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Colonial India

Colonial India was the part of the Indian subcontinent that was occupied by European colonial powers during the Age of Discovery. European power was exerted both by conquest and trade, especially in spices. The search for the wealth and prosperity of India led to the colonisation of the Americas after Christopher Columbus went to the Americas in 1492. Only a few years later, near the end of the 15th century, Portuguese sailor Vasco da Gama became the first European to re-establish direct trade links with India by being the first to arrive by circumnavigating Africa (c. 1497–1499). Having arrived in Calicut, which by then was one of the major trading ports of the eastern world, he obtained permission to trade in the city from the Saamoothiri Rajah. The next to arrive were the Dutch, with their main base in Ceylon. Their expansion into India was halted after their defeat in the Battle of Colachel to the Kingdom of Travancore, during the Travancore–Dutch War.

Trading rivalries among the seafaring European powers brought other coastal powers from the empires of Europe to India. The Dutch Republic, England, France, and Denmark–Norway all established trading posts in India in the early 17th century. As the Mughal Empire disintegrated in the early 18th century, and then as the Maratha Empire became weakened after the third battle of Panipat, many relatively weak and unstable Indian states which emerged were increasingly open to manipulation by the Europeans, through dependent Indian rulers.

In the later 18th century, Great Britain and France struggled for dominance, partly through proxy Indian rulers but also by direct military intervention. The defeat of the formidable Indian ruler Tipu Sultan in 1799 marginalised the French influence. This was followed by a rapid expansion of British power through the greater part of the Indian subcontinent in the early 19th century. By the middle of the century, the British had already gained direct or indirect control over almost all parts of India. British India, consisting of the directly ruled British presidencies and provinces, contained the most populous and valuable parts of the British Empire and thus became known as "the jewel in the British crown".

India, during its colonial era, was a founding member of the League of Nations, a participating nation in the Summer Olympics in 1900, 1920, 1928, 1932, and 1936, and a founding member of the United Nations in San Francisco in 1945. In 1947, India gained its independence and was partitioned into the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan, the latter of which was created as a homeland for colonial India's Muslims.

Portuguese
The Portuguese, first arriving by ship in May 1498, began establishing trading outposts in India. The first successful voyage to India was by Vasco da Gama in 1498, when after sailing around the Cape of Good Hope he arrived in Calicut, now in Kerala. Having arrived there, he obtained permission from Saamoothiri Rajah to trade in the city. The navigator was received with traditional hospitality, but an interview with the Saamoothiri (Zamorin) failed to produce any definitive results. Vasco da Gama requested permission to leave a factor behind in charge of the merchandise he could not sell; his request was refused, and the king insisted that Gama should pay customs duty like any other trader, which strained their relations. The ruler of the Kingdom of Tanur, who was a vassal to the Zamorin of Calicut, sided with the Portuguese, against his overlord at Calicut. As a result, the Kingdom of Tanur (Vettathunadu) became one of the earliest Portuguese allies in India. The ruler of Tanur also sided with Cochin. Many of the members of the royal family of Cochin in 16th and 17th members were selected from Vettom. However, the Tanur forces under the king fought for the Zamorin of Calicut in the Battle of Cochin (1504). However, the allegiance of the Mappila merchants in Tanur region still stayed under the Zamorin of Calicut.

Francisco de Almeida was appointed Viceroy of India in 1505. During his reign, the Portuguese dominated Kochi and established a few fortresses on the Malabar Coast. The Portuguese suffered setbacks from attacks by Zamorin forces in South Malabar; especially from naval attacks under the leadership of Calicut admirals known as Kunjali Marakkars, which compelled them to seek a treaty. The Kunjali Marakkars were credited with organizing the first naval defence of the Indian coast. Tuhfat Ul Mujahideen written by Zainuddin Makhdoom II (born around 1532) of Ponnani in 16th-century CE is the first-ever known book fully based on the history of Kerala, written by a Keralite. It is written in Arabic and contains pieces of information about the resistance put up by the navy of Kunjali Marakkar alongside the Zamorin of Calicut from 1498 to 1583 against Portuguese attempts to colonise Malabar coast. In 1571, the Portuguese were defeated by the Zamorin forces in the battle at Chaliyam Fort. Though Portugal's presence in India initially started in 1498, their colonial rule lasted from 1505 until 1961. The Portuguese Empire established the first European trading centre at Quilon (Kollam) in 1502. It is believed that the colonial era in India started with the establishment of this Portuguese trading centre at Quilon. In 1505, King Manuel I of Portugal appointed Dom Francisco de Almeida as the first Portuguese viceroy in India, followed in 1509 by Dom Afonso de Albuquerque. In 1510, Albuquerque conquered the city of Goa, which had been controlled by Muslims. He inaugurated the policy of marrying Portuguese men with native women who had converted to Catholicism, the consequence of which was a great miscegenation in Goa and other Portuguese territories in Asia. The first revolt against the Portuguese was the Conspiracy of the Pintos in 1787. Goa was annexed by India on 19 December 1961. Another feature of the Portuguese presence in India was their promotion of Catholicism by sponsoring missionaries from various orders, such as the Jesuit missionary Saint Francis Xavier, who is revered among the Catholics of India.

Dutch

The Dutch East India Company established trading posts along different parts of the Indian coast. For some time, they controlled the Malabar southwest coast (Pallipuram, Cochin, Cochin de Baixo/Santa Cruz, Quilon (Coylan), Cannanore, Kundapura, Kayamkulam, Ponnani) and the Coromandel southeastern coast (Golkonda, Bhimunipatnam, Pulicat, Parangippettai, Negapatnam) and Surat (1616–1795). They conquered Ceylon from the Portuguese. The Dutch also established trading stations in Travancore and coastal Tamil Nadu as well as at Rajshahi in present-day Bangladesh, Hugli-Chinsura, and Murshidabad in present-day West Bengal, Balasore (Baleshwar or Bellasoor) in Odisha, and Ava, Arakan, and Syriam in present-day Myanmar (Burma). However, their expansion into India was halted, after their defeat in the Battle of Colachel to the Kingdom of Travancore, during the Travancore-Dutch War. The Dutch never recovered from the defeat and no longer posed a large colonial threat to India.

Ceylon was lost at the Congress of Vienna in the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars, where the Dutch having fallen subject to France, saw their colonies captured by Britain. The Dutch later became less involved in India, as they had the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia).

Rivalry with the Netherlands
At the end of the 16th century, England and the United Netherlands began to challenge Portugal's monopoly of trade with Asia, forming private joint-stock companies to finance the voyages: the English (later British) East India Company, and the Dutch East India Company, were chartered in 1600 and 1602 respectively. These companies were intended to carry on the lucrative spice trade, and they focused their efforts on the areas of production, especially the Indonesian archipelago the "Spice Islands", and on India as an important market for the trade. The close proximity of London and Amsterdam across the North Sea, and the intense rivalry between England and the Netherlands, inevitably led to conflict between the two companies, with the Dutch gaining the upper hand in the Moluccas (previously a Portuguese stronghold) after the withdrawal of the English in 1622, but with the English enjoying more success in India, at Surat, after the establishment of a factory in 1613.

The Netherlands' more advanced financial system and the three Anglo-Dutch Wars of the 17th century left the Dutch as the dominant naval and trading power in Asia. Hostilities ceased after the Glorious Revolution of 1688, when the Dutch prince William of Orange ascended the English throne, bringing peace between the Netherlands and England. A deal between the two nations left the more valuable spice trade of the Indonesian archipelago to the Netherlands and the textiles industry of India to England, but textiles overtook spices in terms of profitability, so that by 1720, in terms of sales, the English company had overtaken the Dutch. The English East India Company shifted its focus from Surat—a hub of the spice trade network—to Fort St. George.

East India Company
In 1757, Mir Jafar, the commander-in-chief of the army of the Nawab of Bengal, along with Jagat Seth and some others secretly working with the British, asked for their support to overthrow the Nawab in return for trade grants. The British forces, whose sole duty until then was guarding Company property, were numerically inferior to the Bengali armed forces. At the Battle of Plassey on 23 June 1757, fought between the British under the command of Robert Clive and the Nawab, Mir Jafar's forces betrayed the Nawab and helped them to defeat him. Jafar was installed on the throne as a British subservient ruler. The battle transformed British perspective as they realised their strength and potential to conquer smaller Indian kingdoms and marked the beginning of the imperial or colonial era in South Asia.

British policy in Asia during the 19th century was chiefly concerned with expanding and protecting its hold on India, viewed as its most important colony and the key to the rest of Asia. The East India Company drove the expansion of the British Empire in Asia. The company's army had first joined forces with the Royal Navy during the Seven Years' War, and the two continued to cooperate in arenas outside India: against the French campaign in Egypt and Syria, the capture of Java from the Netherlands in 1811, the acquisition of Singapore in 1819 and Malacca in 1824, and the First Anglo-Burmese War in 1826.

From its base in India, the company was also engaged in an increasingly profitable opium trade to China, which had begun in the 1730s. This trade helped reverse the trade imbalances resulting from British imports of tea, which saw large outflows of silver from Britain to China. The Chinese authorities banned the importation of opium, and in 1839, 20,000 chests of opium were confiscated and destroyed in Canton by Lin Zexu. This led to the First Opium War, which was concluded in the Treaty of Nanjing, re-legalizing the importation of opium into China.

The British had direct or indirect control over all parts of present-day India before the middle of the 19th century. In 1857, a local rebellion by a group of sepoys escalated into the Indian Rebellion of 1857, which took six months to suppress with heavy loss of life on both sides; with British casualties numbering in the thousands and Indian casualties numbering in the hundreds of thousands. The trigger for the rebellion has been a subject of dispute among historians. The rebellion, although short-lived, was triggered by attempts from the East India Company to expand its control in India. According to Olson, several reasons may have triggered the rebellion. For example, Olson concludes that the East India Company's attempt to annex and expand its direct control of India, by arbitrary laws such as Doctrine of Lapse, combined with discrimination in employment against Indians, contributed to the 1857 Rebellion. The East India Company officers lived lavish lives, the company finances were in shambles, and the company's effectiveness in India was examined by the British crown after 1858. As a result, the East India Company lost its powers of government and British India formally came under direct Crown control, with an appointed Governor-General of India. The East India Company was dissolved the following year in 1858. A few years later, Queen Victoria took the title of Empress of India.

