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United States District Court for the Southern District of Florida

The United States District Court for the Southern District of Florida (in case citations, S.D. Fla. or S.D. Fl.) is the federal United States district court with territorial jurisdiction over the southern part of the state of Florida.

Appeals from cases brought in the Southern District of Florida are to the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit (except for patent claims and claims against the U.S. government under the Tucker Act, which are appealed to the Federal Circuit).

History
On the same day that Florida was admitted as a state, March 3, 1845, Congress enacted legislation creating the United States District Court for the District of Florida,. On February 23, 1847, this District was subdivided into Northern and Southern Districts, by. The statute effecting this division set forth the boundaries of the Districts:

 * [T]hat part of the State of Florida lying south of a line drawn due east and west from the northern point of Charlotte Harbor, including the islands, keys, reefs, shoals, harbors, bays and inlets, south of said line, shall be erected into a new judicial district, to be called the Southern District of Florida; a District Court shall be held in said Southern District, to consist of one judge, who shall reside at Key West, in said district...

On July 30, 1962, the Middle District was created from portions of these districts by.

This federal district has the dubious distinction of having had more judges removed through impeachment than any other district, with a total of two, one fourth of all federal judges so removed.

Famous cases heard in the district include the prosecution of former Panamanian military leader Manuel Noriega, the Elián González case, notorious Ponzi schemer Scott Rothstein, a 2000 United States presidential election recount in Florida case, the prosecution of José Padilla, and one of the federal prosecutions of Donald Trump.

Jurisdiction
The court's jurisdiction comprises the nine counties of Broward, Highlands, Indian River, Martin, Miami-Dade, Monroe, Okeechobee, Palm Beach, and St. Lucie. The district includes the South Florida metropolitan area of Miami, Fort Lauderdale, and West Palm Beach. It comprises 15197 sqmi and approximately 6.3 million people. Courthouses, corresponding to the five divisions of the district, are located in Fort Lauderdale, Fort Pierce, Key West, Miami, and West Palm Beach. The court's offices are located in Miami.

United States attorney and marshal
The United States attorney for the Southern District of Florida represents the United States in civil and criminal litigation in the court. , the United States attorney is Markenzy Lapointe.

The United States Attorney's office has a staff of approximately 233 assistant United States attorneys and 227 support personnel. The main office is located in Miami, Florida, with three staffed branch offices located in Fort Lauderdale, West Palm Beach and Fort Pierce and one unstaffed branch office located in Key West. There is also a High Intensity Drug Trafficking Area (HIDTA) office in West Miami-Dade and a Health Care Fraud Facility in Miramar.

On August 28, 2018, Gadyaces S. Serralta was confirmed by the United States Senate to be the United States marshal.

Organization of the court
The United States District Court for the Southern District of Florida is one of three federal judicial districts in Florida. The District has five divisions:

Fort Pierce Division comprises the following counties: Highlands, Okeechobee, Indian River, St. Lucie, and Martin.

West Palm Beach Division comprises Palm Beach County.

Fort Lauderdale Division comprises Broward County.

Miami Division comprises Miami-Dade County.

Key West Division comprises Monroe County.

United States attorneys
List of U.S. attorneys since 1828

 * William Allison McRea (1828–1829)
 * John G. Stower (1829–1830)
 * John K. Campbell (1830–1831)
 * Edward Chandler (1831–1834)
 * Adam Gordon (1834)
 * Wylie P. Clark (1834–1839)
 * Charles Walker (1839–1840)
 * L. Windsor Smith (1840–1842)
 * George W. McRae (1842–1847)
 * L. Windsor Smith (1847–1850)
 * William R. Hackley (1850–1858)
 * John L. Tatum (1858–1861)
 * Thomas J. Boynton (1861–1863)
 * Homer G. Plantz (1863–1869)
 * Claiborn R. Mobley (1869–1876)
 * John Tyler Jr. (1876–1877)
 * George B. Patterson (1877–1886)
 * Livingstone W. Bethel (1886–1890)
 * George B. Patterson (1890–1894)
 * Owen J. H. Summers (1894)
 * Frank Clark (1894–1897)
 * Joseph N. Stripling (1897–1902)
 * John Moses Cheney (1902–1912)
 * Richard P. Marks (1912–1913)
 * Herbert S. Phillips (1913–1921)
 * William M. Gober (1921–1929)
 * Wilburn P. Hughes (1929–1933)
 * John W. Holland (1933–1936)
 * Herbert S. Phillips (1936–1953)
 * James L. Guilmartin (1953–1959)
 * E. Coleman Madsen (1959–1961)
 * Edward G. Boardman (1961–1963)
 * William A. Meadows Jr. (1963–1969)
 * Robert W. Rust (1969–1977)
 * Vincent K. Antle (1977)
 * Jacob V. Eskenazi (1977–1980)
 * Atlee W. Wampler III (1980–1982)
 * Stanley Marcus (1982–1985)
 * Leon B. Kellner (1985–1988)
 * Dexter Lehtinen (1988–1992)
 * James McAdams (1992)
 * Roberto Martinez (1992–1993)
 * Kendall B. Coffey (1993–1996)
 * William Keefer (1996–1997)
 * Thomas Scott (1997–2000)
 * Guy A. Lewis (2000–2002)
 * Marcos Jiménez (2002–2005)
 * Alexander Acosta (2005–2009)
 * Jeffrey H. Sloman (2009–2010)
 * Wifredo A. Ferrer (2010–2017)
 * Benjamin G. Greenberg (2017–2018)
 * Ariana Fajardo Orshan (2018–2021)
 * Juan Antonio Gonzalez (2021–2023)
 * Markenzy Lapointe (2023–present)


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Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal

Mohamed Haji Ibrahim Egal (Maxamed Xaaji Ibraahim Cigaal, محمد حاجي إبراهيم عقال; August 15, 1928 – May 3, 2002) was a Somali politician who served as the President of Somaliland from 1993 to his death in 2002. He previously served as the prime minister of the State of Somaliland between 26 June and 1 July 1960 and as the first prime minister of the Somali Republic for eleven days in 1960 and again from 1967 to 1969.

Life and education
Egal was born in 1928, in Odweyne then a part of British Somaliland. He hails from the Issa Musse sub-division of the Habar Awal clan of Isaaq.

He completed his primary, intermediate, and secondary education in former British Somaliland and then moved to the United Kingdom. Egal was married to Asha Saeed Abby, and together they had three sons and two daughters.

Prime Minister of the State of Somaliland
On 26 June 1960, Egal was Prime minister of the newly independent State of Somaliland, which merged five days later with the former Trust Territory of Somalia to form the Somali Republic on July 1, 1960.

Government work
He served as the first Somali Republic's defence minister (1960–1962), Education Minister (1962–1963), Prime minister (1967–1969), and ambassador to India (1976–1978), although he was imprisoned twice under Barre dictatorship.

Prime Minister of the Somali Republic
In 1967, Abdirashid Ali Shermarke was elected President and he appointed Egal as the Prime Minister.

He was still the prime minister and in Washington, D.C., when President Abdirashid Ali Shermarke was assassinated on October 15, 1969. Shortly afterward, the newly established Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC) led by Major General Siad Barre, Brigadier General Mohamed Ainashe Gule, Lieutenant Colonel Salaad Gabeyre Kediye and Chief of Police Jama Korshel seized power. The SRC subsequently renamed the country the Somali Democratic Republic, arrested members of the former civilian government, banned political parties, dissolved the parliament and the Supreme Court, and suspended the constitution. Egal was among the politicians detained by the SRC for his prominent role in the nation's early government. He was eventually released and was named the Ambassador to India (1976-1978) before the Barre regime imprisoned him again on charges of conspiracy until 1985.

President of Somaliland
Egal managed to successfully disarm and rehabilitate rebel groups, stabilised the north western region and Economy of Somaliland, successfully managed to establish bilateral trade with foreign countries, introduce Somaliland new currency the Somaliland shilling, as well as the Somaliland passport and Somaliland national flag.

Throughout his term as president of the Republic of Somaliland, Egal's dedication to the secessionist cause was doubted and challenged by hardliners, particularly within the Somali National Movement (SNM), who believed that he still ultimately hoped to reconcile with other political actors in the rest of Somalia. In August 2001, Egal survived by one vote a motion tabled by several regional MPs charging him of half-heartedly pursuing separatism. In an interview with IRIN the same year, SNM leader Abdirahman Awale also said of Egal that "when he says he is for independence, it is for local consumption only. He tells the people here one thing, but in his speeches elsewhere he has clearly declared that Somalia will unite one day. He says we will talk to the southerners when they make their home clean and

negotiate with them... He says one thing to the public, and a different thing to the international community."

Death
Egal died on May 3, 2002, in Pretoria, South Africa while undergoing surgery at a military hospital. His body was returned to Somaliland for a state funeral, whereafter his three sons laid him to rest next to his father, in accordance with his last wishes. Around 4,000 mourners reportedly attended his burial in Berbera, and the regional parliament declared seven days of mourning. Dahir Rayale Kahin was sworn in the next day as the new president.

title: Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal


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Gavvy Cravath

Clifford Carlton "Gavvy" Cravath (March 23, 1881 – May 23, 1963), also nicknamed "Cactus", was an American right fielder and right-handed batter in Major League Baseball who played primarily for the Philadelphia Phillies. One of the sport's most prolific power hitters of the dead-ball era, in the eight years from 1913 to 1920 he led the National League in home runs six times, in runs batted in, total bases and slugging percentage twice each, and in hits, runs and walks once each. He led the NL in several offensive categories in 1915 as the Phillies won the first pennant in the team's 33-year history, and he held the team's career home run record from 1917 to 1924. He is one of eight players to lead the majors in home runs for a season six times in a career. However, he played his home games at Baker Bowl, a park that was notoriously favorable to batting statistics. Cravath hit 92 career homers at Baker Bowl while he had 25 homers in all his games away from home. Moreover, he was an exceptionally slow base runner; so much so, in fact, that it was actually Cravath about whom sportswriter Bugs Baer famously wrote, "His head was sure full of larceny, but his feet were honest," a distinction which, along with Cravath's extreme lack of foot speed, has long been mistakenly ascribed to Ping Bodie.

California
Born in Escondido, California, Cravath was the first baseball player from the San Diego area to play in the major leagues. He began his career during a time of independent minor leagues, when not all good players moved quickly to the majors. He entered professional baseball in 1903 with the Los Angeles Angels of the Pacific Coast League; during 5 seasons with the team, he helped them win two pennants. He batted .274, .270, .259, .270, and .303, with 7, 13, 9, 6, and 10 home runs, and with 51, 50, 32, 39, and 45 doubles. He led the league in doubles twice (1906 and 1907) and also finished third twice. Although he never led the PCL in home runs, he was second in the league three times, third once, and fourth once during his 5 seasons.

