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U.S. Route 51

U.S. Route 51 or U.S. Highway 51 (US 51) is a major south–north United States highway that extends 1277 mi from the western suburbs of New Orleans, Louisiana, to within 150 ft of the Wisconsin–Michigan state line. As most of the United States Numbered Highways ending with "1", it is a cross-country north–south route extending from the Gulf Coast region to the Great Lakes region. Much of the highway in northern Illinois and southern Wisconsin runs parallel to or is cosigned with Interstate 39 (I-39) and much of the route in several states also parallels the Illinois Central Railroad. From LaPlace, Louisiana, Mississippi, to Memphis, Tennessee, much of that portion of US 51 runs largely parallel or is concurrent with Interstate 55 (I-55). The highway's northern terminus is between Hurley, Wisconsin, and Ironwood, Michigan, where it ends with a roundabout at US 2. Its southern terminus is in Laplace, Louisiana, ending at US 61. US 51 is routed through the states of Louisiana, Mississippi, Tennessee, Kentucky, Illinois, and Wisconsin.

In addition to singing about US 61 on his album Highway 61 Revisited, musician Bob Dylan also commemorated US 51, covering the folk song "Highway 51 Blues", earlier recorded by both Curtis Jones and Tommy McClennan, on his eponymous album Bob Dylan. The North Mississippi Allstars also paid tribute to the highway in the title track of their album 51 Phantom.

In Memphis, Tennessee, all of US 51 south of South Parkway East was renamed from Bellevue Boulevard to Elvis Presley Boulevard on January 17, 1972. Graceland is located on this section of the highway, in the subdivision of Whitehaven.

In 2004, the six states that US 51 traverses banded together as the Explore Hwy 51 Coalition to help promote this "All-American Road". The group now offers visitor information for traveling the length of the road.

Louisiana
US 51 begins at the intersection with US 61 in Laplace and heads northeast. It intersects I-10 before running concurrently with I-55. Near the interchange with I-12, the route splits from I-55. It intersects US 190 in Hammond and remains running parallel with I-55 before entering Mississippi. In the 1930s, this highway was called Jefferson Davis Highway.

Mississippi
US 51 enters Mississippi from Louisiana in Osyka and runs parallel with I-55. It intersects US 98 in McComb and US 84 south of Brookhaven. Northwest of Crystal Springs, it runs concurrently with I-55 and then splits at the interchange with I-20 in Jackson. The highway then runs through Jackson, intersecting US 80. Outside Ridgeland, it passes under I-55 as it continues northeast. It continues through Canton, Pickens, Goodman, and Durant. The highway continues to run along I-55, intersecting US 82 in Winona and US 278 in Batesville. The route passes under I-69 before entering Tennessee.

The Mississippi section of US 51 is defined at Mississippi Code Annotated § 65-3-3.

Tennessee
US 51 enters Tennessee from Mississippi and travels through Memphis. It intersects I-55 and then I-240 before intersecting US 78. It then runs concurrently with US 79 before intersecting I-69. As it exits Memphis, it intersects I-40 and heads northeasterly. In Dyersburg, it runs concurrently with US 412 for a half a mile before intersecting I-155's eastern terminus. US 51 then continues northeasterly before entering Kentucky. US 51 between Memphis and Kentucky is planned on running concurrently with I-69.

Kentucky
US 51 enters Kentucky at Fulton, running concurrently with I-69 and continues northward through the towns of Clinton, Bardwell and Wickliffe to the Ohio River. The route intersects and runs concurrently with US 62 before separating from it in Cairo. Along the way it also intersects US 60. The route then enters Illinois before running concurrently with I-57.

Illinois
US 51 enters Illinois from Kentucky at the city of Cairo. The route heads northward to a village near Cairo called Mounds, and shares the pavement with I-57, following it for 24 mi to Dongola, before splitting and heading north. The route remains two lanes from Dongola to just before Assumption with the exception of a 10 mi section between Centralia and I-64.

North of Assumption, US 51 becomes an expressway to Decatur. In Decatur, US 51 follows I-72 to bypass town. US 51 leaves I-72 after 8 mi, and heads north to Bloomington–Normal as an expressway. At Bloomington–Normal, US 51 follows I-74 for a mile, then I-55 for 7 mi, before following I-39 for 140 mi.

US 51 follows I-39, intersecting I-80 and I-88 along the way. The highway also follows US 20 south of Rockford (while still following I-39). I-39/US 51 joins I-90, making US 51 one of the only toll roads in Illinois that is a U.S. Highway. US 51 exits I-39/I-90 just a mile south of the Wisconsin state line. US 51 follows Illinois Route 75 (IL 75) west to the intersection of IL 251, then turns north through South Beloit to enter Wisconsin.

Wisconsin
In the state of Wisconsin, US 51 enters from Illinois at Beloit. US 51 splits off from I-39/I-90 in South Beloit, Illinois, and continues northward through Janesville and Edgerton. In Edgerton, US 51 rejoins I-39/I-90 for 3.5 mi before splitting off towards Stoughton and McFarland. US 51 runs almost parallel to I-39/I-90 through the eastern portion of Madison, crosses the Interstate in DeForest, and finally rejoins I-39 again at Portage. US 51 runs concurrently with I-39 until I-39's terminus in Wausau and continues on as a mixture of freeway and expressway until just north of the interchange with US 8. From there through Hazelhurst, US 51 is a two-lane road with sporadic three-lane sections (which were constructed in 2008). US 51 expands to four lanes, with a central fifth turn lane from Hazelhurst to Arbor Vitae; north of Arbor Vitae it returns to two lanes and continues to its northern end in Hurley, where it terminates at US 2.

Major intersections

 * Louisiana
 * in LaPlace
 * in LaPlace
 * northeast of LaPlace. The highways travel concurrently to Hammond.
 * in Hammond

 * Mississippi
 * in McComb
 * south of Brookhaven
 * in Crystal Springs. The highways travel concurrently to Jackson.
 * in Jackson. The highways travel concurrently through the city.
 * in Jackson
 * in Winona
 * in Batesville

 * Tennessee
 * in Memphis
 * in Memphis
 * in Memphis. US 51/US 64/US 70/US 79 travels concurrently through the city.
 * in Memphis
 * in Memphis
 * in Memphis
 * in Millington
 * in Dyersburg. The highways travel concurrently through the city.
 * in Dyersburg. I-69/US 51 travels concurrently to southwest of Troy.
 * northeast of Union City. The highways travel concurrently to South Fulton.
 * in South Fulton

 * Kentucky
 * in Fulton. The highways travel concurrently through the city.
 * in Bardwell. The highways travel concurrently to Cairo, Illinois.
 * in Wickliffe. The highways travel concurrently to Cairo, Illinois.

 * Illinois
 * in Cairo. The highways travel concurrently to near Dongola.
 * in Richview
 * in Sandoval. The highways travel concurrently through the village.
 * in Vandalia Township. The highways travel concurrently to Vandalia.
 * in Vandalia
 * in Harristown
 * in Harristown. The highways travel concurrently to Decatur.
 * in Bloomington Township. The highways travel concurrently to northwest of Normal.
 * in Bloomington. The highways travel concurrently to Normal.
 * in Bloomington
 * in Normal. I-39/US 51 travels concurrently to South Beloit.
 * in El Paso
 * in LaSalle
 * in LaSalle
 * on the Troy Grove–Ophir township line
 * in Mendota Township
 * on the Amboy–Franklin Grove township line
 * in Dement Township
 * in Rockford. The highways travel concurrently to Cherry Valley.
 * in Cherry Valley. The highways travel concurrently to South Beloit.

 * Wisconsin
 * in the Town of Janesville
 * in the Town of Albion. The highways travel concurrently through the town.
 * in Madison
 * in Madison
 * in the Town of Burke
 * in the Town of Fort Winnebago. The highways travel concurrently to the Town of Rib Mountain.
 * in Stevens Point. The highways travel concurrently to the Town of Hull.
 * in the Town of King
 * in the Town of Kimball

title: U.S. Route 51


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Hypnagogia

Hypnagogia is the transitional state from wakefulness to sleep, also defined as the waning state of consciousness during the onset of sleep. Its opposite state is described as hypnopompia – the transitional state from sleep into wakefulness. Mental phenomena that may occur during this "threshold consciousness" phase include hypnagogic hallucinations, lucid dreaming, and sleep paralysis.

Etymology
In 1848, Alfred Maury introduced the term "hypnagogic" from the Greek words ύπνος (“hypnos”), meaning “sleep”, and αγωγός (“agōgos”), meaning “conductor” or “leader”. Later, in 1904, Frederic Myers coined the term "hypnopompic," with its word-ending originating from the Greek word "pompos," meaning "sender."

Definitions
The word hypnagogia is sometimes used in a restricted sense to refer to the onset of sleep, and contrasted with hypnopompia, Frederic Myers's term for waking up. However, hypnagogia is also regularly employed in a more general sense that covers both falling asleep and waking up. Indeed, it is not always possible in practice to assign a particular episode of any given phenomenon to one or the other, given that the same kinds of experience may occur in both as people drift in and out of sleep.

Other terms for hypnagogia, in one or both senses, that have been proposed include "presomnal" or "anthypnic sensations", "visions of half-sleep", "oneiragogic images" and "phantasmata", "the borderland of sleep", "praedormitium", "borderland state", "half-dream state", "pre-dream condition", "sleep onset dreams", "dreamlets", and "wakefulness-sleep transition" (WST).

Threshold consciousness (commonly called "half-asleep" or "half-awake", or "mind awake body asleep") describes the same mental state of someone who is moving towards sleep or wakefulness but has not yet completed the transition. Such transitions are usually brief but can be extended by sleep disturbance or deliberate induction, for example during meditation.

Signs and symptoms
Transition to and from sleep may be attended by a wide variety of sensory experiences. These can occur in any modality, individually or combined, and range from the vague and barely perceptible to vivid hallucinations.

Sights
Among the more commonly reported, and more thoroughly researched, sensory features of hypnagogia are phosphenes which can manifest as seemingly random speckles, lines or geometrical patterns, including form constants, or as figurative (representational) images. They may be monochromatic or richly coloured, still or moving, flat or three-dimensional (offering an impression of perspective). Imagery representing movement through tunnels of light is also reported. Individual images are typically fleeting and given to very rapid changes. They are said to differ from dreams proper in that hypnagogic imagery is usually static and lacking in narrative content, although others understand the state rather as a gradual transition from hypnagogia to fragmentary dreams, i.e., from simple Eigenlicht to whole imagined scenes. Descriptions of exceptionally vivid and elaborate hypnagogic visuals can be found in the work of Marie-Jean-Léon, Marquis d'Hervey de Saint Denys.