British Raj
India suffered a series of crop failures in the late 19th century, leading to widespread famines that caused tens of millions of deaths in India. Responding to earlier famines as threats to the stability of their control, the East India Company had already begun to concern itself with famine prevention during the early colonial period. This greatly expanded during the Raj, in which commissions were set up after each famine to investigate the causes and implement new policies, which took until the early 1900s to take an effect.

The slow but momentous reform movement developed gradually into the Indian independence movement. During the First World War, the hitherto bourgeois "home-rule" movement was transformed into a popular mass movement by Mahatma Gandhi, a pacifist lawyer. Revolutionaries such as Bagha Jatin, Khudiram Bose, Bhagat Singh, Chandrashekar Azad, Surya Sen, Subhas Chandra Bose differed from Gandhi in their use of violence during their campaigns against British rule. The independence movement attained its objective with the independence of Pakistan and India on 14 and 15 August 1947 respectively.

French
Following the Portuguese, English, and Dutch, the French also established trading bases in India. Their first establishment was in Pondicherry on the Coromandel Coast in southeastern India in 1674. Subsequent French settlements were Chandernagore in Bengal, northeastern India in 1688, Yanam in Andhra Pradesh in 1723, Mahe in 1725, and Karaikal in 1739. The French were constantly in conflict with the Dutch and later on mainly with the British in India. At the height of French power in the mid-18th century, the French established several outposts in southern India and the area lying in today's northern Andhra Pradesh and Odisha. Between 1744 and 1761, the British and the French repeatedly attacked and conquered each other's forts and towns in southeastern India and in Bengal in the northeast. After some initial French successes, the British decisively defeated the French in Bengal in the Battle of Plassey in 1757 and in the southeast in 1761 in the Battle of Wandiwash, after which the British East India Company was the supreme military and political power in southern India as well as in Bengal. In the following decades, it gradually increased the size of the territories under its control. The enclaves of Pondichéry, Karaikal, Yanam, Mahé, and Chandernagore were returned to France in 1816 and were integrated with the Republic of India in 1954.

Danish
Denmark–Norway held several factories in India for more than 200 years, but the Danish presence in India was of little significance to the major European powers as they presented neither a military nor a mercantile threat. Denmark–Norway established trading outposts in Tranquebar, Tamil Nadu (1620); Serampore, West Bengal (1755); Calicut, Kerala (1752) and the Nicobar Islands (1750s). At one time, the main Danish and Swedish East Asia companies together imported more tea to Europe than the British did. Their outposts lost economic and strategic importance, and Tranquebar, the last Dano-Norwegian outpost, was sold to the British on 16 October 1868.

Sweden
The Swedish East India Company (1731-1813) very briefly possessed a factory in Parangipettai for about one month of 1733.

Austria
The Austrian colonisation of the Nicobar Islands (Nikobaren, renamed to the Theresia Islands [Theresia-Inseln]) involved a series of three separate attempts to colonize and settle the Nicobar Islands by the Habsburg monarchy, and later the Austrian Empire, between 1778 and 1886. During the period of Austrian colonisation, the Nicobar Islands were previously colonized by the Danish in 1756, but were abandoned due to multiple outbreaks of malaria.

Japanese occupation
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands were briefly occupied by the Japanese Empire during World War II.

Wars

The wars that took place involving the British East India Company or British India during the colonial era:
 * Anglo-Afghan War
 * Anglo-Burmese Wars
 * Anglo-Manipur War
 * Anglo-Maratha Wars
 * Anglo-Marri Wars
 * Anglo-Mysore Wars
 * Anglo-Nepalese War (Gorkha War)
 * Anglo-Sikh War
 * British conquest of Sindh
 * Indian Rebellion of 1857 (First War of Independence, Sepoy Mutiny)
 * Polygar Wars
 * World War I: see Indian Army during World War I, Bombardment of Madras
 * World War II: see Indian Army during World War II

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Colonial India


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User:Zarxos

Leaving my bio unedited from when I was 16: "I'm the kind of person that looks through an advanced math book just for fun. For as long as I can remember, I've always wanted to move up intellectually and learn more. Some days I just spend all day reading random articles that interest me here on Wikipedia. This is a great site, and I'm glad I can do what I can to contribute and make it even better."

title: User:Zarxos


text:
Talk:Thích Quảng Đức

Religious Background section not about TQD
The Religious Background section seems out of place since it appears to be not the religious background of TQD (which is already covered in the Biography section), but rather the background of TQD's self-immolation. I moved it to be a subsection of the Self-Immolation section itself. However, for consistency that demanded I moved almost everything else to be similar subsections. What this exposes is the fact that this article is not actually about TQD but rather about his self-immolation. I wonder if it's worth splitting off the self-immolation commentary into a second article, and providing only the briefest of summaries in this one, thereby focusing this one on the man himself?

I'm not happy with how I've left it (i.e. moving most of it into subsections) but I can't see another better way. So feel free to revert/modify as you see fit. Thomask0 (talk) 21:27, 6 May 2015 (UTC)

What school/vehicle/canon did he follow?
Reiterating a question raised several years ago: what school of Buddhism did TQD follow? It's still the case that the article lede mentions Mahayan but in the Biography section it mentions he studied some Theravada. Can anyone shed more light on this? For example, within Mahayan, what form of Buddhism did he pursue: Zen, as with Th%C3%ADch_Nhất_Hạnh, or what? Thomask0 (talk) 21:33, 6 May 2015 (UTC)

Digging around for information on this, I'm thinking Pure Land may be the answer. Any comments? Thomask0 (talk) 21:58, 6 May 2015 (UTC)
 * The article says: "Đức rotated a string of wooden prayer beads and recited the words Nam mô A di đà Phật ("homage to Amitābha Buddha") before striking a match and dropping it on himself." See also: . JimRenge (talk) 22:52, 6 May 2015 (UTC)
 * , yep that was the clue that made me mention Pure Land. But is it enough to allow us to make an explicit statement about TQD and Pure Land? I think not. It would be verging on OR; i.e. we'd be asserting without RS that Nianfo necessarily implies that the person is a Pure Land follower. I think we probably need to leave things as they are unless and util someone can come up with an RS that makes clear what TQD's "affiliation" was. Agreed? Thomask0 (talk) 18:41, 7 May 2015 (UTC)
 * Actually, that link you provded was very informative. It refers to Vietnamese Buddhism as being "eclectic", so maybe there's no need to try to shove TQD into any one of the various more-or-less distinct groups. Thomask0 (talk) 18:43, 7 May 2015 (UTC)
 * I agree with you. There seems to be no need to identify him with a specific school and we do not have a source to do it (I did not read all the sources). The sentence about his last words/Nianfo speaks for itself.
 * See also for the possible inspiration by the story in the twenty-third chapter of the Lotus Sutra (.  JimRenge (talk) 20:07, 7 May 2015 (UTC)

Who lit the fire?
The article, sourced, states that he lit a match and dropped it on himself - but film footage of the event clearly shows that this is not the case. As visible in this HD version of the footage, he remains quiet and still as the fire is lit by the monk behind him. Is the footage a proper source to override what is stated in article?

Lilduff90 (talk) 12:00, 19 May 2016 (UTC)

I've read elsewhere that this video is a re-enactment, not actual footage of the real event. That is something that should be confirmed or disconfirmed before taking it as factual evidence. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2602:30A:C0B9:EC40:68E3:ABF9:7D64:71A1 (talk) 05:40, 28 July 2016 (UTC)

Pulitzer Prize
The lead currently states that "Malcolm Browne won a Pulitzer Prize for his photograph of the monk's death." However, all the sources that I've seen say that he won World Press Photo of the Year for the photograph and later won a Pulitzer Prize with David Halberstam for "reporting of the Viet Nam war and the overthrow of the Diem regime." Seems like this might need to be corrected. Kaldari (talk) 04:11, 29 December 2016 (UTC)

Đức Had A Suicide Pact With A North Vietnamese Colleague?
Geoffrey Shaw, in his book "The Lost Mandate of Heaven", states that Thích Quảng Đức had formed a suicide pact with a colleague in North Vietnam who subsequently burned himself to death over the persecution of Buddhists in North Vietnam. Once the South Vietnamese Buddhist crisis started, not only did several new monks urge Đức to carry out his pledge, but also, "When leaders of the Buddhist uprising in South Vietnam learned that Quang Duc wanted to redeem his pledge, they encouraged him to do so. The monk's desire for suicide had little to do with Diem's government until they made it so." Sadly, I cannot find an online link to the page in question in Shaw's book. Google Books won't cooperate. The full text of Shaw's assertion can be found on page 216 of "Lost Mandate." Shaw's assertion, which is based on a primary source, Frederick Nolting's memoir "From Trust To Tragedy", is intriguing. How can we go about constructively working this argument into this article? Could it be a simple bit of text, properly sourced to Shaw's book, that states:

"Frederick Nolting, ambassador to South Vietnam at the time, claimed in his memoirs that Đức had formed a suicide pact with a colleague in North Vietnam who subsequently carried out his pledge, and that once the South Vietnamese Buddhist crisis began, Đức was urged by several fellow monks and the leaders of the Buddhist protests to fulfill his part of the pact."

This text would avoid any bias towards Shaw's argument that Đức's act had nothing to do with Diem (I concede it still very well could have), but the fact Đức had formed a pact with a colleague in North Vietnam would be presented to the reader in a neutral tone. I welcome constructive feedback on this proposal.TH1980 (talk) 02:28, 8 January 2017 (UTC)
 * Or what about this simpler version of what I proposed above:

 * "Đức had formed a suicide pact with a colleague in North Vietnam who subsequently carried out his pledge, and that once the South Vietnamese Buddhist crisis began, Đức was urged by several fellow monks and the leaders of the Buddhist protests to fulfill his part of the pact."

