text:
John Parker

John Parker may refer to:

Canada

 * John Mason Parker (Saskatchewan politician) (1882–1960), politician in Saskatchewan, Canada
 * John Havelock Parker (1929–2020), commissioner of the Canadian Northwest Territories
 * John Parker (Canadian politician) (born 1954), former Ontario MPP and Toronto City Councillor

United Kingdom

 * John Parker (died 1617) (1548–1617), MP for Truro, Hastings, Launceston and East Looe
 * John Parker (died 1619) (1548–1619), MP for Queenborough
 * John Parker (MP for Rochester) (fl. 1631–1680), recorder in Kent, MP for Rochester, a judge and a Baron of the Exchequer
 * John Parker, 1st Baron Boringdon (1735–1788), British peer and Member of Parliament
 * John Parker (MP for Clitheroe) (1754–1797), MP for Clitheroe
 * John Parker, 1st Earl of Morley (1772–1840), British peer and politician
 * John Parker (Whig politician) (1799–1881), British politician of the Victorian era, Privy Counsellor, 1853
 * John Parker (Labour politician) (1906–1987), British politician, Labour MP for Dagenham, 1945–1983
 * John Parker, 6th Earl of Morley (1923–2015), British peer

United States

 * John Parker (Continental Congress) (1759–1832), South Carolina delegate to the Continental Congress, 1786–1788
 * John Parker (Iowa politician), member of the Michigan Territory's last legislature
 * John Parker (Montana politician) (born 1970), state representative of Montana
 * John Parker (Oswego County, NY) (1810–?), New York assemblyman 1866 and 1870
 * John M. Parker (1863–1939), Democratic governor of Louisiana, 1920–1924
 * John M. Parker (New York politician) (1805–1873), congressman from New York
 * John Francis Parker (1907–1992), mayor of the city of Taunton, Massachusetts

Sportsmen

 * John Parker (cricketer, born c. 1823) (c. 1823 – 1892), Scottish cricketer
 * John Parker (West Indian cricketer) (1871–1946)
 * John Parker (water polo) (born 1946), American water polo player
 * John Parker (New Zealand cricketer) (born 1951), New Zealand test cricketer
 * John Willie Parker, English former professional footballer
 * John Parker (Australian footballer) (born 1971), former Australian rules footballer
 * John Parker (English cricketer) (1902–1984), English cricketer, played for Hampshire 1926–29 & 1932–33
 * John Parker (Australian cricketer) (1936–2018), Australian cricketer
 * John Parker (rower) (born 1967), American rower
 * John Parker (American football), American football player and coach

Jurists

 * John Parker (Irish judge) (c. 1500–1564), English-born merchant, politician and judge
 * John Parker (English judge) (fl. 1655), member of the judiciary during the Interregnum, sat on the High Court of Justice in 1649 that tried Capel, Holland and Hamilton; father of Samuel Parker, Bishop of Oxford
 * John Victor Parker (1928–2014), United States federal judge
 * John J. Parker (1885–1958), American judge who served at the Nuremberg Trials and missed a nomination to the Supreme Court by one vote

Arts

 * John Parker (author) (born 1938), British author and journalist
 * John Parker (musician), British musician from the band Nizlopi
 * John Parker (painter), English painter
 * John Parker (potter) (born 1947), New Zealand potter
 * John Adams Parker (1829–1905), New York painter
 * John Henry Parker (writer) (1806–1884), English writer on architecture
 * Jon Kimura Parker (born 1959), Canadian pianist
 * John L. Parker Jr. (born 1947), American runner, writer
 * J. S. Parker (1944–2017), New Zealand painter
 * John William Parker (1792–1870), English publisher and printer

Military

 * John Parker (Jacobite) (c. 1651–in or after 1719), English army officer and Jacobite conspirator
 * John Parker (captain) (1729–1775), captain of the Lexington militia at the Battle of Lexington
 * John Boteler Parker (1786–1851), English army general
 * John Frederick Parker (United States Navy) (1853–1911), United States Navy captain and one-time governor of American Samoa, 1908–1910
 * John Lankester Parker (1896–1965), British test pilot
 * John Henry Parker (general) (1866–1942), (aka "Gatling Gun Parker"), U.S. Army general, officer commanding the Gatling Gun Detachment in Cuba during the Spanish–American War

Other

 * John Parker (bishop) (died 1681), Church of Ireland clergyman
 * John Parker (cleric) (1798–1860), cleric, artist and author of The Passengers: containing the Celtic Annals
 * John Parker (priest), English Anglican priest
 * John Parker (pioneer) (1758–1836), founder of Fort Parker in Texas, killed in the Fort Parker massacre
 * John Palmer Parker (rancher) (1790–1868), founder of the Parker Ranch of Hawaii
 * John Parker (abolitionist) (1827–1900), African American abolitionist, inventor, and industrialist
 * John Frederick Parker (1830–1890), bodyguard to Abraham Lincoln, derelict of duty the night of Assassination of Abraham Lincoln
 * John Richard Parker (1834–1915), American kidnapped by Native American raiding party
 * Michael Parker (courtier) (John Michael Avison Parker, 1920–2001), Duke of Edinburgh's private secretary
 * Sir John Parker (businessman) (born 1942), British businessman
 * John Parker, fictional character in Buckaroo Banzai
 * John C. Parker (died 1927), trade unionist
 * John Parker (botanist), British botanist, Cambridge University
 * John Parker (whaling master) (1800–1867), whaler
 * John William Robinson Parker, British soldier and antiquarian

title: John Parker


text:
List of heads of government of Algeria

This is a list of heads of government of Algeria since the formation of the Provisional Government of the Algerian Republic (GPRA) in exile in Cairo, Egypt in 1958 during the Algerian War, through independence in 1962, to the present day.

A total of twenty people have served as Prime Minister of Algeria (not counting two Presidents of the GPRA and two Acting Prime Ministers). Additionally, one person, Ahmed Ouyahia, has served on three non-consecutive occasions.

Key

 * Political parties
 * {{legend||National Liberation Front|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}
 * {{legend||Party of the Socialist Revolution|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}
 * {{legend||National Rally for Democracy|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}

 * Other factions
 * {{legend||Military|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}
 * {{legend||Independent|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}

 * Status
 * {{legend|#E6E6AA|Denotes Acting Prime Minister}}

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: List of heads of government of Algeria


text:
Richard Baker (game designer)

Richard Baker (full name L. Richard Baker III) is an American author and game designer who has worked on many Dungeons & Dragons campaign settings.

Early life, education, and military
Rich Baker was born and raised in Florida, then moved with his family to New Jersey at age ten. Baker graduated from Virginia Tech in 1988 with a degree in English. He received a commission as an ensign in the U.S. Navy, and served as a deck officer for three years on board the USS Tortuga; he qualified as a Surface Warfare Officer and was a lieutenant (junior grade) by the time he left the Navy. Baker married his college sweetheart, Kim Rohrbach. They have two daughters, Alex and Hannah.

Career
Baker began looking for a new career, and found one at TSR. "I'd been playing the AD&D game off and on since 1979. When I decided to leave the Navy, I sent TSR my résumé just for the pure hell of it. TSR sent me back a writing test, which I must have done pretty well on, since they brought me out for an interview in September of 1991. I'd never published a word before then or even worked the convention circuit, but they hired me anyway."

After joining TSR in 1991, Rich worked on most of TSR's product lines at one point or another. By 1998, he had published over thirty game products and many magazine articles. Baker started out writing game products such as Rock of Bral for the Spelljammer line, as well as material for the Forgotten Realms, Planescape, and Ravenloft settings. Baker and Colin McComb co-designed the Birthright campaign setting. The Birthright Campaign Setting boxed set won the 1995 Origins Award for Best New Role-Playing Supplement: "I'm very proud of it. It represents an entirely new approach to the traditional fantasy roleplaying campaign, and the world itself is filled with a strong sense of history." Baker also oversaw the development of the Player's Option series of second edition AD&D manuals, stating "I greatly enjoyed the work I did on the World Builder's Guidebook".

Baker went on to co-design the Alternity science fiction game: "As much as I am proud of my other work, I probably learned the most from the work Bill [Slavicsek] and I put into the Alterity game system. Designing a new roleplaying game from the ground up is an immensely complicated undertaking, and I'm very pleased with the way it turned out." Alternity was completed while TSR was still in operation and was meant to replace Amazing Engine as the generic science-fiction role-playing game system for the company, but it was not released; the game was later released by Wizards of the Coast after they bought TSR. Aside from various Alternity products, Baker also worked on the Star*Drive and Dark•Matter settings for the game, and worked as Creative Director on them for a time. Baker wrote several novels for various settings as well.

His game work includes Dungeons & Dragons (3rd and 4th Edition), Axis & Allies Miniatures, Axis & Allies Naval Miniatures: War at Sea, and numerous Dungeons & Dragons adventures and sourcebooks.

Rich lived in New Jersey, Virginia, Rhode Island, Virginia again, Louisiana, Virginia a third time, and Wisconsin, but now lives in Auburn, Washington, with his wife Kim, two daughters, and cats. He's a fan of Golden Age SF and the Philadelphia Phillies.

Rich was at the forefront of Wizards of the Coast's range of Forgotten Realms and core Third Edition D&D accessory books, and author of several novels set in and below Faerûn. He also answered questions about the Forgotten Realms at the Wizards website's forums – see the below external links.

Baker led the SCRAMJET team, which consisted of James Wyatt, Matt Sernett, Ed Stark, Michele Carter, Stacy Longstreet, and Chris Perkins; this team updated the setting and cosmology of D&D as the fourth edition was being developed. Baker and Bruce Cordell wrote a new release of the Gamma World Roleplaying Game (2010), which was based on the rules for fourth edition D&D. He also headed design on the 4th edition D&D iteration of the Dark Sun Campaign Setting, along with numerous other credits for that edition of the game.

He was also at the forefront of designing the series "Axis and Allies: War at Sea", a game of tactical World War II naval battles.

On December 14, 2011, Baker announced on his Wizards.com community page that Wizards of the Coast had eliminated his position and he would no longer be an employee of the company. He acknowledged the possibility that he would continue to write for the Forgotten Realms novel line, and hoped to continue design work on the company's miniature lines on a freelance basis.

In 2020, Baker announced on his blog that he was joining ZeniMax Online Studios as a senior writer on the Elder Scrolls Online video game.