Tetris effect
People who have spent a long time at some repetitive activity before sleep, in particular one that is new to them, may find that it dominates their imagery as they grow drowsy, a tendency dubbed the  Tetris effect. This effect has even been observed in amnesiacs who otherwise have no memory of the original activity. When the activity involves moving objects, as in the video game Tetris, the corresponding hypnagogic images tend to be perceived as moving. The Tetris effect is not confined to visual imagery but can manifest in other modalities. For example, Robert Stickgold recounts having experienced the touch of rocks while falling asleep after mountain climbing. This can also occur to people who have travelled on a small boat in rough seas or have been swimming through waves, shortly before going to bed, and they feel the waves as they drift to sleep, or people who have spent the day skiing who continue to "feel snow" under their feet. People who have spent considerable time jumping on a trampoline will find that they can feel the up-and-down motion before they go to sleep. New employees working stressful and demanding jobs often report feeling the experience of performing work-related tasks in this period before sleep.

Sounds
Hypnagogic hallucinations are often auditory or have an auditory component. Like the visuals, hypnagogic sounds vary in intensity from faint impressions to loud noises, like knocking and crashes and bangs (exploding head syndrome). People may imagine their own name called, crumpling bags, white noise, or a doorbell ringing. Snatches of imagined speech are common. While typically nonsensical and fragmented, these speech events can occasionally strike the individual as apt comments on—or summations of—their thoughts at the time. They often contain word play, neologisms and made-up names. Hypnagogic speech may manifest as the subject's own "inner voice", or as the voices of others: familiar people or strangers. More rarely, poetry or music is heard.

Other sensations
Gustatory, olfactory and thermal sensations in hypnagogia have all been reported, as well as tactile sensations (including those kinds classed as paresthesia or formication). Sometimes there is synesthesia; many people report seeing a flash of light or some other visual image in response to a real sound. Proprioceptive effects may be noticed, with numbness and changes in perceived body size and proportions, feelings of floating or bobbing as if their bed were a boat, and out-of-body experiences. Perhaps the most common experience of this kind is the falling sensation, and associated hypnic jerk, encountered by many people, at least occasionally, while drifting off to sleep.

Cognitive and affective phenomena
Thought processes on the edge of sleep tend to differ radically from those of ordinary wakefulness. For example, something that one agreed with in a state of hypnagogia may seem completely ridiculous in a waking state. Hypnagogia may involve a "loosening of ego boundaries ... openness, sensitivity, internalization-subjectification of the physical and mental environment (empathy) and diffuse-absorbed attention." Hypnagogic cognition, in comparison with that of normal, alert wakefulness, is characterized by heightened suggestibility, illogic and a fluid association of ideas. Subjects are more receptive in the hypnagogic state to suggestion from an experimenter than at other times, and readily incorporate external stimuli into hypnagogic trains of thought and subsequent dreams. This receptivity has a physiological parallel; EEG readings show elevated responsiveness to sound around the onset of sleep.

Herbert Silberer described a process he called autosymbolism, whereby hypnagogic hallucinations seem to represent, without repression or censorship, whatever one is thinking at the time, turning abstract ideas into a concrete image, which may be perceived as an apt and succinct representation thereof.

The hypnagogic state can provide insight into a problem, the best-known example being August Kekulé’s realization that the structure of benzene was a closed ring while half-asleep in front of a fire and seeing molecules forming into snakes, one of which formed an ourobouros. Many other artists, writers, scientists and inventors – including Beethoven, Richard Wagner, Walter Scott, Salvador Dalí, Thomas Edison, Nikola Tesla and Isaac Newton – have credited hypnagogia and related states with enhancing their creativity. A 2001 study by Harvard psychologist Deirdre Barrett found that, while problems can also be solved in full-blown dreams from later stages of sleep, hypnagogia was especially likely to solve problems which benefit from hallucinatory images being critically examined while still before the eyes.

A feature that hypnagogia shares with other stages of sleep is amnesia, but this is a selective forgetfulness, affecting the ability to remember life events, autobiographical memory, and not semantic memory, the ability to recall and use words, language, and numbers. It has been suggested that hypnagogia and REM sleep help in the consolidation of semantic memory, but the evidence for this has been disputed. In particular, suppression of REM sleep due to antidepressants and lesions to the brainstem has not been found to produce detrimental effects on cognition.

Hypnagogic phenomena may be interpreted as visions, prophecies, premonitions, apparitions and inspiration (artistic or divine), depending on the experiencers' beliefs and those of their culture.

Physiology
Physiological studies have tended to concentrate on hypnagogia in the strict sense of spontaneous sleep onset experiences. Such experiences are associated especially with stage 1 of NREM sleep, but may also occur with pre-sleep alpha waves. Davis et al. found short flashes of dreamlike imagery at the onset of sleep to correlate with drop-offs in alpha EEG activity. Hori et al. regard sleep onset hypnagogia as a state distinct from both wakefulness and sleep with unique electrophysiological, behavioral and subjective characteristics, while Germaine et al. have demonstrated a resemblance between the EEG power spectra of spontaneously occurring hypnagogic images, on the one hand, and those of both REM sleep and relaxed wakefulness, on the other.

To identify more precisely the nature of the EEG state which accompanies imagery in the transition from wakefulness to sleep, Hori et al. proposed a scheme of 9 EEG stages defined by varying proportions of alpha (stages 1–3), suppressed waves of less than 20μV (stage 4), theta ripples (stage 5), proportions of sawtooth waves (stages 6–7), and presence of spindles (stages 8–9). Germaine and Nielsen found spontaneous hypnagogic imagery to occur mainly during Hori sleep onset stages 4 (EEG flattening) and 5 (theta ripples).

The "covert-rapid-eye-movement" hypothesis proposes that hidden elements of REM sleep emerge during the wakefulness-sleep transition stage. Support for this comes from Bódicz et al., who notes a greater similarity between WST (wakefulness-sleep transition) EEG and REM sleep EEG than between the former and stage 2 sleep.

Respiratory pattern changes have also been noted in the hypnagogic state, in addition to a lowered rate of frontalis muscle activity.

Daydreaming and waking reveries
Microsleep (short episodes of immediate sleep onset) may intrude into wakefulness at any time in the wakefulness-sleep cycle, due to sleep deprivation and other conditions, resulting in impaired cognition and even amnesia.

In his book, Zen and the Brain, James H. Austin cites speculation that regular meditation develops a specialized skill of "freezing the hypnagogic process at later and later stages" of the onset of sleep, initially in the alpha wave stage and later in theta.

History
Early references to hypnagogia can be found in the writings of Aristotle, Iamblichus, Cardano, Simon Forman, and Swedenborg. Romanticism brought a renewed interest in the subjective experience of the edges of sleep. In more recent centuries, many authors have referred to the state; Edgar Allan Poe, for example, wrote of the "fancies" he experienced "only when I am on the brink of sleep, with the consciousness that I am so."

In Charles Dickens's Oliver Twist there is a pair of episodes, one that portrays the title character experiencing a hypnopompic state, which precedes the following episode, which describes him in a hypnagogic state: "There is a kind of sleep that steals upon us sometimes, which, while it holds the body prisoner, does not free the mind from a sense of things about it, and enable it to ramble at its pleasure. … It is an undoubted fact, that although our senses of touch and sight be for the time dead, yet our sleeping thoughts, and the visionary scenes that pass before us, will be influenced and materially influenced, by the mere silent presence of some external object; which may not have been near us when we closed our eyes: and of whose vicinity we have had no waking consciousness.”"

Serious scientific inquiry began in the 19th century with Johannes Peter Müller, Jules Baillarger, and Alfred Maury, and continued into the 20th century with Leroy.

Francis Galton in his The Visions of Sane Persons (1881), wrote:

 * [B]efore I thought of carefully trying, I should have emphatically declared that my field of view in the dark was essentially of a uniform black, subject to an occasional light-purple cloudiness and other small variations. Now, however, after habituating myself to examine it with the same sort of strain that one tries to decipher a sign-post in the dark, I have found out that this is by no means the case, but that a kaleidoscopic change of patterns and forms is continually going on, but they are too fugitive and elaborate for me to draw with any approach to truth.

Maria Mikhaĭlovna Manaseina wrote “that for these phenomena to attract attention a certain power of observation is required; that is why they are chiefly found in intelligent persons.” Manaseina also noted that children are more likely to take interest in them: “[M]any children are accustomed to press their heads into the pillow and adopt an attitude of expectant attention towards the visions that then begin to form…"

Havelock Ellis later recalled such a childhood interest in these visions:

 * I should myself be inclined to deny that I had ever had any such visionary faculty [for hypnagogic hallucination] if it were not that I can recall one occasion of its presence, at about the age of seven, when sleeping with a cousin of the same age; we amused ourselves by burying our heads in the pillows and watching a connected series of pictures which we were both alike able to see, each announcing any change in the picture as soon as it took place.

The advent of electroencephalography (EEG) supplemented the introspective methods of these early researchers with physiological data. The search for neural correlates for hypnagogic imagery began with Davis et al. in the 1930s, and continues with increasing sophistication. While the dominance of the behaviorist paradigm led to a decline in research, especially in the English speaking world, the later twentieth century has seen a revival, with investigations of hypnagogia and related altered states of consciousness playing an important role in the emerging multidisciplinary study of consciousness. Nevertheless, much remains to be understood about the experience and its corresponding neurology, and the topic has been somewhat neglected in comparison with sleep and dreams; hypnagogia has been described as a "well-trodden and yet unmapped territory".

Important reviews of the scientific literature have been made by Leaning, Schacter, Richardson and Mavromatis.

Research
Self-observation (spontaneous or systematic) was the primary tool of the early researchers. Since the late 20th century, this has been joined by questionnaire surveys and experimental studies. All three methods have their disadvantages as well as points to recommend them.

Naturally, amnesia contributes to the difficulty of studying hypnagogia, as does the typically fleeting nature of hypnagogic experiences. These problems have been tackled by experimenters in several ways, including voluntary or induced interruptions, sleep manipulation, the use of techniques to "hover on the edge of sleep" thereby extending the duration of the hypnagogic state, and training in the art of introspection to heighten the subject's powers of observation and attention.

Techniques for extending hypnagogia range from informal (e.g. the subject holds up one of their arms as they go to sleep, to be awakened when it falls), to the use of biofeedback devices to induce a "theta" state – produced naturally the most when we are dreaming – characterized by relaxation and theta EEG activity.