 * This would still be neutral. Comments?TH1980 (talk) 00:50, 13 January 2017 (UTC)
 * I am thinking about going with the second proposed edit. I will be placing it at the start of the section about Đức's suicide. Anyone have any objections?TH1980 (talk) 03:36, 15 January 2017 (UTC)
 * After making one further revision, I added the following to the article today:

 * "Thích Quảng Đức had formed a suicide pact with a colleague in North Vietnam who subsequently carried out his pledge in protest of North Vietnamese mistreatment of Buddhists. Once the South Vietnamese Buddhist crisis began, Đức was urged by several fellow monks and the leaders of the Buddhist protests to fulfill his part of the pact."

 * I made sure this inclusion was properly credited to the above source, Geoffrey Shaw's book. Comments, anyone?TH1980 (talk) 23:17, 16 January 2017 (UTC)

I removed this fringe information. The book is published by a Catholic printing press. The catalogue page of this book on its website has a priest saying how Diem is a great Catholic and needs to be canonised. The book is nothing but a fringe sectarian source.
 * This is not a "fringe" source but a reputable book by a scholar who did his due diligence in his research. Shaw's source is Frederick Nolting's memoir "From Trust To Tragedy", a primary source, too.TH1980 (talk) 01:44, 2 September 2017 (UTC)
 * Here is a compromise edit I suggest:

 * "Once the South Vietnamese Buddhist crisis began, the leaders of the Buddhist protests arranged Đức's self-immolation. (Đức had formed a suicide pact with a colleague in North Vietnam who subsequently carried out his pledge in protest of North Vietnamese mistreatment of Buddhists.)"

 * This would explain why Đức was chosen. Comments?TH1980 (talk) 01:49, 2 September 2017 (UTC)

 * The assertion re the suicide pact would need to be supported. I took a quick look at and did not see support for this in that source. Wtmitchell  (talk) (earlier Boracay Bill) 02:45, 2 September 2017 (UTC)
 * Perhaps the snippet about Nolting's claim re the suicide pact is on a book page not previewable in Google Books. I did find the info at, though (see and ) Wtmitchell  (talk) (earlier Boracay Bill) 05:23, 2 September 2017 (UTC)
 * Then what if we switch the source to Nolting's book?TH1980 (talk) 02:46, 8 September 2017 (UTC)
 * OK by me. I didn't do that because I had only seen the snippets I linked. I don't think that there is a problem in this case, but I would have liked to read a bit more of the text surrounding those snippets. Wtmitchell (talk) (earlier Boracay Bill) 03:16, 8 September 2017 (UTC)

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What happened to the heart of Thich Quang Duc?
Is the heart still at the Xa Loi Pagoda? Has it been returned after being confiscated, or is it lost somewhere? 106.37.222.107 (talk) 06:16, 22 February 2018 (UTC)
 * This piqued my curiosity, and I googled a bit. I was surprised by what I did and did not find.
 * The assertion about the confiscation of the heart was added on August 20, 2007 in
 * The assertion about the confiscation of the heart was added on August 20, 2007 in

This edit, citing (Jones, pp.307–308) in support but not identifying the source beyond that. The work cited then is identified in the current article version, but the cited pages are not available for preview in Google Books. In the current article, the source cited in support of this assertion is an unattributed TIME magazine article which requires a subscription to be viewed.
 * In my googling, I found several sources which contradict the assertion or do not mention the confiscation.
 * this 1963 source omits mention.
 * this page of a 2017 book describes a visit (I'm not sure of the visit date) to a temple where the heart was on display. This page asserts that today (2017ish?) the heart is in a bank vault in HCM city.
 * this page of a 2015 book describes the immolation but does not mention the confiscation.
 * this page of a 2014 book says that the heart is still (2014sh??) on display at the Xa Loi Pagoda.
 * I don't know what the actual facts about this might be. Some interested editor who knows more about this that I do and/or who has better access than I to relevant sources ought to take a look at this. Wtmitchell (talk) (earlier Boracay Bill) 05:26, 23 February 2018 (UTC)
 * I don't know what the actual facts about this might be. Some interested editor who knows more about this that I do and/or who has better access than I to relevant sources ought to take a look at this. Wtmitchell (talk) (earlier Boracay Bill) 05:26, 23 February 2018 (UTC)

Seven Psychopaths
There is nothing I found in the sources on that film that suggests that the 'Vietnamese priest' is a representation of Thich Quang Duc. So firstly, it's a made up thing by an editor, and secondly it isn't important enough if this character is about the 20th thing credited and isn't even mentioned in the plot of any summaries of sources Bumbubookworm (talk) 23:03, 4 September 2019 (UTC)

File:Thích Quảng Đức self-immolation.jpg scheduled for POTD
Hello! This is to let editors know that the featured picture File:Thích Quảng Đức self-immolation.jpg, which is used in this article, has been selected as the English Wikipedia's picture of the day (POTD) for June 11, 2021. A preview of the POTD is displayed below and can be edited at Template:POTD/2021-06-11. For the greater benefit of readers, any potential improvements or maintenance that could benefit the quality of this article should be done before its scheduled appearance on the Main Page. If you have any concerns, please place a message at Wikipedia talk:Picture of the day. Thank you! Cwmhiraeth (talk) 10:10, 27 May 2021 (UTC)

FA nomination on Thai Wikipedia (direct translation of this article)
The article is translated into Thai with all structures and references intact and will be soon considered for feature article (and eventually feature article of the month) on Thai Wikipedia. is the main editor (translator) and I am the reviewer. There are a few questions that will help improve both articles in English and in Thai.

 * 1) "Another monk offered himself, but Quảng Đức's seniority prevailed.[25]" When reading from top to bottom, at this stage it is not clear what did "another monk" offer himself for?
 * 2) The last two sentences do not have references. I have added the template cn-span to the article to draw attention here.

The FA nomination page is in Thai. You do not need to visit it but for reference purpose the link is provided below. We plan to promote the Thai article to FA on 11 June 2024 and put it on the main page of Thai Wikipedia for June 2025.
 * th:วิกิพีเดีย:เสนอบทความคัดสรร/ทิก กว๋าง ดึ๊ก

--Taweetham (talk) 03:11, 1 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Thích Quảng Đức


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Shock tube

 * For the pyrotechnic initiator, see Shock tube detonator

The shock tube is an instrument used to replicate and direct blast waves at a sensor or a model in order to simulate actual explosions and their effects, usually on a smaller scale. Shock tubes (and related impulse facilities such as shock tunnels, expansion tubes, and expansion tunnels) can also be used to study aerodynamic flow under a wide range of temperatures and pressures that are difficult to obtain in other types of testing facilities. Shock tubes are also used to investigate compressible flow phenomena and gas phase combustion reactions. More recently, shock tubes have been used in biomedical research to study how biological specimens are affected by blast waves.

A shock wave inside a shock tube may be generated by a small explosion (blast-driven) or by the buildup of high pressures which cause diaphragm(s) to burst and a shock wave to propagate down the shock tube (compressed-gas driven).

History
An early study of compression driven shock tubes was published in 1899 by French scientist Paul Vieille, though the apparatus was not called a shock tube until the 1940s. In the 1930s it was rediscovered by W. H. Payman and WCF Shepherd of English Safety in Mines Research Board in order to study underground methane explosions, but the term was not coined until Bleakney et al. publication of 1949.

In the 1940s, interest revived and shock tubes were increasingly used to study the flow of fast moving gases over objects, the chemistry and physical dynamics of gas phase combustion reactions. The modern version of the shock tube was developed during WWII at Princeton University by a group led by Walker Bleakney, who published overviews of their studies in 1946 and 1949.

In 1966, Duff and Blackwell described a type of shock tube driven by high explosives. These ranged in diameter from 0.6 to 2 m and in length from 3 m to 15 m. The tubes themselves were constructed of low-cost materials and produced shock waves with peak dynamic pressures of 7 MPa to 200 MPa and durations of a few hundred microseconds to several milliseconds.

Both compression-driven and blast-driven shock tubes are currently used for scientific as well as military applications. Compressed-gas driven shock tubes are more easily obtained and maintained in laboratory conditions; however, the shape of the pressure wave is different from a blast wave in some important respects and may not be suitable for some applications. Blast-driven shock tubes generate pressure waves that are more realistic to free-field blast waves. However, they require facilities and expert personnel for handling high explosives. Also, in addition to the initial pressure wave, a jet effect caused by the expansion of compressed gases (compression-driven) or production of rapidly expanding gases (blast-driven) follows and may transfer momentum to a sample after the blast wave has passed. More recently, laboratory scale shock tubes driven by fuel-air mixtures have been developed that produce realistic blast waves and can be operated in more ordinary laboratory facilities. Because the molar volume of gas is much less, the jet effect is a fraction of that for compressed-gas driven shock tubes. To date, the smaller size and lower peak pressures generated by these shock tubes make them most useful for preliminary, nondestructive testing of materials, validation of measurement equipment such as high speed pressure transducers, and for biomedical research as well as military applications.

Operation
A simple shock tube is a tube, rectangular or circular in cross-section, usually constructed of metal, in which a gas at low pressure and a gas at high pressure are separated using some form of diaphragm. See, for instance, texts by Soloukhin, Gaydon and Hurle, and Bradley. The diaphragm suddenly bursts open under predetermined conditions to produce a wave propagating through the low pressure section. The shock that eventually forms increases the temperature and pressure of the test gas and induces a flow in the direction of the shock wave. Observations can be made in the flow behind the incident front or take advantage of the longer testing times and vastly enhanced pressures and temperatures behind the reflected wave.

The low-pressure gas, referred to as the driven gas, is subjected to the shock wave. The high pressure gas is known as the driver gas. The corresponding sections of the tube are likewise called the driver and driven sections. The driver gas is usually chosen to have a low molecular weight, (e.g., helium or hydrogen) for safety reasons, with high speed of sound, but may be slightly diluted to 'tailor' interface conditions across the shock. To obtain the strongest shocks the pressure of the driven gas is well below atmospheric pressure (a partial vacuum is induced in the driven section before detonation).

