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Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau

Marshal Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau (1 July 1725 – 10 May 1807) was a French nobleman and general whose army played a critical role in helping the United States defeat the British Army at Yorktown in 1781 during the American Revolutionary War. He was commander-in-chief of the French expeditionary force sent by France to help the American Continental Army fight against British forces.

Military life
Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur was born in Vendôme, in the province of Orléanais, and he was educated at the Jesuit college in Blois. After the death of his elder brother, he entered a cavalry regiment and served in Bohemia, Bavaria, and on the Rhine during the War of the Austrian Succession. By 1747, he had attained the rank of colonel. He took part in the Siege of Maastricht and became governor of Vendôme in 1749. He distinguished himself in the Battle of Minorca on the outbreak of the Seven Years' War and was promoted to brigadier general of infantry. In 1758, he fought in Germany, notably in the Battle of Krefeld and the Battle of Clostercamp, receiving several wounds at Clostercamp.

American Revolution

In 1780, Rochambeau was appointed commander of land forces as part of the project code-named Expédition Particulière. He was given the rank of lieutenant general in command of 7,000 French troops and sent to join the Continental Army under George Washington during the American Revolutionary War. Axel von Fersen the Younger served as his aide-de-camp and interpreter. The small size of the force at his disposal made him initially reluctant to lead the expedition.

He landed at Newport, Rhode Island on 10 July but was held there inactive for a year due to his reluctance to abandon the French fleet blockaded by the British in Narragansett Bay. The college in the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations (now Brown University) served as an encampment site for some of Rochambeau's troops. The college edifice was converted into a military hospital, now known as University Hall. In July 1781, the force left Rhode Island and marched across Connecticut to join Washington on the Hudson River in Mount Kisco, New York. The Odell farm served as Rochambeau's headquarters from 6 July to 18 August 1781.

Washington and Rochambeau then marched their combined forces to the Siege of Yorktown and the Battle of the Chesapeake. On 22 September, they combined with the Marquis de Lafayette's troops and forced Lord Cornwallis to surrender on 19 October. The Congress of the Confederation presented Rochambeau with two cannons taken from the British in recognition of his service. He returned them to Vendôme, and they were requisitioned in 1792.

Return to France
Upon his return to France, Rochambeau was honored by King Louis XVI and was made governor of the province of Picardy. He supported the French Revolution of 1789, and on 28 December 1791, he and Nicolas Luckner became the last two generals created Marshal of France by Louis XVI.

When the French Revolutionary Wars broke out, he commanded the Armée du Nord for a time in 1792 but resigned after several reversals to the Austrians. He was arrested during the Reign of Terror in 1793–1794 and imprisoned in the Conciergerie. He narrowly avoided the guillotine, with his execution being scheduled mere days away when the Thermidorian Reaction occurred, ending the Reign of Terror.

Later life and death
After his imprisonment and subsequent release, Rochambeau was pensioned after meeting Napoleon in 1801 and later received the Legion d'honneur in 1804 after Napoleon's ascension to emperor. Rochambeau died in 1807 at Thoré-la-Rochette during the First French Empire.

Honors

President Theodore Roosevelt unveiled a statue of Rochambeau by Ferdinand Hamar as a gift from France to the United States on 24 May 1902, standing in Lafayette Square, Washington, D.C. The ceremony was made the occasion of a great demonstration of friendship between the two nations. France was represented by ambassador Jules Cambon, Admiral Fournier, General Henri Brugère, and a detachment of sailors and marines from the battleship Gaulois. Representatives of the Lafayette and Rochambeau families also attended. A Rochambeau fête was held simultaneously in Paris. In 1934, A. Kingsley Macomber donated a statue of General Rochambeau to Newport, Rhode Island. The sculpture is a replica of a statue in Paris.

The French Navy gave his name to the ironclad frigate Rochambeau. USS Rochambeau (AP-63) was a transport ship that saw service in the United States Navy during World War II. President Obama signed the Omnibus Public Land Management Act on 30 March 2009 with a provision to designate the Washington-Rochambeau Revolutionary Route as a National Historic Trail. A bridge was named for Rochambeau in the complex of bridges known as the 14th Street Bridge (Potomac River) connecting Washington, D.C., with Virginia. A mansion on the campus of Brown University is named Rochambeau House and houses the French Department.

Memoirs

Rochambeau's Mémoires militaires, historiques et politiques, de Rochambeau was published by Jean-Charles-Julien Luce de Lancival in 1809. Part of the first volume was translated into English and published in 1838 under the title Memoirs of the Marshal Count de R. relative to the War of Independence in the United States. His correspondence during the American campaign was published in 1892 in H. Doniol's History of French Participation in the Establishment of the United States.

Monuments

 * There is a statue of Rochambeau in Newport, Rhode Island, and another in Washington, D.C., on Pennsylvania Avenue across from the White House in Lafayette Park that was sculpted by Fernand Hamar and cast by the Pal d'Osne foundry in France and dedicated 24 May 1904
 * There is a Rochambeau monument at French Hill in Marion, Connecticut, close to the Asa Barnes Tavern, the eighth campsite of his troops through Connecticut in 1781.


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T. Cooke & Sons

T. Cooke & Sons was an English instrument-making firm, headquartered in York. It was founded by Thomas Cooke by 1837.

History
In 1837 Cooke leased a shop at 50 Stonegate, York, with his wife running the shop and Cooke's workshop occupying the rear where he made and repaired whatever instruments were needed. He made a screw-cutting lathe for his own use. A notable instrument made at this time was a 4.5 inch equatorial refracting telescope. Cooke himself made the whole instrument including the optical elements at a time when most instrument makers specialised in making either the optical or mechanical components.

The 1851 census shows that Cooke employed four men and an apprentice. In 1855 Cooke exhibited at the Exposition Universelle in Paris and won a First Class Medal for a 7.5 inch equatorial refractor. By 1855 Thomas Cooke had built a factory at Bishophill in York.

In 1864 Cooke undertook his first order for surveying equipment when he built 16 theodolites to be sent to India. On arrival they were found to be very well made except that the circle division was faulty. They were returned to York and redivided. By 1870 The Survey of India used Cooke levels for the primary survey in preference to Troughton & Simms products as they considered them to be superior.

Following the death of Cooke in 1868, the business was continued by his sons.

The firm built the clock face on the Darlington clock tower. Cooke & Sons also provided a 12 inch theodolite for the construction of the Forth Railway Bridge. Observatory domes were also made using papier-maché including in 1883 one for Greenwich Observatory.

In 1892 Dennis Taylor, working to reduce chromatic aberration, invented a three element lens design incorporating a new Schott glass element. This design was called a 'photo-visual' design and used for both visual and photographic astronomy. Taylor became Optical Manager at the firm in 1893.

Six lightweight theodolites were made for Scott's ill-fated Terra Nova Expedition of 1910-1913.

Dennis Taylor modified his three element lens design for photographic purposes, patenting his work in 1905 and 1906. This 'Cooke Triplet' lens design was an improvement on most camera lenses of the time though it was in competition with the 1902 Zeiss Tessar design. In 1904 Taylor discovered that a tarnished surface layer could reduce reflections from glass surfaces. Although this effect had been discovered by Lord Rayleigh in 1886 the use of lens coatings was not widely known.

With war looming the firm began to work with Arthur Pollen on his 'Aim Correction' system for improving the accuracy of naval gunnery. Cooke & Sons supplied the optical components for the system which consisted of a gyroscopically stabilised rangefinder where successive readings of a moving target were mechanically integrated to give a prediction of range and bearing. In the event the British Admiralty for the most part chose the simpler and cheaper Dreyer predictor.

In 1914, a new factory was built in Bishophill. In 1915 Vickers acquired a controlling stake in the company. During World War I about half of the factory's capacity was turned over to contracts for large naval rangefinders from the main contractor, Barr & Stroud

In 1922 Vickers merged it with Troughton & Simms to form Cooke, Troughton & Simms.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: T. Cooke & Sons


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Scarborough, Trinidad and Tobago

Scarborough is a major town of the Island of Tobago as well as the eleventh-most-populous in Trinidad and Tobago. Scarborough was the capital of Tobago in 1769 before it was unified with Trinidad changing the capital to Port of Spain. Situated in western Tobago, Scarborough is the economic and cultural centre of the island of Tobago. The estimated population in 2011 was 17,537. Scarborough is ranked as one of Trinidad and Tobago's most densely populated towns alongside Port of Spain, San Fernando, Chaguanas and Arima. The town's skyline is dominated by Fort King George, an 18th-century fortification named after King George III, which now hosts a historic and archaeologic museum. Scarborough's deepwater harbour was built in 1991; before that ships were forced to anchor offshore.

Facilities
Shaw Park Cultural Complex is the largest performing arts theatre in the Caribbean. The facility has a capacity in its main hall of over 5000 as well as a conference and lecture halls. The town has a library completed in 2012, and Scarborough General Hospital was completed in 2014.

Suburbs

 * Bacolet
 * Bethel
 * Carnbee
 * Lambeau
 * Signal Hill
 * Orange Hill
 * Patience Hill
 * Providence
 * Roselle
 * Mount Saint George
 * Lowlands
 * Calder Hall

History
Scarborough became the capital of Tobago in 1769 when it replaced the then-capital of Georgetown. Under French rule it was named Port-Louis from 1789 to 1814. The town of Scarborough serves as the main seat of the Tobago House of Assembly, which is responsible for local governance in Tobago.

Transportation
A ferry service links Scarborough with Port of Spain, Trinidad. Like the rest of the island of Tobago, Scarborough is served by the A.N.R. Robinson International Airport (formerly Crown Point Airport) located in Crown Point which is located 11 km from Downtown Scarborough. Scarborough is also served by the Claude Noel Highway.

Namesake
The town is named after Scarborough in Yorkshire, United Kingdom.

Geography
Scarborough is located in the southwestern part of Tobago.

Climate
The area has a relatively rare Köppen Climate Classification subtype of Am.

title: Scarborough, Trinidad and Tobago


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Troughton & Simms

Troughton & Simms was a British scientific instrument firm. It was formed when Edward Troughton in his old age took on William Simms as a partner in 1826. It became a limited company in 1915 and in 1922 it merged with T. Cooke & Sons to form Cooke, Troughton & Simms.

The firm had its origins in the instrument-making business begun in 1764 by John Troughton (1716-1788). This business was successively passed down first to nephews, John Troughton (1739-1807) and then to Edward Troughton (1756-1835). In 1826 Edward Troughton took on William Simms as partner.

