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Sex verification in sports

Sex verification in sports (also known as gender verification, or loosely as gender determination or a sex test) occurs because eligibility of athletes to compete is restricted whenever sporting events are limited to a single sex, which is generally the case, as well as when events are limited to mixed-sex teams of defined composition (e.g., most pairs events). Practice has varied tremendously over time, across borders and by competitive level. Issues have arisen multiple times in the Olympic games and other high-profile sporting competitions, for example allegations that certain male athletes attempted to compete as women or that certain female athletes had intersex conditions perceived to give unfair advantage. The topic of sex verification is related to the more recent question of how to treat transgender people in sports. Sex verification is not typically conducted on athletes competing in the male category because there is generally no perceived competitive advantage for a female or intersex athlete to compete in male categories.

Sex verification in sports began in the 1940s with "femininity certificates" provided by a physician. It subsequently evolved into visual inspections, physical examinations, chromosome testing, and later testosterone level testing. These tests were all designed to ensure that athletes were only allowed to compete as their sex, but mostly resulted in the exclusion of intersex athletes from female sports. Mandatory sex verification testing was fuelled by anxieties surrounding the "unfemininity" of some female athletes, as more participated in masculine events (e.g., track and field).

Sex verification can be substantially more complicated than checking whether a person's sex chromosome pair is XX vs. XY, or comparing their levels of key sex hormones to distinct reference ranges, to determine an athlete's sex. This is due to variations in human biology where some people are not unambiguously female or male, not all cells in a person's body have the same genotype or the presence of other genetic abnormalities. These reasons, among others, led sporting bodies to abandon chromosome testing towards the end of the 20th century and use hormone testing instead. The downside of hormone testing, however, is that policies on hyperandrogenism (women with naturally higher testosterone) were required, which have sparked both public debate and legal battles.

History
From 1946 to 1966, national sporting associations conducted sex verification testing. The first mandatory sex test issued by the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF), the world's track and field governing body, for woman athletes was in July 1950 in the month before the European Championships in Belgium. All athletes were tested in their own countries. The IAAF instituted sex testing at the actual games, starting at the 1966 European Athletics Championships in response to suspicion that several of the best women athletes from the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe were actually men. At the Olympics, testing was introduced in 1968. In some cases, these policies have led to athletes undergoing unnecessary surgery such as female genital mutilation and sterilization. Subsequent reports have shown that the tests could cause psychological harm. Sex verification—identifying athletes whose hormone levels are abnormal compared to others of their purported sex — can cause sex identity crises, elicit demeaning reactions (publicly and privately), isolate athletes socially, and lead to depression and sometimes suicide.

Physical examinations
United States Olympic Committee president Avery Brundage requested, during or shortly after the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin, that a system be established to examine female athletes. According to a Time magazine article about intersex people, Brundage felt the need to clarify "sex ambiguities" after observing the performance of Czechoslovak runner and jumper Zdeňka Koubková and English shotputter and javelin thrower Mary Edith Louise Weston. Both individuals later had gender reassignment surgery and legally changed their names, to Zdeněk Koubek and Mark Weston, respectively.

Sex verification tests began in 1950 with the IAAF, using physical examinations. "Sex segregation and verification are mutually interdependent because, if there were no claims or basis for having separate male and female sporting events, there would be no need for sex verification testing." Initially, women athletes "were asked to parade nude before a panel of doctors". For a period of time these tests were mandatory for female athletes, due to fears that male athletes would pose as female athletes and have an unfair advantage over their competitors. Additionally, fears increased in the mid-20th Century about female athletes not being "true" women as it became more acceptable for women to compete in sporting events.

At the 1966 British Empire and Commonwealth Games, the IAAF required that all female athletes undergo a gynaecological examination to confirm they possessed female genitalia. Two weeks later, at the 1966 European Athletics Championships, they conducted visual examinations. This process was deemed the "nude parade" and many athletes reported feeling humiliated by these procedures. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) never adopted these methods.

Chromosome testing
From 1958 to 1992, all female athletes underwent mandatory sex verification tests before taking part in any IAAF or IOC event. Barr body tests were conducted by taking samples from inside the cheek to find evidence of XX chromosomes, supposedly indicating the athlete was female. This test was first conducted by the IAAF in 1967 at the European Cup Track and Field event in Kiev, Soviet Union. Those who passed the tests and verified as females were provided femininity certificates which they could use at all future international competitions. Compulsory sex verification tests were commonplace and not many female athletes questioned the practice until the late 1980s.

Chromosome testing was criticized by scientists, such as de la Chapelle, Ferguson-Smith, Ferris, Ljungqvist, and Simpson. They, among others, argued the Barr body test did not take into account gonadal, morphological, and psychological sex attributes. Ultimately, a central contention was whether a Y chromosome yields a competitive advantage because it is not always accompanied by "manly" attributes that provide greater strength, power, or flexibility.

In 1985, runner Maria José Martínez-Patiño failed her sex verification at the World University Games in Kobe, Japan, after passing the test at the 1983 World Championships in Athletics. Martínez-Patiño was told to retire discreetly due to her results, which was commonplace among athletes who failed gender verification tests. However, she refused to retire, leading to immense public scrutiny.

Finnish geneticist Albert de la Chapelle worked alongside Martínez-Patiño to appeal the decision to the IAAF. De la Chapelle protested sex testing in sports for years, arguing that the Barr body test incorrectly identified intersex women. Furthermore, he pointed out that the finding of the abnormal sex chromatin and exclusion of these athletes from women's sporting events violated their rights and caused psychological damage. With de la Chapelle's support, the IAAF reinstated Martínez-Patiño in 1988. Martínez-Patiño's case, and later advocacy, led to the elimination of chromosomal sex verification tests.

This method of testing was later abolished, as it was shown to be inconclusive in identifying maleness. The International Association of Athletics Federations ceased sex screening for all athletes in 1992, but retained the option of assessing the sex of a participant should suspicions arise. As well, in 1992, the IOC continued compulsory sex verification, but switched from the Barr body test to a Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) test to look for "male-related genetic material" through DNA samples collected from a buccal swab. This test was still subject to criticism and several medical associations opposed gender verification by the late 1990s. A resolution was passed at the 1996 International Olympic Committee (IOC) World Conference on Women and Health "to discontinue the current process of gender verification during the Olympic Games". The International Olympic Committee's board voted to discontinue the practice in June 1999. Chromosome testing was last performed at the Atlanta Olympic Games in 1996.

Hormone testing
In 2006, the IAAF published a new Policy on Gender Verification. This allowed the organization to subject athletes to medical examinations by gynaecologists, endocrinologists, psychologists, internal medicine specialists, and experts on gender/transgender issues suspicions arose of the athlete's gender. The IAAF clarified the sex determinations would not be made on the sole basis of laboratory-based results. Athletes were provided with the option to undergo medical and surgical procedures to compete if they had failed the gender verification testing. Furthermore, the 2006 Policy listed conditions that would not provide advantages over other females, thus allowing the athlete to compete. These included: Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS), Gonadal dysgenesis, Turner's Syndrome, congenital adrenal hyperplasia, androgen producing tumours, and polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). In August 2009, South African athlete Caster Semenya was subjected to mandatory sex verification testing at the request of the IAAF. In the wake of the Semenya case, testosterone testing was introduced to identify cases where testosterone levels were elevated above a particular level, termed hyperandrogenism, with national Olympics committees tasked by the IOC to "actively investigate any perceived deviation in sex characteristics".

In 2011, the IAAF released new protocols related to testosterone and hormone testing. The protocols rejected the terms "sex testing" and "gender verification" and placed emphasized importance on testosterone levels, as certain athletes would not be eligible to compete in the female category due to hormonal characteristics. The protocols claimed that hormone levels indicated the differences in athletic performance between men and women. Investigations under the protocol were prompted by suspicion and carried out through endocrinological blood tests. These tests determined whether androgen levels were below the male range of 10 nmol/L. If the athlete was over that level, more tests would be carried out to determine if she had androgen resistance, which means she would not have a competitive advantage. If the athlete was found to have a competitive advantage, under this protocol, she was ineligible to compete until undergoing IAAF-recommended treatment.

In association football, FIFA's current gender verification policy dates to 30 May 2011. In June 2012, in advance of the 2012 Summer Olympics, the IOC released IOC Regulations on Female Hyperandrogenism to address these cases. It includes the statement: "Nothing in these Regulations is intended to make any determination of sex. Instead, these Regulations are designed to identify circumstances in which a particular athlete will not be eligible (by reason of hormonal characteristics) to participate in 2012 Olympic Games (OG) Competitions in the female category. In the event that the athlete has been declared ineligible to compete in the female category, the athlete may be eligible to compete as a male athlete, if the athlete qualifies for the male event of the sport." Policies on hyperandrogenism were suspended following the case of Dutee Chand v. Athletics Federation of India (AFI) & The International Association of Athletics Federations, in the Court of Arbitration for Sport, decided in July 2015. Chand had been dropped from the 2014 Commonwealth Games at the last minute after the Athletic Federation of India stated that hyperandrogenism made her ineligible to compete as a female athlete. The ruling found that there was insufficient evidence that testosterone increased female athletic performance. In doing so the court immediately suspended the practice of hyperandrogenism regulation used by the IAAF and declared it void unless the organization could present better evidence by July 2017.

A study published in 2017 by Stéphane Bermon and Pierre-Yves Garnier analyzed 2,127 performances and hormone concentrations in male and female elite track and field athletes during the 2011 and 2013 Track and Field World Championships. When compared with women with lower levels of the hormone free testosterone (fT), women with the highest fT levels performed significantly better in the 400 m, 400 m hurdles, 800 m, hammer throw, and pole vault with margins of 2.73%, 2.78%, 1.78%, 4.53%, and 2.94%, respectively. Such a pattern was not found in any of the male athletic events. The study concluded that female athletes with high testosterone levels have a significant competitive advantage over those with low fT in 400 m, 400 m hurdles, 800 m, hammer throw, and pole vault.