The test begins with the bursting of the diaphragm. Several methods are commonly used to burst the diaphragm.
 * A mechanically-driven plunger is sometimes used to pierce it or an explosive charge may be used to burst it.
 * Another method is to use diaphragms of plastic or metals to define specific bursting pressures. Plastics are used for the lowest burst pressures, aluminum and copper for somewhat higher levels and mild steel and stainless steel for the highest burst pressures. These diaphragms are frequently scored in a cross-shaped pattern to a calibrated depth to ensure that they rupture evenly, contouring the petals so that the full section of the tube remains open during the test time.
 * Yet another method of rupturing the diaphragm utilizes a mixture of combustible gases, with an initiator designed to produce a detonation within it, producing a sudden and sharp increase in what may or may not be a pressurized driver. This blast wave increases the temperature and pressure of the driven gas and induces a flow in the direction of the shock wave but at lower velocity than the lead wave.

The bursting diaphragm produces a series of pressure waves, each increasing the speed of sound behind them, so that they compress into a shock propagating through the driven gas. This shock wave increases the temperature and pressure of the driven gas and induces a flow in the direction of the shock wave but at lower velocity than the lead wave. Simultaneously, a rarefaction wave, often referred to as the Prandtl-Meyer wave, travels back in to the driver gas.

The interface, across which a limited degree of mixing occurs, separates driven and driver gases is referred to as the contact surface and follows, at a lower velocity, the lead wave.

A 'Chemical Shock Tube' involves separating driver and driven gases by a pair of diaphragms designed to fail after pre-determined delays with an end 'dump tank' of greatly increased cross-section. This allows an extreme rapid reduction (quench) in temperature of the heated gases.

Applications
In addition to measurements of rates of chemical kinetics shock tubes have been used to measure dissociation energies and molecular relaxation rates  they have been used in aerodynamic tests. The fluid flow in the driven gas can be used much as a wind tunnel, allowing higher temperatures and pressures therein replicating conditions in the turbine sections of jet engines. However, test times are limited to a few milliseconds, either by the arrival of the contact surface or the reflected shock wave.

They have been further developed into shock tunnels, with an added nozzle and dump tank. The resultant high temperature hypersonic flow can be used to simulate atmospheric re-entry of spacecraft or hypersonic craft, again with limited testing times.

Shock tubes have been developed in a wide range of sizes. The size and method of producing the shock wave determine the peak and duration of the pressure wave it produces. Thus, shock tubes can be used as a tool used to both create and direct blast waves at a sensor or an object in order to imitate actual explosions and the damage that they cause on a smaller scale, provided that such explosions do not involve elevated temperatures and shrapnel or flying debris. Results from shock tube experiments can be used to develop and validate numerical model of the response of a material or object to an ambient blast wave without shrapnel or flying debris. Shock tubes can be used to experimentally determine which materials and designs would be best suited to the job of attenuating ambient blast waves without shrapnel or flying debris. The results can then be incorporated into designs to protect structures and people that might be exposed to an ambient blast wave without shrapnel or flying debris. Shock tubes are also used in biomedical research to find out how biological tissues are affected by blast waves.

There are alternatives to the classical shock tube; for laboratory experiments at very high pressure, shock waves can also be created using high-intensity short-pulse lasers.

title: Shock tube


text:
Brighton Rock (novel)

 Brighton Rock is a novel by Graham Greene, published in 1938 and later adapted for film and theatre. The novel is a murder thriller set in 1930s Brighton. The first of Greene's works to explore Catholic themes and moral issues, its treatment of class privilege and the problem of evil is paradoxical and ambivalent.

Plot
There is an incidental link between this novel and Greene's earlier A Gun for Sale (1936), in that the murder of the gang boss Kite, mentioned in A Gun For Sale, allows the seventeen-year-old sociopath Pinkie to take over his gang and thus sets the events of Brighton Rock in motion. The murder of Kite had been brought about because of a report by Charles "Fred" Hale in the Daily Messenger about his slot machine racket. Now Hale has been sent to Brighton to distribute cards anonymously for a newspaper competition and realises that he is being hunted by Pinkie's mob.

Hale meets middle-aged Ida Arnold by chance in a pub and then on the Palace Pier as the mob is closing in, but he is snatched away without her realising what has happened to him. To confuse the police investigation, Pinkie has gang member Spicer distribute Hale's cards about the town and then tries to retrieve one card from the café in which sixteen-year-old Rose is working as a waitress. Since Rose had spotted Spicer leaving the card, Pinkie realises that she can now disprove his trail of deception and must take measures to prevent this. He therefore courts Rose until she falls in love with him, his aim being to marry her so that she cannot testify against him. In reality he looks down on her, since she comes from the same socially deprived neighbourhood as himself, and is even repelled by her physically.

Back in London, Ida reads about the inquest on Hale's death, which had found that he died of heart failure. Remembering the state of terror that Hale was in when she last saw him, she decides to go down to Brighton and discover the full story. While there she recruits the help of one of her old bed-fellows and manages to finance her trip with a lucky bet at long odds. Her enquiries soon establish the broad outlines of the story, even though Rose consistently refuses to co-operate and warns Pinkie of Ida's investigation.

Pinkie is summoned to an interview with Colleoni, a leading mobster whose aim is to take over all the illegal operations in Brighton. At the time Pinkie is too cocksure to take up Colleoni's invitation to join his operation. Afterwards he pretends to have reconsidered in order to get Colleoni to murder Spicer, whom Pinkie suspects of being close to turning informer. In fact both men are set up for a razor attack at the horse races but escape separately. Discovering that Spicer is still alive, Pinkie throws him to his death from an unstable staircase in their lodgings and implicates their terrified solicitor Prewitt into helping him cover up the murder.

Prewitt has also helped Pinkie and Rose avoid the legal obstacles to their marriage and Pinkie now discovers that Rose has known of his criminality all along but not minded. Feeling trapped, and with what remains of his gang disintegrating, Pinkie proposes a suicide pact to Rose, on the pretence that Ida is close to having him arrested by the police. His plan is to get her to shoot herself at the developing resort of Peacehaven but not to fulfil his part of the pact. Ida meanwhile has tailed them, sensing that Rose may be in danger, and has brought a policeman along with her. Pinkie's attempt to throw vitriol at his attackers misfires and, blinded by it himself, he runs over a cliff to his death.

Rose later goes to confession and explains to the priest that she had wanted to accompany Pinkie even into damnation. She is told that since Pinkie had loved her, then there was good in him and she might become the means for his ultimate salvation. She leaves, looking forward to playing a recording he made on the day of their marriage, not realising that it really contains the declaration of his hatred.

Themes
Although ostensibly an underworld thriller, the book is also noted as the first of Greene's series of religious novels and deals with Roman Catholic doctrine concerning the nature of sin and the basis of morality. Pinkie and Rose are Catholics (as was Greene), and their beliefs are contrasted with Ida's sentimental sense of right and wrong. Greene is also initiating here the series of moral problems with which his later novels wrestle. In this case he is asking what place has a creature as heartless as Pinkie within God's infinite mercy. Rose had wanted to share in the damnation that Pinkie had earned, but the solution to her dilemma only arises indirectly in her interview in the confessional. There the priest refers her to the example of an unnamed Frenchman who rebelled against the Catholic doctrine of divine judgment and "who decided that if any soul was going to be damned, he would be damned too." This was, in fact, the case of the writer Charles Péguy.

Another aspect of the problem's difficulty is the impossibility of changing an environmentally conditioned character, as suggested in the title of the novel. Primarily, rock is a hard type of confectionery sold at seaside resorts, with the town's name embedded in the centre and elongated down its length, so that it is revealed wherever the stick is broken. At the most obvious level, it stands for the tawdry 1930s seaside town, from a disadvantaged part of which both Pinkie and Rose have emerged. But in terms of the plot it is also the murder weapon ironically chosen to choke Hale. And beyond that again, it is the symbol of unchangeable human nature for the trite and morally neutral Ida. It was against just such seeming inflexibility that Péguy reacted.

The way opposites are handled in the novel adds this further layer of complexity to its meaning. The tourist aspect of Brighton and the gangsterism that takes advantage of it are at odds but depend on each other. The affluent characters coming and going in its luxury hotels and bars contrast with the down-and-out beachcomber, the old woman crouching to say her rosary in an alley, and characters like Pinkie and Rose struggling to escape the slums that bred them. Then there is the irreconcilable difference between the Catholic ideological interpretations of good and evil and Ida's humanistic moral intuition, which goes far beyond a simple contrast of alternatives. The two are mutually exclusive. So, when Ida declares in her argument with Rose in Chapter 7: "'I know the difference between Right and Wrong. They didn't teach you that at school,' Rose didn't answer; the woman was quite right: the two words meant nothing to her. Their taste was extinguished by stronger foods - Good and Evil." This leads to a further paradox on which the novel dwells more than once: that, their common origin apart, Pinkie and Rose are so much opposites that they make a whole. As another interpreter has commented, "Their only possible relation is the paradox of the Catholic novel".

Adaptations
A number of dramatic adaptations continue to be made from the novel. The first of those designed for the stage was written by Walter Kerr and Leo Brady for the Catholic University of America Theatre in Washington, D.C. The show starred Eric Linden as Pinkie and ran from 4 – 10 February in 1942. In Britain the following year, Frank Harvey's play ran for a hundred performances at the Garrick Theatre in the West End, starring Richard Attenborough and Dulcie Gray.

In 2004, composer John Barry and lyricist Don Black wrote a musical version based on the novel. The show opened in London's Almeida Theatre on 20 September and ran until 13 October. However, owing to poor reviews, it failed to get a West End transfer. A more successful adaptation followed in 2018, when Bryony Lavery's play opened at York Theatre Royal in February before touring the UK.

Terence Rattigan and Greene himself wrote the screenplay for a 1948 film, produced and directed by John and Roy Boulting. It again starred Richard Attenborough as Pinkie, with Carol Marsh as Rose. In the United States, the film was released under the title Young Scarface. The climax differs from the novel in taking place at the Palace Pier. In the new century, Rowan Joffé directed a film adaptation which was released in 2010, starring Sam Riley as Pinkie, Andrea Riseborough as Rose and Helen Mirren as Ida Arnold. In a chronological departure from Greene's 1930s novel, the film is set in the Mods and Rockers subculture of a divided Brighton in the 1960s.

