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Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet

The Boeing F/A-18E and F/A-18F Super Hornet are a series of American supersonic twin-engine, carrier-capable, multirole fighter aircraft derived from the McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet, in service with the armed forces of the U.S., Australia, and Kuwait. The F/A-18E single-seat and F/A-18F tandem-seat variants are larger and more advanced versions of the F/A-18C and D Hornet, respectively.

A strike fighter capable of air-to-air and air-to-ground/surface missions, the Super Hornet has an internal 20mm M61A2 rotary cannon and can carry air-to-air missiles, air-to-surface missiles, and a variety of other weapons. Additional fuel can be carried in up to five external fuel tanks and the aircraft can be configured as an airborne tanker by adding an external air-to-air refueling system.

Designed and initially produced by McDonnell Douglas, the Super Hornet first flew in 1995. Low-rate production began in early 1997, reaching full-rate production in September 1997, after the merger of McDonnell Douglas and Boeing the previous month. The Super Hornet entered fleet service with the United States Navy in 1999, supplanting the Grumman F-14 Tomcat, which was retired in 2006; the Super Hornet has served alongside the original Hornet. The Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF), which has operated the F/A-18A as its main fighter since 1984, ordered the F/A-18F in 2007 to replace its aging General Dynamics F-111C fleet. The Super Hornets of the RAAF entered service in December 2010.

Origins

The Super Hornet is a redesign of the McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet. The wing and tail configuration trace its origin to a Northrop prototype aircraft, the P-530, c. 1965, which began as a rework of the lightweight Northrop F-5E (with a larger wing, twin tail fins and a distinctive leading edge root extension, or LERX). Later flying as the Northrop YF-17 "Cobra", it competed in the United States Air Force's Lightweight Fighter (LWF) program to produce a smaller and simpler fighter to complement the larger McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle; the YF-17 lost the competition to the YF-16.

The Navy directed that the YF-17 be redesigned into the larger F/A-18 Hornet to meet a requirement for a multi-role fighter to complement the larger and more expensive Grumman F-14 Tomcat serving in fleet defense interceptor and air superiority roles. The Hornet proved to be effective but limited in combat radius. The concept of an enlarged Hornet was first proposed in the 1980s, which was marketed by McDonnell Douglas as Hornet 2000. The Hornet 2000 concept was an advanced F/A-18 with a larger wing and a longer fuselage to carry more fuel and more powerful engines.

The end of the Cold War led to a period of military budget cuts and considerable restructuring. At the same time, U.S. Naval Aviation faced a number of problems. The McDonnell Douglas A-12 Avenger II Advanced Tactical Aircraft (ATA) was canceled in 1991 after the program ran into serious problems; it was intended to replace the obsolete Grumman A-6 Intruder. The Navy then embarked on another clean-sheet attack aircraft program called the Advanced-Attack (A-X), but also considered updating an existing design for an interim capability until A-X could be fielded. McDonnell Douglas had proposed the "Super Hornet" (initially "Hornet II" in the 1980s), an improvement of the successful previous F/A-18 models, which could serve as an alternate replacement for the A-6 Intruder. In addition, the Hornet itself lacked sufficient bringback capability, or the ability to recover unused weapons aboard aircraft carriers. The next-generation Hornet design proved more attractive than Grumman's Quick Strike upgrade to the F-14 Tomcat, which was regarded as an insufficient technological leap over existing F-14s and was opposed by the Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney. Furthermore, the A-X, which had evolved into the A/F-X (Advanced Attack/Fighter) due to added fighter capabilities, was canceled in the 1993 Bottom-Up Review as the Super Hornet was viewed as a more attractive low-risk approach to a clean-sheet design due to post-Cold War budget reductions.

At the time, the Grumman F-14 Tomcat was the Navy's primary air superiority fighter and fleet defense interceptor. Cheney described the F-14 as 1960s technology, and drastically cut back F-14D procurement in 1989 before cancelling production altogether in 1991, in favor of the updated F/A-18E/F. The decision to replace the Tomcat with an all-Hornet Carrier Air Wing was controversial; Vietnam War ace and Congressman Duke Cunningham criticized the Super Hornet as an unproven design that compromised air superiority. In 1992, the Navy canceled the Navy Advanced Tactical Fighter (NATF), which would have been a navalized variant of the Air Force's Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor to complement the A-12. As a cheaper alternative to NATF, Grumman proposed substantial improvements to the F-14 beyond Quick Strike, but Congress rejected them as too costly and reaffirmed its commitment to the less expensive F/A-18E/F.

Testing and production

The Super Hornet was first ordered by the U.S. Navy in 1992. The Navy retained the F/A-18 designation to help sell the program to Congress as a low-risk "derivative", though the Super Hornet is largely a new aircraft. The Hornet and Super Hornet share many characteristics, including avionics, ejection seats, radar, armament, mission computer software, and maintenance/operating procedures. The initial F/A-18E/F retained most of the avionics systems from the F/A-18C/D's configuration at the time. The design would be expanded in the Super Hornet with an empty weight slightly greater than the F-15C. The design service life was 6,000 flight hours.

The Super Hornet first flew on 29 November 1995. Initial production on the F/A-18E/F began in 1995. Flight testing started in 1996 with the F/A-18E/F's first carrier landing in 1997. Low-rate production began in March 1997 with full production beginning in September 1997. Testing continued through 1999, finishing with sea trials and aerial refueling demonstrations. Testing involved 3,100 test flights covering 4,600 flight hours. The Super Hornet underwent U.S. Navy operational tests and evaluations in 1999, and was approved in February 2000.

With the retirement of the F-14 in 2006, all of the Navy's combat jets have been Hornet variants until the F-35C Lightning II entered service. The F/A-18E single-seat and F/A-18F two-seat aircraft took the place of the F-14 Tomcat, A-6 Intruder, Lockheed S-3 Viking, and KA-6D aircraft. An electronic warfare variant, the EA-18G Growler, replaces the EA-6B Prowler. The Navy calls this reduction in aircraft types a "neck-down". During the Vietnam War era, the Super Hornet's roles were performed by a combination of the A-1/A-4/A-7 (light attack), A-6 (medium attack), F-8/F-4 (fighter), RA-5C (recon), KA-3/KA-6 (tanker), and EA-6 (electronic warfare). It was anticipated that $1 billion in fleetwide annual savings would result from replacing other types with the Super Hornet. The Navy considers the Super Hornet's acquisition a success, meeting cost, schedule, and weight (400 lb, 181 kg) below requirements.

Improvements and changes
The Block II Super Hornet incorporates an improved active electronically scanned array (AESA) radar, larger displays, the joint helmet mounted cueing system, and several other avionics replacements. Avionics and weapons systems that were under development for the prospective production version of the Boeing X-32 were used on the Block II Super Hornet. New-build aircraft received the APG-79 AESA radar beginning in 2005. In January 2008, it was announced that 135 earlier production aircraft were to be retrofitted with AESA radars.

In 2008, Boeing discussed the development of a Super Hornet Block III with the U.S. and Australian military, featuring additional stealth capabilities and extended range. The airframe is strengthened to increase service life to 10,000 flight hours, and some earlier Block II aircraft can be modified to achieve this as well. In 2010, Boeing offered prospective Super Hornet customers the "International Roadmap", which included conformal fuel tanks, enhanced engines, an enclosed weapons pod (EWP), a next-generation cockpit, a new missile warning system, and an internal infrared search and track (IRST) system; the IRST would later be mounted on the centerline external tank. The EWP has four internal stations for munitions, a single aircraft can carry a total of three EWPs, housing up to 12 AMRAAMs and 2 Sidewinders. The next-generation cockpit features a 19 x 11-inch touch-sensitive display. In 2011, Boeing received a US Navy contract to develop a new mission computer.

In 2007, Boeing stated that a passive Infrared Search and Track (IRST) sensor would be an available future option. The sensor, mounted in a modified centerline fuel tank, detects long wave IR emissions to spot and track targets such as aircraft; combat using the IRST and AIM-9X Sidewinder missiles is immune to radar jamming. In May 2009, Lockheed Martin announced its selection by Boeing for the IRST's technology development phase, and a contract followed in November 2011. , a basic IRST would be fielded in 2016 and a longer-range version in 2019. The sensor would be designated the AN/ASG-34(V) IRST21. An F/A-18F performed a flight equipped with the IRST system in February 2014, and Milestone C approval authorizing low-rate initial production (LRIP) was granted in December 2014. Due to sequestration cuts in 2013 as well as production quality issues, caused years of delay.

Advanced Super Hornet and planned end of production
Boeing and Northrop Grumman self-funded a prototype of the Advanced Super Hornet. The prototype features a 50% reduction in frontal radar cross-section (RCS), conformal fuel tanks (CFT), and an enclosed weapons pod. Features could also be integrated onto the EA-18G Growler: using CFTs on the EA-18G fleet was speculated as useful for relieving underwing space and lowering the drag margin for the Next Generation Jammer. Flight tests of the Advanced Super Hornet began on 5 August 2013 and continued for three weeks, testing the performance of CFTs, the enclosed weapons pod (EWP), and signature enhancements. The U.S. Navy was reportedly pleased with the Advanced Super Hornet's flight test results, and hopes it will provide future procurement options. Although the Advanced Super Hornet was not pursued, many elements would be transferred to the Block III.

In 2013, the U.S. Navy was considering the widespread adoption of CFTs, which would allow the Super Hornet to carry 3500 lb of additional fuel. Budgetary pressures from the F-35C Lightning II and Pacific region operations were cited as reasons supporting the use of CFTs. Flight testing demonstrated CFTs could slightly reduce drag while expanding the combat range by 260 nmi. The prototype CFT weighed 1500 lb, while production CFTs are expected to weigh 870 lb. Boeing stated that the CFTs do not add any cruise drag but acknowledged a negative impact imposed on transonic acceleration due to increased wave drag. General Electric's enhanced performance engine (EPE), increasing the F414-GE-400's power output from 22000 to 26400 lbf of thrust per engine, was suggested as a mitigating measure. In 2021, the U.S. Navy halted plans to fit CFTs as standard on all Block III Super Hornets due to cost, schedule, and performance issues.

In 2009, development commenced on several engine improvements, including greater resistance to foreign object damage, reduced fuel burn rate, and potentially increased thrust of up to 20%. In 2014, Boeing revealed a Super Hornet hybrid concept, equipped with the EA-18G Growler's electronic signal detection capabilities to allow for targets engagement using the receiver; the concept did not include the ALQ-99 jamming pod. Growth capabilities could include the addition of a long-range infrared search and track sensor and new air-to-air tracking modes.

In 2019, Boeing received a $4 billion contract to deliver 78 Block III Super Hornets for the Navy through fiscal 2021. The Navy plans to sign year to year contracts to convert all of its Block II aircraft to Block III variants through 2033. On 23 February 2023, Boeing announced plans to end Super Hornet production in 2025 due to declining interest in the jet and competition from the F-35. On 19 March 2024, the US Navy ordered 17 additional Super Hornets to extend the production until 2027.

