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Talk:Pit stop

Image please
If anyone has an image of a pit stop please add it to this page because I think it would really help illustrate what it is. An F1 pit stop where there are loads of mechanics would be best but anything will do. SamH 22:05, 11 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * I emailed the PR lady at http://www.barf1.com (the BAR-Honda F1 team website) and she said she'd be glad to let Wikipedia use any number of the images on their site. I borrowed a nice pitstop picture and scaled it down: see Image:BAR pitstop.jpg. Ðåñηÿßôý | Talk 15:49, 9 Oct 2004 (UTC)

I think we have enough images of NASCAR and F1 pit stops, but I would like to see some pictures for IndyCar and endurance racing pit stops.Mustang6172 (talk) 00:13, 11 January 2009 (UTC)
 * I'll talk to a friend I know who used to cover races at Laguna Seca for the local paper; he might have some photos of slightly older pit stops (circa 10-20 years ago) that we could use. I think he tries to get to the track on a regular basis still; if so, maybe he'll be able to give us some free pictures of IRL and ALMS stops at some point this year.  rdfox 76 (talk) 13:22, 12 January 2009 (UTC)
 * Finally got in touch with him, and he suggested we look at and  as potential choices.  They're not perfect (both date to 1991, and the first one's from the old IMSA GTP series that's the distant ancestor of today's Grand Am DP cars), and I don't have an email or formal permission to use them yet, but if you guys think they'd be reasonable, I'll see about getting something that would satisfy the NFCC wonks...  rdfox 76 (talk) 13:05, 9 March 2009 (UTC)

Number of mechanics
I have reverted the edit by User:Ropers because I don't think that the original version was contradictory. The first paragraph is talking about pit stops in general (i.e. not any particular race series). It is true to say that in general any number of mechanics can be involved. However, where we are talking about F1 pit stops in particular, it is true to say that the number is "about twenty". Furthermore, I believe it is misleading to say that it is "typically about twenty" because that suggests that the number varies from time to time which it does not. SamH 20:10, 12 Aug 2004 (UTC)

One word or two?
Should this article be titled pit stop or pitstop? The Times style guide says pitstop, the official website uses pit stop and the BBC mainly uses pit stop but occasionally uses pitstop and pit-stop. I get the feeling that this might simply be down to personal preference, but I thought I'd check if anyone else cares. SamH 22:43, 23 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Also could someone comment why it's named pitstop? Where this came from? 200.158.202.122 00:59, 1 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * I think it comes from a time before vehicles were raised on hydraulic lifts for maintenance access. At one time it was common to build a narrow masonry or concrete-lined elongated pit with steps leading down at either end.  The car would be positioned over the pit and one could climb down into it to work on the underside of the vehicle.  It's a device still used by some backyard mechanics, but rarely found in repair shops today.  The question is whether such pits were ever used at racetracks, such as Indianapolis.  —QuicksilverT @ 15:36, 28 September 2006 (UTC)

I'm not 100% certain about this, but I *think* I read at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway museum that the track originally did have actual work pits on pit lane. However, it's been four or five years since I was there--could anyone who's been there more recently confirm or deny this? Rdfox 76 16:28, 13 April 2007 (UTC)

Drive through penalty
My memory is failing me and I can't find it on the web: is it true that it happened once that a race was won in a pit stop? Or was it that the race leader got a penalty drive-through and that this penalty was taken in the last lap, hereby effectively both finishing the race and fullfill the penalty at the same time without real time loss? Maybe this is an interesting piece of trivia, that the pit lane counts as part of the track and races can be finished in a pit stop. Technically this hasn't anything to do with pit stops but there isn't an entry for pit lane. Felsir 11:25, July 24, 2005 (UTC)

 * I bet you're thinking of Jeff Burton's win several years ago at the NASCAR All-Star race. The race has different rules than a normal event, including a required pit stop under green flag conditions. The rules didn't say WHEN the driver had to pit, so he did his pit stop on the last lap. He crossed the finish line in the pits ahead of everyone else. He gained time on because they had to complete the entire slow drive down pit lane, but he didn't. Royalbroil 16:54, 22 June 2006 (UTC)

Accidents in pit stops
Is there a page on Wikipedia that lists Formula One accidents in the pit? Or more generally a list of Formula One accidents? I can find a list of race drivers that were killed while racing but no mention of spectators, pit crew, or other people. --Steerpike 11:54, 29 August 2006 (UTC)

More info about pit rules please
Those of us not familiar with motor sports could use a basic explanation of how the pit stop effects position, especially during a yellow flag. --Doctorfoxxe 13:21, 12 August 2007 (UTC)
 * Just made a major set of additions to the article, including one that hopefully addressed your question. Is the information you wanted in there?  Rdfox 76 18:08, 12 August 2007 (UTC)

NASCAR Section
Reguarding the comment about one stop strategies at Bristol and Martinsville. What awful math is that based on? By my calculations, that would only be possible if 375 of 500 laps were run under caution. Since the tracks are so slow and the gearing is low (rhyme not intended), they can only go about 70 miles on a tank of fuel. Anyone who watched the Bristol race this month can vouch for that.Mustang6172 05:43, 29 August 2007 (UTC)
 * Sorry, I based it on the "average" fuel mileage figure given by NASCAR (4.5 mpg) and the old 22-gallon fuel cells, which works out to 99 miles under green, i.e., about 180-200 laps at Bristol and Martinsville. Add in the typical number of cautions, you could theoretically make it on one stop, but it'd be very very risky.  I forgot that they cut the fuel cell size to 19 gallons with the CoT; will change it to reflect current reality.  Rdfox 76 15:47, 29 August 2007 (UTC)

Terminology section?
I was wondering whether there ought to be some mention of differing terminology between american and european series. For instance, American series talk about "Pit Road" or "in Pit Lane", while europeans tend to call it "the pitlane" or more generally "the pits", using the definite article and concatenating it into a single word.

Oh, and I removed a section about a 2003 Ferrari fire at a pitstop, since small fires aren't especially unusual, but they're put out quickly. The 2008 Brazilian GP would be more worthy of mention than that one, as it had about 4 fires. -mattbuck (Talk) 02:24, 2 March 2009 (UTC)

Crew chief
The Crew chief is a very important job in NASCAR but it's poorly represented in WP. To improve this I added "Crew chief" under "roles" so the redirect from Crew chief leads to the proper section of the Pit Stop article instead of to the top of the article. Now people can actually read about what a Crew chief is --Hutcher (talk) 19:09, 11 April 2010 (UTC)

Pit Garages
How are they allocated to the teams at each race track? Who is responsible for them? In major races/tracks do the big teams customise their own garage or pay for their upkeep? Are these garages actually all the same (like the cars)? Are some pit garages more preferable than others (race tactics - back/centre/end of the pit row)? Do the teams use the same pit year after year?

Rather than just narrative, and the story of the pits, these are the sort questions that should be addressed in an encyclopedic article! Otherwise any reader who is not an expert on the subject learns nothing except, who did, they did etc

File:Junior at Darlington edit.jpg to appear as POTD soon
Hello! This is a note to let the editors of this article know that File:Junior at Darlington edit.jpg will be appearing as picture of the day on February 20, 2011. You can view and edit the POTD blurb at Template:POTD/2011-02-20. If this article needs any attention or maintenance, it would be preferable if that could be done before its appearance on the Main Page so Wikipedia doesn't look bad. :) Thanks!  howcheng  {chat} 01:06, 18 February 2011 (UTC)

F1 pit crew roles
I think there is a mistake in here - it says that the two front new tyre carriers have the responsibility to adjust the front wing. I am almost certain that they don't and that there are two dedicated persons for that. Look at the picture of the William pit stop in the article. You can clearly see 3 people taking care of the front right tyre, and then another person in front of them (to the left of the front jack man) making a wing change. The same on the front left, but it is a bit less visible there as there is also the lollipop man. Could someone more knowledgable than me correct this and also use the proper name for the role? --SmilingBoy (talk) 23:14, 10 July 2012 (UTC)

Tyres or tires
What are we doing re. spelling of 'tyre' in this article? The original had 'tyre' and that would seem to be the most appropriate for F1 sections, however, Nascar would clearly prefer 'tire'. According to WP:ARTCON the whole article should use a consistent form of English (which would mean using 'tyre' throughout as this was what was originally used in the article as per MOS:RETAIN) but I can see an argument for keeping 'tire' in the US based sport sections. We need a decision and to comment it effectively to avoid endless reversions. Btljs (talk) 05:10, 7 September 2015 (UTC)

 * Since we probably should be consistent, I would settle on British English and "tyre" per MOS:RETAIN. There's no strong tie to either spelling, though as international motorsport does tend to use the British spelling, you could make an argument for "tyre" on the basis of wider usage. QueenCake (talk) 16:21, 7 September 2015 (UTC)
 * What we've been using thus far is using the British spelling in the F1 section, since FIA officially uses the British spelling, and the American spelling in the US-based sections (NASCAR, IndyCar, and, at the time I added it, endurance racing, since I was building off of the ALMS and Grand-Am rules; at the time, FIA didn't have an endurance championship, and all of ACO's official references were in French, natch). Personally, I wouldn't object to the endurance racing section switching to the British version, given that it's more international, but I would still recommend that the NASCAR and IndyCar sections retain the US spelling, since both of them use "tire" as the official spelling in the rulebooks and all official publications.  While WP:ARTCON says it should use a single consistent form of English, I'd argue that this is a place where we can suitably apply WP:IAR and WP:ENGVAR to be consistent with actual usage in the different branches of the sport.  rdfox 76 (talk) 04:12, 8 September 2015 (UTC)
 * I would tend to agree with this. What I want to avoid is wading in and bullishly changing 80-odd 'tires' to 'tyres' quoting MOS:RETAIN when the different sections are quite distinct. I'm going to put a comment at the top of each section to state whether it's: 1. Non-specific->'tyre'; 2. F1->'tyre'; 3.NASCAR or IndyCar->'tire'. What do you think about endurance racing? Btljs (talk) 11:07, 8 September 2015 (UTC)

 * I've done that. I've left endurance racing for now (using 'tire') but all the other sections are explicit. Btljs (talk) 12:43, 8 September 2015 (UTC)

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Time Cost of a "green flag" pit stop
A "green flag" pit stop occurs when the race is ongoing. A "yellow flag" pit stop means that the vehicles are going slower and are prohibited from passing. The following only applies to the dynamics of a "green flag" pit stop; the issues are very different under a yellow flag pit stop.