While playing in California, Cravath reportedly picked up his nickname of "Gavvy" by hitting a ball that killed a seagull ("gaviota" in Spanish) in flight. The reporters spelled the nickname "Gavvy" to emphasize that it rhymes with "savvy", but Cravath himself spelled it "Gavy."

Boston, Chicago, Washington, and Minneapolis
At the end of 1907, Cravath's contract was sold to the Boston Red Sox, where he would be a 27-year-old rookie in 1908. His lack of speed was compared unfavorably to Tris Speaker and other swift outfielders of the time; Cravath once said, "They call me wooden shoes and piano legs and a few other pet names. I do not claim to be the fastest man in the world, but I can get around the bases with a fair wind and all sails set. And so long as I am busting the old apple on the seam, I am not worrying a great deal about my legs." He was hitting .256 with 11 triples in 277 at bats when his contract was sold to the Chicago White Sox in August 1908. After a slow start in Chicago in 1909, he was traded to the Washington Senators, who moved him to the Minneapolis Millers of the American Association after only four games.

In Minneapolis, Cravath learned to hit to the opposite field to take advantage of the short (279 ft) right-field line at Nicollet Park. That ability would also serve him well with the Phillies, who had a similar short right-field porch only 272 feet from home plate at the Baker Bowl. The 1910–11 Millers were one of the great minor league teams of all time, and Cravath was their biggest star. In 1910 he led the league in batting average (.326), hits (200), home runs (14), doubles (41), and triples (13). In 1911 he again led the league in the same categories except for triples, with an average of .363, 221 hits, 53 doubles, 13 triples, and 29 home runs.

Philadelphia
The rules of the time did not make it easy for Cravath to move back to the majors. Reportedly, it took a clerical error—the Millers inadvertently left out the word "not" in a telegram—to get Cravath back to the major leagues. In his second chance with the Phillies at age 31 in 1912, he proved he was there to stay by hitting .284 with 11 home runs and 70 RBI. He was also a more than adequate outfielder, sharing the league lead with 26 assists.

In 1913 he enjoyed an even better season, leading the NL in hits (179), home runs (19), RBI (128), total bases (298), and slugging (.568); he also placed second in batting with a career-high mark of .341. He placed second in the voting for the Chalmers (MVP) Award behind Jake Daubert, though some historians think Cravath should have won. Other historians disagree citing the fact that his numbers were largely a product of his tiny home park. He repeated as home run champion in 1914, hitting all of his 19 homers in home games, while again sharing the league lead in assists and finishing second in RBI and slugging.

1915 saw his best season as he hit 24 home runs (only 5 home runs away from tiny Baker Bowl), leading the Phillies to their first pennant; he had a 3-run home run in the pennant-clinching game on September 29. He also led the league in runs (89), RBI (115, leading the NL by 28), total bases (266), walks (86), on-base percentage (.393), and slugging (.510, leading the NL by 53 points), and led the NL in assists for the third time. His 24 home runs were the most in the major leagues since Buck Freeman hit 25 for the 1899 Washington Senators; he also broke Sam Thompson's Phillies franchise record of 20, set in 1889. He later broke Thompson's career franchise record; Cravath's single-season club mark was surpassed by Cy Williams in 1922, and his career record was broken by Williams in 1924. In the low-scoring 1915 World Series against the Red Sox he hit only .125 (2-16), though he drove in the winning run on a ground out in Game 1, the only Phillies victory. He scored Philadelphia's only runs in Games 2 and 4 (both 2–1 losses), and Boston won in five games, outscoring the Phillies 12–10. In Game 5, after the first three Phillie batters reached base, manager Pat Moran gave Cravath the bunt sign on a 3–2 count for unknown reasons; the slugger rolled the next pitch to the pitcher, resulting in a double play.

Regarded as one of the sport's pioneer sluggers of the 20th century, Cravath went on to become the first player to win more than five home run titles. However, his home run total was overwhelmingly a product of the hitter-friendly dimensions of his home park with the Phillies, the Baker Bowl; Cravath hit 92 of his 119 career homers in the Baker Bowl. Although his level of play declined gradually after 1915, he again won the home run title in 1917 and 1918. In 1919, at age 38, he had his last outstanding season, winning his sixth home run title with 12 homers (only 2 homers on the road) in just 214 at-bats while hitting .341 (just .291 on the road). In last place midway through the season, the Phillies fired manager Jack Coombs, and Cravath took his place. After he was invited to return as player-manager in 1920, the Phillies improved to 62–91, but ended up in last place again. Cravath was criticized for his easygoing style and was released, ending his major league career; he became player-manager for the Salt Lake City Bees of the Pacific Coast League in 1921. He played his final professional games in 1922 with the Minneapolis Millers.

Cravath had a career .287 batting average with 119 home runs, the fourth most in history at the time of his retirement, and 719 RBI in 1220 games. Mel Ott eventually tied his NL record of six home run titles; Ralph Kiner broke the record in 1952 with seven; and Mike Schmidt now holds the record of eight titles, set with the Phillies in 1986. Cravath's 20th-century record of 119 homers was broken by Babe Ruth in 1921.

Post-baseball
Cravath returned to California, where he went into real estate and was elected magistrate judge (Justice of the Peace) in September 1927 in Laguna Beach, California; he died there at age 82. His nephew Jeff Cravath was head football coach at the University of Southern California from 1942 to 1950.

In a June 27, 2004 interview with the Washington Post, 7-time Jeopardy! game show champion Tom Walsh, who set the record for wins on the program in January 2004 before Ken Jennings came along later that year and won 74 games in a row, said, "I feel like 'Cactus Gavvy' Cravath. Do you know who that is? Right. Nobody does. He's the guy who had the home run record before Babe Ruth came along."

In 1985, Cravath was also inducted by the San Diego Hall of Champions into the Breitbard Hall of Fame honoring San Diego's finest athletes both on and off the playing surface.

Literature

 * William Swank. Gavy Cravath. In Society for American Baseball Research, Deadball Era Committee; Simon, Tom (Ed.) (2004). Deadball Stars of the National League, pp. 221–224. Brassey's. ISBN 1-57488-860-9.

title: Gavvy Cravath


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Serge Chaloff

Serge Chaloff (November 24, 1923 – July 16, 1957) was an American jazz baritone saxophonist. One of bebop's earliest baritone saxophonists, Chaloff has been described as 'the most expressive and openly emotive baritone saxophonist jazz has ever witnessed' with a tone varying 'between a light but almost inaudible whisper to a great sonorous shout with the widest but most incredibly moving of vibratos.'

Musical education
Serge Chaloff was the son of the pianist and composer Julius Chaloff and the leading Boston piano teacher, Margaret Chaloff (known professionally as Madame Chaloff). He learned the piano from the age of six and also had clarinet lessons with Manuel Valerio of the Boston Symphony Orchestra. At the age of twelve, after hearing Harry Carney, Duke Ellington's baritonist, he taught himself to play the baritone. Chaloff later explained to Leonard Feather in an interview: 'Who could teach me? I couldn't chase [Harry] Carney around the country.'

Although he was inspired by Carney and Jack Washington, Count Basie's baritone player, Chaloff did not imitate them. According to his brother, Richard, 'he could play (baritone) like a tenor sax. The only time you knew it was a baritone was when he took it down low. He played it high....He had finger dexterity, I used to watch him, you couldn't believe the speed he played. He was precise. He was a perfectionist. He would be up in his bedroom as a teenager. He would be up by the hour to one, two, three in the morning and I'm trying to sleep and he'd go over a phrase or a piece until it was perfect...I used to put the pillow over my head, we had battles.' From the age of fourteen, Chaloff, was sitting in at Izzy Ort's Bar & Grille a famous live music venue on Essex Street in Boston. Richard Chaloff remembered: 'He didn't have a permit to work but he was pretty tall and he went down to see Izzy Ort...and played for him and Izzy liked the sax...and he hired my brother to work nights....My mother used to pray on Sundays that that he'd make it outa there....My brother sat in with bandsmen that were in their thirties and forties...and here he was fourteen, fifteen years old and he played right along with them, and he did so well that they kept him.'

Big bands
In 1939, aged just sixteen, Chaloff joined the Tommy Reynolds band, playing tenor sax. This was followed by jobs in the bands of Dick Rogers, Shep Fields and Ina Ray Hutton. In July 1944, he joined Boyd Raeburn's short-lived big band, where he played alongside Dizzy Gillespie and Al Cohn, who became a lifelong friend. With Boyd Raeburn, in January 1945, he made his first recordings, including 'Interlude' (Dizzy Gillespie's 'A Night in Tunisia'), where his baritone can be heard in the opening section of the song.

While with Boyd Raeburn, Chaloff first heard Charlie Parker, who became his major stylistic influence. Stuart Nicholson argues that, rather than imitating Parker, Chaloff was inspired by his example 'grasping more the emotional basis for Parker's playing and using it as a starting point for his own style.' Richard Chaloff said that his brother 'palled' with (Parker) in New York. Any time he had the chance he would pal with him. He would sit in with him at night....My brother used to say that he was up till 4,5,6, in the morning with the Bird.....All the beboppers found each other out'

Alongside his 1945-6 work in big bands led by Georgie Auld and Jimmy Dorsey, Chaloff performed and recorded with several small bebop groups, 1946-7. These included Sonny Berman's' Big Eight, Bill Harris's Big Eight, the Ralph Burns Quintet, Red Rodney's Be-Boppers, and his own Serge Chaloff Sextette, which released two 78 records on the Savoy label. Three of the four tunes recorded were written and arranged by Chaloff while the fourth, 'Gabardine and Serge', was by Tiny Kahn. 'All four tunes are daredevil cute and blisteringly fast,' wrote Marc Myers. 'They showcase tight unison lines and standout solos by four of the six musicians, who are in superb form....(On 'Pumpernickel') Chaloff shows off his inexhaustible and leonine approach to the baritone sax.'

Serge Chaloff became a household name in 1947, when he joined Woody Herman's Second Herd. This was known as the 'Four Brothers Band', after the reed section, comprising Chaloff, Stan Getz, Zoot Sims, Herbie Steward, and a little later Al Cohn. He was featured on many Herman recordings, including "Four Brothers", Keen and Peachy", and had solo features in Al Cohn's "The Goof and I". and "Man, Don't Be Ridiculous." On the latter, he demonstrated 'an astonishing technical facility that was quite without precedent on the instrument.'

