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Toxocariasis

Toxocariasis is an illness of humans caused by the dog roundworm (Toxocara canis) and, less frequently, the cat roundworm (Toxocara cati). These are the most common intestinal roundworms of dogs, coyotes, wolves and foxes and domestic cats, respectively. Humans are among the many "accidental" or paratenic hosts of these roundworms.

While this zoonotic infection is usually asymptomatic, it may cause severe disease. There are three distinct syndromes of toxocariasis: covert toxocariasis is a relatively mild illness very similar to Löffler's syndrome. It is characterized by fever, eosinophilia, urticaria, enlarged lymph nodes, cough, bronchospasm, wheezing, abdominal pain, headaches, and/or hepatosplenomegaly. Visceral larva migrans (VLM) is a more severe form of the disease; signs and symptoms depend on the specific organ system(s) involved. Lung involvement may manifest as shortness of breath, interstitial lung disease, pleural effusion, and even respiratory failure. Brain involvement may manifest as meningitis, encephalitis, or epileptic seizures. Cardiac involvement may manifest as myocarditis. Ocular larva migrans (OLM) is the third syndrome, manifesting as uveitis, endophthalmitis, visual impairment or even blindness in the affected eye.

Signs and symptoms
Physiological reactions to Toxocara infection depend on the host's immune response and the parasitic load. Most cases of Toxocara infection are asymptomatic, especially in adults. When symptoms do occur, they are the result of migration of second-stage Toxocara larvae through the body.

Covert toxocariasis
Covert toxocariasis is the least serious of the three syndromes and is believed to be due to chronic exposure. Signs and symptoms of covert toxocariasis are coughing, fever, abdominal pain, headaches, and changes in behavior and ability to sleep. Upon medical examination, wheezing, hepatomegaly, and lymphadenitis are often noted.

Visceral larva migrans
High parasitic loads or repeated infection can lead to visceral larva migrans (VLM). VLM is primarily diagnosed in young children, because they are more prone to exposure and ingestion of infective eggs. Toxocara infection commonly resolves itself within weeks, but chronic eosinophilia may result. In VLM, larvae migration incites inflammation of internal organs and sometimes the central nervous system. Symptoms depend on the organs affected. Children can present with pallor, fatigue, weight loss, anorexia, fever, headache, urticaria skin rash, cough, asthma, chest tightness, increased irritability, abdominal pain, nausea, and vomiting. Sometimes the subcutaneous migration tracks of the larvae can be seen. Children are commonly diagnosed with pneumonia, bronchospasms, chronic pulmonary inflammation, hypereosinophilia, hepatomegaly, hypergammaglobulinaemia (IgM, IgG, and IgE classes), leukocytosis, and elevated anti-A and anti-B isohaemagglutinins. Severe cases have occurred in people who are hypersensitive to allergens; in rare cases, epilepsy, inflammation of the heart, pleural effusion, respiratory failure, and death have resulted from VLM.

Ocular larva migrans
Ocular larva migrans (OLM) is rare compared with VLM. A light Toxocara burden is thought to induce a low immune response, allowing a larva to enter the host's eye. Although there have been cases of concurrent OLM and VLM, these are extremely exceptional. OLM often occurs in just one eye and from a single larva migrating into and encysting within the orbit. Loss of vision occurs over days or weeks. Other signs and symptoms are red eye, white pupil, fixed pupil, retinal fibrosis, retinal detachment, inflammation of the eye tissues, retinal granulomas, and strabismus. Ocular granulomas resulting from OLM are frequently misdiagnosed as retinoblastomas. Toxocara damage in the eye is permanent and can result in blindness.

Other
Skin manifestations are common including chronic urticaria, chronic pruritus, and miscellaneous forms of eczema. A case study published in 2008 supported the hypothesis that eosinophilic cellulitis may also be caused by infection with Toxocara: the adult patient presented with eosinophilic cellulitis, hepatosplenomegaly, anemia, and a positive ELISA for T. canis.

Transmission
Transmission of Toxocara to humans is usually through ingestion of infective eggs. T. canis can lay around 200,000 eggs per day. These eggs are passed in cat or dog feces, but the defecation habits of dogs cause T. canis transmission to be more common than that of T. cati. Both Toxocara canis and Toxocara cati eggs require a several week incubation period in moist, humid weather outside a host before becoming infective, so fresh eggs cannot cause toxocariasis.

Many objects and surfaces can become contaminated with infectious Toxocara eggs. Flies that feed on feces can spread Toxocara eggs to surfaces or foods. Young children who put contaminated objects in their mouths or eat dirt (pica) are at risk of developing symptoms. Humans can also contaminate foods by not washing their hands before eating.

Humans are not the only accidental hosts of Toxocara. Eating undercooked rabbit, chicken, or sheep can lead to infection; encysted larvae in the meat can become reactivated and migrate through a human host, causing toxocariasis. Special attention should be paid to thoroughly cooking giblets and liver to avoid transmission.

Incubation period
The incubation period for Toxocara canis and cati eggs depends on temperature and humidity. T. canis females, specifically, are capable of producing up to 200,000 eggs a day that require 2–6 weeks minimum up to a couple months before full development into the infectious stage. Under ideal summer conditions, eggs can mature to the infective stage after two weeks outside of a host. Provided sufficient oxygen and moisture availability, Toxocara eggs can remain infectious for years, as their resistant outer shell enables the protection from most environmental threats. However, as identified in a case study presented within the journal of helminthology, the second stage of larvae development poses strict vulnerabilities to certain environmental elements. High temperatures and low moisture levels will quickly degrade the larvae during this stage of growth.

Reservoir
Dogs and foxes are the reservoir for Toxocara canis, but puppies and cubs pose the greatest risk of spreading the infection to humans. Infection in most adult dogs is characterized by encysted second stage larvae. However, these larvae can become reactivated in pregnant females and cross the placental barrier to infect the pups. Vertical transmission can also occur through breastmilk. Infectious mothers, and puppies under five weeks old, pass eggs in their feces. Approximately 50% of puppies and 20% of adult dogs are infected with T. canis.

Cats are the reservoir for Toxocara cati. As with T. canis, encysted second stage larvae in pregnant or lactating cats become reactivated. However, vertical transmission can only occur through breastfeeding.

Flies can act as mechanical vectors for Toxocara, but most infections occur without a vector. Most incidents with Toxocariasis result from prokaryotic expression vectors and their transmission through direct physical contact with feces that results in the contraction of the illness.

Morphology
Both species produce eggs that are brown and pitted. T. canis eggs measure 75-90 μm and are spherical in shape, whereas the eggs of T. cati are 65-70 μm in diameter and oblong. Second stage larvae hatch from these eggs and are approximately 0.5mm long and 0.02mm wide. Adults of both species have complete digestive systems and three lips, each composed of a dentigerous ridge.

Adult T. canis are found only within dogs and foxes and the males are 4–6 cm in length, with a curved posterior end. The males each have spicules and one “tubular testis.” Females can be as long as 15 cm, with the vulva stretching one third of their bodylength. The females do not curve at the posterior end.

T. cati adult females are approximately 10 cm long, while males are typically 6 cm or less. The T. cati adults only occur within cats, and male T. cati are curved at the posterior end.

Life cycle
Cats, dogs and foxes can become infected with Toxocara through the ingestion of eggs or by transmission of the larvae from a mother to her offspring. Transmission to cats and dogs can also occur by ingestion of infected accidental hosts, such as earthworms, cockroaches, rodents, rabbits, chickens, or sheep.

Eggs hatch as second stage larvae in the intestines of the cat, dog or fox host (for consistency, this article will assume that second stage larvae emerge from Toxocara eggs, although there is debate as to whether larvae are truly in their second or third stage of development). Larvae enter the bloodstream and migrate to the lungs, where they are coughed up and swallowed. The larvae mature into adults within the small intestine of a cat, dog or fox, where mating and egg laying occurs. Eggs are passed in the feces and only become infective after three weeks outside of a host. During this incubation period, molting from first to second (and possibly third) stage larva takes place within the egg. In most adult dogs, cats and foxes, the full lifecycle does not occur, but instead second stage larvae encyst after a period of migration through the body. Reactivation of the larvae is common only in pregnant or lactating cats, dogs and foxes. The full lifecycle usually only occurs in these females and their offspring.

Second stage larvae will also hatch in the small intestine of an accidental host, such as a human, after ingestion of infective eggs. The larvae will then migrate through the organs and tissues of the accidental host, most commonly the lungs, liver, eyes, and brain. Since L2 larvae cannot mature in accidental hosts, after this period of migration, Toxocara larvae will encyst as second stage larvae.

Diagnosis
Finding Toxocara larvae within a patient is the only definitive diagnosis for toxocariasis; however, biopsies to look for second stage larvae in humans are generally not very effective. PCR, ELISA, and serological testing are more commonly used to diagnose Toxocara infection. Serological tests are dependent on the number of larvae within the patient, and are unfortunately not very specific. ELISAs are much more reliable and currently have a 78% sensitivity and a 90% specificity. A 2007 study announced an ELISA specific to Toxocara canis, which will minimize false positives from cross reactions with similar roundworms and will help distinguish if a patient is infected with T. canis or T. cati. OLM is often diagnosed after a clinical examination. Granulomas can be found throughout the body and can be visualized using ultrasound, MRI, and CT technologies.

Prevention
Actively involving veterinarians and pet owners is important for controlling the transmission of Toxocara from pets to humans. A group very actively involved in promoting a reduction of infections in dogs in the United States is the Companion Animal Parasite Council -- CAPC. Since pregnant or lactating dogs and cats and their offspring have the highest, active parasitic load, these animals should be placed on a deworming program. Pet feces should be picked up and disposed of or buried, as they may contain Toxocara eggs. Practicing this measure in public areas, such as parks and beaches, is especially essential for decreasing transmission. Up to 20% of soil samples of U.S. playgrounds have found roundworm eggs. Also, sandboxes should be covered when not in use to prevent cats from using them as litter boxes. Hand washing before eating and after playing with pets, as well as after handling dirt will reduce the chances of ingesting Toxocara eggs. Washing all fruits and vegetables, keeping pets out of gardens and thoroughly cooking meats can also prevent transmission. Finally, teaching children not to place nonfood items, especially dirt, in their mouths will drastically reduce the chances of infection.

