text:
Christian von Ehrenfels

Christian von Ehrenfels (also Maria Christian Julius Leopold Freiherr von Ehrenfels; 20 June 1859 – 8 September 1932) was an Austrian philosopher, and is known as one of the founders and precursors of Gestalt psychology.

Christian von Ehrenfels was born on 20 June 1859 in Rodaun near Vienna and grew up at his father's castle Brunn am Walde in Lower Austria. He joined secondary school in Krems and first studied at the Hochschule für Bodenkultur in Vienna and then changed to the University of Vienna.

There he studied philosophy, was a pupil of Franz Brentano and Alexius Meinong, promoted under supervision of Meinong, following him after his move to the Karl-Franzens-Universität (Graz), in 1885 on the topic of ''Größenrelationen und Zahlen. Eine psychologische Studie'' ("Relations of magnitude and numbers. A psychological study"). He obtained his habilitiation in 1888 in Vienna with the work Über Fühlen und Wollen ("On feeling and willing"). From 1896 to 1929 he was professor of philosophy at the German university of Prague. Interested in his lectures were among others Max Brod, Franz Kafka and Felix Weltsch.

Gestalt psychology
The idea of Gestalt has its roots in theories by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Ernst Mach. Max Wertheimer is to be credited as the founder of the movement of Gestalt psychology. The concept of Gestalt itself was first introduced in contemporary philosophy and psychology by Ehrenfels in his famous work Über Gestaltqualitäten (On the Qualities of Form, 1890). Both he and Edmund Husserl seem to have been inspired by Mach's work Beiträge zur Analyse der Empfindungen (Contributions to the Analysis of the Sensations, 1886) to formulate their very similar concepts of Gestalt and Figural Moment respectively. Ehrenfels' Gestaltqualitaten also influenced Stephan Witasek's investigations on complexion theory.

His analysis of the transition of a melody to another key became famous. Ehrenfels explained that a melody consists of individual sounds, but that it is considerably more than the sum of these notes. The individual notes would be able to join themselves for completely different melodies, while the melody would remain the same, if transposed into another key and containing single tones. This new opinion, that came up to a “perception of the whole” compared to its “parts” Ehrenfels called Gestaltqualitäten (Figure qualities).

Compare with: Aristotle (trans. 1952) “In the case of all things that have several parts and in which the whole is not like a heap, but is a particular something besides the parts, there must be some such uniting factor”.

Monogamy and polygamy
Ehrenfels argued in numerous cultural-scientific and sexual-political writings against the cultural harmfulness of monogamy and for the utopia of a polygynian social order. He defended the opinion that monogamy would hinder a Darwinistic reproduction-logic and procreation-selection, which would have a devastating effect on society in a cultural-biological way and therefore monogamy should be combated. With those theories, Ehrenfels exposed himself to massive criticism, because he offered with his theories unimaginable thoughts to contemporary Western conventions. The basis of Ehrenfels's thinking about a new sexual order were expressed in a series of essays published in several academic journals in Germany and Austria between 1902 and 1910. In his essays, Ehrenfels began with the argument that men are not naturally monogamous, and that monogamy was something that had come to Europe with Christianity. Ehrenfels's starting point was that with many species of animals such as whales, walruses, elephants, lions, etc., the strongest male has a harem, which for him was sufficient proof that this was what nature had intended for humanity. Ehrenfels stated that though monogamy had some useful functions such as the "iron discipline" it imposed on European men, on the whole Europeans had suffered terribly from the unnatural condition of monogamy, which had seriously interfered with the Darwinian progress of ensuring the survival of the fittest (Ehrenfels was an avid Social Darwinist). Ehrenfels believed polygamy was what nature had intended for men as it allowed the "fittest" men to father as many children as possible with as many women as possible in a process of "virile selection".

Ehrenfels wrote with disgust that monogamy was "that type of sexual life...that corresponded to the needs and capacities of women, at the cost of men". By contrast, Ehrenfels believed that women were naturally monogamous, and that all that women desired was one good husband to look after them. Ehrenfels further believed that all social problems were caused by an unnatural state of Christian monogamy, which caused a "splitting" between a man's "day consciousness" when he professed to believe in Christian marriage, and his "night consciousness", when a man's naturally aggressive, animistic sex drive come into play. Ehrenfels argued that this "splitting" within men between their "day consciousness" and "night consciousness" caused men all sorts of psychological trauma, and led to men acting in irrational, often violent ways. The specific example of the sort of male irrationality brought up by Enrenfels concerning this "splitting" was that of men abusing the prostitutes they visited.

Additionally, Ehrenfels argued this psychological "splitting" led to men to treat their wives badly as men were forced into the unnatural condition of monogamy, and that the feminist movement and the entire "Women's Question" had arisen as a response; Enrenfels believed the "Women's Question" would naturally resolve itself if only husbands would learn to treat their wives better. Finally, Ehrenfels argued that the monogamy was at the root to the "Social Question" (by which meant Ehrenfels meant the rise of the Austrian Social Democratic Party) as it encouraged men to leave their fortunes to their children, something that Ehrenfels believed to be natural, but also something that "very often contradicts the demands of social justice". As a result of wealth being spread by "privilegistic" means as opposed to "meritocratic" means, the poor felt resentment and were voting for socialist parties, which promised to abolish inequality. Ehrenfels believed that humanity was naturally unequal, and the demand for universal human equality had to be fought as it is totally unnatural. In a 1908 essay, the proud aristocrat Baron von Enrenfels called the demand for universal equality in the Austrian Empire being made by the Social Democrats "preposterous".

Yellow Peril
Moreover, Ehrenfels was obsessed with the fear of the "Yellow Peril", and believed that Asian peoples were a deadly threat to European civilization. Ehrenfels wrote if nothing was done to stop the rise of China, that "if there is no change in current practice, this will lead to the annihilation of the white race by the yellow race".

In April 1895, the German Emperor Wilhelm II had a nightmare where all the nations of Europe appeared as "prehistoric warrior goddesses" who were protected by Germany which took the form of the Archangel Michael. To the East, they were threatened by a dark, stormy cloud in which a Chinese-style dragon carried a Buddha wreathed in fire under which marched millions of Asians who destroyed all in their path, killing all whites. After his nightmare, which Wilhelm regarded as a message from God about the coming, apocalyptic great "race war" between Europe and Asia which would decide the future of the 20th century, he had a painting of his nightmare done by his court painter Hermann Knackfuss in September 1895. The painting, which was known as the Yellow Peril painting was very popular in its time. Ehrenfels saw the Yellow Peril painting in December 1895 and was greatly impressed. From 1895 onwards, Ehrenfels was greatly influenced by the "Yellow Peril" propaganda put out by the German government, in which Wilhelm repeatedly warned of the alleged Asian menace to the West. As a Wagnerite who deeply involved in the various Wagner societies in Vienna, Ehrenfels got to know Philipp, Prince of Eulenburg, the German ambassador to Austria-Hungary and an anti-Asian racist who promoted the fear of the "Yellow Peril" to anybody who would listen. In this viewpoint, to protect European civilization white men would have to wage a "primitive" and "primordial" racial war against the "Yellow Peril", which justified both white supremacy and male supremacy. The same sort of language and imagery was always frequently invoked with the fears about a "race war" with the blacks and the Jews. European racists often considered the Jews to be a race apart from the rest of humanity, and so the Jews were lumped in with the blacks and the Asians.

Ehrenfels believed that Asians were especially dangerous enemies of the Europeans because in East Asia, polygamy was accepted as a natural part of the social order. Ehrenfels warned that this process of "socially victorious" Chinese men taking as many wives as possible was ultimately a grave threat to the West. As a result of polygamy, genetically superior Asian men were fathering as many children as possible with as many women as possible while genetically superior European men were fathering children by only one woman. As a result of European monogamy and Asian polygamy, the Europeans were losing out to the Asians, and it was only a matter of time before this genetic edge allowed the Asians to destroy European civilization. As a Social Darwinist and a philosopher thereof, Ehrenfels saw all history as an endless racial struggle with the fittest "races" surviving. Ehrenfels took it for granted that the whites and Asians were natural enemies, and always would be. In Ehrenfels's viewpoint, the fact that Chinese were capable of working hard while eating less than Europeans were an important sign that the Asian "race" was thanks to polygamy was starting become the stronger "tougher race". Ehrenfels wrote with alarm that: "the average constitutional strength of the Chinese, their resistance to overwork and...noxious and prejudicial influences of all kinds...exceeds that of the civilized peoples of the West to an astonishing degree". Ehrenfels warned that it this progress was allowed to continue, then the "beautiful Aryan race" to whom Ehrenfels compared to "clear mountain streams" and "purest white milk" would be swept away by the Asian "torrents of mud". Ehrenfels stated that racist anti-Asian immigrant laws like the Chinese Exclusion Act in the United States were a good first step, but were insufficient to stop the rise of the "tough, fecund Mongol race".