Overview

The Super Hornet is largely a new aircraft at about 20% larger, 7000 lb heavier empty weight, and 15000 lb heavier maximum weight than the original Hornet. The Super Hornet carries 33% more internal fuel, increasing mission range by 41% and endurance by 50% over the "Legacy" Hornet. The empty weight of the Super Hornet is about 11000 lb less than that of the F-14 Tomcat which it replaced, while approaching, but not matching, the F-14's payload and range. Being significantly heavier than the legacy Hornet, the catapult and arresting systems must be set differently. To aid safe flight operations and prevent confusion in radio calls, the Super Hornet is informally referred to as the "Rhino" to distinguish it from earlier Hornets. (The "Rhino" nickname was previously applied to the McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II, which was retired from US Navy combat use in 1987.)

The Super Hornet, unlike the previous Hornet, can be equipped with an aerial refueling system (ARS) or "buddy store" for the refueling of other aircraft, filling the tactical airborne tanker role the Navy had lost with the retirement of the KA-6D and Lockheed S-3B Viking tankers. The ARS includes an external 330 USgal tank with hose reel on the centerline, along with four external 480 USgal tanks and internal tanks, for a total of 29000 lb of fuel on the aircraft. On typical missions a fifth of the air wing is dedicated to the tanker role, which consumes aircraft fatigue life expectancy faster than other missions. It most commonly uses JP-4 jet fuel.

Airframe changes

The forward fuselage is unchanged, but the remainder of the aircraft shares little with earlier F/A-18C/D models. The fuselage was stretched by 34 in to make room for fuel and future avionics upgrades and increased the wing area by 25%, yet the Super Hornet has 42% fewer structural parts than the original Hornet. The General Electric F414 engine, developed from the Hornet's F404, has 35% additional thrust over most of the flight envelope. The Super Hornet can return to an aircraft carrier with a larger load of unspent fuel and munitions than the Hornet; this ability is known as "bringback", which for the Super Hornet is in excess of 9000 lb.

Other differences include intake ramps for the engines and two extra wing hard points for payload (for a total of 11), retaining previous hardpoints on the bottom centerline, wingtips, and two conformal fuselage positions. Among the most significant aerodynamic changes are the enlarged leading edge extensions (LEX) that provide improved vortex lifting characteristics in high angle of attack maneuvers, and reduce the static stability margin to enhance pitching characteristics. This modification results in pitch rates in excess of 40 degrees per second, and high resistance to departure from controlled flight.

Radar signature reduction measures

Survivability is a key feature of the Super Hornet. The U.S. Navy took a "balanced approach" to survivability in its design. It does not rely primarily on low-observability technology, but rather adopts improvements to its radar signature alongside other innovations; incorporating more advanced electronic warfare capabilities, reduced ballistic vulnerability, and greater employment of standoff weapons to collectively enhance crew and aircraft safety. While the F/A-18E/F is not a stealth fighter like the F-22, it does have a frontal radar cross-section (RCS) an order of magnitude smaller than prior generation fighters. Additional changes for reducing RCS can be installed on an as-needed basis.

The F/A-18E/F's RCS is reduced greatly from some aspects, mainly the front and rear. The design of the engine inlets reduces the aircraft's frontal radar cross-section. The alignment of the leading edges of the engine inlets is designed to scatter radiation to the sides. Fixed fanlike reflecting structures in the inlet tunnel divert radar energy away from the rotating fan blades. The Super Hornet also makes considerable use of panel joint serration and edge alignment to direct reflected waves away from the aircraft in uniformly narrow angles. Considerable attention is paid to the removal or filling of unnecessary surface join gaps and resonant cavities. Where the F/A-18A-D used grilles to cover various accessory exhaust and inlet ducts, the F/A-18E/F uses perforated panels that appear opaque to radar waves at the frequencies used.

Avionics

Initially, the Super Hornet's avionics and software had a 90% commonality with that of the F/A-18C/D fleet at the time. Differences include an up-front touchscreen control display; a large multipurpose color liquid-crystal display; and a fuel display. The Super Hornet has a quadruplex digital fly-by-wire system, as well as a digital flight-control system that detects and corrects for battle damage. Initial production models used the APG-73 radar, later replaced by the AN/APG-79 active electronically scanned array (AESA). The AN/ASQ-228 ATFLIR (Advanced Targeting Forward Looking InfraRed), is the main electro-optical sensor and laser designator pod for the Super Hornet. The communications equipment consist of an AN/ARC-210 VHF/UHF radio and a MIDS-JTRS low volume terminal for HAVE QUICK, SINCGARS and Link 16 connectivity.

The defensive countermeasures of Block I aircraft includes the AN/ALR-67(V)3 radar warning receiver, the AN/ALE-47 countermeasures dispenser, the AN/ALE-50 towed decoy and the AN/ALQ-165 Airborne Self-Protect Jammer (ASPJ). Block II aircraft replace the ALQ-165 with the AN/ALQ-214 Integrated Defensive Countermeasures (IDECM) system, consisting of internally mounted threat receivers and optional self-protection jammers. Interior and exterior lighting on the Block II was changed to allow the use of night vision devices. The older ALE-50 decoys are being replaced by ALE-55 towed decoys, which can transmit jamming signals based on data received from the IDECM. The improved AN/ALQ-214 jammer was added on Block II aircraft.

Block II aircraft were fitted with the AN/APG-79 AESA radar, capable of executing simultaneous air-to-air and air-to-ground attacks, and providing higher quality high-resolution ground mapping at long standoff ranges. The AESA radar can also detect smaller targets, such as inbound missiles and can track air targets beyond the range of the aircraft's air-to-air missiles. VFA-213, the first squadron to fly AESA-equipped Super Hornets, became "safe for flight" (independently fly and maintain the F/A-18F) on 27 October 2006. The first Super Hornet upgraded with the Joint Helmet Mounted Cueing System (JHMCS) was delivered to VFA-213 on 18 May 2007. The JHMCS provides multi-purpose situational awareness, which includes high-off-boresight missile cuing. The Shared Reconnaissance Pod (SHARP) is a high-resolution, digital tactical aerial reconnaissance system that features advanced day/night and all-weather capability. The Multifunctional Information Distribution System low volume communication terminal is being upgraded with the MIDS-JTRS system, which will allow a tenfold increase in bandwidth as well as compatibility with the Joint Tactical Radio System standards. For passive infrared detection and targeting, the aircraft can carry the AN/ASG-34(V) IRST21 contained in a modified 480-gallon external fuel tank on the centerline pylon.

Development of Block III avionics upgrades has been underway as of April 2019.

United States Navy

In 1999, the Super Hornet entered fleet service with the U.S. Navy. It achieved initial operating capability (IOC) in September 2001 with the U.S. Navy's Strike Fighter Squadron 115 (VFA-115) at Naval Air Station Lemoore, California. VFA-115 was also the first unit to take their F/A-18s into combat. On 6 November 2002, two F/A-18Es conducted a "Response Option" strike in support of Operation Southern Watch on two surface-to-air missile launchers at Al Kut, Iraq and an air defense command and control bunker at Tallil air base. One of the pilots dropped 2000 lb JDAM bombs from the Super Hornet for the first time during combat.

In support of Operation Iraqi Freedom (Iraq War), VFA-14, VFA-41 and VFA-115 flew close air support, strike, escort, SEAD and aerial refueling sorties. Two F/A-18Es from VFA-14 and two F/A-18Fs from VFA-41 were forward deployed to USS Abraham Lincoln (CVN-72). The VFA-14 aircraft flew mostly as aerial refuelers and the VFA-41 fighters as Forward Air Controller (Airborne) or FAC(A)s. On 6 April 2005, VFA-154 and VFA-147 (the latter squadron then still operating F/A-18Cs) dropped two 500 lb laser-guided bombs on an enemy insurgent location east of Baghdad. On 8 September 2006, VFA-211 F/A-18Fs expended GBU-12 and GBU-38 bombs against Taliban fighters and Taliban fortifications west and northwest of Kandahar. This was the first time the unit had participated in an active combat capacity using the Super Hornet.

During the 2006–2007 cruise with USS Dwight D. Eisenhower, VFA-103 and VFA-143 supported Operations Iraqi Freedom, Enduring Freedom and operations off the Somali coast. Alongside "Legacy Hornet" squadrons, VFA-131 and VFA-83, they dropped 140 precision guided weapons and performed nearly 70 strafing runs. The Super Hornet can operate from the French aircraft carrier FRENCH AIRCRAFT CARRIER Charles de Gaulle.

In 2007, Boeing proposed additional F/A-18E/Fs to the U.S. Navy in a multi-year contract. By October 2008, Boeing had delivered 367 Super Hornets to the U.S. Navy. On 6 April 2009, Defense Secretary Robert Gates announced that the Department of Defense (DoD) intended to acquire 31 F/A-18s in FY2010. Congress requested the DoD study a further multi-year contract so that a projected fighter shortfall could be averted; in 2006, the Navy was 60 fighters below its validated requirement. The FY2010 budget bill authorized a multiyear purchase agreement for additional Super Hornets. A multi-year contract was finalized on 28 September 2010, reported as saving $600 million over individual yearly contracts, for 66 Super Hornets and 58 Growlers to mitigate a four-year delay in the F-35 program.

On 7 August 2014, U.S. defense officials announced they had been authorized to launch bombing missions upon Islamic State (IS) forces in northern Iraq. The decision to take direct action was made to protect U.S. personnel in the city of Irbil and to ensure the safety of transport aircraft making airdrops to Yazidi civilians. Early on 8 August, two Super Hornets took off from USS George H.W. Bush and dropped 500 lb laser-guided bombs on a "mobile artillery piece" the militants had been using to shell Kurdish forces defending the city. Later that day, four more aircraft struck a seven-vehicle convoy and a mortar position.

On 18 June 2017, a U.S. Navy F/A-18E shot down a Syrian Air Force Su-22 fighter-bomber that allegedly had bombed a position held by U.S.-supported Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) near Tabqa; the Syrian government claimed the Su-22 was bombing an IS position. This was the first aerial kill of a crewed aircraft by an American fighter since 1999, the first by the Navy since the 1991 Persian Gulf War, the first kill by a Super Hornet, and the third kill by an F/A-18. An E-3 Sentry issued several warnings to the Su-22 and, after it dropped bombs near SDF fighters, the F/A-18E, piloted by Lieutenant Commander Michael "MOB" Tremel, a pilot assigned to Strike Fighter Squadron 87 aboard the carrier George H.W. Bush, independently chose to shoot it down based on established rules of engagement. The F/A-18E first missed with an AIM-9X Sidewinder, then hit the Su-22 with an AIM-120 AMRAAM; the encounter lasted eight minutes.