Another method is to induce a state said to be subjectively similar to sleep onset in a Ganzfeld setting, a form of sensory deprivation. But the assumption of identity between the two states may be unfounded. The average EEG spectrum in Ganzfeld is more similar to that of the relaxed waking state than to that of sleep onset. Wackerman et al. conclude that "the Ganzfeld imagery, although subjectively very similar to that at sleep onset, should not be labelled as 'hypnagogic'. Perhaps a broader category of 'hypnagogic experience' should be considered, covering true hypnagogic imagery as well as subjectively similar imagery produced in other states."

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Hypnagogia


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Fédération des travailleurs et travailleuses du Québec

The Fédération des travailleurs et travailleuses du Québec (FTQ; Quebec Federation of Labour) is the largest labour federation in Quebec in terms of its membership. It has over 500,000 members, who account for 44% of the unionised workers in Quebec. This ratio is 60% in the private sector, in which most members work. It also has many members in government agencies. It was established in 1957 through the merger of two longstanding unions: the Fédération provinciale du travail du Québec (Quebec Provincial Labour Federation) and the Fédération des unions industrielles du Québec (Federation of Quebec Industrial Unions). The organization was primarily developed under the leadership of Louis Laberge from 1964 to 1991, with support from American unions concerned about the potential relocation of industry to Canada.

The FTQ is unusual among labour unions in that it founded (in 1983) and controls a capital investment fund called "Fonds de solidarité FTQ" which it uses to collaborate with and influence industrial groups and to promote economic growth. In November 2006 its investment fund stood at more than $6.8 billion.

The FTQ endorsed the Parti Québécois for the 2007 Quebec election, but criticized their call for a new referendum.

In January 2023, Magali Picard became the first indigenous person to lead FTQ when she was elected president. She had previously been national vice-president of the Public Service Alliance of Canada before resigning in 2020 after concerns of anti-Black behaviour against PSAC employees were widely expressed by Black staff members.


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Sayaun Thunga Phulka

"Sayaun Thunga Phulka", or "Sayaun Thunga Phool Ka" (सयौँ थुँगा फूलका, ; "Made of Hundreds of Flowers"), is the national anthem of Nepal. It was officially adopted as the anthem on 3 August 2007 during a ceremony held at the conference hall of National Planning Commission, inside Singha Durbar, by the speaker of the interim parliament, Subash Chandra Nembang. The previous Nepalese national anthem, "Shriman Gambhir", had been adopted in 1962 but was dropped following the treaty of the monarchy.

The lyrics of the national anthem were penned by the poet Pradeep Kumar Rai, alias Byakul Maila. The music was composed by the late Amber Gurung. The national anthem is simply worded, praising Nepalese sovereignty, unity, courage, pride, scenic beauty, progress, peace, cultural and biological diversity and respect. In August 2016, the BBC ranked Nepal's national anthem third in its list of Rio 2016: The most amazing national anthems, citing its musical differences compared to other anthems.

History
After the unanimous decision on 19 May 2006 by the interim House of Representatives of the Kingdom of Nepal, the old national anthem was discontinued. On 30 November 2006, the National Anthem Selection Task Team selected poet Byakul Maila's song as the new national anthem of the country. The new national anthem was selected from a total of 1,272 submissions made from across the country. It was officially approved on 20 April 2007.

On 3 August 2007, "Sayaun Thunga Phulka" was officially declared as Nepal's national anthem by the House of Representatives.

The anthem's range is of an octave; having a nadir and apex of D.

Protocol
The public performance of the anthem is regulated by the law. All citizens must stand and show respect to the flag while radio and television stations shall broadcast the anthem during "startup" and "closedown".

Controversy
During the selection process, Byakul Maila was required to prove he was not a royalist and encountered difficulties when it was discovered that he had once edited a book of poetry that contained a contribution from King Gyanendra.

Some of Nepal's Maoist leaders preferred a stronger, more revolutionary anthem akin to the communist "Internationale", and even took their own CDs into the final selection meeting hoping to overturn Byakul Maila's and Amber Gurung's effort.

title: Sayaun Thunga Phulka


text:
U.S. Route 53

U.S. Route 53, or U.S. Highway 53 (U.S. 53), is a north–south U.S. highway that runs for 404 miles (650 km) from La Crosse, Wisconsin to International Falls, Minnesota. It is the primary north–south route in northwestern Wisconsin, serving as a vital link between I-94 at Eau Claire, Wisconsin and the Twin Ports of Superior, Wisconsin, and Duluth, Minnesota. The entire route from Eau Claire to the city limits of Superior is a four lane divided highway. The highway's northern terminus is at the Fort Frances–International Falls International Bridge in International Falls, Minnesota, at the Canada–US border. Its southern terminus is in La Crosse, Wisconsin, at U.S. Highway 14.

Wisconsin
U.S. Highway 53 begins at its southern terminus with a junction at U.S. 14, U.S. 61, and Wisconsin Highway 16 in downtown La Crosse. From there, U.S. 53 crosses Interstate 90 and becomes a freeway bypass of Onalaska and Holmen before proceeding north to Eau Claire as a two-lane roadway. The interchange with Interstate 94 at Eau Claire begins a freeway / expressway stretch for U.S. 53 north to the city limits of Superior. The c. 2006 freeway in Eau Claire bypasses most of the city, alleviating congestion on the original route (signed now as both Business U.S. 53 and Hastings Way). Business U.S. 53 / Hastings Way is a mix of grade-separated interchanges and at-grade intersections, and is routed through Eau Claire, passing within about 1 mi of downtown Eau Claire. Other smaller towns between Eau Claire and Superior (Minong and Solon Springs) were bypassed in a similar manner.

Wisconsin's first single-point urban interchange is found along the U.S. 53 bypass of Eau Claire, at its interchange with U.S. 12 in Altoona. This interchange received the 2005 Outstanding Highway Construction award from the Bureau of Project Development.

U.S. 53 continues as a freeway north of Eau Claire past Chippewa Falls to Rice Lake, where it then becomes an expressway with only three grade-separated interchanges (one at 28th Avenue (CTH-V) in Haugen, one at Wisconsin Highway 70 near Spooner and one at Wisconsin Highway 13, immediately southeast of Superior). U.S. 53 has a partial grade-separated interchange with U.S. 2 in the town of Amnicon, but traffic turning from U.S. 2 westbound onto U.S. 53 southbound must take a U-turn at an at-grade crossover past the interchange.

After passing through the city of Superior as a four-lane city surface street (East Second Street) for a 5 mi stretch, U.S. 53 then approaches the Saint Louis Bay. U.S. 53 then runs together with Interstate 535 and crosses the bay via the John Blatnik Bridge into Minnesota.

In 1989, the entirety of US 53 in Wisconsin was designated the Peace Memorial Highway, commemorating citizens of Wisconsin who have worked to promote international peace.

Minnesota
US 53 enters the state at the city of Duluth on the John Blatnik Bridge over the Saint Louis Bay. US 53 runs concurrently with I-535 for 2.8 mi as it enters Minnesota. I-535/US 53 has an interchange with I-35 in Duluth, known locally as the "Can of Worms"; it features a pair of left exits from I-35, a stoplight and lane drops over the I-35 bridge.

After its junction with I-35, US 53 continues through Duluth on Piedmont Avenue and Trinity Road for 3.5 mi.

US 53 then runs concurrently with State Highway 194 (MN 194) for 6 mi, from Trinity Road in Duluth to Lindahl Road in the city of Hermantown. This four-lane stretch of US 53 and MN 194 are also known as the Miller Trunk Highway in the cities of Duluth and Hermantown.

From Hermantown, the route proceeds north to the city of Virginia. The portion of the route from Duluth to Virginia is a four-lane expressway. US 53 has a junction with MN 33 at the unincorporated community of Independence. Continuing northbound, US 53 has an interchange with US 169 in Virginia. In between the US 169 and MN 135 interchanges is the Thomas Rukavina Memorial Bridge. This bridge is the tallest in the state and spans 4 lanes of freeway. Immediately north of Virginia, US 53 has an interchange with MN 169 in Wuori Township.

US 53 then proceeds northwest to International Falls, where it has a junction with US 71 and MN 11.

US 53 in Minnesota passes through Saint Louis and Koochiching counties. Legally, the Minnesota section of US 53 is defined as unmarked legislative routes 106, 11, and 315 in Minnesota Statutes §§ 161.115(37), (246), and 161.114(2). US 53 is not marked with these legislative numbers along the actual highway.

Designations

 * A portion of US 53 in Minnesota is officially designated the Voyageur Highway. The Voyageur Highway is a state designation that is also applied to various other state highways in Minnesota.
 * The portion of US 53 from the city limits of Virginia to MN 11 in International Falls was designated as Speaker Irvin N. Anderson Memorial Highway in 2009 in honor of former State House Speaker Irv Anderson.
 * The 2008 Minnesota Legislature named US 53 between Superior Street and Central Entrance in the city of Duluth as Walter F. Mondale Drive. On June 12, 2008, this section of highway (Piedmont Avenue and Trinity Road) was dedicated as Walter F. Mondale Drive in honor of the former vice president's public service.

History
U.S. Highway 53 was extended into Minnesota in 1934. When marked, it was paved from the Wisconsin border to its junction with U.S. 169 in Virginia, on a short segment between Britt and Idington, and from Cusson to the Canadian border. The segment from Virginia to Britt was paved during that year, and the remainder was paved in 1935.

A bypass around Virginia was completed in 1964 and opened to traffic that November; State Highway 135 was extended along the previous alignment through the city.

The expressway section between Duluth and Virginia was constructed by 1970, except the portion between Four Corners and Independence.

A new four-lane divided highway section of U.S. 53 in Duluth was constructed in 2004. This section of the route is known locally as Piedmont Avenue. Previously, from 1934 to 2004, this same section of U.S. 53 was a narrow two-lane roadway that had proceeded up the hill to a seven-legged intersection that had included Duluth's Skyline Parkway. Locally, this now-defunct famous intersection, had been known for 70 years by the name "Seven Corners".

A new U.S. Highway 53 interchange with State Highway 169 in Wuori Township was built in 2006.

A four-lane expressway from north of the city of Virginia to the south city limits of Cook was constructed beginning in 2009 as part of a long-range goal of providing a four-lane highway to Canada as part of the Falls-to-Falls Corridor. The first stage, from approximately County Road 307 to 0.25 miles south of County Road 652 (Goodell Road), was completed in 2009; the second stage was completed in the fall of 2013.

Relocation between Eveleth and Virginia
On May 5, 2010, Cliffs Natural Resources provided notice to the Minnesota Department of Transportation (MnDOT) that U.S. Highway 53 easement rights across the United Taconite Mine, per a 1960 agreement, would be terminated to allow for expansion of the mine. United Taconite and MnDOT negotiated an agreement to move the roadway by 2017.