Race announcers report how many seconds each pit stop takes. They start the clock when the car stops and stop the clock when the car starts to roll. "only 3.9 seconds." That's interesting information, but it's almost a small part of how much time is lost during a pit stop. The driver needs to slow down before pit lane entry, his speed is always (?) limited while in the pit lane (e.g., NASCAR limit ranges from ), the driver needs to slow from that speed to a stop, and after the crew has finished their "only 3.9 seconds" the driver needs to accelerate to the pit lane speed limit, maintain that speed to the end of the lane, and then accelerate to racing speed and merge into traffic.

How much time does all this take? It varies according to the type of racing and the individual tracks, and other issues can have a large effect: traffic within pit lane, engine/gear/clutch problems, and traffic problems when merging back onto the course. * Indy cars = 42 seconds
 * * At the Indianapolis Motor Speedway, an IndyCar Series car is on pit road for about 38 seconds, including the time the car is stopped and being serviced. However, the driver begins slowing the car on the exit of Turn 3 on the "in lap."  After the pit stop, it takes up to the of Turn 4 for the car to return to full racing speed on the "out lap."  At the Indianapolis Motor Speedway, a green flag pit stop cost the pitting car about 42 seconds, or roughly one lap, relative to the leader of the race. According to IndyCar.com
 * NASCAR = ???
 * F1 = "30 or so seconds"
 * Other racing leagues = ???

Pit Lane Speed Limits

 * NASCAR varies with the track: 30 at small tracks to 55 mph at big tracks
 * Indy: "usually 60 mph"
 * F1: 60 KPH during practice, 80 KPH during the race - the driver has a button that activates the limit

Hobkirk (talk) 23:57, 29 May 2016 (UTC) I'm a Wikipedia novice, so I encourage feedback. I was surprised to see how good the "Pit Stop" article was, and then disappointed to see it didn't discuss what I regard ad the bigger issue of total time.

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Style guide: "Pit row" or "Pit road"
Currently NASCAR television announcers use "pit road" to describe the area. Did it evolve from "pit row" over time? For example, this NY Times article does not seem to agree with itself on the style (headline pit row, but pit road used in the text. https://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/15/sports/othersports/on-pit-row-its-first-and-tire-change.html Group29 (talk) 18:08, 24 August 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Pit stop


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Talk:Malpensa International Airport

Don't think that listing air companies for an airport is not much meaningful ?

Destinations
What is the source confirming Glasgow and/or Bournemouth as easyjet destinations from Milan Malpensa? No such announcement has been made by either easyjet or the airport authorities. Deleted.

Alitalia hub?

 * Malpensa is the main hub of Alitalia

Really? I can not think so. Alitalia was never able to use MXP as an hub. It always prefeared to concentrate fligh in Rome FCO. If you look at its timetable you will find the it is very rare that an Alitalia flight depart from Malpensa (except for a small numebr of big European destinations, and a vere very small long haul destination). For the most part of destinations Alitalia timetable says you have to change in Rome FCO, or take a flight that is operated by one allied airlines and change in Paris or in A,sterdam. AnyFile 09:25, 4 August 2006 (UTC)
 * Well, it's definitely a hub as shown by the destination list and as mentioned on Alitalia's website. Whether MXP or FCO is their primary hub/operations base, I don't know. Since the headquarters is in Rome, I'd assume the operations base is also there (it's also the first airport listed under hubs on the Alitalia corporate page). Dbinder (talk) 22:07, 4 August 2006 (UTC)

elevation
Ciao!

The elevation of Malpensa is definitely not 24 m above sea level... According to this site it's 234 m: http://worldaerodata.com/wad.cgi?id=IT37883&sch=LIMC

I changed it but there are a few different values. Your link showed 234m, while http://www.landings.com/evird.acgi?pass=87017197&ref=-&mtd=41&cgi=%2Fcgi-bin%2Fnph-search_apt&var=13&buf=66&src=_landings%2Fpages%2Fsearch_apt.html&1=limc&5=&7=&8=&6=&9=&10=&max_ret=10&start_ret=1 shows 211m. I think one is measuring minimum elevation while the other is measuring maximum elevation on the field. I went ahead and changed it again to use your values as the maximum elevation is usually the value used for field elevation.63.246.176.247

Third runway
From the 5th paragraph: "The third satellite (C) is under construction and a third runway is going to be built." Is there anyone that can confirm that a 3rd runway is going to be built? From what I know on this issue, there have only been debates over the possibility of eventually constructing a third runway. Radarino (talk) 08:51, 3 March 2008 (UTC)

Name Change
Suggest changing the article name to Milan Malpensa Airport or simply Malpensa Airport. The word international is neither in its name nor is it commonly used.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Malpensa International Airport


text:
Jack Buchanan

Walter John Buchanan (2 April 1891 – 20 October 1957) was a Scottish theatre and film actor, singer, dancer, producer and director. He was known for three decades as the embodiment of the debonair man-about-town in the tradition of George Grossmith Jr., and was described by The Times as "the last of the knuts." He is best known in America for his role in the classic Hollywood musical The Band Wagon in 1953.

Biography
Buchanan was born in Helensburgh, Dunbartonshire, Scotland, the son of Walter John Buchanan Sr (1865–1902), auctioneer, and his wife, Patricia, née McWatt (1860–1936). He was educated at the Glasgow Academy.

Early career
After a brief attempt to follow his late father's profession and a failure at acting in Glasgow, he became a music hall comedian under the name of Chump Buchanan and appeared on the variety stage in Scotland. Moving to London and adopting the name "Jack Buchanan", he first appeared on the West End in September 1912 in the comic opera The Grass Widow  at the Apollo Theatre. Hardship dogged him for a while before he became famous whilst on tour in 1915 in Tonight's the Night. He produced and acted in his own plays both in London and New York City.

Buchanan's health was not robust, and, to his regret, was declared unfit when he attempted to enlist for military service in the First World War. He appeared with some success in West End shows during the war, attracting favourable notices as a "knut" in the mould of George Grossmith Jr, and achieved front rank stardom in André Charlot's 1921 revue A to Z, appearing with Gertrude Lawrence. Among his numbers in the show was Ivor Novello's "And Her Mother Came Too", which became Buchanan's signature song. The show transferred successfully to Broadway in 1924. For the rest of the 1920s and 1930s he was famous for "the seemingly lazy but most accomplished grace with which he sang, danced, flirted and joked his way through musical shows.... The tall figure, the elegant gestures, the friendly drawling voice, the general air of having a good time." During the Second World War he starred in his own musical production It's Time to Dance, whose cast included Fred Emney. The musical show was based on a book by Douglas Furber and L. Arthur Rose, and was staged at the Lyric Theatre, Shaftesbury Avenue, London.

Film career and later years
He made his film debut in the silent cinema, in 1917 and appeared in about three dozen films in his career. In 1938, Buchanan achieved the unusual feat of starring in the London stage musical This'll Make You Whistle while concurrently filming a film version. The film was released while the stage version was still running; thus the two productions competed with each other. Other starring roles included Monte Carlo (1930), Smash and Grab (1937) and The Gang's All Here (1939). He also produced several films including Happidrome (1943) and The Sky's the Limit (1938), which he also directed. He continued to work on Broadway and the West End and took roles in several Hollywood musicals, including The Band Wagon (1953), his best-known film, in which he plays camp theatre director Jeffrey Cordova opposite Fred Astaire and Cyd Charisse. He suffered from spinal arthritis, though this did not stop him from performing several dance numbers with Astaire in The Band Wagon.

British stage career
Buchanan's British stage appearances included A to Z, Battling Butler, Toni, Sunny, That's a Good Girl, Stand up and Sing, Mr. Whittington, This'll Make You Whistle, Top Hat and Tails, The Last of Mrs Cheyney, Fine Feathers, Canaries Sometimes Sing, Don't Listen, Ladies!, Castle in the Air, King's Rhapsody and As Long as They're Happy. His first pantomime appearance (Christmas, 1940) was as "Buttons" in Cinderella.

His productions included The Women, The Body was Well Nourished, Waltz Without End, It's Time to Dance, A Murder for a Valentine, Treble Trouble and The Lady Asks for Help.

American stage career
Buchanan's American stage appearances included: André Charlot's Revues, Charles B. Cochran's Wake Up and Dream, Pardon My English, Between the Devil and Harvey (1948).

Film career
Buchanan's Hollywood films included Paris, The Show of Shows (1929), Monte Carlo (1930) and The Band Wagon (1953).

His British films included Yes, Mr Brown (1933), Goodnight, Vienna (1932), That's a Good Girl (1933), Brewster's Millions (1935), Come Out of the Pantry (1935), When Knights Were Bold (1936), This'll Make You Whistle (1936), Smash and Grab (1937), The Sky's the Limit (1938), Break the News (1938), The Gang's All Here (1939), The Middle Watch (1940), Bulldog Sees It Through (1940), As Long as They're Happy (1955) and Josephine and Men (1955). He made one French film (bilingual), The Diary of Major Thompson (1955).

Radio and television
Buchanan was a frequent broadcaster on British radio, especially during the Second World War. Programmes included The Jack Buchanan Show and, in 1955, the hugely popular eight-part series Man About Town.

On 12 June 1928, Buchanan participated in the first-ever transatlantic television broadcast. It was conducted by Scottish engineer John Logie Baird, an important figure in the technological development of television, and a lifelong friend of Buchanan's. At the time, the few television sets that existed had been custom-built by engineers and were not available for purchase by the general public in the United Kingdom or the United States.

American television shows on which Buchanan appeared during the era of stores selling television sets included Max Liebman's Spotlight in 1954 and The Ed Sullivan Show.

Business interests
In a British tradition of actor-management, Buchanan frequently produced his own shows, many of which were premiered in the Alhambra Theatre, Glasgow. He was also heavily involved in the more commercial side of British show business. He was responsible, with partners, for the building and ownership of the Leicester Square Theatre, London, and the Imperial in Brighton. He also controlled the Garrick Theatre in the West End of London and the King's Theatre in Hammersmith. Jack Buchanan Productions (in which his partners were J. Arthur Rank and Charles Woolf) owned Riverside Studios in Hammersmith.

He had been at school with the pioneer of television John Logie Baird and with him co-owned Television Limited, which manufactured and rented televisions.

Not all his business ventures were profitable, and at his death his estate was valued for probate (in 1958) at £24,489 (equivalent to £0 today).

Marriage
Buchanan's image was that of the raffish eternal bachelor, but he was, unknown to most, married to Russian opera singer Saffo Buchanan, née Drageva (known professionally as Saffo Arnav) from 1915 to 1920, when the marriage was annulled.

Later in life, he married Susan Bassett, an American, in 1947; he was her second husband. Through her he had a stepdaughter, Theo, who lived with them. He had no children of his own.