Toxocariasis has been named one of the neglected diseases of US poverty, because of its prevalence in Appalachia, the southern U.S., inner city settings, and minority populations.

There is currently no vaccine available or under development. The mitochondrial genomes of both T. cati and T. canis have been sequenced in 2008, which could lead to breakthroughs in treatment and prevention.

Treatment
Toxocariasis will often resolve itself, because the Toxocara larvae cannot mature within human hosts. Corticosteroids are prescribed in severe cases of VLM or if the patient is diagnosed with OLM. Either albendazole (preferred) or mebendazole (“second line therapy”) may be prescribed. Granulomas can be surgically removed, or laser photocoagulation and cryoretinopexy can be used to destroy ocular granulomas.

Visceral toxocariasis in humans can be treated with antiparasitic drugs such as albendazole or mebendazole, tiabendazole or diethylcarbamazine usually in combination with anti-inflammatory medications. Steroids have been utilized with some positive results. Anti-helminthic therapy is reserved for severe infections (lungs, brain) because therapy may induce, due to massive larval killing, a strong inflammatory response. Treatment of ocular toxocariasis is more difficult and usually consists of measures to prevent progressive damage to the eye.

Epidemiology
Humans are accidental hosts of Toxocara, yet toxocariasis is seen throughout the world. Most cases of toxocariasis are seen in people under the age of twenty. Seroprevalence is higher in developing countries, but can be considerable in first world countries, as well. In Bali, St. Lucia, Nepal and other countries, seroprevalence is over fifty percent. Previous to 2007, the U.S. seroprevalence was thought to be around 5% in children. However, Won et al. discovered that U.S. seroprevalence is actually 14% for the population at large. In many countries, toxocariasis is considered very rare. Approximately 10,000 clinical cases are seen a year in the U.S., with ten percent being OLM. Permanent vision loss occurs in 700 of these cases.

Young children are at the greatest risk of infection because they play outside and tend to place contaminated objects and dirt in their mouths. Dog ownership is another known risk factor for transmission. There is also a significant correlation between high Toxocara antibody titers and epilepsy in children.

Parasitic loads as high as 300 larvae in a single gram of liver have been noted in humans. The "excretory–secretory antigens of larvae ... released from their outer epicuticle coat [and] ... readily sloughed off when bound by specific antibodies" incite the host's immune response. The tipping point between development of VLM and OLM is believed to be between 100 and 200 larvae. The lighter infection in OLM is believed to stimulate a lower immune response and allow for migration of a larva into the eye. Larvae are thought to enter the eye through the optic nerve, central retinal artery, short posterior ciliary arteries, soft tissues, or cerebrospinal fluid. Ocular granulomas that form around a larva typically are peripheral in the retina or optic disc.

Visceral larva migrans seems to affect children aged 1–4 more often while ocular larva migrans more frequently affects children aged 7–8. Between 4.6% and 23% of US children have been infected with the dog roundworm egg. This number is much higher in other parts of the world, in tropical countries there is seroprevalence of up to 80–90%, such as Colombia, where up to 81% of children have been infected, or Honduras where seroprevalence among school-age children was reported to be 88%. In the western part of the world, seroprevalence is lower, around 35–42%.

History
Werner described a parasitic nematode in dogs in 1782 which he named Ascaris canis. Johnston determined that what Werner had described was actually a member of the genus Toxocara established by Stiles in 1905. Fülleborn speculated that T canis larvae might cause granulomatous nodules in humans. In 1947 Perlingiero and Gyorgy described the first case of what was probably toxocariasis. Their patient was a 2-year-old boy from Florida who had classical symptoms and eosinophilic necrotizing granulomas. In 1950, Campbell-Wilder was the first to describe toxocariasis in humans; she published a paper describing ocular granulomas in patients with endophthalmitis, Coat's disease, or pseudoglioma. Two years later, Beaver et al. published the presence of Toxocara larvae in granulomas removed from patients with symptoms similar to those in Wilder's patients. The dangers of toxocariasis were first raised in Britain in the 1970s, leading to a public health scare.

Cats
Some treatments for infection with Toxocara cati include drugs designed to cause the adult worms to become partially anaesthetized and detach from the intestinal lining, allowing them to be excreted live in the feces. Such medications include piperazine and pyrantel. These are frequently combined with the drug praziquantel which appears to cause the worm to lose its resistance to being digested by the host animal. Other effective treatments include ivermectin, milbemycin, and selamectin. Dichlorvos has also been proven to be effective as a poison, though moves to ban it over concerns about its toxicity have made it unavailable in some areas.

Treatment for wild felids, however, is difficult for this parasite, as detection is the best way to find which individuals have the parasite. This can be difficult as infected species are hard to detect. Once detected, the infected individuals would have to be removed from the population, in order to lower the risk of continual exposure to the parasites. A primary method that has been used to lower the amount of infection is removal through hunting. Removal can also occur through landowners, as Dare and Watkins (2012) discovered through their research on cougars. Both hunters and landowners can provide samples that can be used to detect the presence of feline roundworm in the area, as well as help remove it from the population. This method is more practical than administering medications to wild populations, as wild animals, as mentioned before, are harder to find in order to administer medicinal care.

Medicinal care, however, is also another method used in roundworm studies; such as the experiment on managing raccoon roundworm done by Smyser et al. (2013) in which they implemented medical baiting. However, medicine is often expensive and the success of the baiting depends on if the infected individuals consume the bait. Additionally, it can be costly (in time and resources) to check on baited areas. Removal by hunting allows agencies to reduce costs and gives agencies a more improved chance of removing infected individuals.

title: Toxocariasis


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Ranger 8

Ranger 8 was a lunar probe in the Ranger program, a robotic spacecraft series launched by NASA in the early-to-mid-1960s to obtain the first close-up images of the Moon's surface. These pictures helped select landing sites for Apollo missions and were used for scientific study. During its 1965 mission, Ranger 8 transmitted 7,137 lunar surface photographs before it crashed into the Moon as planned. This was the second successful mission in the Ranger series, following Ranger 7. Ranger 8's design and purpose were very similar to those of Ranger 7. It had six television vidicon cameras: two full-scan and four partial-scan. Its sole purpose was to document the Moon's surface.

General
Ranger spacecraft were originally designed, beginning in 1959, in three distinct phases called "blocks". Rangers 6, 7, 8, and 9 were the Block 3 versions. The spacecraft consisted of a hexagonal aluminum frame base 1.5 m across on which was mounted the propulsion and power units, topped by a truncated conical tower that held the television cameras. Two solar panel wings, each 739 mm wide by 1537 mm long, extended from opposite edges of the base with a full span of 4.6 m, and a pointable high-gain dish antenna was hinge mounted at one of the corners of the base away from the solar panels. A cylindrical quasi-omnidirectional antenna was seated on top of the conical tower. The overall height of the spacecraft was 3.6 m.

Propulsion for the mid-course trajectory correction was provided by a 224 N thrust monopropellant hydrazine engine with four jet-vane vector control. Orientation and attitude control about three axes was enabled by twelve nitrogen gas jets coupled to a system of three gyroscopes, four primary Sun sensors, two secondary Sun sensors, and an Earth sensor. Power was supplied by 9,792 silicon solar cells contained in the two solar panels, giving a total array area of 2.3 square meters and producing 200 W. Two 1200-watt-hour AgZnO batteries rated at 26.5 V with a capacity for 9 hours of operation provided power to each of the separate communication/TV camera chains. Two 1000-watt-hour AgZnO batteries stored power for spacecraft operations.

Cameras
The spacecraft carried six television vidicon cameras —two wide-angle (channel F, cameras A and B) and four narrow-angle (channel P) —to accomplish these objectives. The cameras were arranged in two separate chains, or channels; each was self-contained with separate power supplies, timers, and transmitters, to afford the greatest reliability and probability of obtaining high-quality television pictures. No other experiments were carried on the spacecraft.

Communications
Communications were through the quasiomnidirectional low-gain antenna and the parabolic high-gain antenna. Transmitters aboard the spacecraft included a 60-watt television channel F at 959.52 MHz, a 60-watt television channel P at 960.05 MHz, and a 3-watt transponder channel 8 at 960.58 MHz. The telecommunications equipment converted the composite video signal from the camera transmitters into a radio-frequency signal for subsequent transmission through the spacecraft's high-gain antenna. Sufficient video bandwidth was provided to allow for rapid framing sequences of both narrow- and wide-angle television pictures.

Mission profile
The Atlas 196D and Agena B 6006 boosters performed nominally, injecting the Agena and Ranger 8 into an Earth parking orbit at 185 km altitude after launch. Fourteen minutes later a 90-second burn of the Agena put the spacecraft into lunar transfer trajectory, and several minutes later the Ranger and Agena separated. The Ranger solar panels were deployed, attitude control activated, and spacecraft transmissions switched from the omniantenna to the high-gain antenna by 21:30 UT. On February 18, at a distance of 160,000 km from Earth, the planned mid-course maneuver took place, involving reorientation and a 59-second rocket burn. During the 27-minute maneuver, spacecraft transmitter power dropped severely, so that lock was lost on all telemetry channels. This continued intermittently until the rocket burn ended, at which time power returned to normal. The telemetry dropout had no serious effects on the mission. A planned terminal sequence to point the cameras more in the direction of flight just before reaching the Moon was cancelled to allow the cameras to cover a greater area of the Moon's surface.