Forgotten Realms Accessory Books/Adventure Modules

 * Unapproachable East (2003)
 * Player's Guide to Faerûn (2004)

Creative Director of:

 * Magic of Faerûn (2001)
 * Lords of Darkness (2001)
 * Races of Faerûn (2003)

Developer of:

 * Forgotten Realms Campaign Setting (2001)
 * Lords of Darkness (2001)
 * Races of Faerûn (2003)
 * Unapproachable East (2003)
 * Underdark (2003)

Dark-Sun Accessory Books/Adventure Modules

 * Valley of Dust and Fire (1992)
 * The Will and the Way: Psionicists of Athas (1994)
 * Dragon's Crown (1993)
 * Merchant House of Amketch (1993)

Other Dungeons & Dragons Accessory Books/Adventure Modules

 * Spells & Magic (1996)
 * World Builder's Guidebook (1996)
 * Planescape Monstrous Compendium II (Planescape) (1999)
 * The Forge of Fury (2000)
 * Complete Arcane (2004)
 * Tome of Battle (2006)
 * Red Hand of Doom (2006)
 * Lost Mine of Phandelver (2014)

Gamma World 7th Edition

 * Gamma World Roleplaying Game Rulebook (with Bruce R. Cordell) (2010)
 * Gamma World Roleplaying Game Expansion: Legion of Gold (with Bruce R. Cordell) (2011)

Novels

 * The Adventures
 * The Shadow Stone (1998)
 * Double Diamond Triangle Saga
 * Easy Betrayals (1998)
 * Star*Drive
 * Zero Point (1999)
 * Birthright
 * The Falcon and the Wolf (2000 online publication )
 * The Cities
 * The City of Ravens (2000)
 * (R.A. Salvatore's) War of the Spider Queen
 * Condemnation (2003)
 * The Last Mythal
 * Forsaken House (2004)
 * Farthest Reach (2005)
 * Final Gate (2006)
 * Blades of Moonsea
 * The Swordmage (2008)
 * Corsair (2009)
 * Avenger (2010)
 * Breaker of Empires
 * Valiant Dust (2017)
 * Restless Lightning (2018)
 * Scornful Stars (2019)

Board games

 * Risk Godstorm (2004)
 * Ultimate Scheme (2017)

title: Richard Baker (game designer)


text:
Courier Car Co

The Courier Car Co. was an automobile manufacturer formed in 1909 by the Stoddard-Dayton Company in Dayton, Ohio, to produce smaller, lighter and lower-priced models than the luxury automobiles produced by Stoddard Dayton.

Its advertisements were early advocates of the compact car: "Don't buy more car than you need ... Don't you buy a car of greater power or capacity than you need." The cars were built on a 100 in wheelbase and powered by a 22.5 hp engine. Four-cylinder models (3245 cc and 3638 cc) were produced.

The car was comparable in size to the Ford Model T, but had three forward gears to Ford's two and the Courier was a snappier performer. Only two body styles were offered: an open, four-passenger touring car and a sporty, two-seater sportster.

Like Stoddard-Dayton, Courier formed part in the United States Motor Company. After the acquisition by United States Motors, the 1912 models were called Courier Clermonts. Production ceased in 1913, when United States Motor Company failed.

The Courier plant occupied what had been the Kinsey Manufacturing building on the southwest corner of Wayne Avenue and State Street (now Fourth Street), which now houses the Dayton Plumbing Supply Co.

The discovery and restoration of a Courier is featured in a chapter of Ralph Steubenrauch's classic book The Fun of Old Cars.

title: Courier Car Co


text: User talk:81.7.118.163

title: User talk:81.7.118.163


text:
Muskeget Island

Muskeget Island is a low, sandy island to the west of Tuckernuck Island and Nantucket, in the town of Nantucket, Massachusetts, United States.

Geography
Muskeget Island is part of the terminal moraine marking the maximum extent of the last glacial ice sheet to reach the northeastern coast. It has an area of 244 acre; a saltwater lagoon covers 30 acre of this area. The Muskeget Island group contains Dry Shoal, Skiff Island, Tombolo Point, and Adams Island. Two-thirds of the island is owned by former reporter Crocker Snow Jr., with the rest owned by the town of Nantucket. There are currently two unoccupied shacks on the island, both of which are remnants of old structures, and a small landing strip.

Muskeget has a high elevation of fourteen feet. Its northern shore is mostly sand dunes, while its southern shore is mainly marshes. A sandy point protects and engulfs the lagoon.

History
The island was part of Dukes County until 1887 when it was annexed by Nantucket County. Shortly after, land on the island was purchased to form the Muskeget Island Club for waterfowl hunting, and several buildings were constructed. Around 1950, half of the island, along with the 8 buildings standing at that time, was purchased by a partnership led by aviator Crocker Snow Sr. (as erosion has changed the shape of that island, that land currently encompasses 2/3 of the island). Snow, who built the Muskeget Island Airport there with his son Crocker Snow Jr., became full owner of the property after the other two partners died. Snow Jr. wrote several books on the island and its ecology and pushed to have it designated as a National Natural Landmark by the National Park Service in April 1980, and having a conservation restriction placed on the island in 2009.

Ecology
Southern Muskeget island is made up mostly of marshes and grassland.

Muskeget is the southernmost breeding place of grey seals, the most common mammal on the island, and Muskeget and Monomoy islands are the primary seal colonies off the New England coast. In 2008, more than 2,000 pups were born on Muskeget. With this large seal population, the waters surrounding Muskeget are an important feeding area for great white sharks.

The island is also home to an endemic species of rodent known as the Muskeget vole or beach vole, one of two terrestrial mammal species on the island. This vole feeds on beach grass stalks, leaves and seeds, and insect adults and larvae. Their predators include domestic cats (which were extirpated from the island some time in the late 1800s), short-eared owls, and northern harriers. The IUCN has classified the beach vole as vulnerable.

Endangered species of pirate spiders, piping plovers, roseate terns and arctic terns can also be found on the island.

Access
Muskeget is inaccessible to most boats because of shoals and sandbars. Kayaking there can be very dangerous because of rip currents, swells, and whirlpools. Specialized boats designed to navigate the difficult waters around the Island depart from Nantucket Harbor.

Muskeget Island Airport, is a small privately-owned turf landing strip 1100' in length x 25' in width on the island. It is said to be accessible to STOL aircraft, but has been designated by the FAA as being for emergency use only.

title: Muskeget Island


text: Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Writing Captions


text:
Ludwig Biermann

Ludwig Franz Benedikt Biermann (March 13, 1907 in Hamm – January 12, 1986 in München) was a German astronomer, obtaining his Ph.D. from Göttingen University in 1932.

He made important contributions to astrophysics and plasma physics, discovering the Biermann battery. He predicted the existence of the solar wind which in 1947 he dubbed "solar corpuscular radiation".

He was a visiting scholar at the Institute for Advanced Study in the fall of 1961. He won the Bruce Medal in 1967 and the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1974.

Asteroid 73640 Biermann is named in his honor.

Awards

 * Awarding of Bruce Medal
 * Awarding of RAS gold medal

Obituaries

 * MitAG 66 (1986) 10
 * QJRAS 27 (1986) 698

title: Ludwig Biermann


text:
Rhaetic

Rhaetic or Raetic, also known as Rhaetian, was a Tyrsenian language spoken in the ancient region of Rhaetia in the eastern Alps in pre-Roman and Roman times. It is documented by around 280 texts dated from the 5th up until the 1st century BC, which were found through northern Italy, southern Germany, eastern Switzerland, Slovenia and western Austria, in two variants of the Old Italic scripts. Rhaetic is largely accepted as being closely related to Etruscan.

The ancient Rhaetic language is not to be confused with the modern Romance languages of the same Alpine region, known as Rhaeto-Romance.

Classification

The German linguist Helmut Rix proposed in 1998 that Rhaetic, along with Etruscan, was a member of a language family he called Tyrrhenian, and which was possibly influenced by neighboring Indo-European languages. Robert S. P. Beekes likewise does not consider it Indo-European. Howard Hayes Scullard (1967), on the contrary, suggested it to be an Indo-European language, with links to Illyrian and Celtic. Nevertheless, most scholars now think that Rhaetic is closely related to Etruscan within the Tyrrhenian grouping.

Rix's Tyrsenian family is supported by a number of linguists such as Stefan Schumacher, Carlo De Simone, Norbert Oettinger, Simona Marchesini, and Rex E. Wallace. Common features between Etruscan, Rhaetic, and Lemnian have been observed in morphology, phonology, and syntax. On the other hand, few lexical correspondences are documented, at least partly due to the scanty number of Rhaetic and Lemnian texts and possibly to the early date at which the languages split. The Tyrsenian family (or Common Tyrrhenic) is often considered to be Paleo-European and to predate the arrival of Indo-European languages in southern Europe.

History
In 2004 L. Bouke van der Meer proposed that Rhaetic could have developed from Etruscan from around 900 BC or even earlier, and no later than 700 BC, since divergences are already present in the oldest Etruscan and Rhaetic inscriptions, such as in the grammatical voices of past tenses or in the endings of male gentilicia. Around 600 BC, the Rhaeti became isolated from the Etruscan area, probably by the Celts, thus limiting contacts between the two languages. Such a late datation has not enjoyed consensus, because the split would still be too recent, and in contrast with the archaeological data, the Rhaeti in the second Iron Age being characterized by the Fritzens-Sanzeno culture, in continuity with late Bronze Age culture and early Iron Age Laugen-Melaun culture. The Raeti are not believed, archeologically, to descend from the Etruscans, as well as it is not believed plausible that the Etruscans are descended from the Rhaeti. Helmut Rix dated the end of the Proto-Tyrsenian period to the last quarter of the 2nd millennium BC. Carlo De Simone and Simona Marchesini have proposed a much earlier date, placing the Tyrsenian language split before the Bronze Age. This would provide one explanation for the low number of lexical correspondences.*

The language is documented in Northern Italy between the 5th and the 1st centuries BC by about 280 texts, in an area corresponding to the Fritzens-Sanzeno and Magrè cultures. It is clear that in the centuries leading up to Roman imperial times, the Rhaetians had at least come under Etruscan influence, as the Rhaetic inscriptions are written in what appears to be a northern variant of the Etruscan alphabet. The ancient Roman sources mention the Rhaetic people as being reputedly of Etruscan origin, so there may at least have been some ethnic Etruscans who had settled in the region by that time.

In his Natural History (1st century AD), Pliny wrote about Alpine peoples: "... adjoining these (the Noricans) are the Rhaeti and Vindelici. All are divided into several states. The Rhaeti are believed to be people of Etruscan race driven out by the Gauls; their leader was named Rhaetus."

Pliny's comment on a leader named Rhaetus is typical of mythologized origins of ancient peoples, and not necessarily reliable. The name of the Venetic goddess Reitia has commonly been discerned in the Rhaetic finds, but the two names do not seem to be linked. The spelling as Raet- is found in inscriptions, while Rhaet- was used in Roman manuscripts; it is unclear whether this Rh represents an accurate transcription of an aspirated R in Rhaetic, or is merely an error.

Phonology
Our understanding of Rhaetic phonology is quite uncertain, and the working hypothesis is that it's very similar to Etruscan phonology.

Vowels
It appears that Rhaetic, like Etruscan, had a four-vowel system: /a/, /i/, /e/, /u/.

Consonants
Unlike Etruscan, Rhaetic does not seem to have the distinction between aspirated and non-aspirated stops. Consonant phonemes attested in Rhaetic include a dental (or palatal) affricate /ts/, dental sibilant /s/, palatal sibilant /ʃ/, nasals /n/, /m/ and liquids /r/, /l/.

Nouns
The following cases are attested in Rhaetic:
 * Nominative/Accusative: No ending
 * Genitive: Ending -s
 * Pertinentive (locative to the genitive): Endings -si and -(a-)le
 * Locative: Ending -i (uncertainly attested)
 * Ablative: Ending -s

For plural, the ending -r(a) is attested.