Origins
In 1756, John Troughton Senior from Corney, Cumberland, set up business in London, having completed his apprenticeship with London instrument maker Thomas Heath.

In 1769, his nephew John Troughton Junior, after completing his apprenticeship with his uncle, set up in business for himself. He took over the business of Benjamin Cole in 1782, a maker of orreries at a shop in Fleet Street called "At the Sign of The Orrery". His work at that time was mostly providing a service to other craftsmen in the difficult skill of dividing circles by hand for navigation, surveying and astronomical instruments. In 1789, he took his brother Edward Troughton into partnership.

The Board of Longitude was wound up in 1828, but the Board of Ordnance (now Ordnance Survey) started work on the Triangulation of Britain in 1791. This was reflected in the change in Troughton's work away from astronomical and navigational towards terrestrial surveying.

William Simms completed his goldsmithing apprenticeship in 1815 and set up business as a maker of marine compasses. In about 1825, he was asked to repair and re-divide an astronomical circle made by Troughton. Having completed this work, he wrote a paper for Edward Troughton describing his new method of dividing which was more accurate than an engine and quicker than using a roller. Edward Troughton took on William Simms as a partner in 1826.

Notable Troughton instruments from this period include the Equatorial telescope at Armagh Observatory (1795), the Mural circle at Greenwich Royal Observatory (1812), and the Transit telescope at Greenwich Royal Observatory (1816).

Troughton & Simms during the Industrial Revolution
In 1828, George Everest returned from India and asked Simms to repair instruments used for the Survey of India. To try to make his theodolites less susceptible to field conditions Everest proposed a new pattern with a lower centre of gravity.

In 1834, the Houses of Parliament burned down so a new set of national standards of length were commissioned. In 1835 George Airy became Astronomer Royal and commissioned new instruments. Large castings were contracted to Maudslay and Ransomes. Optical parts were often supplied by Dollond.

From about 1830 to 1850 Britain was gripped by Railway Mania resulting in high demand for levels and theodolites. Troughton & Simms exhibited at the Great Exhibition in 1851.

William Simms died in 1860 and the firm took William Simms Junior and his cousin James into partnership. Optical glass technology allowed larger lenses to be made and these were sourced from French and German makers such as Guinand and Merz.

In 1866, a transit and spectroscope were ordered by Harvard College Observatory and delivered in 1870. Slow delivery appears to have happened a lot and seems to have been partly due to insistence on precision but also the volume of business being undertaken.

In 1860, Troughton & Simms opened a new works at Charlton. There were many requests from around the world for standard measure bars, and in 1876, they supplied the Imperial Standards Of Length gauges mounted at Trafalgar Square and the Greenwich Royal Observatory.

The firm produced hundreds of astronomical instruments such as mural circles, transit circles, sextants, and other astronomical instruments for observatories around the world. Towards the end of this period other countries such as France, Germany and the United States were able to make instruments themselves so Troughton & Simms made more of their product for the British market.

Notable instruments from this period include the Troughton & Simms Altazimuth Refractor (1847) at Greenwich Royal Observatory and the Troughton & Simms Astronomical Telescope (1880) for Tokyo Astronomical Observatory.

Troughton & Simms in the late 19th and early 20th centuries
By 1887, Troughton & Simms employed 200 people at their Charlton works. Military production began to be important with production of coincidence rangefinders for the British government. Among their clients were the Italian Navy, the Russian government and the Austro-Hungarian Hydrographic Department Observatory. Undated advertisements from this period include the claim that "in fifteen years our output of levels and theodolites alone was 23,000". An indication of their worldwide sales is how often instruments appear all around the world.

Troughton & Simms did not normally place serial numbers on their products, so dating them is inexact. The "Troughton & Simms" name was originally engraved in a copperplate font, which later changed to a much simpler font. In 1915 James Simms died and the business passed to his sons. They made the company into a limited liability company. After 1915, the company name found on their products is "Troughton & Simms Ltd". After the First World War, business and long-term prospects were poor, and in 1922 Troughton & Simms was bought by T. Cooke & Sons of York to become Cooke, Troughton & Simms.

Notable instruments from this period include a typical late 6-inch theodolite for use by engineers and surveyors and a typical late surveyors level, which can be dated to before 1915 by the lack of "Ltd" after "Troughton & Simms".

title: Troughton & Simms


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Atar

Atar, Atash, Azar (𐬁𐬙𐬀𐬭) or Dāštāɣni, is the Zoroastrian concept of holy fire, sometimes described in abstract terms as "burning and unburning fire" or "visible and invisible fire" (Mirza, 1987:389). It is considered to be the visible presence of Ahura Mazda and his Asha through the eponymous Yazata. The rituals for purifying a fire are performed 1,128 times a year.

In the Avestan language, ātar is an attribute of sources of heat and light, of which the nominative singular form is ātarš, source of Persian ātaš (fire). It was once thought to be etymologically related to the Avestan āθrauuan / aθaurun (Vedic atharvan), a type of priest, but that is now considered unlikely (Boyce, 2002:16). The ultimate etymology of ātar, previously unknown (Boyce, 2002:1), is now believed to be from the Indo-European *hxehxtr- 'fire'. This would make it related to Latin ater (black) and possibly a cognate of Albanian vatër, Romanian vatră, Serbo-Croat vatra (fire) and Ukrainian vatra (bonfire).

In later Zoroastrianism, ātar (Middle Persian: 𐭠𐭲𐭥𐭥𐭩 ādar or ādur) is iconographically conflated with fire itself, which in Middle Persian is 𐭠𐭲𐭧𐭱 ātaxsh, one of the primary objects of Zoroastrian symbolism.

In the Gathic texts
Atar is already evident in the Gathas, the oldest texts of the compendium of the Avesta and believed to have been composed by Zoroaster himself. At this juncture, as in the Yasna Haptanghaiti (the seven-chapter Yasna that structurally interrupts the Gathas and is linguistically as old as the Gathas themselves), atar is still—with only one exception—an abstract concept simply an instrument, a medium, of the Creator and is not yet the divinity (yazata) of heat and light that atar was to become in the later texts.

In the most ancient texts, atar is a medium, a faculty, through which judgement is passed and reflects the pre-Zoroastrian institution of ordeal by heat (Avestan: garmo-varah, heat ordeal; cf. Boyce 1996:ch. 6). Justice is administered through atar (Yasna 31.3, 34.4, 36.2, 47.2), the blazing atar (31.19, 51.9), through the heat of atar (43.4), through the blazing, shining, molten metal (ayangha Khshushta, 30.7, 32.7, 51.9). An individual who has passed the fiery test, has attained physical and spiritual strength, wisdom, truth and love with serenity (30.7). However, among all the references to atar in the oldest texts, it is only once addressed independently of Ahura Mazda. In this exception, atar is spoken of in the third person masculine singular: "He detects sinners by hand-grasping" (Yasna 34.4). Altogether, "there are said to have been some 30 kinds of fiery tests in all." (Boyce, 2002:1)

Also in the early texts, tangential to its role in establishing guilt, atar is the light of revelation through which Zoroaster is selected by Ahura Mazda, the Zarathushtra Mainyu Athra (Yasna 31.3), radiated by Ahura Mazda (43.9), bearing the conviction of "Good Purpose" (Vohu Manah, 43.4; see also Amesha Spenta), and enlightening one's inner-self (46.7). Within this framework of the concept of divine illumination, atar radiates the "other lights" (31.7), the essence (of Ahura Mazda) from which insight and wisdom permeate the universe. So also Zoroaster's injunction to always pray in the presence of atar—either towards the sun, or towards their own hearths—so as to better concentrate their devotions on asha, righteousness, and the virtue that should be striven for (Yasna 43.9, see also Boyce, 1975:455).

In later texts
The Gathic role of atar as the medium for detecting guilt is not directly evident in the later texts of the Avesta, but reappears in modified form as an allegory of burning and annihilating the Angra Mainyu through righteousness, "where Asha Vahishta is identified at times with the household fire on the hearth." There, "identification in the realms of matter and of spirit serves only to bring more into prominence the main tenets of Zoroaster's teachings in regard to Asha" (Dhalla, 1938:170). A vestige of the ancient institution of ordeal by heat is nonetheless present in Vendidad 4.54–55, where speaking against the truth and violating the sanctity of promise is punishable by flogging and is detected by the consumption of "water, blazing, of golden color, having the power to detect guilt." The Zend translation/commentary on this passage translates "blazing" as "having brimstone and sulphur", and notes that innocence or guilt was established by the consumption of this "guilt-detecting liquid". Similarly, in the Denkard, Adharbad Maraspand—the Sassanid era high-priest to whom the collation of the Avesta texts is attributed—is purported to have nine measures of "unburning molten zinc" applied to his chest as proof of accuracy of the sacred texts.

Seen chronologically, the transition from atar as a vehicle of judgement to Atar Yazata the divinity presiding over blazing fire is abrupt. While the older Gathic Avestan texts have heat (and thus fire) associated with harsh judgement, the Younger Avestan texts have the divinity Atar completely representing and being represented by fire itself; and associated with warmth and light and essential for growth. Asha Vahishta ' s association with atar is however carried forward, and they are often mentioned together (Yasna 62.3, Nyashes 5.9, etc.). So also in their roles as protectors, for "when the Evil Spirit assailed the creation of Good Truth, Good Thought and Fire intervened" (Yasht 13.77)

It is in the later texts that Atar is personified as "the son" of Ahura Mazda (standard appellation, Yasna 25.7 et al.) and is addressed as "full of glory and full of healing remedies" (Nyash 5.6). In Yasna 17.11, Atar is "master of the house", recalling the role of the hearth fire in the Gathas. The same passage enumerates the "five kinds of fire": The description of the fires in the Sassanid era commentaries (the Zend texts) differs slightly from those described in the Bundahishn ("Original Creation", completed in the 11th or 12th century). In the latter, the description of the first and last kind of fire is reversed.
 * 1) atar berezi-savah, "the highly beneficent atar", qualified in Zend texts as "the fire that eats food but drinks no water", and the kind of fire that burns in an Atash-Behram, the highest grade of fire temple.
 * 2) atar vohu-fryana, "the atar of good affection", cognate with bhaga and friend), later qualified as "the fire diffusing goodness", and "the  fire that consumes both water and food".
 * 3) atar urvazishta, "the atar of greatest bliss", later qualified as "the fire of happy life", and "the fire that drinks water but eats no food".
 * 4) atar vazishta, "the atar most swift", later qualified as the fire in clouds, i.e. lightning, and as "the fire that neither drinks water nor eats food".
 * 5) atar spenishta, "the atar most holy", cognate Balto-Slavic šventas "holy") ( described in "Zend" texts as "the fire of prosperity" and as the spiritual fire burning before Ohrmuzd.

