text:
Talk:Tower Subway

Tower Bridge 'almost directly above'?
Tower Bridge is actually about 400m downstream (East) of the Subway. Is this really "directly above"? It's nearly half the distance between Tower Bridge and London Bridge.

 * You're absolutely right. I've changed this. -- ChrisO 21:54, 2 June 2006 (UTC)

How can the Tower Subway be the oldest underground railway line, when the London Underground began operations in 1863?

 * The key word is "tube". Earlier London underground lines were constructed using cut-and-cover methods, not tunnelling shields, etc. Paul W 12:15, 3 August 2006 (UTC)

My great great grandfather was the chief engineer who designed it as the contractor to Mr Barlow. As far as I'm aware, it was for this project that he invented his first tunneling shield that went on to become the very first tunnel boring machine (TBM) design in history that got built. While Barlow had a pending patent in 1864,it was not approved before his death whereas Jim Greathead's patent was approved and designed independently of Barlow's. This came to light in my research through the help of the librarian at the Institution of Civil Engineers in London, 2018. Prior to the Tower Subway, there were no cylindrical tunnels under the Thames which is probably why it is the oldest. Ashattock (talk) 00:03, 3 August 2020 (UTC)

Problem (?) in Lede
I am having difficulty with the following phrase:
 * "...since it operated over a very short distance using a single car moved by a stationary engine, it may be more accurate to call it a horizontal lift."

Since, by definition, a lift moves in a vertical plane, could this be construed as OR? Could we not call it, with almost equal validity, an "underwater ferry", since it provided a ferry(ing) service across a body of water?

Maybe it is the use of "more accurate" that rankles. I don't know. Something doesn't sound right.

EdJogg (talk) 16:25, 12 June 2009 (UTC)

 * Who cares? It's gone now! -- EdJogg (talk) 12:38, 17 June 2009 (UTC)

picture of shield
A picture of the Barlow-Greathead shield used would be great. Rod57 (talk) 12:32, 16 March 2010 (UTC)

Italian description
The description by Edmondo De Amicis seems to contain some poetic licence. He says that the tunnel 'undulates like a great intestine', whereas the illustration shows it dead straight, and that the floor 'moves under your feet like the deck of a vessel'. Why would it move, being bored through stable clay?

He also mentions that 'the walls sweat like those of an aqueduct', so presumably the water had to be pumped out, but there is no mention of this in the article. PhilUK (talk) 14:06, 2 August 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Tower Subway


text:
Slava Raškaj

Slava Raškaj (2 January 1877 – 29 March 1906) was a Croatian painter, considered to be the greatest Croatian watercolorist of the late 19th and early 20th century. Deaf since birth, Raškaj was schooled in Vienna and Zagreb, where her mentor was the renowned Croatian painter Bela Čikoš Sesija. In the 1890s her works were exhibited around Europe, including at the 1900 Expo in Paris. In her twenties Raškaj was diagnosed with acute depression and was institutionalised for the last three years of her life before dying in 1906 from tuberculosis in Zagreb. The value of her work was largely overlooked by art historians in the following decades, but in the late 1990s and early 2000s interest in her work was revived.

Biography
Slava was born as Friderika Slavomira Olga Raškaj on 2 January 1877 into a middle class family (her mother Olga ran the local post office which was at the time a prestigious administrative position) in the town of Ozalj in present-day Croatia (at the time in the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia, a subdivision within Austria-Hungary). Olga liked painting in her free time and she passed her love for arts very early on to both her daughters Slava and Paula (Paula later worked as a schoolteacher in Orahovica and also continued to paint casually in adulthood).

When she was eight, Salva was sent to Vienna to enroll at a school for deaf people where she first learned to draw. Her drawings from that period mainly depict casts of classical sculptures drawn in pencil or ink (two of these drawings survived and are kept on display at the Croatian School Museum at Republic of Croatia Square in Zagreb). During her time in Vienna she also learned German and French and in later years moved on to watercolor and gouache techniques before returning to Ozalj in 1893.

Upon her return, the local schoolteacher Ivan Muha-Otoić noticed her artistic talent and urged her parents to send her to Zagreb for further art instructions at the renowned painter Vlaho Bukovac's atelier in 1895 (as Bukovac was a friend of Muha-Otoić). Once in Zagreb, Bukovac refused to help her but then Bela Čikoš Sesija took her in and began instructing her in his own studio in 1896. She spent the next few years working with Sesija - she lived at what was then the State Institute for Deaf-mute Children (Zemaljski zavod za odgoj gluhonijeme djece) on Ilica Street, and she used a local morgue as her studio (in the meantime her former teacher from Ozalj Ivan Muha-Otoić became director of the Institute in 1895).

Raškaj's repertoire was peculiar at the time - she painted somewhat macabre paintings of still life, watercolors with unusual objects such as a starfish, a silver jewelry chest, and even more interesting, pairs of objects such as a red rose and an owl, or a lobster and a fan.

In the late 1890s she started painting en plein air, depicting outdoor scenes from the Zagreb Botanical Garden, Maksimir Park and other parks in the city, featuring somewhat lighter tones and colors. In 1899 she returned to her hometown of Ozalj and continued to paint outdoors, which was also unusual at the time. Her most valuable paintings were all created in the 1890s, including works such as Self-portrait, Spring in Ozalj, The Old Mill and others. Her works were first publicly exhibited at the Art Pavilion in Zagreb soon after it opened in 1898, where six of her watercolors were presented along with the works of renowned painters such as Menci Klement Crnčić and Vlaho Bukovac. Her paintings were also exhibited in Saint Petersburg, in Moscow and at the Exposition Universelle in Paris in 1900, where five of her paintings were shown.

In 1900 first symptoms of depression began to appear. She was hospitalised but soon after that she was released for home care. However, her condition deteriorated further and Slava was eventually institutionalised at a psychiatric hospital in Stenjevec in 1902. She completely stopped painting in her last years, and died on 29 March 1906 from tuberculosis.

Legacy
The first exhibition dedicated to her work took place in 1957 in Zagreb. Her impressionist watercolors painted after 1900 are considered among the best of Croatian art.

A Croatian film about her controversial relationship with Sesija titled 100 Minutes of Glory directed by Dalibor Matanić was released in 2004, and a grand retrospective exhibition featuring 185 of her works opened at the Klovićevi Dvori Gallery in Zagreb between May and August 2008.

In December 2000 the Croatian National Bank issued a silver commemorative coin depicting Slava Raškaj, in their Famous Croatian Women series (Znamenite Hrvatice), along with children's writer Ivana Brlić-Mažuranić and the 17th-century noblewoman Katarina Zrinska.

The Slava Raškaj Educational Centre, in Zagreb, specializes in inclusive practical and vocational education for deaf students and those with communication impairments.

Selected works

 * “Stablo u snijegu” (Tree in the snow)
 * “Rano proljeće” (Early spring)
 * “Proljeće u Ozlju” (Spring in Ozalj)
 * “Zimski pejsaž” (Winter landscape)
 * “Lopoči” (Water lilies)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Slava Raškaj


text:
Sunraysia Television

Sunraysia Television was a publicly listed company which owned Channel Nine Perth's parent company Swan Television and Radio Broadcasters from 1989 to 2007. Although listed on the ASX, Sunraysia had been majority owned by Eva Presser's Sabtel (between 44 and 50 per cent) with WIN Corporation owning another 43.65% of the company.

History
Sunraysia Television has its origins in the area around Mildura, known as Sunraysia. It operated a single television licence, STV-8. In 1985, the station was purchased by Eva Presser.

In 1989, Sunraysia acquired Channel Nine Perth from Bond Media who were forced to sell it due to cross-media ownership laws restricting national audience reach. They paid A$95 million for the station. As part of the deal, it also sold STV-8 to Bond Media for $18 million, which was then onsold to ENT Ltd. for the same price.

In 1994, following a failed takeover bid for Sunraysia, Kerry Stokes sold his 21.2 per cent stake to Bruce Gordon's WIN Corporation which already held 19.9 per cent. Mrs Presser was quoted as calling the Stokes bid "uninvited, unnecessary, unwanted, unspectacular" and that her rejection wof the bid was "unequivocal".

Selling of Nine Perth
In February 2007, PBL Media announced that it would acquire 100% of Swan Television and Radio Broadcasters from Sunraysia for $136.4 million. However, after protest from WIN Corporation owner Bruce Gordon, who was offering Sunraysia a revised $163.1 million, it was announced months later on 21 April that the board of Sunraysia would now endorse WIN's revised offer. The sale went through on 8 June 2007.