Ehrenfels's "solution"
Ehrenfels proposed solution was to do away with monogamy, and create a new social order based on polygamy. To begin with, the state would take complete control of human sexuality. In Ehrenfels's new society, the "highest goal" would the "improvement of the human constitution" by allowing only the fittest white men to breed. In Ehrenfels's new society, only those white men who proved themselves to be social "winners" would be allowed to marry, and the number of wives a man could have would be based upon his degree of success. The more successful the man, the more wives he would have. The state would assign a man his wives after determining his social success and other features such as health, looks, morality and intelligence. Woman by contrast would be allowed only one husband at a time. All women would be forced to live in communal barracks at the expense of the state, where they would help other each raise their children and where their husbands would visit for sex. In this proposed new society, romantic love would be done away with, and relations between men and women would be only sexual. Ehrenfels maintained in his new society that henceforward only the "specifically sexual element" in relations between the sexes would matter and other "motives alien to breeding" like romantic love would done away with in order to improve the white race. Ehrenfels argued that what men and women both really wanted were those "days and nights of great and insatiable longing and desire", so in this new society with no "trivialities" like romantic love to interference with the business of sex would be a great improvement for both sexes.

For men who were "social losers", a certain number of the genetically less fit women would be sterilized and turned into the "courtesan class" who would be set aside for the sexual use of the "loser" men in brothels. Since in Ehrenfels's viewpoint, all that men really wanted from women was sex, not love, in this new society men would not suffer the psychological problems caused by monogamy, thus ending the "splitting". Since this new society would be meritocratic, this would solve the entire "Social Question" as there would no more inherited wealth and privilege. Furthermore, in this new society, women living in their communal barracks would help each other with raising children, so women would have more time for leisure, and as such Ehrenfels believed that women would come to see this new society as a huge improvement over the previous monogamist society. Their husbands now free of monogamy would treat them better, and so the entire "Women's Question" would dissolve as women would lose interest in feminism (which Enrenfels saw as very unnatural). To end the "Yellow Peril" once and for all, Ehrenfels suggested that the "white nations" band together to conquer all the Asian nations before it was too late, and create a new world racial order with a hereditary, racially determined "caste system". In Ehrenfels's vision, whites would serve as the oligarchic "Aryan" military and intellectual castes and the Asians and blacks as the slave castes supporting the whites. Ehrenfels in essays published in 1903 and 1904 that in this industrial age, where the majority of humanity was doomed to spend their lives in "mindless, indeed mind-numbing mechanical labor", that this sort of work was best done by "regressive types" of people instead of "human types of higher value". Ehrenfels argued that Asians and blacks were the "regressive types" born for lives of mindless labor while whites were the types of "higher value" meant for creative thinking, so the division of labor he proposed for his caste system was the one that best suited the intellectual capabilities of the different races that would create the "proper relationship" between them. To prevent Miscegenation, interracial sex would be a capital crime with offenders to be publicly hanged. The American historian Richard Weikart wrote Ehrenfels was typical of the "progress through racial extermination" school of thought that characterized much of the academia in the German-speaking world in the first part of the 20th century, writing that: "Through Ehrenfels was not explicit on this point, presumably the elevation of the Europeans he desired would lead to the annihilation of the East Asians, as well as the other races, whom Ehrenfels considered far inferior to the Europeans.     Until the Russian-Japanese War of 1904-05, Ehrenfels believed that these sort of radical changes would only happen sometime in the far-future, or as Ehrenfels put it in 1902: "the Aryan will only respond to the imperative of sexual reform when the waves of the Mongolian tide are lapping around his neck". After Japan's victory over Russia in 1905, Ehrenfels wrote "the absolute necessity of a radical sexual reform for the continued existence of the western races of men has... been raised from the level of discussion to the level of a scientifically proven fact". In a 1907 essay, Ehrenfels wrote that radical sexual reform was "now a question of 'to be or not to be'...We have no time to lose." Ehrenfels suggested as a starting point, the Austrian government begin to allow soldiers upon completing their military service to have polygamous marriages, with those soldiers who proven themselves especially intelligent, brave and physically fit to have the largest number of wives. Subsequently, Ehrenfels made a public appeal to "manly Aryan men" who had proved themselves to be both "social winners" and "studs" to disregard monogamy and marriage, and to start impregnating as many women as possible to give the "white race" a genetic edge in the coming war against the "Yellow Peril". Before the Russian-Japanese war, it has been the Chinese who had personified the Asian threat to Ehrenfels; after the war, the Asian enemy of the future was the Japanese. In his essays in 1907–1908, Ehrenfels wrote that the Chinese lacked "all potentialities...determination, initiative, productivity, invention and organizational talent". While the Chinese were now a listless mass of allegedly mindless Asians, Ehrenfels wrote that Japan was "a first-rate military power", and should the Japanese conquer the Chinese, the Japanese would engage in selective breeding to create a race of "healthy, sly, cunning coolies, virtuosos of reproduction" in China. Once that happened, Ehrenfels warned that a vast Sino-Japanese army would set to conquer the world consisting of genetically superior soldiers whom the Western powers would be unable to stop.

Public acceptance
Ehrenfels's ideas were not widely accepted by the public, but the very fact that he was allowed to publish essays on his new society in intellectually prestigious, learned academic journals in Germany and Austria shows that his ideas were part of the intellectual mainstream in the first years of the 20th century. Both Alfred Ploetz of Archiv für Rassen-und Gesellschaftbiologie, the journal for the widely respected Society for Race Hygiene, and Max Marcuse of the sexologist journal Sexual-Probleme, endorsed Ehrenfels's plans for a new society. Social Darwinism and racism were part of the intellectual mainstream in the West, as was the widespread belief that white men were starting to become "soft", and if white men continued to lose their masculine "hardness" inevitably this would lead to process of "racial degeneration", which would end with the whites becoming enslaved to the "Yellow Peril". The early 20th century saw what the historian Jonathan Katz called the "invention of heterosexuality", by which he meant that the ideal of romantic "true love" was discarded in popular discourse for the first time by a new discourse that celebrated sexuality and carnal pleasure as the objectives of relationships. Ehrnefels's opposition to romantic love and his unabashed celebration of sexual pleasure as part of the evolutionary duties of racial improvement fitted in well to the new age. Katz noted that those who saw sexual desires as the core of relationships between men and women almost always justified this with reference to human "need", "drive" or "instinct" to pass on their genes.

Opposition
However, Ehrenfels's ideas did meet with disagreement. In December 1908, Sigmund Freud invited Ehrenfels to give a lecture on his proposed new society. The audience generally offered polite dissent from Ehrenfels with one participant calling his new society an "adolescent sexual fantasy". Ehrenfels's proposed new society earned him criticism from the Catholic Church which objected to his attacks on Christian monogamy; from feminists who were offended by his idea that women should be kept essentially as chattels and treated as sex objects by men; and from the romantics everywhere who were upset about his plans to abolish romantic love. The German feminist Helene Stöcker protested against Ehrenfels's plans, albeit from the same social Darwinian viewpoint, writing: "A sexual ethic that does not rest on the development of women as a personality, but instead regards her merely as an object of male lust, is absolutely counter-evolutionary".

The American historian Edward Ross Dickinson wrote the "pieces" of Ehrenfels's thinking were all mainstream, but the way he brought them together was "idiosyncratic". Dickinson suggested that these ideas were rooted in Ehrenfels's own tormented sexuality as he was both fascinated/repulsed by sex. Ehrenfels had been brought up in an extremely conservative, sexually repressive Roman Catholic family, and from his teenage years onwards, always felt deep shame and guilt about his sexual desires. Despite his obsession with sex, Ehrenfels was enraged by pornography (which he wanted to see ruthlessly stamped out) and by the "indecent" popular culture of Vienna, which he saw as far too sexualized. Ehrenfels was especially offended by the Animierkneipen ("hostess bar"), a type of popular bar in Austria where the buxom waitresses wore very low-cut dresses and were encouraged to flirt with the male customers in order to get them to buy more drinks; in the Animierkneipen, the waitresses were paid commissions based on their nightly sales of alcohol. Ehrenfels was deeply disgusted by the sight of what he considered to be women flaunting their sexuality to manipulate men, and wanted the Animierkneipen banned. Besides that, Ehrenfels complained constantly about "indecent puns" used by ordinary people, the "courtesan style" in modern fashion and by the "pornography of the humorous weeklies, in comic songs, farces and operettas".

Dickinson wrote that when Ehrenfels wrote about men suffering from what he called the "tortuously shackled animal personality" created by monogamy, he was almost certainly writing about himself. Dickinson suggested that based upon a reading of Ehrenfels's private letters his concerns about psychological "splitting" within men were based upon his own visits to prostitutes, where he saw johns abusing the prostitutes, and that he may himself have badly treated the prostitutes he had sex with (his letters are somewhat ambiguous on this point). The frequency with which Ehrenfels brought up the example of how psychological "splitting" was causing men to abuse prostitutes may very well have reflected a guilty conscience on his part about past abuse that he had inflicted on the prostitutes whose services he had used. In a 1908 essay entitled "The Yellow Peril", Ehrenfels wrote that 13 years earlier in 1895, he "arrived, on the basis of personal experience, which it would be superfluous to recount here, at the following two alternatives: 'Either I am an individual of totally corrupt sex instincts, or our monogamous sexual order is an institution with completely corrupting tendencies.'"