Verbs
Two verbal suffixes have been identified, both known from Etruscan:
 * -ke is the 3rd person preterite ending
 * -u is the suffix that derives verbal nouns from preterite forms.

title: Rhaetic


text:
IDA Ireland

IDA Ireland (An Ghníomhaireacht Forbartha Tionscail) is the agency responsible for the attraction and retention of inward foreign direct investment (FDI) into Ireland. The agency was founded in 1949 as the Industrial Development Authority and placed on a statutory footing a year later. In 1969 it became a non-commercial autonomous state-sponsored body. Today it is a semi-state body that plays an important role in Ireland's relationship with foreign investors, with multinationals accounting for 10.2% of employment and 66% of Irish exports. The agency partners with investors to help them to begin or expand their operations in the Irish market. It provides funding support to research and development projects, and has a number of direct support mechanisms, including employment and training grants.

History
In the years following World War II, Ireland began moving towards a more open economic model, away from the old model characterised by import substitution industrialisation. As part of this wider push, the Minister for Industry and Commerce at the time, Daniel Morrissey, proposed the creation of a body to advise the government on industrial policy. The Industrial Development Authority was created to fill this role in 1949.

Throughout the 1950s, the IDA established its vision of 'industrialisation by invitation,' one which initiated the low corporation-tax system that remains in place in Ireland today. According to an article in a U.S. law journal in 1984, the IDA is 'probably the most powerful governmental agency in Ireland,' as it 'acts as both coordinator and lobbyist for all matters relating to manufacturing and service industries as well as the industrial infrastructure.' IDA Ireland has a large global network of branches/offices in the U.S., Europe, and Asia.

Governance and funding
While IDA Ireland gets its funding from the Irish State (with costs circa €48m in 2017), as an autonomous non-commercial state-sponsored body, it maintains its own independent board and governance. IDA Ireland is authorised to issue grants and financial incentives to firms coming to Ireland (paying out €91 million in 2017).

Successes
The IDA has been successful in attracting multinationals to Ireland over decades. As of 2018, foreign multinationals pay 80% of all Irish corporate taxes, directly employing 25% of the Irish labour-force, and are responsible for 57% of the non-farm economic value-add in Ireland (40% of value-add in Irish services and 80% of value-add in Irish manufacturing). They comprise 14 of Ireland's top 20 firms (including tax inversions). Key "selling points" have been the young, English-speaking, flexible workforce, a strong educational system, commercially-aware third level institutions, a location which allows easy exporting into Europe, and the ability to tap into European talent in the wake of Brexit, and a 'clustering effect' in certain industrial and business sectors.

Narrow base
The IDA is strongly reliant on the U.S. as a source of FDI. There are no non-U.S./non-U.K. firms in Ireland's top 50 firms (by revenue), and only one by employees, the German retailer Lidl. The 14 foreign multinationals in Ireland's top 20 firms are all U.S-based (including tax inversions). The U.K. firms in Ireland, outside of retailers like Tesco who sell into Ireland (also like Lidl), are pre-2009 after which the U.K. changed its tax code (see U.K. transformation).

Taxation
Up until 2018, the U.S. was one of the last few global jurisdictions not to run a "territorial" tax system (the U.K. switched in 2009–12). Jurisdictions with "territorial" tax systems have separate, and much lower, tax rates for foreign-sourced profits, and companies from such places therefore make less use of Ireland as a base. While the IDA market Ireland as a base from which to sell into Europe, Despite other features, some commentators see Ireland as a base for U.S. multinationals to shield themselves from the pre-TCJA “worldwide” tax system (Ireland is sometimes described as a corporate haven).

U.S. multinationals aside, Ireland's main attractiveness is for life sciences manufacturing, who have an optimal combination of intellectual property and tangible assets to use Ireland's main IP-based BEPS tool, the capital allowances for intangible assets scheme (which has an Irish effective tax rate of <3%). A key IDA Ireland target market is Japan, which is a large global source of life sciences manufacturing enterprises, and also has one of the highest corporate tax rates in the world.

Brexit
The IDA has listed managing Brexit as a priority in the coming years. Ireland has been criticised for failing to win substantive London business, and particularly the valuable financial services business, as a result of Brexit. However, the IDA has been credited with achieving limited success in the face of housing and infrastructure shortages and regulatory hurdles, and a 2018 S&P Global Market Intelligence study found that Germany and Ireland were the leaders in attracting financial businesses relocating from London. In the Irish government's 2019 budget, IDA Ireland was allocated €2 million for the purposes of Brexit preparedness and increasing Ireland's "global footprint".

Challenges
The majority of foreign multinationals in Ireland are also concentrated in a small group of very large technology and life science firms. These firms have the "intellectual property" (or IP) needed to use Ireland's IP-based BEPS tax tools (which have effective Irish corporate tax rates of <3%). Ireland's largest company Apple, post their giant BEPS inversion in 2015 (see "leprechaun economics"), now represents circa 25% of Irish GDP. Because of Apple, the Central Bank of Ireland has had to replace Irish GDP with modified gross national income (or GNI*).

As well as the beneficial use of Ireland's IP-based BEPS tax tools, and a relatively low corporation tax, there remain a range of other reasons for IDA Ireland's successes, including the English-speaking location to tap into European talent in the wake of Brexit, the highly skilled workforce, and 'clustering effect'.

With the overhaul of the U.S. tax code under the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017, and a switch to a "territorial" system, it has been shown the net effective tax rates in the U.S. and Ireland are now almost identical, even with the replacement single malt system still in place (see effect of TCJA on Ireland). There is a concern whether Ireland will suffer in such an environment, both in terms of keeping existing U.S. multinationals and attracting more. This is amplified by Ireland's mid-range competitiveness in most non-taxation related aspects; the country is usually positively cited for ease of doing business, but other aspects are seen as less successful (see, for example, the Global Competitiveness Report, where Ireland typically places in the 20th-25th world ranking range).

Plans
In 2015 the Irish government announced a five-year plan for the IDA aimed at accelerating economic recovery in the country, setting a target of 80,000 jobs by 2019 and investing €150 million in a regional property programme. This jobs target was reached in 2017. In its 2019 budget the Irish government allocated an additional €10 million to the property programme to promote regional development.

title: IDA Ireland


text:
Homefront (American TV series)

Homefront is an American television drama series created by former Knots Landing producers Lynn Marie Latham and Bernard Lechowick in association with Lorimar Television. The show is set in the late 1940s in the fictional city of River Run, Ohio, and aired on ABC from September 24, 1991, to April 26, 1993. The show's theme song, "Accentuate the Positive", was written by Harold Arlen and Johnny Mercer and performed by Jack Sheldon.

Series overview
Homefront begins in September 1945 and focuses on three families from different backgrounds, the Sloan, Metcalf and Davis families. The Sloans, Mike Sr. and Ruth (Ken Jenkins and Mimi Kennedy), own a steel manufacturing factory initially responsible for making tank parts in the war. They are coming to grips with the death of their only son, Mike Jr., a soldier, and the arrival of his Italian war bride, Gina (Giuliana Santini), a Jewish Holocaust survivor. The Metcalfs include widow Anne (Wendy Phillips), and her three children, Hank (David Newsom), Linda (Jessica Steen) and Jeff (Kyle Chandler). Anne and Linda are dealing with being displaced from their job at the plant for returning GIs, while Hank, a returning soldier, and Jeff, a baseball player for the Cleveland Indians, are involved in a love triangle with college student Sarah Brewer (Alexandra Wilson). Meanwhile, Linda's friend, Ginger Szabo (Tammy Lauren) is shocked when her boyfriend Charlie Hailey (Harry O'Reilly) returns from the war with a British war-bride, Caroline (Sammi Davis).

Abe (Dick Anthony Williams) and Gloria Davis (Hattie Winston) are descendants from slaves and work for the Sloans as a chauffeur and housekeeper respectively. Their son Robert (Sterling Macer, Jr.) is a decorated veteran who served in Europe with the 761st Armored Battalion. He lands a job at Sloan Industries but is isolated and belittled by his racist co-workers. In the second season, he is joined by Perrette (Perrey Reeves), his white French war bride. Later cast members include Al Kahn (John Slattery), a Jewish union organiser and possible former Communist sympathiser who seduces Anne, and Judy Owens (Kelly Rutherford), a widow working as a bartender who has an affair with Mike Sr.

While the show received critical praise, it struggled in the ratings and was close to being cancelled after its first season. An April 11, 1992 issue of TV Guide ran a S.O.S (Save Our Shows) campaign to save five series from cancellation, which included Homefront, and two other period pieces (set in the 1950s), Brooklyn Bridge on CBS and I'll Fly Away on NBC. Of the five, Homefront received the most votes – 99,591 – and was subsequently renewed. Abigail Van Buren of Dear Abby also dedicated a column to the show, urging fans to write into the network to save it. However ratings did not improve in its second season, and after being moved around the schedule numerous times, the show was cancelled.

Cast and characters

 * Kyle Chandler as Jeff Metcalf
 * Sammi Davis-Voss as Caroline Hailey
 * Ken Jenkins as Mike Sloan, Sr.
 * Mimi Kennedy as Ruth Sloan
 * Tammy Lauren as Ginger Szabo
 * Sterling Macer, Jr. as Cpl. Robert Davis (season 1 & eps. 1–4 of season 2)
 * David Newsom as Lt. Hank Metcalf (season 1)
 * Harry O'Reilly as Sgt. Charlie Hailey
 * Wendy Phillips as Anne Metcalf Kahn
 * Giuliana Santini as Gina Sloan
 * Jessica Steen as Linda Metcalf
 * Dick Anthony Williams as Abe Davis
 * Alexandra Wilson as Sarah Brewer (eps. 1–20)
 * Hattie Winston as Gloria Davis
 * John Slattery as Al Kahn (eps. 5+)
 * Kelly Rutherford as Judy Owen (season 2; recurring season 1 )

Season 1 (1991–92)

 * Note:

Season 2 (1992–93)

 * Note:

title: Homefront (American TV series)


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Adriaan Blaauw

Adriaan Blaauw (12 April 1914 – 1 December 2010) was a Dutch astronomer.

Blaauw was born in Amsterdam to Cornelis Blaauw and Gesina Clasina Zwart, and studied at Leiden University and the University of Groningen, obtaining his doctorate at the latter in 1946. In 1948, he was appointed an associate professor at Leiden. In the 1950s he worked a few years at the Yerkes Observatory, before returning to Europe in 1957 to become director of the Kapteyn Astronomical Institute in Groningen. Blaauw was closely involved in the founding of the European Southern Observatory, and was its general director from 1970 to 1975. In 1975, he returned to the Netherlands, becoming a full professor at Leiden, until his retirement in 1981. From 1976 to 1979, he served as president of the International Astronomical Union. He chaired the committee for assigning scientific priorities for the observing programme of the astrometric satellite Hipparcos. His research has involved star formation, the motions of star clusters and stellar associations, and distance scale. His main contributions are the explanation of the origin of stars that move with high velocity in our galaxy and the description of star formation in associations.

Among his many honours he was made member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1963, elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1973. In 1989, he was awarded the Bruce Medal. In 1997, the University of Groningen instituted a Blaauw chair and Blaauw lecture in his honour. The asteroid 2145 Blaauw and the Blaauw Observatory are named after him. He died in 2010 in the city of Groningen.

Honors
Asteroid 2145 Blaauw is named for him.

title: Adriaan Blaauw


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Singapore Exchange

Singapore Exchange Limited (SGX Group) is a Singapore-based exchange conglomerate, operating equity, fixed income, currency and commodity markets. It provides a range of listing, trading, clearing, settlement, depository and data services. SGX Group is also a member of the World Federation of Exchanges and the Asian and Oceanian Stock Exchanges Federation. it is ASEAN's second largest market capitalization after Indonesia Stock Exchange at US$585.97 billion as of September 2023.