Criticism
Scholars question whether any advantage should be considered "unfair" if it occurs naturally and outside the control of the athlete. For example, elite athletes have greater aerobic capacity and endurance in comparison to the general population. Furthermore, these cases have elicited criticism of the elite sporting system by showing clear vulnerability of women athletes to unnecessary medical interventions under duress, applied even though there was no evidence of cheating and no evidence of athletic advantage. Moreover, the requirement to lower testosterone levels can have adverse impacts on athletes' health, as side effects may include: excessive thirst, urination and electrolyte imbalances, disruption of carbohydrate metabolism, headache, fatigue, nausea, hot flushes, and liver toxicity. Other commentators question the causal connection between testosterone and athletic capability, as some women who have high testosterone are prone to biological characteristics, such as obesity and short stature, that adversely impact athletic ability. As well, other factors, such as mitochondrial variations, acromegaly, a complete and balanced diet, and access to high level training at an early age, are said to be as relevant as testosterone, but are not considered.

As with previous forms of sex testing, testosterone testing has been regarded by many  as humiliating, unnecessary, unethical, and discriminatory. Katrina Karkazis, Rebecca Jordan-Young, Georgiann Davis and Silvia Camporesi argued that the new IAAF policies on hyperandrogenism in female athletes will not protect against breaches of privacy, will require athletes to undergo unnecessary treatment in order to compete, and will intensify "gender policing". In fact, high-performing female athletes show a rate of complete AIS much higher than the general population—which shows 1 in 20,000–50,000, compared with elite athletes' 1 in 429. They recommend that athletes be able to compete in accordance with their legal gender.

In November 2015, the IOC held a meeting to address both its hyperandrogenism and transgender policies. In regards to hyperandrogenism in female athletes, the IOC encouraged reinstatement of the IAAF policies suspended by the Court of Arbitration for Sport. It also repeated an earlier policy statement that, to "avoid discrimination, if not eligible for female competition the athlete should be eligible to compete in male competition". In February 2016, it was made known that the IOC would not introduce its own policies that would impose a maximum testosterone level for the 2016 Summer Olympics.

In April 2016, the United Nations Special Rapporteur on health, Dainius Pūras, criticized current and historic sex verification policies, describing how "a number of athletes have undergone gonadectomy (removal of reproductive organs) and partial cliteroidectomy in the absence of symptoms or health issues warranting those procedures".

"Sporting organizations must implement policies in accordance with human rights norms and refrain from introducing policies that force, coerce or otherwise pressure women athletes into undergoing unnecessary, irreversible and harmful medical procedures in order to participate as women in competitive sport. States should also adopt legislation incorporating international human rights standards to protect the rights of intersex persons at all levels of sport, given that they frequently report bullying and discriminatory behaviour, and should take steps to protect the health rights of intersex women in their jurisdiction from interference by third parties."

The cases of Dutee Chand and Caster Semenya were widely reported during the 2016 Rio Olympics. Immediately preceding the games, Genel, Simpson and de la Chapelle were again published in Journal of the American Medical Association stating:

"One of the fundamental recommendations published almost 25 years ago ... that athletes born with a disorder of sex development and raised as females be allowed to compete as women remains appropriate. . . . With the passage of time and the recurring public spectacle of young women ... having their underlying biology indiscriminately scrutinized in the world media, it has become evident that the hyperandrogenism policies are no more salutary than earlier attempts to define sharp sex boundaries."

New rules in 2018
On November 1 of 2018 the IAAF adopted new criteria regarding "Differences of Sexual Development" for female athletes competing in the following races: 400 m, 800 m, 1 mile, hurdles, and events that include a combination of these distances.

Athletes with testosterone levels equalling or exceeding 5 nmol/L or who are "androgen sensitive" and want to participate in above-mentioned events at the global level (including recognition for setting an international record) must legally be female or intersex, must get their testosterone levels below 5nmol/L for six consecutive months and must ensure their levels stay below this level. This new regulation replaced all previous rules implemented regarding women with hyperandrogenism.

Medical opposition
The World Medical Association (WMA) demanded the withdrawal of these regulations arguing that they discriminate based on gender variation of female athletes. The Association also expressed concerns with physicians treating athletes with high levels of endogenous testosterone when the condition is not pathological.

Hormone Testing in Post Secondary Education
In 2011, the NCAA made a statement of inclusivity for Transgender athletes competing in college athletics. Through this statement, the NCAA was able to structure an implementation plan for transgender athletes to participate in college sports, and some policies that would ensure an equitable opportunity for every athlete. The following are the specific guidelines for transgender athletes incorporated into the NCAA in 2011: 1. A trans male (FTM) student-athlete who has received a medical exception for treatment with testosterone for diagnosed Gender Identity Disorder or gender dysphoria and/or Transsexualism, for purposes of NCAA competition may compete on a men's team, but is no longer eligible to compete on a women's team without changing that team status to a mixed team.

2. A trans female (MTF) student-athlete being treated with testosterone suppression medication for Gender Identity Disorder or gender dysphoria and/or Transsexualism, for the purposes of NCAA competition may continue to compete on a men's team but may not compete on a women's team without changing it to a mixed team status until completing one calendar year of testosterone suppression treatment. In 2021, however, the NCAA adjusted the previous policy of requiring one calendar year of testosterone suppressing therapy for transgender female athletes. Instead, now there is more frequent testosterone testing. The following passage describes these additional requirements:"Starting with the 2022-23 academic year, transgender student-athletes will need documented levels at the beginning of their season and a second documentation six months after the first. They will also need documented testosterone levels four weeks before championship selections. Full implementation would begin with the 2023-24 academic year."More frequent hormone testing is seen in the IOC policy for sex verification. The motives behind these new implementations, according to the NCAA, is so that there is "consistency and further strengthens the relationship between college sports and U.S. Olympics".

Overall, the topic and policies of transgender athletes in post secondary sports is highly controversial. The amount of open transgender athletes competing in college athletics in the United States is extremely small, as only 32 athletes are reportedly transgender. But some of these specific examples grab the public's attention.

20th century

 * Perhaps the earliest known case is that of Stanisława Walasiewicz (aka Stella Walsh), a Polish athlete who won a gold medal in the women's 100 m at the 1932 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, but who after her death in 1980 was discovered to have had partially developed male genitalia.
 * Before the advent of sexual verification tests, German athlete Dora Ratjen competed in the 1936 Olympic Games in Berlin and placed fourth in the women's high jump. Ratjen later competed and set a world record for the women's high jump at the 1938 European Championships before tests by the German police concluded that Ratjen was a man. Ratjen was likely an intersex individual, based on the physician's description who conducted the examination. Though raised as a girl, Ratjen later took the name Heinrich Ratjen following an official registry change. This case played a great role in being the first sparking public interest in Sex Verification and the gender of athletes. Some speculate that the need for Ratjen's sex verification resulted from them competing for Germany when it was under the rule of Nazis - and Ratjen was forced to compete as a woman to ensure an Olympic medal for the nation.
 * Other cases of sex verification at the 1936 Olympic Games involved track athletes Helen Stephens (U.S) and Stella Walsh (Poland), winning gold and silver in the 100m, respectively. Both displayed body characteristics that reflected the male body and were forced to participate in a physical exam. The tests resulted in only Stephens being identified as a male.
 * In the 1940s, all female athletes competing in top levels of their sports were then required to provide evidence of their sex by submitting a medical certificate prior to their competition.
 * The Dutch sprinter Foekje Dillema was expelled from the 1950 national team after she refused a mandatory sex test in July 1950; later investigations revealed a Y-chromosome in her body cells, and the analysis showed that she probably was a 46,XX/46,XY mosaic female.
 * Sisters Tamara and Irina Press won five track and field Olympic gold medals for the Soviet Union and set 26 world records in the 1960s. They ended their careers before the introduction of gender testing in 1966. Although both sisters were accused of being men or hermaphrodites, there is no evidence of an intersex condition in these cases.
 * Polish athlete Ewa Kłobukowska, who won the gold medal in women's 4 × 100 m relay and the bronze medal in women's 100 m sprint at the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, is the first athlete to fail a gender test in 1967. She was found to have the rare genetic condition of XX/XXY mosaicism and was banned from competing in Olympic and professional sports.
 * In 1967 the IOC disqualified the Austrian 1966 Female World Champion in downhill skiing, Erik Schinegger (then named Erika), from the 1968 Winter Games in Grenoble after determining Schinegger had internal male sex organs. Schinegger later transitioned to male.
 * In 1986, Spanish hurdler Maria José Martínez-Patiño was dismissed and publicly shamed after failing a chromosomal test. She fought the ruling against her, arguing that she could not have a competitive advantage because her intersex variation resulted in her having no functional testosterone. Two years later, the IAAF gave Martínez-Patiño the green light to compete again. Her plight brought attention to the issue of gender testing, which helped lead to the end of mandatory tests a decade later.