Sunraysia & the Pressers
Eva's husband Dan is executive chairman of family company, Sabrands. Sabrands runs the Sunraysia Natural Beverages company, which similarly has no ties to the Sunraysia region, and since 2013 has owned the iconic Rosella business. The Pressers use Sunraysia as their personal brand name, which some may see as ironic given the name was also used in a 1920s dried fruit advertising campaign, for the Australian Dried Fruits Association - an entity with no connection to the Pressers.

title: Sunraysia Television


text:
Penny Arcade (performer)

Penny Arcade (born Susana Carmen Ventura, July 15, 1950) is an American performance artist, actress, and playwright based in New York City. She is known for her comedic wit, forthright delivery, and stage presence. Her performances explore topics such as gentrification, humanity, womanhood, LGBT culture, nostalgia, family history, and the life of the outsider. Additionally, Penny Arcade is known for her association with underground arts and culture.

Early years
Susana Ventura was born in New Britain, Connecticut, and grew up in a working class Italian immigrant family. Her father fell ill from a severe beating he endured at Ellis Island in 1946 and in 1953 he was committed to Connecticut Valley Hospital in Middletown, Connecticut, where he died 12 years later of a heart attack at age 50. Arcade and her three siblings were raised by Arcade's mother, who worked as a seamstress in local sweatshops. The family was presided over by her maternal grandparents, both born in the 19th century in a remote Southern Italian village of Picerno, Basilicata.

As a child, Arcade did not plan to become a performance artist. In her working-class Italian-American family, there "just wasn't a format for that," she explained.

Of her early social experiences, Arcade described, "I was perceived to be this girl that everyone had slept with when I was 12 -- no one anyone knew, but they had heard." At age 13, she ran away from home and spent 4 weeks homeless in Old Saybrook, Connecticut. During this time, she was brought to juvenile court and sentenced to two years at the Sacred Heart Academy for Wayward Girls, a reform school run by the semi-cloistered Sisters Of The Good Shepherd. It was there that Arcade wrote her first play at age 14. At age 16, Arcade left home and spent the summer of 1967 homeless in Provincetown, Massachusetts, before ultimately moving to New York City.

Early career
Arcade adopted the name "Penny Arcade" after an LSD trip with her mentor Jamie Andrews, who took her into his home when she moved to New York. It was Andrews who introduced Arcade to John Vacarro.

Ventura's association with avant-garde performance began at age 17, when she became a member of John Vaccaro's Playhouse of the Ridiculous. In 1968, she appeared in painter Larry Rivers film T.I.T.S. In 1969, she starred in the Jackie Curtis play Femme Fatale at La MaMa Etc. with Curtis, Mary Woronov, Jayne County and Patti Smith, followed by a small role in the Paul Morrissey / Andy Warhol film, Women in Revolt. In 1970, Arcade was featured in her first interview in Rags Magazine, an alternative fashion magazine.

Time in Europe
At age 20, Arcade left New York for Europe, where she lived for a decade. In 1971, Arcade turned down a role in the London production of Andy Warhol's play Pork, choosing instead to join Vaccaro and The Playhouse of the Ridiculous in Amsterdam. After eight months in Amsterdam, she moved to the island of Formentera in Spain's Balearic Islands. She has described her time in Europe as fodder for a "...great and scandalous memoir...drinking with sailors as a bargirl, starting a school for the children of drug smugglers, befriending and being befriended by Robert Graves at the end of his life... well, it goes on."

Return to New York
Arcade returned to New York City in 1981 to appear in The Playhouse of The Ridiculous's remounting of their 1970 hit Night Club by Kenneth Bernard for LaMama's 20th anniversary at Ellen Stewart's request. She worked with underground theatre artists, including Jack Smith, Charles Ludlam, and the founder of The Cockettes and Angels of Light, Hibiscus. In the spring of 1982 she improvised her first performance piece in Hibiscus’s show Tinsel Town Tirade at Theater for The New City, receiving her first writer's credit.

In February 1985, Arcade presented her first full-length evening of original improvised work, While You Were Out, at the Poetry Project, and then presented it at Performance Space 122 in June later that same year. While You Were Out then moved to University of The Streets in November 1985 and continued to run for an additional four months.

Penny Arcade was featured in 1988 Vogue Magazine's "People Are Talking About" issue, the first mention of performance art in a national fashion magazine. In the late 1980s, she created a character named Margo Howard-Howard, a 50-year-old drag queen with a scandalous past, for her performances. The New York Times refers to the character as "patently unbelievable", but in a later article acknowledges that her monologue was "based on real Lower East Side residents." Howard-Howard received an obituary in The Village Voice.

Premiering in 1990 at Performance Space 122, and running off broadway at The Village Gate 1992-1993 Arcade began touring internationally in 1993 with her most presented show, Bitch! Dyke! Faghag! Whore!, an opinionated commentary on sexuality and censorship that features a chorus of professional erotic dancers and strippers which created the international neo performance burlesque movement In 1998 she performed at the first Gay Shame event at DUMBA in Brooklyn; she appears in the documentary film of the event by Scott Berry, entitled Gay Shame '98. She co-starred with Quentin Crisp in the long-running performance/interview piece, The Last Will and Testament of Quentin Crisp

Arcade's 2002 performance New York Values, which also toured abroad, addressed the loss of cultural identity in New York during the Giuliani years. The Village Gate marquee in New York is still adorned with her name and the title of her performance piece Politics, Sex & Reality, although the nightclub no longer exists.

Arcade is a co-founder of the Lower East Side Biography Project, "Stemming The Tide Of Cultural Amnesia, wth long time collaborator Steve Zehentner, a video production and oral history that began as a workshop that trains participants in documentary filmmaking and preserves the stories of Lower Manhattan artists and activists. profiled individuals have included Judith Malina,  Lee Breuer, Tom O'Horgan, Sarah Schulman, Betty Dodson, Quentin Crisp, ], Jayne County,Danny Fields  and Marty Matz, among others.

In 2002 Arcade ran for the New York State Assembly as a candidate of the Green Party. She received 1,054 votes out of 32,976 in the 74th Assembly district, losing to incumbent and anti-rent control advocate Steven Sanders.

In January 2011 Arcade had an on-stage spat with performance artist Ann Liv Young while she was hosting an evening of performances and Young refused to respect the artists who were waiting to take their turn on stage. In 2012 she took up residence at London's Arcola Theatre for a 22 performance run of her show ''Bitch! Dyke! Faghag! Whore!'' which went on to run for 48 performances in London with 48 standing ovations.

In 2013 Arcade starred along with Mink Stole in a revival of Tennessee Williams one-act play, The Mutilated. The production was directed by Cosmin Chivu with music by Jesse Selengut, and previewed at the eighth annual Provincetown Tennessee Williams Theater Festival in Massachusetts, prior to its six-week run in New York at the New Ohio Theatre in the West Village where it was nominated for a Drama League Award as Best Revival.

Personal life
Penny Arcade has been married three times. Her third marriage in 1998 was to singer-writer-composer Chris Rael, with whom she collaborated artistically. The couple lived together until January 2008. Arcade identifies as bisexual.

Works
Selected works include:

 * While You Were Out (1985)
 * Invisible on the Streets (1986)
 * Bid for the Big Time (1988)
 * Bringing It All Back Home (1988)
 * Operating Under The Influence (1988)
 * Quiet Night for Sid and Nancy at the Chelsea Hotel (1989)
 * True Stories (1989)
 * Based on A True Story (1990)
 * The Beginning of the End of the World (1990)
 * La Miseria (1991)
 * State of Grace (1991)
 * Bitch Dyke Faghag Whore 1990
 * Sunday Tea With Quentin Crisp (1993)
 * Love Sex and Sanity (1995)
 * An Evening With Penny Arcade And Quentin Crisp (1995)
 * Sisi Sings The Blues (1996)
 * Bad Reputation (1997)
 * The Last Will And Testament Of Quentin Crisp (1999)
 * Lady Fest (2000)
 * Virtual Arcade Cyber Performance And Interview Show (2000)
 * Alive and Kicking (2001)
 * Sex. Politics. Reality. (2001)
 * New York Values (2002)
 * Penny Arcade At The Warhol Museum (2002)
 * Artist Survivor (2002)
 * Working My Way Down (2003)
 * Rebellion Cabaret (2004)
 * Escape From The East Village Ny Ny (2004)
 * Penny Arcade in Motion (2005)
 * Old Queen (2009)
 * Longing Lasts Longer (2011)
 * The Etiquette Of Death (2012)
 * The Girl Who Knew Too Much (2013)

title: Penny Arcade (performer)


text: User talk:203.134.174.246

title: User talk:203.134.174.246


text:
Geoffrey Hughes (actor)

Geoffrey William Hughes DL (2 February 1944 – 27 July 2012) was an English actor. Hughes provided the voice of Paul McCartney in the animated film Yellow Submarine (1968), and rose to fame for portraying much-loved bin man Eddie Yeats in the long-running British soap opera Coronation Street from 1974 to 1983, making a return to the show in 1987. He is well known for playing loveable slob Onslow in the British sitcom Keeping Up Appearances (1990–1995); and 'Twiggy' in the sitcom The Royle Family, playing the part from 1998 to 2008.