History
SGX was formed on 1 December 1999 as a holding company. The share capital of some former exchange companies, namely Stock Exchange of Singapore (SES), Singapore International Monetary Exchange (SIMEX) that was founded in 1984 and Securities Clearing and Computer Services Pte Ltd (SCCS) were cancelled and new shares issued in these companies were fully paid up by SGX. In this way, all assets previously owned by these three companies were transferred to SGX. The shareholders previously holding shares in SES, SIMEX and SCCS received newly issued SGX shares.

On 23 November 2000, SGX became the third exchange in Asia-Pacific to be listed via a public offer and a private placement after Australian Securities Exchange; which listed in 1998 and Hong Kong Stock Exchange earlier in 2000. Listed on its own bourse, the SGX stock is a component of benchmark indices such as the MSCI Singapore Free Index and the Straits Times Index.

In May 2006, SGX launched Asia's first over-the-counter (OTC) clearing platform named SGX AsiaClear for a suite of OTC derivative products to reduce counter-party risks and increase liquidity. It introduced OTC trade registration and clearing for a wide range of forward freight agreements (FFA), and oil swaps. Shortly thereafter, it launched the world's first clearing and settlement of iron ore swaps and has since become the world's largest clearer of iron swaps.

On 25 September 2006, the Joint Asian Derivatives Exchange (JADE), a joint venture between SGX and Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT) became operational. However, this joint venture was cancelled in November 2007, with CME Groups selling of its 50% stake in the joint venture to SGX. The contracts previously traded on JADE were transferred to SGX's QUEST trading platform.

In March 2007, SGX bought a 5% stake in Bombay Stock Exchange for 42.7 million dollars.

On 15 June 2007, Tokyo Stock Exchange, Inc. announced that it had acquired a 4.99% stake in SGX. Since then the value of the shares has declined and the Tokyo Stock Exchange, Inc. has made a decision to sell the shares it holds in SGX to its parent company, the Tokyo Stock Exchange Group, Inc.

On 31 January 2008, SGX acquired a 20% stake in Philippine Dealing System Holdings Corp, which has become an associated company of SGX.

On 18 April 2008, SGX opened a representative office in Beijing.

At the beginning of 2008, SGX reached an agreement to buy at least 95% of Singapore Commodity Exchange. On 30 June 2008, SGX completed the acquisition of Singapore Commodity Exchange Ltd (SICOM), which now is a 100% subsidiary.

In August 2009, SGX formed a joint venture with Chi-X Global, called Chi-East. At the beginning of October 2010, this joint venture received approval from the Monetary Authority of Singapore to operate a dark pool trading platform.

On 8 June 2010, SGX announced it has opened an office in London. This is part of SGXs move to invest S$250 million into its Reach initiative. By implementing this initiative, SGX plans to create the world's fastest trading engine and a data centre as well as further connecting trading communities in the world to Singapore. The new trading platform, SGX Reach, will be delivered to SGX by NASDAQ OMX, Voltaire and  HP. This platform is based on GENIUM, a trading platform developed by NASDAQ OMX.

In November 2016 the Singapore Exchange (SGX) acquired the Baltic Exchange, headquartered in London.

In February 2011, SGX has entered a partnership with NASDAQ OMX to provide a suite of tools and solutions for companies, which is designed to support listed companies in Asia.

SGX plans to introduce dual currency trading of securities, which includes stocks, bonds and other listed investments in two different denominations, the Singapore and US dollar on 2 April 2012.

In October 2013, excessive speculation led to the sharp price fall of three mainboard stocks, Blumont Group Ltd, Asiasons Capital Ltd. and LionGold Corp. SGX and the Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS) launched a review of activities around the three stocks, and in February 2014 jointly issued a consultation paper setting out a number of enhancements to strengthen the securities market and protect investors from speculative and market manipulative behaviour. Enhancements included implementing a minimum trading price for mainboard listed issuers, requiring reporting of short positions and the creation of three independent regulatory bodies.

On 6 February 2018, the Singapore Exchange (SGX) and Bursa Malaysia announced a proposed stock market trading link which will be operational by end-2018. The new link will allow investors to conduct trading of shares in an efficient manner. In addition to trading, the link will cover the clearing and settlement of traded stocks, procedures required for post-trading arrangements. Before the launch of the link, cross-border supervisory and enforcement arrangements will be worked upon by the Monetary Authority of Singapore and Securities Commission Malaysia. After the results of the 2018 Malaysian general election, plans for the stock market link were put on hold.

On 21 January 2020, Singapore Exchange (SGX) was listed in the Bloomberg Gender-Equality Index (GEI) for the first time in recognition of gender equality, as well as its commitment to diversity and board representation.

Merger talks
SGX was in merger talks with Australian Securities Exchange (ASX), which would have created a bourse with a market value of US$14 billion had the deal been successful. The Australian Competition & Consumer Commission said on 15 December 2010 that it would not oppose SGXs takeover of ASX.

SGX's plans to buy ASX have drawn criticism from the Tokyo Stock Exchange, which is the second largest shareholder in SGX. A representative of the TSE said SGX's bid for ASX "would flag off a race to consolidate". TSE chief Atsushi Saito fears isolation of the Tokyo Stock Exchange as a result of the takeover.

SGX revised its initial takeover proposal in an attempt to overcome some of the opposition to the plans. This would have decreased the number of Singaporean citizens on the board of the combined company and would have given addition seats to Australians. However, on 8 April 2011, the Treasurer of Australia, Wayne Swan, made the decision to block the merger between the two exchanges. Upon the announcement that the federal government would block the merger, SGX retracted its bid for ASX shares and decided to seek growth opportunities elsewhere.

As of July 2012, SGX was in merger talks with the London Stock Exchange (LSE) and the two exchanges already signed a cross trading agreement. However, on 20 July, SGX said there are no plans for a takeover of or merger with LSE.

Structure
SGX operates several different divisions, each responsible for handling specific businesses.
 * SGX ETS (Electronic Trading System): provides global trading access to SGX markets where 80 per cent of the customers are from outside Singapore.
 * SGX DT (Derivatives Trading): provides derivatives trading.
 * SGX ST (Securities Trading): provides securities trading.
 * SGX DC (Derivatives Clearing): subsidiary for clearing and settlement operations.
 * SGX AsiaClear: offers clearing services for over-the-counter (OTC) oil swaps and forward freight agreements.
 * SGX Reach: an electronic trading platform.
 * Central Depository Pte Ltd: subsidiary responsible for securities clearing, settlement and depository services.
 * Asian Gateway Investments Pte Ltd: wholly owned subsidiary
 * Singapore Exchange IT Solutions Pte Ltd: provides computer services and maintenance as well as software maintenance

Listing
The companies listed on SGX belong to one of two groups: the companies listed on the SGX Mainboard and the companies listed on SGX NASDAQ. In order to be listed on the mainboard, a company has to fulfill some requirements set forth by SGX, while a listing on NASDAQ is not tied to the fulfilment of any additional conditions. SESDAQ was replaced on 26 November 2007 by the SGX Catalist after an extensive study of other market models and a public consultation in May 2007. The word "Catalist" is an amalgamation of the words "Catalyst" and "List", to reflect the idea that the Catalist board could be used as a catalyst to propel growth upon listing. Catalist differs from SESDAQ primarily in its use of a sponsor system to determine a prospective company's suitability to list and as a corporate advisor to advise on listing and corporate governance issues.

Trading system
The exchange launched SGX QUEST (SGX Quotation and Execution System) in August 2004. The system is used by the exchange for derivatives and securities trading.

Financial performance
As of 31 January 2010, SGX had 774 listed companies with a combined market capitalisation of S$650 billion. The revenues of SGX are mainly from the securities market (75%) and derivatives market (25%).

SGX reported a net profit of $165.8 million for the first half of its financial year 2010. Excluding non-recurring items, net profit was 7% higher compared to 1H FY2009 ($159.2 million). In the second quarter of the financial year 2010, excluding the non-recurring items, net profit of $77.0 million was 3% higher than a year ago. Operating revenue increased 6% to $324.0 million (1H FY2009: $304.9 million).

Corporate governance code
Numerous guidelines are set to be shifted to SGX Listing Rules. At least one-third of the board members are to be independent directors. The shareholding threshold for assessing director independence has been lowered to 5% from 10%. A director will no longer be independent if he or any immediate family member is a substantial shareholder with a 5% stake or more. Relationships between chairman and CEO must be disclosed if they are immediate family members. There will be a proposed 9 year limit on independent directors as a hard limit, or the appointment of independent directors who have served more than nine years to be put to an annual vote requiring approval from majority of all shareholders and majority of non-controlling shareholders, with a transition period of three years to be provided regardless of the option adopted. Directors must be submitted for renomination and reappointment at least once every three years. If dividends are not paid, companies must state the reason.

Companies listed
As of February 2022, there were 672 listed companies (excluding GDRs, Hedge Funds and Debt Securities) on the Singapore Exchange with a market capitalisation of SGD 899,124 million (roughly US$657 billion).

Major shareholders
The following are top 10 largest shareholders of Singapore Exchange Ltd as of 30 June 2022:

 * 1) SEL Holdings Pte Ltd – 23.41%
 * 2) Citibank Nominees Singapore Pte Ltd – 16.09%
 * 3) DBSN Services Pte Ltd – 10.88%
 * 4) Raffles Nominees (Pte) Limited – 9.65%
 * 5) HSBC (Singapore) Nominees Pte Ltd – 8.42%
 * 6) DBS Nominees (Private) Limited – 5.42%
 * 7) Phillip Securities Pte Ltd – 1.41%
 * 8) BPSS Nominees Singapore (Pte) Ltd – 1.03%
 * 9) United Overseas Bank Nominees (Private) Limited – 0.69%
 * 10) CGS-CIMB Securities (Singapore) Pte Ltd – 0.38%

title: Singapore Exchange


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Chris Denning

Christopher David Denning (10 May 1941 – 24 June 2022) was an English radio presenter and sex offender. His career effectively ended when he was convicted of sexual offences in 1974. He was imprisoned several times in the United Kingdom, Czechia and Slovakia between 1985 and his death in custody in 2022.

Early life
Christopher David Denning was born in Hayes, Middlesex on 10 May 1941. He grew up in Cowley, Oxford, the only child of middle-class parents. He has said that he was a rent boy from the age of 13 and remained so until the age of 18.

Radio career
His first radio experience was on a short-wave station in the United States as a teenager before travelling to Kenya to work on British Forces Network. He then returned to the UK in time to become the first announcer heard on BBC Two when it began broadcasting in 1964. He worked for Radio Luxembourg and Radio London before presenting the Saturday afternoon programme Where It's At with Kenny Everett (produced by Johnny Beerling) on the BBC's Light Programme. He then became one of the original DJs on BBC Radio 1, where he continued presenting Where It's At, had his own weekly show and deputised as necessary for Tony Blackburn on the latter's breakfast show. Denning was gay, and has said that he was 'out' when he was working at Radio 1.

Denning left Radio 1 in 1969 after facing accusations that his job there came into conflict with his new promotional job at Decca Records, which the BBC had initially agreed to with provisos. He worked for Decca for two years. He then became the number two producer at Bell Records and was involved in developing the careers of the Bay City Rollers and Gary Glitter.