"Flight from domesticity" novels
In the late 19th century, what the British historian John Tosh called the "flight from domesticity" novels became very popular, which were a major influence on Ehrenfels. The "flight from domesticity" novels typically dealt with a ruggedly tough male who lived life on his own terms, usually alone and always in some remote frontier place, and who almost never had a relationship with a woman or children. The heroes in the "flight from domesticity" novels were usually a frontiersman, a hunter, a cowboy, a scout or some other suitably adventuresome, manly occupation. Because the heroes in the "flight from domesticity" novels lived in the wild in harmony with nature, they were always portrayed as being more morally pure and authentic than the people who lived in modern civilization. The hero in the "flight from domesticity" novels was always the strong silent type, the taciturn tough guy who lived uncompromisingly by his own code of honor and who embodied typical male values like courage and self-reliance far better than did the men who lived in civilization. Typical of the "flight from domesticity" novels were the Allan Quatermain novels by the British novelist H. Rider Haggard dealing with the adventures of a British frontiersman in 19th century South Africa; the Western novels by the German novelist Karl May dealing with the adventures of the German immigrant cowboy Old Shatterhand and his Apache best friend Winnetou in the American Old West; the Scott Allen Cameron novels by the Canadian novelist Ralph Connor about a Mountie singly-handedly upholding the law in the Rocky Mountains; and Western adventure novels by the Irish-American novelist Thomas Mayne Reid. The typical hero in Reid's novels which were extremely popular in the United States and Europe was described as being: "gallant, skillful at arms, far more at ease around men than around women, has lots of time for trappers and soldiers but little for the upper classes and intellectuals, and is much happier hunting and killing than thinking."

Tosh argued by the end of the 19th century, the burdens of being a husband and a father in a modern, industrialized, urban society were such that many men fantasized about "chucking it all" to escape domesticity; to live a life unburdened by the demands of a job, children, a wife or any other social obligation. Hence the popularity of the "flight from domesticity" novels, which celebrated the "masculine primitive". Ehrenfels's ideas about his new society where men would live apart from women and children, would not participate in raising their children and whose relationships with their wives would be entirely sexual bear a very strong resemblance to the themes in the "flight from domesticity" novels. Significantly, Ehrenfels believed that in his new society where men would not be burdened by the demands of family life would allow them to live more full and adventuresome lives like the type depicted in the "flight from domesticity" books. Ehrenfels's own fantasies about manly Aryan heroes battling the "Yellow Peril" who would single-handedly kill hundreds of the "evil" Asians while sleeping with every white women in sight, but never having a relationship or raising children appeared to be a sexualized version of the macho fantasies found in the "flight from domesticity" novels. Not all of the "flight from domesticity" writers took the same racist line as did as Ehrenfels, with May in particular being very sympathetic towards the plight of Native-Americans in his Old Shatterhand novels. In many of the "flight from domesticity" books, non-white peoples like the Zulus and the Apache were depicted admiringly if rather patronizingly as "noble savages" who in their primitive state had preserved certain spiritual qualities that people in the industrialized West had long since lost. What Ehrenfels like many other men at the time seemed to have liked in the "flight from domesticity" novels was the celebration of the "masculine primitive"; a purer, rawer, tougher form of masculinity that was alleged to exist more in the wild than that found in civilization.

Dickinson's critique
Dickinson noted that for Ehrenfels, the fear of the "Yellow Peril" was always expressed in water imagery, noting how Ehrenfels warned of a "flood" of Chinese coming to the West, that the Chinese were a "torrent of mud" in which Europe was drowning in, that the Japanese were a "polluting liquid", and that Europeans would not respond to this menace until the "waves" of Asians were up to their neck. The German historian Klaus Theweleit wrote that the same threatening water imagery was frequently used in the writings of Freikorps men during the interwar period, but the only threats were the Jews and the Communists (usually the same thing in these writings), while the Asians which threatened to subsume German men. Theweleit wrote that right-wing German men who had served in the Freikorps during the interwar period were obsessed with proving their masculinity by establishing their "hardness", and that the water imagery reflected their fear of women, the erotic, love, intimacy, and of dependence, all things that threatened to make them less than manly. Theweleit argued in his 1977 book Männerphantasien (Male Fantasies) that the water imagery was associated with sexuality and a loss of self-control. Reviewing Theweleit's book in 1987, the American historian Paul Robinson wrote that "...one can't read it without feeling that Mr. Theweleit is onto something: the piling up of examples eventually begins to take its toll on even the most skeptical." Dickinson argued that men like Ehrenfels felt the same sexual anxieties about their masculinity as did the writers examined by Theweleit, but he just projected these anxieties onto the "Yellow Peril" rather than "Judeo-Bolshevism". To be in love can often mean a certain loss of self-control as those in love often invoke the images of being "swept away" or "swallowed up". Dickinson argued that for Ehrenfels, a self-proclaimed macho "manly man" and Aryan alpha male, the prospect of being in love with someone was terrifying as it meant the possibility of losing control, and he projected those fears-which were always expressed in the water imagery-onto the Asians. Ehrenfels often denied quite vehemently that marriage had anything to do with love, writing about his own marriage that marriage was: "in the final analysis the sexual provision for two persons of the opposite sex through mutual, exclusive and contractual agreement to intercourse. Our morality tries to cover the matter...instead of sexual provision we speak of a unity of souls and the contractual agreement to coitus...is more or less transparently veiled by the term 'community of bed and table'". Dickson wrote that Ehrenfels's efforts to deny that a man could ever love a woman suggested a huge fear of emotional dependence on his part.

Dickinson noted Ehrenfels's vision of humanity was a simplistic one, in which men fought and struggled to pass on their genes by impregnating as many women as possible. The existence of homosexuality and bisexuality posed a major problem for Ehrenfels's view of humanity. In 1897, the Scientific-Humanitarian Committee, the first gay rights group in not only Germany, but also the world was founded. One of the founders of the Scientific-Humanitarian Committee, Magnus Hirschfeld, the German sexologist and gay rights advocate, was a well known figure in the German-speaking world in the early 20th century and his theories were much debated. In 1899, Hirschfeld had argued in an essay: "that in all mental and physical characteristics there are only gradual, quantitative differences between men and women, that between them, in every respect, there are all sorts of mixed forms in extraordinary diversity". Hirschfeld's theories about varieties of human sexuality ranging from heterosexual to bisexual to homosexual and all of which were equally valid, posed a major for Ehrenfels. Ehrenfels simply dismissed everything Hirschfeld had to say out of hand, saying that homosexuality was a case of moral degeneration caused by a few "biologically degenerate homosexuals" who seduced otherwise "healthy boys" into their lifestyle. Ehrenfels could not accept Hirschfeld's theory that some people were born gay as it contradicted his view of male sexuality as an aggressive drive to pass on one's genes too much.

Dickinson noted that Ehrenfels's intense bouts of depression together with periods of manic activity suggested a degree of emotional instability on his part, adding: "'A number of prominent men of the period more or less conform to the same pattern. Gail Bederman has described related personality structures in G. Stanley Hall and Theodore Roosevelt. Both exhibited manic restlessness, quasi-messianic self-regard, insecure masculine sexuality, a fear of racial degeneration and bizarre theories regarding the regenerating evolutionary power of masculine sexuality and the genocidal instincts of all males-who, each believed, naturally sought to exterminate men of other races as part of the struggle for the survival of the fittest. Emperor Wilhelm II of Germany, while probably closer to outright mental illness, exhibited similar traits-including manic activity, intellectual eclecticism, megalomania, occasional nervous breakdowns, genocidal cogitations, and concern with the 'Yellow Peril'.'" Ehrenfels projected feminine qualities onto the Chinese, always using feminine verbs when writing about the Chinese, and always compared China to a woman after 1904. The German language has three sorts of verbs: masculine, feminine and neutral. Ehrenfels's fear of the Chinese reflected his fear of the feminine which might overwhelm the masculine through the powers of love and sex. By contrast, Ehrenfels always used masculine verbs when writing about the Japanese, and he often compared the Japanese to a rival male that was seeking to dominate the "woman China" in competition to the European powers that were also compared to males. Dickison argued that Ehrenfels's constant use of this sort of sexualized language of power, aggression and domination when writing about China reflected his own fear of sex, love, sexual dependence, his sexual adequacy as a man, and most of all, emotional dependence. Dickinson further noted the great irony of Ehrenfels's life, namely that his own biography disapproved his theories about men as sex-crazed animals incapable of love for either the women in their lives or their children. By all accounts, Ehrenfels did indeed deeply love his wife and his two children.

