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CSSD

CSSD may refer to:

Groups, organizations

 * Royal Central School of Speech and Drama, London, England, UK
 * Calgary Catholic School District, Alberta, Canada
 * Department of Children, Seniors and Social Development (Newfoundland and Labrador), child protection agency in Newfoundland, Canada
 * Center for the Study of Social Difference, Columbia Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, The Earth Institute
 * Consultative Subcommittee on Surplus Disposal (CSSD), part of the U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization
 * Club Atlético Sansinena Social y Deportivo (C. S. S. D.), a soccer club in General Daniel Cerri, Bahía Blanca Partido, Buenos Aires Province, Argentina

Political parties

 * Czech Social Democratic Party (CSSD, Česká strana sociálně demokratická, ČSSD), a social-democratic political party of Czechia
 * ČSSD – Czech Sovereignty of Social Democracy (CSSD, Česká suverenita sociální demokracie, ČSSD), a nationalist political party of Czechia
 * Czechoslovak Social Democratic Party (CSSD, Českoslovanská sociálně demokratická stranu dělnická, ČSSD), a political party of the former country of Czechoslovakia

Unit types

 * Central sterile services department, an integrated place in health-care facilities that performs sterilization of medical devices
 * Combat Service Support Detachment; see Glossary of military abbreviations

Other uses

 * Chief of the Security Police and SD (Chef der Sicherheitspolizei und des SD; CSSD}; see Glossary of Nazi Germany
 * Cloneproof Schwartz Sequential Dropping, a single-winner election method
 * Computer Supported Spiritual Development, a field of study related to computer-supported collaboration

title: CSSD


text:
Supercommutative algebra

In mathematics, a supercommutative (associative) algebra is a superalgebra (i.e. a Z2-graded algebra) such that for any two homogeneous elements x, y we have

 * $$yx = (-1)^{|x| |y|}xy ,$$

where |x| denotes the grade of the element and is 0 or 1 (in Z$2$) according to whether the grade is even or odd, respectively.

Equivalently, it is a superalgebra where the supercommutator

 * $$[x,y] = xy - (-1)^{|x| |y|}yx$$

always vanishes. Algebraic structures which supercommute in the above sense are sometimes referred to as skew-commutative associative algebras to emphasize the anti-commutation, or, to emphasize the grading, graded-commutative or, if the supercommutativity is understood, simply commutative.

Any commutative algebra is a supercommutative algebra if given the trivial gradation (i.e. all elements are even). Grassmann algebras (also known as exterior algebras) are the most common examples of nontrivial supercommutative algebras. The supercenter of any superalgebra is the set of elements that supercommute with all elements, and is a supercommutative algebra.

The even subalgebra of a supercommutative algebra is always a commutative algebra. That is, even elements always commute. Odd elements, on the other hand, always anticommute. That is,
 * $$xy + yx = 0\,$$

for odd x and y. In particular, the square of any odd element x vanishes whenever 2 is invertible:
 * $$x^2 = 0 .$$

Thus a commutative superalgebra (with 2 invertible and nonzero degree one component) always contains nilpotent elements.

A Z-graded anticommutative algebra with the property that x$2$ = 0 for every element x of odd grade (irrespective of whether 2 is invertible) is called an alternating algebra.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Supercommutative algebra


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Neo-noir

Neo-noir is a revival of film noir, a genre that had originally flourished during and after World War II in the United Statesroughly from 1940 to 1960. During the late 1970s and the early 1980s, the term "neo-noir" surged in popularity, fueled by movies such as Sydney Pollack's Absence of Malice, Brian De Palma's Blow Out, and Martin Scorsese's After Hours. The French term film noir translates literally to English as "dark film" or “black film”, because they were quite dark both in lighting and in sinister stories often presented in a shadowy cinematographic style. Neo-noir has a similar style but with updated themes, content, style, and visual elements.

Definition
The neologism neo-noir, using the Greek prefix for the word new, is defined by Mark Conard as "any film coming after the classic noir period that contains noir themes and noir sensibility". Another definition describes it as later noir that often synthesizes diverse genres while foregrounding the scaffolding of film noir.

History
"Film noir" was coined by critic Nino Frank in 1946 and popularized by French critics Raymond Borde and Etienne Chaumeton in 1955. The term revived in general use beginning in the 1980s, with a revival of the style.

The classic film noir era is usually dated from the early 1940s to the late 1950s. The films were often adaptations of American crime novels, which were also described as "hardboiled". Some authors resisted these terms. For example, James M. Cain, author of The Postman Always Rings Twice (1934) and Double Indemnity (1944), is considered to be one of the defining authors of hard-boiled fiction. Both novels were adapted as crime films, the former more than once. Cain is quoted as saying, "I belong to no school, hard-boiled or otherwise, and I believe these so-called schools exist mainly in the imagination of critics, and have little correspondence in reality anywhere else."