After his employment with radio stations and record companies, he ran his own music and video production business, and was part of a 1997 Radio One reunion with Terry Wogan and Tony Blackburn.

Legal history
In 1959, Denning was jailed in Germany for distributing pornographic images.

Denning's first conviction for gross indecency and indecent assault was in 1974 when he was convicted at the Old Bailey, although he was not imprisoned. Before his conviction, Denning had been working for Jonathan King's newly founded UK Records, but King sacked him after the guilty verdict.

During the 1970s, Denning was part of a group of child sex offenders based around a disco for young people called the Walton Hop. Other participants included Tam Paton, manager of the Bay City Rollers (convicted of child sex offences in 1982), and Jonathan King. All became suspects in Surrey Police's Operation Arundel, an investigation focusing on sex offenders, which ultimately led to convictions against King and Denning.

In 1985, he was imprisoned for 18 months for gross indecency with a child, and in 1988 for three years for indecent assault on a 13-year-old boy and possession of indecent photographs. In March 1996, he was imprisoned for ten weeks for publishing indecent photographs. The following year he was held in Pankrác Prison in Prague to await his trial in 2000, which convicted him of abusing seven boys aged under 15. He was released in 2001.

After his release, he was wanted for questioning by Surrey Police, but an extradition attempt by British authorities in the Prague City Court failed because the alleged offences fell outside of the Czech Republic's statute of limitation of five years, but Denning was ordered to leave the country "indefinitely". He was arrested in August 2005 at Heathrow Airport after returning to Britain from Austria. He admitted to five charges of the indecent assault of boys aged under 16 years of age, dating back to the 1970s and 1980s: he was convicted the following February and imprisoned for four years. Meanwhile, a European arrest warrant was issued in December 2007.

In 2008, he was extradited from Britain to Slovakia, where he was jailed in October for five years for producing child pornography. The offences in Slovakia dated back to 2002 and 2003. He had been briefly held in custody in Bratislava during 2004 following a search of his house, but then quickly left the country.

In June 2013, he was arrested in east London as part of Operation Yewtree, an investigation into sexual abuse. He was re-arrested and bailed out in September of that year. The allegations made against Denning were not part of those relating to Jimmy Savile. In May 2014, as a result of the investigation, he was charged with 41 sex offences. In August 2014, Denning admitted to 29 of the charges in relation to the offences committed against boys. In November at Southwark Crown Court, he pleaded guilty to a further eleven charges. In all, he pled guilty to 40 sexual offences committed in the period 1967 to 1987 relating to 26 male victims, the youngest of whom was 9 at the time of the offence. In December 2014, Judge Alistair McCreath sentenced him to 13 years in prison.

Denning was charged with six offences stemming from the Operation Ravine investigation on 7 June 2016. On 22 August 2016, Denning pleaded guilty to 21 sex offences between 1969 and 1986, against 11 boys, the youngest of whom was 8. At Southwark Crown Court on 7 October 2016, Judge Alistair McCreath sentenced Denning to another 13 years in prison for these additional offences, running from the day of the court hearing.

On 7 December 2017, Denning pleaded not guilty to two counts of indecent assault and one of taking indecent photos of a child between March 1979 and March 1981. His trial was due to start on 11 June 2018, but the charges were dropped on 13 June.

Death
Denning died while in prison custody in Bedford Hospital on 24 June 2022, as a result of a bone infection caused by diabetes. He was 81 years old. His death was not reported publicly until October 2023. The Prisons and Probation Ombudsman, which investigates deaths in prison custody, found that "when clinical readings first showed that Mr Denning needed emergency care, he was not transferred to hospital for treatment".

title: Chris Denning


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Darwin–Wedgwood family

The Darwin–Wedgwood family are members of two connected families, each noted for particular prominent 18th-century figures: Erasmus Darwin, a physician and natural philosopher, and Josiah Wedgwood FRS, a noted potter and founder of the eponymous Josiah Wedgwood & Sons pottery company. The Darwin and Wedgwood families were on friendly terms for much of their history and members intermarried, notably Charles Darwin, who married Emma Wedgwood.

The most notable member of the family was Charles Darwin, a grandson of both Erasmus Darwin and Josiah Wedgwood. The family also included at least ten Fellows of the Royal Society, and several artists and poets (among whom was the 20th-century composer Ralph Vaughan Williams). Presented below are brief biographical descriptions and genealogical information, and mentions of some notable descendants. (The individuals are listed by year of birth and grouped into generations.) The relationship to Francis Galton, and to his immediate ancestors, is also given. (Note, however, that the data tree below is not intended to include all descendants, nor is it intended to include all prominent descendants. Also note that Ursula Wood died in 2007, Richard Darwin Keynes died in 2010, and Horace Basil Barlow died in 2020.)

Josiah Wedgwood
Josiah Wedgwood (1730–1795) was a noted pottery businessman and a friend of Erasmus Darwin. During 1780, on the death of his long-time business partner Thomas Bentley, Josiah asked Darwin for help in managing the business. As a result of the close association that grew up between the Wedgwood and Darwin families, one of Josiah's daughters later married Erasmus's son Robert. One of the children of that marriage, Charles Darwin, also married a Wedgwood – Emma Wedgwood, Josiah's granddaughter. Robert's inheritance of Josiah's money enabled him to fund Charles Darwin's chosen vocation in natural history that resulted in the inception of Darwin's theory of evolution. Subsequently, Emma's inheritance made the Darwins a wealthy family.

Josiah Wedgwood married Sarah Wedgwood (1734–1815), and they had seven children, including:
 * Susannah Wedgwood (1765–1817) (later Darwin; see below)
 * Josiah Wedgwood (1769–1843) (see below)
 * Thomas Wedgwood (1771–1805) (see below)

Erasmus Darwin
Erasmus Darwin (1731–1802) was a physician, botanist and poet from Lichfield, whose lengthy botanical poems gave insights into medicine and natural history, and described an evolutionist theory that anticipated both Jean-Baptiste Lamarck and his grandson Charles. He married twice, first during 1757 to Mary Howard (1740–1770), who died from alcohol-induced liver failure aged 31. She gave birth to:

 * Charles Darwin (1758–1778) (not Charles Robert Darwin)
 * Erasmus Darwin the Younger (1759–1799)
 * Elizabeth Darwin, 1763 (survived 4 months)
 * Robert Waring Darwin (1766–1848, see below)
 * William Alvey Darwin, 1767 (survived 19 days)

He then had an extra-marital affair with a Miss Parker, producing two daughters:

 * Susanna Parker (1772–1856)
 * Mary Parker (1774–1859)

He then became smitten with Elizabeth Collier Sacheveral-Pole, who was married to Colonel Sacheveral-Pole and was the natural daughter of the Charles Colyear, 2nd Earl of Portmore. Sacheveral-Pole died soon afterwards, and Erasmus married Elizabeth and they bore an additional seven children:

 * Edward Darwin (1782–1829)
 * Frances Anne Violetta Darwin (1783–1874); married Samuel Tertius Galton; mother of Francis Galton (see below)
 * Emma Georgina Elizabeth Darwin (born 1784)
 * Sir Francis Sacheverel Darwin (1786–1859)
 * Rev. John Darwin (1787–1818)
 * Henry Darwin (born 1789)
 * Harriot Darwin (1790–1825); later Harriott Maling.

Samuel "John" Galton

Samuel "John" Galton FRS (1753–1832) was an arms manufacturer from Birmingham. He married Lucy Barclay (1757–1817), daughter of Robert Barclay Allardice, MP, 5th of Urie. They had the eight children:

 * Mary Anne Galton (1778–1856), married Lambert Schimmelpenninck in 1806
 * Sophia Galton (1782–1863) married Charles Brewin in 1833
 * Samuel Tertius Galton (1783–1844) (whose son Francis Galton was also notable).
 * Theodore Galton (1784–1810)
 * Adele Galton (1784–1869) married John Kaye Booth, d.s.p.
 * Hubert John Barclay Galton (1789–1864).
 * Ewen Cameron Galton (1791–1800), died aged 9.
 * John Howard Galton (1794–1862), father of Douglas Strutt Galton.

Robert Darwin (1766–1848)
The son of Erasmus Darwin, Robert Darwin was a noted physician from Shrewsbury, whose own income as a physician, together with astute investment of his wife's inherited wealth, enabled him to fund his son Charles Darwin's place on the Voyage of the Beagle and then gave him the private income needed to support Charles' chosen vocation in natural history that led to the inception of Darwin's theory of evolution. He married Susannah Wedgwood, daughter of Josiah Wedgwood (see above), and they had the following children.

 * Marianne Darwin (1798 – 18 July 1858), married Henry Parker (1788–1858) in 1824.
 * Caroline Sarah Darwin (1800–1888), married Josiah Wedgwood (grandson of the first Josiah Wedgwood)
 * Susan Elizabeth Darwin (1803–1866)
 * Erasmus Alvey Darwin (1804–1881)
 * Charles Robert Darwin (1809–1882) (see below)
 * Emily Catherine Darwin (1810–1866), was Charles Langton's second wife.

Josiah Wedgwood
Josiah Wedgwood (1769–1843) was the son of the first Josiah Wedgwood, sometime resident of Dorset (where he served as High Sheriff and later Member of Parliament for Stoke-on-Trent. He married Elizabeth Allen (1764–1846) and they had nine children:
 * Sarah Elizabeth Wedgwood (1793–1880).
 * Josiah Wedgwood (1795–1880) married Caroline Darwin, daughter of Robert Darwin and Susannah Wedgwood. They are grandparents of composer Ralph Vaughan Williams.
 * Mary Ann Wedgwood (1796–1798).
 * Charlotte Wedgwood (1797–1862) was Charles Langton's first wife. After her death he married her cousin, Emily Catherine Darwin; she is the ancestor of Hugh Massingberd, see below.
 * Henry Allen Wedgwood (1799–1885).
 * Francis Wedgwood (1800–1888); married, on 26 April 1832 at Rolleston on Dove, Staffordshire, Frances Mosley, daughter of Rev. John Peploe Mosley and Sarah Maria Paget and granddaughter of Sir John Parker Mosley and Elizabeth Bayley; and was the grandfather of Josiah Wedgwood, 1st Baron Wedgwood and great-grandfather of C. V. Wedgwood and Camilla Wedgwood.
 * Hensleigh Wedgwood (1803–1891), etymologist, philologist and barrister, author of A Dictionary of English Etymology father of Frances Julia Wedgwood (1833–1913), and grandfather of Bishop J. I. Wedgwood. His wife, his first cousin on his mother's side, Frances "Fanny" Wedgwood (née Mackintosh; 1800–1889, daughter of James Mackintosh), was a good friend and correspondent of Harriet Martineau.
 * Frances (Fanny) Wedgwood (1806–1832).
 * Emma Wedgwood (1808–1896); married Charles Darwin, son of Robert Darwin and Susannah Wedgwood.

Thomas Wedgwood
Thomas Wedgwood (1771–1805). Pioneer in developing photography, friend and patron of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, the pet. Son of Josiah Wedgwood.

Samuel Tertius Galton

Samuel Tertius Galton married Frances Anne Violetta Darwin (1783–1874), daughter of Erasmus Darwin, see above. They had three sons and four daughters including:
 * Erasmus Galton (1815–1909), Lord of the Manor of Loxton.
 * Francis Galton (1822–1911) – Inventor, polymath and father of eugenics. He married Louisa Jane Butler (1822–1897) during 1853 but their union was childless.