In 2018, Boeing was awarded a contract to convert nine single-seat F/A-18E Super Hornets and two F/A-18F two-seaters for Blue Angels use; these are to be completed by 2021.

On 26 December 2023, Super Hornets from USS Dwight D. Eisenhower, along with the accompanying destroyer USS Laboon, destroyed 12 attack drones, three anti-ship missiles and two ground attack cruise missiles fired by Houthi forces in the southern Red Sea. Around 2:30 AM local time on 12 January 2024, Houthi targets were struck by U.S. Navy, USAF, and RAF forces in response to Houthi attacks against commercial shipping in the Red Sea. Super Hornets from Dwight D. Eisenhower took part in the strikes, which in total hit 60 targets at 16 locations using over 100 PGMs of various types.

Royal Australian Air Force
On 3 May 2007, the Australian Government signed a $2.9 billion contract to acquire 24 F/A-18Fs as an interim replacement for the Royal Australian Air Force's (RAAF) aging F-111s. It was reported that the order would also address any difficulties that might be caused by a need to quickly replace the RAAF's existing fleet of classic F/A-18A/B Hornets in the event of delays to the F-35 program. The total cost of the purchase, with training and support over 10 years, was expected to be A$6 billion (US$4.6 billion).

The order was controversial; Air Vice Marshal (retired) Peter Criss, said that he was "absolutely astounded" that $6 billion would be spent on an interim aircraft, and cited the US Senate Armed Services Committee, to the effect that the "excess power" of the Block I Super Hornet was inferior to that of the MiG-29 and Su-30, both of which were being operated by, or were on order for, air forces in South East Asia. Another former senior RAAF officer, Air Commodore (ret.) Ted Bushell stated that the F/A-18F could not perform the strategic deterrent/strike role of the F-111C and the latter could continue to operate until 2020 at least. On 31 December 2007, the new Australian Labor government announced a review of the RAAF's aircraft procurement plans citing suitability concerns, the lack of a proper review process, and beliefs that an interim fighter was not needed.

On 17 March 2008, the Government announced that it would proceed to acquire 24 F/A-18Fs. Defence Minister Joel Fitzgibbon called the Super Hornet an "excellent aircraft", and indicated that costs and logistical factors contributed to the decision: the F-111's retirement was "irreversible"; "only" the F/A-18F could meet the timeframe and that termination involved "significant financial penalties and create understandable tensions between the contract partners." The Block II aircraft offered include installed engines and six spares, APG-79 AESA radars, Link 16 connectivity, LAU-127 guided missile launchers, AN/ALE-55 fiber optic towed decoys and other equipment. On 27 February 2009, Fitzgibbon announced that 12 of the 24 F/A-18Fs would be wired on the production line for future modification as Boeing EA-18G Growlers at an additional cost of A$35 million. The final decision on the EA-18G conversion, at a cost of A$300 million, would be made in 2012. The first RAAF F/A-18F made its first flight from Boeing's factory in St. Louis, Missouri, on 21 July 2009. RAAF crews began training in the U.S. in 2009. The first five F/A-18Fs arrived at their home base, RAAF Base Amberley in Queensland, on 26 March 2010; and were joined by six more aircraft on 7 July 2010. After four more aircraft arrived in December 2010, the first RAAF F/A-18F squadron was declared operational on 9 December 2010.

In 2008, U.S. export approval was sought for EA-18G Growlers. In December 2012, Australia sought cost information on acquiring a further 24 F/A-18Fs, which may be bought to avoid a capability gap due to F-35 delays. In February 2013, the U.S. Defense Security Cooperation Agency notified Congress of a possible Foreign Military Sale to Australia for up to 12 F/A-18E/Fs and 12 EA-18Gs with associated equipment, training and logistical support. In May 2013, Australia announced the order of 12 new EA-18Gs instead of converting any F/A-18Fs. In June 2014, Boeing received a contract for 12 EA-18Gs; the first was rolled out on 29 July 2015.

On 24 September 2014, eight RAAF F/A-18Fs, along with a KC-30A tanker, an early warning aircraft, and 400 personnel arrived in the United Arab Emirates to take part in operations against Islamic State (IS) militants. On 5 October 2014, the RAAF officially started combat missions over Iraq using a pair of F/A-18Fs armed with GPS guided bombs, they returned safely to base without attacking targets. On 8 October 2014, an RAAF F/A-18F conducted its first attack, dropping two bombs on an ISIL facility in northern Iraq. In 2017, EA-18Gs replaced No. 6 Squadron RAAF's F/A-18Fs, which were then transferred to No. 1 Squadron RAAF.

On 8 December 2020, F/A-18F A44-223 rolled into a ditch while attempting to take off at RAAF Base Amberley, the crew ejected. An eyewitness reportedly observed smoke from one of the engines. A day after the incident, the RAAF grounded the fleet of 24 Super Hornets and 11 Growlers while the incident was investigated. The cause was determined to be pilot error. The Super Hornet was repaired, and returned to service in mid-2021.

Kuwait Air Force
In May 2015, the Kuwait Air Force was reportedly planning to order 28 F/A-18E/Fs with options for an additional 12. However, in June 2015, it was reported that Kuwait was considering a split purchase between the Eurofighter Typhoon and the F/A-18E/F. On 11 September 2015, Kuwait signed an agreement for 28 Eurofighters. In November 2016, a proposed Kuwaiti sale of 32 F/A-18E and 8 F/A-18F fighters, armaments, and associated equipment was approved by the U.S. State Department.

In June 2018, the Kuwaiti Government ordered 22 F/A-18Es and 6 F/A-18Fs via a US$1.5 billion contract. All aircraft were scheduled to be delivered by January 2021, but were later rescheduled to be delivered in 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Potential operators
Boeing has pitched the F/A-18E/F to numerous countries, particularly those that operate the legacy Hornet as it was supposed to be a "logical progression from the Hornet to the [Super Hornet], with its logistics, weaponry and training commonalities". So far only the US Navy, Australia, and Kuwait have ordered and received the Super Hornet.

Malaysia
Boeing offered Malaysia Super Hornets as part of a buy-back package for its existing Hornets in 2002. However, the procurement was halted in 2007 after the government decided to purchase the Sukhoi Su-30MKM instead; Chief Gen. Datuk Nik Ismail Nik Mohamaed of the Royal Malaysian Air Force (RMAF) indicated that the air force had not planned to end the Super Hornet buy, stating that such fighters were needed. Separately, the Super Hornet is a contender for the MRCA program, under which the RMAF seek to equip three squadrons with 36 to 40 new fighters with an estimated budget of RM6 billion to RM8 billion (US$1.84 billion to US$2.46 billion). Other competitors are the Eurofighter Typhoon, Dassault Rafale and Saab JAS 39 Gripen.

Belgium
On 12 March 2014, Belgian newspaper De Morgen reported that Boeing is in talks with the Belgian Ministry of Defence about the Super Hornet as a candidate to replace Belgium's aging F-16 fleet. In April 2017, Boeing announced it would not compete in the competition, citing it "does not see an opportunity to compete on a truly level playing field". On 25 October 2018, Belgium officially selected the offer for 34 F-35As to replace its fleet of around 54 F-16s.

Brazil
Boeing proposed the Super Hornet to the Brazilian government in response to an initial requirement for 36 aircraft, with a potential total purchase of 120 examples. In October 2018, the Super Hornet was reportedly selected as one of three finalists in Brazil's fighter competition. However, news of National Security Agency spying on Brazilian leaders caused animosity between Brazil and the US. Brazil eventually dropped the Super Hornet from its final list and selected the Saab JAS 39 Gripen in December 2013.

Canada
The Super Hornet was a contender to replace the CF-18 Hornet, a version of the F/A-18A and B models, operated by the Royal Canadian Air Force. Like the older Hornet, the Super Hornet's design is well-suited to Northern Canada's rugged forward operational airfields, while its extended range removes its predecessor's main deficiency while commonalities enable a straightforward transition. In 2010, Canada decided on sole source selection of the F-35A. Boeing claimed that Canada had ignored the Super Hornet's radar cross-section characteristics during evaluation. By April 2012, Canada was reportedly reviewing its F-35 procurement. In September 2013, Boeing provided Canada with data on its Advanced Super Hornet, suggesting that 65 aircraft would cost $1.7 billion less than an F-35 fleet. The US Navy buys Super Hornets for $52 million per aircraft, while the advanced model costs $6–$10 million more per aircraft, dependent on options selected.

The Liberal government elected in 2015 indicated that it would launch a competition to replace the CF-18 fleet. During the election, Liberal Leader Justin Trudeau stated that his government would not buy the F-35. On 22 November 2016, the government announced its intention to acquire 18 Super Hornets on an interim basis. In September 2017, the U.S. State Department granted Canada permission to buy 10 F/A-18Es and 8 F/A-18Fs (or EA-18Gs) along with supporting equipment, spares, and armaments; the agreed cost totaled CA$1.5 billion, or about CA$83.3 million per aircraft, adding the supporting equipment, training, spares, and weapons increased the acquisition cost to CA$6.3 billion. However, Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau warned that the pending Super Hornet sale, along with a possible sale of another 70, was adversely affected by Boeing's actions against Bombardier Aerospace, such as a complaint to the US government over the sale of CSeries airliners to Delta Air Lines at unduly low prices; in September 2017, the U.S. Department of Commerce proposed a 219% tariff on CSeries imported into the US. In January 2018, the USITC commissioners unanimously ruled against Boeing that the U.S. industry is not threatened and no duties will be imposed.

In late 2017, the Canadian Government agreed with Australia to purchase 18 used F/A-18 Hornets as an interim measure. Boeing confirmed its bid for the Advanced Fighter Program, likely offering a mix of 88 F/A-18E/F Advanced Super Hornets (Block III) and Boeing EA-18G Growlers. On 25 November 2021, Reuters reported that Boeing is out of the competition since its fighter proposal does not meet requirements with the F-35 and Saab JAS 39 Gripen remaining in competition.

Denmark
In 2008, the Royal Danish Air Force was offered the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet as one of three fighters in a Danish competition to replace 48 F-16AM/BMs. The other contenders were the F-35A Joint Strike Fighter and the Eurofighter Typhoon. Denmark is a level-3 partner in the JSF program. The final selection was originally planned for mid-2015 where 24 to 30 fighters were expected. In April 2014, the Danish Ministry of Defence handed over a Request for Binding Information (RBI) that specifically listed the F/A-18F two-seat variant. In December 2015, the decision was postponed to 2016, with the final order's details pending negotiations. In May 2016, the Danish government recommended to parliament that 27 F-35As should be procured instead of 38 Super Hornets.

In September 2016, Boeing indicated that they would take legal action against the Danish F-35A buy, indicating that flawed data was used. In March 2018, Boeing lost the case with the court stating "The court has found that the authorities' decisions on refusal of access to the documents are legal and valid."