Ranger 8 reached the Moon on February 20, 1965. The first image was taken at 9:34:32 UT at an altitude of 2510 km. Transmission of 7,137 photographs of good quality occurred over the final 23 minutes of flight. The final image taken before impact has a resolution of 1.5 meters. The spacecraft encountered the lunar surface in a direct hyperbolic trajectory, with incoming asymptotic direction at an angle of −13.6 degrees from the lunar equator. The orbit plane was inclined 16.5 degrees to the lunar equator. After 64.9 hours of flight, impact occurred at 09:57:36.756 UT on February 20, 1965, in Mare Tranquillitatis at approximately 2.67° N, 24.65° E. (The impact site is listed as about 2.72° N, 24.61° E in the initial report "Ranger 8 Photographs of the Moon".) Impact velocity was slightly less than 2.68 km/s, approximately 6,000 mph. The spacecraft performance was excellent.

The impact crater of Ranger 8, approximately 13.5 m wide, was later photographed by Lunar Orbiter 4.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Ranger 8


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U.S. Route 7

U.S. Route 7 (US 7) is a north–south United States Numbered Highway in western New England that runs for 308 mi through the states of Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont. The highway's southern terminus is at Interstate 95 (I-95) exit 15 in Norwalk, Connecticut. Its northern terminus is at I-89 exit 22 near the village of Highgate Springs, Vermont, immediately south of the Canada–United States border.

Route description

 * CT
 * 78.22 mi
 * MA
 * 53.85 mi
 * VT
 * 176.29 mi
 * Total
 * 308.36 mi
 * }
 * Total
 * 308.36 mi
 * }
 * }

Connecticut
US 7 in Connecticut (also known as Route 7, Ethan Allen Highway, and Super 7) is mostly a surface road but has two short expressway sections in the Norwalk and Danbury areas. US 7 begins in Norwalk with a 4 mi expressway to nearly the Wilton town line. There are three exits on this short section, signed as "The Forty Third Infantry Division Memorial Highway", named after the 43rd Infantry Division. Exit 1, just past I-95 (the southern terminus), leads to the Central Norwalk Business District and US 1. Exit 2 leads to Route 123 which extends from US 1 in Norwalk to the New York state line, passing through the town of New Canaan. After exit 2, the expressway reduces to four lanes from six. Exit 3 leads to Route 15 southbound, also known as the Merritt Parkway. This interchange was half built and only allows southbound access from the expressway; northbound access is gained via Route 123 at exit 2. The expressway section ends at Grist Mill Road in Norwalk, about 1/2 mi past exit 3. US 7 then passes through Wilton as a four-lane highway until just after Cannondale, where it becomes a two-lane highway. It continues through Ridgefield as a two-lane highway.

Near Danbury, another expressway section was built beginning 1 mi south of I-84 near Danbury Municipal Airport. This section is also signed as "The Forty Third Infantry Division Memorial Highway". Through Danbury proper, US 7 overlaps with I-84 for about 4 mi. Through this section of expressway, I-84, US 7, US 6, and US 202 are concurrent. US 7 and Route 202 then leave I-84 at exit 7 and travel on their own expressway for approximately 8 mi to just south of the New Milford town line. On this section there are two exits. At exit 11 (Federal Road), US 202 exits the expressway and at exit 12, US 202 crosses back over US 7. On southbound US 7, the exit for I-84 eastbound is signed as exit 10. There is no exit number for I-84 west because of the concurrency. The US 7 expressway then bypasses Brookfield to the west and terminates at an intersection with US 202 at the Fairfield–Litchfield county line. Construction on the section between I-84 and exit 12 began in 1974 and completed in 1976. The Brookfield bypass segment between exit 12 and the current expressway terminus opened in November 2009, after two years of construction. The former US 7 route through Brookfield is now signed solely as US 202.

US 7 is cosigned with US 202 until central New Milford, where US 202 turns east with Route 67 while US 7 continues north. Recent construction has also made large parts of US 7 between the terminus of the expressway and New Milford a four-lane divided highway with at-grade intersections. North of New Milford center, US 7 remains a two-lane road through the rest of Connecticut and leaves Connecticut in the town of North Canaan.

Massachusetts
US 7 enters Massachusetts in the town of Sheffield and remains a two-lane road until Lenox. There, a four-lane bypass of Lenox was built in two pieces, and the old US 7 is now Route 7A. US 7 continues on as a four-lane road to Pittsfield, where it is then a three-lane road, narrowing to two lanes for a short time, then widening to four lanes in downtown Pittsfield. US 7 leaves downtown Pittsfield as a two-lane surface arterial and continues as a rural highway with occasional three-lane stretches for climbing the grades along the Berkshires. It passes west of Mount Greylock before passing through Williamstown, connecting the Taconic Trail with the Mohawk Trail. The road passes Williams College before entering Vermont.

Like Connecticut, Massachusetts planned a US 7 expressway from the existing bypass in Lenox all the way to Lanesborough. This plan was never initiated, although land takings occurred. The highway was ultimately canceled due to environmental and community opposition.

In Massachusetts, US 7 passes through the towns of Sheffield, Great Barrington, Stockbridge, Lee, Lenox, Pittsfield, Lanesborough, New Ashford, and Williamstown, before crossing into Pownal, Vermont.

Vermont
US 7 remains a rural two-lane highway from the Massachusetts line to Bennington, where it becomes a grade separated freeway north of Bennington. Once complete, US 7 will utilize this new bypass, while the existing two-lane road into town will become part of Vermont Route 7A (VT 7A). North of town, the highway then again returns to expressway status. For 3 mi, it is a four-lane freeway with a grass median. US 7 then narrows down to an undivided two-lane freeway, with brief passing lanes in each direction. Just north of Manchester, the expressway ends. From Manchester to Wallingford, the road is two lanes and rural. North of Wallingford, US 7 becomes a four-lane divided highway with at-grade intersections, until its southern junction with US 4, south of the city of Rutland. From Rutland north, the road is either two-lane or four-lane undivided, uncontrolled road all the way to the Canada–United States border, except between Shelburne and Burlington, which is a four-lane divided highway. US 7 and US 2 run concurrently from Burlington to Chimney Corners in Colchester. It is known as the Ethan Allen Highway for much of the path through Vermont.

In Vermont, it passes through the towns of Pownal, Bennington, Shaftsbury, Glastenbury, Arlington, Sunderland, Manchester, Dorset, Danby, Mount Tabor, Wallingford, Clarendon, and Rutland; the city of Rutland; the towns of Pittsford, Brandon, Leicester, Salisbury, Middlebury, New Haven, Waltham, Ferrisburg, Charlotte, and Shelburne; the cities of South Burlington (at which point I-89 begins to parallel it), Burlington, and Winooski; the towns of Colchester, Milton, Georgia, and St. Albans; the city of St. Albans; and the towns of Swanton and Highgate before ending at I-89 just south of the customs offices at the Canada–United States border.

History
Prior to the U.S. Numbered Highway System, the alignment of US 7 from Great Barrington, Massachusetts, to the Canada–United States border north of Highgate Springs, Vermont, was part of the New England road marking system's Route 4. When first commissioned in 1927, US 7 ran along the entire length of Route 4, continuing south from Great Barrington along current Route 41. Route 41 continues into Connecticut up to the town of Sharon. Route 4 then went west along Route 343 to the New York state line, where the road continues along New York State Route 343 (NY 343) to Amenia. US 7 originally extended further south of Amenia all the way to New York City along NY 22 but was never signed within the city. By 1929, the southern terminus had been shifted to Norwalk, Connecticut. The previous designations of the new alignment south of Great Barrington were: Route 17 to North Canaan, State Highway 134 to New Milford, State Highway 128 to Danbury, Route 3 to Ridgefield, and State Highway 126 to Norwalk.

Until the 1970s, US 7 reached the Canada–United States border, with the road continuing as provincial route 7. US 7 was then cut back to the I-89 interchange mentioned above, with I-89 continuing to the Canada–US border and becoming Route 133.

Major intersections

 * Connecticut
 * in Norwalk
 * in Norwalk
 * in Danbury. The highways travel concurrently through the city.
 * in Danbury. US 6/US 7 travel concurrently through the city. US 7/US 202 travel concurrently to Brookfield.
 * in Brookfield
 * in Brookfield. The highways travel concurrently to New Milford.
 * in North Canaan. The highways travel concurrently through the town.

 * Massachusetts
 * in Lenox. The highways travel concurrently to Pittsfield.

 * Vermont
 * in the Town of Rutland. The highways travel concurrently to the City of Rutland.
 * on the South Burlington–Burlington city line
 * in Burlington. The highways travel concurrently to Colchester.
 * in Colchester
 * in Georgia
 * in Highgate

Special routes

 * U.S. Route 7 Alternate, an alternate route of US 7 through Burlington, Vermont

title: U.S. Route 7


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Sanahin

Sanahin (Սանահին) is a district of the city of Alaverdi in the northern province of Lori in Armenia. Once a separate village, it is the location of the Sanahin Monastery complex, founded in the 10th century and listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, along with the nearby Haghpat Monastery.

Notable people
Sanahin was the birthplace of the brothers Anastas and Artem Mikoyan. Artem was a famous aircraft designer, and co-founder of the Mikoyan-Gurevich (MiG) design bureau along with Mikhail Gurevich. Anastas was a Soviet statesman and long-serving Politburo member, known for his roles in the Soviet food industry, de-Stalinization, and international diplomacy, especially during the Cuban Missile Crisis. In addition to Sanahin Monastery, many visitors also stop at the nearby Mikoyan Brothers Museum, run by relatives of the Mikoyan family.

title: Sanahin


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Ranger 9

Ranger 9 was a Lunar probe, launched in 1965 by NASA. It was designed to achieve a lunar impact trajectory and to transmit high-resolution photographs of the lunar surface during the final minutes of flight up to impact. The spacecraft carried six television vidicon cameras—two wide-angle (channel F, cameras A and B) and four narrow-angle (channel P)—to accomplish these objectives. The cameras were arranged in two separate chains, or channels, each self-contained with separate power supplies, timers, and transmitters so as to afford the greatest reliability and probability of obtaining high-quality television pictures. These images were broadcast live on television to millions of viewers across the United States. No other experiments were carried on the spacecraft.