He once had a relationship with Australian actress Coral Browne, and during her meeting in Moscow with Soviet spy Guy Burgess in the late 1950s she informed Burgess, on mentioning Buchanan, that "we almost got married'. "And...?" "He jilted me." Burgess, previously at the British Foreign Office, had defected to Moscow a few years earlier, and one of the few mementoes of his earlier life that he had been able to keep was one 78rpm Jack Buchanan record—"Who?"—which, when Browne visited his Moscow flat, he played repeatedly. This event is portrayed in Alan Bennett's play An Englishman Abroad.

Character
Buchanan was noted for his portrayals of the quintessential English gentleman, despite being a Scot. He was known for his financial generosity to less prosperous actors and chorus performers. Sandy Wilson recalled that each year during the running of the annual Grand National horse race, Buchanan would cancel that day's performance of his current musical and charter an excursion train to the racecourse and back, supplying meals for the entire cast and crew of his show, in addition to giving them £5 each for a "flutter" on the horse of their choice.

Buchanan died in London on October 20, 1957 from spinal cancer at age 66.

Partial filmography

 * Auld Lang Syne (1917) – Vane
 * Her Heritage (1919) – Bob Hales
 * The Audacious Mr. Squire (1923) – Tom Squire
 * The Happy Ending (1925) – Captain Dale Conway
 * Settled Out of Court (1925) – The Husband
 * Bulldog Drummond's Third Round (1925) – Captain Hugh Drummond
 * A Typical Budget (1925, Short)
 * Confetti (1928) – Count Andrea Zorro
 * Toni (1928) – Toni Marr / Marini
 * Paris (1929) – Guy Pennell
 * The Show of Shows (1929)
 * Monte Carlo (1930) – Count Rudolph Farriere
 * A Man of Mayfair (1931) – Lord William
 * Goodnight, Vienna (1932) – Captain Maximilian Schletoff
 * Yes, Mr Brown (1933) – Nicholas Baumann
 * That's a Good Girl (1933) – Jack Barrow
 * Brewster's Millions (1935) – Jack Brewster
 * Come Out of the Pantry (1935) – Lord Robert Brent
 * When Knights Were Bold (1936) – Sir Guy De Vere
 * This'll Make You Whistle (1936) – Bill Hoppings
 * Smash and Grab (1937) – John Forrest
 * Limelight (1937) – Himself (uncredited)
 * Break the News (1938) – Teddy Enton
 * The Sky's the Limit (1938) – Dave Harber
 * The Gang's All Here (1939) – John Forrest
 * The Middle Watch (1940) – Captain Maitland
 * Bulldog Sees It Through (1940) – 'Bulldog' Bill Watson
 * Elstree Story (1952) – self
 * The Band Wagon (1953) – Jeffrey Cordova
 * As Long as They're Happy (1955) – John Bentley
 * Josephine and Men (1955) – Uncle Charles Luton
 * The French, They Are a Funny Race (1955) – Le Major Marmaduke Thompson

Box office ranking
For a number of years, British film exhibitors voted him among the top ten British stars at the box office via an annual poll in the Motion Picture Herald.
 * 1936 – 6th
 * 1937 – 5th
 * 1938 – 6th

title: Jack Buchanan


text:
User:Kot Behemot

Nickname: Kot_Behemot Location: Góra, Poland Sex: male Born: 1986 GG nr: 5177702

title: User:Kot Behemot


text:
Monuments to the Warsaw Uprising

The Monuments to the Warsaw Uprising were first established in Warsaw in the 1970s. Prior to that, there were only monuments to the Red Army soldiers and the Armia Ludowa soldiers. The role of the latter in the city fights in 1944 was exaggerated and overrated. Most of the victims of the Uprising who were buried in graves all over the city were later exhumed and buried in mass graves far away from the city centre, with a small concrete monument to "the victims of the war with Nazism". No mention of the Uprising was allowed.

Despite communist efforts, the people of Warsaw did not forget the Uprising. The only way to express it was on Polish zaduszki day, when thousands of people lit candles on graves of the Armia Krajowa soldiers in Powązki cemetery. According to the Polish secret police, in 1983 more than 400,000 people attended the informal feast. In 1979, the first (unofficial) celebration of Warsaw Uprising anniversary took place.

In the 1970s, the Polish United Workers' Party under the lead of Edward Gierek started to seek a "Polish way to socialism" and allowed for some liberalization of Polish history. The official propaganda started to underline that although the commanders of the Armia Krajowa were criminals, the individual soldiers simply followed wrong orders. In Warsaw, some 500 stone tablets were erected to commemorate those who fell in the city during the war. The tablets were all identical, except for the dates and number of victims. The text under the monuments says: This place is sanctified with the blood of Poles who fell in fight for the freedom of the Motherland. Still no mention of the Uprising was allowed in public places.

Also, a monument to the engineers of the Soviet-backed 1st Polish Army who crossed the river in late September and tried to help the Uprising was erected in Powiśle area. However, there was no text explaining when or what for did they die. The text written on the tables around the statue of an engineer said The Free Warsaw will never forget those who started the great effort of its reconstruction (...) to the engineers who lost their lives on duty..

In 1980, the start of the Solidarity movement allowed for a committee to be created, whose purpose was to erect a monument of the Warsaw Uprising. The money was to be gathered from private sponsors since the party still did not want to participate in such an initiative. Many prominent members of the Solidarity joined the committee, but it was banned after the Martial Law was imposed in 1981. However, the communist authorities understood that the memory of the Uprising will not fade in peoples' minds and agreed to prepare a project of the monument. On July 20, 1984, an erection act was prepared. The date was chosen to blur the connection with the uprising and the feast was officially connected to July 22, the anniversary of signing the PKWN manifesto. No Armia Krajowa members were invited and the construction never started.

After the peaceful dissolution of communist system in Poland in 1989, the committee was recreated. The project by Jacek Budyna was already prepared and construction begun immediately. The Warsaw Uprising Monument (Pomnik Powstania Warszawskiego) was erected on Krasiński Square, close to the place where one of the sewer communication lines with Starówka, Żoliborz and the city centre was located. The monument was revealed on August 1, 1989.

Since the beginning of the 1990s, the monuments to the soldiers who fought in the battle were no longer banned and started to spread throughout the city. Nowadays every battalion who took part in the struggle has got a monument, a street or a square named after.

title: Monuments to the Warsaw Uprising


text:
Talk:Higgins

On 30 July 2004, this page was nominated for deletion. As a result of the discussion, it has been tagged for transwiki to Wiktionary. See Votes for deletion/Higgins for a record of the discussion. Rossami 22:10, 11 Aug 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Higgins


text:
Split-complex number

In algebra, a split complex number (or hyperbolic number, also perplex number, double number) is based on a hyperbolic unit $j$ satisfying $$j^2=1.$$ A split-complex number has two real number components $x$ and $y$, and is written $$z=x+yj .$$ The conjugate of $z$ is $$z^*=x-yj.$$ Since $$j^2=1,$$ the product of a number $z$ with its conjugate is $$N(z) := zz^* = x^2 - y^2,$$ an isotropic quadratic form.

The collection $D$ of all split complex numbers $$z=x+yj$$ for $x,y \in \R$ forms an algebra over the field of real numbers. Two split-complex numbers $w$ and $z$ have a product $wz$ that satisfies $$N(wz)=N(w)N(z).$$ This composition of $N$ over the algebra product makes $(D, +, ×, *)$ a composition algebra.

A similar algebra based on $\R^2$ and component-wise operations of addition and multiplication, $(\R^2, +, \times, xy),$ where $xy$ is the quadratic form on $\R^2,$ also forms a quadratic space. The ring isomorphism

$$\begin{align} D &\to \mathbb{R}^2 \\ x + yj &\mapsto (x - y, x + y) \end{align}$$

relates proportional quadratic forms, but the mapping is an isometry since the multiplicative identity $(1, 1)$ of $\R^2$ is at a distance $\sqrt 2$ from 0, which is normalized in $D$.

Split-complex numbers have many other names; see  below. See the article Motor variable for functions of a split-complex number.

Definition
A split-complex number is an ordered pair of real numbers, written in the form

$$z = x + jy$$

where $x$ and $y$ are real numbers and the hyperbolic unit $j$ satisfies

$$j^2 = +1$$

In the field of complex numbers the imaginary unit i satisfies $$i^2 = -1 .$$ The change of sign distinguishes the split-complex numbers from the ordinary complex ones. The hyperbolic unit $j$ is not a real number but an independent quantity.

The collection of all such $z$ is called the split-complex plane. Addition and multiplication of split-complex numbers are defined by

$$\begin{align} (x + jy) + (u + jv) &= (x + u) + j(y + v) \\ (x + jy)(u + jv) &= (xu + yv) + j(xv + yu). \end{align}$$

This multiplication is commutative, associative and distributes over addition.

Conjugate, modulus, and bilinear form
Just as for complex numbers, one can define the notion of a split-complex conjugate. If

$$ z = x + jy ~,$$

then the conjugate of $z$ is defined as

$$ z^* = x - jy ~.$$

The conjugate is an involution which satisfies similar properties to the complex conjugate. Namely,

$$\begin{align} (z + w)^* &= z^* + w^* \\ (zw)^* &= z^* w^* \\ \left(z^*\right)^* &= z. \end{align}$$

The squared modulus of a split-complex number $$z=x+jy$$ is given by the isotropic quadratic form

$$\lVert z \rVert^2 = z z^* = z^* z = x^2 - y^2 ~.$$

It has the composition algebra property:

$$\lVert z w \rVert = \lVert z \rVert \lVert w \rVert ~.$$

However, this quadratic form is not positive-definite but rather has signature $(1, −1)$, so the modulus is not a norm.

The associated bilinear form is given by

$$\langle z, w \rangle = \operatorname\mathrm{Re}\left(zw^*\right) = \operatorname\mathrm{Re} \left(z^* w\right) = xu - yv ~,$$

where $$z=x+jy$$ and $$w=u+jv.$$ Here, the real part is defined by $$\operatorname\mathrm{Re}(z) = \tfrac{1}{2}(z + z^*) = x$$. Another expression for the squared modulus is then

$$ \lVert z \rVert^2 = \langle z, z \rangle ~.$$

Since it is not positive-definite, this bilinear form is not an inner product; nevertheless the bilinear form is frequently referred to as an indefinite inner product. A similar abuse of language refers to the modulus as a norm.