In 1949, Leonard Feather included Chaloff in his book Inside Be-Bop: 'Great conception and execution, good taste, clean tone and Bird-like style have made him the No.1 bop exponent of the baritone.'

Drug addiction
By 1947, Chaloff, following the example of his hero, Charlie Parker, was a heroin addict. According to Gene Lees, Chaloff was the Woody Herman band's 'chief druggist as well as its number one junkie. Serge would hang a blanket in front of the back seats of the bus and behind it would dispense the stuff to colleagues.' Whitney Balliett wrote that Chaloff had 'a satanic reputation as a drug addict whose proselytizing ways with drugs reportedly damaged more people than just himself.' Many musicians blamed him for the drug-related death of the 21-year-old trumpeter Sonny Berman on January 16, 1947.

The trumpeter Rolf Ericson, who joined Herman's band in 1950, described the impact of drugs on the band's performances: 'In the band Woody had started on the coast...late in 1947, which I heard many times, several of the guys were on narcotics and four were alcoholics. When the band started a night's work they sounded wonderful, but after the intermission, during which they used the needle or lushed, the good music was over. It was horrible to see them sitting on the stage like living dead, peering into little paper envelopes when they weren't playing.'

One night in Washington D.C., Woody Herman had a public row on the bandstand with Chaloff. Herman told Gene Lees: 'He was getting farther and farther out there, and the farther out he got the more he was sounding like a fagalah. He kept saying, ‘Hey, Woody, baby, I'm straight, man, I'm clean.' And I shouted, ‘Just play your goddamn part and shut up!'....I was so depressed after that gig. There was this after-hours joint in Washington called the Turf and Grid....I had to fight my way through to get a drink, man. All I wanted was to have a drink and forget it. And finally I get a couple of drinks, and it's hot in there, and I'm sweating, and somebody's got their hands on me, and I hear, ‘Hey, Woody, baby, whadya wanna talk to me like that for? I'm straight, baby, I'm straight.' And it's Mr. Chaloff. And then I remember an old Joe Venuti bit. We were jammed in there, packed in, and...I peed down Serge's leg. You know, man, when you do that to someone, it takes a while before it sinks in what's happened to him. And when Serge realized, he let out a howl like a banshee.'

Chaloff's bandmate, Terry Gibbs, told Ira Gitler stories of his chaotic behaviour: 'He'd fall asleep with a cigarette all the time and always burn a hole in a mattress. Always! In about twelve hotels. When we'd go to check out, the hotel owner – Serge always had his hair slicked down even though he hadn't taken a bath for three years...the manager would say, 'Mr Chaloff, you burned a hole in your mattress and...' 'How dare you. I'm the winner of the down beat and Metronome polls. How dare you?'...the manager would always say, 'I'm sorry Mr Chaloff,'...Except one time when the band got off on an air-pistol kick....Serge put a telephone book against the door and was zonked out of his bird...he got three shots at the telephone book and made the biggest hole in the door you ever saw. So when he went to the check out, the guy said, 'Mr Chaloff, it'll cost you.'...He 'how-dared' him a few times. Couldn't get away with it. He said 'Well listen, if I'm gonna pay for the door I want the door.' It was twenty four dollars. So he paid for the door. I happen to be standing close by. 'Hey Terry,' he said. 'Grab this,' and all of a sudden I found myself checking out....We're walking out of the hotel with a door.'

Al Cohn described Chaloff's driving: 'I don't know how we kept from being killed. Serge would always be drunk. He was quite a drinker. Everything he did, he did too much. So one time we're driving, after work. It's four o'clock in the morning, and he makes a left turn, and we're wondering why the road is so bumpy. Turned out he made a left turn into the railroad tracks, and we're going over the ties.'

Zoot Sims also talked about Chaloff with Gitler: 'When Serge was cleaned up, you know, straight, he could be a delight, really to be around, a lot of fun. He knew how to handle himself. He had that gift. He could get pretty raunchy when he was strung out, but he could also be charming.'

In late 1949, when many big bands were folding for economic reasons, Herman broke up the Second Herd. Fronting a new small band in Chicago in 1950, Herman told Down Beat: 'You can't imagine how good it feels to look at my present group and find them all awake. To play a set and not have someone conk out in the middle of a chorus.'

Count Basie's Octet
For part of 1950, Chaloff played in the All Star Octet of Count Basie who, like Herman, had broken up his big band. The band comprised Basie, Chaloff, Wardell Gray, Buddy DeFranco, Clark Terry, Freddie Green, Jimmy Lewis and Gus Johnson. The group recorded a handful of sides for Victor and Columbia and was also captured on airchecks.

Return to Boston
In 1950, Chaloff returned to Boston, where he played in small groups in clubs like the High Hat, Petty Lounge and Red Fox Cafe. A 1950 performance at the Celebrity Club in Providence Rhode Island, was broadcast by WRIV, and has been released on CD as Boston 1950. Playing in small groups gave Chaloff the space to develop a new style of playing. In 1951, he talked about 'getting away from the fireworks that don't mean anything' that had been a part of his style up to that point and 'adding more colour and flexibility to his work.' His friend Al Cohn observed 'It wasn't until he left the big bands that he really started to develop as a soloist.'

Chaloff was now a star, winning the Down Beat and Metronome polls every year from 1949-1953. Yet his drug use and heavy drinking made it difficult for him to keep steady work, and he gave up playing completely in 1952-3.

Chaloff's come-back began in late 1953, when the Boston DJ Bob 'The Robin' Martin offered to become his manager. Helped by Martin, Chaloff formed a new group which played at Boston's Jazzorama and Storyville nightclubs. His usual musical partners were Boots Mussulli or Charlie Mariano (alto), Herb Pomeroy (trumpet),and Dick Twardzik (piano). 'He didn't work a lot,' said Bob Martin, 'because the word was out. You had to talk somebody to give him a chance to play. When you got him a gig in a club or a hotel, he would usually mess it up. But when he did show...and got playing...it was,'Stand back, Baby!''

Jay Migliori, who played with Chaloff at Storyville, recalled, 'Serge was a wild character. We were working at Storyville and, if he was feeling good, he used to let his trousers gradually fall down during the cadenza of his feature, 'Body and Soul.' At the end of the cadenza, his trousers would hit the ground.'

Serge and Boots and The Fable of Mabel
In June and September 1954, Chaloff made two recording sessions for George Wein's Boston Storyville label, released as two 10" LPs. The first Serge and Boots was presented as a joint album with Boots Mussulli, with accompaniment by Russ Freeman (piano), Jimmy Woode (bass) and Buzzy Drootin (drums). Yet George Wein wrote on the sleevenote: 'An alternate title for this album could be 'Serge Returns'....Each selection in these six was chosen and arranged solely by Serge.' There were five standards and a Chaloff original, 'Zdot', with an ending 'written by a wonderful pianist and teacher, Margaret Chaloff, Serge's mother.'.

On the second Storyville album, The Fable of Mabel, Chaloff played in a nine-piece band featuring Charlie Mariano, who composed three of the five originals, and Herb Pomeroy, who provided 'Salute to Tiny', dedicated to the drummer and arranger Tiny Kahn. The ambitious title piece was composed by Dick Twardzik, who described it on the sleevenote: 'The Fable of Mabel was introduced to jazz circles in 1951-52 by the Serge Chaloff Quartet. Audiences found this satirical jazz legend a welcome respite from standard night club fare. In this legend, Mabel is depicted as a woman who loves men, music and her silver saxophone that played counterpoint (her own invention which proved impractical). The work is divided into three movements: first, New Orleans; second Classical; and third, Not Too Sad An Ending. The soulful baritone solo by Serge Chaloff traces Mabel's humble beginnings working railroad cars in New Orleans to her emergence as a practising crusader for the cause of Jazz. During her Paris days on the Jazz Houseboat, her struggle for self-expression is symbolized by an unusual saxophone duet Charlie Mariano and Varty Haritrounian. Mabel always said she wanted to go out blowing. She did.' The sixth track, Al Killian's 'Lets Jump', was chosen by Chaloff, who said: 'Now that we've proven how advanced we are let's show the people that we can still swing.'

Just a month after his second Storyville recording, Chaloff went through a personal crisis. In October 1954, with no money and unable to find heroin, he voluntarily entered the drug rehabilitation program at Bridgewater State Hospital. After being hospitalized for three and a half months. he was released in February 1955, finally drug free.

Boston Blow-Up!
In 1955, Bob Martin persuaded Capitol Records to record a Chaloff LP as part of their 'Stan Kenton Presents Jazz' series. Chaloff's come-back album, Boston Blow-Up! was recorded in New York City in April 1955. He was accompanied by Boots Mussulli (alto), Herb Pomeroy (tp), Ray Santisi (p), Everett Evans (b) and Jimmy Zitano (d). Pomeroy, Santisi and Zitano were already a tight unit, regularly playing at Boston's Stable Club, where they had recorded a live album Jazz in a Stable, on Transition the previous March.

The Kenton connection came about through Mussulli, who had played in his orchestra in 1944-7 and 1952-4. Richard Vacca wrote that 'Chaloff still had his bad boy reputation, and the presence of the steady and reliable Mussulli, who had recorded his own 'Kenton Presents' LP in 1954, was a great relief to Capitol.' For the recording, he composed and arranged five new tunes, including 'Bob the Robin', dedicated to Chaloff's manager. Pomeroy arranged the standards.

Chaloff described the sessions: 'When I came back on the music scene, just recently, I wanted a book of fresh sounding things. I got just what I wanted from Herb and Boots. I think their writing shows us a happy group trying to create new musical entertainment by swinging all the time. Jazz has got to swing; if it doesn't, it loses its feeling of expression. This group and these sides are about the happiest I've been involved with.'

The highlights of the album are Chaloff's powerful ballad features, "What's New?", and "Body and Soul". In the 1956 Metronome Yearbook, Bill Coss described the latter as 'an almost frightening example of Serge's form, moaning through a seemingly autobiographical portrayal of (his) Body and Soul', an enormously emotional jazz listening experience.'

Jack Tracy gave Boston Blow-Up! five stars in his Down Beat review: 'Serge, for years one of music's more chaotic personalities, has made an about face of late and is again flying right. It is evident in his playing, which has become a thing of real beauty....Chaloff offers the best display of his talents ever to be put on wax. It swings, it has heart, it has maturity—it is the long-awaited coalescence of a great talent.'