Spacecraft design
Rangers 6, 7, 8, and 9 were the so-called Block 3 versions of the Ranger spacecraft. The spacecraft consisted of a hexagonal aluminium frame base 1.5 m across on which was mounted the propulsion and power units, topped by a truncated conical tower which held the TV cameras. Two solar panel wings, each 739 mm wide by 1537 mm long, extended from opposite edges of the base with a full span of 4.6 m, and a pointable high-gain dish antenna was hinge mounted at one of the corners of the base away from the solar panels. A cylindrical quasiomnidirectional antenna was seated on top of the conical tower. The overall height of the spacecraft was 3.6 m.

Propulsion for the mid-course trajectory correction was provided by a 224-N thrust monopropellant hydrazine engine with four jet-vane thrust vectoring. Orientation and attitude control about three axes was enabled by 12 nitrogen gas jets coupled to a system of three gyroscopes, four primary Sun sensors, two secondary Sun sensors, and an Earth sensor. Power was supplied by 9792 Si solar cells contained in the two solar panels, giving a total array area of 2.3 square meters and producing 200 W. Two 1,200 watt-hour batteries rated at 26.5 V with a capacity for 9 hours of operation provided power to each of the separate communication/TV camera chains. Two 1,000 watt-hour batteries stored power for spacecraft operations.

Communications were through the quasiomnidirectional low-gain antenna and the parabolic high-gain antenna. Transmitters aboard the spacecraft included a 60 W TV channel F at 959.52 MHz, a 60 W TV channel P at 960.05 MHz, and a 3 W transponder channel 8 at 960.58 MHz. The telecommunications equipment converted the composite video signal from the camera transmitters into an RF signal for subsequent transmission through the spacecraft high-gain antenna. Sufficient video bandwidth was provided to allow for rapid framing sequences of both narrow and wide-angle television pictures.

Mission profile
The Atlas 204D and Agena B 6007 boosters performed nominally, injecting the Agena and Ranger 9 into an Earth parking orbit at 185 km altitude. A 90-second Agena second burn put the spacecraft into lunar transfer trajectory. This was followed by the separation of the Agena and Ranger. Seventy minutes after launch, the command was given to deploy solar panels, activate attitude control, and switch from the omniantenna to the high-gain antenna. The accuracy of the initial trajectory enabled delay of the planned mid-course correction from 22 to 23 March when the maneuver was initiated at 12:03 UT. After orientation, a 31-second rocket burn at 12:30 UT, and reorientation, the maneuver was completed at 13:30 UT.

Ranger 9 reached the Moon on 24 March 1965. At 13:31 UTC, a terminal maneuver was executed to orient the spacecraft so the cameras were more in line with the flight direction to improve the resolution of the pictures. 20 minutes before impact, the one-minute camera system warm-up began. The first image was taken at 13:49:41 UTC at an altitude of 2363 km. Transmission of 5,814 good contrast photographs was made during the final 19 minutes of flight. The final image taken before impact has a resolution of 0.3 m. The spacecraft encountered the lunar surface with an incoming asymptotic direction at an angle of -5.6 degrees from the lunar equator. The orbit plane was inclined 15.6 degrees to the lunar equator. After 64.5 hours of flight, impact occurred at 14:08:19.994 UTC at approximately 12.83 S latitude, 357.63 E longitude in the Alphonsus crater. Impact velocity was 2670 m/s. The spacecraft performance was excellent. Real-time television coverage with live network broadcasts of many of the F-channel images (primarily camera B but also some camera A pictures) were provided for this flight.

title: Ranger 9


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Wyoming (disambiguation)

Wyoming is a state in the United States of America.

Wyoming may also refer to:

Australia

 * Wyoming, New South Wales, a suburb of the Central Coast region

Canada

 * Wyoming, Ontario, Canada, a former village
 * Wyoming craton, a geological formation in Canada and the United States

United States

 * Wyoming Territory, a territory which became the state in 1890
 * Wyoming, Delaware, a town
 * Wyoming, Keweenaw County, Michigan, an unincorporated community
 * Wyoming, Illinois, a city
 * Wyoming, Iowa, a city
 * Wyoming, Michigan, a city
 * Wyoming, Minnesota, a city
 * Wyoming, Nebraska, an unincorporated community
 * Wyoming, New York, a village
 * Wyoming County, New York
 * Wyoming Correctional Facility, a state men's prison in Attica, Wyoming County, New York
 * Wyoming, Ohio, a city
 * Wyoming, Pennsylvania, a borough
 * Wyoming County, Pennsylvania
 * Wyoming Valley, Pennsylvania
 * Wyoming, Rhode Island, a village and census-designated place
 * Wyoming, West Virginia, an unincorporated community
 * Wyoming City, West Virginia, also known as Wyoming, an unincorporated community
 * Wyoming County, West Virginia
 * Wyoming, Iowa County, Wisconsin, a town
 * Wyoming, Waupaca County, Wisconsin, a town
 * Wyoming (community), Wisconsin, an unincorporated community
 * Wyoming Range, a mountain range in Wyoming
 * Wyoming Peak, a mountain in the Wyoming Range
 * Wyoming Township (disambiguation)
 * Wyoming craton, a geological formation in Canada and the United States

Buildings

 * Wyoming, Birchgrove, New South Wales, Australia, a heritage-listed residence
 * Wyoming Cottage, Wyoming, New South Wales, a heritage-listed residence
 * Wyoming (Studley, Virginia), United States, a house on the National Register of Historic Places
 * Wyoming (Clinton, Maryland), United States, a house on the National Register of Historic Places

Fictional characters

 * Wyoming "Wyoh" Knott, in Robert A. Heinlein's novel The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress
 * Wyoming, a character in the machinima series Red vs. Blue

Films

 * Wyoming (1928 film), a Western directed by W. S. Van Dyke
 * Wyoming (1940 film), a Western starring Wallace Beery
 * Wyoming (1947 film), a Western directed by Joseph Kane

Music

 * "Wyoming" (song), the state song of Wyoming
 * Wyoming, a 2013 album by Water Liars

Schools

 * University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming
 * Wyoming High School (Michigan), Wyoming, Michigan
 * Wyoming High School (Ohio), Wyoming, Ohio
 * Wyoming Seminary, a Methodist college preparatory school in Wyoming Valley, Pennsylvania

Ships

 * Wyoming (schooner), the world's largest wooden schooner
 * USS Wyoming, several ships
 * Wyoming-class battleship, a US Navy class of two dreadnought battleships commissioned in 1912

Other uses

 * Battle of Wyoming (1778), in the American Revolution
 * Wyoming Station (disambiguation), various railroad and subway stations in the United States and Canada
 * El Gran Wyoming, stage name of Spanish television presenter, actor and humorist Monzón Navarro (born 1955)

title: Wyoming (disambiguation)


text:
John Williams Gunnison

John Williams Gunnison (November 11, 1812 – October 26, 1853) was an American military officer and explorer.

Biography
Gunnison was born in Goshen, New Hampshire, in 1812 and attended Hopkinton Academy in Hopkinton, New Hampshire. He graduated from West Point in 1837, second in his class of fifty cadets. His military career began as an artillery officer in Florida, where he spent a year in the campaign against the Seminoles. Due to his poor health he was reassigned to the U.S. Army Corps of Topographical Engineers the next year. Initially he explored unknown areas of Florida, searching for provision routes. However, his health soon forced him out of Florida entirely.

From 1841 to 1849 Gunnison explored the area around the Great Lakes. He surveyed the border between Wisconsin and Michigan, the western coast of Lake Michigan, and the coast of Lake Erie. On May 9, 1846, he was promoted to first lieutenant.

In the spring of 1849 Gunnison was assigned as second in command of the Howard Stansbury expedition to explore and survey the valley of the Great Salt Lake. That winter was particularly heavy and the expedition was unable to leave the valley. Gunnison took the opportunity to befriend some Mormons and study the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. When he finally returned to Washington, DC, he wrote a book titled The Mormons or Latter-Day Saints, in the Valley of the Great Salt Lake: A History of Their Rise and Progress, Peculiar Doctrines, Present Condition.

Gunnison returned to the Great Lakes from 1851 to 1853, mapping the Green Bay area, and was promoted to captain on March 3, 1853.

Gunnison–Beckwith expedition
On May 3, 1853, he received orders to take charge of an expedition to survey a route for a Pacific railroad between the 38th and 39th parallels. The surveying party left St. Louis, Missouri, in June 1853 and arrived by mid-October in Manti, Utah Territory. In Utah Territory, with Lieutenant E. G. Beckwith as assistant commander, Gunnison began the survey of a possible route, surveying areas across the Rocky Mountains via the Huerfano River, through Cochetopa Pass, and by way of the present Gunnison and Green rivers to the Sevier River. His journey took him through the Tomichi Valley in Colorado, where the town of Gunnison is named in his honor. After crossing the Tomichi Valley, the survey team encountered the Black Canyon, carved by the Gunnison River which was also named in his honor. The team was forced to turn south to get around the canyon.

Attack and massacre

The weather was beginning to turn "cold and raw" with snow flurries, and Captain Gunnison sought to speed up mapping before returning to winter quarters. Several miles upstream of Sevier Lake (about the site of the present Gunnison Bend Reservoir), the team was divided into two detachments. Gunnison and his party of 11 men moved downstream, while the other party moved upstream. On the morning of October 26, 1853, Gunnison's party was attacked by a band of Pahvants (Ute). In the resulting massacre, Gunnison and seven of his men were killed. Several survivors of the attack alerted the other detachment of the survey team, who rode to aid Gunnison and his party. An additional survivor of the attack and the bodies of the victims were retrieved later that day. The remains of the eight dead were found in a mutilated state. Killed with Gunnison were Richard Hovenden Kern (topographer & artist; 1821-1853), Frederick Creutzfeldt (German botanist), William Washington Potter (Mormon guide; 1819-1853), Private Caulfield, Private Liptoote, Private Mehreens, and John Bellows (camp roustabout). The site of the massacre was added to the National Register of Historic Places on April 30, 1976.