Dickinson noted that many of Ehrenfels's ideas seem to anticipate National Socialism, but this was not the case. Within the first decade of the 20th century some of the more radical members of the eugenicist-Social Darwinist movement in Germany were already advocating killing the physically and/or mentally disabled as the best way of improving the Aryan race. Ehrenfels was deeply horrified by these ideas, and made it clear that in his proposed new society, the mentally and physically disabled would be prevented from marrying, and this was enough. Had Ehrenfels lived long enough, he would have been appalled by the Action T4 program launched by the German government in January 1939 to exterminate all physically and mentally disabled people in the Reich (which by that time included Austria). Likewise, Ehrenfels was opposed to antisemitism, writing there was no "Jewish bogey" threatening the "Aryan race", called antisemitism "silly" and argued that the Jews would be very useful allies for the Aryans in the coming war with the Asians. In this, Ehrenfels parted company with his friend Houston Stewart Chamberlain who believed in the coming great "race war" that the Asians together with the blacks would fight under the leadership of the Jews against the Aryans.

Baroness Emma von Ehrenfels
Ehrenfels's wife Emma was befriended by Houston Stewart Chamberlain. His daughter was the author Imma von Bodmershof and his son Rolf, a professor of anthropology who converted to Islam in 1927 and assumed the name Omar. Omar Rolf's wife, Elfriede von Bodmershof, was a literary person. As well, she registered the pseudonym "Kurban Said" as belonging to her for the novels "Ali and Nino" as well as "Girl from the Golden Horn." However, Lucy Tal whose company E.P. Tal had published "Ali and Nino" wrote her lawyer saying, "I had never heard of the Baroness... Also my late husband's right hand and secretary knew nothing of the Baroness. Only much later, when for some reason, we looked at Buchhaendler Boersenblatt, we discovered the Baroness as Kurban Said. Of course, under the Nazis pseudonyms were born, people unrightful had themselves as authors ..."

In the 1890s, Ehrenfels-who was a passionate fan of Richard Wagner-befriended a fellow Wagnerite, the British born German völkisch thinker Houston Stewart Chamberlain, "the Evangelist of Race". Ehrenfels, who despite being a Wagnerite and a friend of Chamberlain's did not generally associate himself with the more extreme racist and anti-Semitic wing of the Wagner movement that Chamberlain came to be the leader of. Ehrenfels never accepted Chamberlain's anti-Semitism, but he was influenced by Chamberlain's theory that the Aryan race was the greatest and best race of them all. Chamberlain was later to have an affair with Ehrenfels's wife, Baroness Emma von Ehrenfels.

Felix Weltsch
The Czech Zionist, philosopher and friend of Kafka Felix Weltsch wrote many essays and memos about Ehrenfels, who himself was of partly Jewish descent. Weltsch was one of Ehrenfels's most important pupils.

Poetry and fiction

 * 1876 - Hadmar von Kuering (Bourgeois tragedy)
 * 1876 - Brutus (Bourgeois tragedy)
 * 1876 - Richard Löwenherz (Bourgeois tragedy)
 * 1885 - Die Brüder von Hartenstein (Drama) -, Graz 1885
 * 1890 - Der Kampf des Prometheus (Libretto)
 * 1886 - Metaphysische Ausführungen im Anschlusse an Emil du Bois-Reymond
 * 1888 - Über Fühlen und Wollen: Eine psychologische Studie. Carl Gerold & Sohn, Wien 1888
 * 1890 - "Über Gestaltqualitäten". In: Vierteljahrsschrift für wissenschaftliche Philosophie 14 (1890), (Page 249–292) (English: "On the Qualities of Form", 1890)
 * 1893 - "Werttheorie und Ethik". In: Vierteljahrsschrift für wissenschaftliche Philosophie 17 (1893), (Page 26–110, 200–266, 321–363, 413–425)
 * 1894 - "Werttheorie und Ethik". In: Vierteljahrsschrift für wissenschaftliche Philosophie, 18 (1894), (Page 22–97)
 * 1897 - System der Werttheorie. O. Reisland, Leipzig 1898, (2 volumes)
 * 1904 - "Sexuales, Ober- und Unterbewusstsein". In: Politisch-Anthropologische Revue 2 (1903-4), (Page 456–476)
 * 1904 - "Die sexuale Reform". In: Politisch-Anthropologische Revue 2 (1903–1904) (Page 970–994)
 * 1907 - Sexualethik. J. F. Bergmann, Wiesbaden 1907
 * 1911 - "Leitziele zur Rassenbewertung". In: Archiv für Rassen- und Gesellschaftsbiologie 8 (1911), (Page 59–71)
 * 1913 - Richard Wagner und seine Apostaten. Ein Beitrag zur Jahrhundertfeier. H. Heller Wien & Leipzig 1913
 * 1916 - Kosmogonie, Diederichs, Jena 1916
 * 1922 - Das Primzahlengesetz, entwickelt und dargestellt auf Grund der Gestalttheorie. Reisland, Leipzig 1922
 * 1930 - "Sexualmoral der Zukunft". In: Archiv für Rassen- und Gesellschaftsbiologie, 22 (1930), (Page 292–304)

title: Christian von Ehrenfels


text:
Oliver Ocasek

Oliver Robert Ocasek (November 2, 1925 – June 25, 1999) was an American politician of the Democratic party who served as President of the Ohio State Senate in the 1970s and 1980s. After the Democrats lost their majority in the Senate, Ocasek was replaced as party leader by Harry Meshel. In 1962 and 1968, Ocasek ran for a seat in the United States House of Representatives. He lost both times to Republican incumbent William H. Ayres. In 1986 he lost a Democratic primary for congress in the 14th district to Thomas C. Sawyer. Ocasek also served on the Ohio Board of Education from 1993 to 1998.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Oliver Ocasek


text:
Barzaz Breiz

Barzaz Breiz (in modern spelling Barzhaz Breizh, meaning "Ballads of Brittany": barzh is the equivalent of "bard" and Breizh means "Brittany") is a collection of Breton popular songs collected by Théodore Hersart de la Villemarqué and published in 1839. It was compiled from oral tradition and preserves traditional folk tales, legends and music. Hersart de la Villemarqué grew up in the manor of Plessix in Nizon, near Pont-Aven, and was half Breton himself.

Significance
The collection was published in the original Breton language with a French translation. It achieved a wide distribution, as the Romantic generation in France that "discovered" the Basque language was beginning to be curious about all the submerged cultures of Europe and the pagan survivals just under the surface of folk Catholicism. The Barzaz Breiz brought Breton folk culture for the first time into European awareness. One of the oldest of the collected songs was the legend of Ys. The book was also notable for the fact that La Villemarqué recorded the music of the ballads as well as the words. This was one of the first attempts to collect and print Breton traditional music, except hymns.

Until this publication the so-called Matter of Britain was known only from references to some legends in French language Romances of the 12th to 14th centuries, in which much of the culture was also transformed to suit Gallic hearers.

The book is divided into two parts. The first part collects ballads about historical legends and heroic deeds of Breton leaders, including Nominoe, Erispoe and the warriors of the Combat of the Thirty. The second part records local culture, concentrating on religious festivals and seasonal events.

Authenticity
The publication of traditional folk literature was controversial at this time because of the dispute about the most famous of such collections, James Macpherson's The Poems of Ossian, which purported to be translated from ancient Celtic poetry, but was widely believed to have been largely written by MacPherson himself. After the publication of Barzaz Breiz, François-Marie Luzel criticised the work at a scholarly conference in 1868. At the 1872 Congress of the Breton Association at Saint-Brieuc, he argued that the songs had been completely manufactured in the manner of Macpherson, because, he said, he had never himself met with ballads in such elegant Breton and free of borrowed French words. The main problem raised by his opponents was that Villemarqué refused to show his notebooks to other scholars.

The dispute continued into the twentieth century. In 1907 La Villemarque's son, Pierre de la Villemarqué, published a defence of his father's work. However, in 1960 Francis Gourvil argued in a PhD thesis that the Barzaz Breiz was a forgery. In 1974 Donatien Laurent partially rejected these accusations by demonstrating the authenticity of the material of the book thanks to the discovery in 1964 of Villemarqué's notebooks. Laurent's research was published in 1989. Laurent concluded that Villemarqué had rearranged the material he had collected in order to enliven and clean up the texts and music, but that this was common practice at the time, comparable to work of the Brothers Grimm. An assessment of the dispute is given in the chapter "Collectors and Singers" of Mary-Ann Constantine's 1996 study Breton Ballads.

Editions
The first edition was published in 1839 in Paris by Éditions Delloye, in the form of books in 2 °-8. Reprinted in 1840, 1845 and, at Didier et Cie, 1846, the book was then published in 1867 in Paris.

In 1865 the standard English translation by Tom Taylor was published under the title Ballads and Songs of Brittany. The edition contained some of the original melodies "harmonized by Mrs. Tom Taylor", but omitted some of the ballads.

The 1867 edition was subsequently reprinted many times to the present day by the academic library Perrin, not counting the many English translations (Taylor, Fleay ... ), German (Keller-Seckendorf. ... ), Italian (Pascoli), Polish, and so on.

In 1981 a new edition appeared in pocket-sized format.

