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Big year

A big year is a personal challenge or an informal competition among birders who attempt to identify as many species of birds as possible by sight or sound, within a single calendar year and within a specific geographic area. Popularized in North America, big years are commonly carried out within a single U.S. state or Canadian province, or within larger areas such as the Lower 48 contiguous states, within the official American Birding Association (ABA) area, or sometimes the entire globe. The ABA big year record of 840 species was set by John Weigel of Australia in 2019. The big year world record of 6,852 species was set in 2016 by Arjan Dwarshuis of the Netherlands.

History of North American big years
The wide publication in 1934 of the first modern field guide by Roger Tory Peterson truly revolutionized birding. However, in that era, most birders did not travel widely. The earliest known continent-wide Big Year record was compiled by Guy Emerson, a traveling businessman, who timed his business trips to coincide with the best birding seasons for different areas in North America. During his best year, in 1939, he saw 497 species. In 1952, Emerson's record was broken by Bob Smart, who saw 515 species.

In 1953, Roger Tory Peterson and James Fisher took a 30,000 mile road trip visiting the wild places of North America. In 1955, they told the story of their travels in a book and a documentary film, both called Wild America. In a footnote to the book, Peterson claimed "My year's list at the end of 1953 was 572 species." In 1956, a 25-year-old Englishman named Stuart Keith, following Peterson and Fisher's route, compiled a list of 594 species, a record that stood for fifteen years.

The 1969 foundation of the American Birding Association standardized and regulated North American Big Years. The ABA Area was defined as the 49 continental U.S. states (excluding Hawaii), Canada, and the French islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon, plus adjacent waters to a distance of 200 miles from land or half the distance to a neighboring country, whichever distance is less.

In 1971, 18-year-old Ted Parker, in his last semester of high school in southeastern Pennsylvania, extensively birded the eastern seaboard of North America. That September, Parker enrolled in the University of Arizona in Tucson and found dozens of Southwestern U.S. and Pacific coast specialties, ending the year with a list of 626 species.

In 1973, Kenn Kaufman and Floyd Murdoch both pursued Parker's record. As recounted in Kaufman's book Kingbird Highway, both broke the old record by a wide margin. Murdoch finished with 669 in the newly described ABA area to Kaufman's 666. Murdoch's record was broken in 1979 by James M. Vardaman, who saw 699 species that year and travelled 161,332 miles. Benton Basham, in 1983, topped Vardaman's effort with 710 species. 1987 marked the second time that there was a competition during a single year, with Sandy Komito's 722 species topping Steve Perry's 711. In 1992, Bill Rydell made a serious attempt at the record and ended with 714 species for the year.

In 1998, three birders, Sandy Komito, Al Levantin, and Greg Miller, chased Komito's prior record of 722 birds. In the end Komito kept the record, listing 745 species birds plus 3 submitted in 1998 and later accepted by state committees for a revised total of 748. Miller ended up with 715 species, and Levantin with 711. Mark Obmascik's book about the 1998 big year birders was adapted into the 2011 20th Century Fox film The Big Year.

In 2008, Lynn Barber, at the time the Texas big year record holder, became the first woman to break the 700-species barrier with a total of 723. In 2010, North Carolina birder Chris Hitt became the first birder to see 700+ species in the lower 48 in a single year, finishing with 704. In the same year, Virginia birder Robert Ake ended the year with 731 species, an extraordinary total achieved without the benefit of the relatively unique weather effects of 1998.

In 2011, Colorado birder John Vanderpoel became the fastest birder on record to reach 700 species in a year. Ultimately he managed 743 birds, missing out on the record by five, but completing what was, at the time, the 2nd-biggest ABA year ever. Vanderpoel's effort was the last made without the major contribution of eBird and birding groups on Facebook, which significantly enhanced the quality and quantity of rare bird alerts.

In 2013, Massachusetts birder Neil Hayward reluctantly decided to do an ABA big year. Hayward reached 700 species two weeks ahead of John Vanderpoel's 2011 pace, and ended his year on 747 species plus 3 provisionals. Two provisionals later accepted by the ABA gave Hayward a final total of 749, which set a new ABA Big Year record.

In 2016, an unprecedented four birders attempted simultaneous ABA Area big years. A South Dakotan doctor birding as "Olaf Danielson" launched his "Bad Weather Big Year", reaching 700 species in May. John Weigel, an Australian conservationist and Tasmanian devil activist, also launched his big year, called "Birding for Devils." While not seeking to break the record, American birding activist and blogger Christian Hagenlocher's "The Birding Project" aimed to attract more people to birding through a more social perspective. Hagenlocher, at age 27, also became the youngest person to break the 700-species barrier for an ABA big year. Photographer Laura Keene, conducting a 2016 photographic big year, broke Lynn Barber's Big Year record for women in September. 2016 marked the first time four birders had each seen over 700 species in the ABA Area in a year. On 16 July 2016, Weigel saw his 750th species, a Buller's shearwater, breaking Hayward's previous record. All four birders would eventually surpass Hayward's total.

In October 2016, the ABA voted to add the U.S. state of Hawaii to the countable area for ABA Big Years. All the 2016 big year birders except Hagenlocher birded Hawaii during November and December 2016, even though the "New" ABA checklist was not updated until November 2017. Olaf Danielson, partly due to efforts to promote bird conservation in Hawaii, incorporated Hawaii into his Big Year planning, keeping a list for the "New ABA" along with his Continental ABA list. John Weigel and Laura Keene subsequently birded Hawaii, with Weigel ending up with the highest total for the "New ABA" region (836), the Continental ABA region (784) and the United States (832). Danielson was close behind with 829 for the "New ABA," while setting a new record for the Lower 48 States (723). Weigel was close with 721. Keene broke the previous record for photographed species with diagnostic photos of 792 species, and audio recordings of 10 others, out of her 815 total for the year.

2017 broke new ground, with five birders surpassing 700 species in the Continental ABA Area by September, and three breaking the 750-species barrier. Keene's women's record for the "New ABA" region was broken in 2017 by Yve Morrell. Also during 2017, Ruben and Victor Stoll became the first brothers to reach the 700 mark, and Richard and Gaylee Dean became the first married couple to reach 700.

In 2018, Nicole Koeltzow reached the 700-species milestone on July 1, while in August Gaylee and Richard Dean became the first birders to reach 700 species in consecutive years. On October 30, 2018, in Hawaii, Koeltzow became the 7th birder to reach the 800-species mark, and went on to set new ABA records for women birders. Also noteworthy in 2018 was the fact that Koeltzow and Dan Gesualdo became the 4th and 5th birders to identify 700+ species in the Lower 48 states. Gesualdo did so without a single airplane trip.

On July 4, 2019, John Weigel hit 700 for the second time, and on July 5 Gaylee and Richard Dean once again reached 700 species for the year, making them the first birders to top 700 species in the ABA Area three times. On top of that, the three years were done consecutively. At the end of July 2019 Weigel became the first birder to reach 750 species in more than one year. A trip to Alaska at the end of August 2019 allowed David and Tammy McQuade to become the 4th and 5th birders to reach 700 species during 2019. They joined the Deans as the only couples to accomplish the feat. With a trip to Maine in September Amanda Damin became the 6th birder to reach 700 for the year, an unprecedented occurrence in the history of ABA Big Years.

In October 2019, Weigel became the first birder to have a second 800+ ABA Big Year, and Richard and Gaylee Dean became the 9th and 10th birders to have a 750+ ABA Big Year. In November 2019, David and Tammy McQuade became the 6th and 7th birders to identify 700+ species in the Lower 48, and in December 2019 Gaylee and Richard Dean became the 8th and 9th birders to accomplish that feat. A new ABA Big Year record was set on December 23, 2019, when John Weigel found a Steller's Eider in Alaska, species #837 for the year. The same species also allowed Weigel to set a new record for a United States Big Year. At the close of the year he was at 836 for this category.

Big Years in 2020 were impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic, as tours to Alaska were cancelled, travel to and from Canada was almost non-existent, and the use of air travel was minimal. At age 21, Ben Sanders was the youngest birder to reach 680 for a Lower 48 (Contiguous) Big Year, and did it without a single airplane trip. David and Tammy McQuade had 735 species, all in the "Lower 49" (the Lower 48 + Hawaii). Their total of 692 for the Lower 48 tied for 13th best all-time. The highlight of the year was in the Contiguous 48 States category, where Jeremy Dominguez broke Danielson's 2016 record; the Bar-tailed Godwit he had in Washington on December 29 was species #724 for the year.

Although the pandemic continued to affect Big Years in 2021, especially with regards to travel between the United States and Canada, five birders cracked the Top Ten for the Contiguous 48 States region. Most notably, on December 18 Tiffany Kersten tied the record for the Contiguous 48 States with Smith's Longspur as #724. She followed it up by heading to Texas, where she got the Bat Falcon on the same day. Since the Bat Falcon was not yet listed on the ABA Checklist, she officially set the new record on December 23, with Northern Lapwing. She ended the year with 726 species. Charlie Bostwick had the 5th-highest Big Year for the ABA Region, the United States and the Contiguous 48 States. David McQuade, Tammy McQuade and Jason Vassallo also had exceptional Big Years for the Contiguous 48 States. With this, their third consecutive 700+ year, the McQuade's matched the Deans as the only birders with three years with 700 or more species.

2022 was a notable year. In July, David and Tammy McQuade became the first birders to top 700 in four separate years. They also had the top list for the AOU Region (which includes Mexico and Central America), becoming the first birders to have the highest list in both the ABA and AOU during the same year. On July 22, Ruben and Victor Stoll had both Nelson's and Saltmarsh Sparrows at Maine's Scarborough Marsh, breaking Tiffany Kersten's record for the Contiguous 48 States; they ended the year with 751 species. On October 19, Mark O'Keefe reached 700 for the ABA Region. The milestone bird was the Variegated Flycatcher in his home state of Michigan. O'Keefe ended the year with 706, while Nathan Goldberg had 702 for the ABA Region.