21st century

 * In 2001, Indian athlete and swimmer Pratima Gaonkar committed suicide after disclosure and public commentary on her failed sex verification test.
 * Indian middle-distance runner Santhi Soundarajan, who won the silver medal in 800 m at the 2006 Asian Games in Doha, Qatar, failed the sex verification test and subsequently stripped of her medal.
 * South African middle-distance runner Caster Semenya won the 800 meters at the 2009 World Championships in Athletics in Berlin. After her victory at the 2009 World Championships, it was announced that she had been subjected to gender testing. The IAAF confirmed that Semenya had agreed to a sex-testing process that began in South Africa and would continue in Germany. On 6 July 2010, the IAAF confirmed that Semenya was cleared to continue competing as a woman. The results of the gender testing were never officially released for privacy reasons. In 2018, the IAAF announced new rules that once again prevented Semenya from running, rules that are thought to have been designed specifically to target Semenya. This included lowering the allowable level of testosterone from 10nmol/L to 5nmol/L.
 * In 2012, after female Indian track athlete Pinki Pramanik was accused by a female roommate of rape and later charged, she was gender tested and declared a male although she and other medical experts dispute the claims. Pramanik disagreed with these results and police ordered a separate government-led test as part of the trial. The SSKM Government Hospital declared the results to be inconclusive. The Court then directed a chromosome pattern test.
 * Four unnamed women athletes from developing countries were subjected to gonadectomies (a form of sterilization) and female genital mutilation as part of a process to enable them to compete. The female athletes were discovered to have an intersex trait during testosterone testing; the case was first published in 2013.
 * Dutee Chand was dropped from the 2014 Commonwealth Games at the last minute after the Athletic Federation of India stated that hyperandrogenism made her ineligible to compete as a female athlete. Chand took a case to the Court of Arbitration for Sport and won an interim judgment in mid-2015. In February 2016, it was made known that the IOC would not impose a maximum testosterone level for the 2016 Summer Olympics. In June 2016, Chand qualified to compete in the 100 metres race at the Summer Olympics. Notably, all three medalists in the women's 800 m were intersex, the 4th, 5th, and 6th placers expressed disappointment and concern.
 * In 2018, Caster Semenya brought criticisms from the WMA against the IAAF to the CAS. The Court upheld the IAAF's new regulations, as they deemed the differential treatment proportionate. The CAS stated the treatments the relevant athletes must undergo did not outweigh the objective of protecting fair competition in the female category.
 * In 2019, World Athletics opted to set a maximum testosterone level for the 400, 800, and one-mile women's races in the 2020 Summer Olympics. Caster Semenya, an intersex woman who won gold in the women's 800 m in both the 2012 and 2016 Olympics, filed to appeal the decision, which would effectively ban her from competing in middle-distance races due to hyperandrogenism. She subsequently attempted to compete in the women's 5k, but failed to qualify by the June deadline.
 * In 2020, Human Rights Watch reported that Ugandan runner, Annet Negesa, was misinformed about hormone testing by the IAAF. The IAAF referred her to a French medical clinic, which specialized in intersex conditions. There she underwent more testing and surgery to remove her internal testes. However, before the surgery, Negesa was told it would be "like an injection" and was not informed of the extent of the procedure.

Transgender athletes
In November 2015, the IOC held a meeting to address both its transgender and hyperandrogenism policies. In regard to transgender athletes it stated that transgender athletes cannot be excluded from an opportunity to participate in sporting competition. Transgender athletes who identified themselves as female would be allowed to compete in that category as long as their testosterone levels were below 10 nmol/L for at least 12 months prior to the competition. There would be no restrictions on transgender athletes who identify and compete as male since their condition is disadvantageous. In 2018, the IAAF lowered the maximum level to 5 nmol/L.

Transgender athletes who wish to compete in the female category are allowed to do so if their testosterone levels are in accordance with the required levels. However, the IOC stated that requiring surgical anatomical changes as a requirement for participation may be considered a violation of human rights. Athletics may for some transgender people engage them within greater society in affirming ways. However, others opposed to the participation of transgender athletes on women's teams state that the argument is unsound. Athletes who have faced opposition include Mianne Bagger, Martine Delaney (who participated in "Soccer Tasmanian's women's league") and Lana Lawless.

 * Professional tennis player Renée Richards, a transgender woman, was barred from playing as a woman at the 1976 US Open unless she submitted to chromosome testing. She sued the United States Tennis Association and in 1977 won the right to play as a woman without submitting to testing.
 * American Collegiate athlete Lia Thomas, is a transgender woman. In 2022, Thomas achieved top honours in swimming the women's 500-yard freestyle, as she was crowned first place in her final NCAA competition.

Chromosome testing
The practice of chromosome testing came under scrutiny from those who feel that the testing was humiliating, socially insensitive, and neither accurate nor effective. The testing is especially difficult for people who could be considered intersex. Genetic differences can allow a person to have a male genetic make-up and female anatomy or body chemistry. In the Journal of the American Medical Association, Simpson, Ljungqvist and others stated,"Gender verification tests are difficult, expensive, and potentially inaccurate. Furthermore, these tests fail to exclude all potential impostors (eg, some 46,XX males), are discriminatory against women with disorders of sexual development, and have had shattering consequences for athletes who 'fail' a test ...

Gender verification has long been criticized by geneticists, endocrinologists, and others in the medical community. One major problem was unfairly excluding women who had a birth defect involving gonads and external genitalia (i.e., male pseudohermaphroditism). ...

A second problem is that only women, not men, were ever subjected to gender verification testing. Systematic follow-up was rare for athletes 'failing' the test, often performed under very public circumstances. Follow-up was crucial because the subjects were not male impostors, but intersexed individuals."

Hormone testing
Women with higher levels of androgen (particularly testosterone) are often considered to have a competitive advantage over other women since women statistically have lower levels than men. This difference in androgen levels is the reason many sports requiring athletes compete only among their own sex. However, others argue that expecting women athletes with naturally higher levels of testosterone to lower these levels by medical/pharmaceutical methods completely contradicts the purpose of doping regulations, which require athletes to not take any substances that their bodies do not generate naturally.

In January 2010 in Miami, instead of succeeding in improving the policies specifying whether an athlete should participate as a woman or a male, medical professionals experienced ambiguity in regards to these policies. Alice Dreger states it is risky to publicly reveal that an athlete is no longer allowed to compete as a woman without first informing the athlete. For example, Caster Semenya found out through public media that the tests she had taken were meant to determine whether she is female or male. Another athlete, Santhi Soundarjan, had a suicide attempt subsequent to failing the test for determining her gender and being stripped of her 2016 Asian Games medal.

A scholar questions whether men with androgen levels similar to those of women will be permitted to participate in the women's category or instead be granted the opportunity to increase their androgen levels to those of other males. This is the logical and fair result how policies using functional testosterone to decide eligibility to compete as a female or a male work for women. Males with Klinefelter Syndrome/XXY chromosomes are in this position but nonetheless usually cannot compete while utilizing testosterone because of their medical situation. In the Semenya case the fact that they found high testosterone levels and were going back and forth on her gender verification affected her mental health. By contradicting her sex they were violating laws by international and national genetic privacy laws. Gender verification impacts numerous dimensions of athletes' lives, including unfair disqualification in sporting events, identity crisis and confusion, social isolation, depression, and suicide.

Overall, a great amount of research has been conducted proving that both hormones and chromosomes should not be held responsible for depicting characteristics of one's biological sex. While hormones can be used in correlation with biological sex, they cannot solely portray the difference between an individual being male or female sex.

Sex verification of men
Sex verification is not conducted on athletes competing in the male category, and little data are available on their chromosomes or hormone profiles. However, a post-competition study of 693 elite athletes by Healy et al., published in 2014, found significant differences along many variables. The authors found that:

"16.5% of men had low testosterone levels, whereas 13.7% of women had high levels with complete overlap between the sexes."

Using these data, Scientific American estimated that "almost 2 percent" of male competitors had testosterone levels in the typical female range. The study authors also stated that average lean body mass differences might account for performance differences between sexes.

title: Sex verification in sports


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Wednesfield

Wednesfield is a town and historic village in the City of Wolverhampton, West Midlands, England, It is 2 mi east-northeast of Wolverhampton city centre and about 10 mi from Birmingham and is part of the West Midlands conurbation. It was historically within the county of Staffordshire.

Its name comes from the Old English Wōdnesfeld meaning Woden's Field, open land belonging to, or holy to, the high god of the Germanic Pantheon.

Local areas include Ashmore Park and Wood End. There is also a formal garden at Wednesfield Park.

Geography
Wednesfield lies at 52.5998°N, -2.0827°W (52.5998°, −2.0827°), and is located to the northeast of Wolverhampton city centre on the northern fringe of the West Midlands conurbation. It was historically part of the county of Staffordshire, and since 1974 has been part of the West Midlands metropolitan county.

The south of the town lies over coal measures whilst the town centre has dolerite deposits and the area to the north lies over mudstone and sandstone. The town lies on generally flat land between 130m and 140m above sea level, rising to around 170m in the north.

There are no navigable rivers within the town, although the original course of the River Tame crossed the south-east of the town.

Governance
Following the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834, Wednesfield formed part of the Wolverhampton Poor Law Union, an inter-parish unit established to provide social security. This replaced an earlier arrangement where the Parish had operated a workhouse on Old Heath Road since 1723. In 1863 the Wednesfield Local Board of Health was established. With reference to the Local Government Act 1858, it was a regulatory body responsible for standards of hygiene and sanitation in the township, and replaced an earlier Sanitary Committee that was established in 1856. The Local Board was only in existence for three years before being split into two, one for Wednesfield itself, and one for Wednesfield Heath.

Following the Local Government Act 1894, the rump of the parish (minus Wednesfield Heath and part of what became Short Heath Urban District) became an urban district within the administrative county of Staffordshire.

With the exception of a loss of 24 acres (with a census population of 224) to the County Borough of Wolverhampton in 1933, the Urban District remained intact until 1966, when due to the provisions of the Local Government Act 1958, most of the Wednesfield Urban District was merged into Wolverhampton County Borough, though some parts were incorporated into Walsall County Borough and others into Cannock Rural District, now part of South Staffordshire district.