From 2001 to 2005 he played Vernon Scripps, conman and loveable rogue, in the ITV police drama Heartbeat, taking over as the show's main loveable rogue from Bill Maynard's Claude Greengrass, and returning to the show briefly in 2007.

Hughes was diagnosed with prostate cancer in the 1990s and in 2010 he suffered a relapse which led him to retire from acting. He died from the illness, aged 68, in 2012.

Life and career
Hughes was born in Wallasey, Cheshire, to parents Ada (née Tulloch) and Bill. He had one younger brother, Gordon. He was brought up in Liverpool, where he attended Ranworth Square Primary School. He then went to Abbotsford Secondary Modern School in Norris Green, Liverpool. He started his career in repertory at the Victoria Theatre in Stoke-on-Trent. This was followed by his first West End production, the Lionel Bart and Alun Owen musical Maggie May. His other West End productions included the stage version of The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, Say Goodnight to Grandma, The Secret Life of Cartoons and several seasons of Run for your Wife. He later played Pistol in an open-air production of Henry V at Barnwell Manor. He also toured extensively in Britain and abroad.

Hughes' film credits included Smashing Time (1967), The Bofors Gun (1968), Till Death Us Do Part (1969), The Virgin Soldiers (1969), The Man Who Had Power Over Women (1970), Revenge (1971), Carry On at Your Convenience (1971), Adolf Hitler: My Part in His Downfall (1973), Tiffany Jones (1973), Confessions of a Driving Instructor (1976), Nijinsky (1980), and Flick (2008). He was also the voice of Paul McCartney in the Beatles' 1968 cartoon film Yellow Submarine.

In 1974, Hughes was cast as binman Eddie Yeats in the long-running soap opera Coronation Street. Over the next nine years he became, with Stan Ogden (as played by Bernard Youens), a foil to Stan's long-suffering wife Hilda (Jean Alexander). He left the series in 1983, making a brief return appearance in 1987 as part of Hilda's departure from the series.

Among his many other appearances on television are: An Arrow for Little Audrey; The Saint; Shadows of Fear; Z-Cars; Randall and Hopkirk (Deceased); Flying Lady; Making Out; Coasting; Doctor Who; Spender; and Boon. He played Trinculo in a version of The Tempest for the BBC and Squire Clodpoll in Good Friday 1663, one of Channel Four's new avant-garde operas. His comedy appearances on TV include The Likely Lads, Please Sir!, Dad's Army, Curry and Chips, No, Honestly and The Upper Hand.

Hughes played the character of Onslow in the BBC sitcom Keeping Up Appearances (1990–1995) which ran for 5 series and saw Hughes appear in all 44 episodes. In 1997 he and Judy Cornwell reprised their roles as Onslow and Daisy, in a special compilation programme called The Memoirs of Hyacinth Bucket which was subsequently released on VHS. Hughes reprised his role as Onslow one final time in 2008, for the video (DVD) release of a further compilation programme, Keeping Up Appearances: Life Lessons from Onslow.

He also had a recurring role as Twiggy in The Royle Family from 1998 until 2008.

Hughes usually appeared in pantomime over the Christmas period. He appeared on That Antony Cotton Show on 6 September 2007, in which he spoke about his role in a short film called Expresso, which also starred Sir Norman Wisdom. Hughes played the part of a man who visits a coffee shop for a "normal" coffee but is served by a pompous waiter. The film was sold in aid of Macmillan Cancer Support.

In 2007, he performed the Angel Gabriel in the BBC production Liverpool Nativity. From 2007, he also appeared as uncle Keith in the first three series of the E4 drama ''Skins'.'

In 2009 he played Frank in Tim Firth's Absolutely Frank at the Oldham Coliseum Theatre and at the Harrogate Theatre.

Personal life, illness and death
Hughes married Susan Mundell in 1975. His off-stage interests were sailing, football, golf, cricket, rock music, trees, and beer. He was also the Honorary Squire of the Dartington Morris Men and made an appearance at the Dartington Morris Ring meeting in September 2008. His musical interests included British folk rock and he compered at Fairport's Cropredy Convention annual music festival several times. He was a supporter of Everton Football Club. In 2009 he was appointed deputy lieutenant of the Isle of Wight. Hughes received a diagnosis of prostate cancer in 1996. In 2010, he collapsed at home with extreme back pain. He was diagnosed with a relapse of prostate cancer, at which point he retired from acting. He died from his illness on 27 July 2012, aged 68. Doctors stated that he died "peacefully in his sleep".

title: Geoffrey Hughes (actor)


text:
Scudder Falls Bridge

The Scudder Falls Bridge is a toll bridge that carries Interstate 295 (I-295) over the Delaware River, connecting Lower Makefield Township in Bucks County, Pennsylvania, with the Scudders Falls section of Ewing Township in Mercer County, New Jersey, United States. It is maintained by the Delaware River Joint Toll Bridge Commission (DRJTBC). The original bridge was a plate girder bridge constructed from 1958 to 1961, and the current structure is a box-girder bridge that partially opened in 2019 and was substantially complete in 2021. Previously, the bridge was a toll-free crossing. However, this changed on July 14, 2019, when an all-electronic toll was levied for Pennsylvania-bound traffic; the toll can be paid using E-ZPass or Toll-by-Plate.

A $534 million replacement project for the bridge was completed, which involved widening I-295 in the area from four lanes to eight, and reconstruction of the interchanges at both ends of the bridge. The first span of the new bridge opened to Pennsylvania-bound traffic on July 10, 2019. New Jersey-bound traffic was moved onto the new span on July 24, 2019, and demolition of the old span began afterwards. The downstream span was opened to New Jersey-bound traffic on August 18, 2021. As well, a shared-use path for bicycle and foot-traffic opened on November 16, 2021.

Name
The Scudder Falls Bridge derives its name from Richard Betts Scudder, who according to the Long Island Genealogy Surname Database, died in 1754 at "Scudder's Falls, Hunterdon County" (portions of Mercer County were part of Hunterdon County until 1838). One of Richard Scudder's ancestors from Kent, England, was named Henry Skudder. The k in the surname apparently became a c at some point in time, helping to give the falls and modern-day bridge its name. The "falls" (really just an area of rapids) are located about 1/2 mile north of the bridge, and the entrance to the Delaware and Raritan Canal State Park just north of the bridge is signed as the "Scudders Falls" unit. The extra s at the end of "Scudders" was dropped to make pronunciation of the bridge's name easier.

Original bridge
Following the destruction of the Yardley–Wilburtha Bridge in the August flood of 1955, plans were made to build a new bridge about 1.3 mi north of the old site. The DRJTBC was responsible for the construction of the bridge, while New Jersey and Pennsylvania built the approaches to each side. Because the bridge was not originally part of the Interstate Highway System, the cost of construction was not 90% covered by the federal government. Instead, they covered 50% of the cost of the new span, while New Jersey and Pennsylvania paid the remaining 50% of the total bill, as with an ordinary U.S. Highway route.

In April 1958, the location of the future Scudder Falls Bridge was approved with little opposition. Construction, overseen by the DRJTBC, began in May of the same year and was completed in 1959. The new bridge, which had cost $8.4 million, opened to traffic on June 22, 1961. The Yardley-Wilburtha Bridge was rebuilt as a temporary crossing before the Scudder Falls Bridge began being built. It was completely torn down in 1961 when the Scudder Falls Bridge opened. The bridge was built using two-span continuous steel-plate girders. Its two end spans were each 150 ft long, while each of the eight middle spans measured 180 ft. The bridge consisted of a roadway 48 ft wide, split into four twelve-foot lanes. Opposing traffic was separated by a Jersey barrier. The bridge's total length was 1740 ft. The Scudder Falls Bridge originally carried I-95 over the Delaware River. In March 2018, I-95 was renumbered to I-295 across the bridge as part of the Pennsylvania Turnpike/Interstate 95 Interchange Project that completed the gap in I-95.