A split-complex number is invertible if and only if its modulus is nonzero ($\lVert z \rVert \ne 0$), thus numbers of the form $x ± j x$ have no inverse. The multiplicative inverse of an invertible element is given by

$$z^{-1} = \frac{z^*}{ {\lVert z \rVert}^2} ~.$$

Split-complex numbers which are not invertible are called null vectors. These are all of the form $(a ± j a)$ for some real number $a$.

The diagonal basis
There are two nontrivial idempotent elements given by $$e=\tfrac{1}{2}(1-j)$$ and $$e^* = \tfrac{1}{2}(1+j).$$ Recall that idempotent means that $$ee=e$$ and $$e^*e^*=e^*.$$ Both of these elements are null:

$$\lVert e \rVert = \lVert e^* \rVert = e^* e = 0 ~.$$

It is often convenient to use $e$ and $e$∗ as an alternate basis for the split-complex plane. This basis is called the diagonal basis or null basis. The split-complex number $z$ can be written in the null basis as

$$ z = x + jy = (x - y)e + (x + y)e^* ~.$$

If we denote the number $$z=ae+be^*$$ for real numbers $a$ and $b$ by $(a, b)$, then split-complex multiplication is given by

$$\left( a_1, b_1 \right) \left( a_2, b_2 \right) = \left( a_1 a_2, b_1 b_2 \right) ~.$$

The split-complex conjugate in the diagonal basis is given by $$(a, b)^* = (b, a)$$ and the squared modulus by

$$ \lVert (a, b) \rVert^2 = ab.$$

Isomorphism

On the basis {e, e*} it becomes clear that the split-complex numbers are ring-isomorphic to the direct sum $D$ with addition and multiplication defined pairwise.

The diagonal basis for the split-complex number plane can be invoked by using an ordered pair $(x, y)$ for $$z = x + jy$$ and making the mapping

$$ (u, v) = (x, y) \begin{pmatrix}1 & 1 \\1 & -1\end{pmatrix} = (x, y) S ~. $$

Now the quadratic form is $$uv = (x + y)(x - y) = x^2 - y^2 ~.$$ Furthermore,

$$ (\cosh a, \sinh a) \begin{pmatrix} 1 & 1 \\ 1 & -1 \end{pmatrix} = \left(e^a, e^{-a}\right) $$

so the two parametrized hyperbolas are brought into correspondence with $σ$.

The action of hyperbolic versor $$e^{bj} \!$$ then corresponds under this linear transformation to a squeeze mapping

$$ \sigma: (u, v) \mapsto \left(ru, \frac{v}{r}\right),\quad r = e^b ~. $$

Though lying in the same isomorphism class in the category of rings, the split-complex plane and the direct sum of two real lines differ in their layout in the Cartesian plane. The isomorphism, as a planar mapping, consists of a counter-clockwise rotation by 45° and a dilation by √2. The dilation in particular has sometimes caused confusion in connection with areas of a hyperbolic sector. Indeed, hyperbolic angle corresponds to area of a sector in the $\R^2$ plane with its "unit circle" given by $$\{(a,b) \in \R \oplus \R : ab=1\}.$$ The contracted unit hyperbola $$\{\cosh a+j\sinh a : a \in \R\}$$ of the split-complex plane has only half the area in the span of a corresponding hyperbolic sector. Such confusion may be perpetuated when the geometry of the split-complex plane is not distinguished from that of $\R \oplus \R$.

Geometry
[[Image:Drini-conjugatehyperbolas.svg|thumb|

]]

A two-dimensional real vector space with the Minkowski inner product is called $‖z‖ = 1$-dimensional Minkowski space, often denoted $S$ Just as much of the geometry of the Euclidean plane $\R \oplus \R$ can be described with complex numbers, the geometry of the Minkowski plane $\R \oplus \R$ can be described with split-complex numbers.

The set of points

$$\left\{ z : \lVert z \rVert^2 = a^2 \right\}$$

is a hyperbola for every nonzero $\R^{1,1}.$ in $\R^2$ The hyperbola consists of a right and left branch passing through $‖z‖ = −1$ and $‖z‖ = 0$. The case $(1 + 1)$ is called the unit hyperbola. The conjugate hyperbola is given by

$$\left\{ z : \lVert z \rVert^2 = -a^2 \right\}$$

with an upper and lower branch passing through $(a, 0)$ and $(−a, 0)$. The hyperbola and conjugate hyperbola are separated by two diagonal asymptotes which form the set of null elements:

$$\left\{ z : \lVert z \rVert = 0 \right\}.$$

These two lines (sometimes called the null cone) are perpendicular in $\R^{1,1}$ and have slopes ±1.

Split-complex numbers $a$ and $\R.$ are said to be hyperbolic-orthogonal if $a = 1$. While analogous to ordinary orthogonality, particularly as it is known with ordinary complex number arithmetic, this condition is more subtle. It forms the basis for the simultaneous hyperplane concept in spacetime.

The analogue of Euler's formula for the split-complex numbers is

$$\exp(j\theta) = \cosh(\theta) + j\sinh(\theta).$$

This formula can be derived from a power series expansion using the fact that cosh has only even powers while that for sinh has odd powers. For all real values of the hyperbolic angle $\R^2$ the split-complex number $(0, a)$ has norm 1 and lies on the right branch of the unit hyperbola. Numbers such as $z$ have been called hyperbolic versors.

Since $w$ has modulus 1, multiplying any split-complex number $θ$ by $λ$ preserves the modulus of $λ$ and represents a hyperbolic rotation (also called a Lorentz boost or a squeeze mapping). Multiplying by $z$ preserves the geometric structure, taking hyperbolas to themselves and the null cone to itself.

The set of all transformations of the split-complex plane which preserve the modulus (or equivalently, the inner product) forms a group called the generalized orthogonal group $(0, −a)$. This group consists of the hyperbolic rotations, which form a subgroup denoted $⟨z, w⟩ = 0$, combined with four discrete reflections given by

$$z \mapsto \pm z$$ and $$z \mapsto \pm z^*.$$

The exponential map

$$\exp\colon (\R, +) \to \mathrm{SO}^{+}(1, 1)$$

sending $λ$ to rotation by $λ = exp(jθ)$ is a group isomorphism since the usual exponential formula applies:

$$e^{j(\theta + \phi)} = e^{j\theta}e^{j\phi}.$$

If a split-complex number $z$ does not lie on one of the diagonals, then $λ$ has a polar decomposition.

Algebraic properties
In abstract algebra terms, the split-complex numbers can be described as the quotient of the polynomial ring $θ$ by the ideal generated by the polynomial $$x^2-1,$$

$$\R[x]/(x^2-1 ).$$

The image of $z$ in the quotient is the "imaginary" unit $z$. With this description, it is clear that the split-complex numbers form a commutative algebra over the real numbers. The algebra is not a field since the null elements are not invertible. All of the nonzero null elements are zero divisors.

Since addition and multiplication are continuous operations with respect to the usual topology of the plane, the split-complex numbers form a topological ring.

The algebra of split-complex numbers forms a composition algebra since

$$\lVert zw \rVert = \lVert z \rVert \lVert w \rVert ~$$

for any numbers $\R[x]$ and $x$.

From the definition it is apparent that the ring of split-complex numbers is isomorphic to the group ring $j$ of the cyclic group $O(1, 1)$ over the real numbers $z$

Matrix representations
One can easily represent split-complex numbers by matrices. The split-complex number $$z = x + jy$$ can be represented by the matrix $$z \mapsto \begin{pmatrix}x & y \\ y & x\end{pmatrix}.$$

Addition and multiplication of split-complex numbers are then given by matrix addition and multiplication. The modulus of $w$ is given by the determinant of the corresponding matrix.

In fact there are many representations of the split-complex plane in the four-dimensional ring of 2x2 real matrices. The real multiples of the identity matrix form a real line in the matrix ring M(2,R). Any hyperbolic unit m provides a basis element with which to extend the real line to the split-complex plane. The matrices

$$m = \begin{pmatrix}a & c \\ b & -a \end{pmatrix}$$

which square to the identity matrix satisfy $$a^2 + bc = 1 .$$ For example, when a = 0, then (b,c) is a point on the standard hyperbola. More generally, there is a hypersurface in M(2,R) of hyperbolic units, any one of which serves in a basis to represent the split-complex numbers as a subring of M(2,R).

The number $$z = x + jy$$ can be represented by the matrix $$x\ I + y\ m .$$

History
The use of split-complex numbers dates back to 1848 when James Cockle revealed his tessarines. William Kingdon Clifford used split-complex numbers to represent sums of spins. Clifford introduced the use of split-complex numbers as coefficients in a quaternion algebra now called split-biquaternions. He called its elements "motors", a term in parallel with the "rotor" action of an ordinary complex number taken from the circle group. Extending the analogy, functions of a motor variable contrast to functions of an ordinary complex variable.

Since the late twentieth century, the split-complex multiplication has commonly been seen as a Lorentz boost of a spacetime plane. In that model, the number $SO+(1, 1)$ represents an event in a spatio-temporal plane, where x is measured in nanoseconds and $\R[C_2]$ in Mermin's feet. The future corresponds to the quadrant of events $exp(jθ)$, which has the split-complex polar decomposition $$z = \rho e^{aj} \!$$. The model says that $\R.$ can be reached from the origin by entering a frame of reference of rapidity $z$ and waiting $y$ nanoseconds. The split-complex equation

$$e^{aj} \ e^{bj} = e^{(a + b)j}$$

expressing products on the unit hyperbola illustrates the additivity of rapidities for collinear velocities. Simultaneity of events depends on rapidity $z$;

$$\{ z = \sigma j e^{aj} : \sigma \isin \R \}$$

is the line of events simultaneous with the origin in the frame of reference with rapidity a.

Two events $a$ and $ρ$ are hyperbolic-orthogonal when $$z^*w+zw^* = 0.$$ Canonical events $C2$ and $z = x + y j$ are hyperbolic orthogonal and lie on the axes of a frame of reference in which the events simultaneous with the origin are proportional to ${z : |y| < x}$.

In 1933 Max Zorn was using the split-octonions and noted the composition algebra property. He realized that the Cayley–Dickson construction, used to generate division algebras, could be modified (with a factor gamma, $a$) to construct other composition algebras including the split-octonions. His innovation was perpetuated by Adrian Albert, Richard D. Schafer, and others. The gamma factor, with $exp(aj)$ as base field, builds split-complex numbers as a composition algebra. Reviewing Albert for Mathematical Reviews, N. H. McCoy wrote that there was an "introduction of some new algebras of order 2e over F generalizing Cayley–Dickson algebras." Taking $j exp(aj)$ and $j exp(aj)$ corresponds to the algebra of this article.