In 2023, for the first time, nine birders garnered over 700 species in the ABA Region. On July 30, 2023, David and Tammy McQuade reached 700 species for the fifth consecutive year. They ended the year with 797 species (plus two provisionals). In addition to having the top ABA Big Year during 2023, they were also on top of the AOU year list for the second year in a row. Other birders who topped 700 species in the ABA Region included Gino Ellison (788 +2), Nick Komar (782 +2), Linus Blomqvist (761), Bud Younts (729 +2), Brenda and Jim Carpenter (714 +2; the third married couple to top 700), and Bill Kaempfer (707 +2). In the Continental ABA Region, the McQuades had 746 (+2), Ellison had 733 (+2), and Komar had 728 (+2). In the Lower 48 (Contiguous) Region, the McQuades had 703 (+2).

ABA Area big year rankings
The ABA Area includes Canada, the 50 US states including Hawaii, the French islands of St. Pierre et Miquelon off Canada, and adjacent waters out to 200 nautical miles.

The provisional species for 2023 are Gray Gull & Cattle Tyrant.

Continental ABA Area big year rankings
This area is similar to the ABA Area (see above) but excludes Hawaii. Prior to 2016 this was the "ABA Area." All records predating 2016 are based on this definition.

The provisional species for 2023 are Gray Gull & Cattle Tyrant.

United States big year rankings
The provisional species for 2023 are Gray Gull & Cattle Tyrant.

USA Contiguous 48 States big year rankings
The provisional species for 2023 are Gray Gull & Cattle Tyrant.

World big years
In 2008, British couple Alan Davies and Ruth Miller traveled around the world, seeing 4,341 species. In 2015, Oregon birder Noah Strycker launched a worldwide big year with the goal of seeing at least 5,000 species—roughly half of the world's species—as he traveled around the globe. On September 16, in India, he broke Davies' and Miller's existing record when he saw a Sri Lanka frogmouth for his 4,342nd species of the year. He finished the year with 6,042 bird species, his last species seen being an Oriental Bay Owl in Assam, India.

Strycker's record faced an immediate challenge in 2016 when Dutch birder Arjan Dwarshuis launched an effort to break it as well as raise money for the Birdlife Preventing Extinctions Programme. On November 4, 2016, Dwarshuis saw a tody motmot in Panama, breaking Strycker's previous record total. He finished the year with 6,852 seen bird species and this is the new World big year record.

Because Dwarshuis primarily used the IOC Checklist and Strycker the Clements Checklist, their totals are not fully compatible, as the IOC checklist lists a greater number of species. However, Dwarshuis and Strycker have both compiled checklists for each list.

Many world big year birders aim to minimize costs through a sponsorship, and their carbon footprint through a carbon offset program.

Alternative big years
Traditional big year birders have drawn criticism from environmentalists for failing to consider the ecological impact of their travel. Several birders have attempted "green", or alternative big years to raise awareness for both birding and the environment. In 2005, two British cycling birders decided to have a competition. Chris Mills in Norfolk, England and Simon Woolley, Hampshire, England competed over who would see the most birds by cycling only and hence become the UK Green Year list record holder. Chris Mills won setting a record of 251 bird species.

Starting in the summer of 2007, teenager Malkolm Boothroyd and his parents, Ken Madsen and Wendy Boothroyd, attempted a big year without the use of fossil fuels by planning to bicycle over 10,000 miles to get over 400 species for the year. They started in their home province of the Yukon Territory, rode down the Pacific Coast, looping back around Arkansas to catch the Texas spring migration, then eastward to Florida. They dubbed this attempt a "bird year," rather than a big year. In the end, they covered more than 13,000 miles by bicycle and tallied 548 species, raising more than $25,000 for bird conservation in the process.

2014 saw the first continent-wide "green year", a big year executed with a minimum of environmental impact. In his rather extreme instance, Dorian Anderson bicycled 17,830 miles around the United States, amassing a self-powered, petroleum-free 618 species during his 365 days on America's roads. Dorian visited 28 states (some twice) during his adventure and, beyond his species total, raised $49,000 for habitat conservation. He shunned all motorized transportation for the entire adventure, refusing even ferries that would have saved him sometimes hundreds of miles of riding around various bodies of water. He was hit by a car once, and almost hit several other times, but survived the entire year without major injury.

In 2021, Niky Carrera Levy and Mauricio Ossa, a couple of publicists and photographers made the first Big Year in Colombia, the country with the largest number of birds recorded in the world. They managed to record 1,471 species, the highest count of birds in one year in a single country. They traveled the 32 departments of Colombia in 21,974 miles. In addition to counting birds, they carried a message of conservation with the Colombian grebe, the only extinct species in Colombia and they got 789 children to take the oath of guardian of the birds.

Big year books

 * Wild America (1955) by Roger Tory Peterson & James Fisher
 * Call Collect, Ask for Birdman (1980) by James M. Vardaman
 * Looking for the Wild (1986) by Lyn Hancock
 * The Loonatic Journals (1987) by Steven Perry
 * Birding's Indiana Jones: A Chaser's Diary (1990) by Sandy Komito
 * The Feather Quest (1992) by Pete Dunne
 * A Year for the Birds (1995) by William B. Rydell, Jr.
 * Kingbird Highway: The Story of a Natural Obsession That Got a Little Out of Hand (1997) by Kenn Kaufman
 * I Came, I Saw, I Counted (1999) by Sandy Komito
 * Chasing Birds Across Texas: A Birding Big Year (2003) by Mark T. Adams
 * The Big Year: A Tale of Man, Nature, and Fowl Obsession (2004) by Mark Obmascik (later the basis for a 2011 comedy film distributed by 20th Century Fox)
 * Return to Wild America: A Yearlong Search for the Continent's Natural Soul (2005) by Scott Weidensaul
 * The Big Twitch (2005) by Sean Dooley (an Australian "Big Year")
 * Arrivals and Rivals by Adrian M. Riley (2005; 2nd edition 2007) Brambleby Books : Arrivals and Rivals
 * BirdWatchingWatching (2009) by Alex Horne
 * The Biggest Twitch: Around the World in 4,000 Birds (2010) by Alan Davies and Ruth Miller
 * Extreme Birder: One Woman's Big Year (2011) by Lynn E. Barber
 * A Big Manhattan Year: Tales of Competitive Birding (2013) by David Barrett
 * Boobies, Peckers & Tits: One Man's Naked Perspective (2014) by Olaf Danielson
 * Lost Among the Birds: Accidentally Finding Myself in One Very Big Year (2016) by Neil Hayward
 * Josh's Big Year: From Deserts to Jungles, a battle with Asperger's (2016) by Josh Crickmay Josh Crickmay | Author, Wildlife Enthusiast, Inspirational Speaker
 * Birding Without Borders (2017) by Noah Strycker
 * Een Bevlogen Jaar (2019) by Arjan Dwarshuis, published in Dutch by Meulenhoff
 * Falcon Freeway: A Big Year of Birding on a Budget (2019) by Christian Hagenlocher
 * Binoculars & Brushes: A year painting birds in the Welsh Marches (2019) by Julian Livsey
 * Little Big Year: Chasing Acadia's Birds (2020) by Richard Wayne MacDonald
 * Every Bird In Maine: One Man's Journey to See Every Bird in Maine (2021) by Ethan Whitaker
 * Full Chase Mode (2021) by John W Vanderpoel
 * The (Big) Year That Flew By (2023) by Arjan Dwarshuis, published by Chelsea Green
 * Birding Under the Influence: Cycling Across America in Search of Birds and Recovery (2023) by Dorian Anderson

title: Big year


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Gilaki

Gilaki may possibly refer to:
 * Gilaks, an adjective for an ethnic group in Iran province of Gilan
 * Gilaki language, a language spoken by a group of Gilani people in Iran's Gīlān Province

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Gilaki


text: User talk:81.91.144.250

title: User talk:81.91.144.250


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The Gambler (album)

The Gambler is the sixth studio album by American singer Kenny Rogers, released by United Artists in November 1978. One of his most popular, it has established Rogers' status as one of the most successful artists of the 1970s and 1980s. The album reached many markets around the world, such as the Far East and Jamaica, with Rogers later commenting "When I go to Korea or Hong Kong people say 'Ah, the gambler!'" (as per the sleeve notes to the 1998 released box set Through the Years on Capitol Records). The album has sold over 5 million copies.

History
The title track "The Gambler" was written by Don Schlitz, who was the first to record it. It was also covered by several other artists, but it was Kenny Rogers' adaptation of the tale that went on to top the country charts and win a Grammy Song of the Year award, later becoming Rogers' signature song. Although Johnny Cash recorded the song first, Rogers's version was released first. Both this song and "She Believes in Me" became pop music hits, helping Rogers become well-known beyond country music circles. Although largely compiled from songs by some of the music business's top songwriters, such as Alex Harvey, Mickey Newbury, and Steve Gibb, Rogers continued to show his own talent for songwriting with "Morgana Jones". The album was produced by Larry Butler.

In Britain, both the title cut and the album did very well in the country market, but both failed to reach the top 40 of the pop charts. In the 1980s the single of "The Gambler" was re-issued and made the top 100 sales list, but again charted outside the top 40. It wasn't until the song was re-issued in 2007 when the song was adopted by the England Rugby Team at the Rugby World Cup that it charted at its #22 peak.

Its popularity has led to many releases over the years. After United Artists was absorbed into EMI/Capitol in 1980, The Gambler was reissued on vinyl and cassette on the Liberty Records label. Several years later, Liberty issued an abridged version of the album, removing the track "Morgana Jones". EMI Manhattan Records released "The Gambler" on CD in the 1980s. An 'Original Master Recording' from Mobile Fidelity Sound Labs was released on vinyl (audiophile edition vinyl). Finally, The Gambler was released on Rogers' own Dreamcatcher Records in 2001 as part of the Kenny Rogers "Original Masters Series."

Additionally, "I Wish That I Could Hurt That Way Again" would later become a hit in 1986 for T. Graham Brown, whose version went to #3 on the country charts.