Replacement bridge
Starting in 2003, the DRJTBC began working on plans to replace the bridge, improve the safety and traffic flow of its two immediately adjoining interchanges (Taylorsville Road in Pennsylvania and Route 29 in New Jersey), and widen the Pennsylvania approach to the bridge (from four lanes to six). The project was deemed necessary because despite only being 42 years old, the original configurations of the bridge, interchanges and roadways suffered from numerous inadequacies. Design standards called for, at minimum, the addition of an inside shoulder 3 ft wide (adding 6 ft to its original width) and an outside shoulder 12 ft wide (adding 24 ft to its original width). The closely spaced interchanges on both ends of the bridge required the addition of acceleration and deceleration lanes (the Commission refers to them as "auxiliary lanes"), of which there were previously none.

According to the DRJTBC's 2002 Southerly Crossings Corridor Study, the Scudder Falls Bridge carried roughly 55,000 vehicles per day (traffic counts have increased since then), well beyond the design load of 40,000 vehicles per day. By 2030, traffic volumes were expected to increase by 35%, the equivalent of 19,000 additional vehicles. This amount of traffic would require two to perhaps four additional travel lanes (24 to 48 additional feet of roadway width).

Also mentioned by the 2002 study is that Scudder Falls Bridge had been given a Level of Service (LOS) grade of "F" during peak rush hours and afternoons. This grade denotes the worst service conditions and the highest congestion rate. At times other than brief rush hour delays, traffic traveling the bridge was relatively light. The condition of the bridge had also been a growing concern in the following years. Even though routine inspections had not revealed any serious structural problems, the bridge, at over 50 years old, was past the end of its structural service life. The bridge was also similar in design to the Mianus River Bridge in Greenwich, Connecticut, which suffered a fatal collapse in 1983, further inflating concerns about the structural integrity of the old bridge.

The replacement bridge consists of six through-travel lanes and three auxiliary lanes (two in the New Jersey-bound direction and one in the Pennsylvania-bound direction) to handle traffic accelerating onto the bridge or decelerating off of the bridge at the two closely spaced adjoining interchanges. It also has shoulders to handle vehicle breakdowns and emergencies, with the two inside shoulders being wide enough to handle proposed regional bus-rapid transit service. A bicycle/pedestrian facility was added to the upstream side of the new bridge. On July 10, 2019, the upstream span of the new bridge opened to Pennsylvania-bound traffic. New Jersey-bound traffic remained on the original span until July 24, after which demolition of the original span began and construction of the new downstream span began; it opened just over two years later on August 18, 2021.

To help finance this multi-faceted improvement project, the DRJTBC voted in late December 2009 to establish tolling at the crossing. Tolls were implemented on July 14, 2019, four days after the new bridge span opened to traffic. Tolls are collected from traffic crossing into Pennsylvania, with an all-electronic toll gantry consisting of E-ZPass transponder readers and high-resolution cameras (no cash toll booths) constructed on the bridge. The DRJTBC has stated that the introduction of cashless tolling at the bridge is necessary to help finance its capital program, of which the multi-faceted Scudder Falls Bridge Replacement Project would be its largest single construction initiative in its 75-year history. The commission is funded solely by tolls collected at its eight current toll bridges; it receives no gasoline tax revenues or state or federal support. Commission executives have stated that it would be unfair to have the project financed solely by motorists using its other toll bridges, individuals who have been subsidizing the Scudder Falls facility already for more than two decades.

The shared-use path on the bridge is the only one of its kind across the Delaware River crossing from Pennsylvania-to-New Jersey, in that it allows cyclists to ride across without dismounting. This bridge also restores pedestrian/cyclist access to cross the bridge in the Yardley area, which had been previously unavailable since the 1955 destruction of the Yardley-Wilburtha bridge.

title: Scudder Falls Bridge


text:
Talk:Calcium chloride

dissolving temperature
"The dissolving process is highly exothermic and rapidly produces temperatures of around 60 °C (140 °F)"

temperature depends on the volume of solution being heated, solution type, chloride mass added and any phase changes in the solution right, not just the energy released per mole

things to discuss:
properties -- melt,boil,weight,etc

hydrides

uses -- de-ice (eutectic), food, phase change material, etc

japanese wiki
Can somebody check the fix I did to the link to the Japanese wikipedia? I can't read the linked page, so I can't tell if this is a correct link. RickK 07:32, Nov 7, 2004 (UTC)

Colour
Anybody knows the colour of calcium chloride when damp? Piss —Preceding unsigned comment added by Khurs (talk • contribs) 11:29, 9 April 2008 (UTC)

 * When totally pure it should be colourless, but the technical grade product (used as a drying agent) often has a yellowish or brownish tinge to it when it gets damp.

Walkerma 17:47, 12 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Use in concrete mixes
"It is used in concrete mixes to help speed up the initial setting and to strengthen the concrete.". Adding calcium chloride to the concrete mix will make (in about a 10-year timeframe) the rebar rust, and make way for "concreterot" (dutch: "betonrot"). Rust has 6 times the volume of iron; this process will eventually crack the surface off the concrete, laying bare the rebar, further weakening the structure. Therefore, the use of calcium chloride in concrete mixes is banned in the Netherlands (at least, might be in all of Europe).

Might be worth a note. 83.160.162.119 01:20, 5 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Yes, chloride ion does corrode steel so this makes sense. I don't know about a ban, but I have added a warning and an external link to a recent academic report on this.  If you find out "concrete" information about a ban please post this.  Thanks for pointing it out. Walkerma 03:55, 5 January 2006 (UTC)

The link to the article regarding chlorides and steel corrosion isn't working. I am looking for the conditions necessary for calcium chloride to corrode stainless steels and how this process maybe changed by partial vacuum? Any help or info is appreciated. --Alexlord8 16:57, 16 January 2007 (UTC)

 * OK, I added a link to this article which describes both the use as an accelerant and the corrosion problem, with citations. I hope this meets your needs.  I also found a recent academic paper on effects of CaCl2 on Portland cement, but I only added that into the concrete article, it seemed to fit better there. Walkerma 18:38, 16 January 2007 (UTC)

Help!
What is the function of anhydrous calcium chloride?

by:Izzuddin

Hydroscopic?
It says that Calcium Chloride is hydroscopic. I don't know a lot about chemistry but wouldn't that mean that it remains dry when confronted with water? Why then is it labelled with a water crystal form afterwards? --AndreRD 13:18, 10 May 2006 (UTC)

 * I think you're confusing hydroscopic (hygroscopic) with hydrophobic. Hydrophobic materials (for example, Teflon/Gore-Tex) remain dry when confronted with water.

 * Atlant 13:36, 10 May 2006 (UTC)

HELP
What is ONE fact about calcium carbonate NOT in the article???!!! doing report and jotted down all notes i could but need 1 more!!!!!!!!!!
 * This is calcium chloride, not calcium carbonate. Argyriou (talk) 03:13, 6 November 2006 (UTC)

Is calcium chloride edible or not?
So I got a can of sliced carrots at Whole Foods, and the ingredients listed are carrots, water, salt, and calcium chloride. I was curious as to the calcium chloride and looked it up on wikipedia. It says calcium chloride is used as a salt substitute in some foods because while it tastes very salty, it does not up the sodium content of the food. It also says it helps to keep canned foods firm (because it's so good at absorbing water, I assume). It's also used in two other food products. But then it says: "Calcium chloride is an irritant; wear gloves and goggles to protect hands and eyes; avoid inhalation. Although calcium chloride is relatively safe to handle, care should be taken that it is not ingested. Calcium chloride reacts exothermically with water and can burn the mouth and esophagus." ?! Should I be alarmed that I just ate a can of sliced carrots that had calcium chloride as an ingredient? Should I be alarmed that Whole Foods is selling it? If it's as dangerous as the wiki page says, why is it being put into food? Just curious...

(sorry, my laptop doesn't have tildes) Sofia Soledad

 * In small quantities, absolutely yes. Because it contains calcium rather than sodium, you can sometimes found it sold in supermarkets as a salt substitute and that's probably why it was in your carrots. In large quantities, of course, any salt is poisonous if only because it screws up your electrolyte balance.

 * Atlant 14:00, 31 January 2007 (UTC)

The hygroscopic waterfree calcium chloride will react in your mouth with water and will heat up, this reaction will be irritant. The hexahydrated form easyly dissolves in water and is by far less harmfull.--Stone 15:33, 31 January 2007 (UTC)

Ionic?
Is calcium chloride ionic or covalent/molecular? —The preceding unsigned comment was added by Difficult (talk • contribs) 23:26, 10 February 2007 (UTC).