There have also been two radio adaptations. Evelyn Russell's 90-minute dramatisation for the BBC Home Service was aired in 1953 with Jimmy Thompson as Pinkie. In 1994, Ken Whitmore adapted the story for a five-episode BBC Radio dramatisation, directed by John Yorke and starring Steven Mackintosh as Pinkie.

title: Brighton Rock (novel)


text:
Draft talk:Art

 * 1) REDIRECT Talk:Art

title: Draft talk:Art


text:
Talk:Illegal immigrant

Problem
I think this statement is not neutral:

"Restricting immigration to the United States has been driven by nativism or by economic fears of union busting and other labor concerns"

This basically states that there are no legitimate reasons for there to be opposition to Illegal Immigration. It claims that concern has only been related to xenophobic or racsist phenomenon. I think it is a little short sighted and unfair to claim that the only opposition to illegal immigration is founded in discriminatory practices. Perhaps this should state that this practice has happened, or is common, but not as it stands, which essentially reasons that it is the only opposition. Other reasons should be stated, not merely these. I think the nativism comment specifically is problematic, as that term is obviously perjorative.

Definitions
I think 'illegal alien' should be restored rather than redirected to 'illegal immigrant'. Illegal alien is the term applied in the US Code, and is more correct than illegal immigrant (i.e., if a person does not intend to establish residency) in some cases.

'Those who support humane immigration policy'? Come on. I support strict immigration, but my plan is humane. I think 'liberal' or 'open-borders' would be a more correct term. Somebody obviously has re-written this to a pro-illegal view.

 * Now an anonymous user finds that 'liberal' isn't acceptable - the only term he'll allow is 'open-borders'. Seeing as how POV issues are coming up in the editing of this article, it would be helpful if editors discuss and sign their edits with a 'user name'. Willmcw 02:31, 24 Nov 2004 (UTC)

I re-wrote some sections to avoid contentious issues that are not directly relevant to the illegal immigrant, such as whether those who are not immigration reductionsists should be called "humane", "liberal", or "open-border proponents". Also added more info on the employment situation. Willmcw 22:23, 25 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Confucious meets the illegal alien
Recall the writings of Confucius many centuries ago. When asked what would be the first thing he would do if he were chosen to govern, he replied, "Rectify the names ... If the names are not correct, language is without an object." Confucius recognized how officials used language to deceive rather than inform. Consider the following trajectory of political correctness for turning trespassers into citizens:

Illegal Alien Undocumented Immigrant Undocumented Worker Unauthorized Resident Residual Foreign-Born Pre-amnestied resident Amnestied resident Dual Citizen

 * I don't know what country your writing about, but in the USA the common terminology went: Citizen, Foreign workers, Coolie, [franchise removed] Illegal Alien, Illegal Immigrant, Undocumented Worker. The illegal immigrant and undocumented worker seem to coexist right now, not surprising considering the country is more polarized than in 1861 just before the Confederates attacked. Whether the Americans with electoral power will ever decide call their countrymen citizens again is something debatable.

US focussed
This article needs to be expanded to include illegal immigrants in other countires or moved to Illegal immigration in the United States --nixie 00:28, 13 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Links for international expantion:
 * UK
 * China
 * Baltic Sea region
 * Canada
 * 2002 meeting on illegals in the EU
 * Australia
 * --nixie 01:21, 13 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * As I read it, almost the entire article is about illegal immigration in general, and only the legal & economic section is US focused. The problem is that almost all of the examples in the article are from the U.S. I'll try to break out the purely U.S. issues into a subsection. Maybe you and others can provide more international content. -Willmcw 01:34, 13 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Article name
Just a personal opinion, I think this article should be moved to Illegal immigration. An illegal immigrant is an individual, whereas this article is examining the broader topic, including causes, policy, the future, etc. - Borofkin 05:53, 14 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * I don't have any objection. The existing lead paragraph would need to be moved down and rewritten, and a new intro would have to be made. The bottom line is that the article is about illegal immigrants and illegal immigration. Which term it is filed under is secondary. -Willmcw 06:12, 14 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * "Which term it is filed under is secondary." If that is the case then there is no point moving it.
 * The only other argument in favour of moving it is that it would bring the name in line with articles on similar topics, such as Immigration to the United States, Immigration to the United Kingdom, Immigration to Australia. I certainly don't have the motivation to request the move, though. - Borofkin 04:16, 17 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Illegal immigration to the United States
The first paragraph of that section has become a long discussion of U.S. immigration policy, beyond what is called for in an article on illegal immigration. I think that some of the editors may not have been aware that there is already an article (or two) that covers the general history of U.S. immigration. Because of that I'm going to cut some interesting material out, and hopefully find a way to integrate it into the main U.S. immigration article. -Willmcw 01:41, 28 Dec 2004 (UTC)

cleaning up
I just stumbled across this article, and was surprised by the amount of POV. Ive attempted to do some clean up, but the following passages have been removed as they seem to me to be overly POV and I couldnt find a way to integrate them:

"While the rules of the UN's refugee convention make these people exempt from the regular migration law, the US keeps these families in prison camps until their status can be proven; this policy was started under Ronald Reagan in an attempt to convince Guatemalan refugees of the CIAs illegal war in that country to seek asylum elsewhere. " - if correct should be in a US imigration article.

"In the United States, the majority of illegal immigrants from outside of Latin America entered legally on tourist or work visas." - Not particularly usefull as an example, especially without refrences.

"No matter the cause, there are many immigrant deaths along the United States Border every year." - redundent given the next sentance giving figures

"The Snakeheads gang of China has been smuggling labor into Pacific Rim nations for over a century, making Chinatowns frequent centers of illegal immigrants."- refrences?

"The use of forged documents to gain access to these privileges is not uncommon." - where is it "not uncommon"? refrences?

"When a nation such as the US or Canada experiences this phenomena they try to increase professional migration into their country, while a nation like Cuba instead restricts professional migration out of their country. The policies of the US, Canada and Cuba, have all statistically been largely successful. However, restrictions on human migration are not loved by their victims, and it is considered better for these potentially disgrunteled persons to be outside one's borders than inside." - extreamly POV, and the final sentance is an unencyclopedic opinion.

" Restricting immigration to the United States has often been driven by nativism, which essentially a type of racism, but is sometimes driven by economic fears of union busting and other labor concerns. In the U.S. the first laws requiring passports for American citizens and creating a quota for immigrants were passed around the turn of the 20th century, in response to increased Irish, Italian and Jewish immigration. A few years earlier the Chinese Exclusion Act had restricted Chinese immigration. The quota for Jews was 5,000 a year in the 1930s and 1940s, and the waiting list for these immigration spots grew enormously when Hitler came to power in Germany. In response to the outcry following popular knowledge of the Holocaust, the newly-established U.N. held an international conference on refugees, where it was decided that refugees should be exempted from immigration laws. In the 1960s the US removed most nation-specific quotas in the immigration law, while retaining an overall quota, this changed the composition of the immigrants from mostly Western European, to a variety including many Asians. But in the 1990s the U.S. government again tightened restrictions on immigration. It is alledged that Ex post facto residency restrictions led to the imprisonment and deportation of over one million legal immigrants between 1997 and 2004. This has caused concern among some civil liberties advocates. These people are not given a right to legal counsel as they are not accused of criminal action and are being detained administratively. In response to these concerns, dogs are no longer used on the inmates, and lawyers have been allowed to visit detainees in prisons in New Jersey and Virginia.

In the United States, the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 (IRCA) made the hiring of an individual without documents an offense for the first time. Enforcement has been lax, but major businesses have occasionally been found to use illegal workers. Tyson Foods was accused of actively importing illegal labor for its chicken packing plants, and Wal-Mart was accused of using undocumented janitorial workers, though it claimed they were hired by a subcontractor without company knowledge. Philippe Kahn, who wanted to stay in the United States, created the successful computer software company Borland International without proper legal status. During his 2003 campaign for California governor, it was revealed that Arnold Schwarzenegger had violated his visa by working without a permit in the 1970s. The employment by prominent individuals of persons without work permits has been a recurring issue in politics ever since the practice was banned in the 1990s. Michael Huffington, Linda Chavez, Tom Tancredo are among those accused of hiring illegal aliens, the resulting scandals sometimes being dubbed "Nannygate".

A controversial alternative to fake IDs and other illegal practices is the Matricula Consular ID being used in the US, which is issued by Mexican consulates. In the US, the 14th Amendment requires that citizenship be granted to all children born in the country. Thus, if a child is born in the US, his or her family are allowed to stay, as the child is a citizen and cannot be deported. Opponents of immigration refer to children of families with mixed immigration status as anchor babies." - Ive tried to sumerise this section where it relates to the general issuses, as otherwise the US stuff seems to dominate the rest of the article. The US specific issuses raised should go to Immigration to the United States (or possibly even Illegal immigration to the United States.

Iain 14:19, 1 Feb 2005 (UTC)

 * You didn't give any explanation for deleting the entire U.S. section. I've re-instated it. Can you explain what is the matter with it? Perhaps less drastic surgery can help. Cheers, -Willmcw 19:21, 1 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Haveing another look at it, I may well have overreacted by pulling it all out; but Im afraid I dont know sufficent about the issues to be able to do more scientific surgery. The section seems mostly to be dubious, unreferenced anti-american POV. Issues about the section which spring out at me: "Restricting immigration to the United States has often been driven by nativism, which essentially a type of racism, but is sometimes driven by economic fears of union busting and other labor concerns." -- Implicitly POV (especially the "which is essentialy a type of racism": I think that it is, but we dont need to say that in the article about illegal imigrants).

"The quota for Jews was 5,000 a year in the 1930s and 1940s, and the waiting list for these immigration spots grew enormously when Hitler came to power in Germany." -- POV by ommision: while the statement is (probabally, there are no references) true, the implicit sugestion blames the US for the holocaust when lots of countries put limits on the imigration of germanys Jews, and Hitler would have been killing any Jew he got his hands on in anycase.

"But in the 1990s the U.S. government again tightened restrictions on immigration. It is alledged that Ex post facto residency restrictions led to the imprisonment and deportation of over one million legal immigrants between 1997 and 2004. This has caused concern among some civil liberties advocates. These people are not given a right to legal counsel as they are not accused of criminal action and are being detained administratively. In response to these concerns, dogs are no longer used on the inmates, and lawyers have been allowed to visit detainees in prisons in New Jersey and Virginia." -- Again, no refrences. Not even for the "concern by civil liberty activists". We also have a "Do you still beat your wife?" type acusation in the last sentance (there is no prior mention of dogs being used on the detainees: hence the sugestion that they arnt anymore is... odd!).