There were three rerouting options proposed:

 * West – Following State Highway 37 and Saint Louis County Road 7.
 * Center – Through the Auburn Pit; on the south side of the existing route of Highway 53.
 * East – Around and across the Rouchleau Pit; on the north side of the existing route of Highway 53.

The East route was selected for the project and construction began in November 2015, with the realignment reaching completion in 2017. On September 15, the new roadway was opened, with a dedication of the bridge spanning the Rouchleau Pit. The bridge is the tallest in the state at 204 ft in height.

Falls-to-Falls Corridor
The Falls-to-Falls Corridor (officially The Falls-to-Falls Corridor—United States Route 53 from International Falls on the Minnesota/Canada border to Chippewa Falls, Wisconsin) is, by the United States federal government, a recognized trade corridor.

In the 1990s, the federal government listed the corridor as a priority for development. The primary development planned is infrastructure-related, specifically, a highway project hoped to spur economic development in northwestern Wisconsin and northeastern Minnesota by widening U.S. Highway 53 to full expressway standards from Chippewa Falls, Wisconsin to International Falls, Minnesota. Interstate Highway 535 forms the only section of the route that is part of the Interstate Highway System.

Wisconsin
With the exception of a 5 mi stretch as a four-lane city surface street (East Second Street) in the city of Superior, the entire route within Wisconsin is completed to freeway or expressway standards. On the south end of the corridor, the connection to Interstate Highway 94 is a 7.5 mi stretch through the Eau Claire-Chippewa Falls conurbation. After years of legal and political wrangling, the decision was made in the late 1990s to bypass the current route, rather than to convert the present highway to freeway standards. The northern half of this bypass, as far south as WIS 312 was opened to traffic in mid-2005. The southern half of the bypass, which includes a pair of multilane bridges over the Eau Claire River, goes mostly through Altoona and includes interchanges with WIS 312, U.S. Highway 12 and WIS 93. This project won multiple awards in 2005 and 2006. This section of the bypass was opened mid-morning on August 21, 2006.

Minnesota
Federal funding for the project in northern Minnesota was $940,000 in 2003 and nearly $600,000 in 2004. At present, with the exception of 3.5 mi stretch within the city of Duluth (Piedmont Avenue and Trinity Road), the route is completed as an expressway as far north as the city of Cook, leaving approximately 73 mi of the route to International Falls to be converted to expressway standards.

title: U.S. Route 53


text:
Spatial disorientation

Spatial disorientation is the inability to determine position or relative motion, commonly occurring during periods of challenging visibility, since vision is the dominant sense for orientation. The auditory system, vestibular system (within the inner ear), and proprioceptive system (sensory receptors located in the skin, muscles, tendons and joints) collectively work to coordinate movement with balance, and can also create illusory nonvisual sensations, resulting in spatial disorientation in the absence of strong visual cues.

In aviation, spatial disorientation can result in improper perception of the attitude of the aircraft, referring to the orientation of the aircraft relative to the horizon. If a pilot relies on this improper perception, this can result in inadvertent turning, ascending or descending. For aviators, proper recognition of aircraft attitude is most critical at night or in poor weather, when there is no visible horizon; in these conditions, aviators may determine aircraft attitude by reference to an attitude indicator. Spatial disorientation can occur in other situations where visibility is reduced, such as diving operations.

Flight safety, history, and statistics
Spatial orientation in flight is difficult to achieve because numerous sensory stimuli (visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive) vary in magnitude, direction, and frequency. Any differences or discrepancies between visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive sensory inputs result in a sensory mismatch that can produce illusions and lead to spatial disorientation. The visual sense is considered to be the largest contributor to orientation.

While testing an early turn and slip indicator devised by his friend Elmer Sperry in 1918, United States Army Air Corps pilot William Ocker entered a graveyard spiral while flying through clouds without visual references; the turn indicator showed he was in a turn, but his senses told him he was in level flight. Emerging from the clouds, Ocker was able to recover from the dive. In 1926, Ocker was subjected to a Bárány chair equilibrium test by Dr. David A. Myers at Crissy Field; the resulting duplication of the somatogyral illusion he had experienced and a subsequent re-test, which he passed using the turn indicator, led him to develop and champion instrumented flight. Sperry would go on to invent the gyrocompass and attitude indicator, both of which were being tested by 1930. With Lt. Carl Crane, Ocker published the instructional text Blind Flying in Theory and Practice in 1932. Influential advocates of instrumented flight training included Albert Hegenberger and Jimmy Doolittle.

In 1965, the Federal Aviation Agency of the United States issued Advisory Circular AC 60-4, warning pilots about the hazards of spatial disorientation, which may result from operation under visual flight rules in conditions of marginal visibility. A new version of the advisory was issued in 1983 as AC 60-4A, defining spatial disorientation as "the inability to tell which way is 'up.

Statistics show that between 5% and 10% of all general aviation accidents can be attributed to spatial disorientation, 90% of which are fatal. Spatial-D and G-force induced loss of consciousness (g-LOC) are two of the most common causes of death from human factors in military aviation. A study on the prevalence of spatial disorientation incidents concluded that "if a pilot flies long enough ... there is no chance that he/she will escape experiencing at least one episode of [spatial disorientation]. Looked at another way, pilots can be considered to be in one of two groups; those who have been disorientated, and those who will be."

Physiology
There are four physiologic systems that interact to allow humans to orient themselves in space. Vision is the dominant sense for orientation, but the vestibular system, proprioceptive system and auditory system also play a role.

Spatial orientation (the inverse being spatial disorientation, aka spatial-D) is the ability to maintain body orientation and posture in relation to the surrounding environment (physical space) at rest and during motion. Humans have evolved to maintain spatial orientation on the ground. Good spatial orientation on the ground relies on the use of visual, auditory, vestibular, and proprioceptive sensory information. Changes in linear acceleration, angular acceleration, and gravity are detected by the vestibular system and the proprioceptive receptors, and then compared in the brain with visual information.

The three-dimensional environment of flight is unfamiliar to the human body, creating sensory conflicts and illusions that make spatial orientation difficult and sometimes impossible to achieve. The result of these various visual and nonvisual illusions is spatial disorientation. Various models have been developed to yield quantitative predictions of disorientation associated with known aircraft accelerations.

The vestibular system and sensory illusions
The vestibular system detects linear and angular (rotational) acceleration using specialized organs in the inner ear. Linear accelerations are detected by the otolith organs, while angular accelerations are detected by the semicircular canals.

Misleading sensations
Without a visual reference or cues, such as a visible horizon, humans will rely on non-visual senses to establish their sense of motion and equilibrium. During the abnormal acceleratory environment of flight, the vestibular and proprioceptive systems can be misled, resulting in spatial disorientation. When an aircraft is maneuvering, inertial forces can be created by changes in vehicle speed (linear acceleration) and/or changes in direction (rotational acceleration and centrifugal force), resulting in perceptual misjudgment of the vertical, as the combined forces of gravity and inertia do not align with what the vestibular system assumes is the vertical direction of gravity (towards the center of the Earth).

Under ideal conditions, visual cues will provide sufficient information to override illusory vestibular inputs, but at night or in poor weather, visual inputs can be overwhelmed by these illusory nonvisual sensations, resulting in spatial disorientation. Low visibility flight conditions include night, over water or other monotonous/featureless terrain that blends into the sky, white-out weather, or inadvertent entry into instrument meteorological conditions after flying into fog or clouds.

For example, in an aircraft that is making a coordinated (banked) turn, no matter how steep, occupants will have little or no sensation of being tilted in the air unless the horizon is visible, as the combined forces of lift and gravity are felt as pressing the occupant into the seat without a lateral force sliding them to either side. Similarly, it is possible to gradually climb or descend without a noticeable change in pressure against the seat. In some aircraft, it is possible to execute a loop without pulling negative g-forces so that, without visual reference, the pilot could be upside down without being aware of it. A gradual change in any direction of movement may not be strong enough to activate the vestibular system, so the pilot may not realize that the aircraft is accelerating, decelerating, or banking.

Gyroscopic flight instruments such as the attitude indicator (artificial horizon) and the turn and slip indicator are designed to provide information to counteract misleading sensations from the non-visual senses.

Otoliths and somatogravic illusions
Two otolith organs, the saccule and utricle, are located in each ear and are set at right angles to each other. The utricle detects changes in linear acceleration in the horizontal plane, while the saccule detects linear accelerations in the vertical plane; humans have evolved to assume the vertical acceleration is caused by gravity. However, the saccule and utricle can provide misleading sensory perception when gravity is not limited to the vertical plane, or when vehicle speeds and accelerations result in inertial forces comparable to the force of gravity, as the otoliths only detect acceleration, and cannot distinguish inertial forces from the force of gravity. Some examples of this include the inertial forces experienced during a vertical take-off in a helicopter or following the sudden opening of a parachute after a free fall.

Illusions caused by the otolith organs are called somatogravic illusions and include the Inversion, Head-Up, and Head-Down Illusions. The Inversion Illusion results from a steep ascent followed by a sudden return to level flight; the resulting relative increase in forward speed produces an illusion the aircraft is inverted. The Head-Up and Head-Down illusions are similar, involving sudden linear acceleration (Head-Up) or deceleration (Head-Down), leading to a misperception the nose of the aircraft is pitching up (Head-Up) or down (Head-Down); the aviator could be fooled into pitching the nose down (Head-Up) or up (Head-Down) in response, leading to a crash or a stall, respectively.

Typically, the Head-Up illusion occurs during take-off, as a strong linear acceleration is used to generate lift over the wing and flaps. Without a visual reference, the pilot may assume from the vestibular system the nose has pitched up and command a dive; if this occurs during take-off, the aircraft may not have sufficient altitude to recover before crashing into the ground.

Semicircular canals and somatogyral illusions
In addition, the inner ear contains rotational accelerometers, known as the semicircular canals, which provide information to the lower brain on rotational accelerations in the pitch, roll and yaw axes. Changes in angular velocity are detected from the relative motion between the fluid in the canals and the canal itself, which is fixed to the head; because of inertia, the fluid in the canals tends to lag when the head moves, signaling a rotational acceleration. However, semicircular canal output ceases after prolonged rotation (beyond $15 s$) as the fluid has now been entrained into motion through friction, matching the motion of the head. If the rotation is then stopped, the perceived motion signal from the inner ear indicates the aviator is now turning in the opposite direction from actual travel, as the fluid continues to move while the canal has stopped. In addition, the inertia of the fluid means the detection threshold of rotational acceleration is limited to approximately 2°/sec$2$; angular accelerations below this value cannot be detected. Specific common somatogyral illusions induced by the semicircular canals are the Leans, Graveyard Spin, Graveyard Spiral, and Coriolis.