In 1935 J.C. Vignaux and A. Durañona y Vedia developed the split-complex geometric algebra and function theory in four articles in Contribución a las Ciencias Físicas y Matemáticas, National University of La Plata, República Argentina (in Spanish). These expository and pedagogical essays presented the subject for broad appreciation.

In 1941 E.F. Allen used the split-complex geometric arithmetic to establish the nine-point hyperbola of a triangle inscribed in $R$.

In 1956 Mieczyslaw Warmus published "Calculus of Approximations" in Bulletin de l’Académie polonaise des sciences (see link in References). He developed two algebraic systems, each of which he called "approximate numbers", the second of which forms a real algebra. D. H. Lehmer reviewed the article in Mathematical Reviews and observed that this second system was isomorphic to the "hyperbolic complex" numbers, the subject of this article.

In 1961 Warmus continued his exposition, referring to the components of an approximate number as midpoint and radius of the interval denoted.

Synonyms
Different authors have used a great variety of names for the split-complex numbers. Some of these include:

 * (real) tessarines, James Cockle (1848)
 * (algebraic) motors, W.K. Clifford (1882)
 * hyperbolic complex numbers, J.C. Vignaux (1935), G. Cree (1949)
 * bireal numbers, U. Bencivenga (1946)
 * real hyperbolic numbers, N. Smith (1949)
 * approximate numbers, Warmus (1956), for use in interval analysis
 * double numbers, I.M. Yaglom (1968), Kantor and Solodovnikov (1989), Hazewinkel (1990), Rooney (2014)
 * hyperbolic numbers, W. Miller & R. Boehning (1968), G. Sobczyk (1995)
 * anormal-complex numbers, W. Benz (1973)
 * perplex numbers, P. Fjelstad (1986) and Poodiack & LeClair (2009)
 * countercomplex or hyperbolic, Carmody (1988)
 * Lorentz numbers, F.R. Harvey (1990)
 * semi-complex numbers, F. Antonuccio (1994)
 * paracomplex numbers, Cruceanu, Fortuny & Gadea (1996)
 * split-complex numbers, B. Rosenfeld (1997)
 * spacetime numbers, N. Borota (2000)
 * Study numbers, P. Lounesto (2001)
 * twocomplex numbers, S. Olariu (2002)
 * split binarions, K. McCrimmon (2004)

title: Split-complex number


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1492: Conquest of Paradise

1492: Conquest of Paradise is a 1992 epic historical drama film directed and produced by Ridley Scott, written by Roselyne Bosch and starring Gérard Depardieu, Armand Assante, and Sigourney Weaver. It portrays a version of the travels to the New World by the Italian explorer Christopher Columbus and the effect this had on indigenous peoples.

The film was released to celebrate the 500th anniversary of Columbus' voyage. The premiere debuted less than two months after Christopher Columbus: The Discovery by John Glen, often leading to confusion between the two films. The film received mixed to negative reviews, with particular criticism aimed at the film's historical inaccuracies.

Plot
Aware that the world is round, Christopher Columbus lobbies for a trip westward to Asia, but lacks a crew and ship. The Catholic theologians at the University of Salamanca heavily disapprove of Columbus's plan, not being keen on ideas that go against the writings of Ptolemaeus. Columbus is approached by Martín Pinzón, a shipowner from Palos, who introduces him to the banker Santángel, to whom Queen Isabella I owes money. Columbus meets with the queen, who grants him his journey in exchange for his promise to bring back sufficient amounts of riches in gold.

Columbus deceives many crewmen by telling them that the voyage will only last seven weeks. Three ships pass. Nine weeks go by with no sign of land. The crew becomes restless and edges toward mutiny. He tries to reinvigorate them with an inspiring speech, coinciding with a fast wind, which goads the men to return to their duties. At night, Columbus notices mosquitoes on the deck, indicating that land is not far off. Suddenly, out of the mist they see the lush vegetation and sandy beaches of Guanahani.

The Europeans befriend the local natives, who show them gold they have collected. Columbus teaches one of them Spanish so that they are able to communicate. He then informs them that he will return to Spain, which will be followed by the arrival of many more Europeans. Columbus leaves behind a group to begin the colonisation of the Americas. Back in Spain, he receives a high honour from the queen and has dinner with the council. They express disappointment with the small amount of gold he brought back, but the queen approves of his gifts. On the second expedition, Columbus takes 17 ships and over 1,000 men with him to the island; however, all the crewmen left behind are found to have been killed. When the tribe is confronted by Columbus and his troops, they tell him that another tribe came and killed them. Columbus chooses to believe them, but his commanding officer Moxica is not convinced. They begin to build the city of La Isabela and eventually manage to hoist the town bell into its tower.

Four years later, the natives are being forced to mine for gold. Moxica punishes one who fails to find any gold by cutting off his hand. The word of this act of violence spreads throughout the native tribes and they all disappear into the forest. Columbus begins to worry about a potential war, with the natives heavily outnumbering them. Upon return to his home, he finds his house set ablaze by Moxica and his followers, confirming his unpopularity among a certain faction of the settlers. Soon, the tribes arrive to fight the Spaniards and the island becomes war-torn, with Columbus' governorship being reassigned with orders for him to return to Spain.

Columbus is accused of nepotism and offering administrative positions to his personal friends, thereby injuring the pride of the nobles such as Moxica; he is replaced by de Bobadilla. Columbus returns to Castile to be imprisoned, but is bailed out by his sons. When he is summoned by the queen, she is reluctantly convinced to allow him to make another voyage, with the proviso that he neither take his brothers nor return to the colonies. As an old man, Columbus is virtually forgotten in Spain, with the discovery of the New World being credited to Amerigo Vespucci. Columbus's son Ferdinand asks his father to tell him his story so he can transcribe it.

Cast
• Gérard Depardieu as Christopher Columbus

• Armand Assante as Gabriel Sánchez, Columbus's archrival in Castile

• Sigourney Weaver as Queen Isabella I

• Loren Dean as Older Ferdinand Columbus

• Ángela Molina as Beatriz Enríquez de Arana

• Fernando Rey as Antonio de Marchena

• Michael Wincott as Adrián de Moxica, Columbus's archenemy in the Indies

• Tchéky Karyo as Martín Alonso Pinzón

• Kevin Dunn as Captain Méndez

• Frank Langella as Luis de Santángel

• Mark Margolis as Francisco de Bobadilla

• Kario Salem as de Arojaz

• Billy L. Sullivan as Younger Ferdinand Columbus

• John Heffernan as Brother Buyl

• Arnold Vosloo as Hernando de Guevara

• Steven Waddington as Bartholomew Columbus, brother of Christopher

• Fernando Guillén Cuervo as Giacomo Columbus, brother of Christopher

• José Luis Ferrer as Alonso de Bolaños

• Bercelio Moya as Utapán

• Juan Diego Botto as Diego Columbus

• Achero Mañas as Ship's Boy

• Fernando García Rimada as King Ferdinand V

• Albert Vidal as Hernando de Talavera

• Isabel Prinz as Dueña

• Jack Taylor as de Vicuña

• Angela Rosal as Pinzón's Wife

• Silvia Montero as Pinzón's Daughter

Music
Renowned Greek composer Vangelis composed the score. Its main theme, "Conquest of Paradise", was used by former Portuguese Prime-Minister António Guterres at his 1995 election and it was used by the Portuguese Socialist Party as its campaign and rally anthem,  although it was replaced by the main theme from Gladiator (another Ridley Scott film) since the first José Sócrates legislative elections campaign, which doesn't prevent the theme from still being deeply associated with the Socialist Party.

Russia used it in the 2nd round of the 1996 Russian presidential election.

The theme is also used at the starting line of the Ultra-Trail du Mont-Blanc ultramarathon. The German boxer Henry Maske (former world champion (IBF) in the Light heavyweight category) used the main theme as his official entry theme during his professional career. Other usages of the theme include New Zealand Super 15 Rugby franchise the Canterbury Crusaders, as they run onto the field, often accompanied by actors dressed as knights and riding on horseback, and rugby league team Wigan Warriors who play in the Super League, as well as being played before the start of every match in the 2010 and 2014 cricket World Twenty20 championships as well as the 2011 Cricket World Cup. In these events the theme was played right before the national anthems of the two competing nations, as the flags of the two nations were carried into the ground, accompanied by the players of the two teams. The theme was also played in the Top Gear: US Special and became a signature piece for World Professional Champion figure skaters Anita Hartshorn and Frank Sweiding. Despite the film's dismal box office intake in the United States, the film's score became a successful album worldwide.

Box office
1492: Conquest of Paradise opened on 66 screens in Spain, grossing $1million in its first five days ($million today). In the United States and Canada, it was released by Paramount Pictures on 9October 1992 in 1,008 theaters. The version released there was edited to 150minutes, with some violence and brutality removed in order to achieve a PG-13 rating. The film was a flop in the United States, debuting at number7 with a gross of $3,002,680 (about $million today), worse than the opening of Christopher Columbus: The Discovery earlier in the year, and went on to gross just $7million  ($million today). It opened in France on 12October 1992, grossing $1.46million for the weekend ($million today) from 264screens. In its second week in Europe, it was the highest-grossing film with a gross of over $7.7million ($million today), including $1.77million in its opening week in Germany ($million today) from 213screens. It did not open well in Italy, with only $261,800 in its opening weekend ($thousand today) from 33screens. By the end of 1992, it had grossed $40million internationally ($million today),, including $17 million in France and €3 million in Spain, for a worldwide total of $47million ($million today). It went on to gross $59million ($million today).

Director Ridley Scott later blamed the movie's failure on Americans not understanding European accents: "They don't hear shit unless it's from Texas or America, right?" and reflected: "It's one of my favorite films. What's interesting, they didn't know how to release it in America. But in Europe, it clocked $57 million."

Critical response
Overall, the film received mixed to negative reviews from critics,    with the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes giving the film a 32% rating based on 22 reviews with the critical consensus: "Historically inaccurate and dramatically inert, Ridley Scott's retelling of Christopher Columbus' exploits is an epic without grandeur or insight". However, film critic Roger Ebert said that the film was satisfactory, and that "Depardieu lends it gravity, the supporting performances are convincing, the locations are realistic, and we are inspired to reflect that it did indeed take a certain nerve to sail off into nowhere just because an orange was round." Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade of "B+" on scale of A+ to F.

The film was accused of promoting the Spanish black legend.

title: 1492: Conquest of Paradise


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Magma (company)

MAGMA Gießereitechnologie GmbH is a developer and supplier of software for casting process simulation.