In the early 1950s, when Wednesfield was still independent from its larger neighbour, Wolverhampton council developed two overspill estates – Ashmore Park and Long Knowle – in Wednesfield to rehouse families from slums in the town.

For electoral purposes, Wednesfield is represented by the wards of Wednesfield North, Wednesfield South and Fallings Park, which together make up the Wednesfield and Fallings Park LANA (Local Area and Neighbourhood Arrangements).

It is part of the Wolverhampton North East constituency and is represented in the House of Commons by Jane Stevenson (a member of the Conservative Party) following her election on 12 December 2019.

History
On 5 August 910 the allied forces of Mercia and Wessex defeated an army of Northumbrian Vikings in the Battle of Tettenhall (sometimes called the Battle of Wednesfield or Wōdnesfeld).

Wednesfield was formerly well known for making all kinds of traps, from mousetraps, to mantraps and locks. Many of the factories that dominated the area have been cleared to make way for houses and other buildings.

Religion
The Church of St Thomas is located in the town centre. It was originally consecrated in August 1750, as a chapel of ease of St. Peter's Collegiate Church, Wolverhampton and known as the Chapel of St. Thomas in Wednesfield. It became a separate parish in 1849. It was almost completely destroyed by fire on 18 January 1902, as a result of which the tower is the only remaining part of the original building. The church was reconstructed in similar style to the original and continues in active use as a place of worship.

The Guru Nanak Gurdwara was opened in 1984 and is also located in the town centre, and caters for the local Sikh community, many of whom are descendants of those who immigrated to the area in the 1950s and onwards. A part of the Gurdwara suffered fire damage in 2002 so the committee decided to demolish the original building and the rebuild was ready by 2004. It has lifts for the elderly.

Economy
Wednesfield Village or 'the village' as it is still referred to by many residents provides a range of shopping, office and community facilities for residents in the north east of Wolverhampton and some adjoining parts of the Metropolitan Borough of Walsall, along with services for the major industrial areas to the south of the town and New Cross Hospital. Just to the west of the town centre, there is a large Sainsbury's supermarket and the Bentley Bridge Retail Park. There is also a retail market.

Bentley Bridge consistes of both leisure and retail components. The leisure component is in the form of a multiplex cinema and bowling alley together with fast food outlets, a pub, numerous restaurants, whilst there is 14,700 m2 of retail space which includes a fitness gym.

The proximity to Wolverhampton city centre has been a major constraint on retail economic growth within the town. Wednesfield is part of a network of lower order Black Country town centres, providing principally convenience shopping facilities for a local catchment area and it is surrounded by centres with a similar role including Bilston to the south, Willenhall to the south east and Bloxwich to the east.

However, since 2009 the Bentley Bridge Retail Park has thrived with empty units being filled by national retailers. In September 2011 retailer TK Maxx announced plans to close its city centre store in Wolverhampton and relocate to Bentley Bridge. Whilst the retail park thrives, local independent traders on the high street continue to suffer due to economic circumstances.

The area to the south of the former railway line is characterised by industrial development, mostly with small units although there is some larger development such a steel processing and distribution plant. Historically, the main industries were coal mining and trap making, although mining ceased in the area in the early twentieth century.

Transport
The Wyrley and Essington Canal running through the town was opened in 1797. It was constructed to allow coal traffic to travel between mines near Great Wyrley and Wolverhampton, and was constructed following the contours of the land. This meant that the centre of the town was surrounded on three sides by the canal, and that almost all of the pre-existing roads required hump-backed bridges, and despite the improvement in communications and the potential for transporting goods via the canal, it is recorded that some local residents felt that it actually obstructed the development of the town, rather than assisting it. A second canal through the town, the Bentley Canal, opened in 1843 between Wednesfield Junction, near the modern New Cross Hospital, and Walsall. The canal was abandoned in the 1960s, and only a short section at Wednesfield Junction is extant.

Wednesfield railway station on the Wolverhampton and Walsall Railway was opened in 1872, connecting the town with Wolverhampton High Level and Walsall. It was operated by the Midland Railway, and was located on Neachells Lane to the south of the town centre. It closed to passenger traffic in 1931, although it remained open for goods traffic until the 1980s. Much of the trackbed was reused for the A4124 Wednesfield Way, which bypasses the town centre and opened in 1999.

The first railway within the township was the Grand Junction Railway, where Wednesfield Heath railway station (opened in 1837) was the primary station for Wolverhampton, and was located on Station Road, Heath Town. The station was replaced by Wolverhampton High Level in the city centre, and closed to passengers in 1873 whilst remaining open for goods traffic until 1965. The siting of this station at Heath Town has been cited as a reason for the separation of Wednesfield and Heath Town.

Public transport in Wednesfield is coordinated by Transport for West Midlands. Most bus services within the town are operated by National Express West Midlands, with services from the town centre to destinations including Wolverhampton city centre, Bilston, Bloxwich, Walsall and Willenhall.

The 59 bus route which runs from Wolverhampton city centre to Ashmore Park via New Cross Hospital and Wednesfield High Street is the most frequent in the city.

National Express West Midlands service 9 (previously 60) operates between Walsall, Pelsall, Bloxwich and Wolverhampton half hourly.

The 71 bus route by Chaserider (previously Arriva) provides an hourly link to Essington, Great Wyrley and Cannock. Diamond Bus tendered service 65 provides an hourly service between Wolverhampton and Fordhouses via New Cross Hospital and Bushbury Crematorium.

An extension of the West Midlands Metro through Wednesfield is planned, on the "5Ws" route from Wolverhampton to Wednesbury via Willenhall and Walsall.

Notable people

 * Tom Aspaul – Singer, songwriter and producer
 * Ruth Badger – Businesswoman and runner-up on the second series of The Apprentice
 * Martin Cooper – England rugby union player
 * John Cosnett – Darts player
 * Wayne Jones – Darts player
 * Hayley Price – Olympic gymnast
 * Roy Rickhuss − Trade union leader
 * Kevin Rowland – Musician and frontman of Dexys Midnight Runners
 * Dion Sanderson – Footballer for Cardiff City
 * Tessa Sanderson – Athlete and Olympic gold medallist
 * Kristian Thomas – Olympic gymnast
 * Mary Whitehouse – TV/radio clean-up campaigner, was a teacher at Lichfield Road School in the town in 1932–40.
 * Sureena Brackenridge - Member of Parliament (MP) for Wolverhampton North East since 2024

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Wednesfield


text:
Talk:Darwin–Wedgwood family/to do

The following is a list that needs to be done (please cross out if you have helped me!)

 * Josiah Wedgwood pretty good article.
 * Erasmus Darwin - details of children.
 * Samuel "John" Galton - expand stub.

 * Robert Darwin - reasonable article
 * Josiah Wedgwood II - problem with lack of information available on web.
 * Samuel Tertius Galton - expand stub.

 * Charles Darwin very good article. Maybe needs tidy on family.
 * Francis Galton could do with some expansion, but not particularly a priority.

 * George Howard Darwin - put in children.
 * Leonard Darwin reasonable, could mention eugenics a bit more.
 * Francis Darwin - expand stub. Need to research some botony(!)
 * Horace Darwin - expand stub.

 * Charles Galton Darwin (reasonable)
 * Gwen Raverat - expand stub; also husband Jacques Raverat.
 * Bernard Darwin - expand stub. info available.
 * Frances Cornford - expand stub. Also, write husband Francis Cornford.
 * Nora Barlow - pages on Alan Barlow and his father Thomas Barlow need expanding from stubs.
 * Robin Darwin need to write a stub, then expand it.
 * Horace Barlow information difficult to find. Email creator of Roy Soc biog?

 * Richard Keynes needs a write
 * Quentin Keynes I think is okay.

 * Erasmus Galton I have seen some info on - only minorly notable, however.

title: Talk:Darwin–Wedgwood family/to do


text: User talk:80.100.23.153

title: User talk:80.100.23.153


text:
List of prime ministers of India

The prime minister of India is the chief executive of the Government of India and chair of the Union Council of Ministers. Although the president of India is the constitutional, nominal, and ceremonial head of state,   in practice and ordinarily, the executive authority is vested in the prime minister and their chosen Council of Ministers. The prime minister is the leader elected by the party with a majority in the lower house of the Indian parliament, the Lok Sabha, which is the main legislative body in the Republic of India. The prime minister and their cabinet are at all times responsible to the Lok Sabha. The prime minister can be a member of the Lok Sabha or of the Rajya Sabha, the upper house of the parliament. The prime minister ranks third in the order of precedence.

The prime minister is appointed by the president of India; however, the prime minister has to enjoy the confidence of the majority of Lok Sabha members, who are directly elected every five years, unless a prime minister resigns. The prime minister is the presiding member of the Council of Ministers of the Union government. The prime minister unilaterally controls the selection and dismissal of members of the council; and allocation of posts to members within the government. This council, which is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha as per Article 75(3), assists the president regarding the operations under the latter's powers; however, by the virtue of Article 74 of the Constitution, such 'aid and advice' tendered by the council is binding.

Since 1947, India has had 14 prime ministers. Jawaharlal Nehru was India's first prime minister, serving as prime minister of the Dominion of India from 15 August 1947 until 26 January 1950, and thereafter of the Republic of India until his death in May 1964. (India conducted its first post-independence general elections in 1952). Earlier, Nehru had served as prime minister of the Interim Government of India during the British Raj from 2 September 1946 until 14 August 1947, his party, the Indian National Congress having won the 1946 Indian provincial elections. Nehru was succeeded by Lal Bahadur Shastri, whose 1 year 7-month term ended in his death in Tashkent, then in the USSR, where he had signed the Tashkent Declaration between India and Pakistan. Indira Gandhi, Nehru's daughter, succeeded Shastri in 1966 to become the country's first female prime minister. Eleven years later, her party the Indian National Congress lost the 1977 Indian general election to the Janata Party, whose leader Morarji Desai became the first non-Congress prime minister. After Desai resigned in 1979, his former associate Charan Singh briefly held office until the Congress won the 1980 Indian general election and Indira Gandhi returned as prime minister. Her second term as prime minister ended five years later on 31 October 1984, when she was assassinated by her bodyguards. Her son Rajiv Gandhi was sworn in as India's youngest premier. Members of NehruGandhi family have been prime minister for approximately 38 years.