Ionic - no question. Chlorine is strongly electronegative, calcium is moderately electropositive - hence the complete transfer of valance electrons from Ca to Cl, forming Ca2+ and Cl- ions. Coatesg (talk) 11:04, 4 March 2008 (UTC)

GA Review
Re-reviewing this article almost two years after it's[sic] original nomination to see if it still meets the GA criteria. Article hasn't changed too much in that time, although more details have been added. The article continues to meet the GA criteria, although there are some minor issues that should be fixed.

First, it looks like most of the information in the article is being 'cited' by the two listings under 'general references', and not directly with inline citations. While this is still acceptable, the use of inline citations is preferred, and the article should be converted. See WP:CITE.

Second, I removed the mention of the approximate 1990 price of $182/ton from the article. It had no source, and a 1990 price is not particularly relevant to an article today. If people want to know the price, they can go to a website selling it and find out what the exact price is today.

Third, the 'uses' section seems to have grown the most. It seems to be developing as a bulleted list, and this should ideally be converted more to prose form. These items added should probably be checked against the general reference citations, and additional references added as needed.

Dr. Cash 18:13, 8 September 2007 (UTC)

I broke the Uses section into (food) and (industrial), added cites for FDA approval (food) and tire hydroinflation. I also converted the bulleted list to prose form and removed some redundancies.

Hopefully, I didn't mangle anything too badly. CaCl2 is such a commonly used salt, it's impossible to stop listing the uses. We should find cites for the paragraph I created that starts with "Other industrial applications include", where I dumped the unexplained uses from the bullet-point list.

The medical uses could probably use review from someone more familiar with that field.

Luno 17:08, 3 December 2007 (UTC)

Automatic addition of "class=GA"
A bot has added class=GA to the WikiProject banners on this page, as it's listed as a good article. If you see a mistake, please revert, and leave a note on the bot's talk page. Thanks, BOT Giggabot (talk) 05:04, 10 December 2007 (UTC)

Okay, what is the purpose of calcium chloride in transformation?
I'm writing a lab report on the uptake of plasmids into bacteria. Apparently, calcium chloride is essential to this process, as one of the steps of the lab involves adding 250 microliters of it into a solution containing E. coli. 10 microliters of plasmids are later added to two out of four beakers of E. coli, before the bacteria are heat shocked. One question I have to answer is the role of CaCl2 in transfomation. The problem is, I've forgotten precisely what it does. Can anyone here help me out before Wednesday? --Luigifan (talk) 16:57, 21 January 2008 (UTC)

 * The aqueous form of calcium chloride is used in genetic transformation of cells by increasing the cell membrane permeability, inducing competence for DNA uptake (allowing DNA fragments to enter the cell more readily). --Slashme (talk) 05:02, 22 January 2008 (UTC)

gel or brine
There needs to be more info about the gel or brine that results when Calcium Chloride has adsorbed a maximum of water. It is transparent. It looks like water. But it seems to have the amazing feature of never evaporating, never drying out! -69.87.199.223 (talk) 00:13, 24 July 2008 (UTC)

Solvent Welding of Nylon
Nylon can be welded with a solution of ca.cl and ethanol mixture.

Source - http://books.google.com/books?id=CF_-xp9iKHcC&pg=PT269&lpg=PT269&dq=what+solvent+welds+glues++nylon&source=bl&ots=R-b63yJeP9&sig=IUe6TVtjztIyUfAXzpBoIlurrc8&hl=en&ei=-gkFStTHJJSuMtj-pKMD&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7#PPT269,M1

why do they put this junk in all of the packaged bottled water?
Is there even a good reason to put this in bottled water, I doubt it! Does anyone know if the chlorine atoms are realeased when metabolised by the body? Im guessing they are. I think they want to make sure we get chlorine into our system one way or another, whether its from chlorinated tap water or from bottled water. Why dont any of the companys that make bottled water off just pure DISTILLED water in 16 oz bottles? I think something is going on here. Maybe they dont really filter out the water that well and the chemicals that they SAY they ADD to the water for TASTE, are really chemicals that they just fail to filter out from the water supply because that way its cheaper for them! I dont like this stuff in my water I want it out, meantime I reccomend people stop voting with your dollars and buying water with this stuff. Instead get a water cooler and fill your 5 gallon bottles at a local water outlet, or better yet get a really expensive high quality reverse osmosis or similar water filtering device and fill your own bottles. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 66.209.81.2 (talk) 04:50, 17 February 2010 (UTC)
 * First, there is a huge difference between traces of chloride ions (which is what you see in the mineral analysis of your bottled water), versus traces of free chlorine. I have never heard of water bottlers deliberately adding free chlorine; it is piped municipal supplies that have chlorine added. Free chlorine is a highly reactive chemical that is added to municipal water supplies to kill disease-causing bacteria and viruses. In a piped system they add enough to ensure that a little bit remains all the way to the tap, to guard against flaws in the pipes that might allow bugs to be reintroduced to the water. Obviously this is not necessary for bottled water. Free chlorine is not entirely harmless, but it is vastly less dangerous than the microbes that it kills. After it finds something to react with, it is mainly converted into chloride, which is low in reactivity and basically harmless (unless the concentration is very much higher than that found in drinking water.)
 * Some water bottlers do distribute distilled water for human consumption, and even if you can't find one who does, if you wanted to you could always buy the distilled water that is sold for topping up batteries. But there are two good reasons most bottled water is not distilled. Firstly, the process is quite expensive -- much more expensive than ordinary bottled water. Secondly, there is no health benefit whatsoever to consuming distilled water. At the very best, it is a complete waste of money. But it might be even worse than that. In fact, while it has not been conclusively proven that regular consumption of distilled water is bad for your health, the preponderance of evidence indicates that it is moderately bad for you (see distilled water.) This should not really be surprising, since our ancestors drank water that was positively muddy. Whether or not distilled water is actively harmful to your health, it very definitely is not better than regular drinking water.
 * I do have to agree that people should "stop voting with their dollars": 95% of the time there is no need to buy bottled water because the municipal supply is perfectly good. Ironically, one concern that sometimes arises with municipal supplies is that under certain conditions, some of that free chlorine reacts to produce not harmless chloride ions, but chloroform, and in some cases this can reach levels that may potentially be (slightly) harmful. The irony is that the reverse osmosis system that you recommend has no effect on chloroform levels: it passes straight through a RO membrane. It is also difficult to distill out; you need fractional distillation because it is more volatile than water itself. The best way to lower chloroform levels in water is just to air it for several hours. Boiling in an open-topped vessel also reduces chloroform concentrations. -- 203.20.101.203 (talk) 07:57, 3 September 2010 (UTC)

about calcium chloride & copper (II) chloride...
I'm just a form 3 student...i'm here to ask about below two crystals,can they absorb water,and which one absorb the water faster.

1.calcium chloride 2.copper (II) chloride

i'm here to wish anyone can solve this problem for me... thank you... from:Michelle Yewen — Preceding unsigned comment added by 60.50.8.34 (talk) 17:51, 7 June 2011 (UTC)

Piscines?
In this quote: "Calcium chloride is used to increase the hardness in swimming pools and piscines." I am confused by the word "piscines". As far as I know, this is just the French word for "swimming pool". I looked it up in several dictionaries and cannot find anywhere that it is considered to be a noun in English. Is this just the work of a confused francophone contributor? 70.116.13.152 (talk) 15:35, 8 July 2012 (UTC)

Solubility in water
It seems that the reported water solubility is different from the CRC chemical handbook (rubber bible) by as much as a factor of two. wiki 74.5 g/100mL and CRC handbook 42.13 % (w/w). Granted the units are not the same, but assuming that the solubilisation causes only minor volume changes to the water, the units are certainly comparable.

I would assume that the solubility refers to the anhydrate (as far as I can tell this is not explicitly stated any where). If the solubilities refer to one of the hydrates they could very well be correct.