If the aircraft enters an unnoticed, prolonged turn gradually, then suddenly returns to level flight, the leans may result. The gradual turn sets the fluid into the semicircular canals into motion, and rotational acceleration of two degrees per second (or less) cannot be detected. Once the aircraft suddenly returns to level flight, the continued fluid motion gives the sensation the aircraft is banking in the opposite direction of the turn that just ended; the aviator may attempt to correct the misperception of the vertical by banking into the original turn. The leans is considered the most common form of spatial disorientation.

The graveyard spiral and graveyard spin are both caused by the acclimation of the semicircular canals to prolonged rotation; after a banked turn (in the case of the graveyard spiral) or spin (for the graveyard spin) of approximately 20 seconds, the fluid in the semicircular canals has been entrained into motion by friction, and the vestibular system no longer perceives a rotational acceleration. If the aviator then ends the turn or spin and returns to level flight, the continued motion of the fluid will cause a sensation the aircraft is turning or spinning in the opposite direction, and the pilot may re-enter the original turn or spin inadvertently; the aviator may not recognize the illusion before the aircraft loses too much altitude, resulting in a collision with terrain or the g-forces on the aircraft may exceed the structural strength of the airframe, resulting in catastrophic failure. One of the most infamous mishaps in aviation history involving the graveyard spiral is the crash involving John F. Kennedy Jr. in 1999.

Once an aircraft enters conditions under which the pilot cannot see a distinct visual horizon, the drift in the inner ear continues uncorrected. Errors in the perceived rate of turn about any axis can build up at a rate of 0.2 to 0.3 degrees per second. If the pilot is not proficient in the use of gyroscopic flight instruments, these errors will build up to a point that control of the aircraft is lost, usually in a steep, diving turn known as a graveyard spiral. During the entire time, leading up to and well into the maneuver, the pilot remains unaware of the turning, believing that the aircraft is maintaining straight flight.

In a 1954 study (180 – Degree Turn Experiment), the University of Illinois Institute of Aviation found that 19 out of 20 non-instrument-rated subject pilots went into a graveyard spiral soon after entering simulated instrument conditions. The 20th pilot also lost control of his aircraft, but in another maneuver. The average time between onset of instrument conditions and loss of control was 178 seconds.

Spatial disorientation can also affect instrument-rated pilots in certain conditions. A powerful tumbling sensation (vertigo) can result if the pilot moves his or her head too much during instrument flight. This is called the Coriolis illusion. Because the semicircular canals are set in three different axes of rotation, if the aviator suddenly moves their head during a rotational acceleration, one canal may abruptly start to detect an angular acceleration while another ceases, resulting in a tumbling sensation.

Visual illusions
Even with good visibility, misleading visual inputs such as sloping cloud decks, unfamiliar runway grades, or false horizons can also form optical illusions, resulting in the pilot misjudging the vertical orientation, aircraft speed or altitude, and/or distance and depth perception; these could even combine with nonvisual illusions from the vestibular and proprioceptive systems to produce an even more powerful illusion.

title: Spatial disorientation


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Richard Thaler

Richard H. Thaler (born September 12, 1945) is an American economist and the Charles R. Walgreen Distinguished Service Professor of Behavioral Science and Economics at the University of Chicago Booth School of Business. In 2015, Thaler was president of the American Economic Association.

Thaler is a theorist in behavioral economics who has collaborated with Daniel Kahneman, Amos Tversky, and others in further defining that field. In 2018, he was elected a member in the National Academy of Sciences.

In 2017, he was awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for his contributions to behavioral economics. In its announcement, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences stated that his "contributions have built a bridge between the economic and psychological analyses of individual decision-making. His empirical findings and theoretical insights have been instrumental in creating the new and rapidly expanding field of behavioral economics."

Personal life
Thaler was born in East Orange, New Jersey to a Jewish family. His mother, Roslyn (née Melnikoff; 1921–2008), was a teacher, and later a real estate agent while his father, Alan Maurice Thaler (1917–2004), was an actuary at the Prudential Financial in Newark, New Jersey, and was born in Toronto. He grew up with two younger brothers. His great-great-grandfather, Selig Thaler (1831–1903) was from Berezhany, Ukraine. He has three children from his first marriage and is now married to France Leclerc, a former marketing professor at the University of Chicago and avid photographer.

Education
Thaler graduated from Newark Academy, before going on to receive his B.A. degree in 1967 from Case Western Reserve University, and his M.A. in 1970 and Ph.D. degree in 1974 from the University of Rochester, writing his thesis on "The Value of Saving A Life: A Market Estimate" under the supervision of Sherwin Rosen. He also studied under departmental chair and neoclassicist Richard Rosett, whose wine-buying habits were featured in his research on behavioral economics.

Academic career
After completing his studies, Thaler began his career as a professor at the University of Rochester.

Between 1977 and 1978, Thaler spent a year at Stanford University collaborating and researching with Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky, who provided him with the theoretical framework to fit many of the economic anomalies that he had identified, such as the endowment effect.

From 1978 to 1995, he was a faculty member at the SC Johnson College of Business at Cornell University. Cornell established in 1989 the Center for Behavioral Economics and Decision Research, with Thaler as founding director.

After gathering some attention with a regular column in the respected Journal of Economic Perspectives (which ran between 1987 and 1990) and the publication of these columns by Princeton University Press (in 1992), Thaler was offered a position at the University of Chicago's Booth School of Business in 1995, where he has taught ever since.

Books
Thaler has written a number of books intended for a lay reader on the subject of behavioral economics, including Quasi-rational Economics and The Winner's Curse, the latter of which contains many of his Anomalies columns revised and adapted for a popular audience. One of his recurring themes is that market-based approaches are incomplete: he is quoted as saying, "conventional economics assumes that people are highly-rational—super-rational—and unemotional. They can calculate like a computer and have no self-control problems."

Thaler is coauthor, with Cass Sunstein, of Nudge: Improving Decisions About Health, Wealth, and Happiness (Yale University Press, 2008). Nudge discusses how public and private organizations can help people make better choices in their daily lives. "People often make poor choices—and look back at them with bafflement!" Thaler and Sunstein write. "We do this because, as human beings, we all are susceptible to a wide array of routine biases that can lead to an equally wide array of embarrassing blunders in education, personal finance, health care, mortgages and credit cards, happiness, and even the planet itself." Thaler and his co-author coined the term "choice architecture."

Thaler advocates for libertarian paternalism, which describes public and private social policies that lead people to make good and better decisions through "nudges" without depriving them of the freedom to choose or significantly changing their economic incentives. An example of this is the choice of default options in retirement savings plans. When joining the plan is made the default, roughly 90 percent of those eligible participate, much higher than if they have to actively join. However, Thaler and Sunstein argue that changing the default to agreeing to organ donation is not an effective policy for increasing organ transplants. Although the default "works" in that almost no one opts out, family members are still consulted before organs are removed, and the lack of an active opt out is (correctly) not considered a strong signal of the potential donor's true preferences. Instead they advocate "prompted choice" (ask for permission prominently) plus "first person consent" which stipulates that the wishes of active donors should be honored.

In 2015 Thaler wrote Misbehaving: The Making of Behavioral Economics, a history of the development of behavioral economics, "part memoir, part attack on a breed of economist who dominated the academy—particularly, the Chicago School that dominated economic theory at the University of Chicago—for much of the latter part of the 20th century."

Other writings
Thaler gained some attention in the field of mainstream economics for publishing a regular column in the Journal of Economic Perspectives from 1987 to 1990 titled Anomalies, in which he documented individual instances of economic behavior that seemed to violate traditional microeconomic theory.

In a 2008 paper, Thaler and colleagues analyzed the choices of contestants appearing in the popular TV game show Deal or No Deal and found support for behavioralists' claims of path-dependent risk attitudes. He has also studied cooperation and bargaining in the UK game shows Golden Balls and Divided.

As a columnist for The New York Times News Service, Thaler has begun a series of economic solutions for some of America's financial woes, beginning with "Selling parts of the radio spectrum could help pare US deficit," with references to Thomas Hazlett's ideas for reform of the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and making television broadcast frequency available for improving wireless technology, reducing costs, and generating revenue for the US government.

Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics
Thaler was the 2017 recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics for "incorporat[ing] psychologically realistic assumptions into analyses of economic decision-making. By exploring the consequences of limited rationality, social preferences, and lack of self-control, he has shown how these human traits systematically affect individual decisions as well as market outcomes."

"Given the lag between when work is done and when the Nobel Prize is awarded in economics, it would be accurate to say that the prize was largely given for work I did in my Cornell years," Thaler said.

Immediately following the announcement of the 2017 prize, Professor Peter Gärdenfors, Member of the Economic Sciences Prize Committee, said in an interview that Thaler had "made economics more human".

After learning that he had won the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics, Thaler said that his most important contribution to economics "was the recognition that economic agents are human, and that economic models have to incorporate that." In a nod to the sometimes-unreasonable behavior he has studied so extensively, he also joked that he intended to spend the prize money "as irrationally as possible."

Paul Krugman, the 2008 winner of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics, tweeted "Yes! Behavorial econ is the best thing to happen to the field in generations, and Thaler showed the way." However, Thaler's selection was not met with universal acclaim; Robert Shiller (one of the 2013 laureates and a fellow behavioral economist) noted that there are some economists who still view Thaler's incorporation of a psychological perspective within an economics framework as a dubious proposition. In addition, an article in The Economist simultaneously praised Thaler and his fellow behavioral colleagues while bemoaning the practical difficulties that have resulted from causing "economists as a whole to back away a bit from grand theorising, and to focus more on empirical work and specific policy questions."

In chronicling Thaler's path to Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics laureate, John Cassidy notes that although Thaler's "nudge" theory may not overcome every shortcoming of traditional economics, it has at least grappled with them "in ways that have yielded important insights in areas ranging from finance to international development".

Other honors and awards
In addition to earning the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, Thaler holds many other honors and awards. He is a member of the National Academy of Science, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, a Fellow of the American Finance Association, and more.

Behavioral finance and other applications in policy
Thaler also is the founder of an asset management firm, Fuller & Thaler Asset Management, which believes that investors will capitalize on cognitive biases such as the endowment effect, loss aversion and status quo bias. Since 1999, he has been the Principal of the firm, which he co-founded in 1993 with Russell Fuller. Fuller said of his co-founder that Thaler has changed the economics profession in that "[h]e doesn't write papers that are full of math. He writes papers that are full of common sense."