After a general election loss, Rajiv Gandhi's five-year term ended; his former cabinet colleague, Vishwanath Pratap Singh of the Janata Dal, formed the year-long National Front coalition government in 1989. A seven-month interlude under prime minister Chandra Shekhar followed, after which the Congress party returned to power, forming the government under P. V. Narasimha Rao in June 1991, Rajiv Gandhi having been assassinated earlier that year. Rao's five-year term was succeeded by four short-lived governments—Atal Bihari Vajpayee from the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) for 13 days in 1996, a year each under United Front prime ministers H. D. Deve Gowda and Inder Kumar Gujral, and Vajpayee again for 13 months in 1998–1999. In 1999, Vajpayee's National Democratic Alliance (NDA) won the general election, the first non-Congress alliance to do so, and he served a full five-year term as prime minister. The Congress, and its United Progressive Alliance won the general elections in 2004 and 2009, Manmohan Singh serving as prime minister between 2004 and 2014. The BJP won the 2014 Indian general election, and its parliamentary leader Narendra Modi formed the first non-Congress single party majority government. The BJP goes on to win the 2019 Indian general election with a bigger margin than last time, granting a second term for the incumbent Modi government. In 2024 Indian general election, incumbent BJP losses majority but remains the single largest party in the country, and BJP and its National Democratic Alliance forms the government. Modi becomes the prime minister for the third consecutive time, second only to do so after the first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru.

List of prime ministers of India

 * Key
 * No.: Incumbent number
 * Assassinated or died in office
 * Returned to office after a previous non-consecutive term
 * Resigned
 * Resigned following a no-confidence motion

Colour key (for political coalitions/parties):
 * {{legend||Indian National Congress (6)|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}
 * {{legend||Janata Dal (3)|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}
 * {{legend||Bharatiya Janata Party (2)|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}
 * {{legend||Indian National Congress (R) (1)|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}
 * {{legend||Janata Party (1)|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}
 * {{legend||Janata Party (Secular) (1)|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}
 * {{legend||Samajwadi Janata Party (Rashtriya) (1)|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}

List of prime ministers by length of term

 * Timeline

title: List of prime ministers of India


text:
Journal of Mundane Behavior

The Journal of Mundane Behavior was a triannual peer-reviewed academic journal of sociology covering everyday behavior and experiences. It was published online with three issues a year. The journal's first issue came out in February 2000 and the last issue appeared in 2004.

The journal was dedicated to exploring "the minor, redundant and commonplace scenes of life" and celebrating "the majesty of the obvious". The first issue included articles about the behavior of Japanese people on elevators, the arrangement of books on library shelves, and the social implications of facial hair. The journal reflected a recent trend among sociologists to "investigate the largely unconscious verbal and nonverbal conventions of everyday social interactions," in contrast to the field's historical focus on deviant behavior.

The editor-in-chief was Scott Schaffer (Millersville University of Pennsylvania). The original concept for the journal came from Schaffer and founding co-editor Myron Orleans (California State University, Fullerton). They were "inspired in part by an article in the scholarly journal Sociological Theory that called for closer inspection of those parts of life that we routinely ignore." The two universities co-hosted the site.

title: Journal of Mundane Behavior


text:
Dorrian's Red Hand Restaurant

Dorrian's Red Hand, also known simply as Dorrian's, is a famed Irish-American bar located at 1616 Second Avenue at East 84th Street, on the Upper East Side of Manhattan, New York City, New York.

Started by Irish immigrant James "Red Dog" Dorrian in 1960 and operated by his son Jack, the popular hangout became a social pillar for preppy Upper East Side teenagers, college students, and young urban professionals. It is known for its "old time" atmosphere and the chummy and clubby demeanor of its patrons. Today, the bar is still family-owned and managed by Jack Dorrian's son, Jimmy. Dorrian's has expanded to a second location in Jersey City, New Jersey. Dorrian's Red Hand is a common hang out for the players of the New York Yankees.

Dorrian's has served as a filming location for U.S. Marshals, The Deli, and episodes of Gossip Girl, Gallery Girls, and "Fleishman Is In Trouble".

title: Dorrian's Red Hand Restaurant


text: User talk:172.140.68.81

title: User talk:172.140.68.81


text:
List of geological features on Io

This is a list of named geological features on Io, a moon of Jupiter. See also the list of mountains on Io and the list of paterae on Io.

Eruptive Centers
Eruptive centers on Io, locations typically where major volcanic activity was observed and characterized before the volcanic landform was, are named after the gods of volcanoes and/or blacksmiths in various mythologies.

Catenae
On Io, catenae (crater chains, sg. catena) are named after sun gods in various mythologies. In 2006, the use of the term catena was discontinued in favor of the patera (plural paterae ). Below is a list of features that previously used the descriptor term catena.

Fluctūs
Ionian fluctus (areas of lava flow) are named after fire and thunder gods in various mythologies, or after locations in Greek mythology associated with Io.

Mensae
Ionian mensae (mesas, sg. mensa) are named after mythological figures associated with fire or with the nymph Io.

Montes
Ionian montes (mountains and volcanos, sg. mons ) are named after people and places associated with the nymph Io, and sun and fire gods in various other mythologies.

Paterae
Ionian paterae (shallow craters and crater chains) are named after sun gods and fire gods in various mythologies.

Plana
Ionian plana (plateaus, sg. planum ) are named after locations in Greek mythology associated with the nymph Io.

Regiones
Ionian regiones (regions, sg. regio ) are mostly named after locations in Greek mythology associated with the nymph Io.

Tholi
Ionian tholi (hills, sg. tholus ) are named after mythological figures associated with fire or with the nymph Io.

title: List of geological features on Io


text:
User talk:Doogee

Thank you for experimenting with Wikipedia by creating the page Linketh. Your test worked, and has been or will soon be removed. Please use the sandbox for any other tests you want to do. Take a look at the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our encyclopedia. NawlinWiki 15:47, 19 October 2006 (UTC)

Please refrain from creating inappropriate pages such as Matthew "Pedo" Oogs. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. See WP:BIO. NawlinWiki 15:48, 19 October 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Doogee


text:
Talk:Lilin

2004
This article is inconsistent with regard to the article on Lilith which states: "Lilith then went on to mate with Asmodai and various other demons she found beside the Red Sea, creating countless lilin." The current article states that lilin are the offspring of Adam and Lilith. Does anyone have a reference that would clarify this contention? -- Charles S. (talk) 14:06, 20 July 2004

2007
I removed the line claiming that The Alphabet of Ben-Sira says the Lilin were the children of Lilith by Samael. It says no such thing. Lilith's children are mentioned, but their father is not. I also added an "unreferenced" tag; hopefully someone will take care of this. -- Cúchullain t/ c 00:12, 8 March 2007 (UTC)

 * It's not necessarily inconsistent. This is an article about folklore and mythology so naturally variations exist concerning the myth. The problem with this article is that it's currently under developed, doesn't cite any sources, and is completely useless and infactual as such. It's become nothing but a list of pop-culture trivia and should be removed. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.190.34.219 (talk) 23:43, 14 April 2009 (UTC)

TOTAL GARBAGE
This "article" is little more than a product placement list of commercial products. None of the books, comics, video games etc links should be here -- it's all just spam. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 86.141.210.171 (talk) 00:46, 10 June 2008 (UTC)

 * I disagree with the previous comment. It's not product placement, it's references to pop culture which is important, especially if someone is trying to find out what a lilin is in reference to a video game or movie etc. If they find this page and can't find any reference to what they think a lilin is (e.g. a character from an anime or novel) then they might not make the connection with the description given on this page. - Ceigered 16:31, 17 January 2009 (not logged in atm)

Usless Article; the pop culture lists should be removed.
This article is supposedly about mythology/folklore surrounding children of Lilith. Currently, there is less than three sentences about this and instead the article has a list of pop culture references. Wikipedia is not for lists of trivia or fan listings, ESPECIALLY when such sections are longer than the actual articles themselves. Either somebody needs to seriously expand the actual article, or seriously trim the pop-culture listings. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.190.34.219 (talk) 23:41, 14 April 2009 (UTC)

Clean up 2012

 * Removed to Talk. This is all unsourced and duplicated under Lilu (mythology) and Lilith ― In ictu oculi (talk) 07:49, 29 September 2012 (UTC)

They are demonic legendary creatures in Akkadian mythology and shedim in Jewish folklore. ==Etymology== The following is disputed:
 * The masculine of lili is lilu.
 * In Akkadian, Ardat-lili.
 * Cuneiform script inscriptions Līlīt and Līlītu refer to disease-bearing wind spirits.
 * In Sumerian lil means "air"
 * For a complete etymological discussion, see Lilith.

==History==
 * See Lilith

In Talmudic Jewish folklore, Lilith is the name of Adam's first wife, who was created at the same time and from the same earth as Adam. She would not become subservient to Adam, left him, and refused to return to the Garden of Eden after she mated with archangel Samael.