In 1989 Mouladurioù Hor Yezh issued a Barzhaz Breizh with only the Breton text, but changed into modern orthography and including the musical score.

In 1996, Coop Breizh published a pocket version of the book in French without the Breton text.

In 1999, Editions du Layeur issued a reprint of the 1867 edition, by Yann-Fañch Kemener, singer and collector, plus the foreword to the 1845 edition. The main merit is that he put Breton and French versions of each poem together ensuring a very high readability. A compact disc accompanies the book provides a performance of twelve of the songs by Yann Fanch Kemener and "Maîtrise de Bretagne", solo and duo.

title: Barzaz Breiz


text:
BloodRayne (video game)

BloodRayne is an action-adventure hack and slash video game developed by Terminal Reality and released on October 31, 2002. The game has since spawned a franchise with the addition of sequels, films, and self-contained comic books.

A remastered version was released on November 20, 2020 as BloodRayne: Terminal Cut by Terminal Reality and Ziggurat Interactive, and later on PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Xbox One, Xbox Series and Nintendo Switch as BloodRayne: ReVamped on November 18, 2021.

Plot
In 1933, while searching for her vampire father, dhampir Rayne is recruited by the Brimstone Society, a secret society that monitors and combats supernatural threats to humanity. For her first mission, Rayne is deployed to the town of Mortton, Louisiana, to investigate reports of a plague that is transforming local residents into zombie-like mutants. She is accompanied by Mynce, her mentor and fellow dhampir.

In Mortton, Rayne finds the town infested by spider-like monsters called Maraisreq, one of which devours and apparently kills Mynce. After killing the "queen" Maraisreq, Rayne finds a strange glowing rib in its corpse; when she touches it, the rib immediately implants itself into her own torso. Before she can recover from the shock, Rayne is attacked by a man in a Nazi uniform who forcibly removes the rib from her body and leaves her for dead, although she survives.

Five years later, in 1938, Brimstone sends Rayne to Argentina to perform reconnaissance at a mining facility where the Nazis are rumored to be searching for a mystical relic of great power. Brimstone provides Rayne with a target list of high-ranking Nazi officers to assassinate, one of whom she recognizes as the man who attacked her in Louisiana: Jürgen Wulf, leader of the Gegengeist Gruppe (G.G.G.; literally "Anti-Ghost Group"), the Nazi counterparts of Brimstone who seek to harness occult powers for the Third Reich. A Thule Society high priest tells Rayne that the Nazis are searching the mine for the skull of Beliar, a legendary king of Atlantis, whom the Nazis revere as the pinnacle of Aryan superiority.

As Rayne descends into the mine, she discovers that the facility has been overrun by "Daemites," demonic parasites that take humans as hosts and serve to guard Beliar's skull. Deep within the mine, Rayne locates the crystal skull containing Beliar's eye, the true relic, which implants itself into her head, enhancing her vision. One of Rayne's targets, the cyborg Mauler, informs her that Beliar was not an Atlantean king at all, but was in fact the original devil. Beliar was overthrown by Mephisto, who dismembered him and scattered his body parts across the world. The rib from the queen Maraisreq is one of these parts, as is the eye from the mine, but the most powerful relic is Beliar's heart, which can summon the demon himself. Mauler boasts that the heart is buried beneath Castle Gaustadt in Germany, where Wulf will soon excavate it. The Nazis collapse the mine in order to destroy the Daemites, and Rayne departs for Germany to confront Wulf and prevent the G.G.G. from summoning Beliar.

Unbeknownst to the Nazis, Castle Gaustadt is home to a clan of ancient vampires that, after centuries in isolation, have evolved into bestial monsters. One of these vampires, Hedrox, manages to obtain Beliar's heart, but does not know how to access its powers. While the feral vampires and Nazi soldiers attack each other, Rayne fights her way into the castle, where she encounters Mynce. Mynce reveals that she faked her death in order to infiltrate the G.G.G. and has been working as a double agent for Brimstone ever since. She warns Rayne that Wulf has already absorbed several of Beliar's relics into his own body, making him extremely dangerous. Shortly afterward, Wulf ambushes and kills Mynce, ripping her heart out in front of Rayne. A furious Rayne swears revenge on Wulf and pursues him into the castle's cathedral.

In the cathedral, Rayne confronts Wulf and Hedrox. Hedrox consumes Beliar's heart, inadvertently summoning the demon into his own body. The revived Beliar demands that Rayne and Wulf return his stolen body parts, leading to a three-way fight between them. After a pitched battle, Rayne decapitates Wulf and banishes Beliar, leaving only his still-beating heart behind. Rayne briefly appears tempted by the power of Beliar's heart, but ultimately disposes of it by kicking it down a storm drain.

Brimstone are pleased by Rayne's success and note that she deserves a rest, but they caution against the growing threat posed by another, even greater evil: Rayne's father, whom Brimstone has finally located.

Development
The game had a development budget of $2 million. The total budget was $6 million to $7 million. Development time was more than two years.

Reception
The PlayStation 2 and Xbox versions of BloodRayne received "generally favorable reviews", while the GameCube and PC versions received "mixed or average reviews", according to the review aggregation website Metacritic. Electronic Gaming Monthly gave the PS2 version 7, 7.5 and 7.5 for a total of 7.33 out of 10. In Japan, where the same console version was ported and published by Electronic Arts on August 26, 2004, Famitsu gave it a score of 29 out of 40.

title: BloodRayne (video game)


text:
Wollastonite

Wollastonite is a calcium inosilicate mineral (CaSiO3) that may contain small amounts of iron, magnesium, and manganese substituting for calcium. It is usually white. It forms when impure limestone or dolomite is subjected to high temperature and pressure, which sometimes occurs in the presence of silica-bearing fluids as in skarns or in contact with metamorphic rocks. Associated minerals include garnets, vesuvianite, diopside, tremolite, epidote, plagioclase feldspar, pyroxene and calcite. It is named after the English chemist and mineralogist William Hyde Wollaston (1766–1828).

Despite its chemical similarity to the compositional spectrum of the pyroxene group of minerals—where magnesium (Mg) and iron (Fe) substitution for calcium ends with diopside and hedenbergite respectively—it is structurally very different, with a third SiO4(4-) tetrahedron in the linked chain (as opposed to two in the pyroxenes).

Production trends
Estimated world production of crude wollastonite ore was 1,200,000 tonnes in 2021. World reserves of wollastonite are estimated to exceed 100 million tonnes, though some existing deposits have not been surveyed.

Major producers of wollastonite include China, India, the United States, Mexico, and Finland.

In the United States, wollastonite is mined in Willsboro, New York (the first laboratory for local wollastonite research was in Essex, New York by Koert Burnham in the 1940s. The original laboratory building still exists as a residential & commercial building) and Gouverneur, New York. Deposits have also been mined commercially in North Western Mexico.

The price of raw wollastonite in 2008 varied between US$80 and US$500 per tonne depending on the country and size and shape of the powder particles.

Uses
Wollastonite is among the fastest reacting silicates, but may have high costs associated with carbon storage. Addition of wollastonite to soil stimulates organic carbon mineralization.

Ceramics
Wollastonite has industrial importance in ceramics manufacturing as an additive.

In ceramics, wollastonite decreases shrinkage and gas evolution during firing, increases green and fired strength, maintains brightness during firing, permits fast firing, and reduces crazing, cracking, and glaze defects.

Construction
Wollastonite can serve as a substitute for asbestos in floor tiles, friction products, insulating board and panels, paint, plastics, and roofing products. Similar to asbestos, wollastonite is resistant to chemical attack, stable at high temperatures, and improves flexural and tensile strength in composites. In some industries, wollastonite is used in different percentages of impurities, such as its use as a fabricator of mineral wool insulation, or as an ornamental building material. Wollastonite is used in a cement announced in 2019 which "reduces the overall carbon footprint in precast concrete by 70%."

Wollastonite has been studied for carbon mineralization for storage of carbon dioxide (CO2) according to the following reaction:
 * CaSiO3 + CO2 -> CaCO3 + SiO2

Metallurgy
In metallurgical applications, wollastonite serves as a flux for welding, a source for calcium oxide, a slag conditioner, and to protect the surface of molten metal during the continuous casting of steel.

Paint
As an additive in paint, wollastonite improves the durability of the paint film, acts as a pH buffer, improves its resistance to weathering, reduces gloss, reduces pigment consumption, and acts as a flatting and suspending agent.

Plastic
In plastics, wollastonite improves tensile and flexural strength, reduces resin consumption, and improves thermal and dimensional stability at elevated temperatures. Surface treatments are used to improve the adhesion between the wollastonite and the polymers to which it is added.

Plastics and rubber applications were estimated to account for 25% to 35% of U.S. sales in 2009, followed by ceramics with 20% to 25%; paint, 10% to 15%; metallurgical applications, 10% to 15%; friction products, 10% to 15%; and miscellaneous, 10% to 15%. Ceramic applications probably account for 30% to 40% of wollastonite sales worldwide, followed by polymers (plastics and rubber) with 30% to 35% of sales, and paint with 10% to 15% of sales. The remaining sales were for construction, friction products, and metallurgical applications.