Sir Francis Sacheverel Darwin

Sir Francis Sacheverel Darwin was the son of Erasmus Darwin and Elizabeth (née Collier), daughter of Charles Colyear, 2nd Earl of Portmore. Francis was an accomplished travel writer, explorer and naturalist and bravely studied the ravages of the plague on Smyrna at great personal risk. He was the only one to return of his friends who went to the East. A physician to George III, he was knighted by George IV.

On 16 December 1815 he married Jane Harriet Ryle (11 December 1794 – 19 April 1866) at St. George, Hanover Square London. They had many children including:
 * Mary Jane Darwin (12 February 1817 – 1872), married Charles Carill-Worsley of Platt Hall, near Manchester, in 1840. (Their daughter, Elizabeth, who married Nicolas Tindal, later Tindal-Carill-Worsley, was the mother of Charles and Ralph Tindal-Carill-Worsley—see under 5th generation).
 * Frances Sarah Darwin (19 July 1822 – 1881), married Gustavus Barton in 1845, widowed 1846 and remarried to Marcus Huish during 1849. She is the stepmother of the art dealer Marcus Bourne Huish.
 * Edward Levett Darwin (12 April 1821 – 23 April 1901), married Harriett Jessopp during 1850. A solicitor in Matlock Bath, Derbyshire, Edward Levett Darwin was the author, using the pseudonym "High Elms", of Gameskeeper's Manual, a guide for tending game on large estates which shows keen observation of the habits of various animals.

Charles Darwin

The most prominent member of the family, Charles Darwin, proposed the first coherent theory of evolution by means of natural and sexual selection.

Charles Robert Darwin (1809–1882) was a son of Robert Waring Darwin and Susannah Wedgwood. He married Emma Wedgwood (1808–1896), a daughter of Josiah Wedgwood II and Elizabeth Allen. Charles's mother, Susannah, was a sister to Emma's father, Josiah II. Thus, Charles and Emma were first cousins. Charles' sister Caroline married Emma's brother, Josiah Wedgwood III.

The Darwins had ten children, three of whom died before reaching maturity.

 * William Erasmus Darwin (1839–1914); graduate of Christ's College Cambridge, he was a banker in Southampton. He married an American Sara Sedgwick (1839–1902), but they did not have any children.
 * Anne Elizabeth Darwin (1841–1851) died in Great Malvern aged ten and her death caused her father much grief.
 * Mary Eleanor Darwin (1842–1842) died as a baby.
 * Henrietta Emma "Etty" Darwin (1843–1927); although she married Richard Litchfield during 1871, the couple never had any children. Etty Darwin edited her mother's private papers (published during 1904) and assisted her father with his work.
 * George Howard Darwin (1845–1912) (see below)
 * Elizabeth (Bessy) Darwin (1847–1926); never married and did not have any progeny.
 * Francis Darwin (1848–1925) (see below).
 * Leonard Darwin (1850–1943) (see below).
 * Horace Darwin (1851–1928) (see below).
 * Charles Waring Darwin (1856–1858) was the tenth child and sixth son of Charles and Emma Darwin. His early death from scarlet fever kept Charles Darwin from attending the first publication of his theory at the joint reading of papers by Alfred Russel Wallace and himself at the meeting of the Linnean Society on 1 July 1858. Wallace was not present either; he was on an expedition.

William Darwin Fox
The Rev. William Darwin Fox (1805–1880) was a second cousin of Charles Darwin and an amateur entomologist, naturalist and palaeontologist. Fox became a lifelong friend of Charles Darwin after their first meeting at Christ's College, Cambridge. He married Harriet Fletcher, who gave him five children, and after her death married Ellen Sophia Woodd, who provided the remainder of his 17 children.

After his graduation from Cambridge during 1829, Fox was appointed as the Vicar of Osmaston and during 1838 became the Rector of Delamere, a living he retained until his retirement during 1873.

George Howard Darwin
George Howard Darwin (1845–1912) was an astronomer and mathematician. He married Martha (Maud) du Puy of Philadelphia. They had five children:

 * Charles Galton Darwin (see below).
 * William Robert Darwin (married Sarah Monica Slingsby).
 * Gwendoline "Gwen" Darwin, artist; (see below).
 * Leonard Darwin 1899.
 * Margaret Elizabeth Darwin (married Sir Geoffrey Keynes, bibliophile) (see below).

Francis Darwin
Francis Darwin (1848–1925) was the botanist son of Charles Darwin and Emma Darwin (née Wedgwood). Francis Darwin married Amy Ruck during 1874, who died during 1876 after the birth of their son Bernard Darwin, an author on golf – see below. Francis married Ellen Crofts during September 1883 and they had a daughter Frances Crofts, who married and became known as the poet Frances Cornford (see below). During 1913 he married his third wife Florence Henrietta Darwin (née Fisher); there were no children of this marriage, but he became step-father to Fredegond Shove née Maitland and Ermengard Maitland.

He is buried at the Parish of the Ascension Burial Ground in Cambridge, where he is interred in the same grave as his daughter Frances Cornford. His third wife and his brother Sir Horace Darwin and his wife Lady 'Ida' are interred in the same graveyard, as well as his step-daughter Fredegond Shove but not her sister Ermengard Maitland.

Leonard Darwin
Leonard Darwin (1850–1943) was variously an army officer, Member of Parliament and eugenicist who corresponded with Ronald Fisher, thus being the link between the two great evolutionary biologists.

Horace Darwin
Horace Darwin (1851–1928) and Ida Darwin (1854–1946) had the following children:

 * Nora Darwin, married Sir Alan Barlow (see below).
 * Ruth Darwin.
 * Erasmus Darwin.

He is buried at the Parish of the Ascension Burial Ground in Cambridge, with his wife. His brother Sir Francis Darwin is interred in the same graveyard.

Charles Galton Darwin
Charles Galton Darwin 1887–1962 was the son of George Howard Darwin (see above) and was a noted physicist of the age, and Director of the National Physics Laboratory. His son George Pember Darwin (1928–2001) married Angela Huxley, great-granddaughter of Thomas Huxley.

Gwen Raverat (née Darwin)
Gwen Raverat (1885–1957) was the daughter of George Howard Darwin and was an artist. She married the French artist Jacques Raverat during 1911 and had daughters Elizabeth Hambro and Sophie Pryor, later Gurney. Her childhood memoir, Period Piece, contains illustrations of and anecdotes about many of the Darwin—Wedgwood clan.

Margaret Keynes (née Darwin)
Margaret Keynes (1890–1974) was the daughter of George Howard Darwin, (see above). She married Geoffrey Keynes, brother of the economist John Maynard Keynes (see Keynes family) and had sons Richard Keynes, Quentin Keynes, Milo Keynes and Stephen Keynes, and a daughter Harriet Frances. Date of birth 22 March 1890. She was the third child, her other siblings are: 1. Gwendolen Mary 27 Aug 1885. 2. Charles Galton 9 Dec 1887. 3. William Robert 22 August 1894.

Bernard Darwin
Bernard Darwin (1876–1961) was a golf writer. He married Elinor Monsell (died 1954) during 1906, and they had a son Robert Vere Darwin (7 May 1910 – 30 January 1974), and daughters Ursula Mommens (20 August 1908 – 30 January 2010), and Nicola Mary Elizabeth Darwin, later Hughes (1916–1976).

Frances Cornford (née Darwin)
Frances Cornford (1886–1960) Poet, daughter of Francis Darwin, see above, known to the family as 'FCC'; she was married to Francis Cornford, known to the family as 'FMC'. She is buried at the Parish of the Ascension Burial Ground in Cambridge, where she is in the same grave as her father Sir Francis Darwin. Her late husband, Francis, was cremated at Cambridge Crematorium on 6 January 1943, and his ashes are presumed to be interred in the same grave.

Ralph Vaughan Williams
Ralph Vaughan Williams (1872–1958), British composer. His maternal grandmother, Caroline Sarah Darwin, was Charles Darwin's older sister, and his maternal grandfather, Josiah Wedgwood III, was the older brother of Darwin's wife Emma.

Nora Barlow (née Darwin)
Nora Darwin (1885–1989), the daughter of Horace Darwin (see above), married Sir Alan Barlow. She also edited the Autobiography of Charles Darwin (ISBN 0393310698 (hardback) and ISBN 0-393-00487-2 (paperback)). They had the following six children:

 * Joan Helen Barlow, (26 May 1912 – 21 February 1954).
 * Sir Thomas Erasmus Barlow, (23 January 1914 – 12 October 2003), Royal Navy officer.
 * Erasmus Darwin Barlow (1915–2005).
 * Andrew Dalmahoy Barlow (1916–2006).
 * Professor Horace Basil Barlow (1921–2020). (see below)
 * Hilda Horatia Barlow (born 14 September 1919- 1 February 2017) married psychoanalyst John Hunter Padel; their daughter is the poet Ruth Padel (see below).

Josiah Wedgwood IV, 1st Baron Wedgwood
Josiah Wedgwood (1872–1943), great-great-grandson of Josiah Wedgwood I, was a Liberal and Labour MP, and served in the military during the Second Boer War and the First World War. He was elevated to the peerage in 1942 on the recommendation of his friend, Winston Churchill.

Charles Tindal-Carill-Worsley
Capt Charles Tindal-Carill-Worsley, RN, (died 1921) a great-grandson of Sir Francis Sacheverel Darwin, served on the Royal Yacht HMY Victoria and Albert (1899) during the reign of King Edward VII, before a successful career in the First World War, where he was commander of HMS Prince George during the Gallipoli Campaign of 1915 He was appointed Chevalier of the Legion of Honour by the President of France during 1918.

Ralph Tindal-Carill-Worsley
Cmdr Ralph Tindal-Carill-Worsley, RN (1886–1966), brother of Charles, naval officer and bon viveur, served on the Royal Yacht with his brother, before serving in the Battle of Jutland in World War I. He retired from the Royal Navy after the First World War but was recalled during World War II, when he was commandant of a training school for WRENS (members of the Women's Royal Naval Service). He married Kathleen, daughter of Simon Mangan of Dunboyne Castle, Lord Lieutenant of Meath and a first cousin of Brig. General Paul Kenna, VC, and had three children.

Sir Ralph Wedgwood, 1st Baronet
Sir Ralph L. Wedgwood, 1st Baronet CB CMG (2 March 1874 – 5 September 1956), railway executive, son of Clement Wedgwood.

Erasmus Darwin Barlow
Erasmus Darwin Barlow (1915–2005) was a psychiatrist, physiologist and businessman. Son of Nora Barlow.

Horace Barlow
Horace Barlow (1921–2020) was Professor of Physiological Optics and Physiology, Berkeley, California, US (1964–73); Royal Society Research Professor, Physiological Laboratory, Cambridge (1973–87).

John Cornford
John Cornford (1915–1936), was a poet and member of the International Brigades died during the Spanish Civil War. Son of Francis and Frances Cornford, see above.

Christopher Cornford
Christopher Cornford (1917–1993), was an artist and writer. Son of Francis and Frances Cornford, see above.

Henry Galton Darwin
Henry Galton Darwin (1929–1992) was a lawyer and diplomat. Son of Charles Galton Darwin.

Robin Darwin
Robert Vere "Robin" Darwin (1910–1974) was an artist. He is the son of Bernard Darwin, see above.