Personnel

 * Kenny Rogers – lead vocals
 * Thomas Cain – keyboards (side 1: 5)
 * Steve Glassmeyer – keyboards, soprano saxophone (side 1: 2), backing vocals
 * Gene Golden – keyboards, backing vocals
 * Hargus "Pig" Robbins – keyboards (side 1: 1)
 * Edgar Struble – ARP synthesizer, clavinet, congas, backing vocals (side 2: 11)
 * Jimmy Capps – guitars (side 1: 1)
 * Randy Dorman – guitars, backing vocals (side 1: 5)
 * Ray Edenton – guitars (side 1: 1)
 * Rick Harper – guitars
 * Billy Sanford – guitars (side 1: 1)
 * Jerry Shook – guitars
 * Tony Joe White – guitars (side 1: 5)
 * Reggie Young – guitars
 * Pete Drake – steel guitar (side 1: 1)
 * Tommy Allsup – six-string bass guitar
 * Bob Moore – upright bass (side 1: 1)
 * Dennis Wilson – upright bass
 * Eddy Anderson – drums, percussion
 * Jerry Carrigan – drums, percussion (side 1: 1)
 * Bobby Daniels – drums, percussion, backing vocals
 * Byron Metcalf – drums, percussion (side 2: 1)
 * Bill Justis – string arrangements (side 1: 3, side 2: 1, 3, 5)
 * Byron Bach – strings
 * George Brinkley – strings
 * Marvin Chantry – strings
 * Roy Christensen – strings
 * Carl Gorodetzky – strings
 * Lennie Haight – strings
 * Sheldon Kurland – strings
 * Steven Smith – strings
 * Gary Vanosdale – strings
 * Pamela Vanosdale – strings
 * Dottie West – backing vocals (side 1: 1)
 * The Jordanaires – backing vocals (side 1: 1)
 * Bill Medley – backing vocals (side 1: 5)
 * Mickey Newbury – backing vocals (side 1: 5)

Producer

 * Producer – Larry Butler
 * Engineer – Billy Sherrill
 * Recorded at Jack Clement Recording Studios (Nashville, TN).
 * Mastered by Bob Sowell at Master Control (Nashville, TN).
 * Art Direction and Design – Bill Burks
 * Photography – Reid Miles
 * Management – Ken Kragen

title: The Gambler (album)


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Talk:Taiwanese opera

Is Photo in performers and roles section relevant
Is the photograph in the "performers and roles section relevant" section relevant to the article? Qwaszxfish (talk) 19:49, 26 March 2008 (UTC)

Title
For an entry's title, there should be a preference for the English common name, then (if the former is not useful) the native name, then (the least preferred) the name in a third language. Gezaixi is certainly not preferred. I will move the page. -- Kaihsu 15:08, 2004 Aug 1 (UTC)

Instruments
Which instruments are used for this form of opera? This should be added. Badagnani 05:23, 30 September 2006 (UTC)

External links modified
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title: Talk:Taiwanese opera


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Glove puppetry

Glove puppetry is a type of opera using cloth puppets that originated during the 17th century in Quanzhou or Zhangzhou of China's Fujian province, and historically practised in the Min Nan-speaking areas such as Quanzhou, Zhangzhou, the Chaoshan region of Guangdong, and other parts of southern China. It had since established itself contemporarily as a popular art form in Taiwan.

The puppet's head uses wood carved into the shape of a hollow human head, but aside from the head, palms, and feet, which are made of wood, the puppet's torso and limbs consist entirely of cloth costumes. At the time of the performance, a gloved hand enters the puppet's costume and makes it perform. In previous years the puppets used in this type of performance strongly resembled "cloth sacks," hence the name, which literally means "cloth bag opera."

Performances
Glove puppetry (pò͘-tē-hì) performances, similar to some types of Chinese opera, are divided into a first half and a second half show. During the first half, known as the "show platform" (戲台), the audience is shown a demonstration by a master puppeteer on the stage. The second half consists of the puppet master, the orchestra, and the spoken parts. Several key points of a show to be appreciated include: the dexterity of the master puppeteer's manipulation of the puppet, the accompaniment of the orchestra, and the poetic spoken parts of the voice actors. With few exceptions, from traditional pò͘-tē-hì to modern performances, human vocal music and operatic singing is rarely heard.

In Indonesia
In Indonesia, glove puppetry was popular within Chinese communities around Sumatra and Java. In Java, the interaction between Chinese and Javanese culture gave birth to new style of puppetry, called Peranakan Potehi. Today, glove puppetry is called with the term "Wayang Potehi" (Wayang means "puppet" in Javanese). The Wayang Potehi tradition is mainly preserved in Central Java (Semarang) and East Java's (Gudo, Jombang) Chinese communities. Most of the dialog parts of Wayang Potehi have been narrated using Indonesian and Javanese language.

In Taiwan
In Taiwan Yunlin County is the center of glove puppetry with most major studios having a presence in the county.

Since 1984, Pili has been adding computer animations to their glove puppetry TV shows. Their shows continue to be popular, with the Thunderbolt Fantasy series being a collaboration with Gen Urobuchi that combines Pili style glove puppetry with anime style narrative.

title: Glove puppetry


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Sarracenia

Sarracenia ( or ) is a genus comprising 8 to 11 species of North American pitcher plants, commonly called trumpet pitchers. The genus belongs to the family Sarraceniaceae, which also contain the closely allied genera Darlingtonia and Heliamphora.

Sarracenia is a genus of carnivorous plants indigenous to the eastern seaboard of the United States, Texas, the Great Lakes area and southeastern Canada, with most species occurring only in the south-east United States (only S. purpurea occurs in cold-temperate regions). The plant's leaves have evolved into a funnel or pitcher shape in order to trap insects.

The plant attracts its insect prey with secretions from extrafloral nectaries on the lip of the pitcher leaves, as well as a combination of the leaves' color and scent. Slippery footing at the pitcher's rim causes insects to fall inside, where they die and are digested by the plant with proteases and other enzymes.

Description
Sarracenia are herbaceous perennial plants that grow from a subterranean rhizome, with many tubular pitcher-shaped leaves radiating out from the growing point, and then turning upwards with their trap openings facing the center of the crown. The trap is a vertical tube with a 'hood' (the operculum) extending over its entrance; and below it the top of the tube usually has a rolled lip (the peristome) which secretes nectar and scents. The hood itself frequently produces nectar too, but in lesser quantities.

The inside of the pitcher tube, depending on the species, can be divided into three to five distinguishable zones: zone 1 is the operculum (or hood), zone 2 is the peristome and rest of the trap entrance, while zones 3 and 4 (which in some species are combined) and 5 (only present in S. purpurea) are further divisions of the actual tube. Each of these zones has a specific function, with corresponding morphophysiological characteristics.

 * Zone 1: Operculum. In most species the operculum covers at least part of the pitcher has an opening, preventing rain from excessively filling the pitcher, which would result in the loss of prey and dilute the digestive fluid. The operculum also serves to guide prey to the pitcher opening, using a combination of color, scent, and downward-pointing hairs to lead insects toward the trap entrance. Some species, specifically S. minor and S. psittacina, have opercula that hang low over the pitcher entrance. These are also studded with chlorophyll-free patches, translucent "windows" which confuse prey into attempting to fly through the operculum, thereby causing them to cascade down the pitcher tube. (A similar, better-developed mechanism is found in the closely related Darlingtonia californica).
 * Zone 2: Peristome and trap entrance. This zone is composed mainly of the peristome, which produces copious amounts of nectar, luring insect prey to land or crawl onto the perilous footing surrounding the pitcher trap. This zone also includes the waxy upper portion of the pitcher tube. Footing on this zone is especially treacherous, as the waxy deposits on surface of this zone cause unwary insects to lose their footing and tumble into the pitcher depths.
 * Zone 3: Located below Zone 2, this zone features a leaf surface with non-existent footing, as well as a coating of ultra-fine, downward pointing hairs. Insects that have made it this far lose any chance of escape. It is also studded with digestive glands, which secrete digestive enzymes into the digestive fluid.
 * Zone 4: This is the final zone in most species. It is filled with digestive fluids, and readily absorbs nutrients released from the insects by the work of the digestive enzymes and bacteria in the pitcher fluid. Along with more digestive glands, this zone features a thick coating of coarse downward pointing hairs, which makes escape from the digestive fluids impossible.
 * Zone 5: This zone, located below Zone 4 and found only in S. purpurea, is smooth, glabrous, lacks glands, and does not serve as an absorptive zone. Its function is unknown.

Carnivorous mechanism
All Sarracenia trap insects and other prey without the use of moving parts. Their traps are static and are based on a combination of lures (including color, scent, and nectar) and inescapability – typically the entrances to the traps are one-way by virtue of the highly adapted features listed above.

Most species use a combination of scent, waxy deposits (to clog insect feet) and gravity to topple insect prey into their pitcher. Once inside, the insect finds the footing very slippery with a waxy surface covering the walls of the pitcher. Further down the tube, downward-pointing hairs make retreat impossible, and in the lowest region of the tube, a pool of liquid containing digestive enzymes and wetting agents quickly drowns the prey and begins digestion. The exoskeletons are usually not digested, and over the course of the summer fill up the pitcher tube.

Only S. purpurea normally contains significant amounts of rainwater in its tubular pitchers. It is a myth that all species contain water. In fact, the hoods of the other species help to keep out rain water in addition to keeping flying prey from escaping.

S. psittacina, the parrot pitcher, uses a lobster-pot style trap that will admit prey (including tadpoles and small fish during floods) but not allow it to find its way out; and sharp inward-pointing hairs force the victim gradually down to the base of the pitcher where it is digested.

Potential narcotic function of coniine
Coniine, a toxic alkaloid also present in poison hemlock, was first detected in the nectar of S. flava. and has since been detected in 7 other species of Sarracenia. While it was demonstrated that concentrated extracts from S. flava could paralyze ants, it has not been demonstrated that coniine has narcotic effects on insects at the concentrations naturally present in pitchers of S. flava. Other authors hypothesize that coniine may function as an attractant for insects, or may function both as an attractant and a narcotic.

Flowers and seeds
Flowers are produced early in spring, with or slightly ahead of the first pitchers. They are held singly on long stems, generally well above the pitcher traps to avoid the trapping of potential pollinators. The flowers, which depending on species are 3–10 centimeters in diameter, are dramatic and have an elaborate design which prevents self-pollination. It consists of five sepals superintended by three bracts, numerous anthers, and an umbrella-like five-pointed style, over which five long yellow or red petals dangle. The whole flower is held upside-down, so that the umbrella-like style catches the pollen dropped by the anthers. The stigmas are located at the tips of the umbrella-like style. The primary pollinators are bees. Bees searching for nectar must force their way past one of the stigmas to enter the chamber formed by the style. Inside, they will inevitably come in contact with a lot of pollen, both from the hanging anthers and from the pollen collected by the style. Upon exiting, the bees must force their way under one of the flap-like petals. This keeps them away from the stigma, avoiding self-pollination. The next flower visited receives on its stigmata some of the first flower's pollen, and the cycle continues.