Investigations and allegations
Most contemporary accounts of the massacre maintain that the Mormons warned Gunnison that his party might be in danger from local bands of Pahvant Utes. It seems that Gunnison had entered Utah in the midst of the Walker War, a sometimes bloody conflict between the Mormons and the Ute Chief Walkara. Indeed, Lt. Beckwith later wrote that the expedition found the local Mormons "all gathered into a village for mutal protection against the Utah Indians." But after the killings, rumors circulated that the Pahvants involved in the massacre were acting under the direction of Brigham Young and an alleged secret militia known as the Danites. Some claim that leaders of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints were initially concerned that the railway would increase the influx of non-Mormon settlers and non-Mormon economic concerns into the territory. However, the Utah Legislature (dominated by LDS officials) had repeatedly petitioned Congress for both a transcontinental railroad and telegraph lines to pass through the region. When the railroad finally came to Utah, LDS leaders organized cadres of Mormon workers to build the railway, welcoming the income for the economically depressed community.

Martha Gunnison, widow of Captain Gunnison, was one of those who maintained that the attack was planned and orchestrated by militant Mormons under the direction of Brigham Young. Gunnison's letters to his wife throughout the expedition left her with the impression that "the Mormons were the directors of my husband's murder." She wrote to Associate Justice W.W. Drummond, the 1855 federal appointee to the Supreme Court of the Territory of Utah. She received confirmation of this belief in his response to her letter. Drummond drew this conclusion from informant and witness testimonies in several trials after the murders. He cited numerous reports by whites and natives of white attackers dressed up as Indians during the massacre.

In 1854 Lieutenant Colonel Edward Steptoe was sent by the War Department to investigate the attack and determine the truth of rumors that Mormons had colluded with the Indians in the ambush. As a result of his investigation eight Ute Indians were charged and tried for the attack. Three were convicted of manslaughter. He did not uncover evidence of Mormon involvement.

Lt. Beckwith also concluded that the Mormons had nothing to do with the attack and that the Pahvants acted alone. He wrote in his official report that the "statement which has from time to time appeared (or been copied) in various newspapers...charging the Mormons or Mormon authorities with instigating the Indians to, if not actually aiding them in, the murder of Captain Gunnison and his associates, is, I believe, not only entirely false, but there is no accidental circumstance connected with it affording the slightest foundation for such a charge."

Nevertheless, the Gunnison Massacre resulted in much controversy and added additional strain to the relationship between Governor Brigham Young of the Utah Territory and the federal government. This incident contributed to tensions eventually leading to the Utah War, wherein President Buchanan sent the U.S. Army to the Utah Territory in order to stop a reported Mormon insurrection.

Legacy
The Capt. John Gunnison House in Goshen, New Hampshire, has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Gunnison is featured on a New Hampshire historical marker (number 140) along New Hampshire Route 10 in Goshen. Several places have been named in honor of him:
 * The city of Gunnison, Utah
 * The city of Gunnison, Colorado
 * The Gunnison River in Colorado, and by extension Black Canyon of the Gunnison National Park, the Gunnison Basin, and the Gunnison grouse.
 * Gunnison County, Colorado
 * Gunnison National Forest
 * Gunnison Reservoir in central Utah
 * Gunnison Island in the Great Salt Lake
 * Gunnison Avenue in Grand Rapids, Michigan where Gunnison resided and owned land in the 1840s
 * Gunnison Swamp, a now-drained swamp in Grand Rapids later used as a town dump and then developed as a residential section
 * Gunnison Lake in Goshen, New Hampshire
 * Battery Gunnison, a six-inch rapid-fire disappearing gun coastal artillery battery built in 1902 at Fort Hancock, New Jersey. It served in protecting New York Harbor from 1904 to 1948, and is undergoing restoration to its 1940s configuration.
 * Gunnison Beach, a beach within the Sandy Hook unit of the Fort Hancock and the Sandy Hook Proving Ground Historic District which is the Sandy Hook Unit of Gateway National Recreation Area, on the Atlantic coast of New Jersey.
 * Gunnison's prairie dog

Publications

 * (Housed at the Huntington Library in San Marino, California)
 * (Housed at the Wisconsin Historical Society in Madison, Wisconsin, on the campus of the University of Wisconsin–Madison )
 * (Housed at the University of California, Berkeley Library in Berkeley, California)
 * (Housed at the Huntington Library in San Marino, California)
 * (Housed at the Wisconsin Historical Society in Madison, Wisconsin, on the campus of the University of Wisconsin–Madison )
 * (Housed at the University of California, Berkeley Library in Berkeley, California)

title: John Williams Gunnison


text:
Category:Universities and colleges in the Philippines

__NOGALLERY__


text:
Neftchala District

Neftchala District (Neftçala rayonu) is one of the 66 districts of Azerbaijan. It is located in the southeast of the country and belongs to the Shirvan-Salyan Economic Region. The district borders the districts of Jalilabad, Bilasuvar, Salyan, Lankaran, and Masally. Its capital and largest city is Neftchala. As of 2020, the district had a population of 88,900.

History
The Neftchala District was formed as a district in the composition of the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic on February 11, 1940. Until this time it was located in the area of modern Salyan District, and during that year it became part of the Khilly region, organized on January 24, 1939. As Neftchala was an exceptionally industrial region, it was liquidated in December 1959 and unified with the Salyan region. However, after 4 years it was split off from the Salyan District again and became a separate industrial zone. But it was felt that this mixed system for control did not justify itself, and once again Neftchala region was liquidated in 1965 and became part of the Salyan. The region was finally made separate again after 7 years on April 27, 1973.

Territory
There is one city (Neftchala), 48 villages, and 3 settlements (Banke, Khylly, and Hasanabad) in the district. Neftchala district is bordered with Masally, Salyan, Jelilabad, Bilesuvar, and Lankaran.

The total area of the district is 1,451 km 2. 825 km 2 of this territory is productive lands. Agricultural lands cover 390 km 2 of the territory. Cattle – breeding pastures occupy 355 km 2 area, while the total area of planted lands is 470 km 2. Fruit gardens and saline lands cover 5 km 2 and 13 km 2 areas respectively.

Geography and climate
The territory of the district is mainly lowland. The district is situated 22 meters lower than sea level. Shirvan and Mugan Lowlands covers the south-east of the district. The river Kura flows into the Caspian Sea in Neftchala district. There are mud volcanos that occupy the area from Baligchi to Gizilagaj bay. There are several underwater plains in the coastal area of the Neftchala district. They are Karagedov, Kalmichkov, Kur, Borisov, Kornilov-Pavlov, Plita, Pogorelaya, and Golovachev. There is a lake named Duzdag, which is situated between Babazanan and Durovdag peaks, on the border of the Salyan district.

The district has a semi-desert and warm climate. The average temperature is 3C in January and 25-36 C in July.

Flora and fauna
Lands of the district are divided as grey-meadow, alluvial meadow, and swampy meadow. There are saline soils as well. Vegetation in the district is semi-desert and desert type. There can be found Tugay forests.

District's fauna is diverse. The dominant fauna of the Neftchala district includes gazelle, pelican, boar, wolf, wild cat, rabbit and such.

Economy
Khazar is an automobile factory belonging to Azermash Company located in Neftchala, Azerbaijan.

Agriculture, fishing, oil, and gas are the cores of the district economy.

Municipalities
There are 17 municipalities in the district which consist of 163 members. Neftchala municipality has 15 members, Khylly municipality has 9, Hasanabad municipality has 11, and other village municipalities have 128 members. The municipalities of Neftchala district are situated in the city, with two settlements, and 14 villages.

Court
The court was established on 20 April 1974. The initial name of the court was Neftchala District People's Court. Its name was changed to Neftchala District Court in 2000.

Notable natives

 * Khalil Rza Uluturk, writer

title: Neftchala District


text:
Wikipedia talk:Historical archive/WikiProjects/WikiProject proposal

God, it sure is nice to see my little baby all grown up. The contributions of everyone else have really taken things to a new level. I still claim full credit for creating the name "Wikiproject", though :) Manning 06:57, July 13, 2005 (UTC)


text:
Talk:Bragi

John Lindow
John Lindlow (in Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs, 2001, Oxford: Oxford Univesity Press, p. 339) discusses lack of quality control in material on the web: This listing is part of The Encyclopedia Mythica: An Encyclopedia on Mythology, Folklore, and Legend. Randomly looking at some entries, I found this on Bragi: "The god of eloquence and poetry, and the patron of skalds (poets) in Norse mythology. He is regarded as a son of Odin and Frigg. Runes were carved on his tongue and he inspired poetry in humans by letting them drink from the mead of poetry. Bragi is married to Idun, the goddess of eternal youth. Oaths were sworn over the Bragarfull (Cup of Bragi), and drinks were taken from it in honor of a dead king. Before a king ascended the throne, he drank from such a cup." There are no fewer than six errors in this paragraph (the lingual runes being the most spectacular), ... Lindlow does not list the other five errors, I suppose as a test for the reader. The current article at Encyclopedia Mythica: Bragi is still exactly as Lindlow quotes it. The experts(?) behind that site either don't know or care about such inaccuracies, though one might expect word of Lindlow's note to have reached them. The site is replete with inaccuracies, unfortunately perhaps the source of many of the same inaccuracies in Wikipedia.

I believe I have identified all six errors and fixed them in this article and in the article Bragarfull.

I have made other changes as well.

From the article before my editing: "The verb 'to brag' is derived from his name, ..." From Eytmology Bol-Bra: "brag - c.1360, braggen, origin obscure, perhaps related to bray of a trumpet. Other sources suggest O.N. bragr 'the best, the toast (of anything),' also 'poetry.'" A relationship to the name Bragi is possible but hardly to be given as a fact.