Finland
In June 2015, a working group set up by the Finnish MoD proposed starting the HX Fighter Program to replace the Finnish Air Force's current fleet of F/A-18C/D Hornets, which will reach the end of their service life by the end of the 2020s. The group recognised five potential types: Boeing F/A-18E/F Advanced Super Hornet, Dassault Rafale, Eurofighter Typhoon, Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II and Saab JAS 39 Gripen. In May 2016, the DOD announced that Boeing (with the Super Hornet) and Lockheed Martin (with the F-35) would respond to the information request. This request was sent in early 2016 with five responses received in November 2016. A call for tender will be sent in spring 2018 and the buying decision is scheduled to take place in 2021.

In February 2020, three Super Hornets (a single-seat F/A-18E, a twin-seat F/A-18F and an EA-18G) arrived at the Tampere-Pirkkala Airbase in Finland for final flight evaluations. The evaluations concluded on 28 February 2020. The Finnish newspaper Iltalehti reported that several foreign and security policy sources had confirmed the Finnish Defense Forces recommendation of the F-35, citing its capability and expected long lifespan as key reasons. Finland ordered the F-35 in February 2022.

Germany
Germany requires a replacement for its aging Panavia Tornado fleet, including both Tornado IDS (interdictor/strike) and ECR (Electronic Combat/Reconnaissance) variants. Germany considered ordering the Lockheed Martin F-35, Eurofighter Typhoon, and the Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet and EA-18G Growler. In April 2020, Germany's defense secretary announced a replacement plan for a split purchase of 30 Super Hornets, 15 EA-18Gs and 55 Typhoons. However, the Defense Ministry states this is not finalized and it is being debated. As of March 2020, the Super Hornet is not certified for the B61 nuclear bombs, but Dan Gillian, Super Hornet program head, previously stated that "We certainly think that we, working with the U.S. government, can meet the German requirements..."

With increased tensions in Europe, due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine beginning 24 February 2022, Germany scrambled to accelerate defense spending priorities. Newly elected Chancellor Olaf Scholz pledged a €100 billion military upgrade, which included selecting the F-35 instead of the Super Hornet for the nuclear role and Eurofighter ECR/SEAD instead of the Growler.

India
For India's MMRCA competition, Boeing offered a customized variant called F/A-18IN, which included Raytheon's APG-79 AESA radar. In August 2008, Boeing submitted an industrial participation proposal detailing partnerships with companies in India. The Indian Air Force (IAF) extensively evaluated the Super Hornet, including field trials in August 2009. However, in April 2011, the IAF eliminated the F/A-18IN from the competition which was eventually won by the Dassault Rafale.

In October 2016, India reportedly received three unsolicited bids, including one from Boeing for the Super Hornet, to replace its MiG-21 and MiG-27 aircraft. In February 2018, the Indian Naval Air Arm was reportedly interested in the Super Hornet as the main carrier-based strike fighter of the in-development Vishal-class aircraft carrier. In December 2020, Boeing announced the successful launched of the aircraft from a ski-jump, emphasizing its compatibility with the Indian Navy's STOBAR carriers. In May 2022, two Super Hornets were sent to Goa to showcase compatibility with Indian aircraft carriers. There are technical aspects that would make the Rafale difficult to implement for the INS Vikrant (2013), and would favor the Super Hornet over the Rafale.

The aircraft is now competing with six others in a fresh tender, referred as MMRCA 2.0, for the procurement of 114 multi-role combat aircraft for the IAF.

In July 2023, the Indian Ministry of Defence revealed that the Defence Acquisition Council had granted Acceptance of Necessity for 22 Dassault Rafale M fighters and 4 Dassault Rafale DH conversion trainers for the Indian Navy. The Rafale was chosen over the Super Hornet due to their commonality with the Rafale aircraft operated by the Indian Air Force, as well as availability to integrate Indian origin systems into the aircraft. The aircraft would complement the existing fleet of Navy Mikoyan MiG-29K aircraft, to be later joined by the Indian built Twin Engine Deck Based Fighter. The aircraft would be operated on the Indian aircraft carriers INS Vikramaditya and INS Vikrant.

Poland
During the 2010s, Poland sought to purchase 64 multirole combat aircraft from 2021 to replace the Polish Air Force's fleet of Sukhoi Su-22M4 ground attack aircraft and Mikoyan MiG-29 fighters. In November 2017, the Armament Inspectorate launched the acquisition process. On 22 December 2017, five entities expressed interest in participating in the market analysis phase of the procurement, referred to as "Harpia" (harpy eagle); they included Saab (Gripen NG), Lockheed Martin (F-35), Boeing (F/A-18), Leonardo (Eurofighter Typhoon) and Fights-On Logistics (second-hand F-16). On 28 May 2019, the Polish Defense Ministry formally requested to buy 32 F-35As.

Switzerland
Boeing first offered the Super Hornet to the Swiss Air Force as a replacement for Swiss F-5E Tigers before withdrawing from the competition on 30 April 2008. The Swiss Air Force was at one point intending to buy the rival Saab Gripen, but this was blocked by Swiss voters in 2014. In March 2018, Swiss officials named contenders in its Air 2030 program: The Saab Gripen, Dassault Rafale, Eurofighter Typhoon, Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet and Lockheed Martin F-35. The program has a budget of US$8 billion but includes not only combat aircraft but also ground-based air defense systems. In October 2018, it was reported by Jane's that the Swiss Air Force may be limited to purchasing a single-engine fighter due to cost. The F/A-18E/F performed demonstrations for Swiss personnel at Payerne Air Base in April 2019, which was contrasted to flights performed by other bidders.

On 30 June 2021, the Swiss Federal Council proposed buying 36 F-35As to Parliament at a cost of up to 6 billion Swiss francs (US$6.5 billion), citing the aircraft's cost and combat effectiveness. The anti-military group GSoA intended to contest the purchase in another national referendum supported by the Green Party of Switzerland and the Social Democratic Party of Switzerland (which previously acted to block the Gripen). In August 2022, they registered the initiative, with 120,000 people having signed in less than a year (with 100,000 required). On 26 November 2021, it was announced that Armasuisse had agreed terms with the US government for 36 F-35As for CHF 6.035 billion. The order was then subject to parliamentary approval and the popular initiative not proceeding or failing. A parliamentary inquiry found the purchase worrisome but legal. The government did not wait for the popular initiative to proceed, which was legally permitted. On 15 September 2022, the Swiss National council gave the Federal council permission to sign the purchase deal. The deal to buy 36 F-35A was signed on 19 September 2022, with deliveries to commence in 2027 and conclude by 2030.

Spain
By 2018, Spain sought 68-72 fighters to replace its F/A-18A/B Hornets; tender participants included the Eurofighter Typhoon, Dassault Rafale, Boeing F/A-18 E/F Advanced Super Hornet, and Lockheed F-35 Lightning II. On 22 June 2022, Spain ordered 20 Tranche 4 Typhoons to replace the 20 ex-USN F/A-18s based at the Canary Islands.

United States Marine Corps
The United States Marine Corps (USMC) avoided the Super Hornet program over fears that any purchased F/A-18s would be at the cost of the F-35B STOVL fighters that they intend to operate from amphibious ships. Resistance is so high that they would rather fly former Navy F/A-18Cs. In 2011, the USMC agreed to eventually equip five Marine fighter-attack squadrons (VMFA) with the F-35C carrier variant to continue to augment Navy carrier air wings as they do with the F/A-18C.

Others
On 10 March 2009, Boeing offered the Super Hornet for Greece's Next-Generation Fighter Program.

On 1 August 2010, The Sunday Times reported that the British government was considering canceling orders for the F-35B and buying the Super Hornet instead for its Queen Elizabeth-class aircraft carriers, claiming a saving of around £10 billion as a result. An industry source claimed that the Super Hornet could be ski jump launched without catapults. In the end, the UK opted for a STOVL aircraft carrier equipped with F-35Bs.

The United Arab Emirates was reported to have asked for information on the Super Hornet in 2010.

In early 2011, Bulgaria was considering the F/A-18 as a replacement for its MiG-21 fleet. After initially selecting the Saab Gripen, the newly elected governing coalition restarted the program and indicated that the Super Hornet is again under consideration. The decision is expected by July 2018. In December 2018, the Bulgarian Ministry of Defence selected the offer for 8 F-16V from the United States for an estimated 1.8 billion lev ($1.05 billion) as the preferred option, and recommended the government to start talks with the US.

In 2012, Norway received an offer for at least one squadron of F/A-18s, noting its suitability to Northern Norwegian conditions.

In 2014, Boeing worked with Korean Airlines to offer the Advanced Super Hornet to the Republic of Korea Air Force as an alternative to their KF-X fighter program. Although a fighter based on the Super Hornet would save money, downgrading the program would not give South Korean industry as much knowledge as it would from developing a new fighter.

Variants

 * F/A-18E Super Hornet: single seat variant.
 * F/A-18F Super Hornet: two-seat variant.
 * NEA-18G: Two F/A-18Fs modified as prototypes of the EA-18G Growler.
 * EA-18G Growler: Electronic warfare variant of the F/A-18F to replace the U.S. Navy's Northrop Grumman EA-6B Prowler.
 * Advanced Super Hornet: Variant of the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet with Conformal Fuel Tanks (CFT) and has a further reduced radar cross section (RCS), with the option of a stealthy enclosed weapons pod and built-in IRST21 sensor system. Not pursued, but some elements such as the IRST sensor was incorporated into the Block III.