Quentin Keynes
Quentin Keynes (1921–2003) was a bibliophile and explorer. Son of Margaret Keynes, née Darwin, see above.

Richard Keynes
Professor Richard Darwin Keynes FRS (1919–2010) was a British physiologist. Son of Margaret Keynes, née Darwin, see above.

Ursula Mommens
Ursula Mommens (née Darwin, first married name Trevelyan) (1908–2010) was a well-known potter. Daughter of Bernard Darwin, see above. Her son by Julian Trevelyan is the movie-maker Philip Trevelyan.

Geoffrey Tindal-Carill-Worsley
Air Commodore Geoffrey Tindal-Carill-Worsley (1908–1996) was a Royal Air Force officer during the Second World War. Nephew of Charles and Ralph Tindal-Carill-Worsley.

Nicolas Tindal-Carill-Worsley
Group Captain Nicolas Tindal-Carill-Worsley (1911–2006) was a RAF bomber pilot during the Second World War (known as Nicolas Tindal). Son of Ralph Tindal-Carill-Worsley.

Camilla Wedgwood
Camilla Wedgwood (1901–1955), anthropologist, was the daughter of Josiah Wedgwood, 1st Baron Wedgwood (see above).

Cicely Veronica (CV) Wedgwood
Cicely Veronica Wedgwood (1910–1997), historian. Daughter of Ralph Wedgwood

Martin Thomas Barlow
Martin T. Barlow (born 1953) is a mathematician; son of Andrew Dalmahoy Barlow.

Phyllida Barlow
Phyllida Barlow (1944–2023) was a sculptor and art academic; daughter of Erasmus Darwin Barlow.

Matthew Chapman
Matthew Chapman (born 1950), screenwriter, author, grandson of Frances Cornford, see above.

Adam Cornford
Adam Cornford (born 1950), is a poet and essayist. Son of Christopher Cornford, see above.

Chris Darwin
Chris Darwin (born 1961), conservationist and adventurer, son of George Erasmus Darwin, see above, and brother of Sarah Darwin and Robert Darwin, see below.

Emma Darwin
Emma Darwin (born 1964), novelist, granddaughter of Charles Galton Darwin, see above.

Sarah Darwin
Sarah Darwin (born 1964), botanist, daughter of George Erasmus Darwin, see above, and sister of Chris Darwin and Robert Darwin, see above.

Randal Keynes
Randal Keynes (1948–2023), conservationist and author, son of Richard Keynes, see above.

Simon Keynes
Simon Keynes (born 1952), Elrington and Bosworth Professor of Anglo-Saxon in the Department of Anglo-Saxon, Norse, and Celtic at Cambridge University, son of Richard Keynes, see above, and brother of Randal Keynes, see above.

Hugh Massingberd
Hugh Massingberd (1947–2007) was an obituaries editor for The Daily Telegraph, a journalist and the author of many books on genealogy and architectural history. He was the great-grandson of Emily Langton Massingberd, and the great-great-grandson of Charlotte Langton (née Wedgwood), sister of Emma Darwin (Charles Darwin's wife) and granddaughter of Josiah Wedgwood I.

Ruth Padel
Ruth Padel (born 1946), poet, granddaughter of Sir Alan and Lady (Nora) Barlow (née Darwin), see above.

R. Sebastian 'Bas' Pease
R. Sebastian 'Bas' Pease (1922–2004), physicist, Director of Culham Laboratory for Plasma Physics and Nuclear Fusion (1968–1981), manager of the British chapter of the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs, grandson of the fourth Josiah Wedgwood (see above). His sister, Jocelyn Richenda 'Chenda' Gammell Pease (1925–2003), married Andrew Huxley.

Lucy Rawlinson
Lucy Rawlinson (née Pryor) (born 1948), painter (as Lucy Raverat), granddaughter of Gwen Raverat (née Darwin), see above.

Anthony Tindal
Managing director of Tindal wine merchant and youngest son of Nicolas Tindal-Carill-Worsley. Father of Harriet, William and Henry Tindal. Lives in Wicklow Ireland.

Ralph Wedgwood
Ralph Wedgwood (born 1964), philosopher, great-grandson of Ralph L. Wedgwood.

Anna Raverat
Anna Raverat (born 1969), author, daughter of Lucy Rawlinson.

Francis Hoar
Francis Hoar (born 1977), barrister (including in Erlam & Ors v Rahman & Anor and the judicial review brought by Simon Dolan against the UK government's 'lockdown' regulations). Son of Jacqueline (née Tindal) and grandson of Nicolas Tindal-Carill-Worsley, nephew of Anthony Tindal.

Eddie Peake
Eddie Peake (born 1981), contemporary artist, son of Phyllida Barlow.

Soumaya Keynes
Soumaya Keynes (born 1989), economist and journalist, daughter of Randal Keynes.

Skandar Keynes
Skandar Keynes (born 1991), political advisor and former actor, played Edmund in The Chronicles of Narnia, son of Randal Keynes.

Intermarriage
There was a notable history of intermarriage within the family. During the period being discussed, Josiah Wedgwood married his third cousin Sarah Wedgwood; Charles Darwin married his first cousin Emma Wedgwood; his sister, Caroline Darwin, married Emma's brother (and Caroline's first cousin), Josiah Wedgwood III. There were other instances of cousin marriage as well. Cousin marriage was not uncommon in Britain during the 19th century though why is debated: poorer communications, keeping wealth within the family, more opportunity of evaluating a relative of the opposite sex as a suitable marriage partner (unmarried young women of the upper and upper middle classes were closely chaperoned when meeting men outside the family during the 19th century), more security for the woman as she would not be leaving her family (though legal rights for married women increased during the century, as a rule her property became his and she had little legal recourse if he chose to abuse her).

Coat of arms
These arms were granted to Reginald Darwin, of Fern, Derbyshire, for himself and certain descendants of his father, Sir Francis Sacheverel Darwin, and his uncle Robert Waring Darwin (Father of Charles), on 6 March 1890. As Charles Darwin was part of the destination, they have been used in association with him, despite being granted after his death. Something similar is used by Darwin College, Cambridge.

A variant without mullets was being used by the Darwin family long before 1890. Erasmus Darwin used it with the motto E conchis omnia (All things out of shells), reflecting his belief that all life descended from one simple form. Charles' father Robert adopted the same motto, displaying it on his bookplate. Stephen Glover described in 1829 the older variant quartered with the Waring coat of arms (sable, a chevron between three storks' heads erased, argent).

title: Darwin–Wedgwood family


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John Gatenby Bolton

John Gatenby Bolton (5 June 1922 – 6 July 1993) was a British-Australian astronomer who was fundamental to the development of radio astronomy. In particular, Bolton was integral in establishing that discrete radio sources were either galaxies or the remnants of supernovae, rather than stars. He also played a significant role in the discovery of quasars and the centre of the Milky Way. Bolton served as the inaugural director of the Parkes radio telescope in Australia and established the Owens Valley Radio Observatory in California. Bolton's students held directorships at most of the radio observatories in the world and one was a Nobel Prize winner. Bolton is considered a key figure in the development of astronomy in Australia.

Early life
John Gatenby Bolton was born in Sheffield, United Kingdom, in 1922 to two high school teachers. While suffering from various sicknesses in his youth, such as severe asthma and migraines, Bolton showed an early interest and proficiency in sports, mathematics, and science. He was awarded a scholarship to the secondary King Edward VII School, but his family was required to pay full fees since his father's salary was above the threshold of the means-tested scholarship. At King Edward VII School, he was elected prefect and was awarded the school's mathematics prize in his final year. His upbringing is considered middle-class for the 1920s and 1930s United Kingdom.

Bolton was awarded a place to study pure mathematics and natural philosophy at Trinity College, Cambridge in 1940, and two scholarships to cover his fees and living expenses. Due to World War 2, his degree was reduced from three to two years. In his second year, Bolton decided to focus on physics rather than mathematics. He completed his degree in May 1942 with second-class honours. While an average result for a student that had previously finished in top third of his cohort, his mother had deteriorated and died during Bolton's examination period.

World War 2 and radar work
Bolton enlisted with the military after completing his final examinations, and chose the Navy due to his love of ships. He was commissioned as a sub-lieutenant in the Royal Navy Volunteer Reserve. While at officer training at HMNB Portsmouth he chose to do research and development of airborne radar.

Bolton's experience of radar during World War 2 would establish key relationships and experiences that would heavily influence his future radio astronomy career. Bolton's first war posting saw him responsible for two coastal radar stations and testing the latest radar sets in night fighters. At the end of 1942, Bolton was transferred to the Telecommunications Research Establishment, the headquarters of Britain's wartime radar research and development. At this location he met many of what would be many of the leaders of the post-war radio astronomy efforts, including Martin Ryle.

At the Telecommunications Research Establishment, Bolton first worked on developing a new airborne radar system operating at a wavelength of 3 cm, which included extensive testing during flights. By the time of the D-day landing, Bolton had grown tired of inflight testing radar. He was offered a position as radio officer on the British light aircraft carrier HMS Unicorn (I72). Such a position made Bolton responsible for all airborne electronics, ship-to-aircraft communications, and navigational aids. As a support ship, Unicorn had a reasonably safe war experience, with no major damage reported. Bolton's experience on Unicorn is credited with developing his hands-on expertise with electronics and the ideas that would help him later to build a sea-cliff interferometer.

As World War 2 ended in 1945, HMS Unicorn (I72) shuttled cargo and personnel in the Pacific theatre back to Australia. When Unicorn returned to Britain in December 1945, Bolton decided to remain in Sydney. The choice to make Australia his new home was largely due to the positive influence the climate had on his health but also because his application to enrol in postgraduate studies at the Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge University had been rejected. His abbreviated wartime undergraduate degree was deemed inadequate training for postgraduate study by the head of the Cavendish Laboratory, Lawrence Bragg.

CSIR, Cygnus, and the sea-cliff interferometer
After leaving the Navy, Bolton searched for a job through his Navy connections in Australia. Through one government official associated with finding work for veterans, an appointment was made for Bolton to meet Taffy Bowen, the head of Radiophysics Laboratory of CSIR. Bolton was soon appointed to the new research officer position, with duties of `research and development in connection with the application of radar techniques'. The expertise in radar technology by the Radiophysics Laboratory was world-class at the time, largely because Britain had shared the secret of radar with its Dominions as World War 2 began and due to a relatively large Australian radio physics community that had intimate ties with the ionospheric physicists in England.

Bolton was first assigned to measure the polarisation properties of sunspot radiations, an area of active investigation as the Sun was recently confirmed to be radio bright during World War 2. Bolton built two Yagi antennas and installed them at Dover Heights, Sydney. However, the Sun had entered a dormant period, with no sunspots on its surface. Having learnt of the discovery of radio emission from the plane of the Milky Way during his time at Cambridge University, and from observations onboard HMS Unicorn, Bolton speculated that there might be other radio bright stars like the Sun.

Following his intuition, Bolton and his colleague Bruce Slee pointed the two Yagi antennas towards the horizon and used the instruments as a sea-cliff interferometer to gain greater resolution than possible by using the antennas by themselves. Such a decision led to direct conflict with Bolton's boss Joe Pawsey, who reassigned Bolton to help design Yagi antennas for a potential Solar eclipse expedition after finding the antennas not pointing at the Sun. However, the expedition collapsed and Bolton was again ordered to observe the Sun with the new equipment during the day, but was permitted to use the equipment at night to investigate other potential radio sources.