From the article before my editing: "... possibly also the verb 'to brew'." For etymology of brew see Eytmology: Brav-Buc and Bartleby: American Heritage Dictionary: Indo-European Roots: bhreu-. There is no relationship between brew and Bragi. I suggest in the article that these ideas may come from A. & E. Keary's, The Heroes of Asgard, Back matter. A. & E. Keary's explanation of names are often odd, even for the state of linguistic knowledge in 1891.

Before my editing: "Bragi was probably based on a real person, ..." I think that too POV in this case. I've read too much the other way and too much where the author mentions both positions but supports neither for the article to point towards one side or the other, even with a probably.

Before my editing: "... this may have to do with the fact that Bragi customarily is awaiting the slain in Valhalla in the wake of conflict." The word customarily overstates the case. Bragi appears in this role in a single text only, and the role of greeter in the other parallel text is given instead to the warriors Sigmund and Sinfjötli whom one can hardly accuse of cowardice.

I have put what I believe to be misinformation in a special debunking section of the article, which will hopefully prevent it from creeping back in again. It would be good if the actual sources of such inventions as Gunnlöd being Bragi's mother could be discovered. That's quite a nice idea, actually. One expects a child to spring from the union of Odin and Gunnlöd. But the sources are silent and speculation should be given only as speculation and modern literary invention should be identified as modern literary invention.

Jallan 03:26, 8 Aug 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Bragi


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Bragi Boddason

Bragi Boddason, known as Bragi the Old (Old Norse: Bragi hinn gamli) was a Norwegian skald active in the first half of the 9th century, the earliest known skald from whom verses have survived. Portions of his Ragnarsdrápa are preserved in Snorri Sturluson's Edda.

Life and career
Bragi is known as "the Old" to distinguish him from a 12th-century skald, Bragi Hallsson. He was a member of a prominent family in southwestern Norway; according to Landnámabók, he married Lopthœna, the daughter of Erpr lútandi, another skald, and among their descendants was the early 11th-century skald Gunnlaugr ormstunga. Skáldatal lists him as a court poet to three kings, Ragnarr Loðbrók, Eysteinn Beli, and Bjǫrn at haugi, which has led to his life being dated to the 9th century, usually to the first half of that century. However, the dating of the reigns of all but King Bjǫrn in Sweden suggest a later date, and some including Guðbrandur Vigfússon have preferred dates of 835–900. Landnámabók also reports that when visiting Ljúfvina, the wife of king Hjǫrr of Hǫrðaland, he perceived that she had substituted the fair-skinned son of a thrall woman for her dark-skinned twin sons Geirmundr and Hámundr and persuaded her to reinstate her own sons. This story and the story of his confronting a troll-woman, are probably legends.

Bragi has the same name as the god Bragi, which has led some to doubt his historicity, but there are enough mentions of him to attest to his having lived, so that it is likely he was deified and gave his name to the god. He has been credited with inventing the dróttkvætt meter characteristic of skaldic poetry, possibly under the influence of Irish verse forms, but although later skalds imitated some of his kennings, the complexity of his verse makes it more probable that earlier poetry representing the development of the tradition has been lost.

Works
In Egils saga, ch. 59, Bragi is said to have composed a poem to "ransom his head" after angering King Bjǫrn; Egill Skallagrímsson is persuaded to follow his example by his friend and Bragi's great-grandson Arinbjǫrn, leading him to compose his Hǫfuðlausn for Erik Bloodax.

Most of his verses that we have preserved appear to be part of his Ragnarsdrápa. This is a shield lay, composed in return for the gift of a decorated shield, according to Snorri from Ragnarr Loðbrók, but many scholars consider it more likely the poem was dedicated to a different Ragnarr. It appears to have consisted of an introductory verse followed by four sets of four verses, each describing a scene depicted on the shield: two mythological, Gefjon plowing the island of Zealand out of Sweden and Thor fishing for the World Serpent Jǫrmungandr, and two heroic, Hamðir and Sǫrli's attack on King Jǫrmunrekkr, and the never-ending battle between Heðinn and Hǫgni, and presumably a concluding verse. Parts or all of twenty verses survive; one verse attributed to Bragi in all but one manuscript of the Edda is probably correctly assigned to Úlfr Uggason's Húsdrápa, which also describes a portrayal of Thor's fishing expedition.

title: Bragi Boddason


text: User talk:64.252.168.255

title: User talk:64.252.168.255


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Talk:Lipidomics

Untitled
Too many links, not enough article. I still don't know what lipidomics is. (I hate articles like these.) --Ardonik 03:28, 2004 Aug 8 (UTC)

title: Talk:Lipidomics


text:
User:Nybbles

Hello! I'm Nimalan. Sometimes I contribute to Wikipedia by fixing grammatical mistakes... And I read it very often (too much, even). Once I got really carried away with userboxes.

title: User:Nybbles


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Kapton

Kapton is a polyimide film used in flexible printed circuits (flexible electronics) and space blankets, which are used on spacecraft, satellites, and various space instruments. Invented by the DuPont Corporation in the 1960s, Kapton remains stable across a wide range of temperatures, from −269 to +400 C. Kapton is used in electronics manufacturing, space applications, with x-ray equipment, and in 3D printing applications. Its favorable thermal properties and outgassing characteristics result in its regular use in cryogenic applications and in situations where high vacuum environments are experienced.

History
Kapton was invented by DuPont in the 1960s. Kapton remains manufactured by DuPont to this day.

The name Kapton is a registered trademark of E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company.

Chemistry and variants
Kapton synthesis is an example of the use of a dianhydride in step polymerization. The intermediate polymer, known as a poly(amic acid), is soluble because of strong hydrogen bonds to the polar solvents usually employed in the reaction. The ring closure is carried out at high temperatures of 200 –.

The chemical name for Kapton K and HN is poly (4,4'-oxydiphenylene-pyromellitimide). It is produced from the condensation of pyromellitic dianhydride (PMDA) and 4,4'-oxydiphenylamine (ODA).

Kapton E is a mix of two dianhydrides, PMDA and biphenyltetracarboxylic acid dianhydride (BPDA), and two diamines, ODA and p-phenylenediamine (PPD). The BPDA component adds greater dimensional stability and flatness in flexible circuitry applications. Kapton E offers reduced coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE), reduced moisture absorption, and reduced coefficient of hygroscopic expansion (CHE) compared to Kapton H.

Characteristics
In isolation, Kapton remains stable across a wide range of temperatures, from −269 to +400 C.

The thermal conductivity of Kapton at temperatures from 0.5 to 5 Kelvin is rather high for such low temperatures, κ = 4.638×10−3 T0.5678 W·m−1·K−1.

Kapton insulation ages poorly: an FAA study shows degradation in hot, humid environments or in the presence of seawater. It was found to have very poor resistance to mechanical wear, mainly abrasion within cable harnesses due to aircraft movement. Many aircraft models have had to undergo extensive rewiring modifications—sometimes completely replacing all the Kapton-insulated wiring—because of short circuits caused by the faulty insulation. Kapton-wire degradation and chafing due to vibration and heat has been implicated in multiple crashes of both fixed wing and rotary wing aircraft, with loss of life. The New York Times, citing a NASA OIG document, reported in 2005 that Kapton-insulated cables on the Space Shuttle "tended to break down over time, causing short circuits and, potentially, fires." The STS-93 mission saw electrical shorts on Kapton insulation disable two engine controllers and nearly cause catastrophe.

Electronics manufacturing

Due to its large range of temperature stability and its electrical isolation ability, Kapton tape is usually used in electronic manufacturing as an insulation and protection layer on electrostatic-sensitive and fragile components. As it can sustain the temperature needed for a reflow soldering operation, its protection is available throughout the whole production process, and Kapton is often still present in the final consumer product.

Spacecraft

The descent stage of the Apollo Lunar Module, and the bottom of the ascent stage surrounding the ascent engine, were covered in blankets of aluminized Kapton foil to provide thermal insulation. During the return journey from the Moon, Apollo 11 astronaut Neil Armstrong commented that during the launch of the Lunar Module Eagle ascent stage, he could see "Kapton and other parts of the LM staging scattering all around the area for great distances."

The NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory has considered Kapton as a good plastic support for solar sails because of its durability in the space environment.

NASA's New Horizons spacecraft used Kapton in an innovative "Thermos bottle" insulation design to keep the craft operating between 10 and 30 C throughout its more than nine-year, 5 Tm journey to rendezvous with the dwarf planet Pluto on 14 July 2015. The main body is covered in lightweight, gold-colored, multilayered thermal insulation which holds in heat from operating electronics to keep the spacecraft warm. The thermal blanketing of 18 layers of Dacron mesh cloth sandwiched between aluminized Mylar and Kapton film also helped to protect the craft from micrometeorites.

The James Webb Space Telescope sunshield is made of five Kapton E sheets coated with aluminum and doped silicon to reflect heat away from the spacecraft body.

The crew aboard the International Space Station used Kapton tape to temporarily repair a slow leak in a Soyuz spacecraft attached to the Russian segment of the orbital complex in August 2018. It was used again in October 2020 to temporarily seal a leak in the transfer chamber of the Zvezda Service Module of the ISS.

X-rays
Kapton is also commonly used as a material for windows used with all kinds of X-ray sources (synchrotron beam-lines and X-ray tubes) and X-ray detectors. Its high mechanical and thermal stability as well as high transmittance of X-rays make it the preferred material. It is also relatively insensitive to radiation damage.

3D printing
Kapton and ABS adhere to each other very well, which has led to widespread use of Kapton as a build surface for 3D printers. Kapton is laid down on a flat surface and the ABS is extruded onto the Kapton surface. The ABS part being printed will not detach from the build platform as it cools and shrinks, a common cause of print failure by warping of the part. A more durable alternative is to use a polyetherimide surface.

Researchers have devised a method to 3D-print polyimide material including Kapton. The polyamic acid precursor to Kapton is mixed with an acrylate cross linker and photoinitiator that can form a gel when exposed to ultraviolet light during 3D printing. Subsequent heating of the 3D printed part up to 400 °C removes the sacrificial crosslinks and imidizes the part forming Kapton with a 3D printed geometry.