The next 2 paragraph arnt as bad, though lacking in references and confused about when the practice of employing illegal imigrants was banned. The last paragraph in the section also dosent explain what a "Matricula Consular ID" is or why they are controversial.

I think most of the US specific issues raised in the section can go to Immigration to the United States, or if described more generally could be integrated in to the rest of this article. I will have a go at cleaning the above issues up.

Iain 09:53, 2 Feb 2005 (UTC)

 * Please do not casually redistribute the material from the United States section into the rest ofthe article. The last major edit round involved collecting them together, to prevent them from overwhelming everything esle. And I disagree that it should all go to the U.S. immigration article. It's already huge and this is appropriate material here. We can add more material to reference the employment ban and explain the matricular consular. Most of the other edits that you describe I don't have a problem with, in fact, I think they will cut out some dubious material. Thanks. -Willmcw 11:25, 2 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Illegal immigrants in Europe?
I know this is a hot-button issue in Europe--possibly even moreso as immigrants to Europe tend to be Muslim and are feared as having terrorist ties. A new section to the article focusing on Europe should be added.

 * Good idea. Go for it! -Willmcw 02:37, Feb 25, 2005 (UTC)

Term "illegal immigrant" is POV
I think that the term "illegal immigrant" is perjorative, POV and dehumanizing. The POV is that of the United States government, which created the bureaucracies that try to regulate immigration. When the first European colonizers arrived in North America, there was no INS or BCIS, and there were no checks on their official statuses as refugees, workers, entrepreneurs, or tourist visa-holders.

I prefer the term "people without papers", "undocumented" or simply "immigrant". I realize that I'm one against many other POVs here in this forum that is Wikipedia. But I just want to make sure you are aware that there is a POV of this article, and I hope you work to acknowledge it. Also, I disagree that people move to new countries in order to receive welfare. The economy and jobs are primary factors. Often the case is that families want to reunite so that they can take care of their loved ones. And sometimes people just feel like moving to new places.

24.205.133.151 00:56, 22 May 2005 (UTC)

 * Thanks for your comment. It's important that the articles in this project be as NPOV as possible. Let me begin by remarking that this is a world encyclopedia. This article in particular strives to avoid being only about immigration to the United States. As the previous comment suggests, it is a big topic in Europe too. Further, note that the introduction has a discussion of the terms used. "Immigrant" is too broad, since regular immigration is not part of this article. "Undocumented" or "people without papers" are inaccurate and indirect ways of saying "unpermitted". Most people have some kinds of doucments, what they don't have in this case is a residency permit. Many illegal immigrants (the majority of non-latin Americans) arrive on passports with legal visas, which they overstay. So all of those terms have problems. Overall, "illegal immigrant" seems like the best choice. Cheers, -Willmcw 01:12, May 22, 2005 (UTC)

 * PS, An idea was floated earlier to move the page to "illegal immigration". The article would need some re-writing as a result, but I think that the terms are similar enough that scu a move might be worthwhile if it results in less POV. -Willmcw 01:18, May 22, 2005 (UTC)

I agree that the page should be moved to "illegal immigration". I just heard a radio segment today that explains that the term "illegal immigrant" is in accurate. I excerpted from the commentary below. Thanks! Guppy 04:35, 8 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * "First of all, "illegal" is a modifier for actions. Such as left turns, drug use, immigration, and things- like drugs, weapons, spam. But not people. For example, we don't say ,"illegal drinker", we say "underage drinker". We don't say "illegal driver", we say "unlicensed driver". We don't say "illegal curser", we say "violator of FCC rules".  Calling a person illegal reduces that person to one illegal act.

 * "Secondly, the word illegal is highly charged, igniting assocations like crime, danger, threat and punishment. Referring to people as illegal immigrants reinforces the sense that the immigrants are tied to all of these negative things. We are desensitized to the phrase, but the associations are still strenghtened with its repetition."

 * I agree. Then it would also be easier to discuss illegal immigration from different countries. Tfine80 22:08, 26 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Merger
I propose that this article is merged with Illegal immigration. Both seem to contain similar information, but one should redirect to the other. I choose 'immigration' as that is the name of the subject, rather that 'immigrant' as that is terminology. --195.92.67.208 23:51, 23 July 2005 (UTC)

 * Yes, the other editors have come to a consensus on this, I believe. It's just that we'e taken a year to get around to do anything about it. -Willmcw 00:07, July 24, 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Illegal immigrant


text:
Round Valley

Round Valley may refer to:

Basins or valleys in the United States

 * Round Valley (Pinto Mountain), a valley, in San Bernardino County, California
 * Round Valley, a basin in Mendocino County, California; see
 * Round Valley (Millard County, Utah), a valley in Millard County and Sevier County, Utah; see Denmark Wash

Populated places

 * Rural Municipality of Round Valley No. 410, Saskatchewan, Canada
 * Round Valley, Arizona, a census-designated place in Gila County, Arizona
 * Round Valley, California, a census-designated place in Inyo County, California
 * Round Valley, Plumas County, California, a former settlement in Plumas County, California
 * Round Valley, Nebraska, an unincorporated community in Custer County, Nebraska

Other uses

 * Round Valley Indian Tribes of the Round Valley Reservation, in Mendocino County, California
 * Round Valley Reservoir, in Hunterdon County, New Jersey
 * Round Valley Unified School District, in Apache County, Arizona

title: Round Valley


text:
Branwell Brontë

Patrick Branwell Brontë (, commonly ; 26 June 1817 – 24 September 1848) was an English painter and writer. He was the only son of the Brontë family, and brother of the writers Charlotte, Emily, and Anne. Brontë was rigorously tutored at home by his father, and earned praise for his poetry and translations from the classics. However, he drifted between jobs, supporting himself by portrait-painting, and gave way to drug and alcohol addiction, apparently worsened by a failed relationship with a married woman. Brontë died at the age of 31.

Youth

Branwell Brontë was the fourth of six children and the only son of Patrick Brontë (1777–1861) and his wife, Maria Branwell Brontë (1783–1821). He was born in a house (now known as the Brontë Birthplace) in Market Street, Thornton, near Bradford, West Riding of Yorkshire, and moved with his family to Haworth when his father was appointed to the perpetual curacy in 1821.

While four of his five sisters were sent to Cowan Bridge boarding school, Branwell was educated at home by his father, who gave him a classical education. Elizabeth Gaskell, biographer of his sister, Charlotte Brontë, says of Branwell's schooling "Mr. Brontë's friends advised him to send his son to school; but, remembering both the strength of will of his own youth and his mode of employing it, he believed that Branwell was better at home, and that he himself could teach him well, as he had told others before." His two eldest sisters died just before his eighth birthday in 1825, and their loss affected him deeply.

Even as a young boy Brontë read extensively, and was especially fond of the "Noctes Ambrosianae", literary dialogues published in Blackwood's Magazine. He took a leadership role with Charlotte in a series of fantasy role-playing games which the siblings wrote and performed about the "Young Men", characters based on a set of wooden soldiers. The plays evolved into an intricate saga based in West Africa about the fictitious Glass Town confederacy. From 1834, he both collaborated and competed with his sister Charlotte to describe another imaginary world, Angria. Branwell's particular interest in these paracosms were their politics and wars, including the destructive rivalry between their heroes, Charlotte's Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Zamorna, and his Alexander Percy, Earl of Northangerland. These writings impress by their virtuosity and scope, but are also repetitive when compared to Charlotte's contributions. Christine Alexander, a Brontë juvenilia historian at the University of New South Wales, wrote "Both Charlotte and Branwell ensured the consistency of their imaginary world. When Branwell exuberantly kills off important characters in his manuscripts, Charlotte comes to the rescue and, in effect, resurrects them for the next stories [...]; and when Branwell becomes bored with his inventions, such as the Glass Town magazine he edits, Charlotte takes over his initiative and keeps the publication going for several more years. It was Branwell, however, who took a pride in systematizing their private world and maintaining a consistent political structure, features typical of paracosmic play. He documented in encyclopaedic detail, in neat lists, footnotes, sketches, and maps, the geography, history, government, and social structure of the Glass Town Federation (and later, the new kingdom of Angria)—laying down the parameters of the imaginary world". He often wrote under several pseudonyms, such as Captain John Bud, Sergeant Bud, and Chief Genius Bany, who were also characters in their world.

Surrounded by female company and missing that of males, there are signs of pleasure in his early works of the wider options he would have due to his sex. Aged 11 in January 1829 he began producing a magazine, later named Branwell's Blackwood's Magazine which included his poems, plays, criticisms, histories, and dialogues. Unlike his sisters, Brontë was not prepared for a specific career. In his only real attempt to find work, on the death of James Hogg, a Blackwood's writer, the 18-year-old Brontë boldly wrote to the magazine suggesting himself as a replacement. Between 1835 and 1842, Brontë wrote a total of six times to the magazine, sending poems and arrogantly offering his services. His letters were left unanswered. He began enjoying masculine company in the pubs in Haworth, and in February 1836 joined Haworth's Masonic Lodge of the Three Graces at the youngest possible age.

In 1829–30, Patrick Brontë engaged John Bradley, an artist from neighbouring Keighley, as drawing-master for the children. Bradley was an artist of some local repute, rather than a professional instructor, but he may well have fostered Branwell's enthusiasm for art and architecture. Bradley emigrated to America in 1831, and Branwell Brontë continued his studies under the portrait painter William Robinson. In 1834, he painted a portrait of his three sisters. He included his own image but became dissatisfied with it and painted it out. This portrait is now one of the best known images of the sisters and hangs in the National Portrait Gallery.

In 1835, he wrote a letter to the Royal Academy of Arts seeking to be admitted. Earlier biographers reported a move to London to study painting, which quickly ended following Brontë's dissolute spending on drink. Other biographers speculated that he was too intimidated to present himself at the Academy. More recent scholarship suggests that Brontë did not send the letter or even make the trip to London. According to Francis Leyland, Brontë's friend and a future biographer of the family, his first job was as an usher at a Halifax school. More certainly, Brontë worked as a portrait painter in Bradford in 1838 and 1839. Though certain of his paintings, for example that of his landlady Mrs. Kirby and a portrait of Emily show talent for comedic and serious styles, other portraits lack life. He returned to Haworth in debt in 1839.