Substitutes
The acicular nature of many wollastonite products allows it to compete with other acicular materials, such as ceramic fiber, glass fiber, steel fiber, and several organic fibers, such as aramid, polyethylene, polypropylene, and polytetrafluoroethylene in products where improvements in dimensional stability, flexural modulus, and heat deflection are sought.

Wollastonite also competes with several nonfibrous minerals or rocks, such as kaolin, mica, and talc, which are added to plastics to increase flexural strength, and such minerals as barite, calcium carbonate, gypsum, and talc, which impart dimensional stability to plastics.

In ceramics, wollastonite competes with carbonates, feldspar, lime, and silica as a source of calcium and silicon. Its use in ceramics depends on the formulation of the ceramic body and the firing method.

Composition
In a pure CaSiO3, each component forms nearly half of the mineral by weight: 48.3% of CaO and 51.7% of SiO2. In some cases, small amounts of iron (Fe), and manganese (Mn), and lesser amounts of magnesium (Mg) substitute for calcium (Ca) in the mineral formula (e.g., rhodonite). Wollastonite can form a series of solid solutions in the system CaSiO3-FeSiO3, or hydrothermal synthesis of phases in the system MnSiO3-CaSiO3.

Geologic occurrence
Wollastonite usually occurs as a common constituent of a thermally metamorphosed impure limestone, it also could occur when the silicon is due to metamorphism in contact altered calcareous sediments, or to contamination in the invading igneous rock. In most of these occurrences it is the result of the following reaction between calcite and silica with the loss of carbon dioxide:

 * CaCO3 + SiO2 → CaSiO3 + CO2

Wollastonite may also be produced in a diffusion reaction in skarn, it develops when limestone within a sandstone is metamorphosed by a dike, which results in the formation of wollastonite in the sandstone as a result of outward migration of Ca.

Structure
Wollastonite crystallizes triclinically in space group P$\overline{1}$ with the lattice constants a = 7.94 Å, b = 7.32 Å, c = 7.07 Å; α = 90,03°, β = 95,37°, γ = 103,43° and six formula units per unit cell. Wollastonite was once classed structurally among the pyroxene group, because both of these groups have a ratio of Si:O = 1:3. In 1931, Warren and Biscoe showed that the crystal structure of wollastonite differs from minerals of the pyroxene group, and they classified this mineral within a group known as the pyroxenoids. It has been shown that the pyroxenoid chains are more kinked than those of pyroxene group, and exhibit longer repeat distance. The structure of wollastonite contains infinite chains of [SiO4] tetrahedra sharing common vertices, running parallel to the b-axis. The chain motif in wollastonite repeats after three tetrahedra, whereas in pyroxenes only two are needed. The repeat distance in the wollastonite chains is 7.32 Å and equals the length of the crystallographic b-axis.

Molten CaSiO3 maintains a tetrahedral SiO4 local structure at temperatures up to 2000 °C. The nearest neighbor Ca-O coordination decreases from 6.0(2) in the room temperature glass to 5.0(2) in the 1700 °C liquid, coincident with an increasing number of longer Ca-O neighbors.

title: Wollastonite


text:
Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes

The Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes of the Flathead Reservation (Montana Salish: Séliš u Ql̓ispé, Kutenai: k̓upawiȼq̓nuk) are a federally recognized tribe in the U.S. state of Montana. The government includes members of several Bitterroot Salish, Kootenai and Pend d'Oreilles tribes and is centered on the Flathead Indian Reservation.

The peoples of this area were named Flathead Indians by Europeans who came to the area. The name was originally applied to various Salish peoples, based on the practice of artificial cranial deformation by some of the groups, though the modern groups associated with the Flathead Reservation never engaged in it.

Early days of the Salish
The Salish (Flatheads) initially lived entirely east of the Continental Divide but established their headquarters near the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains. Occasionally, hunting parties went west of the Continental Divide but not west of the Bitterroot Range. The easternmost edge of their ancestral hunting forays were the Gallatin Range, Crazy Mountain, and Little Belt Ranges.

Early territory
The Flathead and the Pend d'Oreille both agree that the Flathead once occupied a large territory on the plains east of the Rocky Mountains. This tribal homeland included the present-day counties of Broadwater, Jefferson, Deer Lodge, Silver Bow, Madison and Gallatin and parts of Lewis & Clark, Meagher and Park. This was about the time when they got the first horses.

The tribe consisted of at least four bands. Respectively, they had winter quarters near present-day Helena, near Butte, east of Butte and in the Big Hole Valley.

Nearby peoples
The Salis-Tunaxe lived immediately to the north of the Flathead. There was no sharp line between the two tribal territories, and the people in the border zone often intermarried. Further north lived the Kutenai-Tunaxe (Kootenai-Tunaxe). To the east of them lived the Salisan tribes' common enemy, the Blackfoot. West of the Rocky Mountains held the Pend d'Oreille the territory around Flathead Lake, and south of them occupied the Semteuse a relatively small area. The numerous Shoshone semi-surrounded the Salish from northeast to southwest. It seems the Salish did not know the Comanche and Kiowa at this time. They may have been regarded as bands of Shoshone.

Later well-established plains tribes like the Sarsi, Assiniboine, Cree, Crow, Gros Ventre, Arapaho, Cheyenne and Sioux lived far away. They were unknown to the Salish.

Horses and the changed life of the Salish
The Salish got horses from the Shoshone, and the animal changed the life of the people. When they had had only dogs, the Salish had paid no special attention to the American bison, which they had hunted just like deer and elk. Newly acquired mounts made it possible to overtake the American bison and the secured meat and skins could easily be carried by packhorses. All other game lost in importance.

Before they had had horses, the Salish had lived in conical tents covered with two to four layers of sewed tule mats, depending on the season. The tipi soon replaced the old lodge. Instead of rawhide bags of many shapes and sizes, the women made parfleches from now on.

Forced west of the divide
Both the Salish-Tunaxe and the Semteuse were almost "killed off in wars" with the Blackfoot and further reduced by smallpox. Some of the survivors took refuge among the Salish. With the near extinction of the Salish-Tunaxe, the Salish extended their hunting grounds northward to Sun River. Between 1700 and 1750, they were driven back by pedestrian Blackfoot warriors armed with fire weapons. Finally, they were forced out of the bison range and west of the divide along with the Kutenai-Tunaxe.

History
The Flatheads lived now between the Cascade Range and Rocky Mountains. The first written record of the tribes is either from their meeting with trapper Andrew Garcia, explorer David Thompson, or the Lewis and Clark Expedition (September 4, 1805). Lewis and Clark came there and asked for horses but eventually ate the horses due to starvation. The Flatheads also appear in the records of the Roman Catholic Church at St. Louis, Missouri, to which they sent four delegations to request missionaries (or "Black Robes") to minister to the tribe. Their request was finally granted, and a number of missionaries, including Pierre-Jean De Smet, were eventually sent. The Flatheads are also located in Sula, Montana.

The tribes negotiated the Hellgate treaty with the United States in 1855. From the start, treaty negotiations were plagued by serious translation problems. A Jesuit observer, Adrian Hoecken, said that the translations were so poor that "not a tenth of what was said was understood by either side." But as in the meeting with Lewis and Clark, the pervasive cross-cultural miscommunication ran even deeper than problems of language and translation. Tribal people came to the meeting assuming they were going to formalize an already-recognized friendship. Non-Indians came with the goal of making official their claims to native lands and resources. Isaac Stevens, the new governor and superintendent of Indian affairs for the Washington Territory, was intent on obtaining cession of the Bitterroot Valley from the Salish. Many non-Indians were already well aware of the valley's potential value for agriculture and its relatively temperate climate in winter. Because of the resistance of Chief Victor (Many Horses), Stevens ended up inserting into the treaty complicated (and doubtless poorly translated) language that defined the Bitterroot Valley south of Lolo Creek as a "conditional reservation" for the Salish. Victor put his X mark on the document, convinced that the agreement would not require his people to leave their homeland. No other word came from the government for the next fifteen years, so the Salish assumed that they would indeed stay in their Bitterroot Valley forever.

After the 1864 gold rush in the newly established Montana Territory, pressure upon the Salish intensified from both illegal non-Indian squatters and government officials. In 1870, Victor died, and he was succeeded as chief by his son, Chief Charlot (aka Charlo, Claw of the Little Grizzly). Like his father, Charlot adhered to a policy of nonviolent resistance. He insisted on the right of his people to remain in the Bitterroot Valley. But territorial citizens and officials thought the new chief could be pressured into capitulating. In 1871, they successfully lobbied President Ulysses S. Grant to declare that the survey required by the treaty had been conducted and that it had found that the Jocko (Flathead) Reservation was better suited to the needs of the Salish. On the basis of Grant's executive order, Congress sent a delegation, led by future president James Garfield, to make arrangements with the tribe for their removal. Charlot ignored their demands and even their threats of bloodshed, and he again refused to sign any agreement to leave. U.S. officials then simply forged Charlot's "X" onto the official copy of the agreement that was sent to the Senate for ratification.