Others
Kapton's relatively high thermal conductivity at very low temperatures, together with its good dielectric qualities and its availability as thin sheets, have made it a favorite material in cryogenics, as it provides electrical insulation at low thermal gradients.

Kapton is regularly used as an insulator in ultra-high-vacuum environments due to its low outgassing rate.

Kapton-insulated electrical wiring has been widely used in civil and military aircraft because it is lighter than other insulators and has good insulating and temperature characteristics.

title: Kapton


text:
File:Lehigh Valley Herald.png

Summary
Lehigh Valley Railroad Herald

Heralds are "logos" or "slogans" used by railroad companies and displayed on their equipment.

"Copyright does not protect names, titles, slogans, or short phrases. In some cases, these things may be protected as trademarks. ... However, copyright protection may be available for logo artwork that contains sufficient authorship. In some circumstances, an artistic logo may also be protected as a trademark." Excerpt from http://www.copyright.gov/help/faq/faq-protect.html

Use of such images on Wikipedia arguably meets Fair Use requirements. See also http://www.copyright.gov/fls/fl102.html

Licensing
== Fair use in Lehigh Valley Railroad == It is believed that use of this image qualifies under the fair use guidelines because:
 * The image depicts the official logo of the company described in the article.
 * The image is a low resolution, black and white rendering of the logo.
 * Use of the image on Wikipedia does not hamper the company's ability to use the logo nor does it dilute the image's meaning
 * No free alternatives are available.

title: File:Lehigh Valley Herald.png


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Suspension bondage

Suspension bondage is a form of sexual bondage where a bound person is hung from one or more overhead suspension points. It carries a higher risk than other forms of sexual bondage.

Stimulation
In partial suspension, the person is bound in a way that part of their body weight is held by suspension ropes, cables or chains. The classic partial suspension position is to have the person balancing on one foot with part of their weight supported through a chest harness and the other leg pulled up in some direction. A person lying on their upper back with legs tied upwards to a suspension point to pull their lower back off the ground would also qualify as partial suspension.

In full suspension, the person is completely supported by suspension ropes, cables or chains, and they have no contact with the ground. The position of the person's body in a full suspension is only limited by their endurance and the skill of the binder.

The main effect of suspension bondage is to create a heightened sense of vulnerability and inescapability, so that the subject is made to feel that by attempting to free themselves, they may fall and hurt themselves. This is meant to create a form of mental bondage. Being suspended, especially in a large open space, also creates a sense of objectification, submissiveness and erotic helplessness for the subject, which can be erotically stimulating for them and for those observing them. Rope suspension is sometimes done as performance art at BDSM conventions and fetish-themed nightclubs.

Suspension can alternatively create a sense of liberation in that one can glide around the room, and some styles of rigging are optimal for the suspendee to have control over their spin rate, body position, and general activities. Trance-like states are also common, resulting alternatively or simultaneously from the sensations of anti-gravity, the heightened awareness of one's body, and the sacrifice of one's natural physical strengths.

Self-induced suspension bondage may involve autoerotic asphyxia.

Three main positions
The three main suspension positions are vertical, horizontal and inverted.

Vertical suspension
This primarily involves the person being lifted from the ground by their wrists. This is usually achieved by use of rope or by special suspension cuffs. When using rope, extreme damage can be caused to the soft tissues of the wrists, as well as reducing circulation, so being suspended by ropes can only normally be achieved for a very short period of time. Often in fiction and movies a person may be pictured hanging from metal cuffs or handcuffs. This is possible, although extremely painful and will leave deep marks in the wrists. The safest and "most comfortable" method of suspension by the wrists is to use suspension cuffs as they are specifically designed to spread the weight around the wrist as much as possible.

An alternative method of vertical suspension is to use a bondage rope harness. With the ropes tied around the body and in particular around the upper arms close to the shoulders as well as around the upper leg and through the groin, it is possible to suspend a person with ropes attached to these areas similar to the way a parachute is attached to a person. In this position the arms and legs may be left to hang free, as the person would have great difficulty getting free without assistance.

Horizontal suspension
The horizontal suspension position has the subject bound in a horizontal position, sometimes face up but usually face down. The body is lifted into this position either by attaching bondage equipment to the wrists and ankles, or to other areas of the body, or a mixture of both, with the subject's weight born by these areas. The ankles or wrists may be brought together or kept apart by a spreader bar. In case of the wrists and ankles, ropes or suspension cuffs can be used. When the body itself is used to suspend the person, they may first be tied into a conventional bondage position such as a hogtie or ball tie, then by attaching ropes or chains to ropes under areas of the body able to take weight the person is lifted into the air.

A variation on this position is to secure the wrists to either the spreader bar or to a securing point between their ankles forming a hogtie, resulting in what is called a suspension bow. In this position, if the subject is a female and facing down, her breasts would be pointing almost straight down depending on the strictness of the position, and nipple clamps and weights can be added for painful stimulation. The clamps may alternatively be secured to a point on the floor, limiting the subject's ability to struggle or move at all without causing pain.

Inverted suspension
Being suspended upside down can be a very hard position to maintain as a result of the position causing the blood to rush to the head. This means that this position probably cannot be maintained for any length of time. To be suspended in this position, ropes or suspension cuffs are used to lift the person into the air by their ankles.

Unlike when a person is suspended by their wrists, rope suspension around the ankles can be maintained for much longer as the ankle region naturally is able to take far more weight and stress than the wrists. This is especially so if boots are used as the ropes can run around the outside surface of the boot thus protecting the skin from damage. The person may be suspended with their legs together, or held apart either by using a spreader bar or by securing the ankles to two separate locations. With the legs held in this position, the subject may have an increased sense of vulnerability as their genital region would be easily accessible.

Risks
The risks of rope suspension rank up there with heavy breath play. Heck, rope suspensions can turn into heavy breath play scenes if not careful. The danger most often associated with suspension bondage, over and above the usual risks inherent in bondage, is falling; whether due to a weak suspension point, faulty equipment or poor technique. Inverted positions are especially hazardous in this regard since a head-first fall of only a few inches can kill or paralyze a person. Less obvious dangers include nerve compression and resulting damage, circulation problems and fainting, and the recently recognized harness hang syndrome. Harness hang syndrome appears to relate to suspension with the legs below the heart, as in the case when someone is suspended in a standing position, with no weight on their legs. Extracting a person safely out of suspension bondage can be difficult if they are unconscious, or if a winch or hoist jams. Suspension tops will often work with spotters who can help get the person down in an emergency.

Experts
Suspension bondage is a difficult subject to find information on. While many famous riggers regularly perform suspensions, they have expressed hesitation in committing such knowledge for dissemination, due to the increased risk of injury to amateurs attempting to imitate without enough prior research or practice. Although most suspension bondage educational material is found on the Internet, there are books available on the topic.

title: Suspension bondage


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Jan Brzechwa

Jan Brzechwa (15 August 1898 – 2 July 1966) was a Polish poet, author and lawyer, known mostly for his contribution to children's literature. He was born Jan Wiktor Lesman to a Polish family of Jewish descent.

Early life
Brzechwa was born in Żmerynka, Podolia. His father was a railway engineer and Jan spent a lot of his childhood travelling around Eastern Poland ("Kresy") with his family. Brzechwa studied at the Jesuit college in Chyrów, (present day Khyriv in Ukraine), and upon moving from Podolia to Warsaw, he graduated from the School of Law at the Warsaw University. During the Polish-Soviet War, he volunteered for the 36th Regiment of the Academic Infantry Legion, a formation composed of university students and was decorated for his service. His formal writing debut took place in 1920 by way of various humor magazines. He worked as a lawyer and attorney for the Polish Society of Authors and Composers (ZAIKS) where he specialized and excelled in copyright law.

Brzechwa was a cousin of another famous Polish poet, Bolesław Leśmian. He was married three times; first to Maria Sunderland, his first cousin once removed and a niece of the renowned Polish artist Celina Sunderland, then to Karolina Lentowa (née Meyer), and finally to Janina Magajewska (1915–1989). His daughter from his first marriage, Krystyna (born 1928), is a painter.

Literary output
Jan Brzechwa was the writer's pseudonym. The name Brzechwa translates into 'fletching' (the tail section of an arrow). His poetry was written mostly in the melodic style of the 8-syllable accentual verse, the most popular rhythmic structure among the Polish stylistic variations.

In 1926 he published Oblicza zmyślone ("Imaginary visages"), his first book of poems. His first set of poems for children Tańcowała igła z nitką ("Danced the needle with the thread") was published in 1937. Among his most popular works is Chrząszcz (The Beetle), a poem proverbial for containing one the hardest-to-pronounce phrases in Polish literature. Its first line "W Szczebrzeszynie chrząszcz brzmi w trzcinie" (In the town of Szczebrzeszyn a beetle buzzes in the reeds) is the best known Polish tongue-twister, in which almost all of the consonants make distinct buzzing sounds. Brzechwa is also popular in Poland for having written a number of lyrical children's poems. He was a translator of Russian literature, translating works by Aleksandr Pushkin, Sergey Yesienin and Vladimir Mayakovskiy.

Brzechwa also wrote a long-running series of children's books based on the adventures of Pan Kleks, the headmaster of a magical academy, and his students. Many of the Kleks books and plot points were made into a series of films in the 1980s, while the poem Pchła Szachrajka (Adventures of a Cheating Flea) was developed into an animated film in 1989.

Many of Brzechwa's texts have been translated into English by Walter Whipple, but as of 2004 they have yet to be published. Brzechwa died in Warsaw in 1966 and is buried at the Powązki Cemetery, the most famous cemetery in the city.