Introduction
The company was founded in 1988 and has its headquarters in Aachen, Germany. MAGMA's product and service portfolio includes simulation software MAGMASOFT, with the newest release being MAGMA5, as well as engineering services for casting design and optimization. The software is used world-wide by foundries, casting buyers and designers, especially for the optimization of cast components in automotive, and heavy industry applications. German newspaper Süddeutsche Zeitung cites MAGMA amongst the global market leaders for simulation software for casting processes.

Worldwide, MAGMA employs more than 200 people in software development, support, marketing, and administration, of which 90 are in Aachen. The company also has offices and subsidiaries in the United States, Singapore, Brazil, Korea, Turkey, India, China, and the Czech Republic.

MAGMA5
MAGMA5 is used for the simulation of casting processes. The software stands for the prediction of the entire casting component quality and process chain by providing a better understanding of mold filling, solidification and cooling and allows the quantitative prediction of mechanical properties, thermal stresses and distortions of the resulting castings. The simulation describes a cast component's quality up-front before production starts and the casting method can be designed with respect to the required component properties. This results in a reduction in pre-production sampling as the precise layout of the complete casting system leads to energy, material, and tooling savings.

MAGMA5 consists of a base module and a set of additional modules that cover all steps of the casting production. The range of application of MAGMA solutions comprises all cast alloys, from cast iron to aluminum sand casting, permanent mold and die casting up to large steel castings. The software supports the user in the modeling of the component, the determination of melting practice and casting methoding through to model and mold making, heat treatment, and finishing.

title: Magma (company)


text:
Northern Renaissance

The Northern Renaissance was the Renaissance that occurred in Europe north of the Alps. From the last years of the 15th century, its Renaissance spread around Europe. Called the Northern Renaissance because it occurred north of the Italian Renaissance, this period became the German, French, English, Low Countries and Polish Renaissances, and in turn created other national and localized movements, each with different attributes.

In France, King Francis I imported Italian art, commissioned Italian artists (including Leonardo da Vinci), and built grand palaces at great expense, starting the French Renaissance. This included not only the then Kingdom of France but also the adjacent Duchy of Burgundy. Trade and commerce in then Burgundian cities like Bruges in the 15th century and Antwerp in the 16th increased cultural exchange between Italy and the Low Countries; however in art, and especially architecture, late Gothic influences remained present until the arrival of Baroque even as painters increasingly drew on Italian models.

Universities and the printed book helped spread the spirit of the age through France, the Low Countries and the Holy Roman Empire, and then to Scandinavia and Britain in the early 16th century – a process halted by the religious schism caused by Henry VIII who had earlier extensively employed Italian artisans at Nonsuch Palace and Hampton Court under Thomas Wolsey. Writers and humanists such as Rabelais, Pierre de Ronsard and Desiderius Erasmus were greatly influenced by the Italian Renaissance model and were part of the same intellectual movement. During the English Renaissance (which overlapped with the Elizabethan era) writers such as William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe composed works of lasting influence. The Renaissance was brought to Poland directly from Italy by artists from Florence and the Low Countries, starting the Polish Renaissance.

In some areas the Northern Renaissance was distinct from the Italian Renaissance in its centralization of political power. While Italy and Germany were dominated by independent city-states, most of Europe began emerging as nation-states or even unions of countries. The Northern Renaissance was also closely linked to the Protestant Reformation with the resulting long series of internal and external conflicts between various Protestant groups and the Roman Catholic Church having lasting effects.

Overview
Feudalism was on the decline at the beginning of the Renaissance. The reasons for this decline include the post-Plague environment, the increasing use of money rather than land as a medium of exchange, the growing number of serfs living as freemen, the formation of nation-states with monarchies interested in reducing the power of feudal lords, the increasing uselessness of feudal armies in the face of new military technology (such as gunpowder), and a general increase in agricultural productivity due to improving farming technology and methods. As in Italy, the decline of feudalism opened the way for the cultural, social, and economic changes associated with the Renaissance in Europe.

Finally, the Renaissance in Europe would also be kindled by a weakening of the Roman Catholic Church. The slow demise of feudalism also weakened a long-established policy in which church officials helped keep the population of the manor under control in return for tribute. Consequently, the early 15th century saw the rise of many secular institutions and beliefs. Among the most significant of these, Renaissance humanism would lay the philosophical grounds for much of Renaissance art, music, science and technology. Erasmus, for example, was important in spreading humanist ideas in the north, and was a central figure at the intersection of classical humanism and mounting religious questions. Forms of artistic expression which a century ago would have been banned by the church were now tolerated or even encouraged in certain circles.

The velocity of transmission of the Renaissance throughout Europe can also be ascribed to the invention of the printing press. Its power to disseminate information enhanced scientific research, spread political ideas and generally impacted the course of the Renaissance in northern Europe. As in Italy, the printing press increased the availability of books written in both vernacular languages and the publication of new and ancient classical texts in Greek and Latin. Furthermore, the Bible became widely available in translation, a factor often attributed to the spread of the Protestant Reformation.

Age of Discovery
One of the most important technological development of the Renaissance was the invention of the caravel. This combination of European and North African ship building technologies for the first time made extensive trade and travel over the Atlantic feasible. While first introduced by the Italian states and the early captains, such as Giovanni Caboto, Giovanni da Verrazzano and Columbus, who were Italian explorers, the development would end Northern Italy's role as the trade crossroads of Europe, shifting wealth and power westwards to Portugal, Spain, France, England, and the Netherlands. These states all began to conduct extensive trade with Africa and Asia, and in the Americas began extensive colonisation activities. This period of exploration and expansion has become known as the Age of Discovery. Eventually European power spread around the globe.

Painting and sculpture
Early Netherlandish painting often included complicated iconography, and art historians have debated the "hidden symbolism" of works by artists like Hubert and Jan van Eyck.

The detailed realism of Early Netherlandish painting, led by Robert Campin and Jan van Eyck in the 1420s and 1430s, is today generally considered to be the beginning of the early Northern Renaissance in painting. This detailed realism was greatly respected in Italy, but there was little reciprocal influence on the North until nearly the end of the 15th century. Despite frequent cultural and artistic exchange, the Antwerp Mannerists (1500–1530)—chronologically overlapping with but unrelated to Italian Mannerism—were among the first artists in the Low Countries to clearly reflect Italian formal developments.

Around the same time, Albrecht Dürer made his two trips to Italy, where he was greatly admired for his prints. Dürer, in turn, was influenced by the art he saw there and is agreed to be one of the first Northern High Renaissance painters. Other notable northern painters such as Hans Holbein the Elder and Jean Fouquet, retained a Gothic influence that was still popular in the north, while highly individualistic artists such as Hieronymus Bosch and Pieter Bruegel the Elder developed styles that were imitated by many subsequent generations. Later in the 16th century Northern painters increasingly looked and travelled to Rome, becoming known as the Romanists. The High Renaissance art of Michelangelo and Raphael and the late Renaissance stylistic tendencies of Mannerism that were in vogue had a great impact on their work.

Renaissance humanism and the large number of surviving classical artworks and monuments encouraged many Italian painters to explore Greco-Roman themes more prominently than northern artists, and likewise the famous 15th-century German and Dutch paintings tend to be religious. In the 16th century, mythological and other themes from history became more uniform amongst northern and Italian artists. Northern Renaissance painters, however, had new subject matter, such as landscape and genre painting. As Renaissance art styles moved through northern Europe, they changed and were adapted to local customs. In England and the northern Netherlands the Reformation brought religious painting almost completely to an end. Despite several very talented artists of the Tudor Court in England, portrait painting was slow to spread from the elite. In France the School of Fontainebleau was begun by Italians such as Rosso Fiorentino in the latest Mannerist style, but succeeded in establishing a durable national style. By the end of the 16th century, artists such as Karel van Mander and Hendrik Goltzius collected in Haarlem in a brief but intense phase of Northern Mannerism that also spread to Flanders.

title: Northern Renaissance


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Wikipedia talk:Articles for deletion/How to make Biodiesel

On 30 July 2004, this page was nominated for deletion from Wikipedia. As a result of the discussion, this page will be transwiki]'d to wikibooks. See [[Wikipedia:Votes for deletion/How to make Biodiesel for a record of the discussion.  Rossami 22:15, 11 Aug 2004 (UTC)


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Didelphodon

Didelphodon (from [ is ]  "opossum" plus ὀδών odōn "tooth") is a genus of stagodont metatherians from the Late Cretaceous of North America.

Description
Although perhaps little larger than a Virginia opossum, with a skull length of 12.2 cm and a weight of 5.2 kg, the teeth have specialized bladelike cusps and carnassial notches, indicating that the animal was a predator; the jaws are short and massive and bear enormous, bulbous premolar teeth which appear to have been used for crushing. Analyses of a near-complete skull referred to Didelphodon show that it had an unusually high bite force quotient (i.e. bite force relative to body size) among Mesozoic mammals, suggesting a durophagous diet. However, its skull lacks the vaulted forehead of hyenas and other specialized bone-eating durophagous mammals, indicating that its diet was perhaps a mixture of hard foodstuffs (e.g. snails, bones) alongside small vertebrates and carrion; although omnivorous habits were suggested in the past, it appears that it was incapable of processing plant matter, rendering it more likely to be hypercarnivorous or durophagous. Some convergence with the carnassials of other predatory mammal groups has also been noted.

Discovery
Three species of Didelphodon are known: D. vorax, D. padanicus, and D. coyi. The genus is known from the Hell Creek Formation of Montana and the Lance Formation of Wyoming, the Frenchman Formation of Saskatchewan, the Horseshoe Canyon Formation of Alberta, and the Scollard Formation of Alberta, where it is one of the most abundant mammals. It is found solely in late Maastrichtian deposits.

Classification
Didelphodon is a stagodontid marsupial related to Eodelphis and Pariadens. The genus appears to descend from the Campanian Eodelphis, and in particular appears to be related to Eodelphis cutleri. Pariadens appears to be more primitive than either Eodelphis or Didelphodon, and is probably sister to their group. Didelphimorphia is an order that was named in 1872 by Gill. Previously, in 1821, Gray named the superfamily Didelphoidea to house the families Alphadontidae, Pediomyidae, Peradectidae, and Stagodontidae, which unites Didelphodon with many other genera. In 2006, a study found that the stagodontids only contained two taxa, Didelphodon and Eodelphis. The previously-included Pariadens was excluded from the group because its type species, P. kirklandi, lacks any of the clade's characteristics; it was reassigned to Marsupialia incertae sedis. Another species, "P." mckennai lacks marsupial features, and is probably a therian. Another historical stagodontid, Boreodon, is a nomen dubium. Finally, the purported stagodontid Delphodon is probably a synonym of Pediomys or Alphadon.