Boston Blow-Up!'s favourable reception brought more work for Chaloff, culminating in a performance at the Boston Arts Festival in June 1955. The show was reviewed in the Boston Herald: 'The ingenuity of Chaloff as a soloist is enormous, and his use of dissonance always conveys a sense of purpose and of form. In 'Body and Soul', he exhibited his capabilities vigorously, taking a deliberate tempo and treating the music with a lyric, delicate, tonal standpoint....the harmonies of the group are tense and the melodies resourceful and they play with a kind of controlled abandon.'

In 1956, Chaloff worked his way across the country, usually working in an alto/baritone format. In Chicago, he played alongside Lou Donaldson. In Los Angeles, he played with Sonny Stitt, in a band which also included Leroy Vinnegar, the leading West Coast bassist.

Blue Serge
Chaloff's Los Angeles appearance led to his recording a second Capitol LP there in March 1956. The drummer was Philly Joe Jones, who was in Los Angeles with the Miles Davis Quintet. Sonny Clark played piano, and Leroy Vinnegar was on bass. Chaloff described the making of the record, called Blue Serge, on the jacket blurb: 'My last record, Boston Blow-up! was one of those carefully planned things....But this time I was feeling a little more easy-going, and I decided to make a record just to blow. I picked out what I felt was the best rhythm section around and told them just to show up...no rehearsals...no tunes set...and trust to luck and musicianship....I'd never worked with these guys before except for jamming briefy with Joe Jones eight years ago, but I knew from hearing them what they could do....We were shooting for an impromptu feeling and we got it. It has more freedom and spark than anything I've recorded before. And I don't think there's a better recommendation than that when it comes to honest jazz.'

Vladimir Somosko, Chaloff's biographer, described the results: 'The rapport of the group was as moving as the music, and the net effect was of every note being in place, flawlessly executed, as if even the slightest nuance was carefully chosen for maximum aesthetic impact. This is a level of achievement beyond all but the masters, and from an ensemble that was not even a working group it takes on an aura of the miraculous.'

Stuart Nicholson analysed Chaloff's playing on "A Handful of Stars": 'Paraphrase becomes central to his performance of 'A Handful of Stars' where he scrupulously avoids stating the melody as written. At one point he plumbs the baritone for a bumptious bass note and soars to the top of the instrument's range in one breath, effortlessly concealing the remarkable technical skill required for such seemingly throw-away trifles. This sheer joy at music making seems to give his playing a life-force of its own.'

Richard Cook and Brian Morton in The Penguin Guide to Jazz declared the album 'Chaloff's masterpiece' and described it as 'vigorous and moving... "Thanks for the Memory" is overpoweringly beautiful as Chaloff creates a series of melodic variations which match the improviser's ideal of fashioning an entirely new song. 'Stairway to the Stars' is almost as fine, and the thoughtful 'The Goof and I' and 'Susie's Blues' show that Chaloff still had plenty of ideas about what could be done with a bebopper's basic materials. This important session has retained all its power.'

Spinal cancer
Chaloff continued to work on the West Coast, performing at the Starlite Club in Hollywood in May 1956. That month, while playing golf, he was struck down by severe back and abdominal pains, which paralysed his legs. Chaloff flew back to Boston, where an exploratory operation revealed that he was suffering from cancer of the spine. His brother Richard described his final illness: 'We took him down there [Massachusetts General Hospital] and they found he had lesions on his spine.....they operated and took most of the lesions away, and then he went on a series of X-ray treatments. Oh they were terrible. He must have had twenty or twenty-five in a row. And in those days they really gave you heavy doses of it. Then occasionally he got spots on the lungs'

Despite his illness, and the gruelling treatment, Chaloff continued to play live. In New York, on 18 June 1956, a wheelchair-using Chaloff took part in a recording of Charlie Parker's "Billie's Bounce", for the Metronome All Stars album. He played alongside Zoot Sims, Art Blakey, Charles Mingus and Billy Taylor.

Chaloff's final recording, on 11 February 1957, was for The Four Brothers... Together Again! a reunion album of Woody Herman's Four Brothers for Vik, a subsidiary of RCA Victor. The Four Brothers lineup was Zoot Sims, Al Cohn, Herbie Steward and Chaloff, accompanied by Elliot Lawrence (piano), Buddy Jones (bass) and Don Lamond (drums). On the later recordings, Charlie O'Kane was brought in to play baritone on the section parts, so Chaloff could preserve his strength for the solos. Here his playing was as strong as ever, especially on "Aged in Wood", written as a solo vehicle for Chaloff by Al Cohn.

Richard Chaloff: 'He took a wheelchair down to make that recording, you know. They didn't think he was going to make it. I heard stories from people there. But when he stood up and played, you never knew he was a sick fellow. He played dynamic. If you listen to the record he sounds like the old Serge. He pulled himself together. I don't know how he did it. But he had tremendous drive, tremendous stamina.'

Don Gold reviewed the album in Down Beat: 'This last session before his death represents a fervent expression of a fatally ill man. It is a kind of significant farewell in the language he knew best.'

Chaloff made his last live appearances at The Stable Club on Huntington Avenue in Boston the following May. Interviewed in 1993, Charlie 'the Whale' Johnson recalled Chaloff's final performances: 'I remember pushing Chaloff's wheelchair into The Stable for his last appearances there. He was in bad shape but could still really play, standing leaning on a pillar. However, he didn't have much stamina. He couldn't really finish the gig. I also had to go get pot and booze for him. He was still using these steadily, even in the hospital at the end.'

On 15 July 1957, the dying Chaloff was admitted to Massachusetts General Hospital. According to Richard Chaloff, he took his horn and pet monkey with him: 'He still had the kinkajou monkey Mother got him to keep him company. And he had his horn. I was told they wheeled him into a vacant operating theatre so he could practise, and that was his last gig, his last public performance, solo baritone sax alone in an operating theatre. Nurses, doctors and even patients were standing outside and listening. He fought it to the end. Mother would visit him and urge him on, saying, 'You can beat it' and things. But that last day, they brought a priest to visit him, and the priest saw Serge in bed looking so wasted, and the priest thought he was supposed to perform the last rites. Serge woke up in the middle of it and really panicked, sliding away from him and yelling 'No! No! Get out!' But after that he seemed to give up. I think that's when he realized it was all over.'

Serge Chaloff died the next day, at the age of 33.

He is buried in the Forest Hills Cemetery, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, Massachusetts.

Discography

 * Boston 1950 Uptown Records, 1994
 * Serge and Boots, Storyville LP 310 1954
 * The Fable of Mabel Storyville LP 317 1955
 * Boston Blow–Up! Capitol Records 1955
 * Blue Serge Capitol Records1956
 * Metronome All-Stars 1956 Verve 1956
 * The Four Brothers... Together Again! Vik, 1957

title: Serge Chaloff


text:
Jensen Interceptor

The Jensen Interceptor is a grand touring car which was hand-built at the Kelvin Way Factory in West Bromwich, near Birmingham in England, by Jensen Motors between 1966 and 1976. The Interceptor name had been used previously by Jensen for the Jensen Interceptor made between 1950 and 1957 at the Carters Green factory. Jensen had extensively used glass-reinforced plastic for the fabrication of body panels in the preceding two decades, but the new Interceptor was a return to a steel body-shell. The body was designed by an outside firm, Carrozzeria Touring of Italy, rather than the in-house staff. The early bodies were built in Italy by Vignale, before Jensen took production in house, making some subtle body modifications.

Model history and specifications
Jensen Motors used Chrysler V8 engines for the Interceptor, starting with the 6,276 cc (383 c.i.) with optional manual (Mark I, 22 built) or TorqueFlite automatic transmissions driving the rear wheels through a limited slip differential in a conventional Salisbury rear axle. In 1970, the 383 c.i. produced 335 hp SAE gross, or 270 hp SAE net. Since this engine was detuned by Chrysler for use with low octane petrol, and only produced 250 hp SAE net in 1971, Jensen chose to use the 440 in3 Chrysler engine for 1971.

For 1971, two 440 ci engines were offered. One had a four-barrel carburetor and produced 305 hp SAE net. The other, which had three 2-barrel carburetors and produced 330 hp SAE net, was only available in 1971. Only 232 cars were built with the 440 "six pack", called the Jensen SP (with no "Interceptor" badging) and it had the distinction of being the most powerful car ever to have been made by Jensen.

For 1972, the 440 c.i. engine with three 2-barrel carburetors was no longer produced by Chrysler. The 440 ci engine that remained was detuned to 280 hp SAE net. Chrysler continued to offer a high performance 440 c.i. engine through to 1976 when it only produced 255 hp SAE net.

The Interceptor may have taken some styling cues from the Brasinca Uirapuru, with a distinctive large, curving wrap-around rear window that doubled as a tailgate. The original specification included electric windows, reclining front seats, a wood rimmed steering wheel, radio with twin speakers, reversing lights and an electric clock. Power steering was included as standard from September 1968.

The Mark II was announced in October 1969, with slightly revised styling around the headlamps, front grille and bumper and revised rear lights. The interior was substantially revised in order to meet US regulations, and air conditioning was an option.

The Mark III, introduced in 1971, revised the front grille, headlamp finishers and bumper treatment again. It had GKN alloy wheels and air conditioning as standard, and revised seats. It was divided into G-, H-, and J-series depending on the production year. The 6.3-litre 383 ci engine was superseded by the 7.2-litre 440 ci in 1971.

Jensen had fallen on hard times by 1975, owing to the then world-wide recession, and to problems with its Jensen-Healey sports car. The company was placed into receivership, and the receivers allowed production to continue until the available cache of parts was exhausted. Production of the Interceptor ended in 1976.

Later, a group of investors trading under the new Jensen Cars Limited brandname stepped in and relaunched production of the 1970s Interceptor, which was briefly re-introduced in the late 1980s as the Series 4 (S4) which was an updated version of the original Interceptor V8 series giving a new lifespan for the Jensen brand and its car production was resumed. The car came back as a low-volume hand-built and bespoke affair, marketed in a similar way to Bristol, with a price of £70,000. Though the body remained essentially the same as the last of the main production run of Series 3, the engine was a much smaller, Chrysler-supplied, 360 cubic inch (5.9-litre) which used more modern controls to reduce emissions comparatively and still producing about 250 bhp. In addition, the interior was slightly re-designed with the addition of modern "sports" front seats as opposed to the armchair style of the earlier models, as well as a revised dashboard and electronics.

The then owner sold up in 1990 to an engineering company believed to be in a stronger position to manufacture the car; this lasted until 1993 with approximately 36 cars built, and while work commenced on development of a new Interceptor Series 5 (S5) for the 1990s however the receivers were called in for a second time and the company was liquidated.