Works

 * 1926 – Oblicza zmyślone
 * 1937 – Tańcowała igła z nitką
 * 1938 – Kaczka Dziwaczka
 * 1946 – Akademia Pana Kleksa
 * 1946 – Ptasie plotki
 * 1946 – Pan Drops i jego trupa
 * 1948 – Na wyspach Bergamutach
 * 1948 – Opowiedział dzięcioł sowie
 * 1948 – Przygody rycerza Szaławiły
 * 1951 – Uczymy się chodzić

 * 1953 – Teatr Pietruszki
 * 1953 – Wagary
 * 1957 – Magik
 * 1958 – Wyssane z palca
 * 1958 – Sto bajek
 * 1961 – Podróże pana Kleksa
 * 1964 – Śmiechu warte
 * 1965 – Od baśni do baśni
 * 1965 – Tryumf pana Kleksa

title: Jan Brzechwa


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Astara, Iran

Astara is a city in the Central District of Astara County, Gilan province, Iran, serving as the capital of both the county and the district. It lies on the border with Azerbaijan Republic and on the Caspian Sea. It is an important border trade center between Iran and the Caucasus.

History
The earliest mention, under the name Astārāb, comes in the Ḥodūd al-ʿālam, written toward the end of the 10th century. In the 14th century, Astara became the seat of the small principality of the Esfahbad or Espahbad (-bod) of Gīlān. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, the Ṭālešī Khans of Āstārā were either autonomous or nominally subordinate to the governors of Gīlān or Ardabīl; on several occasions they played an important role in the history of the Caspian provinces. According to Minorsky, we do not know whether the later governors of Astara still continued the line of the Ispahbads. Even after the conquest of Northern Tālish by the Russians (1813) the family of the Tālish-khans retained certain rights.

Astara was part of the short lived Talysh Khanate in the 18th and 19th centuries, and for a short while it was the capital of the Khanate before it was moved to Lankaran. In 1828, with the signing of the Treaty of Turkmenchay, Astara was split into two. The city of Astara in Azerbaijan is located just across the Astarachay River.

Language
Linguistic composition of the city.

Population
At the time of the 2006 National Census, the city's population was 40,664 in 11,436 households. The following census in 2011 counted 48,470 people in 14,639 households. The 2016 census measured the population of the city as 51,579 people in 16,696 households.

Climate
Astara has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen: Cfa, Trewartha: Cf), with relatively cold, wet winters and warm, humid summers. It has the most precipitation days than any other cities in Iran.

Agriculture
Rice has been cultivated in this region for many years, where some indigenous cultivars (landrace) were conventionally bred by farmers.

Culture
Astara is home to one of the first libraries established in the country.

Tourism
Astara has various attractions and is considered a major tourist destination for Iranians and foreigners, especially those from the Caucasus. The city has a selection of beaches and is near to a Temperate rainforest. Annually over six million Iranians, and six hundred thousand foreigners visit the city. The most popular beaches in this city are Shariati park and Sadaf beach. Shariati beach park is located in the city, and Sadaf beach is 7 kilometers from Astara city

Education

 * Islamic Azad University of Astara

Notable people

 * Fereydun Ebrahimi – Procurator-General in Azerbaijan People's Government
 * Ebrahim Nabavi – Iranian journalist
 * Payan Rafat – football player
 * Kamal Habibollahi – last Commander of the Imperial Iranian Navy
 * Moein Piri – Musician and composer
 * Mehran Samandari – Adult entertainer
 * Babak Fathi - Mechanical Engineer & University professor

title: Astara, Iran


text:
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Domenico Allegri

Domenico Allegri (c. 1585 – 5 September 1629) was an Italian composer and singer of the early Baroque Roman School. He was the second son of the Milanese coachman Costantino Allegri, who lived in Rome with his family, and was a younger brother of the more famous Gregorio Allegri. Costantino sent three sons, Gregorio, Domenico and Bartolomeo, to study music at San Luigi dei Francesi, under the maestro di capella Giovanni Bernardino Nanino, brother of Giovanni Maria Nanino. The little boy had as schoolmates his elder brother Gregorio and then Antonio Cifra, Domenico Massenzio and Paolo Agostini.

In 1606, Allegri was maestro di cappella of the church of Santa Maria at Spello, and from September 1609 until April 1610 served in the same role at the church of Santa Maria in Trastevere in Rome. From 3 April 1610 until his death, he held the same position at the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, where he was buried.

Allegri is mainly famous for being one of the first to include specific instrumental accompaniments to sacred vocal music on a small scale. While much of his music is lost, one piece which has survived is the Modi quos expositis in choris of 1617 which has accompaniments to the voices by two violins.

title: Domenico Allegri


text:
Christopher Knowles (poet)

Christopher Knowles (born 1959) is an American poet and painter. He was born in New York City on May 4, 1959, and has received a diagnosis of possible brain damage. He is often referred to as autistic. In 1976, his poetry was used by Robert Wilson for the avant-garde minimalist Philip Glass opera, Einstein on the Beach. Wilson describes his discovery of the then 13-year-old Knowles in the extended notes to the Tomato Records release of Einstein on the Beach:"In early 1973 a man ... gave me an audio tape ... I was fascinated. The tape was entitled 'Emily Likes the TV'. On it a young man's voice spoke continuously creating repetitions and variations on phrases about Emily watching the TV. I began to realize that the words flowed to a patterned rhythm whose logic was self-supporting. It was a piece coded much like music. Like a cantata or fugue it worked with conjugations of thoughts repeated in variations..." Wilson cast the teenager Knowles in a number of his productions, including Einstein on the Beach.

In 1978, the American poet John Ashbery wrote in the magazine New York of a volume of Knowles's poetry:"Christopher has the ability to conceive of his works in minute detail before executing them. There is nothing accidental in the typed designs and word lists; they fill their preordained places as accurately as though they had spilled out of a computer. This pure conceptualism, which others have merely approximated using mechanical aids, is one reason that so many young artists have been drawn to Christopher's work."

Early in 2013, Knowles presented several of his poems in a reading at Gavin Brown's Enterprise in the West Village which had mounted an exhibition of his paintings. The same year, the Museum of Modern Art acquired several of Knowles' paintings, or rather "typings" or "typed designs" – pictures created with a typewriter and using colored ink to make patterns from letters and numbers. He starts the pictures with his signature and works his way up and to the left, Knowles said, painting all the reds, then all the blues, and so on, his father, Edward, added. One of his pictures consists only of the words "John Simon pollute your anger", inspired by the art critic's dismissive treatment of Robert Wilson (Simon had described Wilson as a charlatan and accused him of exploiting Knowles).

In 2015 Institute of Contemporary Art, Philadelphia, staged "Christopher Knowles: In A Word", a solo exhibition of work spanning Knowles' career. The exhibition traveled to the Contemporary Arts Museum Houston in 2017.

Collections

 * NoguerasBlanchard, Madrid / Barcelona, SP
 * Brooklyn Museum of Art, Brooklyn, USA
 * Fogg Museum, Cambridge, USA
 * Museum Boymans-van Beuningen, Rotterdam, NL
 * Museum Ludwig (Dr. Peter Ludwig), Cologne, DE
 * Museum of Modern Art, New York, US

title: Christopher Knowles (poet)


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Calabaza

Calabaza is the generic name in the Spanish language for any type of winter squash. Within an English-language context it specifically refers to the West Indian pumpkin, a winter squash typically grown in the West Indies, tropical America, and the Philippines. Calabaza is the common name for Cucurbita moschata in Cuba, Florida, Puerto Rico, Mexico and the Philippines (where it is also spelled kalabasa). C. moschata is also known as auyama in Colombia, the Dominican Republic and Venezuela; ayote in Central America; zapallo in certain countries of South America; and "pumpkin", "squash", or "calabash" in English-speaking islands.

Etymology
The French term calebasse, and hence the English "calabash", is based on the older Spanish.

Cultivars
In North America, the Spanish word calabaza may refer to any of several species of squash of the genus Cucurbita. The term is most commonly used for cultivars of the species C. moschata, which is native to the Caribbean. The skin color typically varies from dark green to light yellow. The flesh can also vary in color, but most common is bright orange or yellow. Varieties differ somewhat in taste and texture, but are generally slightly sweet with a firm but soft texture. Cultivars of the species C. maxima may also use the term if they resemble the C. moschata cultivars, and widespread species C. foetidissima specifically identifies "calabaza" as one of its common names.

Botanical description

Calabaza plants are monoecious and are pollinated by insects like honeybees and bumblebees. The plants have long internodes and vines that are up to 15 m from the crown of the fruit to the plant. Most plants have vine-type growth; however, there are some Cucurbita moschata that are recorded to have bush-type growth. They typically yield between two and fifteen fruits, but the bush types provide higher yields. The fruit may weigh 5 to 50 lb, and fruit shape varies from oval, spheroid, obovate, pear, oblate, to elliptic. Improved types tend to be spheroid, oblate or flat. The rind varies in color from a light to dark green when immature and a light orange to beige when mature, and can be smooth or warted. The inside flesh is green-yellow to orange in color and is about 1 to 3 in thick.

Uses
Calabaza is eaten many different ways, such as in stews, cakes, and candies. It can also be used in place of pumpkin varieties. The taste is smooth and somewhat sweet. Calabaza is a good source of beta-carotene, some of which can be converted into vitamin A.

Under Spanish colonial influence, C. moschata became established in the Philippines and is a staple vegetable used in a variety of dishes. It is known in Filipino as kalabasa, or in Philippine English as "squash" or "pumpkin".

The flower (flor de calabaza) is used as an ingredient in quesadillas, empanadas and other dishes in Mexican cuisine and New Mexican cuisine, and in pupusas in Salvadoran cuisine. The flowers (bulaklak ng kalabasa) are also commonly eaten stuffed (relyeno or relleno), or as ingredients in soups in Philippine cuisine, along with young leaves (talbos ng kalabasa).

The seeds, toasted and seasoned, known as pepitas, are a common snack.

title: Calabaza


text:
User talk:The Cardigan Kid

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Barnstar For You!

 * Woohoo! Thanks for flagging the article, and glad I could help fix! Thanks again. The Cardigan Kid (talk) 22:45, 6 July 2022 (UTC)

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title: User talk:The Cardigan Kid