Operators

 * 🇦🇺 Australia
 * Royal Australian Air Force
 * No. 1 Squadron (F/A-18F)
 * No. 82 Wing Training Flight (F/A-18F)

 * 🇰🇼 Kuwait
 * Kuwait Air Force – 22 single-seat F/A-18Es and 6 twin-seat F/A-18Fs on order

 * 🇺🇸 United States
 * United States Navy
 * Pacific Fleet squadrons
 * VFA-2 "Bounty Hunters" (F/A-18F)
 * VFA-14 "Tophatters" (F/A-18E)
 * VFA-22 "Fighting Redcocks" (F/A-18F)
 * VFA-25 "Fist of the Fleet" (F/A-18E)
 * VFA-27 "Royal Maces" (F/A-18E)
 * VFA-41 "Black Aces" (F/A-18F)
 * VFA-86 "Sidewinders" (F/A-18E)
 * VFA-94 "Mighty Shrikes" (F/A-18E)
 * VFA-102 "Diamondbacks" (F/A-18F)
 * VFA-113 "Stingers" (F/A-18E)
 * VFA-115 "Eagles" (F/A-18E)
 * VFA-122 "Flying Eagles" (Fleet Replacement Squadron, operates F/A-18E/F)
 * VFA-136 "Knighthawks" (F/A-18E)
 * VFA-137 "Kestrels" (F/A-18E)
 * VFA-146 "Blue Diamonds" (F/A-18E)
 * VFA-151 "Vigilantes" (F/A-18E)
 * VFA-154 "Black Knights" (F/A-18F)
 * VFA-192 "Golden Dragons" (F/A-18E)
 * VFA-195 "Dambusters" (F/A-18E)
 * Atlantic Fleet squadrons
 * VFA-11 "Red Rippers" (F/A-18F)
 * VFA-31 "Tomcatters" (F/A-18E)
 * VFA-32 "Swordsmen" (F/A-18F)
 * VFA-34 "Blue Blasters" (F/A-18E)
 * VFA-37 "Ragin Bulls" (F/A-18E)
 * VFA-81 "Sunliners" (F/A-18E)
 * VFA-83 "Rampagers" (F/A-18E)
 * VFA-87 "Golden Warriors" (F/A-18E)
 * VFA-103 "Jolly Rogers" (F/A-18F)
 * VFA-105 "Gunslingers" (F/A-18E)
 * VFA-106 "Gladiators" (Fleet Replacement Squadron, operates F/A-18E/F)
 * VFA-131 "Wildcats" (F/A-18E)
 * VFA-143 "Pukin' Dogs" (F/A-18E)
 * VFA-211 "Fighting Checkmates" (F/A-18E)
 * VFA-213 "Black Lions" (F/A-18F)
 * Test and Evaluation squadrons
 * VX-9 "Vampires" (Air Test and Evaluation Squadron, operates F/A-18E/F and other aircraft)
 * VX-23 "Salty Dogs" (Air Test and Evaluation Squadron, operates F/A-18E/F and other aircraft)
 * VX-31 "Dust Devils" (Air Test and Evaluation Squadron, operates F/A-18E/F and other aircraft)
 * Warfighting Development Centers
 * NAWDC (Naval Aviation Warfighting Development Center, operates F/A-18E/F and other aircraft)
 * Flight Demonstration squadrons
 * U.S. Navy Flight Demonstration Squadron / Blue Angels (F/A-18E/F)

Each U.S. Navy deployable "Fleet" VFA squadron has a standard unit establishment of 12 aircraft.

Notable accidents

 * On 6 April 2011, a U.S. Navy F/A-18F from VFA-122 Tactical Demonstration team crashed, killing both crew members. The crash occurred when the crew attempted to perform a loaded roll with too much speed and insufficient angle-of-attack. The loaded roll has since been removed from the Navy's F/A-18F flight demonstration routine.
 * On 31 July 2019, a U.S. Navy F/A-18E from VFA-151 crashed into the side of "Star Wars Canyon" in California, killing the pilot and injuring seven French civilian sightseers at the Father Crowley Vista Point 40 feet above the impact point. The crash was attributed to flying "too fast and too low with respect to the surrounding terrain". Military training within the canyon has since been suspended, with standing instructions to stay above the rim of the canyon.
 * On 8 July 2022, a U.S. Navy F/A-18 assigned to Carrier Air Wing One aboard USS Harry S. Truman blew overboard due to unexpected heavy weather in the Mediterranean Sea.

title: Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet


text:
Ballard Bridge

The Ballard Bridge, also known as the 15th Avenue Bridge, is a double-leaf bascule bridge in Seattle, Washington. It carries 15th Avenue NW over Seattle's Salmon Bay between Ballard to the north and Interbay to the south. The Ballard Bridge follows the Fremont Bridge in the east in the succession of bridges spanning the Lake Washington Ship Canal, which connects Lake Washington in the east to Puget Sound in the west.

Built in 1917, it has an opening span of 218 ft and a total length of 2854 ft. The approaches of the bridge were originally timber trestles. It also carried a streetcar. In 1939, the timber approach spans of the Ballard Bridge were replaced as a Public Works Administration project. The deck was surfaced with concrete and the rails for the streetcar were removed. In 1982, it was added to the National Register of Historic Places.

In recent years bicyclists have complained that improvements are needed to address safety concerns.

In 2024, work began on seismic improvements to the bridge structure, including installing ground anchors and other safety features.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Ballard Bridge


text: User talk:68.166.68.51

title: User talk:68.166.68.51


text:
User talk:Seanie

Hello and welcome to Wikipedia! Hope you like it here, and stick around.

Here are some tips to help you get started:

 * To sign your posts (on talk pages, for example) use the '~' symbol. To insert just your name, type ~~~ (3 tildes), or, to insert your name and timestamp, use ~~~~ (4 tildes).
 * Try the Tutorial, and feel free to experiment in the test area.
 * If you need help, post a question at the Help Desk
 * Follow the Simplified Ruleset
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Remember Neutral point of view
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and, most importantly, have fun!

Good luck!

title: User talk:Seanie


text:
James Abbott

James or Jim Abbott may refer to:

 * James Abbott (Indian Army officer) (1807–1896), British colonial administrator
 * James H. Abbott (1851–1914), British philatelist
 * Jim Abbott (outfielder) (1884–1926), American baseball player
 * James Abbott (footballer) (1892–?), English footballer
 * Jim Abbott (Canadian politician) (1942–2020), Canadian politician
 * James W. Abbott (born 1948), American university administrator and politician
 * Jim Abbott (born 1967), American baseball player
 * James T. Abbott, American attorney and government official

title: James Abbott


text:
Ward End

Ward End is an area of Birmingham, England. It covers the area between Saltley, Hodge Hill and Stechford and includes Ward End Park, a public park that has been open for over 100 years.

Ward End territory
Pelham in Ward End joins with Alum Rock Ward End starts by Ward End Park on the Washwood Heath Road and finishes at the Fox and Goose public house.

The Fox & Goose
The Fox & Goose, a pub and shopping area is situated in the eastern part of Ward End and marks the boundary with Stechford and Hodge Hill.

Ward End Park
The park, opened in 1904, covers a large part of Ward End. A typical English park, it is heavily populated in the summer months. Ward End Park House is located within the park and dates back to 1759.

The park also has two large multi-sports practice courts, two professional cricket nets, two large play sections and a car park.

Secondary schools
The secondary school which served this area from 1958 was Ward End Hall Secondary Modern; later known as Ward End Hall County Secondary School, before finally being renamed Park View Upper School in 1983 when it catered solely for 4th and 5th year senior pupils, and sixth-formers (or Year 10, 11, 12 and 13s as they are known these days). Park View Lower School was the name given to the next closest secondary school, Naseby, after the two schools amalgamated in the mid-1980s. However, whether it was due to lack of demand for places or just financial problems, the former Ward End Hall School was closed down and demolished in the mid-1990s. A housing estate now stands on the site of the former school. Park View School was renamed Rockwood Academy in 2015. In addition to Rockwood Academy, there is a secondary education establishment quite locally at Washwood Heath (Washwood Heath Academy) and two more in Hodge Hill (Hodge Hill College; and Hodge Hill Girls' School, a former grammar school).

Places of worship
There are a number of places of worship in Ward End, Christ Church in Burney Lane and a large number of mosques.George Grenfell Memorial Hall situated to the rear of Grenfell Baptist Church in Bankdale Road B8 2AA. Monk Road Methodist is now an African pentecostal church.

Unusual events
Several unusual events have occurred in Ward End over the years.

In late-1981 and into 1982, the residents of five houses on Thornton Road informed the police that stones had been thrown against their windows at night. The stones had no fingerprints, so a night-time surveillance using infrared cameras and image-intensifiers was set up. The stone-throwing continued even though no human activity was seen. Eventually the Birmingham CID gave up and left the case open.

In late-2004 and early 2005, there were rumours that a man had bitten several people on Glen Park Road; described as being black and in his mid-20s he was dubbed the "Birmingham Vampire". However the police had received no reports of any attack, and the hospitals had received no bite victims. The local press was inundated with calls from worried residents in Ward End and the surrounding area. The case has been dismissed as an urban legend.

In 2006, Tarmac (a heavy building materials company) drew up a list of Britain's "spookiest roads", with Drews Lane in Ward End coming tenth. Invisible cars are frequently heard on the road.

Famous Resident
Charlie Hall (actor), character actor in many Laurel and Hardy films, was born here.

title: Ward End


text:
Talk:Trail mix

Müsli
To me, it seems there's an obvious connection between gorps and müsli. This doesn't seem to come up on WP either way, and of course would require some source to cite. Müsli pretty clearly predates any recent origin offered here and would hopefully put that ridiculous surfer claim to rest. 84.248.106.251 (talk) 12:13, 6 September 2010 (UTC)

Problem with a source
I found that the first reference article plagiarizes this Wikipedia article significantly, yet it is being cited as a source for this article. So in effect, this article cites itself as a source. I added the "Citations Missing" tempate to this article. -Rhrad (talk) 15:18, 29 July 2009 (UTC)
 * Why not? Everyone knows that Wiki is the absolute source of information on the planet - just think how much time it saves Nobel laureates doing critical research...to have it now self-referencing makes it even more useful by saving all that time checking sources - what's the reference for this crap? oh it's the crap itself, so it must be right. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 50.129.224.141 (talk) 08:56, 5 October 2011 (UTC)

Gorp vs. Trail Mix debate
Is "Gorp" really more commonly said than "trail mix"? Where? I've never heard anyone use the former term, though I've seen it occasionally on packages containing (only!) raisins and peanuts, never as a generic term. I'm an American, for the record. --anon. 20 July 2004
 * seconded. Trail Mix is all I've ever heard, except on that SNL sketch (which they found it necessary to explain what GORP meant)
 * Shall we move it then?--Kross | Talk 23:36, 11 November 2005 (UTC)
 * I have always called it Gorp (growing up in New England). I found this page based on a workplace argument which this entry thankfully helped me win. I vote to keep it as Gorp. If Gorp isn't the most common name, it should be. What the heck is "trail mix"?
 * Growing up in Toronto, Ontario, and having backpacked across Canada, I have never once heard the term "gorp". This is the first I've seen.  I always used "trail mix".  Perhaps this is a case of dialectal variation.  I vote for "trail mix" because the words are more recognizable, even if the meaning is not to everyone. Queerwiki 06:42, 22 January 2006 (UTC)
 * Growing up in California (60's, Boy Scouts, Sierra Club), I've heard both. Usually they're considered distinct, though the distinction varies: sometimes "it's only gorp if it includes M&Ms" and at other times "trail mix is a commercial term, gorp is what you mix up yourself."  I always say "gorp," because it's fewer syllables, I love M&Ms, and I'm hippie enough to distrust commercialism ;-)--Jackr

 * Growing up in Kansas, it was always called "gorp", but I believe "trail mix" is the more widely used term. Today I call it trail mix, never gorp. I've never heard it called "California mix" (and I now live in California), can a source be sighted? Another example of Californians trying to claim everything as their invention ;)

The comment (added anonymously in Revision as of 21:01, 25 September 2005) about "a neighbourhood in the village of Hilvarenbeek" seems unrelated. If there's some suspicion that the food derives its name from the place (or from an underlying meaningful word), that should be made clearer. Otherwise, isn't this just a case for a "disambiguation page"?--User:Jackr