Thaler served with Robert Shiller as the co-director of the National Bureau of Economic Research Behavioral Economics Project for three decades.

Thaler was also involved in the establishment of the Behavioural Insights Team, which was originally part of the British Government's Cabinet Office but is now a limited company.

Thaler made a cameo appearance as himself in the 2015 movie The Big Short, which was about the credit and housing bubble collapse that led to the 2008 global financial crisis. During one of the film's expository scenes, he helped pop star Selena Gomez explain the 'hot hand fallacy,' in which people believe that whatever is happening now will continue to happen in the future. As a consequence of his appearance in the film, Thaler has an Erdős–Bacon number of 5.

Books

 * Thaler, Richard H. 1992. The Winner's Curse: Paradoxes and Anomalies of Economic Life. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01934-7.
 * Thaler, Richard H. 1993. Advances in Behavioral Finance. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. ISBN 0-87154-844-5.
 * Thaler, Richard H. 1994. Quasi Rational Economics. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. ISBN 0-87154-847-X.
 * Thaler, Richard H. 2005. Advances in Behavioral Finance, Volume II (Roundtable Series in Behavioral Economics). Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-12175-3.
 * Thaler, Richard H., and Cass Sunstein. 2009 (updated edition). Nudge: Improving Decisions About Health, Wealth, and Happiness. New York: Penguin. ISBN 0-14-311526-X.
 * Thaler, Richard H. 2015. Misbehaving: The Making of Behavioral Economics. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-08094-0.

Published papers
Thaler has published over 90 papers in various sources, namely finance, business, and economic journals. Some of his most cited and influential papers are listed below.

 * Kahneman, D., Knetsch, J.L. and Thaler, R.H., 1991. Anomalies: The Endowment Effect, Loss Aversion, and Status Quo Bias. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 5(1), pp. 193–206.
 * Benartzi, S. and Thaler, R.H., 1995. Myopic Loss Aversion and the Equity Premium Puzzle. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 110(1), pp. 73–92.
 * Thaler, R., 1980. Toward a Positive Theory of Consumer Choice. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 1(1), pp. 39–60.
 * Kahneman, D., Knetsch, J.L. and Thaler, R.H., 1990. Experimental Tests of the Endowment Effect and the Coase Theorem. Journal of Political Economy, 98(6), pp. 1325–1348.
 * De Bondt, W.F. and Thaler, R., 1985. Does the Stock Market Overreact?. The Journal of Finance, 40(3), pp. 793–805.
 * Barberis, N. and Thaler, R., 2003. A Survey of Behavioral Finance. Handbook of the Economics of Finance, 1, pp. 1053–1128.
 * Thaler, R., 1985. Mental Accounting and Consumer Choice. Marketing Science, 4(3), pp. 199–214.

title: Richard Thaler


text:
Heinrich Hollreiser

Heinrich Hollreiser (24 June 1913 – 24 July 2006) was a German conductor.

Born in Munich, he attended the State Academy of Music there and went on to serve as the conductor at the opera houses in Wiesbaden, Darmstadt, Mannheim, and Duisburg. From 1942-1945, he served as the principal conductor of the Bavarian State Opera, while serving as the music director at the Opera in Düsseldorf. From 1945-1951, he conducted concerts for the Berlin Philharmonic and Bamberg Symphony Orchestra, as well for the Hamburg, Cologne, and Frankfurt Radio Symphony Orchestras. He also made several guest appearances in Madrid and Barcelona. After 1951, he served as principal conductor of the Vienna State Opera, conducting the Austrian premiere of Stravinsky's The Rake's Progress.

In one of his recordings with the Bamberg Symphony Orchestra, he is credited as "George Richter".

title: Heinrich Hollreiser


text:
CSQ

CSQ may refer to:
 * Centrale des syndicats du Québec, a Canadian trade union
 * Conseil de la Souveraineté du Québec, a nonpartisan association for independence of Quebec, now renamed to Organisations unies pour l'indépendance (OUI).
 * Conservatory String Quartet, a Canadian string quartet
 * The airport code for Creston Municipal Airport
 * The ISO 639-3 code for Croatian Sign Language

title: CSQ


text:
User talk:64.12.117.10

Nomination of List of Pennsylvania locations by per capita income for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether the article List of Pennsylvania locations by per capita income is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.

The article will be discussed at Articles for deletion/List of Pennsylvania locations by per capita income until a consensus is reached, and anyone, including you, is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on high-quality evidence and our policies and guidelines.

Users may edit the article during the discussion, including to improve the article to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the article-for-deletion notice from the top of the article. Cardiffbear88 (talk) 21:28, 2 March 2020 (UTC)

title: User talk:64.12.117.10


text:
FB Glauberyt

The PM-84 Glauberyt is a Polish submachine gun. It is a personal weapon intended for combat and self-defence at ranges up to 150 m with single shot or fully automatic fire mode. It features a compact design, minimum overall dimensions, small weight, very good accuracy, and fire stability. It is designed for heavy weapons platoons personnel and reconnaissance detachments, special anti-terrorist and police troops.

In service with the Polish military and police it replaced the earlier PM-63 RAK submachine gun.

Operation

The Glauberyt is a select-fire, straight blowback-operated firearm that fires from the closed bolt position. Its design influence can be seen to mimic the Uzi. However it features a last shot bolt hold open/release like modern service pistols unlike any other submachine guns of its time. The PM-84/PM-84P also features ambidextrous charging handles on both sides (influenced by the vz.61 Škorpion). A two-bar retractable buttstock tucks right into the side of the weapon. The magazine release is in the heel of the pistol grip. The Glauberyt feeds from 15-round flush magazines and 25-round extended magazines. Fire selector Z = SAFE, P = SEMI, C = FULL AUTO, and sits above rear of the pistol grip. When the firearm is on SAFE, the bolt is locked and prevented from moving. A folding fore grip rests in front of the trigger guard (in the style of the PM-63 RAK), and an optional tactical flashlight/laser grip can also be mounted, replacing the folding fore grip.

Modern PM-98/PM-06 variants utilize a thumb magazine release. A new slot in the magazine is required to be cut out to work in the later Glauberyts.

Variants

 * PM-84: Original 9×18mm Makarov model, replacing PM-63 RAK service.
 * PM-84P: 9×19mm Parabellum model, 1993 production onwards.
 * PM-98: Model onwards, has the magazine release relocated to the thumb position, the charging handle is redesigned to be on the left side only, a more robust receiver and retractable butt stock, enlarged trigger guard for winter gloves, optional light/laser foregrip.
 * PM-98S: Special model where rate of fire increased to 770 rounds per minute in full auto.
 * PM-06: Features a new 3 position telescopic butt stock that pulls out straight, a see through MIL-STD-1913 top rail to facilitate optical reflex sights, hooded front sight.
 * PM96S: Civilian semi-automatic only model of the PM84P
 * BRS-99: Civilian semi-automatic only model of the Glauberyt.

Users

 * 🇮🇩 Indonesia: Indonesian police use PM-98.
 * 🇮🇶 Iraq: 6,000 PM-98s were sold to Iraq in mid-2000.
 * 🇱🇹 Lithuania: 10 PM-84P in use by Lithuanian Army.
 * 🇵🇭 Philippines: Philippine police use PM-98.
 * 🇵🇱 Poland: Around 50,000 PM-84P, PM-98 and PM-06 are used in Polish Armed Forces, Military Gendarmerie and Policja.

title: FB Glauberyt


text:
U.S. Route 54

U.S. Route 54 (US 54) is an east–west United States Highway that runs northeast–southwest for 1,197 mi from El Paso, Texas, to Griggsville, Illinois. The Union Pacific Railroad's Tucumcari Line (former Southern Pacific and Rock Island Lines "Golden State Route") runs parallel to US 54 from El Paso to Pratt, Kansas, which comprises about two-thirds of the route. Truckers refer to this road as "The Bee Line."

The highway's western (and southern) terminus is in the city of El Paso, near the Mexican border and the eastern terminus is at Interstate 72 (I-72) in Griggsville.

Route description

 * TX (El Paso)
 * 20 mi
 * NM
 * 355 mi
 * TX (Panhandle)
 * 92 mi
 * OK
 * 56 mi
 * KS
 * 380 mi
 * MO
 * 279 mi
 * IL
 * 24 mi
 * Total
 * 1206 mi
 * }
 * 279 mi
 * IL
 * 24 mi
 * Total
 * 1206 mi
 * }
 * 1206 mi
 * }

Texas (El Paso)
US 54 begins in El Paso at Loop 375 downtown (US 54/Patriot Freeway). The highway serves as a major freeway for the Metro area's network, running north–south along the city's eastern slope of the Franklin Mountains range. The highway runs through the city for approximately 20 mi before reaching the New Mexico state line. Within the network, it is a military connector for Fort Bliss and Holloman Air Force Base.

New Mexico

US 54 enters New Mexico in Chaparral as part of the El Paso, Texas Metro area network. It also serves as a military highway to connect Fort Bliss in El Paso to Holloman Air Force Base in Alamogordo, New Mexico (via U.S. Route 70). The speed limit is 75 mph on the divided highway section upon entering the state to approximately 10 mi south of Alamogordo, with a 35 mph zone in Orogrande. Upon entering Alamogordo, US 54 becomes concurrent with U.S. Route 70. US 54/US 70 then intersects the beginning of U.S. Route 82 at the north end of Alamogordo (near La Luz). The limit is 60 mph from Alamogordo to Tularosa and 55 mph north of Tularosa, where the concurrency with US 70 ends, and the highway reverts to being two lanes wide and not divided. The highway runs north through the central portion of the state, passing through Carrizozo and intersecting U.S. Route 380. The route then turns northeast before passing through Vaughn. Upon entering Vaughn, the route is briefly concurrent with U.S. Route 60 and U.S. Route 285. In Vaughn, US 285 splits off to the south. Exiting Vaughn, US 60 splits off to the southeast, and the route continues northeast to Santa Rosa where it becomes concurrent with Interstate 40. The I-40 concurrency lasts for 59 mi to Tucumcari. The highway then exits the state back into Texas at Nara Visa. The highway runs for 354 mi in New Mexico, and is signed as a north–south route through the state.

Texas (Panhandle)
The highway re-enters the Texas Panhandle just beyond Nara Visa, New Mexico, and continues northeast for 92 mi to the Oklahoma border. Major Texas cities along US 54 in the panhandle are Dalhart and Stratford.