According to legend Lilin are the demonic children of Lilith and Samael. Lilith was warned that unless she returned to the Garden of Eden, one hundred of her children would die daily as her punishment. She refused, and so it is said, that one hundred lilin die daily. In order to avenge their death, Lilith kills human newborn children. Lilin also prey on newborn children, up to eight days after birth for boys, and twenty days for girls. A Hebrew tradition exists in which an amulet is inscribed with the names of three angels (Senoy, Sansenoy, and Semangelof) and placed around the neck of newborn boys in order to protect them from the lilin until their circumcision.

Pregnant women fall under the domain of the lilin, and need to be protected. They can cause barrenness, miscarriages, and complications during childbirth.

If a man's thoughts wander while having relations with his wife, and he thinks of another woman, his unborn child is fair game to the lilin.

That 'lilim' redirects here to 'lilin' may be a conflation....
The two terms have separate entries here (Encyclopedia of Demons in World Religions and Cultures), as respectively ('lilim') the children of Lilith with the demon Sammael ("though some sources say all her female children, even those she had with her first husband Adam, were called the lilim") -- vs ('lilin') "born the daughters of Adam and Lilith."

If any one term is going to be used to refer to all her children, then, better it be 'lilim' than 'lilin', the more limiting term. – •Raven .talk 03:17, 9 August 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Lilin


text: User talk:149.174.164.81

title: User talk:149.174.164.81


text:
Richard Keynes

Richard Darwin Keynes, CBE, FRS (14 August 1919 – 12 June 2010) was a British physiologist. The great-grandson of Charles Darwin, Keynes edited his great-grandfather's accounts and illustrations of Darwin's famous voyage aboard HMS Beagle into The Beagle Record: Selections From the Original Pictorial Records and Written Accounts of the Voyage of the H.M.S. Beagle, which won praise from the New York Review of Books and The New York Times Book Review.

Career
Keynes was the eldest son of Geoffrey Keynes and his wife Margaret Elizabeth (née Darwin), daughter of George Darwin. He was educated at Oundle School before going up to Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1945, he married Anne Pinsent Adrian, daughter of Edgar Adrian and his wife Hester (née Pinsent). They had four sons, Adrian (1946–1974), Randal Keynes (1948-2023), Roger Keynes (b. 1951), and Simon Keynes (born 1952).

During the war, Keynes served as a temporary experimental officer at the Anti-Submarine Establishment and Admiralty Signals Establishment (1940–45), returning to Cambridge after the war to complete his degree (1st Class, Natural Science Tripos Part II, 1946). Keynes remained at Trinity College as a Research Fellow between 1948 and 1952, winning the Gedge Prize in 1948 and the Rolleston Memorial Prize in 1950. His career at Cambridge included: demonstrator in Physiology (1949–53); Lecturer (1953–60); Fellow of Peterhouse (1952–60, and an Honorary Fellow, 1989); Head of the Physiology Department, and first Deputy Director (1960–64), then Director (1965–73); Director of the ARC Institute of Animal Physiology (1965–72); Professor of Physiology (1973–87); Fellow of Churchill College, since 1961.

Outside Cambridge, Keynes's positions included: Secretary-General of the International Union for Pure and Applied Biophysics (1972–78), then Vice-President (1978–81) and President (1981–84); chairman of the International Cell Research Organisation (1981–83) and the ICSU/Unesco International Biosciences Networks (1982–93); President of the European Federation of Physiological Societies (1991); a Vice-President of the Royal Society (1965–68); Croonian Lecturer (1983); Fellow of Eton College (1963–78); foreign member of the Royal Danish Academy (1971), American Philosophical Society (1977), American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1978) and the American Physiological Society (1994).

title: Richard Keynes


text:
User talk:Costyn

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Gordon Bennett Cup in ballooning
I only meant to revert this edit, which added a link to the French wiki but not to any particular article. Evidently the person that added the link realized his mistake just as I was reverting it. I've corrected my error. Rdsmith4— Dan | Talk 15:27, 12 Dec 2004 (UTC)

water rocket
You wrote about a special stabilizer in your article years ago, but I can't get a good picture of what you mean, could you give more explanation about it please? Thanks Ckiki lwai (talk) 00:05, 27 December 2007 (UTC)

Hawley source
Wikipedia talk:WikiProject United States might be helped if you could identify the sources of the photos to verify that copyright is not being violated. I haven't been able to find them on via Google. Thanks,  SBaker43 (talk) 15:00, 9 January 2013 (UTC)

ArbCom elections are now open!
Hi, You appear to be eligible to vote in the current Arbitration Committee election. The Arbitration Committee is the panel of editors responsible for conducting the Wikipedia arbitration process. It has the authority to enact binding solutions for disputes between editors, primarily related to serious behavioural issues that the community has been unable to resolve. This includes the ability to impose site bans, topic bans, editing restrictions, and other measures needed to maintain our editing environment. The arbitration policy describes the Committee's roles and responsibilities in greater detail. If you wish to participate, you are welcome to review the candidates' statements and submit your choices on the voting page. For the Election committee, MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 22:15, 30 November 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Costyn


text:
Anthony Salvin

Anthony Salvin (17 October 1799 – 17 December 1881) was an English architect. He gained a reputation as an expert on medieval buildings and applied this expertise to his new buildings and his restorations. He restored castles and country houses, and built a number of new houses and churches.

Early life and training
Anthony Salvin was born in Sunderland Bridge, County Durham, as the only child of Anthony Salvin, a soldier, and his second wife Elizabeth (Eliza) Mills. He was educated at Durham School and in 1820 became a pupil of John Paterson of Edinburgh while he was working on the restoration of Brancepeth Castle in County Durham.

In 1821 Salvin moved to Finchley in north London. He had an introduction to Sir John Soane but did not enter his office. According to his nephew, he entered the office of John Nash. In 1824 he was elected as a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. Soon after this he went on a sketching tour of Great Britain. On 26 July 1826 he married his cousin, Anne Andrews Nesfield. With her he had six children, two of whom died in infancy.

Early career
Salvin's first major commission was Mamhead House in Devon for Robert William Newman. This was designed in the Tudor style to a symmetrical plan. It was adapted from a plan by Charles Fowler and this placed restrictions on his design. His next design was for Moreby Hall in the East Riding of Yorkshire for Henry Preston where he was free to develop a complete design in the Tudor style, again on a symmetrical plan.

At Scotney Castle in Kent he designed for Edward Hussey an asymmetrical design in the Tudor style. In 1831 Salvin embarked on what is considered to be his most important early domestic work at Harlaxton Manor in Lincolnshire for Gregory Gregory. Salvin's design combined elements from Montacute House in Somerset and Hengrave Hall in Suffolk. However, before the building was complete, Salvin was replaced as architect by William Burn. In 1835 Salvin spent five weeks in Germany.

In 1836 Salvin entered a design in Tudor style in the competition for the new Palace of Westminster which had possibly been inspired by his visit to Germany. However this was unsuccessful, as was his entry for the competition to design the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford. He won the competition for the design of the Carlton Club in Pall Mall, London, but the club decided not to proceed with his plan. After losing a further competition, this time to design the Army and Navy Club, Salvin did not enter any more competitions.

Mature career
Most of Salvin's designs for major houses continued to be in the Tudor style. These include Keele Hall in Staffordshire for Ralph Sneyd (1793–1870), and Thoresby Hall in Nottinghamshire for Sydney Pierrepont, 3rd Earl Manvers. There were exceptions, including Penoyre House in Brecon, an Italianate villa-style house for Colonel John Lloyd Vaughan Watkins and Oxon Hoath in West Peckham, Kent in the French Châteauesque style for Sir William Geary.

A major part of Salvin's work was to restore, refit and create castles. In 1835 he refaced Norwich Castle, in 1844 he repaired the ruins of Newark Castle and in 1845 he repaired the ruins of Carisbrooke Castle on the Isle of Wight. In the early 1840s the Queen's Gate of Caernarvon Castle collapsed, and in 1844 Salvin repaired it and rebuilt some of the other masonry of the castle. He also restored Naworth Castle in Cumbria after it was damaged by a fire on 18May 1844.

In 1851 he surveyed the Beauchamp Tower of the Tower of London and subsequently restored the Salt, Wakefield and White Towers and the Chapel of St Peter ad Vincula. Following this he was instructed by Prince Albert to carry out work on Windsor Castle. This included replacing sash windows with lancets and mullioned windows and rebuilding the Clewer Tower. Salvin designed Peckforton Castle in Cheshire for John Tollemache, 1st Baron Tollemache as a recreation of a castle of the time of Edward I. In 1852 he started work on the restoration of Alnwick Castle in Northumberland. This included replacing one of the towers with a larger tower, the Prudhoe Tower, creating a porte-cochère, replacing windows and replanning the interior.

Salvin also restored and repaired 20 old churches and three cathedrals, and built 34 new churches. In the early 1840s he had worked on The Holy Sepulchre, Cambridge, employing James Rattee, and following this he was made an honorary member of the Cambridge Camden Society. He arranged for the removal of buildings around the south transept of Norwich Cathedral and reordered its choir. He also made alterations to Durham and Wells Cathedrals. In all he designed at least 34 new churches. Salvin's restorations were not to the liking of the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings, particularly his removal of "unwanted fabric" from churches. Other work carried out by Salvin included rebuilding the keep of Durham Castle for student accommodation, and work on restoring Trinity College, Cambridge.

Later life
In 1857, while working on Warwick Castle, Salvin suffered a stroke but recovered from it. In 1860, his wife died and he designed a new house for himself, Hawksfold at Fernhurst, Sussex. In 1863 he was awarded the royal gold medal of the Royal Institute of British Architects and in 1879 he retired from formal practice. He died at Hawksfold in 1881 and was buried at Fernhurst. His estate was valued at over £78,000 (£0 in 2022).

title: Anthony Salvin


text: User talk:149.174.164.20

title: User talk:149.174.164.20


text:
Zamzam

The Zamzam Well is a well in the Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, Saudi Arabia.