Floral formula: Ca5 Co5 A∞ G(5)

The flowers of almost all species are scented. The scent varies, but is often strong and sometimes unpleasant. S. flava has an especially strong odor resembling cat urine.

Flowers generally last about two weeks. At the end of the flowering period, the petals drop and the ovary, if pollinated, begins to swell. The seed forms in five lobes, with one lobe producing significantly smaller numbers of seeds than the other lobes. On average, 300–600 seed are produced, depending on species and pollination success. Seed takes five months to mature, at which point the seed pod turns brown and splits open, scattering seed. The seeds are 1.5–2 mm in length and have a rough, waxy coat which makes it hydrophobic, possibly for seed dispersal by flowing water. Sarracenia seed requires a stratification period to germinate in large numbers. Plants grown from seed start producing functioning traps almost immediately, although they differ in morphology from adult traps for the first year or so, being simpler in structure. Plants require 3–5 years to reach maturity from seed.

Growth cycle
Pitcher production begins at the end of the flowering period in spring, and lasts until late autumn. At the end of autumn, the pitchers begin to wither and the plants produce non-carnivorous leaves called phyllodia, which play a role in the economics of carnivory in these species. Since the supply of insects during winter is decreased, and the onset of cold weather slows plant metabolism and other processes, putting energy into producing carnivorous leaves would be uneconomical for the plant.

Genetics
The genus has been found to have a Chromosome number of 2n=26, though some earlier studies had found that number to be 2n=24.

Range and habitat
Seven of the eight species are confined to the south-eastern coastal plain of the United States. One species, S. purpurea, continues north and west well into Canada. The typical habitat is warm-temperate; all Sarracenia are perennial and require a distinct summer and winter. A few subspecies or varieties (S. rubra subsp. alabamensis, S. rubra subsp. jonesii, and S. purpurea var. montana) can be found more inland in mountains (e.g. the Appalachian Mountains).

Sarracenia tend to inhabit fens, herb bogs, and seasonally wet grasslands. These habitats tend to be acidic (low pH) with soil made up of sand and Sphagnum moss. Frequently, the soil will be poor in nutrients, particularly nitrates, and often continuously leached by moving water or made unavailable to the plant roots by the low pH. The plants gain their advantage from their ability to extract nutrients from insect prey in this mineral-poor environment. The plants prefer strong, direct sunlight with no shade. Sarracenia habitats in the southeastern Coastal Plain consist primarily of fire-maintained pine savannas, wet prairies, or seepage bogs. Without frequent fire (1–3 years), these habitats undergo ecological succession and are quickly invaded by woody shrubs and trees, which eliminate Sarracenia by increasing shade and reducing soil moisture.

In several cases, carnivorous plant enthusiasts have introduced S. purpurea into suitable habitats outside of its natural range, where it has naturalized. Some of these populations are decades old; the oldest known occurrence in the Swiss Jura mountains is around one hundred years old. Besides Switzerland, such naturalized populations can be found in Ireland, England (Lake District), Germany (Bavaria, Lusatia) and in Mendocino County along the California coast.

Environmental status
Sarracenia are threatened in the wild by development and the drainage of their habitat. Estimates indicated that 97.5% of Sarracenia habitat has already been destroyed in the southeastern U.S., the home of all but one subspecies of Sarracenia. Currently the biggest threats to surviving populations are urban development, drainage of habitat for forestry, runoff of herbicides from agriculture, fire suppression, cut pitcher trade for floristry, and plant trade. The latter two threaten survival of Sarracenia not only through depletion of healthy population, but also because of the damaging effects (soil compaction and altered moisture levels) of repeated foot and vehicular traffic that comes with harvesting. The Fish and Wildlife Service estimates that approximately 1.6 million pitchers were cut for the domestic market in 1991.

Some protective legislation exists. Several southeastern states, such as Florida, Georgia, and South Carolina have conservation laws which protect Sarracenia. However, most of the remaining wetlands in the southeastern U.S. are privately owned. Plants on this land are not protected by state legislation. The key states of Alabama and Mississippi have no such legislation at all, so that even plants on public land have no protection. Three Sarracenia have been listed as "Federally Endangered" under the USA Endangered Species Act (1973) – S. rubra subsp. alabamensis (S. alabamensis) in Alabama, S. rubra subsp. jonesii (S. jonesii) in North and South Carolina, and S. oreophila in Alabama, Georgia, and North Carolina. These taxa are also on CITES Appendix I, giving them international protection by making export of wild-collected plants illegal. The other species, while appearing on CITES Appendix II, have little federal protection.

Some efforts have been made to curb the existing threats to plants. In 2003 the International Carnivorous Plant Society ran a trial distribution program in which young S. rubra subsp. alabamanensis plants were grown from seed collected from 3 of the 12 known S. alabamanensis sites, and were distributed to members in an attempt to increase availability of this plant in cultivation, with the hopes of thereby decreasing the poaching that was endangering the survival of this taxon in the wild. In 1995, the non-profit organization Meadowview Biological Research Station was created to preserve and restore pitcher plant bogs and associated ecosystems in Maryland and Virginia.

In 2004, a number of concerned plant enthusiasts founded the North American Sarracenia Conservancy (NASC), which aims to "serve as a living record of the taxonomic, morphological and genetic diversity of the genus Sarracenia for purposes of conservation and cultivation." The NASC is a grassroots Nebraska nonprofit organization working to build a genetic Sarracenia bank by overseeing the maintenance of genetic strains from all remaining wild populations in cultivation, with the eventual aim of being able to supply these strains for re-introduction in suitable habitats. A similar but centralized collection exists in the UK, with 2000+ clones representing all species (many with location data) and numerous hybrids currently being housed by Sarracenia expert Mike King. This UK collection is part of the NCCPG National Plant Collection scheme. While none of these efforts curb the biggest threats – urban development and habitat destruction – they aim to help reduce plant poaching while at the same time making these plants available to future generations.

One of the biggest challenges of reintroducing plants back into the wild is the unintended introduction of unwanted species, such as pests, diseases, and invasive weeds. Often, it is human destruction of areas in which the Sarracenia thrive that is a major killer. Aside from determining what genetic material is appropriate for reintroduction (which is up for debate), plants must be semi-aseptic to keep the habitat pristine and sustainable in the long term. Another challenge is maintaining all of the introduced plant material and determining an optimal site to plant them in. A single hurricane or storm event can change the dynamics of a field. Even within a single bog, some areas may be waterlogged, while other areas may become very dry, so identifying the right location is critical. Short term results on private property indicate planting larger specimens into the field have a higher chance of long-term survival compared to planting smaller seedlings.

Taxonomy
The genus Sarracenia belongs to the family Sarraceniaceae, which also contain the closely allied genera Darlingtonia and Heliamphora. Under the Cronquist system, this family was put in the order Nepenthales along with Nepenthaceae and Droseraceae. The APG II system, however, assigns Sarraceniaceae to the order Ericales and the other two families to the order Caryophyllales.

Typically anywhere from 8 to 11 species of Sarracenia are generally recognized, depending on individual opinions on the biological species concept and which among many subspecies and varieties should be elevated to species status, a common lumping and splitting problem in demarcation. Some authorities split the described subspecific taxa of S. rubra into 3 to 5 species. Similarly, S. rosea is not always recognized as a species distinct from S. purpurea. The most commonly recognized species include:

Currently, S. rubra can be described as having six subspecies, though it is sometimes argued that the subspecies should be elevated to species rank in recognition of the species complex that they are a part of. This division would yield S. alabamensis, S. gulfensis, S. jonesii, S. rubra sensu stricto, S. viatorum, and S. wherryi. Others have argued that only some of these demand recognition at the species rank.

McPherson & Schnell (2011)
Stewart McPherson and Donald Schnell carried out a comprehensive taxonomic revision of the genus in their 2011 monograph, Sarraceniaceae of North America. They recognized the following taxa:
 * Sarracenia alata
 * S. alata var. alata    (autonym)
 * S. alata var. alata f. viridescens    S.McPherson & D.E.Schnell
 * S. alata var. atrorubra    S.McPherson & D.E.Schnell
 * S. alata var. cuprea    S.McPherson & D.E.Schnell
 * S. alata var. nigropurpurea    P.D'Amato ex S.McPherson & D.E.Schnell
 * S. alata var. ornata    S.McPherson & D.E.Schnell
 * S. alata var. rubrioperculata    S.McPherson & D.E.Schnell
 * Sarracenia flava
 * S. flava var. flava    (autonym)
 * S. flava var. flava f. viridescens    S.McPherson & D.E.Schnell
 * S. flava var. atropurpurea    (Hort. W.Bull ex Mast.) Hort. W.Bull ex W.Robinson
 * S. flava var. cuprea    D.E.Schnell
 * S. flava var. maxima    Hort. W.Bull ex Mast.
 * S. flava var. ornata    Hort. Bull ex W.Robinson
 * S. flava var. rubricorpora    D.E.Schnell
 * S. flava var. rugelii    (Shuttlew. ex A.DC.) Mast.
 * Sarracenia leucophylla
 * S. leucophylla var. leucophylla    (autonym)
 * S. leucophylla var. leucophylla f. viridescens    S.McPherson & D.E.Schnell
 * S. leucophylla var. alba    (Hort. T.Baines ex R.Hogg & T.Moore) J.Pietropaolo & P.Pietropaolo ex S.McPherson & D.E.Schnell
 * Sarracenia minor
 * S. minor var. minor    (autonym)
 * S. minor var. minor f. viridescens    S.McPherson & D.E.Schnell
 * S. minor var. okefenokeensis    D.E.Schnell
 * Sarracenia oreophila
 * S. oreophila var. oreophila    (autonym)
 * S. oreophila var. ornata    S.McPherson & D.E.Schnell
 * Sarracenia psittacina
 * S. psittacina var. psittacina    (autonym)
 * S. psittacina var. psittacina f. viridescens    S.McPherson & D.E.Schnell
 * S. psittacina var. okefenokeensis    S.McPherson & D.E.Schnell
 * S. psittacina var. okefenokeensis f. luteoviridis    S.McPherson & D.E.Schnell
 * Sarracenia purpurea
 * S. purpurea subsp. purpurea    (autonym)
 * S. purpurea subsp. purpurea f. heterophylla    (Eaton) Fern.
 * S. purpurea subsp. venosa    (Raf.) Wherry
 * S. purpurea subsp. venosa var. venosa    (autonym)
 * S. purpurea subsp. venosa var. venosa f. pallidiflora    S.McPherson & D.E.Schnell
 * S. purpurea subsp. venosa var. burkii    D.E.Schnell
 * S. purpurea subsp. venosa var. burkii f. luteola    R.L.Hanrahan & J.Miller
 * S. purpurea subsp. venosa var. montana    D.E.Schnell & R.O.Determann
 * Sarracenia rubra
 * S. rubra subsp. rubra    (autonym)
 * S. rubra subsp. alabamensis    (Case & R.B.Case) S.McPherson & D.E.Schnell
 * S. rubra subsp. gulfensis    D.E.Schnell
 * S. rubra subsp. gulfensis f. luteoviridis    S.McPherson & D.E.Schnell
 * S. rubra subsp. jonesii    (Wherry) Wherry
 * S. rubra subsp. jonesii f. viridescens    S.McPherson & D.E.Schnell
 * S. rubra subsp. wherryi    (Case & R.B.Case) D.E.Schnell
 * S. rubra "Incompletely diagnosed taxon from Georgia and South Carolina"    (Undescribed, but see note below)