Oklahoma
US-54 runs through the Oklahoma Panhandle from southwest to northeast. It enters at Texhoma, then continues northeast through Goodwell before entering Guymon. In Guymon, it intersects US-412 and begins a concurrency with US-64. It goes northeast through Optima and Hooker, where US-64 turns east. After going northeast through Tyrone, it enters Kansas just before entering Liberal, Kansas.

Kansas
US 54 enters the state from Oklahoma in Seward County, and travels through the cities of Liberal and Plains, where it runs concurrently with US 160 in Meade County. Just east of the city of Meade, US 54 splits from US 160 and continues in a northeasterly direction through Meade and Ford counties before beginning a long concurrency with US 400 in Mullinville in Kiowa County.

The highway then travels through the town of Greensburg and continues as a two-lane road through Pratt, Cunningham, and Kingman. At Pratt, the Union Pacific railroad tracks which paralleled the highway for over 600 mi from El Paso turn to the northeast (towards Topeka) and leave US 54. The road becomes a divided highway in eastern Kingman County. From Kingman to Garden Plain in Sedgwick County it is a freeway but becomes an at-grade expressway as it passes through Goddard and approaches Wichita.

The freeway resumes as the road crosses the city limits of Wichita near Wichita Dwight D. Eisenhower National Airport. In Wichita, US 54/US 400 is known as Kellogg Avenue, and has junctions with I-235, I-135 and I-35, the Kansas Turnpike, before a junction with K-96. The Kellogg Avenue freeway has six lanes and extends 15 mi from 111th Street on the west side of Wichita to Zelta just after the I-35/Kansas Turnpike interchange on the east side. Upgrading of Kellogg Avenue from a surface arterial to a freeway has been underway since the mid-1980s, with the latest interchange project opening in late 2019. The road gets its name from Milo Bailey Kellogg, a shopkeeper and Civil War veteran who was the city's first civilian postmaster in 1870.

The concurrency of US 54 and US 400 continues through Augusta in Butler County before US 400 heads east toward the Missouri state line, while US 54 forms a brief concurrency with US 77 through El Dorado. At El Dorado, US 54 continues its easterly course through rural areas in Greenwood and Woodson counties before passing through the cities of Iola and Fort Scott; US 77 heads north to Junction City. US 54 exits Kansas in Bourbon County before reaching Nevada, Missouri.

Missouri
In Missouri, US 54 runs from the southwest portion of the state to the northeast. It is a major conduit through the Ozarks and is the primary access road to Pomme de Terre Lake and Lake of the Ozarks. After entering the state it passes through Nevada, El Dorado Springs, Hermitage, crossing Lake of the Ozarks the first time just north of Ha Ha Tonka State Park. It passes through Camdenton and crosses the lake a second time on the Grand Glaize Bridge at Osage Beach before bypassing Eldon and going through Jefferson City, where it crosses the Missouri River via the Jefferson City Bridge and briefly overlaps U.S. Route 63. Just north of the bridge, it splits passing through Fulton, crossing Interstate 70 at Kingdom City, bypassing Mexico, sharing a concurrency with Highway 19 through Laddonia, passing just north of Vandalia, and ultimately crossing the Mississippi River via the Champ Clark Bridge into Illinois at Louisiana.

Illinois
In the state of Illinois, U.S. 54 runs from the Champ Clark Bridge over the Mississippi River to its terminus at Interstate 72 northeast near Griggsville. Before the eastern terminus was cut back to I-72, U.S. 54 continued northeast via several existing roads, including the current Illinois Route 54, Illinois Route 50, and Governors' Highway, into downtown Chicago, where it ended at Michigan Avenue and Lake Shore Drive. It is a rural, two-lane surface street for its entire length in Illinois. In the state of Illinois, U.S. 54 is 23.96 mi long.

Illinois
Initially, US 54 ended at the junction of present-day IL 106 (former portion of US 36). In 1935, it replaced a portion of IL 107 between Louisiana, Missouri and New Hartford, Illinois. From 1942 to 1971, US 54 reached downtown Chicago. It then got truncated back to its previous northern terminus. This was in favor of portions of US 36, Illinois Route 54, US 45, Illinois Route 50, Governors Highway, Wood Street, 127th Street, Halsted Street, Vincennes Avenue, State Street, and Michigan Avenue. The four-lane section of U.S. 36 northeast of Pittsfield now also carries Interstate 72 east to Springfield. As of 1992, US 54 was extended northeast to US 36 and present-day I-72 (exit 35). That same year, the section of road that once carried Illinois Route 54 through Springfield is no longer designated as a numbered highway. Now Illinois Route 54 starts at the Interstate 55 exit and goes northeast to Onarga, where it ends at U.S. Route 45. US 54 once joined with US 45 to Kankakee, but that highway is now designated as US 45 alone to Gilman, then US 45 and US 24 through Gilman, then US 45 alone again until a four-way intersection with U.S. Route 52 and Illinois Route 49, and US 45 and US 52 through Kankakee. Between Kankakee and Monee, the section that once carried US 54 is now marked as Illinois Route 50.

Major intersections

 * Texas
 * in El Paso
 * in El Paso
 * in El Paso
 * in El Paso

 * New Mexico
 * in Alamogordo. The highways travel concurrently to Tularosa.
 * in Alamogordo
 * in Carrizozo
 * southwest of Vaughn. The highways travel concurrently to southeast of Vaughn.
 * in Santa Rosa. The highways travel concurrently through the city.
 * in Santa Rosa. I-40/US 54 travels concurrently to Tucumcari.
 * in Santa Rosa

 * Texas
 * in Dalhart
 * in Stratford

 * Oklahoma
 * in Guymon. The highways travel concurrently through the city.
 * in Guymon. The highways travel concurrently to Hooker.

 * Kansas
 * in Liberal
 * east of Plains. The highways travel concurrently to east of Meade.
 * in Minneola
 * east of Mullinville. The highways travel concurrently to Pickrell Corner.
 * west of Greensburg
 * in Pratt
 * in Wichita
 * in Wichita
 * in Wichita
 * in Augusta. The highways travel concurrently to El Dorado.
 * in Yates Center
 * east of Iola
 * in Moran
 * north of Fort Scott. The highways travel concurrently to Fort Scott.

 * Missouri
 * in Nevada
 * in Preston
 * in Jefferson City. US 54/US 63 travels concurrently through the city.
 * in Kingdom City
 * north of Bowling Green

 * Illinois
 * in Griggsville Township
 * in Griggsville Township

Related route

 * U.S. Highway 154

title: U.S. Route 54


text:
Wikipedia talk:Requests for arbitration/Lance6wins

I am unclear on how Lance is doing on WP now, but my impression is that he was sincere in engaging Wikien for counsel, and responsive to the points raised there. I and others discussed with him at length the issue of POV terms, and some of us expressed a conclusion that problems with the use of particular terms are a more general issue. Lance must account for his specific actions, but could be dealt with as a matter of general policy; added to WP:NPOV pov, under a treatment of terms and their acceptable use, in proper context. Terms like murder and terrorist have a proper place for describing the POV interpretations of events, but cant be considered NPOV for general usage. -SV 23:53, 9 Aug 2004 (UTC)


text:
User talk:Valmi/2004

 * Comments and questions answered on respective user's talk page
 * Untitled new topics will have title assigned

Hello there Valmi, welcome to Wikipedia! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. If you ever need editing help visit How does one edit a page and experiment at Sandbox. If you need pointers on how we title pages visit Naming conventions. If you have any other questions about the project then check out Help or add a question to the Village pump. (This because nobody ever spoke to me since I joined WikiPedia in June.) Valmi Dufour 23:54, 9 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Zazie
Hi. I just saw the request for page protection. Zazie is now protected. 172 03:16, 15 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Hajor
Thanks for taking the time to stop by my page and say 'Hi'. I hadn't realised we'd both worked on Zazie (the metro girl, not the German artist) and Mafalda, but I'll keep my eyes open on the history listings, see if we coincide again. Cheers, –Hajor 02:51, 19 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Quebec French
Hi! I really do love the French language. I also like the way you reorganised things on the Quebec French page. It's much better now. JulieADriver 15:51, 20 Aug 2004 (UTC)

État québécois
Merci de ton ajout de Act respecting the exercise of the fundamental rights and prerogatives of the Québec people and the Québec State à l'article État québécois. C'est fort pertinent: cela représente tout à fait l'essence de l'expression. Je songeais d'ailleurs me taper un jour la tâche d'écrire quelque chose au sujet de cette loi. As-tu l'intention de t'y affairer, pour ton compte? --Liberlogos 00:08, 2 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * A moins que je ne me trompe, la loi sur l'exercice des droits fondamentaux et des prérogatives du peuple québécois et de l'État du Québec, présenté a l'Assemblée nationale par Joseph Facal est morte au feuilleton. La loi n'a donc jamais quitté le state de projet de loi. Il est donc faux d'affirmer que la loi a été adoptée (passed en anglais). -- Mathieugp 04:07, 25 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * Merci de m'avoir repondu. Le lien que tu m'as envoyé confirme que la loi numéro 99 a été adopté comme projet de loi. D'ailleurs, cette section du site de l'Assemblée nationale s'intitule "Rapport sur l'état des projets de loi". Dans le jargon politique, on peut dire "la loi 99 a été adopté en projet de loi" meme si ca parait un peu con.

 * Si ma mémoire est bonne, le PQ voulait que la loi soit voté avec l'appui de l'opposition. Les libéraux de Charest on affirmé qu'il ne pouvait soutenir la loi. Ils ont fait de recommendations de modification. Le PQ a modifié la loi et est revenue avec un projet de loi modifié pour les libéraux. Les libéraux ont encore une fois trouvé a redire et le gouvernement de Bouchard a cessé d'en parler par la suite.

 * J'ai le lien vers un lien qui en parle un peu :

http://www.cric.ca/fr_html/guide/clarity/clarity_act.html#qc_clarte

 * Il faut cependant faire attention car le CRIC est un gros organe de propagande pro-Canada financer par nos taxes.