A 2016 phylogenetic analysis found that Didelphodon and other stagodontids were marsupialiforms. Their relationships within the Marsupialiformes are shown below.

Paleobiology
Although it has been argued on the basis of the shape of referred tarsal bones that Didelphodon and other stagodontids were semiaquatic due to having flexible feet, these traits may in fact be evidence of increased rigidity in the foot. Nevertheless, a recently-found and as-of-yet undescribed specimen, located just 40 m away from a Triceratops in a riverbed, suggests that Didelphodon may have possessed an otter-like body with a tasmanian devil-like skull. A study that is being prepared by Kraig Derstler, Greg Wilson, Robert Bakker, Ray Vodden and Mike Triebold will describe this new specimen, housed in the Rocky Mountain Dinosaur Resource Center. A study on Mesozoic mammal locomotion demonstrates that Didelphodon groups with semi-aquatic species.

The evolution of Didelphodon and other large stagodontids (as well as large deltatheroideans like Nanocuris) occurs after the local extinction of eutriconodont mammals, suggesting passive or direct ecological replacement. Given that all insectivorous and carnivorous mammal groups suffered heavy losses during the mid-Cretaceous, it seems likely these metatherians simply occupied niches left after the extinction of most eutriconodonts.

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Qualified teacher status

Qualified teacher status (QTS) or Qualified Teacher Learning and Skills status (QTLS) is required in England and Wales to work as a teacher of children in state schools under local authority control, and in special education schools. QTS is not required at academies, free schools or independent schools. A similar status exists under a different name in Scotland and Northern Ireland.

Gaining QTS or QTLS
An undergraduate degree and successful completion of a teacher training programme is compulsory for QTS recommendation. One of the main routes to achieving QTS, for those already in possession of a degree, involves undertaking a postgraduate teacher training course, such as the Postgraduate Certificate in Education or a School Direct programme. The Diploma in Education and Training leads to QTLS. There are also some undergraduate degree qualifications leading to QTS, such as the Bachelor of Education. In England only, candidates must also pass professional skills tests. All candidates must have GCSEs at grade C or above in English and mathematics, and prospective primary teachers must also be in possession of (usually) a grade C in a science subject before embarking on teacher training.

All training which leads to qualified teacher status requires trainees to train across at least two key consecutive pupil age ranges, as defined in the Secretary of State's Requirements for Initial Teacher Training. The age ranges are:

 * Ages 3–5   (Early years foundation stage)
 * Ages 5–7   (School years 1 and 2)
 * Ages 7–9   (School years 3 and 4)
 * Ages 9–11  (School years 5 and 6)
 * Ages 11–14 (School years 7 to 9)
 * Ages 14–16 (School years 10 and 11)
 * Ages 16–19 (School years 12 and 13)

The Teaching Regulation Agency in England and General Teaching Council for Wales maintain all registrations, as well as issuing QTS certificates.

QTS is technically recognised only in the country it was awarded (England or Wales), but teachers can normally apply for QTS in other home countries relatively easily. QTS gained in England is automatically recognized in Wales and vice versa. QTS is also recognised by many other countries once the relevant paperwork has been completed, though many countries place a lot of importance on the route to QTS (such as requiring a PGCE, whilst not accepting the GTP). Teachers trained outside England and Wales must also apply to be awarded QTS if they wish to teach in these countries.

After having been awarded QTS teachers must normally still pass an induction period (previously called 'probation') – normally their first year of teaching. Teachers who have gained QTS but have not yet completed the Induction period are known as NQTs. NQTs who fail the induction still retain their QTS, but cannot teach in state-run schools. The induction period normally lasts a year (three school terms).

Not all European Union qualifications have been officially recognised yet, so one should confirm with one's education establishment as to whether one's qualifications are acceptable, or whether one needs to go through the recognition process.

Routes to QTS or QTLS
Numerous qualifications and courses can lead to QTS or QTLS:

Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE)
The PGCE is a one-year course designed for individuals holding existing degrees, serving as the most common postgraduate pathway into teaching. It is hosted and overseen by a university or other higher education institution, with students dedicating a significant portion of the program to practical experience in placement schools. Additionally, completing the PGCE earns credits towards a master's degree.

Diploma in Education and Training (DET)
The DET is a Level 5 Diploma in Education and Training, comprising a one-year, 120-credit initial teacher training programme granted by a university or an accrediting body like the Learning Resource Network (LRN). Graduates of the DET can seek QTLS accreditation from the Society for Education and Training.

School-Centred Initial Teacher Training (SCITT)
A SCITT programme allows graduates to undergo their training within a school setting, resulting in QTS. Some SCITT programmes also confer a PGCE qualification. This option is exclusively available in England.

Graduate Teacher Programme (GTP)
The GTP enables candidates to gain QTS while they are employed as an unqualified teacher in a school.

Both the graduate and registered teacher programmes (GTP and RTP) have been closed in England. The GTP has been replaced by the School Direct Training Programme (salaried).

Undergraduate QTS routes
Students can enrol in a three or four-year undergraduate degree course that includes QTS. This allows candidates to obtain their QTS while studying for their degree, with teaching practice conducted throughout the entire programme. These programmes typically award Bachelor of Education (BEd) degrees, although some may offer Bachelor of Arts (BA) or Bachelor of Science (BSc) degrees.

Scotland and Northern Ireland
QTS as such does not exist in Scotland or Northern Ireland. However, as is the case in England and Wales, all teachers in Scotland and Northern Ireland are required to register with either the General Teaching Council for Scotland or the General Teaching Council for Northern Ireland; the General Teaching Councils will consider only graduates with teaching qualifications (such as a BEd, PGCE or PGDE) for registration.

In Northern Ireland, a one-year Induction programme (equivalent to the NQT programme in England and Wales) must be completed.

Individuals in Scotland must complete a one-year probation period, which is equivalent to induction in England and Wales.

Those holding English or Welsh QTS (or an equivalent from another country) must apply for registration with the relevant General Teaching Council. The relevant General Teaching Council considers each case individually; even those with English or Welsh QTS are not guaranteed permission to teach in Scotland or Northern Ireland.

Schools not requiring QTS for teachers
There is no formal requirement for teachers at independent schools or free schools to have QTS.

As of 27 July 2012, there is no longer any requirement for teaching staff in academies to have QTS.

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Kahan Commission

The Kahan Commission (ועדת כהן), formally known as the Commission of Inquiry into the Events at the Refugee Camps in Beirut, was established by the Israeli government on 28 September 1982, to investigate the Sabra and Shatila massacre (16–18 September 1982). The Kahan Commission was chaired by the president of the Supreme Court, Yitzhak Kahan. Its other two members were Supreme Court Judge Aharon Barak, and Major general (res.) Yona Efrat. The Commission was to make recommendations on Israeli involvement in the massacre through an investigation of:

"[A]ll the facts and factors connected with the atrocity carried out by a unit of the Lebanese Forces against the civilian population in the Shatilla and Sabra camps."

Following a four-month investigation, on 8 February 1983, the Kahan Commission submitted its report, which was released to the public by spokesman Bezalel Gordon simultaneously in Hebrew and English. It concluded that "direct responsibility" rested with the Gemayel Phalangists led by Fadi Frem, and that no Israelis were deemed "directly responsible", although Israel was held to be "indirectly responsible".

"The decision on the entry of the Phalangists into the refugee camps was taken without consideration of the danger - which the makers and executors of the decision were obligated to foresee as probable - the Phalangists would commit massacres and pogroms against the inhabitants of the camps, and without an examination of the means for preventing this danger.

Similarly, it is clear from the course of events that when the reports began to arrive about the actions of the Phalangists in the camps, no proper heed was taken of these reports, the correct conclusions were not drawn from them, and no energetic and immediate action were taken to restrain the Phalangists and put a stop to their actions."

The Defence minister Ariel Sharon was found to bear "personal responsibility" for "ignoring the danger of bloodshed and revenge" and "not taking appropriate measures to prevent bloodshed". Sharon's negligence in protecting the civilian population of Beirut, which had come under Israeli control, amounted to a "non-fulfillment of a duty with which the Defence Minister was charged", and it was recommended that Sharon be dismissed as Defence Minister.

Initially, Sharon refused to resign, and Prime Minister Menachem Begin refused to fire him. However, following a peace march against the government, as the marchers were dispersing, a grenade was thrown into the crowd, killing Emil Grunzweig, a reserve combat officer and peace activist, and wounding half a dozen others, including the son of the Interior Minister. Although Sharon resigned as Defence Minister, he remained in the Cabinet as a Minister without Portfolio. Years later, Sharon would be elected Israel's Prime Minister.

The Commission arrived to similar conclusions with respect to Chief of Staff, Lt. Gen. Rafael Eitan ("tantamount to a breach of duty that was incumbent upon the Chief of Staff"), as well as Director of Military Intelligence, Major general Yehoshua Saguy, and other Intelligence officials — though the Mossad was not reprimanded and parts of the report commenting on its role remain under military censorship.

Critics of the Commission point to its limited scope, some of whom argue it amounted to a whitewash. The final paragraph of the report anticipated such reaction: "We do not deceive ourselves that the results of this inquiry will convince or satisfy those who have prejudices or selective consciences, but this inquiry was not intended for such people. We have striven and have spared no effort to arrive at the truth, and we hope that all persons of good will who will examine the issue without prejudice will be convinced that the inquiry was conducted without any bias."

Israel's standing in the international community, which had sunk to an all-time low in the wake of the massacre, rebounded following the publication of the report. Israel was praised from many quarters for having investigated itself and punishing senior members of its government. Richard Falk noted that the "sincere and careful" report was "much more devastating in its impact on the evaluation of state leadership during the Lebanon War than any self-scrutiny that the American government allowed during the Vietnam War."

title: Kahan Commission


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QTS

QTS may refer to:
 * Qualified Teacher Status, England and Wales
 * Quality Technology Services, an Internet data center provider
 * Quileute Tribal School, Washington, United States

title: QTS


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Gloucester Road

Gloucester Road may refer to:
 * Gloucester Road, London
 * Gloucester Road tube station
 * Gloucester Road, Hong Kong
 * Gloucester Road, Bristol, the A38 through Horfield
 * Gloucester Road, Singapore

title: Gloucester Road


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Harald Wartooth

Harald Wartooth or Harold Hiltertooth (Old Norse: Haraldr hilditǫnn; Modern Swedish and Danish: Harald Hildetand; Modern Norwegian: Harald Hildetann) was a semi-legendary king of Denmark who is mentioned in several traditional sources. He is held to have (indirectly) succeeded his father as king of Zealand and to have expanded his realm. According to different sources, he may have ruled over Jutland, part of Sweden and the historical northern German province of Wendland. He is said to have been finally defeated and killed at the legendary Battle of Bråvalla.