Adulthood

With his father, Brontë reviewed the classics with a view to future employment as a tutor. At the beginning of January 1840, he started his employment with the family of Robert Postlethwaite in Broughton-in-Furness. During this time he wrote letters to his pub friends in Haworth which give "a vivid picture of Branwell's scabrous humour, his boastfulness, and his need to be accepted in a man's world". According to Brontë, he started his job off with a riotous drinking session in Kendal.

During this employment he continued his literary work, including sending poems and translations to Thomas De Quincey and Hartley Coleridge who both lived in the Lake District. At Coleridge's invitation, he visited the poet at his cottage who encouraged him to pursue his translations of Horace's Odes. In June 1840 he sent the translations to Coleridge, after having been dismissed by the Postlethwaites. According to Juliet Barker's biography of the Brontës, he may have fathered an illegitimate child during time in the town, but others suspect that it may be more of Brontë's boasting. Coleridge began an encouraging letter about the quality of the translations in November–December 1840 but never finished it. In October 1840, Brontë moved near to Halifax, where he had many good friends including the sculptor Joseph Bentley Leyland and Francis Grundy. He obtained employment with the Manchester and Leeds Railway, initially as 'assistant clerk in charge' at Sowerby Bridge railway station, where he was paid £75 per annum (paid quarterly). Later, on 1 April 1841, he was promoted to 'clerk in charge' at Luddendenfoot railway station in West Yorkshire, where his salary increased to £130. In 1842 he was dismissed due to a deficit in the accounts of £11–1s–7d (£11.06) This had probably been stolen by Watson, the porter, who was left in charge when Brontë went drinking. This was attributed to incompetence rather than theft and the missing sum was deducted from his salary. A description by Francis Leyland of Brontë at this time described him as "rather below middle height, but of a refined and gentleman-like appearance, and of graceful manners. His complexion was fair and his features handsome; his mouth and chin were well-shaped; his nose was prominent and of the Roman type; his eyes sparkled and danced with delight, and his forehead made up of a face of oval form which gave an irresistible charm to its possessor, and attracted the admiration of those who knew him." Another described him less flatteringly as "almost insignificantly small" and with "a mass of red hair which he wore brushed off his forehead – to help his height I fancy... small ferrety eyes, deep sunk and still further hidden by the never removed spectacles."

In January 1843, after nine months at Haworth, Brontë took up another tutoring position in Thorp Green, Little Ouseburn, near York, where he was to tutor the Reverend Edmund Robinson's young son. His sister Anne had been the governess there since May 1840. As usual, at first things went well, with Charlotte reporting in January 1843 that her siblings were "both wonderously valued in their situations." During his 30 months service Branwell corresponded with several old friends about his increasing infatuation with Robinson's wife Lydia, née Gisborne, a charming and sophisticated woman, almost fifteen years senior to him. He wrote, perhaps unreliably, to one of his friends that "my mistress is DAMNABLY TOO FOND OF ME" and sent him a "lock of her hair, wch has lain at night on his breast – wd to God it could do so legally !" In July 1845, he was dismissed from his position. According to Gaskell, he received a letter "sternly dismissing him, intimating that his proceedings were discovered, characterising them as bad beyond expression and charging him, on pain of exposure, to break off immediately, and for ever, all communication with every member of the family." Multiple explanations have been given for this, including inappropriate relationships with a Robinson daughter or son, or that he had passed forged cheques. The most likely explanation is Brontë's own account that he had an affair with Mrs Robinson which Brontë hoped would lead to marriage after her husband's death. For several months after his dismissal, he regularly received small amounts of money from Thorp Green, sent by Mrs. Robinson herself, probably to dissuade him from blackmailing his former employer and lover.

Brontë returned home to his family at the Haworth parsonage, where he looked for another job, wrote poetry and attempted to adapt Angrian material into a book called And the Weary are at Rest. During the 1840s, several of his poems were published in local newspapers under the name of Northangerland, making him the first of the Brontës to be a published poet. Soon however, after Mr Robinson's death, Mrs Robinson made clear that she was not going to marry Branwell, who then "declined into chronic alcoholism, opiates and debt". Charlotte's letters from this time demonstrate that she was angered by his behaviour. In January 1847, he wrote to his friend Leyland about the easy existence he hoped for: "to try and make myself a name in the world of posterity, without being pestered by the small but countless botherments." His behaviour became increasingly impossible and embarrassing to the family. He managed to set fire to his bed, after which his father had to sleep with him for the safety of the family. Towards the end of his life he was sending notes to a friend asking of "Five pence (5d) worth of Gin". Charlotte Brontë wrote to her publisher that Branwell died without "ever knowing that his sisters had published a line." However, according to Juliet Barker's biography, Branwell may have known about his sisters' publication of their poetry, having been the accidental recipient of some proofs since their pseudonyms were thought to be male. Barker also states that Branwell's friends said he claimed authorship of Wuthering Heights (though they may have said this out of loyalty).

Death

On 24 September 1848, Brontë died at Haworth parsonage, most likely due to tuberculosis aggravated by delirium tremens, alcoholism, and laudanum and opium addiction, despite the fact that his death certificate notes "chronic bronchitis-marasmus" as the cause. Elizabeth Gaskell's biography of Charlotte reports an eye-witness account that Brontë, wanting to show the power of the human will, decided to die standing up, "and when the last agony began, he insisted on assuming the position just mentioned." On 28 September 1848, he was interred in the family vault.

Emily Brontë died of tuberculosis on 19 December of that year and Anne Brontë on 29 May 1849 in the coastal resort of Scarborough. Charlotte, the last living sister, married the Reverend Arthur Bell Nichols, curate of Haworth, in 1854 and died in March 1855, due to complications from pregnancy.

Cultural references

Polly Teale wrote a 2005 play entitled Brontë about the three sisters, in which Branwell was portrayed as a drunk and jealous brother due to the growing successes of his sisters.

Blake Morrison wrote the play We are Three Sisters (2011), a re-working of Chekhov's Three Sisters based on the lives of the Brontë sisters and featuring Branwell and Mrs Robinson, which premiered in Halifax on 9 September before touring.

British novelist Robert Edric wrote Sanctuary (2014), a novel chronicling Branwell's final months, during which family secrets are revealed and he learns about the publication of his sisters' books.

Branwell is referenced by the character "Mr Mybug" in Stella Gibbons' 1932 comic novel Cold Comfort Farm. In a parody of the "Hampstead intellectual" scene of the time of the book's creation, the Mr Mybug character boasts of working on a biography of Branwell Brontë, his thesis being that Branwell was in fact the real author of the books ascribed to his sisters.

In Tim Powers' novel My Brother’s Keeper (2023), Branwell is a major character, along with his sister Emily as the protagonist, as well as, to a lesser extent, the rest of the Brontë family.

Portrayals
In the 1946 film Devotion, he was portrayed by Arthur Kennedy.

In the film The Brontë Sisters (Les Sœurs Brontë, 1979) he was portrayed by Pascal Greggory.

He was portrayed by Adam Nagaitis in To Walk Invisible (2016), a BBC drama about the Brontë family.

In the film Emily (2022) he was portrayed by Fionn Whitehead.

Poems

 * "Lines Spoken by a Lawyer on the Occasion of the Transfer of This Magazine"
 * "On Caroline"
 * "Thorp Green"
 * "Remember Me"
 * "Sir Henry Tunstall"
 * "Penmaenmawr"
 * "Real Rest"
 * "Letter from a Father on Earth to His Child in Her Grave"
 * "The End of All"

Juvenilia
(written with his sisters)
 * Battell Book
 * The Glass Town
 * The Young Men's Magazine, Number 1 – 3 (August 1830)
 * The Revenge A Tradgedy
 * The History of the Young Men from Their First Settlement to the Present Time (1829–1831)
 * The Fate of Regina
 * The Liar Detected
 * Ode on the Celebration of the Great African Games
 * The Pirate A Tale
 * Real Life in Verdopolis, volume 1–2
 * The Politics of Verdopolis
 * An Angrain Battle Song
 * Percy's Musings upon the Battle of Edwardston
 * Mary's Prayer
 * An Historical Narrative of the War of Encroachment
 * An Historical Narrative of the War of Agression
 * Angria and the Angrians
 * Letters from an Englishman (1830–1832)
 * Life of Warner Howard Warner
 * Tales of Angria (written 1838–1839 – a collection of childhood and young adult writings including five short novels)

title: Branwell Brontë


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User:Lady Lysine Ikinsile~enwiki/Revised English Orthography

revïzd inglish òþografë (eng: Revised English Orthography) iz a modifïd vèjun ov ðu tradishunul inglish speliń systum, dezïned tó bë simplè and mò regülè. it adz sevèul new charactèz and chängez ðe mëniń ov sum eczistiń wunz tó remóv ambigüitës betwën spöken and riten inglish.

capital/lowècäs letèz
ðair à nö upècäs letèz in revïzd inglish òþografë ecsept wen rïtiń eczistiń inglish nämz.

ð (eð) and þ (þòn)
ðu eð and þòn letèz reprezent ðë inglish "th" sōnd. ð reprezentz ðu voiced dental fricative, az in inglish "them"; þ reprezentz ðu voiceless dental fricative, az in inglish "thing".

vōlz folöd bï r
vōlz in inglish folöd bï "r" à repläsd wið ä gräv acsent övè ðu vōl.
 * ''eczampul: "harder" -> "hàdè"

hàd vōlz
hàd vōlz, i.e. ðöz prönōnsd az ðä wód bë on ðair ön, á riten wið an umlaut.
 * ''eczampul: "bite" -> "bït"

loń vōlz
loń vōlz, e.g. ðöz writen bï dubliń ðem in inglish, à writen wið an acüt acsent övè ðu vōl.
 * ''eczampul: "too" -> "tó"

ou/ow sōnd
ðis sōnd, az in "cow", "sound" and "vowel" iz replasd wið ðu ō letè.

c/s/z/k
ðu letè "c" in revïzd inglish iz alwäz prönōnsd "kuh"; "s" iz alwäz "suh" and "z" iz alwäz "zuh". ðair iz nö "k" letè.
 * eczampul: "cat" -> "cat"; "ceiling" -> "sëliń"

ng
ðu "ng" sōnd iz writen ń.
 * ''eczampul: "writing" -> "wrïtiń"

 * tó bë continüd...