Then it's decided, I'll redirect it to Trail Mix. Almighty Rajah 20:45, 8 August 2006 (UTC)
 * Gorp should not have been copy/pasted into the Trail Mix article, that's what the move option is for. Once the article is moved then Gorp should automatically redirect to Trail Mix. --68.174.89.189 21:16, 8 August 2006 (UTC)
 * Wasn't logged in for whatever reason. I'm listing the Trail mix article for speedy deletion, once that happens this page can be moved properly. Worst comes to worse I'll ask an admin to help with the move. --ImmortalGoddezz 21:21, 8 August 2006 (UTC)
 * I moved the talk page from Talk:Gorp to Talk:Trail Mix (this should have been included with the move but oh well), just a little thing. --ImmortalGoddezz 21:39, 13 August 2006 (UTC)

FWIW, I remember it was always called Gorp when I was growing up (in Colorado and Utah). I concur with the statement above that Trail Mix is the commercially made kind (frequently contains ingredients not as readily available around the home, such as rice crackers and more exotic dried fruits). --Logotu (talk) 22:31, 14 August 2008 (UTC)

I just found that UK military rations are officially called Operational_Ration_Pack,General Purpose (ORP,GP), does anyone know of any connection?213.212.75.70 (talk) 14:40, 1 February 2010 (UTC)

My understanding of the word is completely different from what's listed here. Gorp was always used as a category of food which might simply be defined as "snacks for hiking/canoeing/etc" of which "Trail Mix" was a part. Other items including cookies, gummies, chocolates, bars (granola/protein/etc), and dried fruit were under the gorp category. The word was only ever used in regards to trips where there was no home base (ie: camp grounds/trailer parks where you setup and do day trips) only those where you'd pack up your gear and move to a new site regularly. Otherwise "snacks" or "grub" would be used. JMJimmy (talk) 23:48, 7 July 2011 (UTC)

Growing up in the 70s in both America and on visits to Canada all anybody called it was Gorp. Now no one says that. I don't know why the article associates the name with Girl Scouts. If you go back far enough everyone called it Gorp. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.85.57.51 (talk) 09:00, 5 October 2012 (UTC)

Gorp in Popular Culture?
I'm removing that section for stupidity. If you want to revert me, I guess I'll forgive you :).

Kaaos 16:19, 30 May 2007 (UTC)

Merger proposal
I'm proposing to merge the Scroggin article into this one. They're basically about the same subject.

We could add a paragraph in this article about the ethymology of the name.

What do you think ? --Luxem (talk) 08:39, 14 November 2008 (UTC)

 * I agree. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.143.149.188 (talk) 16:36, 15 November 2008 (UTC)

What the hell is Scroggin?
I'm an Aussie and I have never heard the term scroggin, is this some Southern State thing or just a Kiwi thing? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 220.237.81.18 (talk) 23:55, 28 November 2008 (UTC)
 * Some Aussies know it : see a doc from the website of the Hornsby Heights Scout Group in Hornsby NSW. Does this still make it a "Southern State thing" ? --Luxem (talk) 22:10, 29 November 2008 (UTC)

"In New Zealand and Australia, trail mix is known as scroggin" If it is, then it's known as this by an exceptionally small number of Australians. I'm 50 and I'd never heard it until now. Even the Hornsby Heights Scout Group don't seem to call it that any more. I note that the citation used is from a site that discusses "international English from a British viewpoint". I wonder if the author also believes in drop bears? --AussieLegend (talk) 17:22, 31 May 2010 (UTC)

 * A new edit added some references for the use of scroggin in Australia. To have any credibility the claim requires references from reliable Australian sources confirming that we call it scroggin here. I haven't found any. --AussieLegend (talk) 19:00, 31 May 2010 (UTC)
 * I am removing the dubious tag once again. The book that I've just added is cited in the National Library of Australia's printed 1994 bibliography, written by an Australian, is about an Australian walking club, and published in Australia. The Bushwalking Victoria society also uses the term scroggin on their website. Alternatively there is a mention in National Geographic Society about scroggin being Australian but I do not have access to that archive to confirm the entire source. --ImGz ( t/c ) 19:38, 31 May 2010 (UTC)

 * I've added a ref that details the NZ and Australian etymology of the word... Hack (talk) 08:00, 1 June 2010 (UTC)

 * Removal of dubious was, once again, premature. The main issue that I have is the implication that in Australia we use "scroggin" instead of "trail mix". None of the references so far provided support that claim. Yes, it is a word. The Ozwords reference dates its use to 1940 in New Zealand but to only the early 1980s in Australia. There certainly seems to be some use of the term in Victoria based on the sources. I opened a discussion about this at WP:AUSTRALIA and responses to date support this. There is some anecdotal evidence that it's been used in South Australia as well. However, there's very little, if any, evidence to suggest that it's widely used anywhere in the remaining 67-75% of the country. The National Geographic reference (a US one at that) is about architecture, not food. There are some references to scroggin on scouting websites but that again is no indication that it's widely used, only that it might be widely used within the scouting movement. --AussieLegend (talk) 09:07, 1 June 2010 (UTC)

 * I'm also a 61 year old Aussie and only heard about Scroggin for the first time last week in Wellington NZ on holiday. I have brought back some Cadbury Scroggin blocks for kiwis at my office. --MichaelGG (talk) 06:27, 2 September 2010 (UTC)

I'm from Victoria and scroggin was the only word I'd heard for this until I came across this article. It seems to be fairly common parlance for bushwalkers around Melbourne. Though I was born in the 1980s so can't say what terms existed before then. --Jeza (talk) 13:06, 28 August 2011 (UTC)

 * I am a 49 year old New Zealander, and have never heard the term scroggin used. I suspect that it may be a relict still found in parts of the South Island, where old English still exists. Having said that, the idea of a "trail mix" is new, so it would be odd if an old term was used for it.Royalcourtier (talk) 19:24, 16 June 2014 (UTC)

Inaccuracy
The ingredients list states that it's minimum 3, but that's clearly inaccurate. The standard GORP, for example, is only raisins and peanuts, and serves the purpos4e quite well. The key (to my understanding) is that it needs to have at least one of the nuts-and-seeds ingredients and at least one sweet (generally a dried fruit). Mind you, I have no references for this thing. (anon) —Preceding unsigned comment added by 174.79.188.106 (talk) 18:33, 7 December 2010 (UTC)

The table of potential ingredients lists almonds as nuts, which they are not. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 96.26.60.65 (talk) 04:02, 31 October 2012 (UTC)

Prunes?
I can't remember why I was looking, but I went in search of information about the GORP of my childhood, Granola Oatmeal Raisins and Prunes. That's what it always was for me, all throughout my formative years. Yet there's no mention of prunes anywhere; not here on Wikipedia, nor anywhere else that's readily searchable. How strange.

I remember the prunes dear readers. I ate everybody's prunes, because nobody else liked them, and then we went spelunking. Everybody in the group hated me for some reason. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Pedant42 (talk • contribs) 02:02, 4 February 2013 (UTC)

Reese's Pieces
Could this be added to the ingredient list, separate from M&M? Miros1 (talk) 03:37, 28 February 2015 (UTC)

title: Talk:Trail mix


text:
Selkie

Selkies are mythological creatures that can shapeshift between seal and human forms by removing or putting on their seal skin. They feature prominently in the oral traditions and mythology of various cultures, especially those of Celtic and Norse origin. The term “selkie” derives from the Scots word for “seal”, and is also spelled as silkies, sylkies, or selchies. Selkies are sometimes referred to as selkie folk (selkie fowk), meaning 'seal folk'. Selkies are mainly associated with the Northern Isles of Scotland, where they are said to live as seals in the sea but shed their skin to become human on land.

Selkies have a dual nature: they can be friendly and helpful to humans, but they can also be dangerous and vengeful. Selkies are often depicted as attractive and seductive in human form, and many stories involve selkies having romantic or sexual relationships with humans, sometimes resulting in children. Selkies can also be coerced or tricked into marrying humans, usually by someone who steals and hides their seal skin, preventing them from returning to the sea. Such marriages are often unhappy, as the selkie always longs for the sea and may eventually escape if they find their skin.

Selkies have counterparts in other cultures, such as the Faroese, Icelandic, Irish, and Manx. They are sometimes confused with other seal-like creatures, such as the mermaids or the finfolk. Selkies have inspired many works of art, literature, music, and film.

Terminology
The Scots language word selkie is diminutive for selch which strictly speaking means 'grey seal' (Halichoerus grypus). Alternate spellings for the diminutive include: selky, seilkie, sejlki, silkie, silkey, saelkie, sylkie, etc.

The term selkie according to Alan Bruford should be treated as meaning any seal with or without the implication of transformation into human form.

W. Traill Dennison insisted selkie was the correct term to be applied to these shapeshifters, to be distinguished from the merfolk, and that Samuel Hibbert committed an error in referring to them as mermen and mermaids. However, when other Norse cultures are examined, Icelandic writers also refer to the seal-wives as merfolk (marmennlar).

There also seems to be some conflation between the selkie and finfolk. This confounding only existed in Shetland, claimed Dennison, and that in Orkney the selkie are distinguished from the finfolk, and the selkies' abode undersea is not "Finfolk-a-heem"; this notion, although seconded by Ernest Marwick, has been challenged by Bruford.

There is further confusion with the Norse concept of the Finns as shapeshifters, Finns (synonymous with finfolk ) being the Shetland dialect name for dwellers of the sea who could remove their seal-skin and transform into humans according to one native correspondent.

In Gaelic stories, specific terms for selkies are rarely used. They are seldom differentiated from mermaids. They are most commonly referred to as maighdeann-mhara in Scottish Gaelic, maighdean mhara in Irish, and moidyn varrey in Manx ('maiden of the sea' i.e. mermaids) and clearly have the seal-like attributes of selkies. The only term that specifically refers to a selkie but which is only rarely encountered is maighdeann-ròin, or 'seal maiden'.
 * Gaelic terms

Scottish legend
Many of the folk-tales on selkie folk have been collected from the Northern Isles (Orkney and Shetland).

In Orkney lore, selkie is said to denote various seals of greater size than the grey seal; only these large seals are credited with the ability to shapeshift into humans, and are called "selkie folk". The type of large seals that might have been seen on the islands include the Greenland seal (also known as the Harp Seal) and the crested seal (also known as the hooded seal). Something similar is stated in Shetland tradition, that the mermen and mermaids prefer to assume the shape of larger seals, referred to as Haaf-fish.

Selkie wife and human lover
A typical folk-tale is that of a man who steals a female selkie's skin, finds her naked on the sea shore, and compels her to become his wife. But the wife will spend her time in captivity longing for the sea, her true home, and will often be seen gazing longingly at the ocean. She may bear several children by her human husband, but once she discovers her skin, she will immediately return to the sea and abandon the children she loved. Sometimes, one of her children discovers or knows the whereabouts of the skin. Sometimes it is revealed she already had a first husband of her own kind. Although in some children's story versions, the selkie revisits her family on land once a year, in the typical folktale she is never seen again by them. In one version, the selkie wife was never seen again (at least in human form) by the family, but the children would witness a large seal approach them and "greet" them plaintively.