-- Mathieugp 12:39, 25 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * Tel que je pensais, le CRIC ne dit pas la fin de l'histoire. Le projet de loi a finalement été adopté, mais sans plus. Il n'a pas été sanctionné et n'a donc pas force de loi. -- Mathieugp 12:45, 25 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * C'est une bonne question. Peut-être que je me gourre complètement. Sur le site de l'Assemblée nationale, on voit « Mode d'entrée en vigueur: par décret du gouvernement ». Peut-être qu'une fois adopté, le projet de loi devient loi tout simplement. Ça serait logique. Je me rappelle pourtant qu'il y ait eu déception chez les souverainistes quelques temps après l'adoption du projet de loi. Il y a quelque chose que l'on espérait voir arrivé et ce n'est pas arrivé. Enfin, je continue à lire pour éclaircir tout ça. Il y a un dossier complet là-dessus dans Vigile à cette adresse : http://www.vigile.net/ds-souv/index-99.html ) . -- Mathieugp 20:55, 26 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Mons veneris
Thank you very much for this information! Best wishes! Hanno

Plagiarism?
I thought people who took stuff from wikipedia needed to give it credit. I didn't see that on the source I cited on the Dictionary talk page. I'm not sure where I ought to post my observation. Are you telling me it's agreed that that dictionary sources its material from wikipedia, or are they contravening the GNU licence? Matt Stan 11:24, 24 Sep 2004 (UTC)

Laisser passer
I do not quite recall my studies of the past participle agreement when around an infinitive (it was at least 3 years ago!), but I do seem to recall a complex set of rules to determine the variability or invariability: some verbs always had invariable participle following them, some only in specific circumstances, and there was a whole mishmash of rules just around "laisser". I should check in a Bécherelle, but I do not recall that particular section of French grammar with fondness --Circeus 16:08, 5 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Persistence
Il ne faut pas tenir compte seulement du nombre d'éditions ou même de lectures faites d'un de "nos" article sur les serveurs Wikipedia. Au fil des mois les articles sont copiés (légalement) par d'autres compagnies (qui ne chargent de $ aux lecteurs mais qui ont des annonces qui leur rapportent $$) avec des serveurs encore plus puissants et aussi par des gens qui mettent le tout sur leurs DVD, etc. etc.. Donc il y a beaucoup de lecture "externe" invisible. Quand on fait ou qu'on contribue à un article de plus qu'un ou deux paragraphes et que cet article a plusieurs liens y menant on est certain d'être lu à plusieurs reprises au fil des ans. --AlainV 00:11, 21 Oct 2004 (UTC)

PHPWiki <-> Mediawiki conversion script
Thank you for your generous offer to write a script for converting between PHPWiki and Mediawiki. Unfortunately (for me, at least), I don't know of anyplace where each one's rules are spelled out (besides in their respective "How to Edit" pages)...There are quite a few items too, so I presume it would not be very straightforward... Thanks very much, anyhow... [[User:Brettz9|Brettz9 (talk)]] 01:21, 23 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Hello there! I was thinking of trying to adapt your phpwiki -> mediawiki script. I'll keep you posted! Thanks. -- RyanFreisling @ 08:02, 17 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Re:poutine
Ah, I see, so I should have said "Rv compliment (...)". Anyway, I hope I haven't insulted any fans of poutine :) -- Sietse 16:30, 28 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Happy Birthday!
Happy (belated) birthday, Valmi! Best wishes. --Whosyourjudas (talk) 03:06, 26 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Article Licensing
Hi, I've started a drive to get users to multi-license all of their contributions that they've made to either (1) all U.S. state, county, and city articles or (2) all articles, using the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike (CC-by-sa) v1.0 and v2.0 Licenses or into the public domain if they prefer. The CC-by-sa license is a true free documentation license that is similar to Wikipedia's license, the GFDL, but it allows other projects, such as WikiTravel, to use our articles. Since you are among the top 2000 Wikipedians by edits, I was wondering if you would be willing to multi-license all of your contributions or at minimum those on the geographic articles. Over 90% of people asked have agreed. For More Information:
 * Multi-Licensing FAQ - Lots of questions answered
 * Multi-Licensing Guide
 * Free the Rambot Articles Project

To allow us to track those users who muli-license their contributions, many users copy and paste the " " template into their user page, but there are other options at Template messages/User namespace. The following examples could also copied and pasted into your user page:

 * Option 1
 * I agree to multi-license all my contributions, with the exception of my user pages, as described below:

OR
 * Option 2
 * I agree to multi-license all my contributions to any U.S. state, county, or city article as described below:

Or if you wanted to place your work into the public domain, you could replace " " with "  ". If you only prefer using the GFDL, I would like to know that too. Please let me know what you think at my talk page. It's important to know either way so no one keeps asking. -- Ram-Man (comment| talk)

title: User talk:Valmi/2004


text:
Sudanese kinship

Sudanese kinship, also referred to as the descriptive system, is a kinship system used to define family. Identified by Lewis Henry Morgan in his 1871 work Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family, the Sudanese system is one of the six major kinship systems (Eskimo, Hawaiian, Iroquois, Crow, Omaha and Sudanese).

The Sudanese kinship system is the most complicated of all kinship systems. It maintains a separate designation for almost every one of Ego's kin, based on their distance from Ego, their relation, and their gender. Ego's father is distinguished from Ego's father's brother and from Ego's mother's brother. Ego's mother is similarly distinguished from Ego's mother's sister and from Ego's father's sister. For cousins, there are eight possible terms.

Usage
The system is named after the peoples of South Sudan. The Sudanese kinship system also existed in ancient Latin-speaking and Anglo-Saxon cultures. It exists today among present-day Arab, Turkish, and Chinese cultures. It tends to co-occur with patrilineal descent, and it is often said to be common in complex and stratified cultures.

Variants
Balkan kinships such as Bulgarian, Serbian, and Bosniak follow this system for different patrilinear and matrilinear uncles but collapse mother's sister and father's sister into the same term of "aunt" and Croatian and Macedonian further collapse the offspring of the uncles into one term.

Similarly, Finnish kinship terms separate patrilinear and matrilinear uncles but not aunts, while making no distinctions between first cousins but giving a separate term for second cousins. Further distinctions (some much more common than others) can be made between a patrilinear or matrilinear grandson/granddaughter, niece/nephew, grandfather/grandmother and others, by using compound words. An interesting feature is the presence of many unique words originating from Proto-Uralic and Germanic languages to describe affinal kinships such as, but not limited to, the brother of a spouse (lanko), mother-in-law (anoppi) or even the husband of a daughter (vävy).

On the opposite side, Chinese adds an additional dimension of relative age. Ego's older siblings are distinguished from younger, as are those of Ego's parents. One must specify whether older (e.g. Mandarin 哥哥 gēge) or younger (e.g. Mandarin 弟弟 dìdi). Similarly, a term for "uncle" or (in at least in some varieties of Chinese, including Mandarin) even "father's brother" does not exist without circumlocution; the speaker must either specify "father's older brother" (e.g. Mandarin 伯伯 bóbo) or "father's younger brother" (e.g. Mandarin 叔叔 shūshu). This does not apply to maternal uncles.

title: Sudanese kinship


text:
Talk:Hypnopompic state

Written another article as hypnopompia which has superceded this one. Placed a redirect. Any objections?

Original text:

The hypnopompic state is a state of transition in semiconsciousness between sleep and awakeness, and may be a form of sleep paralysis. Some experience visual and/or auditory hallucinations. Out of Body experiences may occur.

The term hypnopompic dream also is often heard.

See also hypnagogic state, a similar state between wake and sleep.

title: Talk:Hypnopompic state


text:
Talk:Hypnagogic state

Superseded
Written another article as hypnogogia which has superseded this one. Placed a redirect. Any objections?

Original text:

The hypnagogic state is a state of transition in semiconsciousness between being awake and being asleep, and can be a setting for sleep paralysis. Some experience visual and/or auditory hallucinations. Out-of-body experiences may be experienced.

See also hypnopompic state, a similar state between sleep and awakeness.

title: Talk:Hypnagogic state


text:
Talk:Apology Dance

This page was listed on Votes for deletion, and the consensus was to merge into Doctor Zoidberg and redirect: see Votes for deletion/Apology Dance

title: Talk:Apology Dance


text:
User talk:John doe~enwiki

65.182.16.88 02:11, 24 January 2007 (UTC)i am john! i am a nice man! i enjoy sports and long walks on the beach. Hello John i'm Ian Gjertson and i'm Just learning Just like you and i was wondering if you can come to my paige to do that tipe in the Search bar.... user talk:Ian Gjertson. :) I am trying to contact someone from Continental Can Co.

Bashiir Nuur Siciid
wuxuu ku dhashay Tuulada Yoocaale ee degmada Awaare ee Gobolka Dhagaxuur, sanadku markuu ahaa 1978kii, wuxuuna wax ku bartay magaalooyinka Yoocaale, Awaare, iyo Dhagaxbuur. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by Mowlid Maxamed (talk • contribs) 16:27, 21 January 2007 (UTC).

Bashiir Nuur Siciid
wuxuu ku dhashay Tuulada Yoocaale ee degmada Awaare ee Gobolka Dhagaxuur, sanadku markuu ahaa 1978kii, wuxuuna wax ku bartay magaalooyinka Yoocaale, Awaare, iyo Dhagaxbuur."Mowlid Maxamed 16:28, 21 January 2007 (UTC)"

Qaroofa
Gudoomiyaha Degmada Xadhaadhoowe, Mr. Qaroofa Qaruufa Qariifa ayaa maanta shir la yeeshay gudoomiyaha google ee is xidhay hada "Mowlid Maxamed 21:21, 21 January 2007 (UTC)"

my scene
can we please stay the my scene article like that?, or you will be fire.

Treason
School project: were there any women convicted and executed for treason? Thanks. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by Cindyabs (talk • contribs) 02:56, 25 January 2007 (UTC).

Please include on, List of blogging terms, page: Blogee - surfer of Blog(s), analogous to a relationship between "employer" and "employee". ("Blogger" is already listed there and "Blog" is discussed on the introductory page. Regards Roy Conner

bibliography entry?
''' I was just wondering how you write a bibliography entry for Wikipedia. Please answer back and Thank you!209.244.30.171 17:04, 4 February 2007 (UTC) '''

hey
hey please help me i dont really understand how to do my page!!! please help me! Hello John i'm Ian Gjertson and I'm Just learning to Whant to come to my page So we can chat to do that tipe in the Search bar and tipe Usertalk:Ian Gjertson

Record Deal
how do i get a record deal? can someone please help me? User talk: juggalohomie4life07

Block this example user account
admin help This example user account should be blocked indefinately with the following rationale: example user with no real use, and a bad username if this were a real user Thanks! -- Jab7842 (talk) 19:15, 11 December 2011 (UTC)
 * I'm going to act like the intention of this was to demonstrate how not to use the admin help template. m.o.p  19:35, 11 December 2011 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called John doe. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name John doe~enwiki that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name. If you think you might own all of the accounts with this name and this message is in error, please visit Special:MergeAccount to check and attach all of your accounts to prevent them from being renamed.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 00:44, 20 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 14:32, 22 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:John doe~enwiki