Through discussions with Pawsey, Bolton learnt there had been conflicting reports about a radio source in the constellation of Cygnus reported by Stanley Hey. With Gordon Stanley, the pair completed a shallow survey of the southern sky with the sea-cliff interferometer. They confirmed the existence of the bright Cygnus source, later named Cygnus A, but at a position substantially different than that reported by Hey, and two weaker sources near the constellation Centaurus and at the edge of Cygnus. It was also during these nighttime observing runs that Bolton largely self-taught himself astrophysics using recent publications in The Astrophysical Journal.

With the sea-cliff interferometer, Bolton and Stanley achieved a resolution greater than 15 times than that of Hey's observations. They could be confident that the radio emission in Cygnus came from an area less than 8'. While Hey is credited with the discovery of the first radio 'star', Bolton's result confirmed Hey's conclusion that the source had to be compact. In tandem, these results represented the beginning of the science associated with discrete radio sources. Further observations produced a refined position for Cygnus A but no convincing optical counterpart, such as a bright star, was found.

Radio stars
Following the Cygnus result, Bolton, Stanley, and Slee set about systematically surveying the sky with an improved sea-cliff interferometer for other discrete radio sources. By February 1948, Bolton had evidence of six new discrete radio sources, and introduced the nomenclature of referring to the radio sources in a constellation alphabetically descending in brightness. This nomenclature is still in use in radio astronomy today for some of the brightest radio sources. Bolton showed that Cygnus A was not unique - either in its existence or in its lack of association with bright optical stellar counterparts. He had identified such famous radio sources as Taurus A, Centaurus A, and Hercules A.

Despite the expectation that acclaim would soon follow the revelations of a new class of objects previously unknown to astronomers, the astronomy community generally responded with skepticism due to the poor positional uncertainties and because the implications did not easily fit within the orthodox astronomical knowledge of the time. Furthermore, the amount of resources Bolton was occupying at the Radiophysics Lab for his discrete source investigation was leading to direct conflict with the Solar investigation team, in particular with Ruby Payne-Scott.

In the effort to improve the impact of his results on discrete radio sources, Bolton chose to refine his source positions and eliminate any systematic uncertainties. Bolton and Stanley did this via an expedition to New Zealand, conducting sea-cliff interferometric observations from both New Zealand and Australia. These observations corrected the positions of the sources in the 1948 paper by over 1 degree. With 10 arcminute precision and a better handle on systematic uncertainties due to ionospheric refraction, Bolton could now reasonably suggest optical counterparts. While the optical candidate of Cygnus A remained elusive, Bolton showed that Taurus A was associated with the peculiar Crab Nebula, Virgo A with a galaxy that emanated a long jet-like structure (M87), and Centaurus A with such a peculiar object that astronomers were contemporarily arguing about whether it belonged to the Milky Way or not.

While Bolton was wrong in suggesting Centaurus A and Virgo A were peculiar Galactic sources, Bolton changed his opinion within months of the paper's publication as new optical data was analysed. The results of the 1949 paper gained the interest of traditional optical astronomers and is often considered the beginning of extragalactic radio astronomy. The 1949 paper was likely the most important and impactful paper produced in Bolton's career.

On the basis of his recent academic success, Bolton did a tour of the key astronomy and radio engineering labs of the Northern Hemisphere in 1950. He was met with a frosty reception at the Cavendish by Martin Ryle and Lawrence Bragg, who were having too many guests visiting the lab at the time. However, during his Cambridge visit Bolton got to know the astrophysicist Fred Hoyle, which started a lifelong friendship and collaboration.

After returning from his trip, Bolton decided sea-cliff interferometry had reached its limit in terms of discovery, and decided to emulate the 220-ft parabolic aerial used by the Jodrell Bank group. At Dover Heights, New South Wales, they built a 72-ft parabolic dish into the soil. Using this instrument in 1953, Bolton and new CSIRO recruit Dick McGee surveyed the Galactic Plane, identifying the centre of the Milky Way - Sagittarius A.

Despite Bolton's academic success, Radio Astrophysics could only afford to build one large telescope in the 1950s. While Bolton insisted on building a larger dish modeled on his Dover Heights prototype, the laboratory favoured the Mills Cross radio interferometer. This decision led Bolton to direct conflict with his immediate boss Pawsey, after which he was reassigned by Bowen to the Cloud Physics division of Radio Astrophysics. This allowed Bowen to alleviate the conflict and provided the expertise of Bolton to his Cloud Physics group.

During Bolton's detour away from radio astronomy, he worked on understanding how to seed rainfall using silver iodide smoke jettisoned from aircraft. However, Bolton was aware during his brief stint in Cloud physics of the potential opportunity to start the radio astronomy group being established in California. Bolton accepted the position to set up a large radio telescope near Caltech offered by Lee Alvin DuBridge in 1954.

Caltech and Owens Valley
On joining Caltech as head of the radio astronomy program, Bolton set about establishing an American radio observatory using funds from the Office of Naval Research and Caltech. Along with Gordon Stanley, Bolton identified Owens Valley as an ideal site for a radio observatory because its natural mountain ranges shielded interference from coastal Californian cities and since it was reasonably close to Caltech. Bolton's priority for the type of instrument to build at Owens Valley was one that could accurately localise the position of sources to find their optical counterparts and resolve their radio structure, building on the many poor resolution detections coming from such instruments as the Mills Cross.

Bolton led the building of a two-element interferometer, composed of two 90-foot antennas. This instrument would go on to be incredibly scientifically productive, the test-bed for many leading American radio astronomers, and a prototype for the Very Large Array. One of the first scientific contributions from the Owens Valley telescopes was confirmation of radio emission from Jupiter, which gained significant media and institutional recognition for the instrument. With the successful building of the Owens Valley interferometer, Bolton was promoted to full-professor. He was also awarded a PhD from Caltech, but he refused to use the title throughout his life and referred to it as a "de facto" PhD.

The superior resolution of the Owens Valley interferometer meant Bolton and his team were beginning to identify radio sources that still remained unresolved at 10 arcsecond resolution. Following up one of these sources in the optical, 3C295, identified the counterpart as a galaxy at a redshift of 0.46, more than doubling the distance to an object in the Universe. This line of science reasoning set the course for Bolton's career as he returned to Australia.

Despite his successes at Caltech, Bolton had an understanding with Bowen that he would return to Australia when a giant radio telescope was being built. Along with poor health caused by the low air quality in Pasadena smog, Bolton and his family decided to return to Australia in 1960.

Parkes and quasars
Bolton arrived in Parkes, Australia as the development of the new Giant Radio Telescope was underway. Bowen had procured money from the Carnegie Institution for Science, Rockefeller Foundation, and the Australian government to develop a 64 m dish. Bolton had already played an important role in helping assess the design of the telescope, and now took ownership of construction and commission of the Parkes dish. He was also to be the inaugural director of the telescope.

The Parkes radio telescope, under guidance of Bolton, was completed on schedule and quickly contributed to two key radio astronomy results. Firstly, the telescope confirmed polarised radio emission from Centaurus A and Vela X. Detection of linear polarisation was confirmation that the radio emission from such sources is produced by the synchrotron mechanism. Secondly, and more importantly, Parkes detected Faraday rotation in polarised radio sources. This was the first astrophysical detection of the phenomenon and a result which was used as conclusive evidence that the Milky Way possessed a magnetic field.

While Bolton played a key role in the scientific direction of Parkes in these first two discoveries, his greatest scientific contribution with Parkes came with the discovery of quasars. Building on his work identifying optical sources to radio galaxies at Caltech, such as 3C48, accumulating evidence suggested there existed a unique class of active galaxies that were 100 times brighter optically than the most luminous galaxies which had been identified previously with radio sources. While not published, Bolton was first to correctly identify the extreme distance to 3C48 two years before it was published in 1962. The record to the most distant object in the Universe was regularly held by quasars discovered at Parkes by Bolton and his team.

After the discovery of the first quasars at Parkes, Bolton settled into the project that would occupy most of his time for the rest of the 1960s: surveying the southern sky with Parkes as to find new radio sources to associate to optical sources and determining their distances. He managed to follow this science path due to strong ties with optical astronomers at Palomar and Lick Observatories. At this career stage, Bolton was also being commissioned to chair government panels and present keynote lectures - with the pinnacle presenting the talk at the Solvay conference in 1964. In the 1960s, Bolton was also elected a Fellow of the Australian Academy of Science and was the inaugural NRAO Karl Jansky prize holder.

Parkes and the Apollo 11 Moon Landing
As director of Parkes, Bolton also played a part in the Apollo 11 Moon landing. NASA suggested to CSIRO for Parkes to join the Deep Space Network and be in directly involved with the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL). Bolton was keen to join this effort as he thought Parkes had a debt to NASA and the US for their help in construction and the numerous personal relationships he had developed there.

NASA's initial request was for Parkes to provide back-up in case the Apollo 11 moonwalk was delayed or in case of any failures in NASA's own tracking stations. Bolton and the Parkes technical crew took responsibility for ensuring the telescope's drive and control systems were in working order. Due to changes in the moonwalk schedule, NASA received TV signals from three sources - Goldstone, Honeysuckle Creek, and Parkes. NASA switched between Goldstone and Honeysuckle for the first few minutes of the moonwalk but the signal from Parkes was used for the reminder of the moonwalk. The role Parkes and Bolton played in the Apollo 11 Moon landing was dramatised in the 2000 film The Dish. Bolton would ensure Parkes would be involved in tracking for all the Apollo missions.

Later years at Parkes and awards
Bolton stepped down as Parkes director in 1971 to ease his administrative workload. While stepping down as director, Bolton continued pursuing science. For the remainder of his scientific career, he would focus on optical identifications of radio sources that were being surveyed by Parkes at 2.7 GHz. One significant result from this survey, when combined with previous low-frequency surveys, was Bolton's discovery of the peaked-spectrum source PKS B1934-638.

Bolton was elected to the Royal Society of London and vice-president of the International Astronomical Union in 1973. Furthermore, he was awarded the Royal Astronomical Society Gold Medal in 1977 for his contributions to optical and radio astronomy. After a series of heart attacks, Bolton passed away in 1993.

Honours and awards
Bolton received the following awards:
 * 1951 	Edgeworth David Medal (Australia)
 * 1967 	First Karl Jansky Lecturer (U.S.)
 * 1968 	Henry Norris Lecturer (U.S.)
 * 1969 	Elected Fellow of the Australian Academy of Science
 * 1972 	Elected Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
 * 1973 	Vice-President of the International Astronomical Union (1973–79)
 * Elected Fellow of the Royal Society of London
 * Elected Honorary Fellow of the Indian Academy of Sciences
 * 1977 	Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society
 * 1980 	Elected Foreign Associate of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences
 * 1982 	Commander of the Order of the British Empire
 * 1988 	Bruce Medal of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific (U.S.)

In popular culture

 * The Australian movie The Dish was about the role of the Parkes Radio Telescope in the Moon landing in 1969. The role of the director of the observatory (Cliff Buxton, played by Sam Neill) is based on John Bolton.
 * Bolton had the asteroid 12140 Johnbolton named in his honour.

Obituaries

 * JApA 14 (1993) 115
 * PASAu 11 (1994) 86
 * PASP 108 (1996) 729
 * QJRAS 35 (1994) 225

title: John Gatenby Bolton