Name
Saxo Grammaticus, in Gesta Danorum, gives two different accounts about why Harald had the name wartooth. According to one tradition, it was due to Harald having lost two of his teeth in battle against Veseti, the lord of Scania, after which two new teeth grew out. Saxo further tells that according to another opinion, the name was derived from Harald having protruding teeth. A scholarly view, however, holds the name to be derived from a name for "war hero".

Family
Most sources describe him as the son of Ivar Vidfamne's daughter Auðr the Deep-Minded (but Hervarar saga calls her Alfhild). According to Sögubrot, Njal's Saga and the Lay of Hyndla, Harald was the son of Hrœrekr Ringslinger (slöngvanbaugi), the king of Zealand. Sögubrot relates that his mother later married Raðbarðr, the king of Garðaríki and they had the son Randver. However, according to Hervarar saga, both Harald and Randver were the sons of Valdar and Alfhild. Njal's Saga adds that Harald had the son Þrándr the Old (hinn gamli) who was the ancestor of one of the characters in the saga. Sögubrot also mentions that he had a son named Þrándr the Old (gamli), but also adds a second son, Hrœrekr Ringslinger (slöngvandbaugi), who apparently was named exactly like his grandfather. Another son, Eysteinn Illruler is mentioned by Hervarar saga; he later became a king of Sweden. Landnámabók informs that Hrœrekr Ringslinger the younger had a son named Þórólfr (Thorolfur) "Váganef", who in turn had the son Vémundr Wordplane. Vémundr was the father of Valgarður (Valgardur), the father of Hrafn "heimski" (the Foolish). Hrafn was one of the first settlers in Iceland and settled on the southern coast, in Rangárvallasýsla (county of Rángárvellir).

Saxo Grammaticus' Gesta Danorum does not mention any Ivar Vidfamne, and gives two different versions of Harald's ancestry. First Saxo writes that Harald was the son of the Scanian chieftain Borkar and a woman named Gro. Later Saxo has forgotten about this and writes that Harald was the son of Halfdan, Borkar's son, and a woman named Gyrid, the last member of the Skjöldungs.

Claiming his inheritance
According to Sögubrot, his mother Auðr fled to Garðaríki with her young son when her husband King Hrœrekr was treacherously killed in Zealand by his father-in-law Ivar Vidfamne. She then married the local King Raðbarðr, and Harald stayed at his court. When his grandfather Ivar drowned during a punitive expedition against Raðbarðr, young Harald traveled to Zealand, where he was accepted as king. Then he went to Scania, which his mother's family had ruled, and was well received and given much help in men and arms. Then he took his fleet to Sweden in order to claim his inheritance. However, many petty kings arrived to reclaim their kingdoms, which Ivar had taken from them. These petty kings thought it would be easy to fight Harald who was only 15 years old. Harald successfully reclaimed his grandfather's domains, so that in the end he owned more than his grandfather had, and there was no king in either Denmark or Sweden who did not pay him tribute or was his vassal. He subjugated all the parts of England that had belonged to Halfdan the Valiant and later Ivar. In England, he appointed kings and jarls and had them pay him tribute. He also appointed Hjörmund, the son of Hjörvard Ylfing, the king of Östergötland. Hervarar saga also mentions that Harald retook his grandfather's domains, but it says that the conquests started out from Götaland (or Gotland depending on the manuscript). The Hervarar saga also alleges that Harald's nephew Sigurd Hring became (subservient) king over Denmark, which is gainsaid by other sources. Sögubrot relates that Hring (Sigurd Hring) received Sweden and Västergötland from his aging uncle, who kept Denmark and Östergötland for himself.

Gesta Danorum agrees with Sögubrot by saying that the conquests began from Zealand, but adds many details. During an early battle in Zealand he was critically wounded by the champion Veseti and barely saved by his mother Gyrid. Later on he murdered Veseti on the latter's wedding night in Scania, and proceeded in slaying King Hader of Jutland and two further petty rulers called Hunding and Rørik, seizing the traditional royal center in Lejre. He was favoured by Odin, so that steel could not hurt him; in return, he offered the souls of those slain by his sword to the god. When the Norwegian petty ruler Åsmund was deposed by his own sister, Harald intervened with a single ship to remedy this infamy. Unarmed and clad in a purple cloak and gold-embroidered coif, he strode towards the enemy at the head of his troops, while the adversaries vainly showered him with javelins. After victory was won, he restored Åsmund, commenting that "the reward of glory was enough by itself". Meanwhile the Swedish ruler Yngve attacked Denmark in order to expand his realm. Before battle had been joined, Odin appeared before Harald and gave him valuable advice about military tactics, especially the wedge-like Svinfylking formation. Applying this, Harald was able to defeat and kill Yngve and his brother Olof. The third brother Ingjald then sued for peace, that was granted. Later on, however, Ingjald ravished the sister of Harald and the war flared up again. After some indecisive fighting, Harald accepted the Swedish king as a friend and brother-in-law. When Ingjald passed away at a later time, his adolescent son Hring inherited him, while Harald appointed suitable guardians for the boy.

A new incident in Norway draw Harald's attention, as King Olaf of the Thrøndir was attacked by the shield-maidens Stikla and Rusla. Again reacting to undue female agency, Harald intervened and slew the two women in person. He next overcame a Frisian raider called Ubbe who had attacked Jutland. When Ubbe was captured after great feats of strength, he agreed to become Harald's housecarl and married one of the sisters of the king. Harald furthermore undertook successful expeditions of conquest along the Rhine, in the lands of the Slavs, Aquitania, and Humbria in England. His fame attracted warriors from various parts of the world, who formed a mercenary guard. The mighty Danish ruler spent 50 years in peace, meanwhile subjecting his personal troops to hard military drill.

The Battle of Bråvalla
When Harald realized that he was about to die of old age, he suggested to Hring, king of Sweden, that a great battle should be fought between them. The place was chosen to be at the moor of Bråvalla, and so the legendary Battle of Bråvalla came to be. Harald hoped to die in this battle and go to Valhalla instead of dying in his bed and end up in Niflheim. The Gesta Danorum gives a partly different background to the war. Harald and his nephew Hring of Sweden both trusted a councilor called Brune. When Brune drowned on a journey, Odin, who had by now abandoned Harald's cause, took his likeness and began to weave a web of intrigues, successfully pitting the two kings against each other. The opposing sides therefore spent seven years in military preparations. By this time, Harald's old age and cruelty had made him a burden to his subjects. Hring gathered warriors from Sweden, Västergötland and Norway, while Harald assembled troops from Denmark, the Baltic region and Germany.

The two armies finally moved by sea and land towards the fixed place of the contest at Bråvalla. Sögubrot says that this was a moor beneath the forest of Kolmården, close to the Bråviken bay in Östergötland. Hring came first to the battle site and bade his army to rest until the Danes arrived. This took time for the ships were so thick upon the Kattegat that one could walk across the Sound on the ships from Zealand to Skåne as if there was a bridge. When the armies finally opposed each other, Harald found to his consternation that the Swedish army applied the Svinfylking formation that had so often secured victory to the Danes. The Gesta Danorum makes clear that this formed part of Odin's sinister game. The kings encouraged their warriors to attack without holding back. The lur horns sounded and the battle cries rose up. The battle began with an exchange of spears and arrows and even then, at the first, of the battle blood flowed upon the ground. Then swords were drawn and warrior fought against warrior. The most ferocious champion on Harald's side was Ubbe the Frisian who killed scores of enemies before being shot down by Norwegian archers. Stærkod, on Hring's side, fought first with Ubbe the Frisian and received of him six wounds before the combatants drifted apart in the chaos. Then he fought with the shield maiden, Veborg, who struck him in the face so that his beard dangled loose, but he bit his beard to hold on to it. Then he met the shield maiden, Visne. "You hurry to your death!" she shouted. "Now, you shall die!" "No," he cried, "not before you have lost King Harald's standard." At that instant he struck her hand and went on.

Blind, old King Harald rode out into the fray in a chariot with a sword in each hand and struck away at the enemy. Eventually Harald fell in the battle, according to the Gesta Danorum by Odin's own hand. The god steered the royal chariot in the shape of Brune and bludgeoned the king with a club (since he was hard against steel). Along with him fell 15 kings and 30,000 free-born men. When Hring heard that his opponent had fallen, he instantly gave the sign that the fighting should cease. The day after the battle he sought out King Harald's body and put it onto a funeral pyre along with his horse. Hring stood before the fire and bade Harald ride straight to Valhalla and secure lodging for those who had perished. Thereafter, all the chiefs walked around the pyre throwing weapons and gold onto it. Sigurd Hring, traditionally the father of Ragnar Lodbrok, became the ruler of both Denmark and Sweden but not, it seems, of Norway which was then a patchwork of petty kingdoms.

Historical origins
The historicity of Harald Wartooth and the Battle of Bråvalla has been much debated over the time. Once seen as an essentially historical event taking place in about 740 or 750, the battle has undergone a number of reinterpretations. Paul Herrmann (1922) saw Harald as an "Odin hero" in an (originally) epically cohesive tale, without denying the possibility of a historical kernel. The saga scholar Axel Olrik (1914) regarded Harald as a historical Danish king who attacked an East Geatic King Hring. Though victorious, the East Geats were weakened and subsequently dominated by the Swedes. The archaeologist Birger Nerman (1925), on the other hand, argued that Harald was indeed the overlord over a comprehensive Danish-Swedish realm, while Hring was a sub-king with authority over Sweden, Västergötland and Gotland. By defeating Harald in the mid 8th century, the Swedes were supposedly able to subordinate Östergötland. Later, Stig Wikander (1960) hypothesized that the battle was an eschatological myth with parallels to Indian mythology, an idea that has been endorsed by some modern scholars. The Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde (1999) suggests that the battle has "perhaps certainly" a legendary and fictitious basis, and that the location to Östergötland is likely a later literary addition.

Most modern Scandinavian historians decline to discuss the background of Harald and the battle due to the late sources. Frankish sources name three Danish kings of the 8th century, namely Angantyr (early 8th century), Sigfred (fl. 777-798) and Harald (years unknown, but older kinsman of a set of brothers who flourished after 812). An annal entry of 813 shows that the rivals of this Harald's nephews sought support in the struggle for Danish kingship among the Swedes, successfully ousting Harald's kin. Whether vague memories of this dynastic contest are reflected in Harald Wartooth's story is a moot point.

title: Harald Wartooth