Troelsbach (talk) 07:50, 18 October 2012 (UTC)

74.5g of CaCl2 in 100g of Water is: 74.5 / (74.5 + 100) = 0.4269 ---> 42.69% (w/w). Pretty similar to the rubber bible! — Preceding unsigned comment added by 81.171.195.235 (talk) 12:01, 15 January 2013 (UTC)

Removal of how-to section on aquaria
Today I removed a section from this article describing how to create a solution of calcium chloride for use in a marine aquarium and without any citations for same. While the information was interesting, such how-to instructions do not belong in a Wikipedia article (see WP:NOTHOWTO). They could certainly be re-written describing how other people use calcium chloride in marine aquaria, along with at least one citation for same, no? But the section as it stood was a how-to guide, and that's not the goal of the project. Also, uses in marine aquaria already are mentioned in the article several paragraphs earlier, so the section was redundant as well. KDS 4444  Talk   16:51, 10 May 2013 (UTC)

Is that a poem?
It's presented as one would be:

"A chalky taste in the mouth   Hot flushes    Lowered blood pressure    Loss of appetite    Feeling sick (nausea)    Being sick (vomiting)    Constipation    Stomach pain    Feeling weak    Mental disturbances    Extreme thirst    Passing a large amount of urine    Bone pain    Calcium deposits in the kidney    Kidney stones    Irregular heart beat    Coma"

But oh, the depressing final line. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 130.76.96.144 (talk) 19:46, 31 October 2013 (UTC)

 * Fixed to be a bulleted list. You could have too. vlad§inger  tlk  04:51, 29 January 2014 (UTC)

Article
In my opinion, the article looks good excepting the shape of the article. On my iMac, 1920x1080 display, I see the right chembox is longer than the article itself, which does not look aesthetically pleasing.

Qwertyxp2000 (talk) 07:18, 8 September 2014 (UTC)

Effect On Plants and Soil
"Calcium chloride dissolution is exothermic, and the compound is relatively harmless to plants and soil; however, recent observations in Washington state suggest it may be particularly harsh on roadside evergreen trees.[13]"

I'm not sure where the information that it is relatively harmless to plants and soil came from, but I accidentally spilled some on a 10' by 20' area and it killed everything in that area. Absolutely nothing has grown there for 3 years - not even weeds.

74.98.138.194 (talk) 12:23, 12 February 2015 (UTC)

Contains metals?
- Clarifying edits to the page were made since this discussion began. This question is no longer a concern. Spadfield (talk) 15:50, 16 March 2021 (UTC)

"Calcium chloride salts also tend to contain a small amount of metals, especially aluminium."

This is a pretty serious claim. Is there any citation to support this? If not, can we remove it?

Spadfield (talk) 22:01, 11 December 2015 (UTC)
 * Commercial products will be contaminated to various extents with different metals depending on the method of manufacture. Sorry I am not coming out with a citation.  For many uses, such as road defrosting it does not matter. Graeme Bartlett (talk) 07:52, 11 August 2016 (UTC)

Crystal structure
Hello, I a m suspicious about the image chosen for the crystal structure of CaCl2. The same one is used in the french wikipedia (and probably many others); there is not the correct amount of Ca and Cl ions in this elementary cell, and it does not correspond to the description of the right panel 	Orthorhombic (anhydrous), Tetragonal (anhydrous > 217 °C). The wikipage [Rutile] shows an example of the crystal structure that could correspond to the tetragonal phase, P42mnm, it owuld also be nice to have a diagram of the Pnnm lattice, and to show both in the article. Can anyone confirm that there is a mistake here ? Lgostiaux (talk) 18:20, 3 March 2017 (UTC)

 * Indeed, by my count that structure has the formula or, i.e. a chloride of a trivalent metal.  I am removing the image until the issue is clarified. --Jorge Stolfi (talk) 04:57, 5 March 2017 (UTC)
 * Its ok. Scared me though.  Two Cl (green) are completely inside the cell and four are half in.  2 + (4)(1/2) = 4. --Smokefoot (talk) 11:17, 24 December 2018 (UTC)

cardiac toxicity?
I'm not sure what is meant by "Calcium chloride injection may decrease cardiac toxicity as measured by electrocardiogram." User:Doc James, any comment? --Slashme (talk) 20:23, 12 September 2017 (UTC)
 * Changed to "improve appearance of ECG". Doc James  (talk · contribs · email) 20:34, 12 September 2017 (UTC)

provide inhibition of swelling clays?
I have no idea what "It is also used to provide inhibition of swelling clays" means. Any ideas? --Slashme (talk) 20:46, 12 September 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Calcium chloride


text:
Anthony Francis Lucas

Anthony Francis Lucas (born Antun Lučić; September 9, 1855 – September 2, 1921) was a Croatian-born American oil explorer. With Pattillo Higgins, he organized the drilling of an oil well near Beaumont, Texas, that became known as Spindletop. This led to the widespread exploitation of oil and the start of the Petroleum Age.

Early life
Christened Antonio Francesco Luchich, he was the son of Captain Francis Stephen Luchich, a prosperous Montenegrin shipbuilder and shipowner from the Croatian island of Lesina, and his wife Giovanna Giovanizio. According to Lucas himself, who was proud of his heritage, the Luchich family was pure Montenegrin by blood, descended from ancient Illyrian (Dalmatian) nobility, and he sometimes called himself in society events "Count Anthony [François Maria Vincent] Giovanizio de Bertuchevich Lucas". Born in the Austrian Empire city of Split, his family moved to Trieste, where his father served in the Austro-Hungarian navy.

At the age of 20, Lucas completed studies at the Polytechnical Institute (Technische Hochschule) in Graz, Austria, and became an engineer. After graduating from the Austrian Naval Academy of Pula and Rijeka, Lucas was commissioned a second lieutenant in 1878.

Move to the United States
In 1879, Lucas visited his uncle in Saginaw, Michigan, and started work in a sawmill, improving the design of a gang saw then in use. In 1883, he started working in the Colorado, California and North Carolina gold, copper, silver and iron mining industries. He changed his name to Anthony Francis Lucas, receiving his naturalization papers on May 9, 1885, at Norfolk, Virginia. He married Caroline Weed Fitzgerald in 1887. They moved to Washington, D.C. in 1888, where Lucas worked as a mechanical and mining engineer, except for a two year break prospecting for gold in Colorado. Their son Anthony FitzGerald was born on 21 July 1889.

Career
In 1893, Lucas started to work as a salt mine superintendent for Myles and Company of New Orleans. The damaged mine was located at Petite Anse (Avery Island), and over the next three years, Lucas restored operations.

Lucas drilled and explored for salt on Jefferson Island for Joseph Jefferson, and Belle Isle, where he discovered the relationship between salt deposits, sulfur, natural gas, and oil deposits. In Lucas' words, "This led me to study the accumulation of oil around salt masses, and I formed additional plans for prospecting other localities. Thus I began my investigations into the occurrence of oil on the Coastal Plain." In 1898, Lucas mined salt on Grand Côte, Weeks Island, and Anse la Butte, having by then become an expert on salt domes.

Lucas Gusher
In 1899, Lucas visited the Sour Spring Mound south of Beaumont, Texas, with Pattillo Higgins. This was the future site of Spindletop. Lucas noted, "This mound attracted my attention on account of the contour, which indicated possibilities for an incipient dome below, and because at the apex of it there were exudations of sulphuretted hydrogen gas. This has suggested to me, in the light of my experience at Belle Isle, that it might prove a source of either sulphur or oil, or both." Lucas then signed a lease agreement with the Gladys City Oil, Gas, and Manufacturing Company, and a separate agreement with Higgins.

Using a rotary drilling rig from Louisiana, Lucas began his well in August or September 1899, reaching a depth of 250 ft in Dec. At a depth of 575 ft, the casing collapsed, but only after a layer of oil sand was found.

Short on money, Lucas sought funding from any source, including Henry Folger of Standard Oil, but to no avail. Lucas received an opportunity when Dr. William Battle Phillips, geologist for the University of Texas and the Texas State Mineral Survey, endorsed Lucas' dome theory, and wrote a letter of introduction to John H. Galey. Galey, with his partner James M. Guffey, put together financing with Andrew Mellon, allowing Lucas to drill three wells 1200 ft deep. Lucas also retained 12.5 percent of the deal. Galey further recommended that the Hamill brothers, Al, Curt, and Jim, drill the well.

After reaching the depth of 1139 ft, on 10 January 1901, mud and water erupted followed by a stream of crude oil reaching 150 ft. The eruption lasted nine days, flowing between 70,000 and 100,000 barrels per day, before the Lucas Gusher was finally brought under control.

Beaumont became a boomtown. Yet, tiring of his loss of privacy, in May 1901, Lucas sold his stock in the Guffey Petroleum Company, and continued his scientific search for oil in the United States and Mexico.

Legacy
The Lucas Gusher helped revolutionize world fuel use and transformed the economy of southeast Texas. It helped further the development of the combustion engine automobile since significant amounts of energy were needed for fuel. The city of Houston become the national center of the oil industry, with the United States surpassing Russia as the world's leading producer.

Anthony Francis Lucas is considered to be the founder of modern petroleum reservoir engineering. He later served as a consulting engineer in Romania, Russia, Mexico, Algeria, as well as in the United States. As a successful businessman and expert in mining, Lucas was the lifelong chairman of the American Committee for Oil and Gas.