As a divinity
During the late Achaemenid era, adar—as the quintessence of the Yazata Adar—was incorporated in the Zoroastrian hierarchy of divinities. In that position, Adar aids Asha Vahishta (Avestan, Middle Persian: Ardvahisht), the Amesha Spenta responsible for the luminaries. From among the flowers associated with the Yazatas, Adar ' s is the marigold (calendula) (Bundahishn 27.24).

The importance of the divinity Adar is evident from a dedication to the entity in the Zoroastrian calendar: Adar is one of the only five Yazatas that have a month-name dedication. Additionally, Adar is the name of the ninth day of the month in the Zoroastrian religious calendar, and the ninth month of the year of the civil Iranian calendar of 1925 (modern Persian: Azar) which has month-names derived from those used by the Zoroastrian calendar.

In Zoroastrian cosmogony, Adar was the seventh of the seven creations of the material universe. It is only with Adar 's assistance, who serves as the life-force, that the other six creations begin their work (Bundahishn 3.7–8; more logically explained in Zatspram 3.77–83).

The cult of fire
Although Zoroastrians revere fire in any form, the temple fire is not literally for the reverence of fire, but together with clean water (see Aban), is an agent of ritual purity. Clean, white "ash for the purification ceremonies [is] regarded as the basis of ritual life", which "are essentially the rites proper to the tending of a domestic fire, for the temple cult is that of the hearth fire raised to a new solemnity" (Boyce, 1975:455). For, "the man who sacrifices unto fire with fuel in his hand, with the Baresman in his hand, with milk in his hand, with the mortar for crushing the branches of the sacred Haoma in his hand, is given happiness" (Yasna 62.1; Nyashes 5.7)

The Zoroastrian cult of fire is apparently much younger than Zoroastrianism itself and appears at approximately the same time as the shrine cult, first evident in the 4th century BCE (roughly contemporaneous with the introduction of Adar as a divinity). There is no allusion to a temple cult of fire in the Avesta proper, nor is there any old Persian language word for one. Moreover, Boyce suggests that the temple cult of fire was instituted in opposition to the image/shrine cult and "no actual ruins of a fire temple have been identified from before the Parthian period" (Boyce, 1975:454).

That the cult of fire was a doctrinal modification and absent from early Zoroastrianism is still evident in the later Atash Nyash: in the oldest passages of that liturgy, it is the hearth fire that speaks to "all those for whom it cooks the evening and morning meal", which Boyce observes is not consistent with sanctified fire. The temple cult is an even later development: From Herodotus it is known that in the mid-5th century BCE the Zoroastrians worshipped to the open sky, ascending mounds to light their fires (The Histories, i.131). Strabo confirms this, noting that in the 6th century, the sanctuary at Zela in Cappadocia was an artificial mound, walled in, but open to the sky (Geographica XI.8.4.512).

By the Parthian era (250 BCE–226 CE), Zoroastrianism had in fact two kinds of places of worship: One, apparently called bagin or ayazan, sanctuaries dedicated to a specific divinity, constructed in honor of the patron Yazata of an individual or family and included an icon or effigy of the honored. The second were the atroshan, the "places of burning fire", which as Boyce (1997:ch. 3) notes, became more and more prevalent as the iconoclastic movement gained support. Following the rise of the Sassanid dynasty, the shrines to the Yazatas continued to exist, with the statues—by law—either being abandoned as empty sanctuaries, or being replaced by fire altars (so also the popular shrines to Meher/Mithra which retained the name Darb-e Mehr—Mithra's Gate—that is today one of the Zoroastrian technical terms for a fire temple).

Also, as Schippman observed (loc. Cit. Boyce, 1975:462), even during the Sassanid era (226–650 CE) there is no evidence that the fires were categorized according to their sanctity. "It seems probable that there were virtually only two, namely the Atash-i Vahram [literally: "victorious fire", later misunderstood to be the Fire of Bahram, see Gnoli, 2002:512] and the lesser Atash-i Adaran, or 'Fire of Fires', a parish fire, as it were, serving a village or town quarter" (Boyce, 1975:462; Boyce 1966:63). Apparently, it was only in the Atash-i Vahram that fire was kept continuously burning, with the Adaran fires being annually relit. While the fires themselves had special names, the structures did not, and it has been suggested that "the prosaic nature of the middle Persian names (kadag, man, and xanag are all words for an ordinary house) perhaps reflect a desire on the part of those who fostered the temple-cult [...] to keep it as close as possible in character to the age-old cult of the hearth-fire, and to discourage elaboration" (Boyce, 2002:9).

The Indian Parsi-Zoroastrian practice of rendering the term athornan (derived from the Avestan language "athravan") as "fire-priest" in the English language is based on the mistaken assumption that the athra* prefix derives from atar (Boyce, 2002:16–17). The term athravan does not appear in the Gathas, where a priest is a zaotar, and in its oldest attested use (Yasna 42.6) the term appears to be synonymous with "missionary". In the later Yasht 13.94, Zoroaster himself is said to have been an athravan, which in this context could not be a reference to atar if a cult of fire and its associated priesthood did not yet exist in Zoroaster's time. Thus, in all probability, "the word athravan has a different derivation." (Boyce, 2002:17)

In mythology and folklore
In Vendidad 1, Adar battles Aži Dahāka, the great dragon of the sky.

In Ferdowsi's Shahnameh, Hoshang, the grandson of the first man Gayomard, discovers fire in a rock. He recognizes it as the divine glory of Ahura Mazda, offers homage to it, and instructs his people to so as well. Also in the Shahnameh is the legend of Sevavash, who passes through "the unburning fire" as proof of his innocence.

As a royal symbol
During the Sassanid era (226–650 CE), the symbol of Fire plays much the same role that the winged sun Faravahar did during the Achaemenid period (648–330 BCE). Beginning with Ardashir I, the founder of the Sassanid Empire, many of the kings of the dynasty issued one or more coins with a symbol of Fire on the verso, and seals and bullae with the fire symbol were common.

The first silver coins of the empire have helmeted busts of Ardashir I (r. 226–241) or his father Papak on the obverse (a figure of the ruling monarch on the obverse is consistent throughout the dynasty), with a representation of a fire altar, accompanied by the legend atash i artakhshir, "Fire of Ardeshir", on the reverse. Ardashir's son, Shapur I (r. 241–272), has much the same image but adds two attendants at the fire altar. On the coins of Hormizd I (also known as Ardashir II, r. 272–273), the emperor himself tends the fire with the help of an attendant. Bahram II (276–293) also appears himself, accompanied by what may be his queen and son. Narseh (r. 293–303) also attends the fire himself, this time alone. On the coins of Shapur III (r. 283–388), a divinity appears to be emerging from the fire. The shape of the fire altar in the coins of Yazdegerd II (r. 438–457) are similar to those in present-day fire temples. The legend introduced under Ardeshir yields to a mint mark and year of issue under Peroz (r. 457–484), a feature evident in all the coins of the remaining dynasty.

In technology
Atar is the name of a French jet engine, developed and produced by the SNECMA company.

title: Atar


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The Newsroom (Canadian TV series)

The Newsroom is a Canadian television comedy-drama series which ran on CBC Television in the 1996–97, 2003–04 and 2004–05 seasons. A two-hour television movie, Escape from the Newsroom, was broadcast in 2002.

The show is set in the newsroom of a television station which is never officially named, but is generally understood to be based on CBC's own Toronto affiliate CBLT. Inspired by American series The Larry Sanders Show and similar to such earlier series as the British Drop the Dead Donkey and the Australian Frontline, the series mines a dark vein of comedy from the political machinations and the sheer incompetence of the people involved in producing the fictional City Hour, the station's nightly newscast.

Season 1
The Newsroom was not originally intended to be an ongoing series. Its first season of thirteen episodes, broadcast in 1996–97, led to critical acclaim but no immediate follow-up commissioning. Following the end of The Newsroom, creator Ken Finkleman produced three different short-run series for the CBC, More Tears, Foolish Heart and Foreign Objects, all of which included George Findlay, the central character of The Newsroom, as a linking character. A Findlay-like character with a different surname had also appeared in Finkleman's pre-Newsroom series Married Life. Findlay was also revived in the later HBO Canada series Good Dog and Good God.

Season 2
As none of the subsequent series after the initial season of The Newsroom were as well received by the public or by critics as the original show, the CBC began to seek a new set of Newsroom episodes. Escape from the Newsroom, which included a fourth wall-breaking plot digression in which the characters directly addressed the idea of reviving the series, was meant partly as a sarcastic response to that request. However, Finkleman ultimately agreed to produce 13 new episodes, which were broadcast after a six-year hiatus since the initial series, in the winter of 2004. The last four episodes of the second season were shot as a mockumentary.

Season 3
A third season of The Newsroom, consisting of six episodes, was broadcast on CBC beginning on February 14, 2005.

In the United States, The Newsroom aired on PBS stations. All three seasons and Escape from the Newsroom are available on DVD.

Followup
The series drew some renewed media attention in 2011, when Aaron Sorkin announced that his new 2012 series, set in the newsroom of a cable news channel and originally to be titled More As This Story Develops, would be renamed The Newsroom. Writing in Maclean's, Jaime Weinman said the choice of name was "a bit of a grimly amusing reminder that the U.S. TV industry doesn't take Canada very seriously ... 'The Newsroom' is often considered the greatest show Canada has ever produced, but a U.S. network feels no need to fear unflattering comparisons: assuming they’ve heard of the show, they probably think most people in the States have not heard of it." In an interview with The Daily Beast following the Sorkin show's premiere, Finkleman revealed that HBO did contact him for permission to reuse the title, which he granted as he had no further plans to revive his series.

Main characters
Although the series has a large and variable ensemble cast, only three major characters are present throughout the show's entire run.

George Findlay (series creator Ken Finkleman), the executive producer of City Hour, is a venal, petty man who cares only about his sex life, his lunch orders and his personal image within the network's bureaucracy. Although exceptionally intelligent, he is highly self-absorbed and utterly unconcerned about anything besides himself.

In the third-season episode "One Dumb Idea", Karen offers her idea on a character based on Findlay for a sitcom idea he is trying to come up with, saying, "I think if you're gonna go for reality, or, sorry, for verisimilitude, I think your character should be deceitful and self-serving. Basically, pathologically ambitious and actually lacking in any real humanity." In other words, a sociopath.