Jensen FF four wheel drive
Jensen was one of the first manufacturers to equip a production car with four-wheel drive, in the 1967 Jensen FF (Ferguson Formula). At the time it was hailed as a remarkable development, coming also with Dunlop Maxaret mechanical anti-lock brakes and traction control. The car is five inches (127 mm) longer than the Interceptor. Although looking virtually the same, the extra length can be seen from additional side vent ahead of the doors on the front flanks, and an additional swage line in the leading edge of the front wing. Press articles from the time quote "drag-strip" performance when describing the car. In total 320 FFs were produced; 195 Mark I, 110 Mark II and 15 Mark III.

Convertible
A convertible with powered soft top was introduced in 1974, mainly intended for the American market but also sold in Europe. Two hundred sixty-seven convertibles were made.

Coupé
Rarer still is the Coupé version introduced in 1975; just 60 were made in the one year before the company's demise. The coupé was derived from the convertible and therefore lacks the distinctive rear window of the regular car.

Jensen Interceptor R
A Jensen specialist JIA based in Banbury Oxfordshire, England, rebuilds original Interceptors using modern components, with General Motors supplied LS 6.2-litre naturally aspirated or supercharged engines and six-speed automatic or manual transmissions.

In May 2010, Jensen International Automotive was set up, with the financial backing of Carphone Warehouse founder and chairman Charles Dunstone who joined its board of directors. A small number of Jensen Interceptor Ss, which had started production under a previous company, were completed by Jensen International Automotive (JIA), in parallel with JIA's own production of the new Jensen Interceptor R; deliveries of the latter started at the beginning of 2011.

title: Jensen Interceptor


text:
User:Ados

I was Fuqnbastard.

contact:
 * email: fuqnbastard@yahoo.ca
 * icq: 204595788
 * yahoo: fuqnbastard
 * aim: fqnbstrd
 * jabber: fuqnbastard@jabber.org
 * msn: fuqnbastard@yahoo.ca

title: User:Ados


text:
Naked (book)

Naked, published in 1997, is a collection of essays by American humorist David Sedaris. The book details Sedaris’ life, from his unusual upbringing in the suburbs of Raleigh, North Carolina, to his booze-and-drug-ridden college years, to his Kerouacian wandering as a young adult. The book became a best-seller and was acclaimed for its wit, dark humor and irreverent tackling of tragic events, including the death of Sedaris’ mother. Prior to publication, several of the essays were read by the author on the Public Radio International program This American Life.

Naked won the Randy Shilts Award for Gay Non-Fiction from Publishing Triangle in 1998.

Contents

 * Chipped Beef
 * About the early life of the Sedaris family and David's hopes to one day be rich and famous. It is revealed that the family is actually middle class.

 * A Plague of Tics
 * As a child, David develops nervous tics and obsessive-compulsive habits, like licking light switches and kissing newspapers.

 * Get Your Ya-Ya's Out!
 * Ya-Ya, David's mildly senile grandmother, comes to live with the family after suffering an injury.

 * Next of Kin
 * David finds a pornographic novel, which circulates among his siblings until their mother confiscates and reads it.

 * Cyclops
 * David relates cautionary tales passed down from his relatives.

 * The Women's Open
 * David's sister has her first menses while at a golf championship.

 * True Detective
 * David's mother and sister are engrossed in detective television shows such as The Fugitive, and David undertakes some amateur detective work.

 * Dix Hill
 * David volunteers at the Dorothea Dix Hospital in Raleigh, where the residents' behavior ranges from submissive to violent.

 * I Like Guys
 * While at the Ionian Village, a summer camp in Greece, a teenage David realizes that he's gay when he develops a crush on a fellow camper.

 * The Drama Bug
 * David attempts acting after being introduced to Shakespeare by an actor's visit to his classroom. David finds that the playwright's florid Elizabethan language appeals to him, and starts to speak with a British accent.

 * Dinah, the Christmas Whore
 * Teenage David works at a cafeteria during his Christmas break. He and sister Lisa try to extricate a coworker from a domestic disturbance in the slums of Raleigh, North Carolina.

 * Planet of the Apes
 * David begins hitchhiking after he sees the film Planet of the Apes (1968).

 * The Incomplete Quad
 * David lives in a dormitory for disabled students at Kent State University. He and a quadriplegic woman hitchhike while posing as newlyweds.

 * C.O.G.
 * David gets a job cutting stone into clocks in the shape of Oregon. He teams up with a coworker who describes himself as a "COG" (Child of God), and they try to sell their stones at local craft fairs.

 * Something for Everyone
 * David refurbishes an apartment complex owned by a woman named Uta.

 * Ashes
 * David's sister marries; their mother, Sharon, is dying of cancer.

 * Naked
 * David visits a nudist colony.

title: Naked (book)


text:
User talk:192.133.129.3

March 2010
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December 2010
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March 2011
Welcome to Wikipedia. Although everyone is welcome to contribute to Wikipedia, at least one of your recent edits, such as the one you made to Harding Academy (Searcy, Arkansas), did not appear to be constructive and has been reverted or removed. Please use the sandbox for any test edits you would like to make, and read the welcome page to learn more about contributing constructively to this encyclopedia. The reverted edit can be found here. Thank you. A le_Jrb talk 16:24, 25 March 2011 (UTC)

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title: User talk:192.133.129.3


text:
Talk:Operator overloading

clarification: static vs dynamic
Doesn't overloading usually refer to the static resolution of a call? For instance, + on int vs String in Java is resolved statically. A dynamic analog of overloading is something like a type-case or virtual methods. So I think this article should focus on the static case, which means that some of the examples, like LISP, do not feature overloading, because they are statically untyped. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 12.198.139.122 (talk) 01:57, 6 February 2008 (UTC)

I removed this text:

 * Similarly, and with operators in PostgreSQL, where mathematical transformations can be defined on operators and PostgreSQL may use many optimalizations to expressions that use them.

Because I couldn't decipher what the original author was trying to express. If someone can clarify the intent of this passage and wants to put the content back into the article, please do so. Neilc 02:26, 11 Aug 2004 (UTC)

more than implicit aesthetics

 * Operator overloading provides more than an aesthetic benefit when the language allows operators to be invoked implicitly in some circumstances. For example, this is the case with to_s operator in Ruby, which returns a string representation of an object.

This doesn't make sense to me. How is it more than aesthetic? Is there other difference if you just write the invocation? I think the point is there might be a difference between function call semantics and operator semantics (such as a + b might choose between a.add and b.add)

 * it depends upon if you assume that there exist other overloadable methods/functions/whatever or not. If operator overloading is the only overloading, it does add more than aesthetic.

By the way, you could add Lisp to the language classification :-)

 * Ok, I removed this until someone can explain how it makes sense. --TuukkaH 15:40:05, 2005-09-07 (UTC)

Declaring new operators
What is meant by "declaring new operators"? 62.194.114.150 10:20, 28 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * Using operator symbols in the language that have no default meanings, like an operator *** or ## for instance. Pico allows this. Wouter Lievens 10:48, 6 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Criticism
The criticism counts for all language features, so it is a red herring, imho.

Example:

a.addToList(b); // this function call sends an e-mail to Bill Gates

This is also an example of giving something a bad name (or bad semantics). The criticism is thus irrelevant. Wouter Lievens 10:48, 6 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * It may be a red herring, but it is also the commonest criticism of overloading. The purpose of Wikipedia is to describe things as they are, not to evaluate them: our job is to report what critics actually say, relevant or not, not to try to evaluate whether things are good or bad ourselves. Haeleth 14:49, September 6, 2005 (UTC)

First language with Operator Overloading
It would be interesting to identify the first language to introduce operator overloading. Anyone know if any language before ALGOL 68 (1968) implemented it?

Rwendland 02:05, 6 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Gutter talk?
I've removed the "gutter talk" section, which (if you can't be bothered to check History) was about how what absolutely everyone calls "operator overloading" should really be called "operator overriding" unless a class exports more than one operator. Given that this is not a common criticism, nor is it supported by actual usage, I don't really think it's encyclopaedic content. (It was also of disputable accuracy.) Haeleth 14:49, September 6, 2005 (UTC)

Lisp
In lisp, (+ 3 5) adds 3 & 5. Lisp uses the same syntax for functions: (funcname arg1 arg2) etc. Because of this, defining new operators in lisp is as easy as defining a new function. Overriding an operator is the same as defining a new function. Because of this, I changed lisp's position in the chart to indicate that operators are overloadable and new operators are definable.--Dasunt 23:27, 3 March 2006 (UTC)
 * This is true only if you can have the function + converted into a generic, so you are later able to overload it for different classes. If you only override the previous function definition of the symbol + you're not overloading it. I think it can be done, but am not sure. --euyyn 22:25, 2 July 2006 (UTC)
 * As Lisp has dynamic typing and first class functions this is trivially true. You could assign the old implementation to some value, and then define a new function that checks the type of the argument and applies eighter the old implementation or a new one depending on the result. (CLOS also has inbuilt generic functions, but you dont realy need them to do overloading in lisp).
 * Correct me if I'm wrong but aren't these all just functions in Lisp? Just because a function uses a symbol like "+" does not really make it an operator. I mean if I have a function in Lisp that does the same thing as "+" but is called "a", I don't see how you can say "+" is an operator but "a" is not. I think we have to draw a distinction that operators are something different to functions, and have things like (say) associativity, precedence, etc. There has to be more to it than just whether it uses a letter or a symbol as its glyph. Again, I'm no Lisp guru, but it seems to me that Lisp really has no operators, so talking about it in an article about operator overloading doesn't really make sense. A scientist (talk) 06:27, 20 January 2009 (UTC)
 * Lisp definitively only has functions and not operators, much less operators with precedence and associativity. The justification that "operators use the same prefix syntax as functions" is a very feeble argument. With that argumentation every language supporting overloading of functions would also count as having operator overloading. Therefore I remove the entry of Lisp from the catalog. Zron (talk) 16:00, 12 August 2010 (UTC)

Ruby
How is it that Ruby permits new operators to be defined? It seems to me that only existing operators that are part of the syntax can be defined as methods in Ruby. If that's not what that axis of the chart means, perhaps it should be clarified.

 * You're right. We can't define new operators in Ruby. There's a limited set (language's operators, except the following: =, .., ..., !, not, ||, &&, and, or, ::). I'm going to remove it from the list. 01:02, 18 February 2007 (UTC)

Dubious statement regarding symbols and citations needed
The ISO/IEC 2382 Standard Vocabularies for IT define an operator as a symbol that identifies or represents an operation. The definition does not limit symbols to single characters. Thus '+', 'add', 'first', 'next' could all be operators.