Note: The entity McPherson and Schnell referred to as S. rubra "Incompletely diagnosed taxon from Georgia and South Carolina" has since been established as Sarracenia rubra subsp. viatorum B.Rice.

Hybrids
Sarracenia species hybridize and produce fertile offspring freely, making proper classification difficult. Sarracenia hybrids are able to hybridize further, giving the possibility of hundreds of different hybrids that have multiple species in varying amounts in their ancestry. Since many species ranges overlap, natural hybrids are relatively common. As a result, initial classification included many of these hybrids as separate species. A recent census of the number of hybrids and cultivars of Sarracenia species revealed about 100 unique hybrids and cultivars in cultivation. Many hybrids of Sarracenia are still commonly referred to by their obsolete species names, particularly in horticulture. These hybrids are all popularly cultivated by carnivorous plant enthusiasts, and there are consequently a huge number of hybrids and cultivars, most bred for showy pitchers.

Some of the more common named hybrids include:

 * Sarracenia × catesbaei = S. flava × S. purpurea
 * Sarracenia × moorei = S. flava × S. leucophylla
 * Sarracenia × popei = S. flava × S. rubra
 * Sarracenia × harperi = S. flava × S. minor
 * Sarracenia × alava = S. flava × S. alata
 * Sarracenia × mitchelliana = S. purpurea × S. leucophylla
 * Sarracenia × exornata = S. purpurea × S. alata
 * Sarracenia × chelsonii = S. purpurea × S. rubra
 * Sarracenia × swaniana = S. purpurea × S. minor''
 * Sarracenia × courtii = S. purpurea × S. psittacina
 * Sarracenia × pureophila = S. purpurea × S. oreophila
 * Sarracenia × readii = S. leucophylla × S. rubra
 * Sarracenia ×  farnhamii = S. leucophylla × S. rubra
 * Sarracenia × excellens = S. leucophylla × S. minor
 * Sarracenia × areolata = S. leucophylla × S. alata
 * Sarracenia × wrigleyana = S. leucophylla × S. psittacina
 * Sarracenia × ahlesii = S. alata × S. rubra
 * Sarracenia × rehderi = S. rubra × S. minor
 * Sarracenia × gilpini = S. rubra × S. psittacina
 * Sarracenia × formosa = S. minor × S. psittacina

Botanical history
Sarracenia were known to Europeans as early as the 16th century, within a century of Christopher Columbus' "discovery" of the New World. L'Obel included an illustration of S. minor in his Stirpium Adversaria Nova in 1576. The first description and plate of a Sarracenia to show up in botanical literature was published by Carolus Clusius, who received a partial dried specimen of what was later determined to be S. purpurea subsp. purpurea, publishing it under the name Limonium peregrinum. The exact origins of this specimen remains unknown, as few explorers are known to have collected plant specimens from the range of this subspecies before that time. Cheek and Young suggest that the most likely source is Cartier's expeditions to what is now Quebec between 1534 and 1541. The fragile flowerless specimen that made its way to Clusius 60 years later was enough to excite his interest, but not enough for him to place it among related plants; his closest guess was the wholly unrelated Sea Lavender genus.

The name Sarracenia was first employed by Michel Sarrazin, the Father of Canadian Botany who in the late 17th century sent live specimens of S. purpurea to the Parisian botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort, who thereupon described the species. Linnaeus adopted this name when he published his Species Plantarum (1753), using it for the two known species at the time: S. purpurea and S. flava. The first successful flowering in culture occurred in 1773. In 1793 William Bartram noted in his book about his travels in the southeast U.S. that numerous insects were caught in the pitchers of these plants, but doubted that any benefit could be derived from them. It was not until 1887 that research by Joseph H. Mellichamp proved the carnivorous nature of this genus. This finding was supported by a study by J.S. Hepburn, E.Q. St. John and F.M. Jones in 1920. Extended field surveys and laboratory studies by Edgar Wherry in the 1930s greatly increased the knowledge of this genus, which has further been extended by the more recent works of C. Ritchie Bell (1949–52), Donald E. Schnell (1970–2002), Frederick W. Case (1970–2000s), and T. Lawrence Mellichamp (1980s-2000s).

Cultivation
Sarracenia are considered easy to grow and are widely propagated and cultivated by gardeners and carnivorous plant enthusiasts. Several hybrids between the very hardy S. purpurea and showy species like S. leucophylla are becoming common in garden centers in North America and Europe.

Sarracenia require constantly moist-wet, nutrient free acidic soil. This is most often achieved with a potting mix consisting of peat moss mixed with sand or perlite. As their roots are sensitive to nutrients and minerals, only pure water, such as distilled, rain, or reverse osmosis water, can be used to water them. Sarracenia prefer sunny conditions during their growing season but require a dormancy period, with decreased light and temperatures, of a few months in the winter.

Propagation
Sarracenia do not self-pollinate and therefore require hand pollination or access to natural pollinators such as bees. Sarracenia pollen remains potent for several weeks when refrigerated, and so is stored by cultivators and used to pollinate later-flowering species. Given that all Sarracenia hybrids are fertile and will hybridize further, this characteristic allows cultivators to produce a limitless number of variants through hybridization.

The copious seeds store well if kept dry. In climates or seasons that cannot provide the cold, damp period of stratification required by the seeds for germination, growers mimic this condition by placing the seeds in a refrigerator for 2–6 weeks, depending on species. The seeds are sown on the surface of their substrate and germinate when transferred to warmer, bright conditions. Sarracenia seedlings all look alike for the first two or three years; the plants reach maturity after four or five years. Regular fertilization (twice a month between April and September) with a balanced fertilizer at the rate of 1 teaspoon per gallon (using a 15-16-17 peat-lite or similar fertilizer) will speed their growth and time to maturity. It is advisable to leach regularly with pure water to prevent the buildup of solutes (fertilizer salts) in the soil. Deep water in a potted plant keeps the soil too waterlogged for proper root functioning.

Mature Sarracenia are commonly propagated by division. Their rhizomes extend and produce new crowns of pitchers over the course of a few growing seasons, and cultivators divide and separate the rhizomes during the plant's winter dormancy or early in the growing season. This technique is also used to separate sections of rhizomes which have no pitchers: when re-potted, the section usually generates a new crown of pitchers. A further technique is employed to encourage new crowns to appear which does not involve division of the rhizome: small notches up to 5 mm deep are cut into the top of the rhizome, whereupon a new crown frequently develops at the site of the notch.

AGM cultivars
The following have won the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:

 * Sarracenia 'Anna Carlisle'
 * Sarracenia 'Colin Clayton'
 * Sarracenia 'Dixie Lace'
 * Sarracenia 'Jenny Helen'
 * Sarracenia 'Juthatip Soper'
 * Sarracenia 'Vogel'
 * Sarracenia × catesbaei 'Violet'
 * Sarracenia × mitchelliana 'Victoria Morley'
 * Sarracenia × moorei 'Brooks's Hybrid'

title: Sarracenia


text: Category:United States Navy squadrons

title: Category:United States Navy squadrons


text:
Grand Hotel

A grand hotel is a large and luxurious hotel, especially one housed in a building with traditional architectural style. It began to flourish in the 1800s in Europe and North America.

Grand Hotel may refer to:

Africa

 * Grande Hotel Beira, a former luxury hotel in Beira, Mozambique

Asia

 * Grand Hotel d'Angkor, Siem Reap, Cambodia
 * Grand Hôtel de Pékin, one block of the Beijing Hotel, Beijing, China
 * Grand Hotel (Kolkata), Kolkata, India
 * Dariush Grand Hotel, Kish Island, Iran
 * Grand Hotel, Qazvin, Iran
 * Sapporo Grand Hotel, Sapporo, Japan
 * Grand Hotel Kathmandu, Kathmandu, Nepal
 * Grand Hotel (Nuwara Eliya), Sri Lanka
 * Grand Hotel (Taipei), Taiwan
 * Kaohsiung Grand Hotel, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
 * Grand Métropole Hôtel, the original name of the Sofitel Legend Metropole Hanoi, Vietnam

Australasia

 * Grand Hotel, Childers, Queensland, Australia
 * Grand Hotel, Mount Morgan, Queensland, Australia
 * Grand Hotel (Auckland), New Zealand
 * Hotel Windsor, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia; originally known as The Grand Hotel