Inventions and applications
A number of Lucas inventions and scientific or technical knowledge were used in early oil exploration and extraction, with most still being employed. Some are:
 * overhead method of mining in salt mines
 * surface exploration for underground mineral deposits
 * application of steam-driven, hydraulic-rotary drilling rig and of mud in oil well drilling
 * construction and application of back pressure valve
 * construction of blowout preventers
 * designing of well logs
 * invention of the Christmas tree oil well

Heritage
Lucas died on September 2, 1921, in Washington, D.C. He was often mistakenly described as Austrian, sometimes even as a Trieste-born Italian. On his grave in Rock Creek Cemetery in Washington, D.C., he is described as being of Illyric origin, which was the standard term for Croatian at the time.

In 1936, the American Institute for Geological and Metallurgical Investigations founded the Anthony F. Lucas Gold Medal for development in the area of oil exploration. A museum with a granite obelisk was built to honor the explorer about which is inscribed: "On this spot on the tenth day of the twentieth century a new era in civilization began." A street and an elementary school in Beaumont, Texas, bear his name.

title: Anthony Francis Lucas


text:
International trade law

International trade law includes the appropriate rules and customs for handling trade between countries. However, it is also used in legal writings as trade between private sectors. This branch of law is now an independent field of study as most governments have become part of the world trade, as members of the World Trade Organization (WTO). Since the transaction between private sectors of different countries is an important part of the WTO activities, this latter branch of law is now part of the academic works and is under study in many universities across the world.

Overview
International trade law should be distinguished from the broader field of international economic law. The latter could be said to encompass not only WTO law, but also law governing the international monetary system and currency regulation, as well as the law of international development.

The international trade law includes rules, regulations and customs governing trade between nations. International trade law is the tool used by the nation’s government for taking corrective actions against trade. International trade law focuses on applying domestic rules to international trade rules and applying treaty-based international trade law governing trade.

The body of rules for transnational trade in the 21st century was derived from medieval commercial laws called the lex mercatoria and lex maritima—respectively, "the law for merchants on land" and "the law for merchants on the sea." Modern trade law (extending beyond bilateral treaties) began shortly after the Second World War, with the negotiation of a multilateral treaty to deal with trade in goods: the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT).

International trade law is based on theories of economic liberalism developed in Europe and later the United States from the 18th century onwards.

International Trade Law is an aggregate of legal rules of "international legislation" and new lex mercatoria, regulating relations in international trade. "International legislation" – international treaties and acts of international intergovernmental organizations regulating relations in international trade. lex mercatoria – "the law for merchants on land". Alok Narayan defines "lex mercatoria" as "any law relating to businesses" which was criticised by Professor Julius Stone. and lex maritime – "the law for merchants on sea. Alok in his recent article criticised this definition to be "too narrow" and "merely-creative". Professor Dodd and Professor Malcolm Shaw of Leeds University supported this proposition.

The Lex Mercatoria is the grouping of legal rules that guide and underlie international trade, which acts totally independently of the positive law of states, being considered normative. Currently, the new Lex Mercatoria has been prepared. The former Lex Mercatoria was generated in light of the characteristic demands of the time in question, including the values, culture, and future provisions of the time, whereas, the new one is recognized as having the responsibility of common international trade law.

World Trade Organization
In 1995, the World Trade Organization, a formal international organization to regulate trade, was established.

The purposes and structure of the organization are governed by the Agreement Establishing The World Trade Organization, also known as the "Marrakesh Agreement". It does not specify the actual rules that govern international trade in specific areas. These are found in separate treaties, annexed to the Marrakesh Agreement.

The scope of WTO:

(a) provide a framework for administration and implementation of agreements; (b) forum for further negotiations; (c) trade policy review mechanism; and (d) promote greater coherence among members economics policies

Principles of the WTO:

(a) A principle of non-discrimination (most-favored-nation treatment obligation and the national treatment obligation) (b) market access (reduction of tariff and non-tariff barriers to trade) (c) balancing trade liberalization and other societal interests (d) harmonization of national regulation (TRIPS agreement, TBT agreement, SPS agreement)

Trade in goods
The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade(GATT) has been the backbone of international trade law since 1948 after the charter for international trade had been agreed upon in Havana. It contains rules relating to "unfair" trading practices—dumping and subsidies. Many things impacted GATT like the Uruguay Round and the North American Free Trade Agreement.

In 1994 the World Trade Organization (WTO) was established to take the place of the GATT. This is because the GATT was meant to be a temporary fix to trade issues, and the founders hoped for something more concrete. It took many years for this to come about, however, because of the lack of money. The British Economy was in crisis and there was not much backing from Congress to pass the new agreement.

The idea of these agreements (WTO and GATT) was to create an equal field for all countries in trade. This way all countries got something of equal value out of the trade. This was a difficult thing to do since every country has a different economy size. This led to the Trade Expansion act of 1962.

Principles of International Trade Laws

 * National Treatment Principle: Imported and locally-produced goods should be treated equally—at least after the foreign goods have entered the market. The same should apply to foreign and domestic services, and to foreign and local trademarks, copyrights and patents. These principles apply to trade in goods, trade in services as well as trade related aspects of intellectual property rights.
 * Most Favored Nation (MFN) Principle: The MFN principles ensures that every time a WTO Member lowers a trade barrier or opens up a market, it has to do so for the like goods or services from all WTO Members, without regard of the Members’ economic size or level of development. The MFN principle requires to accord to all WTO Members any advantage given to any other country. A WTO Member could give an advantage to other WTO Members, without having to accord advantage to non- Members but only WTO Members benefit from the most favorable treatment.

Trade and intellectual property
The World Trade Organization Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) agreement required signatory nations to raise intellectual property rights (also known as intellectual monopoly privileges). This arguably has had a negative impact on access to essential medicines in some nations such as less developed countries, as the local economy is not as capable of producing more technical products such as pharmaceuticals.

Cross-border transactions
Cross-border operations are subject to taxation by more than one country. Commercial activity that occurs among several jurisdictions or countries is called a cross-border transaction. Those involved in any international business development or international trade should be knowledgeable in tax law, as every country enforces different laws on foreign businesses. International tax planning ensures that cross-border businesses stay tax compliant and avoid or lessen double taxation.

Dispute settlement
Most prominent in the area of dispute settlement in international trade law is the WTO dispute settlement system. The WTO dispute settlement body is operational since 1995 and has been very active since then with 369 cases in the time between 1 January 1995 and 1 December 2007. Nearly a quarter of disputes reached an amicable solution, in other cases the parties to the dispute resorted to adjudication. The WTO dispute settlement body has exclusive and compulsory jurisdiction over disputes on WTO law (Article 23.1 Dispute Settlement Understanding ).

title: International trade law


text:
Paris Gun

The Paris Gun (Paris-Geschütz / Pariser Kanone) was the name given to a type of German long-range siege gun, several of which were used to bombard Paris during World War I. They were in service from March to August 1918. When the guns were first employed, Parisians believed they had been bombed by a high-altitude Zeppelin, as the sound of neither an airplane nor a gun could be heard. They were the largest pieces of artillery used during the war by barrel length, and qualify under the (later) formal definition of large-calibre artillery. Also called the "Kaiser Wilhelm Geschütz" ("Kaiser Wilhelm Gun"), they were often confused with Big Bertha, the German howitzer used against Belgian forts in the Battle of Liège in 1914; indeed, the French called them by this name as well. They were also confused with the smaller "Langer Max" (Long Max) cannon, from which they were derived. Although the famous Krupp-family artillery makers produced all these guns, the resemblance ended there.

As military weapons, the Paris Guns were not a great success: the payload was small, the barrel required frequent replacement, and the guns' accuracy was good enough for only city-sized targets. The German objective was to build a psychological weapon to attack the morale of the Parisians, not to destroy the city itself.

Description

Due to the weapon's apparent total destruction by the Germans in the face of the final Entente offensives, its capabilities are not known with full certainty. Figures stated for the weapon's size, range, and performance varied widely depending on the source—not even the number of shells fired is certain. In the 1980s, a long note on the gun was discovered and published. This was written by Dr. Fritz Rausenberger (in German), the Krupp engineer in charge of the gun's development, shortly before his death in 1926. Thanks to this, the details of the gun's design and capabilities were considerably clarified.

The gun was capable of firing a 106 kg shell to a range of 130 km and a maximum altitude of 42.3 km —the greatest height reached by a human-made projectile until the first successful V-2 flight test in October 1942. At the start of its 182-second flight, each shell from the Paris Gun reached a speed of 1640 m/s.