It is in fact the symbol that is overloaded through reuse. While, hopefully, the operations have similar semantics, the operations are in fact different.

A more accurate statement would be: "Operators are not limited to single characters." As it is, this article appears to contradict a fundamental computing definition and to confuse a symbol with what it represents.

The article lacks citations for verifiability and runs the risk of violating No Original Research or No Point of View.

Bob Badour 15:22, 29 June 2006 (UTC)

 * Come on, in the sentence, the word symbol refers to what everybody understand as a symbol, i.e., a graphical/printed sign (in opposition to letters and numbers), not to the special meaning we in the field of programming also have for it. --euyyn 22:47, 2 July 2006 (UTC)

 * Clearly not everyone understands the word symbol the same. It should be clarified to show the intended meaning, perhaps with something like "punctuation characters," "graphical symbols," or "non-alphabetic characters."--69.181.83.91 16:06, 9 July 2006 (UTC)

 * Isn't the statement referring to something like C++'s conversion operators? 213.38.7.224 12:33, 7 July 2006 (UTC)

samples for expression reduction?
are there any known languages that support expression reduction (outside of the compiler)? —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 80.129.243.120 (talk) 23:45, 17 January 2007 (UTC).

Correction with Java
Java allows method overloading, hence it should be moved to another part of the graph. --indil 08:48, 11 April 2007 (UTC)

Java allows only method overloading, that is different to *operator* overloading. 78.86.131.114 (talk) 18:24, 13 August 2008 (UTC)

What is an operator?
Which properties decide about the classification as operator. IMHO there are some points: There are several notations which do not count as operators: In the article several me too languages claim to have operators (IMHO they don't). Such languages should be mentioned in other articles but not here.
 * An operator can consist of letters or special characters.
 * There should be no extra characters required around the operator.
 * An operator can be classified as prefix, infix or postfix.
 * An operator has a priority (or precedence) and an associativity.
 * A C function which is called with "cos(x)" requires parentheses and has no priority or associativity.
 * A Lisp function which is called with "(cos x)" requires parentheses and has no priority or associativity.
 * A Smalltalk method which is called with "b at: 3" requires a colon and has no priority or associativity.
 * A Java method which is called with "collection.remove(obj)" requires a dot, parentheses and has no priority or associativity.
 * It is also not an operator when the operator symbol is required to be surrounded by dots (e.g.: FORTRAN .AND. ).

When there is no clear distinction about what counts as operator some information like the table about user definable / overloadable operators make not really sense. Only a few languages use real operators and allow user definable new operator symbols with priority and associativity. Because of the many me too languages this information is not clearly visible. Georg Peter 07:17, 30 October 2007 (UTC)

 * I think the key point is that operators have implicit associativity and priority rules. The notatonal convention is irrelevant. As such, Lisp doesn't have operators at all, it has only functions. I think some distinction has to be made between function/method overloading and operator overloading. --Tweenk (talk) 12:53, 17 November 2007 (UTC)

 * I'm inclined to agree with Georg Peter on the issue of "priority and associativity" only, however, I can't find any good reliable supporting documentation. In fact, even C++, which should be the poster child for "what defines an operator" says that "sizeof" (usage: sizeof(var);) is an operator. Conversely, however, C++ does not allow you to define new operators (not to be confused with overloading operator new) implying that my own functions are not considered operators (making sizeof an oddball, since it looks like a function, but is somehow an operator?) There appears to be no standard on this other than the arbitrary whims of the folks that designed any particular language.

 * I think the real question here is "What does the programmer mean by Operator Overloading?" This isn't terribly hard to decide on. If my language of choice calls something an operator, but allows me to redefine how it works, I am overloading it. Creating a custom operator is totally different from overloading an existing operator (the topic of this article.) If we stick to overloading only, we can focus only on those symbols that a language already calls "operators" and avoid the headache of having to define (and fight over the definition of) what actually constitutes an "operator." This won't resolve the question, but it would relocate it to an article more suited to hashing it out (like operator.) --JCrenshaw (talk) 06:23, 15 December 2008 (UTC)

 * So when a language uses the name operator instead of variable you would still aggree? What about a language which speaks of overloading instead of local variables vs. global variables? I dont't think that this approach (we just take what a language calls operator) is a good idea. There is a definition of what can be called operator and this definition should really be outside of a particular language. Zron (talk) 12:14, 27 April 2011 (UTC)

Example
We have a bad example; adding two dates doesn't make sense, just as adding two pointers doesn't. We should change it into adding two durations of time, or two lengths, etc. — Musiphil (talk) 19:07, 18 March 2009 (UTC)
 * Done. — Musiphil (talk) 07:27, 23 March 2009 (UTC)

 * Please accept my comments in the spirit offered?

Adding dates or pointers makes perfect sense for some applications. My concern is more practical in nature.

I would make the changes myself if I understood operator overloading and classes, but I never needed to use them in my work. In some ways that makes me the perfect audience but I cannot figure out the examples because:

1 I never used operator overloading and the concept is alien to me, as is classes

2 the examples do not have a specification explaining in plain language exactly what they are supposed to be doing to which nor are the special data types defined

3 the examples lack line-by-line comments exactly what each line is accomplishing

4 the code is not 'self-documenting' directly from the syntax, especially in the third example which I cannot even make out what its intent is let alone what it is doing

I think we all get the idea of operator overloading being subtle and confusing due to syntax, but that is not what is making this code difficult to understand nor is it pointing out to me why I should care.

Could you please add some declaration of data type and plain language pecification/description of the intended input, operation, and output of each of the three examples? Lacking that, how about line-by-line comments and a general description of what the third cryptic example does?

Then, how about pointing out specifically what is important about the operator overloading, with respect to the second and third examples?

Specifically, I fail to see what the point is for using a 'hidden' variable in the second example. I consider it poor coding style to use global variables without a good reason and in this case it only seems to be justifying the need for a class instead of a simple overload.

What about the global variable justifies the need for a class? Is it the lack of a lhs operand for a typically binary operator? If so, can we have sample instantiation because otherwise the implication is that it uses the same instantiation as the first example? Please state it clearly because it still has me baffled, like I said I never used classes, I did not need object oriented code. I would need to understand everything about classes and operator overloading already to understand the example and in that case what is the point of the encyclopedia?

In the third example I do not even know what it is for. I see no connection between it and the prior two examples, nor is there an instantiation or declaration of data type or anything, nor do I see that it even accomplishes anything since it seems to set everything to zeros. What are its operands? It seems like a ghost that returns no output at all.

Maybe too you could mention some practical implications of the chosen syntax for the overload and alternative coding to mitigate, like what I had to be concerned with such as for example (maybe not my specific concerns for these operator overload samples but similar in character to):

1 potential surprise pointer overflows from improper boundary conditions, and how to prevent this without relying on the compiler to catch it for you, letting J-bird Hacker Jones hijack your browser with data execution and clean out your bank account

2 unexpected processor or memory or stream overhead while executing the code due to practical hardware limitations on bandwidth, flushing the cache for unnecessary jump instruction, multiplying by 2 instead of left shifting, etc.

3 automatic compiler error-checking overhead that might get wrapped around the assembly language, that either mitigates or causes such non-transparent issues, and how to avoid the need for relying on the compiler to clean up sloppy code for you

4 'if' statements instead of modulo operators makes the code longer and more confusing since no one would ever code this way unless processor bandwidth or some other practical hardware constraint demanded it. Can we have examples that make sense mathematically and functionally, so that we can concentrate on the issue of operator overloading?

C syntax is confusing enough without leaving people that should be able to read this encyclopedia entry with ease scratching our heads in puzzlement. Please? thx —Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.79.69.67 (talk) 13:51, 21 January 2010 (UTC)

Catalog: Classification as either "new definable" or "limited set"?

 * "A classification of some common programming languages by whether their operators are overloadable by the programmer and whether the operators are limited to a predefined set."

Is this really an either/or situation? Are there no programming languages which allow both overloading existing operators, and defining new ones? After all these years I finally ran into a situation where having both features might be desirable in limited cases. Since my available tools are already pretty much set in stone, this is pretty much just an academic question, but I'm still interested. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 85.156.251.154 (talk) 21:37, 31 October 2011 (UTC)
 * Look at the chart again - it has 4 sections, not 2. For example, Haskell lets you overload operators via type classes and you can use functions as infix operators, or even make them infix by default if you usually want to use them as operators ( is the same as   and   is the same as  ). strcat (talk) 12:05, 2 November 2011 (UTC)
 * Thanks, I obviously glossed over the chart and misunderstood it. Turns out, since the label "Limited set" isn't perfectly identical to the explanation "limited to a predefined set", and the most "flexible" languages aren't at the bottom right (or top left?) of the chart, my internal pattern recognition went haywire. Maybe the chart layout is just a tad counter-intuitive, even though it is clearly correct. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 85.156.251.154 (talk) 17:09, 9 November 2011 (UTC)

"Claimed"
The phrase "claimed to be useful" is not NPOV and uses weasel words. I will remove it. Dpsanders (talk) 05:06, 19 August 2013 (UTC)

Remedial description
Is there a chance that someone can take a step further back in the discussion and try to explain this to a more novice programmer? I am one such programmer (FORTRAN off & on for many years, Pascal, BASIC) but I have no idea what the author is saying. Operator Overloading remains a mystery to me after reading the article.

Thanks for considering — Preceding unsigned comment added by Mark B 64151 (talk • contribs) 00:17, 4 December 2014 (UTC)

Overloading operators in Smalltalk
This article lists Smalltalk as one of the languages that allows operator overloading, but I found a textbook on Smalltalk that seems to contradict this. Methods and operators in Smalltalk can be overridden, but I'm not sure if they can be overloaded. Jarble (talk) 17:34, 9 July 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Operator overloading


text:
United States District Court for the Northern District of California

The United States District Court for the Northern District of California (in case citations, N.D. Cal.) is the federal United States district court whose jurisdiction comprises the following counties of California: Alameda, Contra Costa, Del Norte, Humboldt, Lake, Marin, Mendocino, Monterey, Napa, San Benito, San Francisco, San Mateo, Santa Clara, Santa Cruz, and Sonoma. The court hears cases in its courtrooms in Eureka, Oakland, San Francisco, and San Jose. It is headquartered in San Francisco.

Cases from the Northern District of California are appealed to the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit (except for patent claims and claims against the U.S. government under the Tucker Act, which are appealed to the Federal Circuit).