Europe

 * Grand Hotel Wien, Vienna, Austria
 * Grand Hotel Sofia, Bulgaria
 * Grandhotel Pupp, Karlovy Vary, Czech Republic
 * Grand Hotel, Birmingham, England
 * Grand Brighton Hotel, England
 * Grand Hotel, Eastbourne, England
 * Grand Hotel (Leicester), England
 * Grand Hotel (Scarborough), England
 * Grand Hotel (Torquay), England
 * Grand Hotel and Spa (York), England
 * Grand Hotel Kämp, Helsinki, Finland
 * InterContinental Paris Le Grand Hotel, Paris, France
 * Grand Hotel Esplanade, Berlin, Germany
 * Grand Hotel Villa d'Este, Cernobbio, Italy
 * The Grand Hotel Rimini, Italy
 * Grand Hotel des Bains, Venice, Italy
 * Grand Hotel Prishtina, Kosovo
 * Grand Hotel (Valletta), Malta
 * Grand Hotel (Oslo), Norway
 * Grand Hotel (Sopot), Poland
 * Grand Hotel Traian (Iași), Romania
 * Grand Hotel (Rostov-on-Don), Russia
 * Grand Hotel Europe, St. Petersburg, Russia
 * Hamilton Grand, St Andrews, Scotland
 * Grand Hotel Kempinski High Tatras, High Tatras, Slovakia
 * Grand Hotel Union, Ljubljana, Slovenia
 * Grand Hotel (Lund), Sweden
 * Grand Hôtel (Stockholm), Sweden
 * Grand Hotel Saltsjöbaden, Sweden
 * Grand Hotel (Locarno), Switzerland
 * Grand Hotel Dolder, Zurich, Switzerland
 * Grand Hotel Kronenhof, Pontresina, Switzerland
 * Grand Hotel (Lviv), Ukraine
 * Grand Hotel (Llandudno), Wales
 * Poseidonion Grand Hotel (Spetses), Greece

North America

 * Canada's grand railway hotels
 * The Grand Doubletree, condominium and hotel skyscraper in Miami, Florida
 * Grand Hotel (Mackinac Island), Michigan, listed on the National Register of Historic Places
 * Historic Grand Hotels on the Mississippi Gulf Coast, in several Mississippi locations
 * Grand Hotel (Highmount, New York)
 * Grand Hotel (New York City)

Entertainment and the arts

 * Grand Hotel (1927 film), a German silent film
 * Grand Hotel (novel), a 1929 book by Vicki Baum
 * Grand Hotel (play), a 1931 play by Edward Knoblock based on the novel
 * Grand Hotel (1932 film), a 1932 American film based on Baum's 1929 novel and William A. Drake's 1930 play
 * Grand Hotel (musical), a 1989 Broadway musical based on the 1932 film
 * Grand Hotel, long-running BBC light music radio programme (1943-1973)
 * Grandhotel, a 2006 Czech film
 * Gran Hotel (TV series), a 2011 Spanish drama television series
 * Grand Hotel (TV series), a 2019 American drama series based on the Spanish series

Music

 * Grand Hotel (album), a 1973 album by Procol Harum
 * Grand Hotel (musical), a 1989 Broadway musical based on the 1932 film
 * Grand Hotel (Roadstar album), a 2006 album by Roadstar
 * Grand Hotel, initial name of the British band the Quick

Other uses

 * Grand Hotel Railroad Station, Highmount, New York
 * FC Grand Hotel Varna, a football club based in Varna, Bulgaria

title: Grand Hotel


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Lawson

From VfD

I added this because it looks like an advert for a not particularly notable company. Unless it can undergo a valid rewrite it should be deleted. - Anon.
 * As anonymous persons (UK IP address 212.104.142.176 in this case) cannot propose a VfD, I'll add my "signature" to this one for this purpose, as I agree with the motivation. Delete, naturally. Elf-friend 18:31, 1 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Wikipedia is not a business directory. Delete. -- Cyrius|✎ 22:20, 1 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * MBA-speak: "strategic markets" can obtain "competitive advantage." With those assets, the company might well be successful.  It's impossible to tell from this stock-buyer's listing.  Delete it. Geogre 01:05, 2 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * As I always try to do, I will review my votes & the article again at the end of VfD, and I hope for the best from the edits. Geogre 17:27, 3 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. This company is one of the four (maybe five) real competitors to SAP for Enterprise Resource Planning software.  While they are a tier-two player overall, they are the leader in some markets.  I'll work on the article this week.  Rossami 14:47, 2 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. Lawson Software is pretty notable. They compete with Oracle/Peoplesoft and SAP. Their executives have been called to testify in front of regulatory bodies about mergers because of their position in this market. They are a second-tier player, but a second-tier player in an enormous market. Clean up MBA-speak and it will work. Danlovejoy 22:31, 4 Aug 2004 (UTC)

end moved discussion

title: Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Lawson


text:
Quatermass (TV serial)

Quatermass (also known as Quatermass IV, or The Quatermass Conclusion for its limited international theatrical release) is a 1979 British television science fiction serial. Produced by Euston Films for Thames Television, it was broadcast on the ITV network in October and November 1979. Like its three predecessors, Quatermass was written by Nigel Kneale. It is the fourth and, to date, final television serial to feature the character of Professor Bernard Quatermass, this time played by John Mills.

Influenced by the social and geopolitical situation of the early 1970s and the hippie youth movement of the late 1960s, Quatermass is set in a near future in which large numbers of young people are joining a cult known as the Planet People who gather at prehistoric sites, believing they will be transported to a better life on another planet. The series begins with Professor Quatermass arriving in London to look for his granddaughter, Hettie Carlson, and witnessing the destruction of two spacecraft and the disappearance of a group of Planet People at a stone circle by an unknown force. He investigates this force, believing that Hettie may be in danger. As the series progresses, it becomes apparent that the Planet People are being harvested by an alien force rather than transported.

Quatermass was originally conceived as a BBC production, but after the corporation lost faith in the project because of spiralling costs, work was halted. The scripts were acquired by Euston Films and Kneale, who was commissioned to rewrite the scripts into two versions: a four-part television serial and The Quatermass Conclusion, a 100-minute film, intended for international theatrical release.

Despite ITV making the series its flagship premier for its 1979 autumn schedule, the four-part serial was met with lukewarm reviews. Reasons were blamed on the plot, casting and character development. The cinematic edited version, The Quatermass Conclusion, was given a limited release due to lack of interest from distributors.

Series
"In the last quarter of the 20th century, the whole world seemed to sicken. Civilised institutions, whether old or new, fell ... as if some primal disorder was reasserting itself. And men asked themselves, 'Why should this be?'"

Cast

 * John Mills 	       ... 	 Prof. Bernard Quatermass
 * Simon MacCorkindale	... 	 Joe Kapp
 * Ralph Arliss         ... 	 Kickalong
 * Paul Rosebury            ... 	 Caraway
 * Jane Bertish             ... 	 Bee
 * Toyah Willcox       ... 	 Sal
 * Rebecca Saire    	... 	 Hettie Carlson
 * Tony Sibbald             ... 	 Chuck Marshall
 * Barbara Kellerman   ... 	 Clare Kapp
 * Margaret Tyzack  	... 	 Annie Morgan
 * Brewster Mason    	... 	 Gurov
 * Bruce Purchase       ... 	 Tommy Roach
 * Annabelle Lanyon         ... 	 Isabel
 * David Yip         	... 	 Frank Chen
 * Neil Stacy           ... 	 Toby Gough
 * Tudor Davies     	    ... 	 TV Director

Development
Professor Bernard Quatermass was created by Manx writer Nigel Kneale in 1953 for the serial The Quatermass Experiment. Its success led to two sequels, Quatermass II (1955) and Quatermass and the Pit (1958). These three Quatermass serials are seen today as seminal 1950s television productions. Kneale, however, became disenchanted with the BBC and went freelance in the late 1950s, producing scripts for Hammer Films and Associated Television.

The notion of bringing Professor Quatermass back for a fourth adventure dated back to at least 1965 when producer Irene Shubik asked Kneale to contribute a new Quatermass story for the first season of the science fiction anthology series, Out of the Unknown. Nothing came of this but the prospect of Quatermass making a reappearance arose again when, following the success of the film version of Quatermass and the Pit in 1967, Hammer was in discussions with Kneale for a new Quatermass adventure. Again, this did not progress beyond the initial negotiation stage. In the meantime Kneale had been coaxed back to the BBC, writing plays such as The Year of the Sex Olympics (1968), Wine of India (1970) and The Stone Tape (1972). Following completion of The Stone Tape, Kneale was commissioned on 21 November 1972 by BBC head of drama serials, Ronnie Marsh, to write a new four-part Quatermass serial.

Assigned to produce the serial was Dixon of Dock Green producer Joe Waters. Preliminary filming on Quatermass began in June 1973 at Ealing Studios where special effects designer Jack Wilkie and his assistant, Ian Scoones shot model footage for part one of the serial, of a space station with astronauts working on its hull. At this point the BBC got cold feet about the project; it had become concerned about the cost of mounting the production and had been refused permission to film at Stonehenge, one of the locations at which Kneale had envisaged the Planet People would gather to be reaped by the alien force. Kneale recalled that Stonehenge "had become Big Business and the place was like a factory with tourists there from dawn to dusk... they weren't going to let anyone go near it". Kneale also felt that the BBC was unhappy with the script believing it "didn't suit their image at that time; it was too gloomy". In the end, it was decided during summer 1973 that for financial reasons the BBC would not proceed with the production. However the BBC still had an option on the script until 1975, and retained this until it expired.

At this stage Kneale was working primarily at ITV, having written the play Murrain (screened in the anthology series Against The Crowd, 1975) and the anthology series Beasts (1976) for ATV. In May 1977, Euston Films—a subsidiary of Thames Television best known for The Sweeney (1975–1978)—picked up Kneale's unmade Quatermass scripts. This new production, known either as Quatermass or Quatermass IV, would consist of a four-part serial to be broadcast by ITV which would be recut as a 100-minute film, titled The Quatermass Conclusion, for release in North America and Europe. Kneale was dubious about having to craft both a television serial version and a film version of his tale, feeling that "in the end we had two versions, neither of which was the right length for the story". During the rewrites, Kneale transplanted the action at the conclusion of part three from Stonehenge to the more easily available Wembley Stadium. When asked about what differences there were between the Euston Films version and the version originally envisaged for the BBC, Kneale remarked that "the BBC version would have been much more in the studio, whereas the Euston Films version was entirely shot on 35mm film with a great deal of it outside. Much more lavish than either the BBC or I had contemplated".