Zamzam or Zam Zam may also refer to:

 * Zamzam (given name)
 * Zamzam (soft drink), a soft drink produced in Iran
 * Zamzam (party), a Jordanian political party
 * SS Zamzam, an Egyptian ship sunk by a German auxiliary cruiser in April 1941
 * Zam Zam (film), a 2021 Indian Malayalam-language film
 * Zichron Menachem (ZAMZAM), an Israeli association for the support of children with cancer and their families
 * Zamzam, Libya, a settlement in Sirte

title: Zamzam


text:
User talk:Mariuz

Hello and welcome to Wikipedia! Hope you like it here, and stick around.

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Good luck!

IPL/IDPL proposed deletion
I flagged Initial Developer's Public License and InterBase Public License for proposed deletion because it falls into several categories of what what Wikipedia is not. If you feel the need to store these files on a wiki server instead of just referencing them as external links, might I suggest Wikimedia Commons? Alternately, you could delete the license text and write an article about the meaning of the licenses, in the vein of Mozilla Public License. That said, I don't think either license is notable enough to justify an article to itself, so I would suggest that a transwiki to Commons is the best solution if you don't want to use an external link for some reason. Note that Firebird (database server) and InterBase are notable software so you also have the option of merging discussion of their licenses into those articles.

Thanks for your contributions to Wikipedia! --Craig Stuntz 14:46, 22 February 2006 (UTC)

~What is left now is empty pages ? how is that useful ? —The preceding unsigned comment was added by Mariuz (talk • contribs).

 * No, nothing is left now; it's as if they were never created. The "articles" have been deleted because they don't belong in an encyclopedia. Ask yourself: If you pulled a printed encyclopedia off the shelf and encountered the legal text of the IPL, would that make sense, or would it seem out of place? Wikipedia is no different; we are writing an encyclopedia here, not an indiscriminate collection of information. The correct place for such materials is WikiSource (not Commons as I incorrectly suggested earlier). If what I write doesn't make sense to you then please read the article on What Wikipedia is Not.

 * Again, thanks for your contributions, and happy editing! --Craig Stuntz 14:42, 4 May 2006 (UTC)

ArbCom elections are now open!
MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 08:52, 23 November 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Mariuz


text:
User:Invalid username 87496~enwiki

Nicholas Lativy (nrl)

I am an undergraduate at the University of Glasgow reading Computing science and Mathematics. I have been a Wikipedia user for some time but only recently decided to create an account and maybe even make some contributions when I feel I am able. I also have a personal homepage which contains a few Debian related tutorials. If you wish to reach me by email my address is nlativy at ntlworld dot com and my GnuPG public key can be found on the aforementioned web page for those who value their privacy.

title: User:Invalid username 87496~enwiki


text:
Operational risk

Operational risk is the risk of losses caused by flawed or failed processes, policies, systems or events that disrupt business operations. Employee errors, criminal activity such as fraud, and physical events are among the factors that can trigger operational risk. The process to manage operational risk is known as operational risk management. The definition of operational risk, adopted by the European  Solvency II Directive for insurers, is a variation adopted from the Basel II regulations for banks: "The risk of a change in value caused by the fact that actual losses, incurred for inadequate or failed internal processes, people and systems, or from external events (including legal risk), differ from the expected losses". The scope of operational risk is then broad, and can also include other classes of risks, such as fraud, security, privacy protection, legal risks, physical (e.g. infrastructure shutdown) or environmental risks. Operational risks similarly may impact broadly, in that they can affect client satisfaction, reputation and shareholder value, all while increasing business volatility.

Previously, in Basel I, operational risk was negatively defined: namely that operational risk are all risks which are not market risk and not credit risk. Some banks have therefore also used the term operational risk synonymously with non-financial risks. In October 2014, the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision proposed a revision to its operational risk capital framework that sets out a new standardized approach to replace the basic indicator approach and the standardized approach for calculating operational risk capital.

Contrary to other risks (e.g. credit risk, market risk, insurance risk) operational risks are usually not willingly incurred nor are they revenue driven. Moreover, they are not diversifiable and cannot be laid off. This means that as long as people, systems, and processes remain imperfect, operational risk cannot be fully eliminated. Operational risk is, nonetheless, manageable as to keep losses within some level of risk tolerance (i.e. the amount of risk one is prepared to accept in pursuit of his objectives), determined by balancing the costs of improvement against the expected benefits. Wider trends such as globalization, the expansion of the internet and the rise of social media, as well as the increasing demands for greater corporate accountability worldwide, reinforce the need for proper risk management.

Thus operational risk management (ORM) is a specialized discipline within risk management. It constitutes the continuous-process of risk assessment, decision making, and implementation of risk controls, resulting in the acceptance, mitigation, or avoidance of the various operational risks. ORM somewhat overlaps quality management and the internal audit function.

Background
Until Basel II reforms to banking supervision, operational risk was a residual category reserved for risks and uncertainties which were difficult to quantify and manage in traditional ways – the "other risks" basket.

Such regulations institutionalized operational risk as a category of regulatory and managerial attention and connected operational risk management with good corporate governance.

Businesses in general, and other institutions such as the military, have been aware, for many years, of hazards arising from operational factors, internal or external. The primary goal of the military is to fight and win wars in quick and decisive fashion, and with minimal losses. For the military and the businesses of the world alike, operational risk management is an effective process for preserving resources by anticipation.

Two decades (from 1980 to the early 2000s) of globalization and deregulation (e.g. Big Bang (financial markets)), combined with the increased sophistication of financial services around the world, introduced additional complexities into the activities of banks, insurers, and firms in general and therefore their risk profiles.

Since the mid-1990s, the topics of market risk and credit risk have been the subject of much debate and research, with the result that financial institutions have made significant progress in the identification, measurement, and management of both these forms of risk.

However, the near collapse of the U.S. financial system in September 2008 is an indication that our ability to measure market and credit risk is far from perfect and eventually led to the introduction of new regulatory requirements worldwide, including Basel III regulations for banks and Solvency II regulations for insurers.

Events such as the September 11 terrorist attacks, rogue trading losses at Société Générale, Barings, AIB, UBS, and National Australia Bank serve to highlight the fact that the scope of risk management extends beyond merely market and credit risk.

These reasons underscore banks' and supervisors' growing focus upon the identification and measurement of operational risk.

The list of risks (and, more importantly, the scale of these risks) faced by banks today includes fraud, system failures, terrorism, and employee compensation claims. These types of risk are generally classified under the term 'operational risk'.

The identification and measurement of operational risk is a real and live issue for modern-day banks, particularly since the decision by the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision (BCBS) to introduce a capital charge for this risk as part of the new capital adequacy framework (Basel II).

Definition
The Basel Committee defines operational risk in Basel II and Basel III as:

The Basel Committee recognizes that operational risk is a term that has a variety of meanings and therefore, for internal purposes, banks are permitted to adopt their own definitions of operational risk, provided that the minimum elements in the Committee's definition are included.

Scope exclusions
The Basel II definition of operational risk excludes, for example, strategic risk – the risk of a loss arising from a poor strategic business decision.

Other risk terms are seen as potential consequences of operational risk events. For example, reputational risk (damage to an organization through loss of its reputation or standing) can arise as a consequence (or impact) of operational failures – as well as from other events.

Basel II seven event type categoriees
The following lists the seven official Basel II event types with some examples for each category:

 * 1) Internal Fraud – misappropriation of assets, tax evasion, intentional mismarking of positions, bribery
 * 2) External Fraud – theft of information, hacking damage, third-party theft and forgery
 * 3) Employment Practices and Workplace Safety – discrimination, workers compensation, employee health and safety
 * 4) Clients, Products, and Business Practice – market manipulation, antitrust, improper trade, product defects, fiduciary breaches, account churning
 * 5) Damage to Physical Assets – natural disasters, terrorism, vandalism
 * 6) Business Disruption and Systems Failures –  utility disruptions, software failures, hardware failures
 * 7) Execution, Delivery, and Process Management – data entry errors, accounting errors, failed mandatory reporting, negligent loss of client assets

Difficulties
It is relatively straightforward for an organization to set and observe specific, measurable levels of market risk and credit risk because models exist which attempt to predict the potential impact of market movements, or changes in the cost of credit. These models are only as good as the underlying assumptions, and a large part of the recent financial crisis arose because the valuations generated by these models for particular types of investments were based on incorrect assumptions.

By contrast, it is relatively difficult to identify or assess levels of operational risk and its many sources. Historically organizations have accepted operational risk as an unavoidable cost of doing business. Many now though collect data on operational losses – for example through system failure or fraud – and are using this data to model operational risk and to calculate a capital reserve against future operational losses. In addition to the Basel II requirement for banks, this is now a requirement for European insurance firms who are in the process of implementing Solvency II, the equivalent of Basel II for the insurance sector.

Methods for calculating operational risk capital
Basel II and various supervisory bodies of the countries have prescribed various soundness standards for operational risk management for banks and similar financial institutions. To complement these standards, Basel II has given guidance to 3 broad methods of capital calculation for operational risk:

 * Basic Indicator Approach – based on annual revenue of the Financial Institution
 * Standardized Approach – based on annual revenue of each of the broad business lines of the Financial Institution
 * Advanced Measurement Approaches – based on the internally developed risk measurement framework of the bank adhering to the standards prescribed (methods include IMA, LDA, Scenario-based, Scorecard etc.)

The operational risk management framework should include identification, measurement, monitoring, reporting, control and mitigation frameworks for operational risk.