Findlay apparently suffers from constipation, hinted at by his obsession with bran muffins, fibre products and doctor appointments for procedures including a colonoscopy.

He constantly avoids talking to his mother (Clare Coulter) who keeps calling him at work. Telling people to tell her he is in a meeting or on vacation, he even goes so far as to have an intern get the telephone number to the show changed. When asked why he refuses to talk to her he replies, "Talk to her? You're missing the point. The point is, this place is too cheap to get me an assistant. If I had an assistant, she could talk to my mother. But because this place is so goddamn cheap, my mother has no one to talk to." Findlay does, however, have a close relationship with his BMW dealer, often calling him about small problems with his "$40,000 German car."

Findlay has also appeared in nearly all of Finkleman's other television series as a linking character, always working as a film or television producer.

Jim Walcott (Peter Keleghan) is City Hour similarly shallow but far less intelligent anchorman. Walcott is often told by the others that he is smart, but Findlay always refers to him as an idiot when he is not around. He lives alone with his cat and has been charged with sexual harassment several times, including an incident when he offered sexual favours to an underage girl in return for a ride in a helicopter.

In the final episode of the first season, "The Campaign", Walcott, along with other staff of the newsroom, go into politics. Walcott is running as a Liberal for the provincial government of Ontario. He is asked by a reporter from The Star whether he is in favour of eliminating child poverty in Canada, to which he responds confusedly, "this is a provincial election."

During a fundraising party he mishears a woman he is talking to about abortion, thinking she said, "the decision should be between the woman, her doctor and her dog." After "listening to [their] polls", the campaign team decides it best for Walcott to be anti-abortion, and at an anti-abortion rally he falls victim to a slip of the tongue, saying, "I believe life begins at masturbation". Walcott's attempts to garner additional support include making appearances with his ex-wife and a disabled person, both of whom are represented by agents demanding more money per appearance.

During a campaign speech, Walcott is shot and ends up in a coma with a bullet lodged in his brain. While watching the results of the election on the news, the campaign team celebrates its win just as Walcott dies in the hospital bed beside them.

In Escape from the Newsroom, Walcott returns to his job as news anchor. His "death" is clarified as a two-year coma. Walcott offers Atom Egoyan a story idea about "a news anchor, who's shot in the head, is in a coma for two years, but survives with a bullet lodged in his brain, and then struggles to return to his news desk." After Egoyan says to Walcott that he read about the same thing happening to Walcott, Walcott seems surprised and says, "yeah, there is a parallel there somewhere."

Karen Mitchell (Karen Hines) is a segment producer, and the news department's only real example of intelligence and professionalism. Karen seems to be the only one who takes journalistic integrity seriously, while the others try to find ways to boost ratings by glamourizing news stories with sensationalism.

Karen is apt to point out the ignorant prejudices of most of the staff, as they, in turn, tease her for not being able to find a date. Findlay suspects her of being a lesbian after she is featured in a feminist magazine as one of ten women in the news who make a difference. He "connects the dots" of her different personality traits to arrive at this conclusion, including observations of her not being able to sustain a male-female relationship, the fact that she knows the editor of a women's magazine, and that she is aggressive, argumentative, sure of herself and moralistic. Karen, however, is not a lesbian, as this only illustrates Findlay's way of thinking.

When offering her suggestion on characters profiles for Findlay's sitcom idea, after ridiculing Findlay she went on to describe a character based on herself that should be "highly intelligent and attractive in an unconventional way, with very strong legs from the years and years of yoga and running that she has had to do to keep her sanity in a toxic psychic environment that is 'the newsroom', and basically far too busy doing her job to get involved in your stupidity or, I'm sorry, your character's stupidity."

Supporting characters
Each season has a different supporting cast of newswriters, reporters, producers and network bureaucrats. The 1996 season one cast includes Jeremy Hotz and Mark Farrell as Findlay's two "yes men" segment producers, Tanya Allen as Audrey the intern, David Huband as Bruce the weatherguy, Julie Khaner as Findlay's boss Sidney, Nancy Beatty as Nancy, Findlay's other boss and David Gale as the entertainment reporter.

Leah Pinsent appears in Escape from the Newsroom as anchor Diane Gordon, a character she had previously played in Finkleman's More Tears.

The 2004 season two cast includes Matt Watts as Matt and Jody Racicot as Alex who replace Jeremy and Mark as Findlay's "yes men" segment producers. Douglas Bell plays Allen, a writer, hypochondriac and Harvard graduate who often stutters. Holly Lewis plays Claire and Alberta Watson plays Susan. Tom McCamus also appears in one of the 2004 episodes as a newswriter who informs Findlay of his own terminal illness, to Findlay's lack of concern; his character dies at the end of the episode.

In 2005, the season three additions to the cast include Shaughnessy Bishop-Stall as Jason, who replaces Alex as segment producer, Kristin Booth as Nora and Sarah Strange as Susan Murdoch, Findlay's boss. Jeremy Hotz returns to the cast for the first episode when Findlay rehires his character and then fires him later that episode.

Guest stars
The show also includes guest appearances by a number of public figures, including David Cronenberg, Rick Salutin, Bob Rae, Hugh Segal, Naomi Klein, Daniel Richler, Angelo Mosca, Linda McQuaig, Cynthia Dale and Noam Chomsky, playing themselves in interviews on the newscast. Escape from the Newsroom featured Atom Egoyan.

Production notes
The series was produced by Finkleman's long-time collaborator, Peter Meyboom. For several years they ran an independent production company together called 100 Per Cent Films. Other key creative contributors to The Newsroom were cinematographer Joan Hutton whose documentary style added an authentic feel and music composer Sid Robinovitch, an old friend of Finkleman's who wrote the mournful, jazzy closing theme. Another key collaborator was editor Allan Novak, who edited all of Finkleman's early Canadian work including Married Life, More Tears, Foolish Heart, and Foreign Objects. Novak also produced and directed a half hour behind the scenes documentary called Inside the Newsroom. CBC executives green-lighting and overseeing the project included Deborah Bernstein, Susan Morgan, Slawko Klymkiw and Phyllis Platt.

Season 1 (1996–1997)

 * 1) The Walking Shoe Incident
 * 2) Dinner at Eight
 * 3) Deeper, Deeper
 * 4) The Kevorkian Joke
 * 5) A Bad Day
 * 6) Petty Tyranny
 * 7) Dis and Dat
 * 8) Parking
 * 9) Unity
 * 10) The Meltdown Part I
 * 11) The Meltdown Part II
 * 12) The Meltdown Part III
 * 13) The Campaign

Season 2 (2004)

 * 1) America, America
 * 2) Death 1, George 0
 * 3) Pushy, Moneygrubbing, Cosmopolitan Racist
 * 4) An Enormous Waste of TIme
 * 5) Anchors Away
 * 6) One of Us
 * 7) Never Read Symptoms
 * 8) The Fifty
 * 9) Slow Leak
 * 10) Reality Strikes
 * 11) The British Accent
 * 12) Say Cheese
 * 13) The Second Coming

Season 3 (2005)

 * 1) One Dumb Idea
 * 2) Dial 'G' for Gristle
 * 3) Lolita
 * 4) Latent Homosexual Tendencies
 * 5) Baghdad Bound
 * 6) Learning to Fly

Awards and nominations
DGC Craft Award
 * 2005 - Outstanding Achievement in Direction - Television Series - Ken Finkleman - (For episode "Baghdad Bound")
 * 2005 - Outstanding Achievement in Sound Editing - Television Series - Tom Bjelic, Allan Fung (For episode "Learning To Fly")

DGC Team Award
 * 2005 - Outstanding Team Achievement in a Television Series - Comedy (For episode "Baghdad Bound")

Gemini Awards
 * 1997–98 - Best Director - Variety, Comedy or Performing Arts Program or Series - Ken Finkleman (For episode "Meltdown, Part 3")
 * 1997–98 - Best Performance - Comedy Program or Series - Jeremy Hotz, Ken Finkleman, Mark Farrell, Peter Keleghan, Tanya Allen (For episode "The Campaign")
 * 1997–98 - Best Photography - Comedy, Variety, Performing Arts Program or Series - Joan Hutton
 * 1997–98 - Best Picture Editing - Comedy, Variety, Performing Arts Program or Series - Allan Novak
 * 1997–98 - Best Writing - Comedy or Variety Program or Series - Ken Finkleman (For episode "The Campaign")
 * 2005 - Best Writing - Comedy or Variety Program or Series - Ken Finkleman - (For episode "Baghdad Bound")

International Emmy Awards
 * 2005 - Best Comedy (Canada)

Rose d'Or
 * 1997 - Bronze Rose, Sitcom.

San Francisco International Film Festival
 * 1997 - Silver Spire, Television - Comedy - Ken Finkleman (For episode "Walking Shoe Incident")

WGC Awards
 * 1997 - Ken Finkleman
 * 1998 - Ken Finkleman (For episode "Meltdown Part III")

title: The Newsroom (Canadian TV series)


text:
Ōgata, Niigata

Ōgata (大潟町) was a town located in Nakakubiki District, Niigata Prefecture, Japan.

As of 2003, the town had an estimated population of 10,636 and a density of 651.72 persons per km2. The total area was 16.32 km2.

On January 1, 2005, Ōgata, along with the town of Yasuzuka, the villages of Maki, Ōshima and Uragawara (all from Higashikubiki District), the towns of Itakura, Kakizaki and Yoshikawa, the villages of Kiyosato, Kubiki, Nakagō and Sanwa (all from Nakakubiki District), and the town of Nadachi (from Nishikubiki District), was merged into the expanded city of Jōetsu.

title: Ōgata, Niigata


text:
Royce Gracie

Royce Gracie (born 12 December 1966) is a Brazilian retired professional mixed martial artist. Gracie gained fame for his success in the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC). He is a member of the Gracie jiu-jitsu family, a UFC Hall of Famer, and is considered to be one of the most influential figures in the history of mixed martial arts (MMA). He also competed in PRIDE Fighting Championships, K-1's MMA events, and Bellator.

In 1993 and 1994, Gracie was the tournament winner of UFC 1, UFC 2 and UFC 4, which were openweight single-elimination tournaments with minimal rules. He used his skills in submission grappling to defeat larger and heavier opponents. He was also known for his rivalry with Ken Shamrock, whom he beat in UFC 1 and then fought to a draw in the rematch for the Superfight Championship at UFC 5. Royce later competed in PRIDE Fighting Championships, where he is most remembered for his 90-minute bout against catch wrestler Kazushi Sakuraba in 2000, and a controversial "judo vs jiu-jitsu" mixed rules match against Hidehiko Yoshida, an Olympic gold medalist in judo, at PRIDE Shockwave in 2002.