Writing
Kneale began writing the scripts, working to a delivery deadline of February 1973. Much of the setting for the story was influenced by contemporary political events such as strikes, power cuts, the oil crisis and developments in the space race, especially the planned Apollo-Soyuz missions and Skylab. Writing in the listings magazine TV Times to promote the serial, Kneale said: "Quatermass is a story of the future – but perhaps only a few years from now. There are some clues already in the most obvious places: the streets. Pavements littered with rubbish. Walls painted with angry graffiti. Belfast black with smoke and rage. Worst of all, the mindless violence". Concerns about the state of society, especially the "dropout" culture of the youth movement, had been a theme of Kneale's writing for some time. This was seen in such works as The Big, Big Giggle, an unmade play about a teenage suicide cult; The Year of the Sex Olympics, about the consequences of a world with no censorship or inhibitions; and ''Bam! Pow! Zap! (1969), about teenage delinquents, all of which fed into the world depicted in the new Quatermass'' serial. Kneale said: "I looked at the alarming aspects of contemporary trends. Since then, we'd seen 'flower power' and hippies, so all I did was bring them into the story. It was written in 1972 and it was about the sixties really". Another theme that had crept into Kneale's writing at this time—as seen in Wine of India, about compulsory euthanasia for the elderly, and later the Beasts episode "During Barty's Party", about an elderly couple terrorised by rats—was the consequences of growing old. Kneale later recalled: "The theme I was trying to get to was the old redressing the balance with the young, saving the young, which I thought a nice, paradoxical, ironic idea after the youth-oriented 60s".

Following Quatermass, writer Nigel Kneale developed the sitcom Kinvig (1981) for London Weekend Television. During the 1980s he was courted for scripts by admiring Hollywood directors and producers such as John Carpenter, John Landis and Joe Dante, but with limited success. Returning to television, he adapted Susan Hill's novel The Woman in Black (1989) and wrote episodes of Sharpe and Kavanagh QC. He died in 2006.

Casting and crew
John Mills was chosen to play Quatermass (the fourth different actor to play the role in four serials on television), who had appeared in significant roles in many high-profile British films, including The Way to the Stars (1945), Great Expectations (1946) and Ice Cold in Alex (1958), and had won an Academy Award for his role in Ryan's Daughter (1970). Mills, whose only previous television credit at the time was The Zoo Gang (1974), was reluctant to take the part but was persuaded by his wife, who liked the script. Following Quatermass he appeared in Gandhi (1982), Martin Chuzzlewit (1994) and Hamlet (1996), working right up to his death in 2005.

Joe Kapp was played by Simon MacCorkindale, who had previously appeared in "Baby", one of the episodes of Nigel Kneale's Beasts series. MacCorkindale was delighted with the part of Joe Kapp, finding it a break from the typecast romantic roles he was used to playing. Following Quatermass, MacCorkindale appeared in The Riddle of the Sands (1979), and subsequently moved to the United States where, after playing a few guest roles on television, he secured a part in Jaws 3 (1983) and the lead in the short-lived series Manimal (1983). He was then a series regular in Falcon Crest (1984–86), Counterstrike (1990–93) and Poltergeist: The Legacy (1999). He then returned to the United Kingdom, where he played the character of Harry Harper in Casualty between 2002 and 2008. MacCorkindale died in 2010.

Barbara Kellerman, who played Claire Kapp, had previously had a regular role in 1990 (1977–78) and would later portray the White Witch in the BBC adaptation of The Lion, The Witch and The Wardrobe (1988).

Quatermass also featured many familiar faces from British television and film in supporting roles, including Margaret Tyzack, Bruce Purchase, James Ottaway, Brenda Fricker, David Yip, Kevin Stoney, Gretchen Franklin, Brian Croucher and Chris Quinten, as well as the singer (and later television presenter) Toyah Willcox.

Director Piers Haggard, who was the great-grand-nephew of author H. Rider Haggard, had been directing since the 1960s. Prior to Quatermass, he had directed the acclaimed Dennis Potter drama serial Pennies from Heaven (1978). Commenting on the script, Haggard described it as "a tremendous re-assertion of the importance of people, ordinary people, and how necessary they are in fighting evil". Following Quatermass, he directed The Fiendish Plot of Dr. Fu Manchu (1980) and the Disney Channel TV series Return to Treasure Island (1985).

Executive producer Verity Lambert had first made her mark as producer of the first two years of Doctor Who (1963). Since then she had carved out an impressive career, first at the BBC with programmes such as Adam Adamant Lives! (1966–67) and The Newcomers (1965–69), and then at Thames Television with productions such as The Naked Civil Servant (TV film; 1975) and the series Rumpole of the Bailey (1978–92). She became Chief Executive of Euston Films in 1979; Quatermass was one of the first productions she oversaw in the role, seeing it as a project to make her mark on the company. She had clashed with Nigel Kneale in 1965 on the BBC arts programme Late Night Line-Up, when he attacked her for making Doctor Who too frightening for children. Despite this she held Kneale in high esteem, describing him as "a fantastic writer... hugely imaginative... considering the impact his work has had, I think he's undervalued". Following Quatermass she produced such shows as Danger UXB (1979), Minder (1979–85; 1988–94) and Widows (1983) for Euston before in 1985 forming her own production company, Cinema Verity, which oversaw programmes including G.B.H. (1991), Eldorado (1992–93) and Jonathan Creek (1997–2004). She was awarded the OBE in 2002. She died in 2007.

Producer Ted Childs had begun his career with Euston on Special Branch (1969–74) and had produced episodes of The Sweeney and its film spin-offs Sweeney! (1977) and Sweeney 2 (1978). Childs saw Quatermass as a big gamble for Euston, out of step with the company's usual fare. Childs later remarked that Verity Lambert "didn't want to come in and just do the same old routine – the kick bollock and scramble action adventure stuff that made the early name of the company". He continues to be one of British television's top producers, responsible for such shows as Chancer (1991), Inspector Morse (1987–2000), Sharpe (1993–2006), Kavanagh QC (1995–2001) and Lewis (2006–2015).

Script editor Linda Agran has since acted as producer of such series as Widows, Agatha Christie's Poirot (1989–2013) and The Vanishing Man (1996).

Filming
The production took place between 26 August and 23 December 1978 at locations around Middlesex and Hertfordshire as well as London, including Wembley Stadium. The budget was £1.25 million (£ in 2024), making it one of the most expensive undertakings Euston had attempted at that time. Production designer Arnold Chapkis constructed several large and elaborate sets, including those for the megalithic standing stones at Ringstone Round, the Kapps' radio telescope and observatory, and the decaying urban landscape of London; Kneale quipped about the radio telescope set that "it probably would have worked if they'd just aimed it properly!" Associate producer Norton Knatchbull noted that the serial "was the first 'art department' picture Euston has ever been involved in, in the sense that major sets had to be built on location". This led Euston executive Johnny Goodman to joke: "Our biggest problem was finding someone who wanted the two giant telescope dishes after we finished filming. There's not much demand for such things". One aspect where the budget was less than generous was with the model sequences made by Clearwater Films; Johnny Goodman remarked that the cost was less than James Bond producer Cubby Broccoli "would spend on cigars in a week". Post-production was completed in mid-February 1979. Unlike the original BBC Quatermass serials, which had used stock music tracks, the new serial had a specially composed soundtrack by Marc Wilkinson and Nic Rowley which made particular use of the nursery rhyme "Huffity, Puffity, Ringstone Round" devised by Kneale in his scripts.

Broadcast
ITV intended Quatermass to air in September 1979 as the flagship of its autumn season; advertising posters announced, "Earth's dark ancestral forces awaken to a summons from beyond the stars. The legend returns on ITV – Wednesdays at 9 pm throughout September". However, industrial action began at ITV on 3 August and escalated into a full-scale blackout from 10 August, leaving the channel—and Quatermass—off the air for 75 days. Transmissions were finally restored on Wednesday, 24 October, and the first episode of Quatermass was duly broadcast that night at 9 pm. Episode two was promoted in the TV Times with a full-page article by Kneale introducing the new series and looking back on the original 1950s serials, as well as a lifestyle piece with Barbara Kellerman moving house, while episode four was promoted with a full-page profile of John Mills. Ratings, averaging 11 million viewers over the four-week run, were below expectations; the serial failed to crack the top 20 programmes in the weeks it was broadcast.

Reception
Quatermass met with a generally unenthusiastic critical response. Sean Day-Lewis wrote: "Although Piers Haggard's direction achieves much verisimilitude and the story is certainly enough to command some addiction; I did not feel exactly grabbed; the genre has moved some way since the 1950s and the Professor moves a little slowly for the 1970s". The reviewer in The Daily Telegraph found Professor Quatermass "far too unheroic and unresourceful to carry much interest" while The Times found the serial to be "a so-so affair". John Brosnan, writing in Starburst magazine, found the serial to be "a bitter reaction by a member of an older generation to the younger generation whose apparently irrational behaviour makes them appear to belong to a totally different species. Naturally in the traditions of sf, these failings are exaggerated to the nth degree. Thus muggers and juvenile delinquents become armed gangs and the hippy movement with its emphasis on mysticism, becomes the Planet Church. It's very much a story of Age versus Youth and significantly it's the older people who are impervious to the malign alien influence". This view is echoed by filmmaker John Carpenter who said that "Nigel was very embittered about the way of the world, as was shown, I think, in The Quatermass Conclusion".

Reflecting on the serial, Nigel Kneale said that he was not satisfied with that project. Although Kneale was pleased with the high production values, he was dissatisfied with the casting, believing that John Mills "didn't have the authority for Quatermass". He was similarly unimpressed with Simon MacCorkindale, noting that "we had him in Beasts playing an idiot and he was very good at that". Kneale disliked the depiction of the Planet People, as his inspiration had been angry punks rather than hippies (as evidenced by his portrayal of Kickalong as a gun-toting lunatic who commits multiple motiveless murders). Producer Ted Childs thinks that "the primary problems with it were (a) it was perhaps too depressing a story for a popular television audience and (b) the punters were used to a fairly high standard of technical presentation from American television... And we just couldn't afford that". Executive producer Verity Lambert's opinion is that it "didn't have the staying power of the originals, but then that's almost inevitable when you try to bring something back in a slightly different form".