Over time, the real reason for the Hellgate treaty meetings became clear to the Salish and Pend d'Oreille people. Under the terms spelled out in the written document, the tribes ceded to the United States more than twenty million acres (81,000 km2) of land and reserved from cession about 1.3 million acres (5300 km2), thus forming the Jocko or Flathead Indian Reservation. Conditions had become intolerable for the Salish by the late 1880s, after the Missoula and Bitter Root Valley Railroad was constructed directly through the tribe's lands, with neither permission from the native owners nor payment to them. Charlot finally signed an agreement to leave the Bitterroot Valley in November 1889. Inaction by Congress, however, delayed the removal for another two years, and according to some observers, the tribe's desperation reached a level of outright starvation. In October 1891, a contingent of troops from Fort Missoula forced Charlot and the Salish out of the Bitterroot and roughly marched the small band sixty miles to the Flathead Reservation.

The three main tribes moved to the Flathead Reservation were the Bitterroot Salish, the Pend d'Oreille, and the Kootenai. The Bitterroot Salish and the Pend d'Oreille tribes spoke dialects of the same Salish language.

A dispute over off-reservation hunting between a band of Pend d'Oreilles and the state of Montana's Fish and Game department resulted in the Swan Valley Massacre of 1908.

Though marked for termination in 1953 under the House concurrent resolution 108 of the US federal Indian termination policy, the Flathead Tribes were able to resist the government's plans to terminate their tribal relationship in Congressional hearings in 1954. In 2021 the Bison were returned to the Confederated Salish and Kootenai tribes

Demographics
The tribe has about 6800 members with approximately 4,000 tribal members living on the Flathead Reservation as of 2013, and 2,800 tribal members living off the reservation. Their predominant religion is Roman Catholicism. 1,100 Native Americans from other tribes and more than 10,000 non-Native Americans also live on the reservation.

Politics
As the first to organize a tribal government under the 1934 Indian Reorganization Act, the tribes are governed by a tribal council. The Tribal Council has ten members, and the council elects from within a chairman, Vice Chairman, Secretary and Treasurer. The tribal government offers a number of services to tribal members and is the chief employer on the reservation. The tribes operate a tribal college, the Salish Kootenai College, and a heritage museum called "The People's Center" in Pablo, seat of the tribal government.

Economy
The tribes are the biggest employer on the reservation. In 2011, they provided 65% of all jobs.

The tribes own and jointly operate a valuable hydropower dam, called Séliš Ksanka Ql'ispé Dam (formerly known as Kerr Dam). They are the first Indian nation in the United States to own a hydroelectric dam. CSKT also operates the only local electricity provider Mission Valley Power, as well as S&K Electronics (founded 1984), and the internationally operating S&K Technologies (founded 1999). Other tribal businesses are the KwaTaqNuk Resort & Casino in Polson (county seat of Lake County and most populous community on the reservation) and Gray Wolf Peak Casino in Evaro, Montana.

Aboriginal lands
The peoples of these tribes originally lived in the areas of Montana, parts of Idaho, British Columbia (Canada) and Wyoming. The original territory comprised about 22 million acres (89,000 km2) at the time of the 1855 Hellgate treaty.

Reservation lands

The Flathead Reservation in northwest Montana is over 1.3 million acres (5,300 km2) in size.

The Tribal Council represents eight districts: During World War II, a 422 ft Liberty Ship, the SS Chief Charlot, was named in his honor and built in Richmond, California, in 1943.
 * Arlee District
 * Dixon District
 * Elmo District
 * Hot Springs District
 * Pablo District
 * Polson District
 * Ronan District
 * St. Ignatius District

Culture

 * Languages
 * Salishan languages
 * Kutenai language
 * Historical Sites
 * Archaeology

Notable people

 * Corwin Clairmont, artist and educator
 * Marvin Camel, boxer, WBC & IBF Cruiserweight Champion
 * Debra Magpie Earling, author
 * Terese Marie Mailhot, author
 * D'Arcy McNickle (1904–1977), noted writer, Native American activist and anthropologist
 * Jaune Quick-to-See Smith, artist

title: Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes


text:
BCA

BCA may refer to:

Commerce

 * Bangladesh Caterers Association UK, the umbrella organisation of British-Bangladeshi restaurants
 * Bank Central Asia, a private bank in Indonesia
 * Boeing Commercial Airplanes, the commercial aircraft division of The Boeing Company
 * Book Club Associates, a defunct mail-order and online book seller
 * British Car Auctions, former name of the used vehicle marketplace Constellation Automotive Group
 * Broadcasting Company of America, former American Telephone & Telegraph Company subsidiary
 * Business Council of Australia, an industry association of Australian chief executives
 * Civilian Board of Contract Appeals, a United States government agency
 * Model Business Corporation Act, a Model Act promulgated by the Corporate Laws Committee of the American Bar Association
 * Broadcasting Corporation of Abia State, a state government-run radio station of Abia State

Education

 * Bachelor of Computer Application, an undergraduate academic degree
 * Bergen County Academies, a magnet high school in New Jersey, United States
 * Botswana College of Agriculture. an agricultural University in Gaborone, Botswana
 * Brethren Colleges Abroad, a non-profit education organization

Sports

 * Badminton Confederation of Africa, African badminton organisation
 * Barbados Cricket Association, the ruling body for cricket in Barbados
 * Billiard Congress of America, the governing body for cue sports in the United States and Canada
 * Bihar Cricket Association, the governing body of cricket in Bihar
 * Black Coaches & Administrators, a U.S. organization supporting African American and other minority sports coaches and administrators
 * British Caving Association, the sports governing body for caving in the United Kingdom
 * British Cheerleading Association, the governing body for cheerleading in the UK
 * British Chess Association, replaced by the British Chess Federation in 1904
 * BC Augsburg, a defunct German association football club
 * BC Aichach, a German association football club

Science

 * Bicinchoninic acid, a weak acid composed of two carboxylated quinoline rings
 * Bicinchoninic acid assay, a biochemical assay for determining the total concentration of protein in a solution
 * Bradford colorimetric assay, a spectroscopic analytical procedure that measures the concentration of protein in a solution
 * Branched-chain amino acid, an amino acid having an aliphatic side-chain with a branch
 * Binary collision approximation, a heuristic used to simulate the penetration depth and defect production by energetic ions in solids

Other uses

 * British Citizen Awards, a UK award for individuals doing extraordinary work in their community
 * Boston Center for the Arts, a visual and performing arts complex in Boston
 * Breast cancer awareness, an effort to raise awareness and reduce the stigma of breast cancer
 * British Cartoonists' Association, an association of British cartoonists
 * British Central Africa, a former British protectorate that occupied the same area as present-day Malawi
 * British Chiropractic Association, an association for chiropractors in the United Kingdom
 * Buddhist Churches of America, the United States branch of the Nishi Honganji subsect of Jōdo Shinshū Buddhism
 * Building and Construction Authority, a Singapore government statutory board
 * Burst Cutting Area, the circular area near the center of a DVD, HD DVD or Blu-ray Disc
 * Minnesota Bureau of Criminal Apprehension, a detective agency in Minnesota, United States

title: BCA


text:
User talk:E. abu Filumena

Welcomne
Hello and welcome to Wikipedia! Hope you like it here, and stick around.

Here are some tips to help you get started:

 * To sign your posts (on talk pages, for example) use the '~' symbol. To insert just your name, type ~~~ (3 tildes), or, to insert your name and timestamp, use ~~~~ (4 tildes).
 * Try the Tutorial, and feel free to experiment in the test area.
 * If you need help, post a question at the Help Desk
 * Follow the Simplified Ruleset
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Remember Neutral point of view
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and, most importantly, have fun!

Good luck!

Calabrian language
As the primary contributor to this article, I'd like to draw your attention to a lengthy post at Talk:Calabrian language. I'm neither Italian nor a linguist, so I'd like you to discuss the issues with VingenzoTM and decide what the article needs. At the least, many of his points and references would improve the article, so I would love to see you two work together on doing so. You're doing great things on Wikipedia, and I look forward to seeing many more contributions from you. Best wishes — Catherine\talk 16:59, 6 Jun 2005 (UTC)

napulitano.org
thank you for maintaining this article.

if you would ever like to help with my website www.napulitano.org i would appreciate it. i need all the help i can get and i am finally finishing it.

--espo111 02:04, 11 August 2005 (UTC)

well since you want to keep everything here, FUCK YOU. my site is gone because of you and your ignorant friends. I retract my offer for the site.
 * Always nice to hear from you Frank.E. abu Filumena 06:35, 9 September 2005 (UTC)

Saints Wikiproject
I noted that you have been contributing to articles about saints. I invite you to join the WikiProject Saints. You can sign up on the page and add the following userbox to your user page.