There are a number of methodologies to choose from when modeling operational risk, each with its advantages and target applications. The ultimate choice of the methodology/methodologies to use in your institution depends on a number of factors, including:

 * Time sensitivity for analysis;
 * Resources desired and/or available for the task;
 * Approaches used for other risk measures;
 * Expected use of results (e.g., allocating capital to business units, prioritizing control improvement projects, satisfying regulators that your institution is measuring risk, providing an incentive for better management of operational risk, etc.);
 * Senior management understanding and commitment; and
 * Existing complementary processes, such as self-assessment

Standardised Measurement Approach (Basel III)
The Basel Committee on Banking Supervision (BCBS) has proposed the "Standardised Measurement Approach" (SMA) as a method of assessing operational risk as a replacement for all existing approaches, including AMA. The objective is to provide stable, comparable and risk-sensitive estimates for the operational risk exposure and is effective January 1, 2022. The SMA puts weight on the internal loss history (losses of the last 10 years must be considered). It is possible to consider net losses (after recoveries and insurance).

The marginal coefficient (α) increases with the size of the BI as shown in the table below. The ILM is defined as:

$ ILM = \ln(\exp(1)-1 + (LC/BIC)^{0.8})$

where the Loss Component (LC) is equal to 15 times average annual operational risk losses incurred over the previous 10 years.

title: Operational risk


text:
User:Krik~enwiki/sandbox

Note:These are only tests.

title: User:Krik~enwiki/sandbox


text:
List of mountain ranges of Nevada

These are the named mountain ranges in Nevada. Some of them are quite small but still constitute distinct biomes.

A - D

 * Anchorite Hills
 * Antelope Range (Nye County)
 * Antelope Range (Pershing County)
 * Antelope Range (White Pine County)
 * Ararat Hills
 * Arrow Canyon Range
 * Augusta Mountains
 * Badger Mountains
 * Bare Mountain (Nevada)
 * Barnett Hills
 * Battle Mountains
 * Belted Range
 * Bilk Creek Mountains
 * Bird Spring Range
 * Black Canyon Range
 * Black Mountains (Nevada)
 * Black Rock Range
 * Bloody Run Hills
 * Blow Sand Mountains
 * Blue Wing Mountains
 * Bodie Mountains
 * Bone Mountains
 * Bristol Range
 * Broken Hills
 * Bruneau Range
 * Buck Creek Mountains
 * Buckskin Range
 * Buffalo Hills
 * Bullfrog Hills
 * Bull Run Mountains (Nevada)
 * Bunejug Mountains
 * Buried Hills
 * Burnt Springs Range
 * Butte Mountains

 * Cactus Range
 * Calico Hills
 * Cambridge Hills
 * Candelaria Hills
 * Carson Range
 * Castle Mountains
 * Cedar Mountains (Nevada)
 * Cedar Range
 * Cherry Creek Range
 * Chief Range
 * Clan Alpine Mountains
 * Clover Mountains
 * Cocoon Mountains
 * Copper Mountains
 * Cortez Mountains
 * Cucomungo Mountains
 * Cuprite Hills
 * Curnow Range
 * Dead Camel Mountains
 * Deep Creek Range
 * Delamar Mountains
 * Delano Mountains
 * Desatoya Mountains
 * Desert Creek Mountains
 * Desert Hills (Nevada)
 * Desert Mountains
 * Desert Range
 * Devils Hole Hills
 * Diabase Hills
 * Diamond Mountains
 * Division Range
 * Dixie Hills
 * Dolly Varden Mountains
 * Double H Mountains
 * Dry Hills
 * Dry Lake Range
 * Duck Creek Range

E - H

 * East Desert Range
 * East Gate Range
 * East Humboldt Range
 * East Mormon Mountains
 * East Pahranagat Range
 * East Range
 * Egan Range
 * Elbow Range
 * Eldorado Mountains
 * Eleana Range
 * Elk Mountains (Nevada)
 * Elko Hills
 * Ely Springs Range
 * Eugene Mountains
 * Excelsior Mountains
 * Fairview Range (Lincoln County)
 * Fairview Range (Churchill County)
 * Fernley Hills
 * Fish Creek Mountains
 * Fish Creek Range
 * Flowery Range
 * Fortification Range
 * Fort Sage Mountains
 * Fox Creek Range
 * Fox Range
 * Frenchman Range
 * French Mountains
 * Gabbs Valley Range
 * Gap Mountains
 * Garfield Hills
 * General Thomas Hills

 * Gillis Range
 * Golden Gate Range
 * Goldfield Hills
 * Gold Mountain Range
 * Goose Creek Mountains
 * Goshute Mountains
 * Granite Range (Elko County)
 * Granite Range (Washoe County)
 * Grant Range
 * Grapevine Mountains
 * Gray Hills
 * Groom Range
 * Halfpint Range
 * Hannan Range
 * Hays Canyon Range
 * H D Range
 * Highland Range (Clark County)
 * Highland Range (Lincoln County)
 * High Rock Canyon Hills
 * Hiko Range
 * Hiller Mountains
 * Hog Ranch Mountains
 * Home Camp Range
 * Horse Range
 * Hot Creek Range
 * Hot Springs Mountains
 * Hot Springs Range
 * Humboldt Range
 * Hungry Range
 * Huntoon Mountains

I - M

 * Ichabod Range
 * Idaho Canyon Range
 * Independence Mountains
 * Jackson Mountains
 * Jarbidge Mountains
 * Johnnie Range
 * Jumbled Hills
 * Junction House Range
 * Kamma Mountains
 * Kawich Range
 * Kern Mountains
 * Kinsley Mountains
 * Lahontan Mountains
 * Lake Range
 * Last Chance Range (Nevada)
 * Las Vegas Range
 * Leach Range
 * Leppy Hills
 * Limestone Hills
 * Little High Rock Mountains
 * Lodi Hills
 * Lost Creek Hills
 * Louderback Mountains
 * Lucy Gray Mountains

 * Mahogany Hills
 * Mahogany Mountains
 * Majuba Mountains
 * Mallard Hills
 * Martin Creek Mountains
 * Marys River Range
 * Massacre Range
 * Maverick Springs Range
 * McCullough Mountains
 * Meadow Valley Mountains
 * Medicine Range
 * Monitor Hills
 * Monitor Range
 * Montana Mountains
 * Monte Cristo Mountains
 * Monte Cristo Range (Nevada)
 * Montezuma Range
 * Mormon Mountains
 * Mosquito Mountain
 * Mount Irish Range
 * Mountain Boy Range
 * Muddy Mountains

N - S

 * Needle Mountains (Nevada-Utah)
 * Needle Range
 * Newberry Mountains
 * New Pass Range
 * New York Mountains
 * Nightingale Mountains
 * North Muddy Mountains
 * North Pahroc Range
 * Osgood Mountains
 * Pah Rah Range
 * Pahranagat Range
 * Painted Point Range
 * Palmetto Mountains
 * Pancake Range
 * Papoose Range
 * Paradise Range
 * Park Range
 * Paymaster Ridge
 * Peavine Mountain
 * Peko Hills
 * Pequop Mountains
 * Petersen Mountain
 * Pilot Mountains
 * Pilot Range
 * Pine Forest Range
 * Pine Grove Hills
 * Pine Nut Mountains
 * Pinon Range
 * Pinto Peak Range
 * Pintwater Range
 * Pioche Hills
 * Piute Range
 * Poker Brown Mountains
 * Quinn Canyon Range
 * Rainey Mountains
 * Ranger Mountains
 * Rawhide Hills
 * Resting Spring Range
 * Reveille Range
 * River Mountains
 * Roberts Mountains
 * Royston Hills
 * Ruby Mountains

 * Sahwave Mountains
 * Salmon River Range
 * San Antonio Mountains
 * Sand Hills (Nevada)
 * Sand Range
 * Sand Springs Range
 * Santa Renia Mountains
 * Santa Rosa Range
 * Schell Creek Range
 * Seaman Range
 * Selenite Range
 * Sentinel Hills
 * Seven Troughs Range
 * Sheep Creek Range
 * Sheep Range
 * Sheephead Mountains
 * Shoshone Mountain
 * Shoshone Mountains
 * Shoshone Range
 * Silver Peak Range
 * Simpson Park Mountains
 * Singatse Range
 * Sinkavata Hills
 * Skull Mountain
 * Slate Ridge
 * Slumbering Hills
 * Smoke Creek Mountains
 * Snake Mountains
 * Snake Range
 * Snowstorm Mountains
 * Sonoma Range
 * South Pahroc Range
 * South Virgin Mountains
 * Specter Range
 * Spotted Range
 * Spring Mountains
 * Spruce Mountain
 * Stillwater Range
 * Sulphur Spring Range
 * Sweetwater Mountains
 * Sylvania Mountains

T - Z

 * Terraced Hills
 * Terril Mountains
 * Tikaboo Range
 * Timpahute Range
 * Toana John Mountains
 * Toano Range
 * Tobin Range
 * Toiyabe Range
 * Toquima Range
 * Trinity Range
 * Truckee Range
 * Tule Springs Hills
 * Tuscarora Mountains
 * Virginia Mountains
 * Virginia Range
 * Virgin Mountains
 * Volcanic Hills (Nevada)

 * Wassuk Range
 * Weepah Hills
 * Wellington Hills
 * West Gate Range
 * West Humboldt Range
 * West Range
 * Whistler Range
 * White Mountains (California)
 * White Pine Range
 * White River Range
 * White Rock Mountains
 * White Throne Mountains
 * Wild Horse Range
 * Wilson Creek Range
 * Windermere Hills
 * Wood Hills
 * Worthington Mountains
 * Yellow Hills
 * Yucca Mountain

title: List of mountain ranges of Nevada