Other media
From the outset, Euston intended to create two versions of the story; a four-part serial for broadcast on UK television and a 100-minute film, The Quatermass Conclusion, for distribution abroad. While writing the scripts, Kneale was "careful not to pad, because I knew that was the obvious thing, but to write in material which can be removed". There is one major plot deviation between the two versions; in the TV serial, Quatermass is separated from Annie Morgan as they transport Isabel to a London hospital, after Quatermass is dragged from the passenger seat of the moving vehicle by a member of the Blue Brigade. This scene is slightly changed in the film version so that Quatermass manages to stay on board the vehicle with Annie and Isabel, despite the Blue Brigade attack, enabling Quatermass to stay with Annie and Isabel as they go into the hospital. This meant that two versions of the hospital scene where Isabel dies were shot, one with Quatermass present (the film version) and one without (the television version), as well as an earlier scene at the hospital unique to the film version where Quatermass talks on the telephone. As Quatermass is present at the hospital in the film version, it enabled all the footage from the TV serial featuring Quatermass with people at the junkyard, following his separation from Annie and Isabel, to be cut out of the film and thus greatly help in getting The Quatermass Conclusion down to around 100 minutes. There was little interest among film distributors in The Quatermass Conclusion, and it received only a limited theatrical release.

The story was novelised by Nigel Kneale, his first book since his Somerset Maugham Award-winning short story collection Tomato Cain was published in 1949. The novelisation expanded on the backgrounds of many of the characters seen in the story, and added a deeper, more physical, relationship between Quatermass and Annie Morgan. It was this version of the story with which Kneale was most pleased.

The Quatermass Conclusion was released on VHS videotape in 1985 while the complete four-part Quatermass serial was released in 1994. Quatermass, along with The Quatermass Conclusion was released on region 2 DVD in 2003 by Clearvision in a three disc boxset; extras included a Sci-Fi Channel interview with Nigel Kneale and extensive production notes. A two disc region 1 DVD of Quatermass was released by A&E Home Entertainment in 2005, and contained both the television and film versions as well as a History Channel documentary about Stonehenge. In July 2015, Network Distributing released the series on Blu-ray disc for the first time, remastered from the original 35mm film negatives. Network simultaneously released the series as a remastered DVD set. Both sets (Region B/Region 2 respectively) also contain The Quatermass Conclusion film, also remastered and presented in its original theatrical aspect ratio.

title: Quatermass (TV serial)


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Observability

Observability is a measure of how well internal states of a system can be inferred from knowledge of its external outputs. In control theory, the observability and controllability of a linear system are mathematical duals.

The concept of observability was introduced by the Hungarian-American engineer Rudolf E. Kálmán for linear dynamic systems. A dynamical system designed to estimate the state of a system from measurements of the outputs is called a state observer for that system, such as Kalman filters.

Definition
Consider a physical system modeled in state-space representation. A system is said to be observable if, for every possible evolution of state and control vectors, the current state can be estimated using only the information from outputs (physically, this generally corresponds to information obtained by sensors). In other words, one can determine the behavior of the entire system from the system's outputs. On the other hand, if the system is not observable, there are state trajectories that are not distinguishable by only measuring the outputs.

Linear time-invariant systems
For time-invariant linear systems in the state space representation, there are convenient tests to check whether a system is observable. Consider a SISO system with $$n$$ state variables (see state space for details about MIMO systems) given by

 * $$\dot{\mathbf{x}}(t) = \mathbf{A} \mathbf{x}(t) + \mathbf{B} \mathbf{u}(t)$$
 * $$\mathbf{y}(t) = \mathbf{C} \mathbf{x}(t) + \mathbf{D} \mathbf{u}(t)$$

Observability matrix
If and only if the column rank of the observability matrix, defined as

 * $$\mathcal{O}=\begin{bmatrix} C \\ CA \\ CA^2 \\ \vdots \\ CA^{n-1} \end{bmatrix}$$

is equal to $$n$$, then the system is observable. The rationale for this test is that if $$n$$ columns are linearly independent, then each of the $$n$$ state variables is viewable through linear combinations of the output variables $$y$$.

Observability index
The observability index $$v$$ of a linear time-invariant discrete system is the smallest natural number for which the following is satisfied: $$\text{rank}{(\mathcal{O}_v)} = \text{rank}{(\mathcal{O}_{v+1})}$$, where

 * $$ \mathcal{O}_v=\begin{bmatrix} C \\ CA \\ CA^2 \\ \vdots \\ CA^{v-1} \end{bmatrix}.$$

Unobservable subspace
The unobservable subspace $$N$$ of the linear system is the kernel of the linear map $$G$$ given by $$ \begin{align} G \colon \mathbb{R}^{n} &\rightarrow \mathcal{C}(\mathbb{R};\mathbb{R}^n) \\ x(0) &\mapsto  C e^{A t} x(0) \end{align} $$ where $$\mathcal{C}(\mathbb{R};\mathbb{R}^n)$$ is the set of continuous functions from $$\mathbb{R}$$ to $$\mathbb{R}^n $$. $$N$$ can also be written as

 * $$ N = \bigcap_{k=0}^{n-1} \ker(CA^k)= \ker{\mathcal{O}} $$

Since the system is observable if and only if $$\operatorname{rank}(\mathcal{O}) = n$$,  the system is observable if and only if $$N$$ is the zero subspace.

The following properties for the unobservable subspace are valid:
 * $$ N \subset Ke(C) $$
 * $$ A(N) \subset N $$
 * $$ N= \bigcup \{ S \subset R^n \mid S \subset Ke(C), A(S) \subset N \} $$

Detectability
A slightly weaker notion than observability is detectability. A system is detectable if all the unobservable states are stable.

Detectability conditions are important in the context of sensor networks.

Linear time-varying systems
Consider the continuous linear time-variant system

 * $$\dot{\mathbf{x}}(t) = A(t) \mathbf{x}(t) + B(t) \mathbf{u}(t) \, $$
 * $$\mathbf{y}(t) = C(t) \mathbf{x}(t). \, $$

Suppose that the matrices $$A$$, $$B$$ and $$C$$ are given as well as inputs and outputs $$u$$ and $$y$$ for all $$t \in [t_0,t_1];$$ then it is possible to determine $$x(t_0)$$ to within an additive constant vector which lies in the null space of $$M(t_0,t_1)$$ defined by
 * $$M(t_0,t_1) = \int_{t_0}^{t_1} \varphi(t,t_0)^{T}C(t)^{T}C(t)\varphi(t,t_0) \, dt$$

where $$\varphi$$ is the state-transition matrix.

It is possible to determine a unique $$x(t_0)$$ if $$M(t_0,t_1)$$ is nonsingular. In fact, it is not possible to distinguish the initial state for $$x_1$$ from that of $$x_2$$ if $$x_1 - x_2$$ is in the null space of $$M(t_0,t_1)$$.

Note that the matrix $$M$$ defined as above has the following properties:
 * $$M(t_0,t_1)$$ is symmetric
 * $$M(t_0,t_1)$$ is positive semidefinite for $$t_1 \geq t_0$$
 * $$M(t_0,t_1)$$ satisfies the linear matrix differential equation
 * $$\frac{d}{dt}M(t,t_1) = -A(t)^{T}M(t,t_1)-M(t,t_1)A(t)-C(t)^{T}C(t), \; M(t_1,t_1) = 0$$

 * $$M(t_0,t_1)$$ satisfies the equation
 * $$M(t_0,t_1) = M(t_0,t) + \varphi(t,t_0)^T M(t,t_1)\varphi(t,t_0)$$

Observability matrix generalization
The system is observable in $$[t_0,t_1]$$ if and only if there exists an interval $$[t_0,t_1]$$ in $$\mathbb{R}$$ such that the matrix $$M(t_0,t_1)$$ is nonsingular.

If $$A(t), C(t)$$ are analytic, then the system is observable in the interval [$$t_0$$,$$t_1$$] if there exists $$\bar{t} \in [t_0,t_1]$$ and a positive integer k such that

 * $$ \operatorname{rank} \begin{bmatrix}

& N_0(\bar{t}) & \\ & N_1(\bar{t}) & \\ & \vdots & \\ & N_{k}(\bar{t}) & \end{bmatrix} = n, $$

where $$N_0(t):=C(t)$$ and $$N_i(t)$$ is defined recursively as

 * $$N_{i+1}(t) := N_i(t)A(t) + \frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{d} t}N_i(t),\ i = 0, \ldots, k-1 $$

Example
Consider a system varying analytically in $$ (-\infty,\infty) $$ and matrices $$A(t) = \begin{bmatrix} t & 1 & 0\\ 0 & t^{3} & 0\\ 0 & 0 & t^{2} \end{bmatrix},\, C(t) = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 & 1 \end{bmatrix}.$$ Then $$ \begin{bmatrix} N_0(0) \\ N_1(0) \\ N_2(0) \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 & 1 \\ 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 1& 0 & 0 \end{bmatrix}$$, and since this matrix has rank = 3, the system is observable on every nontrivial interval of $$\mathbb{R}$$.

Nonlinear systems
Given the system $$\dot{x} = f(x) + \sum_{j=1}^mg_j(x)u_j $$, $$y_i = h_i(x), i \in p$$. Where $$x \in \mathbb{R}^n$$ the state vector, $$u \in \mathbb{R}^m$$ the input vector and $$y \in \mathbb{R}^p$$ the output vector. $$f,g,h$$ are to be smooth vector fields.

Define the observation space $$\mathcal{O}_s$$ to be the space containing all repeated Lie derivatives, then the system is observable in $$x_0$$ if and only if $$\dim(d\mathcal{O}_s(x_0)) = n$$, where

 * $$d\mathcal{O}_s(x_0) = \operatorname{span}(dh_1(x_0), \ldots, dh_p(x_0), dL_{v_i}L_{v_{i-1}}, \ldots , L_{v_1}h_j(x_0)),\ j\in p, k=1,2,\ldots.$$

Early criteria for observability in nonlinear dynamic systems were discovered by Griffith and Kumar, Kou, Elliot and Tarn, and Singh.

There also exist an observability criteria for nonlinear time-varying systems.

Static systems and general topological spaces
Observability may also be characterized for steady state systems (systems typically defined in terms of algebraic equations and inequalities), or more generally, for sets in $$\mathbb{R}^n$$. Just as observability criteria are used to predict the behavior of Kalman filters or other observers in the dynamic system case, observability criteria for sets in $$\mathbb{R}^n$$ are used to predict the behavior of data reconciliation and other static estimators. In the nonlinear case, observability can be characterized for individual variables, and also for local estimator behavior rather than just global behavior.

title: Observability