Thanks! --evrik 20:05, 8 May 2006 (UTC)

Image tagging for Image:Paul LaFarge.jpg
Thanks for uploading Image:Paul LaFarge.jpg. The image has been identified as not specifying the source and creator of the image, which is required by Wikipedia's policy on images. If you don't indicate the source and creator of the image on the image's description page, it may be deleted some time in the next seven days. If you have uploaded other images, please verify that you have provided source information for them as well.

For more information on using images, see the following pages:
 * Image use policy
 * Image copyright tags

This is an automated notice by OrphanBot. For assistance on the image use policy, see Media copyright questions. 18:07, 23 September 2006 (UTC)

cretiane
I have no doubt that there are Italians who use the wored "Christian" to refer to people in general. There was a comparable practice in the UK and US. Nevertheless, Jews and others found the practice objectionable. This is the key to our NPOV policy. You say that "crstiane" is "correct" in terms of lagnuage usage as it was "traditionally" used to refer to people. What you do not make clear is whether all Italians followed this usage unquestioningly, or whether some Italians expressed, directly or indirectly, passively or actively, some resistence to this usage. If the former, then we just have an interesting example of this history of a language. If the latter, then we have an NPOV violation. Slrubenstein  |  Talk 14:51, 7 October 2006 (UTC)

Possible renaming of WikiProject Saints
It has been suggested that the above named project be renamed WikiProject Christian saints. Please express your opinion on this proposed renaming, and the accompanying re-definition of the scope of the project, here. John Carter 17:06, 9 March 2007 (UTC)

WikiProject Christianity
Hello !

You are receiving this invitation because you are a member of one of the related Christianity Projects and I thought that you might be interested in this project also - Tinucherian (talk) 04:36, 24 April 2008 (UTC)

Replaceable fair use Image:Paul_LaFarge.jpg
Thanks for uploading Image:Paul_LaFarge.jpg. I noticed the description page specifies that the media is being used under a claim of fair use, but its use in Wikipedia articles fails our first non-free content criterion in that it illustrates a subject for which a freely licensed media could reasonably be found or created that provides substantially the same information. If you believe this media is not replaceable, please:

 * 1) Go to the media description page and edit it to add, without deleting the original replaceable fair use template.
 * 2) On the image discussion page, write the reason why this image is not replaceable at all.

Alternatively, you can also choose to replace this non-free media by finding freely licensed media of the same subject, requesting that the copyright holder release this (or similar) media under a free license, or by taking a picture of it yourself.

If you have uploaded other non-free media, consider checking that you have specified how these images fully satisfy our non-free content criteria. You can find a list of description pages you have edited by clicking on [ this link]. Note that even if you follow steps 1 and 2 above, non-free media which could be replaced by freely licensed alternatives will be deleted 2 days after this notification (7 days if uploaded before 13 July 2006), per our non-free content policy. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you. Do you want to opt out of receiving this notice? Rettetast (talk) 15:48, 22 May 2008 (UTC)

Piccalilli
Please verify the changes I've made to that article, thanks. Maikel (talk) 20:27, 6 July 2008 (UTC)

RE: your message
There was no offense intented. This was meant to be helpful, not a criticism pertaining spelling. Of course I don't mean for any language to change its spelling. I just figured "maybe" no-one had noticed it yet. I now realize that that is unlikely. And by the way, the bot had found a way around it, using UNICODE instead of the actual signs/letters. Choyoołʼįįhí:Seb az86556 19:01, 28 September 2009 (UTC)

Unreferenced BLPs
Hello E. abu Filumena! Thank you for your contributions. I am a bot alerting you that 1 of the articles that you created  is tagged as an Unreferenced Biography of a Living Person. The biographies of living persons policy requires that all personal or potentially controversial information be sourced. In addition, to insure verifiability, all biographies should be based on reliable sources. if you were to bring this article up to standards, it would greatly help us with the current Category:All_unreferenced_BLPs article backlog. Once the article is adequately referenced, please remove the unreferencedBLP tag. Here is the article:

Thanks!--DASHBot (talk) 20:32, 8 January 2010 (UTC)
 * 1) Richard Wayne Chambliss, Jr. -

Proposed deletion of Panti'

The article Panti' has been proposed for deletion  because of the following concern:
 * Unreferenced may lack notability

While all contributions to Wikipedia are appreciated, content or articles may be deleted for any of several reasons.

You may prevent the proposed deletion by removing the notice, but please explain why in your edit summary or on the article's talk page.

Please consider improving the article to address the issues raised. Removing will stop the proposed deletion process, but other deletion processes exist. In particular, the speedy deletion process can result in deletion without discussion, and articles for deletion allows discussion to reach consensus for deletion. Dch eagle  23:38, 31 July 2011 (UTC)

Ichthus: January 2012
 In this issue...

- Ichthus is the newsletter of Christianity on Wikipedia • It is published by WikiProject Christianity For submissions contact the Newsroom • To unsubscribe add yourself to the list here
 * From the Editor
 * What are You doing For Lent?
 * Fun and Exciting Contest Launched
 * Spotlight on WikiProject Catholicism

Request for consensus for editing Template:Catholicism
You are invited to join the discussion at Template_talk:Catholicism to edit the list of Doctors of the Church to add John of Avila and Hildegard of Bingen and do this by embedding Template:Churchdoctor. I am messaging you because you are a member of WikiProject_Saints --Jayarathina (talk) 16:57, 7 December 2012 (UTC)

Message
Left you a message on your nap.wikipedia (Neapolitan Wikipedia) talk page. πr2 (t • c) 23:07, 19 February 2013 (UTC)

Feast day listed at Redirects for discussion
I have asked for a discussion to address the redirect Feast day. You might want to participate in the redirect discussion. You are receiving this message because you are a member of WikiProject Catholicism and/or WikiProject Saints --Jayarathina (talk) 12:35, 16 November 2013 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called E. abu Filumena. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name E. abu Filumena~enwiki that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name. If you think you might own all of the accounts with this name and this message is in error, please visit Special:MergeAccount to check and attach all of your accounts to prevent them from being renamed.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:34, 19 March 2015 (UTC)

Speedy deletion nomination of Initial Detonation

A tag has been placed on Initial Detonation requesting that it be speedily deleted from Wikipedia. This has been done under section A7 of the criteria for speedy deletion, because the article appears to be about a band or musician, but it does not indicate how or why the subject is important or significant: that is, why an article about that subject should be included in an encyclopedia. Under the criteria for speedy deletion, such articles may be deleted at any time. Please read more about what is generally accepted as notable.

If you think this page should not be deleted for this reason, you may contest the nomination by visiting the page and clicking the button labelled "Click here to contest this speedy deletion". This will give you the opportunity to explain why you believe the page should not be deleted. However, be aware that once a page is tagged for speedy deletion, it may be removed without delay. Please do not remove the speedy deletion tag from the page yourself, but do not hesitate to add information in line with Wikipedia's policies and guidelines. If the page is deleted, and you wish to retrieve the deleted material for future reference or improvement, then please contact the deleting administrator, or if you have already done so, you can place a request here. — Jeraphine Gryphon (talk) 11:11, 20 March 2015 (UTC)

ArbCom elections are now open!
Hi, You appear to be eligible to vote in the current Arbitration Committee election. The Arbitration Committee is the panel of editors responsible for conducting the Wikipedia arbitration process. It has the authority to enact binding solutions for disputes between editors, primarily related to serious behavioural issues that the community has been unable to resolve. This includes the ability to impose site bans, topic bans, editing restrictions, and other measures needed to maintain our editing environment. The arbitration policy describes the Committee's roles and responsibilities in greater detail. If you wish to participate, you are welcome to review the candidates' statements and submit your choices on the voting page. For the Election committee, MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 22:17, 30 November 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:E. abu Filumena


text:
John Patton (Pennsylvania politician)

John Patton (January 6, 1823 – December 23, 1897) was a U.S. Representative from the U.S. state of Pennsylvania. He was the father of Charles Emory Patton, also a U.S. Representative from Pennsylvania (1911–1915), Alexander Ennis Patton, Pennsylvania State Senator, John Patton Jr., a U.S. Senator from Michigan (1894–1895), and the uncle of William Irvin Swoope, also a U.S. Representative from Pennsylvania (1923–1927).

Patton was born in Covington Township, Tioga County, Pennsylvania and moved to Curwensville, Pennsylvania in 1828. He attended the public schools and engaged in mercantile pursuits and lumbering 1844-1860.

He organized the First National Bank of Curwensville in 1864 and was elected its president. He then organized the Curwensville Bank, and was elected its president.

He was a delegate to the Whig National Convention in 1852 and to the Republican National Convention in 1860.

Patton was elected as a Republican to the Thirty-seventh Congress, serving from March 4, 1861 to March 3, 1863. He declined to be a candidate for renomination in 1862. He was again elected to the Fiftieth Congress, serving from March 4, 1887 to March 3, 1889. He was not a candidate for renomination in 1888, after which he resumed banking.

Patton died in Philadelphia, aged 74, where he had gone for medical treatment, and was interred in Oak Hill Cemetery, in Curwensville, Pennsylvania.

Recognition
The town of Patton, Pennsylvania is named for John Patton.

title: John Patton (Pennsylvania politician)