Male selkies are described as being very handsome in their human form, and having great seductive powers over human women. They typically seek those who are dissatisfied with their lives, such as married women waiting for their fishermen husbands. In one popular tattletale version about a certain "Ursilla" of Orkney (a pseudonym), it was rumoured that when she wished to make contact with her male selkie she would shed seven tears into the sea.

Children born between man and seal-folk may have webbed hands, as in the case of the Shetland mermaid whose children had "a sort of web between their fingers", or "Ursilla" rumoured to have children sired by a male selkie, such that the children had to have the webbing between their fingers and toes made of horny material clipped away intermittently. Some of the descendants actually did have these hereditary traits, according to Walter Traill Dennison, who was related to the family.

Binding rules and sinful origin
Some legends say that selkies could turn human every so often when the conditions of the tides were correct, but oral storytellers disagreed as to the time interval. In Ursilla's rumour, the contacted male selkie promised to visit her at the "seventh stream" or springtide. In the ballad The Great Silkie of Sule Skerry, the seal-husband promised to return in seven years; the number "seven" being commonplace in balladry.

According to one version, the selkie could only assume human form once every seven years because they are bodies that house condemned souls. There is the notion that they are either humans who had committed sinful wrongdoing, or fallen angels.

Superstitions
It was only during hard times that the people of the Scottish Isles would kill seals to make use of their skin and blubber. It was thought that the killing of a seal would result in misfortune for the perpetrator.

Ernest Marwick recounts the tale of crofters who brought their sheep to graze upon a small group of holms within the Orkney Islands. During the summer, a man placed seven sheep on the largest holm. While on his way home from grazing sheep, the man killed a seal. That night, all of the man's sheep disappeared, however, the other crofters, who had not killed a seal, did not lose their sheep.

Orkney tales
The selkie-wife tale had its version for practically every island of Orkney according to W. Traill Dennison. In his study, he included a version collected from a resident of North Ronaldsay, in which a "goodman of Wastness", a confirmed bachelor, falls in love with a damsel among the selkie-folk, whose skin he captures. She searches the house in his absence, and finds her seal-skin thanks to her youngest daughter who had once seen it being hidden under the roof.

In "Selkie Wife", a version from Deerness on the Mainland, Orkney, the husband locked away the seal-skin in a sea-kist (chest) and hid the key, but the seal woman is said to have acquiesced to the concealment, saying it was "better tae keep her selkie days oot o' her mind". However, when she discovered her skin, she departed hastily leaving her clothes all scattered about.

A fisherman named Alick supposedly gained a wife by stealing the seal-skin of a selkie, in a tale told by an Orkney skipper. The Alick in the tale is given as a good acquaintance of the father of the storyteller, John Heddle of Stromness.

Shetland tales
A version of the tale about the mermaid compelled to become wife to a human who steals her seal-skin, localized in Unst, was published by Samuel Hibbert in 1822. She already had a husband of her own kind in her case.

Some stories from Shetland have selkies luring islanders into the sea at midsummer, the lovelorn humans never returning to dry land.

In Shetland, the sea-folk were believed to revert to human shape and breathed air in the atmosphere in the submarine homeland, but with their sea-dress (seal-skin) they had the ability to transform into seals to make transit from there to the reefs above the sea. However, each skin was unique and irreplaceable.

The shape-shifting nature of selkies within Shetland tradition is detailed in the Scottish ballad The Great Silkie of Sule Skerry:

"I am a man upo' da land; I am a selkie i' da sea. An' whin I'm far fa every strand, My dwelling is in Shöol Skerry."

In the tale of "Gioga's Son", a group of seals resting in the Ve Skerries were ambushed and skinned by Papa Stour fishermen, but as these were actually seal-folk, the spilling of the blood caused a surge in seawater, and one fisherman was left abandoned. The seal-folk victims recovered in human-like form, but lamented the loss of their skin without which they could not return to their submarine home. Ollavitinus was particularly distressed since he was now separated from his wife; however, his mother Gioga struck a bargain with the abandoned seaman, offering to carrying him back to Papa Stour on condition the skin would be returned. In a different telling of the same plot line, the stranded man is called Herman Perk, while the rescuing selkie's name is unidentified.

Parallels
Tales of the seal bride type has been assigned the number ML 4080 under Reidar Thoralf Christiansen's system of classification of migratory folktales. These stories of selkie-wives are also recognized to be of the swan maiden motif type. There are now hundreds of seal bride type tales that have been found from Ireland to Iceland. Only one specimen was found in Norway by Christiansen.

In the Faroe Islands there are analogous beliefs in seal-folk and seal-women also.

Seal shapeshifters similar to the selkie exist in the folklore of many cultures. A corresponding creature existed in Swedish legend, and the Chinook people of North America have a similar tale of a boy who changes into a seal.

Icelandic folk-tales
The folk-tale "Selshamurinn" ("The Seal-Skin") published by Jón Árnason offers an Icelandic analogue of the selkie folk tale. The tale relates how a man from Mýrdalur forced a woman transformed from a seal to marry him after taking possession of her seal-skin. She discovers the key to the chest in her husband's usual clothes when he dresses up for a Christmas outing, and the seal woman is reunited with the male seal who was her betrothed partner.

Another such tale was recorded by Jón Guðmundsson the Learned (in 1641), and according to him these seal folk were sea-dwelling elves called marmennlar (mermen and mermaids). His tale is of a man who comes across the dancing and celebrating of elves within a cave by the ocean. The cave is lined with the sealskins of the dancing elves. As soon as the elves take notice of the man, they rush to don their skins and dive back into the ocean. However, the man is able to steal the smallest of the skins, sliding it underneath his clothes. The owner of the skin tries to retrieve her skin from the man but he quickly takes hold of the young elf and takes her to his home to be his wife. The man and the elf are together for two years, producing two children, a boy and a girl, but the elf harbors no love for the man. During this time, the former elf woman's elf husband swims along the shore by the couple's home. One day, the elf woman finds her skin, and runs away, never to be seen again.

Scientist Fridtjof Nansen reported another Icelandic tale of the seal-woman: a man passes by the sea and hears sounds coming out of a cave. He finds a pile of discarded sealskins nearby and fetches one of them. Later that same day, he returns to the cave and finds a weeping young woman - the owner of the sealskin he took home. The man brings the woman to his house; they marry and have children. One day, while the man is away fishing, the woman finds her sealskin, says goodbye to her human family and departs to the sea.

A more distant echo of selkie-type stories may be found in the medieval story of the demonic woman Selkolla (whose name means 'Seal-head').

Faroese legends
A famous selkie story from the Faroe Islands is The Legend of Kópakonan, Kópakonan literally meaning 'seal woman.' The story tells of a young farmer from the village of Mikladalur who, after learning about the local legend that seals could come ashore and shed their skins once a year on the Thirteenth Night, goes to see for himself. While laying in wait, the man watches as many seals swim to shore, shedding their skin to reveal their human forms. The farmer takes the skin of a young selkie woman, who, unable to return to the water without her skin, is forced to follow the young man back to his farm and become his wife. The two stay together for many years, even producing several children. The man locks the selkie woman's skin in a chest, keeping the key to the lock on his person at all times, so his wife may never gain access. However, one day the man forgets his key at home, and comes back to his farm to find that his selkie wife has taken her skin and returned to the ocean. Later, when the farmer is out on a hunt, he kills the selkie woman's selkie husband and two selkie sons. Enraged, the selkie woman promises vengeance for her lost kin. She exclaims that "some shall be drowned, some shall fall from cliffs and slopes, and this shall continue, until so many men have been lost that they will be able to link arms around the whole island of Kalsoy." Deaths that occur on the island are thought to be due to the selkie woman's curse.

Peter Kagan and the Wind by Gordon Bok tells of the fisherman Kagan who married a seal-woman. Against his wife's wishes he set sail dangerously late in the year, and was trapped battling a terrible storm, unable to return home. His wife shifted to her seal form and saved him, even though this meant she could never return to her human body and hence her happy home. Singer-songwriter Russell Christian immortalized the tale of the Faroese selkie in his song "Kopakonan".

Irish folklore
The mermaid in Irish folklore (sometimes called merrow in Hiberno-English) has been regarded as a seal-woman in some instances. In a certain collection of lore in County Kerry, there is an onomastic tale in Tralee that claimed the Lee family was descended from a man who took a murdúch ('mermaid') for a wife; she later escaped and joined her seal-husband, suggesting she was of the seal-folk kind.

There is also the tradition that the Conneely clan of Connemara was descended from seals, and it was taboo for them to kill the animals lest it bring ill luck. And since conneely became a moniker of the animal, many changed their surname to Connolly. It is also mentioned in this connection that there is a Roaninish (Rón-inis, 'seal island') just outside Gweebarra Bay, off the western coastline of County Donegal in Ulster.

Selkie children
In many versions of the selkie myth, the children produced by the coupling of a selkie and a human, are born with certain physical characteristics that set them apart from normal children.

In David Thomson's book The People of the Sea, which chronicles the extensive legends surrounding the Grey Seal within the folklore of rural Scottish and Irish communities, it is the children of male selkies and human women that have webbed toes and fingers. When the webbing is cut, a rough and rigid growth takes its place.

In The Folklore of Orkney and Shetland, Ernest Marwick cites a tale of a woman who gives birth to a son with a seal's face after falling in love with a selkie man. A dream later reveals the location of silver for the woman to find after giving birth to her son.

A group of selkie descendants, also mentioned by Marwick, possessed a skin that was greenish, white in color and cracked in certain places upon the body. These cracks exuded a fishy odor.

Theories of origins
Before the advent of modern medicine, many physiological conditions were untreatable. When children were born with abnormalities, it was common to blame the fairies. The MacCodrum clan of the Outer Hebrides became known as the "MacCodrums of the seals" as they claimed to be descended from a union between a fisherman and a selkie. This was an explanation for their syndactyly – a hereditary growth of skin between their fingers that made their hands resemble flippers.

Scottish folklorist and antiquarian, David MacRitchie believed that early settlers in Scotland probably encountered, and even married, Finnish and Sami women who were misidentified as selkies because of their sealskin kayaks and clothing. Others have suggested that the traditions concerning the selkies may have been due to misinterpreted sightings of Finn-men (Inuit from the Davis Strait). The Inuit wore clothes and used kayaks that were both made of animal skins. Both the clothes and kayaks would lose buoyancy when saturated and would need to be dried out. It is thought that sightings of Inuit divesting themselves of their clothing or lying next to the skins on the rocks could have led to the belief in their ability to change from a seal to a man.