Because it covers San Francisco and Silicon Valley, the Northern District of California has become known as the presumptive destination for major federal lawsuits (such as large class actions and multi-district litigation) involving defendants based in East Asia and the high tech sector. These cases usually involve patent law and intellectual property law (such as copyright law and DMCA issues as well as trademark law and trade secret law) - especially in the semiconductor, telecommunications and software industries and other high technology areas, antitrust law, securities law, and technology law in general (e.g., cybersecurity, Internet law, computer law and cases involving software).

History
California was admitted as a state on September 9, 1850, and was initially divided into two districts, the Northern and the Southern, by Act of Congress approved September 28, 1850, 9 Stat. 521. The boundary line was at the 37th parallel of North Latitude. The creating act provided that:

 * In addition to the ordinary jurisdiction and powers of a District Court of the United States, with which the Southern District Court of New York has been invested, the said Courts be and hereby are invested respectively within the limits of its district with the exercise of concurrent jurisdiction and power in all civil cases now exercised by the Circuit Courts of the United States; and that in all cases where said Courts shall exercise such jurisdiction, appeals may be taken from the judgments, orders or decrees of said Courts to the Supreme Court of the United States.

The Act of August 31, 1852 made the Judge of the Northern District be Judge of the Southern District as well until otherwise provided, by 10 Stat. 76, 84, effectively creating a single District in all but name until an Act of January 18, 1854 provided for the appointment of a Judge for the Southern District. The Southern District of California was abolished and the State made to constitute a single district – the United States District Court for the District of California – by Act of Congress approved July 27, 1866, 14 Stat. 300.

Twenty years later, on August 5, 1886, Congress re-created the Southern District of California by 24 Stat. 308. Erskine M. Ross was appointed Judge of the new district and served until his promotion to the Circuit Judgeship, when he was succeeded by Olin Wellborn. On March 18, 1966, the Eastern and Central Districts were created from portions of the Northern and Southern Districts by 80 Stat. 75.

United States attorney
The United States Attorney for the Northern District of California represents the United States in civil and criminal litigation in the court. the United States attorney is Ismail Ramsey.

 * Calhoun Benham 1850-53
 * Samuel Williams Inge 1853-56
 * William Blanding 1856-57
 * Peter della Torre 1857-60
 * Calhoun Benham 1860-61
 * William H. Sharp 1861-64
 * Delos Lake 1864-69
 * Frank M. Pixley 1869
 * Lorenzo D. Latimer 1869-73
 * Walter Van Dyke 1873-76
 * John M. Coghlan 1876-78
 * Phillip Teare 1878-83
 * Samuel G. Hilborn 1883-86
 * John T. Carey 1886-90
 * Charles A. Garter 1890-94
 * Samuel Knight 1894-95
 * Henry S. Foote 1895-99
 * Frank L. Coombs 1899-1901
 * Marshall B. Woodworth 1901-05
 * Robert T. Devlin 1905-12
 * John L. McNab 1912-13
 * B. L. McKinley 1913
 * John W. Preston 1913-18
 * Mrs. A. A. Adams 1918-20
 * Frank M. Silva 1920-21
 * J. T. Williams 1921-24
 * Sterling Carr 1924-25
 * George J. Hatfield 1925-33
 * I. M. Peckham 1933
 * Harry H. McPike 1933-37
 * Frank J. Hennessy 1937-51
 * Chauncey F. Tramutolo 1951
 * Lloyd H. Burke 1953-58
 * Robert H. Schnacke 1958-59
 * Lynn J. Gillard 1959-60
 * Laurence E. Dayton 1960-61
 * Cecil F. Poole 1961-69
 * James L. Browning, Jr. 1969-77
 * G. William Hunter 1977-81
 * Rodney H. Hamblen 1981
 * Joseph P. Russoniello 1981-90
 * William T. McGivern 1990-92
 * John A. Mendez 1992-93
 * Michael J. Yamaguchi 1993-98
 * Robert S. Mueller 1998-2001
 * Kevin V. Ryan 2002-2007
 * Scott Schools 2007-2008
 * Joseph P. Russoniello 2008-2010
 * Melinda Haag 2010-2016
 * David L. Anderson 2019-2021
 * Stephanie Hinds (2021–2023)
 * Ismail Ramsey 2023-present


text:
Me Talk Pretty One Day

Me Talk Pretty One Day, published in 2000, is a collection of essays by American humorist David Sedaris. The book is separated into two parts. The first part consists of essays about Sedaris’s life before his move to Normandy, France, including his upbringing in suburban Raleigh, North Carolina, his time working odd jobs in New York City, and a visit to New York from a childhood friend and her bumpkinish girlfriend. The second section, "Deux", tells of Sedaris’s move to Normandy with his partner Hugh, often drawing humor from his efforts to live in France without speaking French and his frustrated attempts to learn it. Prior to publication, several of the essays were read by the author on the Public Radio International program, This American Life.

In April 2001, Variety reported that Sedaris had sold the Me Talk Pretty One Day film rights to director Wayne Wang, who was adapting four stories from the book for Columbia Pictures with hopes of beginning shooting in late 2001. At the time, Sedaris commented, "It's just one of those things I had never considered. Like, 'What if I de-clawed a kitten?' But I like Wayne Wang a lot." He recommended Jack Lemmon to play his father and Elaine Stritch for his mother. Wang had completed the script and begun casting when Sedaris asked to "get out of it," after a conversation with his sister aroused concerns as to how his family might be portrayed on screen. He wrote about the conversation and its aftermath in the essay "Repeat After Me", published in Dress Your Family in Corduroy and Denim. Sedaris recounted that Wang was "a real prince. I didn't want him to be mad at me, but he was so grown up about it. I never saw how it could be turned into a movie anyway."

One

 * 1) "Go Carolina" - David is forced to go to his elementary school speech therapist for his lisp.
 * 2) "Giant Dreams, Midget Abilities" -. David's father, Lou, enrolls David in guitar lessons taught by a person with dwarfism.
 * 3) "Genetic Engineering" - David discusses the disparate interests between Lou and the rest of the family.
 * 4) "Twelve Moments in the Life of the Artist" - David presents his own efforts to establish himself as a performance artist while fueled by methamphetamine.
 * 5) "You Can't Kill the Rooster" - Despite his horrible language, David's brother, Paul, has a kind heart.
 * 6) "The Youth in Asia" - David recounts his childhood pets and their demises.
 * 7) "The Learning Curve" - David gets a job as a writing teacher and satirizes his efforts at conducting workshops.
 * 8) "Big Boy" - While attending a party, David finds himself trying to get rid of a huge turd left in the toilet by the previous visitor.
 * 9) "The Great Leap Forward" - A woman who lives in a big house hires David as her personal assistant; subsequently he works for a moving company.
 * 10) "Today's Special" - David pokes fun at over-elaborately prepared foods and their fanciful descriptions on menus.
 * 11) "City of Angels" - A lesbian childhood friend from North Carolina comes to visit David in New York and brings along her rather country bumpkin girlfriend she recently met who seems to express culture shock much to the annoyance of David and even her girlfriend.
 * 12) "A Shiner Like a Diamond" - David's sister, Amy, is to be profiled in a New York magazine, an event that occasions David to recall that Lou is obsessed with the Sedaris sisters looking thin and beautiful; they play a practical joke on him.
 * 13) "Nutcracker.com" - David recalls his reluctance to join the internet.

Deux

 * 1) "See You Again Yesterday" - David recalls his first visits to Normandy with his partner, Hugh.
 * 2) "Me Talk Pretty One Day" - David recalls a French class he took in Paris.
 * 3) "Jesus Shaves" - David recounts a day in the Parisian French class where the class explained Easter to a Moroccan woman.
 * 4) "The Tapeworm Is In" - David buys a Walkman to aid learning French.
 * 5) "Make That a Double" - David explains that he finds gender assignment the most challenging aspect of learning French.
 * 6) "Remembering My Childhood on the Continent of Africa" - David compares the childhood of his partner, Hugh, to his own; where his boyhood had been pedestrian, Hugh's was exotic.
 * 7) "21 Down" - David talks about his crossword addiction.
 * 8) "The City of Light in the Dark" - David enjoys going to the movies in Paris more than seeing the usual cultural sights.
 * 9) "I Pledge Allegiance to the Bag" - David satirizes French ideas of what Americans are like.
 * 10) "Picka Pocketoni" - American tourists mistake David for a pickpocket while riding the train in Paris.
 * 11) "I Almost Saw This Girl Get Killed" - David recalls an evening at the county fair near his home in France.
 * 12) "Smart Guy" - David and Hugh take IQ tests. Hugh outscores David.
 * 13) "The Late Show" - David lists the different fantasies he mulls over while trying to sleep at night.
 * 14) "I'll Eat What He's Wearing" - A visit from David's father Lou prompts David to remember Lou's penchant for economizing, buying and storing food past reasonable limits.

title: Me Talk Pretty One Day


text:
Z-DNA

Z-DNA is one of the many possible double helical structures of DNA. It is a left-handed double helical structure in which the helix winds to the left in a zigzag pattern, instead of to the right, like the more common B-DNA form. Z-DNA is thought to be one of three biologically active double-helical structures along with A-DNA and B-DNA.

History
Left-handed DNA was first proposed by Robert Wells and colleagues, as the structure of a repeating polymer of inosine–cytosine. They observed a "reverse" circular dichroism spectrum for such DNAs, and interpreted this incorrectly to mean that the strands wrapped around one another in a left-handed fashion. The relationship between Z-DNA and the more familiar B-DNA was indicated by the work of Pohl and Jovin, who showed that the ultraviolet circular dichroism of poly(dG-dC) was nearly inverted in 4 M sodium chloride solution and that the structure of poly d(I–C)·poly d(I–C) was in fact a right-handed D-DNA conformation. The suspicion that this was the result of a conversion from B-DNA to Z-DNA was confirmed by examining the Raman spectra of these solutions and the Z-DNA crystals. Subsequently, a crystal structure of "Z-DNA" was published which turned out to be the first single-crystal X-ray structure of a DNA fragment (a self-complementary DNA hexamer d(CG)3). It was resolved as a left-handed double helix with two antiparallel chains that were held together by Watson–Crick base pairs (see X-ray crystallography). It was solved by Andrew H. J. Wang, Alexander Rich, and coworkers in 1979 at MIT. The crystallisation of a B- to Z-DNA junction in 2005 provided a better understanding of the potential role Z-DNA plays in cells. Whenever a segment of Z-DNA forms, there must be B–Z junctions at its two ends, interfacing it to the B-form of DNA found in the rest of the genome.

