seventh Avenue

 * Seventh Avenue to Sixth Avenue is signed W.C. Handy's Place
 * AXA Center, 54-floor, 752 ft office tower opened in 1986 (south)
 * Sheraton New York Hotel & Towers, 51-story, 501 ft opened in 1962 (north)
 * Flatotel New York City, 46-floor, 475 ft Flatotel that opened in 1992 and is the street's(north)
 * Credit Lyonnais Building 45-floor, 609 ft office building that opened in 1964 (north)
 * 1285 Avenue of the Americas, 42-story, 545 ft office building (south)

Sixth and a Half Avenue

 * In the middle of block between Sixth and Seventh Avenues is a pedestrian corridor named by the city "Sixth and a Half Avenue", which runs from 51st to 57th Streets.

Sixth Avenue

 * Sixth Avenue to Fifth Avenue is signed "Swing Street".
 * AXA Financial Center 43-story, 571 ft completed in 1963. It has a large Thomas Hart Benton mural in lobby. (south)
 * CBS Building, headquarters of the network and popularly referred to as "Black Rock" (north)
 * 31 West 52nd Street 30-floor, 411 ft completed in 1986 originally for the E.F. Hutton headquarters. Currently the New York office of the international law firm, Clifford Chance (north) and the New York office of investment bank TD Securities, as well as the New York office for the international law firm Holland & Knight LLP.
 * Paley Center for the Media (north)
 * 75 Rockefeller Center, 33-story, 424 ft building completed in 1947 the last of the original Rockefeller Center buildings that was originally used for the headquarters of the Rockefeller Esso Oil Company (north)
 * 21 Club (north)
 * 666 Fifth Avenue (north)
 * 650 Fifth Avenue (south) 36-story, 492 ft office tower completed in 1978

Fifth Avenue

 * The Street between Fifth and Madison Avenues is signed "Place de Cartier" because of the Cartier SA store at 653 Fifth Avenue (south).
 * Olympic Tower (south)
 * Austrian Cultural Forum Building for Austria
 * House of Thurn, haute couture fashion label was located at 15 East 52nd Street, 1913-1934
 * Hanover Bank Building, 30-story, 389 ft completed in 1962
 * Omni Berkshire Place (north)
 * Look Building (south)

Madison Avenue

 * Park Avenue Plaza Building, 45-story, 574 ft building completed in 1981 above the Racquet and Tennis Club (north)

Park Avenue

 * Seagram Building, 38-floor, 515 ft building completed in 1958, formerly home to the Four Seasons Restaurant (north)
 * 345 Park Avenue, 44-story, 634 ft building completed in 1969 (south)

Lexington Avenue

 * 52nd between Lexington and Third Avenue is signed Israel Bonds Way (the Development Corporation for Israel which issues the bonds is headquartered at the intersection in the Grolier Building).
 * Grolier Building 33-story, 414 ft building completed in 1958
 * 599 Lexington Avenue, 50-story, 653 ft building completed in 1986 (north)
 * 150 East 52nd Street, 35-story, 390 ft building completed in 1983

Third Avenue

 * 875 3rd Avenue 29-story, 399 ft building completed in 1983 (north)
 * MacMillan Building 31-story, 364 ft building completed in 1966
 * Hungary Consulate
 * Zambia Mission to the United Nations
 * Rockefeller Guest House, 242 East 52nd Street (south)

Second Avenue

 * Thailand Consulate and Mission to the United Nations

First Avenue

 * 52nd Street is two-way traffic east of First Avenue since it dead ends on a bluff above the FDR Drive.
 * Southgate Apartment
 * Rivergate Apartment
 * Sutton House Apartments
 * 450 East 52nd - "The Campanile" is a 14-story brick cooperative apartment building overlooking the East River. It was home to celebrities such as Greta Garbo and John Lennon.
 * River House (New York City)

In literature and popular culture
In W. H. Auden's poem "September 1, 1939", about the Second World War, Auden narrates himself as being on 52nd Street.

A 1948 amateur recording of Charlie Parker at the Onyx Club, Bird on 52nd St., was released by Jazz Workshop in 1957.

Billy Joel has a studio album titled 52nd Street. The songs, including the hit single "Honesty", have a jazz flavoring not found on his other albums.

Toshiki Kadomatsu wrote a song titled "52nd Street 'Akiko, which is on his album Sea Is a Lady.

The Twilight Zone, episode 32, "A Passage for Trumpet", refers to the jazz clubs of 52nd Street.

Van Morrison's 1972 song "Saint Dominic's Preview" includes the lyrics "And meanwhile we're over on a 52nd Street apartment/Socializing with the wino few".

Daniel Okrent invented Rotisserie League Baseball, a form of fantasy baseball, in 1979. The name comes from the name of the restaurant, La Rôtisserie Française restaurant on New York City's East 52nd Street, where he first suggested the idea to his friends.

title: 52nd Street (Manhattan)