Royce Gracie's success in the UFC popularized Gracie jiu-jitsu (commonly known as Brazilian jiu-jitsu) and revolutionized mixed martial arts, contributing to the movement towards grappling and ground fighting. For his pioneering in mixed martial arts, Gracie was the first inductee to the UFC Hall of Fame in 2003 alongside his once-rival Ken Shamrock. In 2016, he was inducted into the International Sports Hall of Fame.

Early life
Royce Gracie was born in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, on 12 December 1966. One of the nine sons of jiu-jitsu grandmaster Hélio Gracie, he learned the martial art from his father in his childhood. He had his first competition at age 8 and started teaching classes when he was 14 years old. When he was 17, Royce was awarded a black belt by his father, Hélio. A few months later, he and his brothers Royler and Rickson Gracie moved to Torrance, California, to live with their older brother Rorion Gracie, who had moved there in 1978 and had established Gracie Academy.

The Gracie brothers in the United States continued the family's tradition of the "Gracie Challenge", in which they challenged other martial artists to no-rules full-contact matches in their gym to prove the superiority of Gracie jiu-jitsu. Rorion would later edit footage from the Gracie Challenge fights into a single documentary series known as Gracie in Action, with some footage featuring Royce's fights. The Gracie in Action tapes inspired Art Davie to create the UFC.

UFC 1
The Ultimate Fighting Championship was founded in 1993 by Rorion Gracie, business executive Art Davie, and the Semaphore Entertainment Group (SEG). The premise of the event was doing an eight-man openweight single-elimination tournament, with minimal rules, from fighters representing different martial arts, to find the most effective and strongest fighting style. While Davie and the SEG were interested in doing an event with violent and exciting vale tudo fights similar to what they had seen on the Gracie in Action tapes, Rorion was interested in promoting his family's own jiu-jitsu style by defeating larger and stronger opponents from more well-known martial arts. Rorion said he picked Royce to represent the family's art because of his skinnier and smaller frame, to show how a small person can defeat a bigger opponent using jiu-jitsu.

Gracie entered the tournament wearing his now iconic Brazilian jiu-jitsu gi. In his first match, Gracie defeated journeyman boxer Art Jimmerson. He tackled him to the ground using a baiana (morote-gari or double-leg) and obtained the dominant "mounted" position. Mounted and with only one free arm, Jimmerson conceded defeat.

In the semi-finals, Gracie fought against shootfighter and King of Pancrase fighter Ken Shamrock. This was Royce's most difficult match, as Shamrock had grappling experience (having caught Patrick Smith in a Heel Hook in a previous match). Gracie started the round by attempting a double-leg, which was defended by Shamrock with a sprawl, and Shamrock attempted to stand up back to his feet. Gracie then responded by pulling Shamrock to his guard and started to do small kicks into Shamrock's kidneys, but he got out from his guard and attempted to pull Gracie into a heel hook, as he had done with Patrick Smith similarly before. The Brazilian defended by wrapping his gi around Shamrock's arm, and when the latter sat back, it pulled Gracie on top of him. He then proceeded to take Shamrock's back and used his own gi to secure a rear naked choke. Shamrock later stated it was a gi choke, using the cloth around his neck. Shamrock tapped out to Gracie's choke, but the referee did not see the tap and ordered both fighters to continue the match. Shamrock then admitted defeat to the referee, saying it would not be fair, and Royce was declared the bout's victor, with both fighters exchanging a handshake after some taunting.

Gracie fought in the finals against karate Kyokushin practitioner and savate world champion Gerard Gordeau. Gracie managed to take his opponent to the ground and secure a rear choke, winning the bout. During the fight, Gordeau bit Gracie's ear, breaking one of the few rules of the event. Gracie retaliated by holding the choke after Gordeau had tapped out, with the Dutchman tapping in panic before they were separated by the referee. Royce was then declared the "Ultimate Fighting Champion" and was awarded $50,000 in prize money.

Rivalry with Ken Shamrock
After Gracie defeated Ken Shamrock in the first UFC event, a rivalry developed between the fighters. Shamrock especially wanted a rematch as, according to him, Gracie had used the gi to favor his grappling while he had not been allowed to use wrestling shoes by the promoters, which he considered an unfair advantage to Gracie. Shamrock nonetheless conceded that he had underestimated his opponent.

A rematch between Royce Gracie and Ken Shamrock failed to materialize at the UFC 2, as Shamrock had broken his hand in training and at UFC 3 Gracie withdrew from the competition due to exhaustion (resulting in Shamrock withdrawing from the event too). To solve the problem of the tournament format's unpredictability, a "superfight" in which Gracie and Ken Shamrock would fight in a bout outside the main tournament was scheduled for the UFC 5.

UFC 2
Gracie returned to defend his title four months later at UFC 2, this tournament would have sixteen fighters and he would have to defeat four opponents to become the champion. Gracie began his defense of the title by submitting Japanese Karatedo Daido Juku and Kyokushin karateka Minoki Ichihara after a five-minute bout, his longest yet, with a lapel choke (which was possible as Ichihara was wearing a Karategi). Advancing into the quarterfinals, Royce Gracie fought Five Animals Kung Fu practitioner and future Pancrase veteran Jason DeLucia, whom he had already fought and defeated before in one of the "Gracie Challenges" in 1991. Gracie submitted DeLucia via armbar just over a minute into the bout. Gracie then submitted 250-lb Judo and Taekwondo black belt Remco Pardoel with a lapel choke (as Pardoel was wearing a Judogi), and arrived at the finals against kickboxer Patrick Smith, who had previously participated at UFC 1. Showing his superior grappling skills, Gracie easily took Smith to the ground and won the fight via submission to punches.

UFC 3
Royce Gracie entered UFC 3 now as twice-champion and as the favorite to win. The number of fighters was scaled down back to eight like the first edition. Royce was matched up in the first round against Kimo Leopoldo, a representative of Taekwondo and former high school wrestler. Leopoldo used his wrestling background to dominate the grappling exchanges, denying several of Gracie's takedowns and even took his back. As both men began to tire, Gracie held down Leopoldo by grabbing onto his pony tail, eventually submitting him with an armbar at 4:40 of round one. However, he withdrew from his next fight with Harold Howard before it began due to exhaustion and dehydration. Royce entered the ring and threw in the towel. This was the first event which Gracie did not win.

UFC 4
Gracie began UFC 4 by submitting 51-year-old Karateka and Kung Fu film actor Ron van Clief in the opening round with a rear-naked choke near the four-minute mark. In the semi-finals, he fought American Kenpo Karate specialist Keith Hackney, who was able to defend Gracie's takedowns for four minutes until he was submitted by an armbar.

Gracie's final tournament bout was against Dan Severn, a former Pan American freestyle wrestling gold medalist. Severn dominated the fight, securing takedowns and maintaining top control throwing ground and pound for nearly fifteen minutes. However Gracie eventually managed to secure a triangle choke for the submission victory at 15:49 of round one. The match extended beyond the pay-per-view time slot and viewers, who missed the end of the fight, demanded their money back.

UFC 5
Gracie and Shamrock returned for UFC 5, they were both set to headline the UFC's first "superfight", a special outside the main tournament to rematch Gracie and Shamrock, as they would have no prior damage from a previous fight. The winner would win a special belt and become the inaugural UFC Superfight Champion. Time limits were re-introduced into the sport in 1995 due pay-per-view limits after the UFC 4 debacle and the fighters were only told a few hours before the event, upsetting both competitors.

At the start of round one, Shamrock immediately scored a takedown with Gracie pulling guard. The majority of the contest consisted of Shamrock in top position defending Gracie's submission game, occasionally landing ground and pound. After nearly thirty minutes of control time for Shamrock, the contest was given overtime and restarted on the feet. At the beginning of the overtime, Shamrock connected with a punch that led to swelling on Gracie's eye, with Gracie immediately pulling guard. After another uneventful few minutes, the contest was declared a draw.

The draw sparked much debate and controversy as to who would have won the fight had judges determined the outcome, or had there been no time limits, as by the end of the fight Gracie's right eye was swollen shut. Had there been ringside judges, UFC matchmaker Art Davie believes that Shamrock would have been declared the winner. The fight was poorly received by critics and the live audience, due to the lack of action from both competitors.

After the fight, Gracie left the UFC along with his brother Rorion, who sold his shares of the event. According to Rorion, they left the organization due a conflict of interest because of the time limits introduced after UFC 4 and future plans to introduce judges, and weight classes.

Royce's challenge letters
Throughout his UFC days, Royce frequently challenged well-known fighters—though usually to no avail—to "fight to the finish, any place and any time." Many big-name sportspeople, including Mike Tyson (who was serving a prison term at the time) received a note several times in an open letter fashion, usually published by Black Belt Magazine in The Ultimate Fighter column.

UFC Hall of Fame
At UFC 45 in November 2003, at the ten-year anniversary of the UFC, Shamrock and Gracie became the first inductees into the UFC Hall of Fame. UFC President Dana White said;

"We feel that no two individuals are more deserving than Royce and Ken to be the charter members. Their contributions to our sport, both inside and outside the Octagon, may never be equaled."

Attempts to sign Royce
Gracie was originally going to debut in PRIDE Fighting Championships in their 1998 PRIDE 2 event, where he would be pitted against fellow UFC champion Mark Kerr. The Gracie side demanded special rules without time limit or referee stoppage, which were accepted. However, Royce pulled out due to a back injury after the fight had been advertised.

The situation changed after PRIDE 8, when Royce's older brother Royler Gracie was defeated by Kazushi Sakuraba. Sakuraba dominated the match and won by technical submission, as Royler was caught in a Kimura lock and refused to tap out, the referee stopped the match before his arm could be broken. This was the first time in 50 years a Gracie had been defeated in a mixed martial arts fight and Sakuraba followed by a challenge to Rickson Gracie. In response, the Gracies argued that Royler's loss did not count as he had not conceded or tapped out, and the referee's stopping of the bout went against the special ruleset they had requested for the fight. Many pundits were also affirming that the Gracie pure-BJJ approach was not able to match a well-rounded cross-trained fighter anymore. In response to that assertion, and to defeat Sakuraba in a rematch, the Gracies signed Royce up to PRIDE.