Another belief is that shipwrecked Spaniards were washed ashore, and their jet-black hair resembled seals. As the anthropologist A. Asbjørn Jøn has recognised, though, there is a strong body of lore that indicates that selkies "are said to be supernaturally formed from the souls of drowned people".

Modern treatments
Scottish poet George Mackay Brown wrote a modern prose version of the story, entitled "Sealskin".

In popular culture
Selkies—or references to them—have appeared in numerous novels, songs and films, though the extent to which these reflect traditional stories varies greatly. Work where selkie lore forms the central theme include:
 * A Stranger Came Ashore, a 1975 young adult novel by Scottish author Mollie Hunter. Set in the Shetland Islands in the north of Scotland, the plot revolves around a boy who must protect his sister from the Great Selkie.
 * The Secret of Roan Inish, a 1994 American/Irish independent film based on the novel Secret of the Ron Mor Skerry, by Rosalie K. Fry. The film's story follows a young Irish girl, Fiona Coneely, who uncovers the mystery of her family's selkie ancestry, and its connection to her lost brother.
 * Selkie, a 2000 Australian made-for-TV film.
 * Ondine, a 2009 Irish film in which a woman caught in a fishing net is believed to be a selkie.
 * Song of the Sea, a 2014 Irish animated film about a young boy who discovers his mute sister is a selkie who must find her voice and free the faerie creatures from the Celtic goddess Macha.

title: Selkie


text:
Kingdom of Desmond

The Kingdom of Desmond was a historic kingdom in southwestern Ireland. It was founded in 1118 by Tadhg Mac Cárthaigh, King of Munster when the Treaty of Glanmire formally divided the Kingdom of Munster into Desmond and Thomond (Tuadh-Mhumhain, "North Munster"). It comprised all of what is now County Cork and most of County Kerry. Desmond was ruled by the Mac Cárthaigh (MacCarthy) dynasty. Other clans within the kingdom included the O'Sullivans and O'Donovans. Following the Norman invasion of Ireland in the late 12th century, the eastern half of Desmond was conquered by the Anglo-Normans and became the Earldom of Desmond, ruled by the Fitzmaurices and FitzGeralds—the famous Irish family known as the Geraldines. The king of Desmond, Diarmaid Mac Cárthaigh submitted to Henry II of England, but the western half of Desmond lived on as a semi-independent Gaelic kingdom. It was often at war with the Anglo-Normans. Fínghin Mac Carthaigh's victory over the Anglo-Normans at the Battle of Callann (1261) helped preserve Desmond's independence. The kings of Desmond founded sites such as Blarney Castle, Ballycarbery Castle, Muckross Abbey and Kilcrea Friary. Following the Nine Years' War of the 1590s, Desmond became part of the Kingdom of Ireland.

MacCarthy Mórs: Kings of Desmond
From its inception in 1118 through 1596, the Kingdom of Desmond was ruled by the family of the MacCarthy Mór (i.e., the "Great MacCarthy"). For centuries the MacCarthy Mórs reigned as Kings of Desmond, and maintained significant demesne lands (manors) throughout the kingdom. Principal seats were at Pallis Castle (near present-day Killarney), Castle Lough (on Killarney's Lough Leane), and Ballycarbery Castle (near Cahersiveen on the Ring of Kerry).

After the death of King Donal IX MacCarthy Mór in 1596, and following the effective end of the Gaelic Order after the Battle of Kinsale (1602), the former Kingdom of Desmond was partitioned between County Cork and County Kerry (in 1606).

Subsequent to the end of the MacCarthy Mór sovereignty in Desmond, descendants entitled to the highest Gaelic designation of "Chief of the Name" of the MacCarthy Mór family, are also properly styled as Princes of Desmond. A secondary title of the MacCarthy Mór would derive from the lordship designation of his sept.

Principalities and other septs
Generational offshoots (cadet family lines) of the Royal House of Desmond received their own territories and titles – known as appanages of the royal house. Those MacCarthy Mór cadet branches which did not evolve to the MacCarthy Mór chief-of-the-name status, became chiefs-of-the-name of their own princely septs, i.e. MacCarthy Reagh of Carbery, MacCarthy of Muskerry, and MacDonough MacCarthy of Duhallow.

Because of their location, it was the MacCarthys of Muskerry and Carbery who ended up fighting the majority of the battles against the Normans – mainly the FitzGerald Earls of Desmond – while defending and expanding the Gaelic realms. By the mid-sixteenth century, the main line of the MacCarthys Mor had largely withdrawn to Kerry, so any modern claims that they are still entitled to the nominal overlordship of Carbery and Muskerry might be rejected by any extant descendants of these branches.

Carbery

One of three principalities within the original Kingdom of Desmond, Carbery, under the MacCarthy Reagh dynasty founded by Donal Gott MacCarthy in the mid-13th century, achieved independence from the overlordship of the MacCarthy Mórs of Desmond. Thus, the MacCarthy territories were actually over a fourth again greater outside of Desmond proper, due to the independent and considerable principality of Carbery, directly to the south/southeast of Desmond.

Principal seats of the Lords/Princes of Carbery were at Kilbrittain Castle (near Kinsale in County Cork), as well as Timoleague Castle (west of Kinsale). Possession of the latter was frequently in dispute with the Norman family of Barry, who were also prominent in West Cork. Some of the more notable sub-lordships under the MacCarthy Reagh dynasty of Carbery included castles at Ballydehob, Benduff, Downeen, Kilcoe, and Kilgobbin, to name but a few.

Muskerry
The MacCarthys of Muskerry, on the other hand, derived more recently from the MacCarthys Mór, and so were (and still are) considered a sept of the main dynasty. This principality of the Kingdom of Desmond began in the 14th century as an appanage of King Cormac Mór MacCarthy Mór (d. 1359) for his second son, Dermod. At various times, because of their adeptness at playing the political game with England, the Lords/Princes of Muskerry also bore various British titles, such as Earl of Clancarty, Viscount Mountcashel, and Baron (Lord) of Blarney.

From its rebuilding in the late 15th century by Cormac Laidir MacCarthy, Blarney Castle, near to Cork city, was the principal seat of the MacCarthys of Muskerry. It was from alleged dialogue between Cormac Teige MacCarthy, the Lord of Blarney, and Queen Elizabeth I of England, that the term "blarney" was coined to mean "empty flattery" or "beguiling talk." It is also from Blarney Castle that the legend of "kissing the Blarney Stone" derives.

Among the numerous sub-infeudations/sub-lordships within the overlordship of the Princes of Muskerry, some of the major ones were: Ballea, Carrignamuck, Carrignavar, Castlecormac, Cloghroe, Cloghphillip, and Downyne.

Duhallow
The third of the princely lines that began as appanages of the MacCarthy Mór dynasty was that of the MacCarthys of Duhallow (Dúiche Ealla), known as the MacDonough MacCarthys. The Duhallow sept began in the 13th century as an appanage from the then-King of Desmond, Cormac Fionn MacCarthy Mór (r. 1244–1248), to his son Diarmuid (Dermond). It was the Gaelic lordship(s) of Duhallow (and Coshmaing) that occupied the northern frontier of the MacCarthys of Desmond in their sometime struggles with the Norman family of the FitzGeralds, the Earls of Desmond. The principal seat of the Lords of Duhallow was at Kanturk. The family of the MacDonough MacCarthy Lords/Princes of Duhallow became extinct in the 18th century.

As in the other princely appanages of Carbery and Muskerry, Duhallow held overlordship of a number of septs of both comital (ard tiarna) rank – Clanawly, Clonmeen, and Dromagh – as well as baronial (tiarna) rank – e.g., Cappagh, Dromiscane, Kanturk, Kilbolane, Knocktemple, and Lohort, among others.

Coshmaing
The sept (clan) of Sliocht Eoghan of Coshmaing ("beside the River Maine") was established in the 14th century by King Cormac Mór MacCarthy Mór (d. 1359) for his third son, Eoghan, as an appanage of the royal house of Desmond. According to Butler, "Of the MacCarthy septs in the Barony of Magunihy, by far the most (88 to 105 ploughlands) was the Sliocht Eoghain Mhoir of Cois Mainge…. The lands of this sept stretched along the whole northern frontier of Magunihy from a point near Castlemaine to the border of Cork."

The head of Sliocht Eoghan of Coshmaing was styled as Lord (Ard Tiarna) of Coshmaing (English: Cosmaigne). The principal seat of the Coshmaing lordship was at Molahiffe, with other castles (sub-lordships) at Fieries and Clonmeallane.

Non-MacCarthy septs
Both inside and outside the territories of the Kingdom of Desmond in southwestern Ireland, there were many families other than the various septs of the MacCarthys. Most prominent of the Norman families in the area were the FitzGeralds (Earls of Desmond), FitzMaurices, Barrys, Barretts, and Roches.

The chief non-MacCarthy Gaelic princes under the MacCarthy Mórs in Desmond were the O'Sullivans. After them were the O'Donoghues, and these two were the only septs who took part in the performance of the MacCarthy inauguration ceremonies – i.e., the bestowal of the White Wand. Also prominent were the O'Callaghans, O'Keeffes, McAuliffes, O'Sheas, [O'Fearris, /O'Fearguis] and others.

Within Carbery, aside from the MacCarthy Reaghs, the most prominent Gaelic families were the princely sept of the O'Donovans, the O'Mahonys, O'Driscolls, O'Dalys, and O'Crowleys. Within Muskerry, prominent non-MacCarthy Gaelic families included the MacSweeneys, O'Learys, O'Spaelains, O'Healys, and O'Riordans.

General references

 * Butler, W. F. T., Gleaning from Irish History. Longman, Green & Co. 1925.
 * Ellis, Peter Berresford, Erin's Blood Royal: The Gaelic Noble Dynasties of Ireland. Palgrave. Revised edition, 2002.
 * MacCarthy Glas, Daniel, The Life and Letters of Florence MacCarthy. 1867.
 * MacCarthy, Samuel Trant, The MacCarthys of Munster. 1922.
 * O'Donovan, John (ed. and tr.), Annála Ríoghachta Éireann. Annals of the Kingdom of Ireland by the Four Masters. 7 vols. Royal Irish Academy. Dublin. 1848–51. 2nd edition, 1856.
 * O'Hart, John, Irish Pedigrees. Dublin. 5th edition, 1892.
 * Ó hInnse, Séamus (ed. and tr.) and Florence MacCarthy, Mac Carthaigh's Book, or Miscellaneous Irish Annals (A.D. 1114–1437). Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. 1947.
 * O'Keeffe, Eugene (ed. and tr.), Eoganacht Genealogies from the Book of Munster. Cork. 1703. available here
 * Ó Murchadha, Diarmuid, "The Battle of Callan, A.D. 1261", in Journal of the Cork Historical and Archaeological Society, Vol. LXVI, No. 204. July–December 1961. pp. 105–116.
 * Ó Murchadha, Diarmuid, Family Names of County Cork. Cork: The Collins Press. 2nd edition, 1996.

title: Kingdom of Desmond