The distance was so far that the Coriolis effect—the rotation of the Earth—was substantial enough to affect trajectory calculations. The gun was fired at an azimuth of 232 degrees (southwest) from Crépy-en-Laon, which was at a latitude of 49.5 degrees north.

Seven barrels were constructed. They used worn-out 38 cm SK L/45 "Max" 17,130 mm long gun barrels that were fitted with an internal tube that reduced the caliber from 380 mm to 210 mm. The tube was 31 m long and projected 13.9 m out of the end of the gun, so an extension was bolted to the old gun-muzzle to cover and reinforce the lining tube. A further, 6 m long smooth-bore extension was attached to the end of this, giving a total barrel length of 37 m. This smooth section was intended to improve accuracy and reduce the dispersion of the shells, as it reduced the slight yaw a shell might have immediately after leaving the gun barrel produced by the gun's rifling. The barrel was braced to counteract barrel drop due to its length and weight, and vibrations while firing; it was mounted on a special rail-transportable carriage and fired from a prepared, concrete emplacement with a turntable. The original breech of the old 38 cm gun did not require modification or reinforcement. Since it was based on a naval weapon, the gun was manned by a crew of 80 Imperial Navy sailors under the command of Vice-Admiral Maximilian Rogge, chief of the Ordnance branch of the Admiralty. It was surrounded by several batteries of standard army artillery to create a "noise-screen" chorus around the big gun so that it could not be located by French and British spotters.

The projectile flew significantly higher than projectiles from previous guns. Writer and journalist Adam Hochschild put it this way: "It took about three minutes for each giant shell to cover the distance to the city, climbing to an altitude of 40 km at the top of its trajectory. This was by far the highest point ever reached by a man-made object, so high that gunners, in calculating where the shells would land, had to take into account the rotation of the Earth. For the first time in warfare, deadly projectiles rained down on civilians from the stratosphere". This reduced drag from air resistance, allowing the shell to achieve a range of over 130 km.

The unfinished V-3 cannon would have been able to fire larger projectiles to a longer range, and with a substantially higher rate of fire. The unfinished Iraqi super gun would also have been substantially bigger.

Projectiles
The Paris Gun shells weighed 106 kg. The shells initially used had a diameter of 216 mm and a length of 960 mm. The main body of the shell was composed of thick steel, containing 7 kg of TNT.

The small amount of explosive – around 6.6% of the weight of the shell – meant that the effect of its shellburst was small for the shell's size. The thickness of the shell casing, to withstand the forces of firing, meant that shells would explode into a comparatively small number of large fragments, limiting their destructive effect. A crater produced by a shell falling in the Tuileries Garden was described by an eyewitness as being 10 to 12 ft across and 4 ft deep.

The shells were propelled at such a high velocity that each successive shot wore away a considerable amount of steel from the rifled bore. Each shell was sequentially numbered according to its increasing diameter, and had to be fired in numeric order, lest the projectile lodge in the bore and the gun explode. Also, when the shell was rammed into the gun, the chamber was precisely measured to determine the difference in its length: a few inches off would cause a great variance in the velocity, and with it, the range. Then, with the variance determined, the additional quantity of propellant was calculated, and its measure taken from a special car and added to the regular charge. After 65 rounds had been fired, each of progressively larger caliber to allow for wear, the barrel was sent back to Krupp and rebored with a new set of shells.

The shell's explosive was contained in two compartments, separated by a wall. This strengthened the shell and supported the explosive charge under the acceleration of firing. One of the shell's two fuzes was mounted in the wall, with the other in the base of the shell. The fuzes proved very reliable as every single one of the 303 shells that landed in and around Paris successfully detonated.

The shell's nose was fitted with a streamlined, lightweight, ballistic cap and the side had grooves that engaged with the rifling of the gun barrel, spinning the shell as it was fired so its flight was stable. Two copper driving bands provided a gas-tight seal against the gun barrel during firing.

Use in World War I

The Paris gun was used to shell Paris at a range of 120 km. The gun was fired from a wooded hill (Le mont de Joie) near Crépy, and the first shell landed at 7:18 a.m. on 23 March 1918 on the Quai de la Seine, the explosion being heard across the city. Shells continued to land at 15-minute intervals, with 21 counted on the first day. On the first day, fifteen people were killed and thirty-six wounded. The effect on morale in Paris was immediate: by 27 March, queues of thousands had started at the Gare d'Orsay and, at the Gare Montparnasse, ticket sales out of the capital were suspended due to demand.

The initial assumption was these were bombs dropped from an airplane or Zeppelin flying too high to be seen or heard. Within a few hours, sufficient casing fragments had been collected to show that the explosions were the result of shells, not bombs. By the end of the day, military authorities were aware the shells were being fired from behind German lines by a new long-range gun, although there was initial press speculation on the origin of the shells. This included the theory they were being fired by German agents close by Paris, or even within the city itself, so abandoned quarries close to the city were searched for a hidden gun. Three emplacements for the gun were located within days by the French reconnaissance pilot Didier Daurat, the path of the shells which landed in Paris having revealed the direction from which they were being fired. The closest emplacement was engaged by a 34 cm railway gun while the other two sites were bombed by aircraft, although this failed to interrupt the German bombardment.

Between 320 and 367 shells were fired, at a maximum rate of around 20 per day. The shells killed 250 people and wounded 620, and caused considerable damage to property. The worst incident was on 29 March 1918, when a shell hit the roof of the St-Gervais-et-St-Protais Church, collapsing the roof onto the congregation then hearing the Good Friday service. A total of 91 people were killed and 68 were wounded. There was no firing between 25 and 29 March, when the first barrel was being replaced; an unconfirmed intelligence report claimed that it had exploded. Barrels were probably changed again between 7-11 April and again between 21-24 April. The diameter of the later shells increased from 21 to 24 cm, indicating that the used barrels had been re-bored. A further emplacement, later identified as specifically designed for the Paris Gun, was found by advancing US troops at the beginning of August, on the north side of the wooded hill at Coucy-le-Château-Auffrique, some 86 km from Paris.

The gun was taken back to Germany in August 1918 as Allied advances threatened its security. No guns were ever captured by the Allies. It is believed that near the end of the war they were completely destroyed by the Germans. One spare mounting was captured by American troops in Bruyères-sur-Fère, near Château-Thierry, but the gun was never found; the construction plans seem to have been destroyed as well.

After World War I
Under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, the Germans were required to turn over a complete Paris Gun to the Allies, but they never complied with this.

In the 1930s, the German Army became interested in rockets for long-range artillery as a replacement for the Paris Gun—which was specifically banned under the Versailles Treaty. This work eventually led to the V-2 rocket that was used in World War II.

Despite the ban, Krupp continued theoretical work on long-range guns. They started experimental work after the Nazi government began funding the project upon coming to power in 1933. This research led to the 21 cm K 12 (E), a refinement of the Paris Gun design concept. Although it was broadly similar in size and range to its predecessor, Krupp's engineers had significantly reduced the problem of barrel wear. They also improved mobility over the fixed Paris Gun by making the K 12 a railway gun.

The first K 12 was delivered to the German Army in 1939 and a second in 1940. During World War II, they were deployed in the Nord-Pas-de-Calais region of France; they were used to shell Kent in Southern England between late 1940 and early 1941. One gun was captured by Allied forces in the Netherlands in 1945.

In popular culture

A parody of the Paris Gun appears in the Charlie Chaplin movie The Great Dictator. Firing at the Cathedral of Notre Dame, the "Tomanians" (the fictional country that represented Germany) succeed in blowing up a small outhouse.

The destruction of the St-Gervais-et-St-Protais Church inspired Romain Rolland to write his novel Pierre et Luce.

title: Paris Gun


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Definition in graphic arts

Dicdef (and poor at that as well), unsearchable as well as inaccurate title even with what little content there is, hasn't been edited other than for mundane formatting in at least two years...what more can I say? Postdlf 06:38, 31 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Already covered by definition #7 in Definition, and doesn't really apply to the subject matter covered by Wikipedia:Definition.  --Ardonik 08:45, Jul 31, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete dicdef. -- Cyrius|✎ 21:13, 31 Jul 2004 (UTC)


text:
ISO 3166-2:IS

ISO 3166-2:IS is the entry for Iceland in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.

Currently for Iceland, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 8 regions and 64 municipalities.

Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is IS, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Iceland and the second part is a digit (1–8) for regions or three letters for municipalities.

Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).

Municipalities

 * Notes

Changes
The following changes to the entry are listed on ISO's online catalogue, the Online Browsing Platform:

title: ISO 3166-2:IS