PRIDE Grand Prix and bout against Nobuhiko Takada
Royce Gracie's first event in PRIDE was in the "PRIDE Grand Prix 2000", an openweight tournament that would be divided into two events: the Opening Round, which consisted of the Round of 16 and the Finals which would happen three months later and consisted of the quarter-finals, Semi-finals and Finals. The bouts in the Opening Round had their rules modified to have only one round of fifteen minutes. In the first round, he fought Japanese professional wrestler Nobuhiko Takada. Takada was a very popular wrestler who had headlined PRIDE 1 and PRIDE 4 against Royce's brother Rickson. Takada was also the former mentor of Sakuraba, the family's rival.

In the first minute of the bout Gracie pulled Takada into his guard, and he spent the rest of the match unsuccessfully trying to submit or sweep Takada. After a largely uneventful fight, Royce Gracie was declared the winner by unanimous decision and advanced to the Grand Prix Quarter-Finals.

Bout with Sakuraba
Royce was then set to fight Kazushi Sakuraba in the quarter-finals at the PRIDE Grand Prix 2000 Finals. Sakuraba was a professional wrestler who derived his foundation in submissions from catch wrestling and shoot wrestling. He had defeated several opponents and become one of the first Japanese stars of PRIDE. As Royce entered the Grand Prix specially to fight Sakuraba, the Gracies demanded special rules for the fight: an unlimited number of 15-minute rounds, no judges, no referee stoppages, and wins could only come by knockout, submission or throwing in the towel. Sakuraba criticized the different ruleset, the Gracie's demands to fight under it and their demands for special treatment, but ended up agreeing to the challenge nonetheless.

The two battled for an hour and a half, after which Gracie began to fatigue, and could no longer stand due to a broken femur as a result of numerous leg kicks. The towel was thrown in and Sakuraba was declared the winner. Sakuraba went on to defeat other members of the Gracie family, including Renzo Gracie and Ryan Gracie, earning him the nickname "Gracie Hunter."

Bouts with Yoshida
Gracie returned to PRIDE in 2002 to fight Japanese gold-medalist judoka Hidehiko Yoshida in a special "judo vs. Brazilian jiu-jitsu" special rules match, billed as a "rematch" of Masahiko Kimura vs. Hélio Gracie, which had happened 50 years earlier. The rules were that the fight would be contested in two 10-minute rounds and would be declared a draw if no result was achieved. Strikes to the head were disallowed, as it was any kind of strike if both opponents were on the ground. Lying on the mat or dropping down without touching the opponent would be banned as well. Both fighters would wear a keikogi as per their respective disciplines's preference. It happened at PRIDE Shockwave a co-production between PRIDE and K-1 kickboxing, intended to be a mega-event celebrating martial arts, with the event still having the largest live attendance in MMA history, drawing almost 91,000 fans (with some sources suggesting instead 71,000). Royce's father Hélio Gracie lit a ceremonial olympic torch along with MMA pioneer Antonio Inoki in the opening ceremony.

Royce started the fight pulling guard and attempting a heel hook and an armbar, with Hidehiko blocking them and coming back with a gi choke and an ankle lock attempt. Gracie pulled guard again, but Yoshida turned it into a daki age and sought the Kimura lock; then, when the Brazilian blocked the technique, Yoshida passed his guard and performed a mounted sode guruma jime. After a moment of inactivity, the referee Daisuke Noguchi stopped the match in the belief Royce was unconscious and gave victory to Yoshida.

Gracie immediately protested and footage of the fight was reviewed, which showed that Gracie's visible arm during the execution of the choke was limp and motionless. Gracie began to argue with Noguchi, the squabble soon resulted in him attacking the referee and it escalated into a full a brawl between the corners of the two fighters. Later backstage, the Gracies demanded it be turned into a no contest, and an immediate rematch be booked with different rules. If not, the Gracie family would never fight for PRIDE FC again. PRIDE, wanting to keep the Gracie family with them, accepted their demands.

Afterward, Gracie started fighting without a gi so that his opponents could not stall by holding onto it. The grudge match between Yoshida and Gracie took place at PRIDE's Shockwave 2003 event on December 31, 2003. Gracie dominated Yoshida but, as the match had no judge per Gracie's request, the bout was declared a draw after two 10-minute rounds.

Fighting and Entertainment Group
In September 2004 PRIDE had a disagreement with Gracie about his participation in the 2005 PRIDE Middleweight Grand Prix. Gracie had issues with the proposed opponents and rules (Grand Prix fights must have a winner and cannot end in a draw). He jumped to Fighting and Entertainment Group's K-1 organization. Pride sued Gracie for breaching his contract with them. The case was settled in December 2005, with Gracie issuing a public apology, blaming his actions on a misinterpretation of the contract by his manager.

In K-1, Royce Gracie competed on K-1's Dynamite!! series, which featured both kickboxing and MMA matches on their cards. On December 31, 2004, Gracie entered the K-1 scene at the K-1 PREMIUM 2004 Dynamite!! event inside the Osaka Dome, facing off against former sumo wrestler and MMA newcomer Akebono Tarō aka. Chad Rowan under special MMA rules (Two 10-minute rounds; the match would end as a draw if there was no winner after the two rounds). Gracie made quick work of his heavy opponent, forcing Akebono to submit to a shoulder lock at 2:13 of the first round.

Exactly one year later, on the K-1 PREMIUM 2005 Dynamite!! card of December 31, 2005, Gracie fought Japan's Hideo Tokoro, a 143-pound fighter, in a fight ending in a draw after 20 minutes. Gracie's original opponent was scheduled to be the tall Korean fighter Choi Hong-man, another MMA newcomer.

Return to UFC
On January 16, 2006, UFC President Dana White announced that Royce Gracie would return to the UFC to fight UFC welterweight champion Matt Hughes on May 27, 2006, at UFC 60. This was a non-title bout at a catchweight of 175 lb. under UFC/California State Athletic Commission rules. To prepare, Gracie trained in Muay Thai and was frequently shown in publicity materials from Fairtex.

In round one, Hughes secured a straight armbar that hyper-extended Royce's arm, however Royce refused to tap. Hughes eventually won the fight by TKO at 4:39 of the first round. Royce said later after the fight with Hughes that he wanted a rematch and that he was not surprised by Hughes's performance: "No, we knew what he was planning to do. We worked out his gameplan before the fight, and he did exactly what we expected. I over-trained for the fight. That was all. I started training too much, too hard, for too long. He did exactly what we expected."

Rematch with Sakuraba
On May 8, 2007, EliteXC announced that Gracie's opponent for the June 2 Dynamite!! USA event in Los Angeles would be Japanese fighter Kazushi Sakuraba.

Gracie defeated Sakuraba by a unanimous decision. However, a post-fight drug screen revealed that Royce had traces of Nandrolone in his system. "Use of steroids is simply cheating," said Armando Garcia, California State Athletic Commission executive director. "It won't be tolerated in this state."

Steroids scandal
On June 14, 2007, the California State Athletic Commission declared that Gracie had tested positive for Nandrolone, an anabolic steroid, after his fight with Sakuraba. According to the California State Athletic Commission, the average person could produce about 2 ng/ml of Nandrolone, while an athlete following "rigorous physical exercise" could have a level of around 6 ng/ml. Both "A" and "B" test samples provided by Gracie "had a level of over 50 ng/ml and we were informed that the level itself was so elevated that it would not register on the laboratory's calibrator," said the CSAC. Gracie was fined $2,500 (the maximum penalty the commission can impose) and suspended for the remainder of his license, which ended on May 30, 2008. Gracie paid the fine.

Royce Gracie decided to dispute the allegations during an online video interview in May 2009, saying that his weight in the first UFC event was 178 lb and claiming his weight during his Sakuraba fight was 180 lb, thus only gaining 2 pounds. This was widely disputed by experts. According to ESPN, "In the former contest, he weighed in at 175 pounds; for Sakuraba, he was 188. One may not need to be nutritionist to observe that a muscle gain of 13 pounds in one year at the age of 40 is a strikingly accomplished feat. Athletes nearing the half-century mark are often happy to maintain functional mass, let alone pack it on".

Retirement
On March 11, 2011, Royce Gracie's profile was added back to ufc.com active fighters list as a middleweight. His manager stated that they were actively negotiating with the UFC for a return to the Octagon and said it was just a matter of "getting it nailed down" and that there was plenty of time for it. On November 15, 2013, at UFC 167 on the 20th Anniversary of the UFC, Royce Gracie confirmed to MMA journalist Ariel Helwani that he had retired from competing in mixed martial arts.

Return with Bellator MMA
At Bellator 145, it was announced that Gracie would return from retirement to face rival Ken Shamrock in a trilogy fight, taking place on February 19, 2016, at Bellator 149. Gracie won the fight via TKO in round one. The win was not without controversy, however, as replays showed that Gracie landed a knee strike that grazed the groin of Shamrock prior to the finish. Shamrock protested the stoppage, however the bout was officially ruled a victory for Gracie. It was later announced that Shamrock had failed his pre-fight drug test for banned substances.

Submission grappling career
On December 17, 1998, at Oscar de Jiu Jitsu, Royce Gracie competed in a grudge-match superfight against Wallid Ismail in front of several thousand spectators. Carlson Gracie was Ismail's coach, though Ismail originally was Carlson's fourth choice to face Royce after Mario Sperry, Murilo Bustamante and Amaury Bitetti. The match was contested without points and with no time-limit in place, with Ismail choking Gracie unconscious via clock choke in four minutes and fifty-three seconds.

Post-fight career
Gracie has been since retired from MMA competition and has been focusing in teaching jiu-jitsu. He mostly travels around the world going to schools, teaching in seminars and doing interviews in magazines, websites and talk shows. He has opened his own association of gyms known as "Royce Gracie Jiu-Jitsu Network", with affiliate schools in 34 locations in the United States, and many throughout the world in Brazil, Canada, Ecuador, Guatemala, Kuwait, United Arab Emirates, and the United Kingdom.

Royce Gracie's branch of jiu-jitsu focuses mainly on the self-defense parts of the martial art. Gracie has accused modern "sporting" jiu-jitsu of teaching techniques that are unpractical and unrealistic to use in a self-defense situation, and claims to be rescuing the true intent of Gracie Jiu-Jitsu as devised by his father Hélio Gracie.

Personal life
Gracie filed for divorce in 2016. He and his former wife Marianne have three sons and a daughter. His son Kheydon Gracie enlisted in the US Army.

Despite being a 7th degree coral belt, Gracie wears a dark blue belt when training in Brazilian jiu-jitsu paying homage to his father, Hélio Gracie, who primarily wore a dark blue belt despite having the highest possible rank, red belt. Hélio Gracie died in 2009, and Royce said he does not want to be promoted by anybody else.