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Talk:Deepdene (diamond)

Untitled
Does irradiation change the color? We have the Where and What, and the range of When, but the How and Why are missing. This entry is perfectly opaque to ignorant me. Wetman 00:35, 22 Jul 2004 (UTC)

I wonder who would have had the capability to do neutron bombardment for random private persons in the 1960s - does anybody have any theories? Stan 05:49, 24 Jul 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Deepdene (diamond)


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Parkfield

Parkfield may refer to:

 * Parkfield, California, an unincorporated community in California, United States
 * Parkfield earthquake, various earthquakes that have occurred near Parkfield
 * Parkfield Interventional EQ Fieldwork, land art near Parkfield
 * Parkfield, Cornwall, a hamlet in Cornwall, United Kingdom
 * Parkfield, a park and stadium serving Potters Bar Town F.C. in Potters Bar, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
 * Parkfield Colliery, a former coal mine in South Gloucestershire, United Kingdom
 * Parkfield High School, a former secondary school in Wolverhampton, West Midlands, United Kingdom
 * Parkfield School, a free school at Bournemouth Airport in Dorset, United Kingdom

title: Parkfield


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William Hussey (astronomer)

William Joseph Hussey (August 10, 1862 – October 28, 1926) was an American astronomer.

Early life and education
He was born at Mendon, Ohio, August 10, 1862, son of John Milton Hussey and Mary Catherine Stevens. He attended the Valparaiso Normal School in 1880 and completed the scientific curriculum with a specialization in education in one year. Afterward, he attended the University of Michigan to study civil engineering.

He had to stop his education his sophomore year of university due to a lack of funds. During a three-year hiatus from his education he worked as a principal of the schools at Ohio Station, Illinois. During summer breaks, he did clerical work for railroad surveyors in the Northwest. He then returned to the University of Michigan to finish his civil engineering degree in 1889.

Career
After graduating with a BS in civil engineering from the University of Michigan in 1889, he served as assistant in the Nautical Almanac Office of Washington. He soon returned to Ann Arbor as instructor in mathematics, and became instructor in astronomy in 1891.

He is most famous for the discovery and study of close binary stars. In the period from 1898 to 1899, he observed all binaries discovered by Otto Struve, with at least three observations of each. His amazing efficiency is demonstrated by these numbers: he made 1,920 observations in one year, with a record of 80 in one night. He had travelled all around the world for this research to places such as California, Arizona, and Australia. He also designed many of the telescopes that he used during these studies. At the conclusion of his double star work in 1905, he had discovered and measured 1,327 close binaries. For this work, he was awarded the Lalande Medal in 1906, which he shared with Robert Grant Aitken.

In 1892, he joined the faculty of Stanford University as an assistant professor of astronomy. From 1896 to 1905 he was Astronomer at the Lick Observatory, returning to the faculty of the University of Michigan in 1905 to become professor of astronomy and fifth director of the Detroit Observatory. In 1897, he was elected president of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. During his time at the Lick Observatory, he took photographs of Comet Rordame. From 1905 to 1912, Hussey served as the secretary of the American Astronomical Society. In 1911, Hussey traveled to the University of La Plata in Argentina to help them develop their Observatory and telescopes. In 1912, he went on to earn another degree from Brown University.

Time at the University of Michigan
As an astronomy professor and director of the Detroit Observatory, Hussey made many meaningful contributions to the astronomy department at the University of Michigan. He was responsible for securing large donations to the observatory and for the installation of a 37 1/2-inch reflecting telescope. He was able to expand the astronomy department from twelve students to over one-hundred. Hussey often argued against any developments around the Observatory to protect it from anything that could disrupt observations, such as dirt, dust, and light. In 1912, while Hussey was voyaging across the Atlantic on his way to La Plata University in Argentina, the president of the university, Harry B. Hutchins, and the board of regents decided to build a power plant near the observatory. Hussey and his wife, Ethel Hussey, argued against the plant's development but it was developed despite their opposition. Ethel Hussey was the first president of the Michigan League at the time.

Death
On his way to install a new telescope in South Africa, Hussey died unexpectedly in London, England on October 28, 1926. He had worked for many years preparing for this project. A crater on Mars was named in his honor. The Lamont–Hussey Observatory in Bloemfontein, Free State, South Africa was named after him.

Obituaries

 * MNRAS 87 (1927) 260
 * Obs 49 (1926) 347
 * PASP 39 (1927) 35

title: William Hussey (astronomer)


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Infield

Infield is a sports term whose definition depends on the sport in whose context it is used.

Baseball
In baseball, the diamond, as well as the area immediately beyond it, has both grass and dirt, in contrast to the more distant, usually grass-covered, outfield. The "diamond" can also refer to the defensive unit of players that are positioned in the region: first baseman, second baseman, shortstop, third baseman. Sometimes it includes the catcher and pitcher who (as a tandem) are often referred to separately as the battery.

In baseball the physical infield is where most of the action in a baseball game occurs, as it includes that area where the all-important duel between the pitcher and batter takes place. The pitcher stands on the pitcher's mound (a raised mound of dirt located at the center of the infield) and from there he pitches the ball to his catcher, who is crouched behind home plate sixty feet, six inches away at what might be called the cutlet of the diamond-shaped baseball field. To the left and right of the catcher are chalk boxes in the dirt called batter's boxes. The opposing team's batter must stand in one of the two boxes and from there he will attempt to hit the pitched ball with his bat. The umpire, who officiates the game, stands behind the catcher. The other important parts of the infield are the three bases, first base (to the pitcher's left, looking toward home plate), second base (behind the pitcher) and third base (to the pitcher's right). Together, home plate and the three bases form a diamond around the pitcher, with each side of the diamond measuring 90 feet.

Cricket
In cricket infield is a central oval on the cricket field, the reference point for fielding restrictions in short forms of the game; in contrast to the more distant outfield.

Tracks
Infield can refer to a region inside a closed race track used for horse racing or auto racing, or to an area encircled by the track of a roller coaster.

title: Infield


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Winter Kills (novel)

Winter Kills is a black comedy novel by Richard Condon, exploring the assassination of a U.S. president. It was published in 1974. The novel parallels the death of John F. Kennedy and the conspiracy theories about it.

Plot summary
The novel begins with U.S. President Timothy Kegan already having been assassinated in Philadelphia at Hunt Plaza. The ensuing presidential commission condemns a lone gunman as the killer. The narrative starts years later, when Kegan's half-brother, Nick, witnesses the death-bed confession of a man claiming to have been part of the killing's 'hit squad'. As the protagonist attempts to uncover those behind it, he encounters numerous groups and persons that could have led or been part of the conspiracy. One is Lola Camonte, a hostess, lobbyist and fixer. She recounts the story of President Kegan asking her about appointing a member of organized crime to the Court of St. James's. The character "Joe Diamond" is the fictional representation of the killer of Kennedy's assassin, Lee Harvey Oswald, the Mob-connected Dallas nightclub owner Jack Ruby.

Condon's book describes numerous intertwined threads, variously implicating (or proffering as diversions to put the protagonist off the trail) the Jewish/Italian-American Mob, figures related to Cuba, even possible domestic police connections. Only in the final act, in which Nick meets with his vicious and perverse Joseph P. Kennedy-like 'father-figure', is the truth revealed with a twist ending implicating the "system" of interrelated interests embracing Organized crime, the U.S. covert world, Big Business, and political fixers.

Film adaptation
In 1979, a film adaptation of the novel was released, Winter Kills, which starred Jeff Bridges and John Huston.

title: Winter Kills (novel)


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Outfield

The outfield, in cricket, baseball and softball is the area of the field of play further from the batsman or batter than the infield. In association football, the outfield players are positioned outside the goal area.

In cricket, baseball and softball

In baseball, softball and cricket, fielders in the outfield have more ground to cover than infielders, but also more time before the ball reaches them. Catches are most likely to arise from shots that have been 'skied' (in cricket) or 'popped ' (in baseball and softball). If a catch is not possible (for example, the ball has bounced, or is rolling or skidding across the turf) the fielder will attempt to head off, pick up and throw in the ball as quickly as possible to reduce the distance the runners can run and hopefully to effect a run out (cricket) or tag out (baseball and softball).

In cricket, where the ball is far more likely to stay low against the ground than in baseball or softball, the condition of the turf has a major effect on the speed at which the ball travels through the outfield. On a slow outfield the ball decelerates significantly, making fielding easier and batting harder — in particular boundaries are far harder to hit. This usually occurs if the playing surface is uneven or if it is damp from rain or dew. However, on a fast outfield the ball does not decelerate significantly even when rolling along the turf, often racing past the fielders and over the boundary rope. In these circumstances, batsmen find it easier to score runs quickly. Commentators often refer to the ball accelerating to the boundary on fast outfields, but this only physically occurs on grounds with a slope and on which the ball is moving downhill.

In baseball and softball, a slow, damp outfield is usually considered an advantage for the hitter, in as much as a batted ball will not travel as quickly to an outfielder in the traditional deep position for fly balls, and thus may permit additional advance by batters and other runners on the basepaths. In addition, a wet, slick ball can not be thrown with the accuracy of a dry one, also permitting the opportunity for additional advance on the bases. Moreover, a wet field generally slows the footspeed of the defense, so fielders will be able to reach fewer flies and line drives in the air before they go through to the fences.

Association football
In association football, eleven players are fielded in each match. The goalkeeper remains in the goal, and the remaining ten players are "outfield" players.

title: Outfield


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User:Dumbo1

I'm English and I live in Brighton.

I have many interests, including Science, Geology, History, Natural history and Archaeology.

I don't have an invisible friend.

title: User:Dumbo1


text:
Category:United States tort case law

This category includes United States tort law cases.

title: Category:United States tort case law