In 2007, the RNA version of Z-DNA, Z-RNA, was described as a transformed version of an A-RNA double helix into a left-handed helix. The transition from A-RNA to Z-RNA, however, was already described in 1984.

Structure
Z-DNA is quite different from the right-handed forms. In fact, Z-DNA is often compared against B-DNA in order to illustrate the major differences. The Z-DNA helix is left-handed and has a structure that repeats every other base pair. The major and minor grooves, unlike A- and B-DNA, show little difference in width. Formation of this structure is generally unfavourable, although certain conditions can promote it; such as alternating purine–pyrimidine sequence (especially poly(dGC)2), negative DNA supercoiling or high salt and some cations (all at physiological temperature, 37 °C, and pH 7.3–7.4). Z-DNA can form a junction with B-DNA (called a "B-to-Z junction box") in a structure which involves the extrusion of a base pair. The Z-DNA conformation has been difficult to study because it does not exist as a stable feature of the double helix. Instead, it is a transient structure that is occasionally induced by biological activity and then quickly disappears.

Predicting Z-DNA structure
It is possible to predict the likelihood of a DNA sequence forming a Z-DNA structure. An algorithm for predicting the propensity of DNA to flip from the B-form to the Z-form, ZHunt, was written by P. Shing Ho in 1984 at MIT. This algorithm was later developed by Tracy Camp, P. Christoph Champ, Sandor Maurice, and Jeffrey M. Vargason for genome-wide mapping of Z-DNA (with Ho as the principal investigator).

Pathway of formation of Z-DNA from B-DNA
Since the discovery and crystallization of Z-DNA in 1979, the configuration has left scientists puzzled about the pathway and mechanism from the B-DNA configuration to the Z-DNA configuration. The conformational change from B-DNA to the Z-DNA structure was unknown at the atomic level, but in 2010, computer simulations conducted by Lee et al. were able to computationally determine that the step-wise propagation of a B-to-Z transition would provide a lower energy barrier than the previously hypothesized concerted mechanism. Since this was computationally proven, the pathway would still need to be tested experimentally in the lab for further confirmation and validity, in which Lee et al. specifically states in their journal article, "The current [computational] result could be tested by Single-molecule FRET (smFRET) experiments in the future." In 2018, the pathway from B-DNA to Z-DNA was experimentally proven using smFRET assays. This was performed by measuring the intensity values between the donor and acceptor fluorescent dyes, also known as Fluorophores, in relation to each other as they exchange electrons, while tagged onto a DNA molecule. The distances between the fluorophores could be used to quantitatively calculate the changes in proximity of the dyes and conformational changes in the DNA. A Z-DNA high affinity binding protein, hZαADAR1, was used at varying concentrations to induce the transformation from B-DNA to Z-DNA. The smFRET assays revealed a B* transition state, which formed as the binding of hZαADAR1 accumulated on the B-DNA structure and stabilized it. This step occurs to avoid high junction energy, in which the B-DNA structure is allowed to undergo a conformational change to the Z-DNA structure without a major, disruptive change in energy. This result coincides with the computational results of Lee et al. proving the mechanism to be step-wise and its purpose being that it provides a lower energy barrier for the conformational change from the B-DNA to Z-DNA configuration. Contrary to the previous notion, the binding proteins do not actually stabilize the Z-DNA conformation after it is formed, but instead they actually promote the formation of the Z-DNA directly from the B* conformation, which is formed by the B-DNA structure being bound by high affinity proteins.

Biological significance
A biological role for Z-DNA in the regulation of type I interferon responses has been confirmed in studies of three well-characterized rare Mendelian Diseases: Dyschromatosis Symmetrica Hereditaria (OMIM: 127400), Aicardi-Goutières syndrome (OMIM: 615010) and Bilateral Striatal Necrosis/Dystonia. Families with haploid ADAR transcriptome enabled mapping of Zα variants directly to disease, showing that genetic information is encoded in DNA by both shape and sequence. A role in regulating type I interferon responses in cancer is also supported by findings that 40% of a panel of tumors were dependent on the ADAR enzyme for survival.

In previous studies, Z-DNA was linked to both Alzheimer's disease and systemic lupus erythematosus. To showcase this, a study was conducted on the DNA found in the hippocampus of brains that were normal, moderately affected with Alzheimer's disease, and severely affected with Alzheimer's disease. Through the use of circular dichroism, this study showed the presence of Z-DNA in the DNA of those severely affected. In this study it was also found that major portions of the moderately affected DNA was in the B-Z intermediate conformation. This is significant because from these findings it was concluded that the transition from B-DNA to Z-DNA is dependent on the progression of Alzheimer's disease. Additionally, Z-DNA is associated with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) through the presence of naturally occurring antibodies. Significant amounts of anti Z-DNA antibodies were found in SLE patients and were not present in other rheumatic diseases. There are two types of these antibodies. Through radioimmunoassay, it was found that one interacts with the bases exposed on the surface of Z-DNA and denatured DNA, while the other exclusively interacts with the zig-zag backbone of only Z-DNA. Similar to that found in Alzheimer's disease, the antibodies vary depending on the stage of the disease, with maximal antibodies in the most active stages of SLE.

Z-DNA in transcription
Z-DNA is commonly believed to provide torsional strain relief during transcription, and it is associated with negative supercoiling. However, while supercoiling is associated with both DNA transcription and replication, Z-DNA formation is primarily linked to the rate of transcription.

A study of human chromosome 22 showed a correlation between Z-DNA forming regions and promoter regions for nuclear factor I. This suggests that transcription in some human genes may be regulated by Z-DNA formation and nuclear factor I activation.

Z-DNA sequences upstream of promoter regions have been shown to stimulate transcription. The greatest increase in activity is observed when the Z-DNA sequence is placed three helical turns after the promoter sequence. Furthermore, using micrococcal nuclease-crosslinking technique, Z-DNA is unlikely to form nucleosomes, which are often located before and/or after a Z-DNA forming sequence. Because of this property, Z-DNA is hypothesized to code for the boundary in nucleosome positioning. Since the placement of nucleosomes influences the binding of transcription factors, Z-DNA is thought to regulate the rate of transcription.

Developed behind the pathway of RNA polymerase through negative supercoiling, Z-DNA formed via active transcription has been shown to increase genetic instability, creating a propensity towards mutagenesis near promoters. A study on Escherichia coli found that gene deletions spontaneously occur in plasmid regions containing Z-DNA-forming sequences. In mammalian cells, the presence of such sequences was found to produce large genomic fragment deletions due to chromosomal double-strand breaks. Both of these genetic modifications have been linked to the gene translocations found in cancers such as leukemia and lymphoma, since breakage regions in tumor cells have been plotted around Z-DNA-forming sequences. However, the smaller deletions in bacterial plasmids have been associated with replication slippage, while the larger deletions associated with mammalian cells are caused by non-homologous end-joining repair, which is known to be prone to error.

The toxic effect of ethidium bromide (EtBr) on trypanosomas is caused by shift of their kinetoplastid DNA to Z-form. The shift is caused by intercalation of EtBr and subsequent loosening of DNA structure that leads to unwinding of DNA, shift to Z-form and inhibition of DNA replication.

Discovery of the Zα domain
The first domain to bind Z-DNA with high affinity was discovered in ADAR1 using an approach developed by Alan Herbert. Crystallographic and NMR studies confirmed the biochemical findings that this domain bound Z-DNA in a non-sequence-specific manner. Related domains were identified in a number of other proteins through sequence homology. The identification of the Zα domain provided a tool for other crystallographic studies that lead to the characterization of Z-RNA and the B–Z junction. Biological studies suggested that the Z-DNA binding domain of ADAR1 may localize this enzyme that modifies the sequence of the newly formed RNA to sites of active transcription. A role for Zα, Z-DNA and Z-RNA in defense of the genome against the invasion of Alu retro-elements in humans has evolved into a mechanism for the regulation of innate immune responses to dsRNA. Mutations in Zα are causal for human interferonopathies such as the Mendelian Aicardi-Goutières Syndrome. Additionally, Zα domains are demonstrated to localize at the stress granules because of their innate ability in binding nucleic acid. Furthermore, different Zα domains bind to the Z conformation of nucleic acid differently providing important avenues for specific targeting in drug discovery.

Consequences of Z-DNA binding to vaccinia E3L protein
As Z-DNA has been researched more thoroughly, it has been discovered that the structure of Z-DNA can bind to Z-DNA binding proteins through london dispersion and hydrogen bonding. One example of a Z-DNA binding protein is the vaccinia E3L protein, which is a product of the E3L gene and mimics a mammalian protein that binds Z-DNA. Not only does the E3L protein have affinity to Z-DNA, it has also been found to play a role in the level of severity of virulence in mice caused by vaccinia virus, a type of poxvirus. Two critical components to the E3L protein that determine virulence are the N-terminus and the C-terminus. The N-terminus is made of up a sequence similar to that of the Zα domain, also called Adenosine deaminase z-alpha domain, while the C-terminus is composed of a double stranded RNA binding motif. Through research done by Kim, Y. et al. at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, it was shown that replacing the N-terminus of the E3L protein with a Zα domain sequence, containing 14 Z-DNA binding residues similar to E3L, had little to no effect on pathogenicity of the virus in mice. In Contrast, Kim, Y. et al. also found that deleting all 83 residues of the E3L N-terminus resulted in decreased virulence. This supports their claim that the N-terminus containing the Z-DNA binding residues is necessary for virulence. Overall, these findings show that the similar Z-DNA binding residues within the N-terminus of the E3L protein and the Zα domain are the most important structural factors determining virulence caused by the vaccinia virus, while amino acid residues not involved in Z-DNA binding have little to no effect. A future implication of these findings includes reducing Z-DNA binding of E3L in vaccines containing the vaccinia virus so negative reactions to the virus can be minimized in humans.

Furthermore, Alexander Rich and Jin-Ah Kwon found that E3L acts as a transactivator for human IL-6, NF-AT, and p53 genes. Their results show that HeLa cells containing E3L had increased expression of human IL-6, NF-AT, and p53 genes and point mutations or deletions of certain Z-DNA binding amino acid residues decreased that expression. Specifically, mutations in Tyr 48 and Pro 63 were found to reduce transactivation of the previously mentioned genes, as a result of loss of hydrogen bonding and london dispersion forces between E3L and the Z-DNA. Overall, these results show that decreasing the bonds and interactions between Z-DNA and Z-DNA binding proteins decreases both virulence and gene expression, hence showing the importance of having bonds between Z-DNA and the E3L binding protein.

title: Z-DNA