He has formerly identified as a Zionist and a supporter of Donald Trump and Jair Bolsonaro.

Gracie won the 2022 Sig Sauer Hunter Games as a member of Team Warrior.

On July 6, 2023, it was announced that ESPN Films is producing a documentary series on the Gracie family directed by Chris Fuller and produced by Greg O'Connor and Guy Ritchie.

Controversies and legal troubles
Gracie has engaged in multiple disputes with other martial artists including his nephews Rener Gracie, Ryron Gracie, and Eddie Bravo.

On April 1, 2015, the IRS sent Royce Gracie and his wife a Notice of Deficiency claiming they owe $657,114 in back taxes and $492,835.25 in penalties for Civil Fraud, based on IRC 6663(a). The case was settled on March 31, 2023, and Royce Gracie agreed to pay $461,611.80 to the US government.

Brazilian jiu-jitsu
Kano Jigoro → Tomita Tsunejiro → Mitsuyo Maeda → Carlos Gracie  → Hélio Gracie  → Royce Gracie

Mixed martial arts

 * Ultimate Fighting Championship
 * UFC Hall of Fame (Inaugural inductee, Pioneer Wing, class of 2003)
 * UFC 1 Tournament Championship
 * UFC 2 Tournament Championship
 * UFC 4 Tournament Championship
 * UFC 3 Tournament semi-finalist
 * UFC Viewer's Choice Award
 * First tournament champion in UFC history
 * Longest finish streak in UFC history (11)
 * Most bouts won in tournaments in UFC history (11)
 * Most tournaments won in UFC history (3)
 * Most fights in a single night in UFC history (4) (tied with Patrick Smith)
 * Longest fight in UFC history (36 minutes) - vs. Ken Shamrock 2 at UFC 5
 * Longest submission streak in UFC history (6)
 * Tied (Gerald Meerschaert) for the second highest submission finish rate in UFC history (10 submissions / 11 wins - 90.91%)
 * Greatest Submission in UFC's first 25 Years - vs. Ken Shamrock 1
 * PRIDE Fighting Championships
 * Longest fight in PRIDE history (90 minutes) - vs. Kazushi Sakuraba at PRIDE Grand Prix 2000 Finals
 * Fight Matrix
 * Fighter of the Year (1993)
 * Black Belt Magazine
 * Competitor of the Year (1994)
 * Wrestling Observer Newsletter
 * Fight of the Year (2000) - vs. Kazushi Sakuraba on May 1
 * World MMA Awards
 * 2013 Lifetime Achievement
 * International Sports Hall of Fame
 * Class of 2016

Submission grappling record

 * - style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;"
 * style="border-style:none none solid solid; "|Result
 * style="border-style:none none solid solid; "|Opponent
 * style="border-style:none none solid solid; "|Method
 * style="border-style:none none solid solid; "|Event
 * style="border-style:none none solid solid; "|Date
 * style="border-style:none none solid solid; "|Round
 * style="border-style:none none solid solid; "|Time
 * style="border-style:none none solid solid; "|Notes
 * Lose||🇧🇷 Wallid Ismail || Technical submission (clock choke) || Oscar de Jiu-Jitsu || December 17, 1998|| n/a || 4:53 || No time limit, no points.
 * Lose||🇧🇷 Wallid Ismail || Technical submission (clock choke) || Oscar de Jiu-Jitsu || December 17, 1998|| n/a || 4:53 || No time limit, no points.

title: Royce Gracie


text:
Kubiki, Niigata

Kubiki (頸城村) was a village located in Nakakubiki District, Niigata Prefecture, Japan.

As of 2003, the village had an estimated population of 9,691 and a density of 252.76 persons per km2. The total area was 38.34 km2.

On January 1, 2005, Kubiki, along with the town of Yasuzuka, the villages of Maki, Ōshima and Uragawara (all from Higashikubiki District), the towns of Itakura, Kakizaki, Ōgata and Yoshikawa, the villages of Kiyosato, Nakagō and Sanwa (all from Nakakubiki District), and the town of Nadachi (from Nishikubiki District), was merged into the expanded city of Jōetsu.

title: Kubiki, Niigata


text:
Yoshikawa, Niigata

Yoshikawa (吉川町) was a town located in Nakakubiki District, Niigata Prefecture, Japan.

As of 2003, the town had an estimated population of 5,253 and a density of 68.57 persons per km2. The total area was 76.61 km2.

On January 1, 2005, Yoshikawa, along with the town of Yasuzuka, the villages of Maki, Ōshima and Uragawara (all from Higashikubiki District), the towns of Itakura, Kakizaki and Ōgata, the villages of Kiyosato, Kubiki, Nakagō and Sanwa (all from Nakakubiki District), and the town of Nadachi (from Nishikubiki District), was merged into the expanded city of Jōetsu.

title: Yoshikawa, Niigata


text:
George W. Wickersham

George Woodward Wickersham (September 19, 1858 – January 25, 1936) was an American lawyer and Attorney General of the United States in the administration of President William H. Taft. He returned to government to serve in appointed positions under both Republican and Democratic administrations, for Woodrow Wilson and Herbert Hoover. He was President of the Council on Foreign Relations for the latter.

Background
Born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, in 1858, Wickersham attended local schools and graduated from the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia. He studied law by "reading," preparing for the bar through an apprenticeship with an established firm. After passing the bar, he set up a practice.

He married Mildred Wendell. Their son, Cornelius Wendell Wickersham, was an attorney, author, and military officer who attained the rank of major general in the New York Army National Guard and was promoted to lieutenant general on the retired list to commend his many years of service to the organization.

Career
After several years of practice, in 1883 Wickersham entered the longtime law firm of Strong and Cadwalader in New York City. He became a partner four years later, and the firm was eventually named Cadwalader, Wickersham & Taft.

He was appointed to the office of Attorney General of the United States from 1909 to 1913, in the administration of President William Howard Taft. In 1912 Wickersham supported the membership of U.S. Assistant Attorney General William H. Lewis in the American Bar Association, after Southerners protested the African American's presence and the executive committee voted to oust him. Wickersham sent a letter to all 4,700 members urging their support for Lewis, who refused to resign.

After the election of President Woodrow Wilson in 1912, the Democrat appointed his own people to federal positions. During Wilson's first term, from 1914 to 1916, Wickersham was out of government and served as president of the Association of the Bar of the City of New York. In 1916, Wickersham opposed Wilson's nomination of Louis Brandeis for the Supreme Court, describing the Jewish nominee's supporters as "a bunch of Hebrew uplifters."

Soon after the United States entered World War I in 1917, Wickersham was named by President Wilson to serve on the War Trade Board to Cuba.

In 1929, President Herbert Hoover appointed Wickersham to the National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement, better known as the "Wickersham Commission." (It was described as the "Wickersham Committee" by William L. Marbury Jr. in a 1935 letter seeking the support of U.S. Senator George L. P. Radcliffe for appointment of Alger Hiss to the U.S. Solicitor General's office; Hiss had served on the committee 1929-1930. )

Wickersham did not return to government under Democratic President Franklin D. Roosevelt. He was elected president of a private organization the Council on Foreign Relations, serving from 1933 to 1936.

Personal life and death
Wickersham married; his son was Cornelius Wendell Wickersham, a lawyer and a U.S. Army Brigadier General.

He lived much of his life in Cedarhurst, New York in the Town of Hempstead, now known as the Village of Lawrence.

Wickersham died in New York City in 1936 and was buried in Brookside Cemetery in Englewood, New Jersey.

Legacy
Since 1996, the Friends of the Law Library of the Library of Congress have presented an annual award named for Wickersham.

title: George W. Wickersham


text:
Société Honoraire de Français

The Société Honoraire de Français (French National Honor Society) is an organization whose intent is to recognize high school students in the United States who have maintained excellent grades in at least three semesters of French language courses; this is done by induction into the organization.

Induction
At induction, the SHF history is usually read, culminating with the lighting of candles. Each student holds a candle, and the student next to him or her recites the motto, Avoir une autre langue, c'est posséder une deuxième âme, which means To have another language is to have a second soul. All the members are considered inducted when the last candle is lit.

Duties
Community service is mandatory for the organization, as well as a high-grade point average overall (at least a B average in all other courses), in addition to an A in French classes during the semester of selection.

title: Société Honoraire de Français


text:
Hyperhidrosis

Hyperhidrosis is a medical condition in which a person exhibits excessive sweating, more than that required for regulation of body temperature. Although primarily a benign physical burden, hyperhidrosis can deteriorate quality of life from a psychological, emotional, and social perspective. In fact, hyperhidrosis almost always leads to psychological as well as physical and social consequences. People suffering from it present difficulties in the professional field, more than 80% experiencing a moderate to severe emotional impact from the disease and half are subject to depression.

This excess of sweat happens even if the person is not engaging in tasks that require muscular effort, and it does not depend on the exposure to heat. Common places to sweat can include underarms, face, neck, back, groin, feet, and hands. It has been called by some researchers 'the silent handicap'.

Both diaphoresis and hidrosis can mean either perspiration (in which sense they are synonymous with sweating ) or excessive perspiration, in which case they refer to a specific, narrowly defined, clinical disorder.

Classification

Hyperhidrosis can either be generalized, or localized to specific parts of the body. Hands, feet, armpits, groin, and the facial area are among the most active regions of perspiration due to the high number of sweat glands (eccrine glands in particular) in these areas. When excessive sweating is localized (e.g. palms, soles, face, underarms, scalp) it is referred to as primary hyperhidrosis or focal hyperhidrosis. Excessive sweating involving the whole body is termed generalized hyperhidrosis or secondary hyperhidrosis. It is usually the result of some other, underlying condition.

Primary or focal hyperhidrosis may be further divided by the area affected, for instance, palmoplantar hyperhidrosis (symptomatic sweating of only the hands or feet) or gustatory hyperhidrosis (sweating of the face or chest a few moments after eating certain foods).

Hyperhidrosis can also be classified by onset, either congenital (present at birth) or acquired (beginning later in life). Primary or focal hyperhidrosis usually starts during adolescence or even earlier and seems to be inherited as an autosomal dominant genetic trait. It must be distinguished from secondary hyperhidrosis, which can start at any point in life, but usually presents itself after 25 years of age. Secondary hyperhidrosis commonly accompanies conditions such as diabetes mellitus, Parkinson's disease, hyperthyroidism, hyperpituitarism, anxiety disorder, pheochromocytoma, and menopause.

One classification scheme uses the amount of skin affected. In this scheme, excessive sweating in an area of 100 cm2 or more is differentiated from sweating that affects only a small area.

Another classification scheme is based on possible causes of hyperhidrosis.

Causes
The cause of primary hyperhidrosis is unknown. Anxiety or excitement can exacerbate the condition. A common complaint of people is a nervous condition associated with sweating, then sweat more because the person is nervous. Other factors can play a role, including certain foods and drinks, nicotine, caffeine, and smells.

Similarly, secondary (generalized) hyperhidrosis has many causes including certain types of cancer, disturbances of the endocrine system, infections, and medications.

Primary
Primary (focal) hyperhidrosis has many causes.
 * Idiopathic unilateral circumscribed hyperhidrosis
 * Reported association with:
 * Blue rubber bleb nevus
 * Glomus tumor
 * POEMS syndrome
 * Burning feet syndrome (Gopalan's)
 * Trench foot
 * Causalgia
 * Pachydermoperiostosis
 * Pretibial myxedema
 * Gustatory sweating associated with:
 * Encephalitis
 * Syringomyelia
 * Diabetic neuropathies
 * Herpes zoster (shingles)
 * Parotitis
 * Parotid abscesses
 * Thoracic sympathectomy
 * Auriculotemporal or Frey's syndrome
 * Miscellaneous
 * Lacrimal sweating (due to postganglionic sympathetic deficit, often seen in Raeder's syndrome)
 * Harlequin syndrome
 * Emotional hyperhidrosis

Cancer
A variety of cancers have been associated with the development of secondary hyperhidrosis including lymphoma, pheochromocytoma, carcinoid tumors (resulting in carcinoid syndrome), and tumors within the thoracic cavity.

Endocrine
Certain endocrine conditions are also known to cause secondary hyperhidrosis including diabetes mellitus (especially when blood sugars are low), acromegaly, hyperpituitarism, pheochromocytoma (tumor of the adrenal glands, present in 71% of patients) and various forms of thyroid disease.

Medications
Use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (e.g., sertraline) is a common cause of medication-induced secondary hyperhidrosis. Other medications associated with secondary hyperhidrosis include tricyclic antidepressants, stimulants, opioids, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), glyburide, insulin, anxiolytic agents, adrenergic agonists, and cholinergic agonists.

Miscellaneous

 * In people with a history of spinal cord injuries
 * Autonomic dysreflexia
 * Orthostatic hypotension
 * Posttraumatic syringomyelia
 * Associated with peripheral neuropathies
 * Familial dysautonomia (Riley-Day syndrome)
 * Congenital autonomic dysfunction with universal pain loss
 * Exposure to cold, notably associated with cold-induced sweating syndrome
 * Associated with probable brain lesions
 * Episodic with hypothermia (Hines and Bannick syndrome)
 * Episodic without hypothermia
 * Olfactory
 * Associated with systemic medical problems
 * Parkinson's disease
 * Fibromyalgia
 * Congestive heart failure
 * Anxiety
 * Obesity
 * Menopausal state
 * Night sweats
 * Compensatory
 * Infantile acrodynia induced by chronic low-dose mercury exposure, leading to elevated catecholamine accumulation and resulting in a clinical picture resembling pheochromocytoma.
 * Febrile diseases
 * Vigorous exercise
 * A hot, humid environment

Diagnosis
Symmetry of excessive sweating in hyperhidrosis is most consistent with primary hyperhidrosis. To diagnose this condition, a dermatologist gives the person a physical exam. This includes looking closely at the areas of the body that sweat excessively. A dermatologist also asks very specific questions. This helps the physician understand why the person has excessive sweating. Sometimes medical testing is necessary. Some patients require a test called the sweat test. This involves coating some of their skin with a powder that turns purple when the skin gets wet.

Excessive sweating affecting only one side of the body is more suggestive of secondary hyperhidrosis and further investigation for a neurologic cause is recommended.

Treatment
Antihydral cream is one of the solutions prescribed for hyperhidrosis for palms. Topical agents for hyperhidrosis therapy include formaldehyde lotion and topical anticholinergics. These agents reduce perspiration by denaturing keratin, in turn occluding the pores of the sweat glands. They have a short-lasting effect. Formaldehyde is classified as a probable human carcinogen. Contact sensitization is increased, especially with formalin. Aluminium chlorohydrate is used in regular antiperspirants. However, hyperhidrosis requires solutions or gels with a much higher concentration. These antiperspirant solutions or hyperhidrosis gels are especially effective for treatment of axillary or underarm regions. It takes three to five days to see improvement. The most common side-effect is skin irritation. For severe cases of plantar and palmar hyperhidrosis, there has been some success with conservative measures such as higher strength aluminium chloride antiperspirants. Treatment algorithms for hyperhidrosis recommend topical antiperspirants as the first line of therapy for hyperhidrosis. The International Hyperhidrosis Society has published evidence-based treatment guidelines for focal and generalized hyperhidrosis.

Prescription medications called anticholinergics, often taken by mouth, are sometimes used in the treatment of both generalized and focal hyperhidrosis. Anticholinergics used for hyperhidrosis include propantheline, glycopyrronium bromide or glycopyrrolate, oxybutynin, methantheline, and benzatropine. Use of these drugs can be limited, however, by side-effects, including dry mouth, urinary retention, constipation, and visual disturbances such as mydriasis and cycloplegia. For people who find their hyperhidrosis is made worse by anxiety-provoking situations (public speaking, stage performances, special events such as weddings, etc.), taking an anticholinergic medicine before the event may help. In 2018, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the topical anticholinergic glycopyrronium tosylate for the treatment of primary axillary hyperhidrosis.

For peripheral hyperhidrosis, some people have found relief by simply ingesting crushed ice water. Ice water helps to cool excessive body heat during its transport through the blood vessels to the extremities, effectively lowering overall body temperature to normal levels within ten to thirty minutes.

Procedures
Injections of botulinum toxin type A can be used to block neural control of sweat glands. The effect can last from 3–9 months depending on the site of injections. This use has been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The duration of the beneficial effect in primary palmar hyperhidrosis has been found to increase with repetition of the injections. The Botox injections tend to be painful. Various measures have been tried to minimize the pain, one of which is the application of ice.

This was first demonstrated by Khalaf Bushara and colleagues as the first nonmuscular use of BTX-A in 1993. BTX-A has since been approved for the treatment of severe primary axillary hyperhidrosis (excessive underarm sweating of unknown cause), which cannot be managed by topical agents.

miraDry, a microwave-based device, has been tried for excessive underarm perspiration and appears to show promise. With this device, rare but serious side effects exist and are reported in the literature, such as paralysis of the upper limbs and brachial plexus.

Tap water iontophoresis as a treatment for palmoplantar hyperhidrosis was originally described in the 1950s. Studies showed positive results and good safety with tap water iontophoresis. One trial found it decreased sweating by about 80%.

Surgery
Sweat gland removal or destruction is one surgical option available for axillary hyperhidrosis (excessive underarm perspiration). There are multiple methods for sweat gland removal or destruction, such as sweat gland suction, retrodermal curettage, and axillary liposuction, Vaser, or Laser Sweat Ablation. Sweat gland suction is a technique adapted for liposuction.

The other main surgical option is endoscopic thoracic sympathectomy (ETS), which cuts, burns, or clamps the thoracic ganglion on the main sympathetic chain that runs alongside the spine. Clamping is intended to permit the reversal of the procedure. ETS is generally considered a "safe, reproducible, and effective procedure and most patients are satisfied with the results of the surgery". Satisfaction rates above 80% have been reported, and are higher for children. The procedure brings relief from excessive hand sweating in about 85–95% of people. ETS may be helpful in treating axillary hyperhidrosis, facial blushing and facial sweating, but failure rates in people with facial blushing and/or excessive facial sweating are higher and such people may be more likely to experience unwanted side effects.

ETS side-effects have been described as ranging from trivial to devastating. The most common side-effect of ETS is compensatory sweating (sweating in different areas than prior to the surgery). Major problems with compensatory sweating are seen in 20–80% of people undergoing the surgery. Most people find the compensatory sweating to be tolerable while 1–51% claim that their quality of life decreased as a result of compensatory sweating." Total body perspiration in response to heat has been reported to increase after sympathectomy. The original sweating problem may recur due to nerve regeneration, sometimes as early as 6 months after the procedure.

Other possible side-effects include Horner's Syndrome (about 1%), gustatory sweating (less than 25%) and excessive dryness of the palms (sandpaper hands). Some people have experienced cardiac sympathetic denervation, which can result in a 10% decrease in heart rate both at rest and during exercise, resulting in decreased exercise tolerance.

Percutaneous sympathectomy is a minimally invasive procedure similar to the botulinum method, in which nerves are blocked by an injection of phenol. The procedure provides temporary relief in most cases. Some physicians advocate trying this more conservative procedure before resorting to surgical sympathectomy, the effects of which are usually not reversible.

Prognosis
Hyperhidrosis can have physiological consequences such as cold and clammy hands, dehydration, and skin infections secondary to maceration of the skin. Hyperhidrosis can also have devastating emotional effects on one's individual life.

Those with hyperhidrosis may have greater stress levels and more frequent depression.

Excessive sweating or focal hyperhidrosis of the hands interferes with many routine activities, such as securely grasping objects. Some people with focal hyperhidrosis sufferers avoid situations where they will come into physical contact with others, such as greeting a person with a handshake. Hiding embarrassing sweat spots under the armpits limits the affected person's arm movements and pose. In severe cases, shirts must be changed several times during the day and require additional showers both to remove sweat and control body odor issues or microbial problems such as acne, dandruff, or athlete's foot. Additionally, anxiety caused by self-consciousness to the sweating may aggravate the sweating. Excessive sweating of the feet makes it harder for people to wear slide-on or open-toe shoes, as the feet slide around in the shoe because of sweat.

Some careers present challenges for people with hyperhidrosis. For example, careers that require the use of a knife may not be safely performed by people with excessive sweating of the hands. The risk of dehydration can limit the ability of some to function in extremely hot (especially if also humid) conditions. Even the playing of musical instruments can be uncomfortable or difficult because of sweaty hands.

Epidemiology
It is estimated that the incidence of focal hyperhidrosis may be as high as 2.8% of the population of the United States. It affects men and women equally, and most commonly occurs among people aged 25–64 years, though some may have been affected since early childhood. About 30–50% of people have another family member affected, implying a genetic predisposition.

In 2006, researchers at Saga University in Japan reported that primary palmar hyperhidrosis maps to gene locus 14q11.2–q13.

title: Hyperhidrosis