Characteristics
Neo-noir film directors refer to 'classic noir' in the use of Dutch angles, interplay of light and shadows, unbalanced framing; blurring of the lines between good and bad and right and wrong, and thematic motifs including revenge, paranoia, and alienation.

Typically American crime dramas or psychological thrillers, films noir had common themes and plot devices, and many distinctive visual elements. Characters were often conflicted antiheroes, trapped in a difficult situation and making choices out of desperation or nihilistic moral systems. Visual elements included low-key lighting, striking use of light and shadow, and unusual camera placement. Sound effects helped create the noir mood of paranoia and nostalgia.

Few major films in the classic film noir genre have been made since the early 1960s. These films usually incorporated both thematic and visual elements reminiscent of film noir. Both classic and neo-noir films are often produced as independent features.

After 1970, film critics took note of "neo-noir" films as a separate genre. Noir and post-noir terminology (such as "hard-boiled", "neo-classic" and the like) are often rejected by both critics and practitioners.

Robert Arnett stated, "Neo-noir has become so amorphous as a genre/movement, any film featuring a detective or crime qualifies." Screenwriter and director Larry Gross identifies Jean-Luc Godard's Alphaville, alongside John Boorman's Point Blank (1967) and Robert Altman's The Long Goodbye (1973), based on Raymond Chandler's 1953 novel, as neo-noir films. Gross believes that they deviate from classic noir in having more of a sociological than a psychological focus. Neo noir features characters who commit violent crimes, but without the motivations and narrative patterns found in film noir.

Neo noir assumed global character and impact when filmmakers began drawing elements from films in the global market. For instance, Quentin Tarantino's works have been influenced by Ringo Lam's 1987 classic City on Fire. This was particularly the case for the noir-inflected Reservoir Dogs, which was instrumental in establishing Tarantino in October 1992.

This was further expanded upon with the John Wick film franchise in the 2010s. Directed by stuntman Chad Stahelski, the series utilizes noir motifs including the use of light and shadow, complex moralities in its hero and villains, and classic noir motives. In the first film the title character is motivated by revenge; in the second he is placed in a difficult situation and branded as a pariah from his community; and in the third and fourth he seeks a path to redemption and exiting his former life. The series also draws inspiration from the hard-boiled genre's theme of an anti-hero attempting to take down a sprawling criminal organization. Though Wick is not an agent of the law, he is depicted as representing the side of retributive justice and moral forthrightness in a setting otherwise populated by criminals. The series also has a heavy emphasis on violent action, particularly with the use of firearms. In this, Stahelski draws inspiration from Hong Kong action cinema and Korean neo-noir, such as Hard Boiled and The Man from Nowhere.

title: Neo-noir


text: Category:Elections in Kenya

title: Category:Elections in Kenya


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ITRS

ITRS may refer to:

 * International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors, an international body for guiding the semiconductor industry
 * International Terrestrial Reference System, for creating earth measurement reference frames

title: ITRS


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Mirza Masroor Ahmad (0th nomination)

Copyright violation as documented on relevant Talk:Mirza Masroor Ahmad. This is a verbatim copy of another site. I do not know the man to say whether or not he deserves an article but I am sure he does not deserve this one ... Refdoc 22:11, 26 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * I have put a copyvio notice on Mirza Masroor Ahmad and listed it on the copyvio page. Refdoc, for future reference, please list copyvios on the copyvio page. Thanks. Wile E. Heresiarch 00:44, 27 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Poorly written, hard to decifer (who is he?), and a copyvio. Harro5 03:36, May 15, 2005 (UTC)


text:
Category:French Air and Space Force bases

Category for the air bases of France


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Hindi slang

WP is not a dictionary, and the image in Phuddi is a copyvio to boot. Delete. (Going to list the image on Copyright problems now.) Lupo 22:14, 26 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Double-standards. How come Verlan isn't removed? What is particularly wrong about having Hindi slang in Wikipedia if you can have French slang, or for that matter, American slang?
 * Delete as slang / dicdef. But thanks for the expansion of my expletive vocabulary. Ianb 22:24, 26 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, at the risk of being a phuddi duddy. Geogre 02:40, 27 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Groans the jokes on here are getting worse... Somebody choot this guy... -- Graham ☺ | Talk 21:49, 27 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, there are some images sensitive homosexual men just weren't supposed to see... -- Graham ☺ | Talk 21:49, 27 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * that image has inspired me to create a new film editing style to complement RAT editing. Ianb 22:08, 27 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete more foreign language slang dicdefs. -- Cyrius|✎ 00:09, 30 Jul 2004 (UTC)


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Aspidelaps

Aspidelaps is a genus of venomous elapid snakes endemic to Africa. Species in the genus Aspidelaps are commonly called shield-nosed cobras, African coral snakes or coral cobras after their cobra hoods and enlarged rostral (nose) scales. However, the hood is not nearly as well developed in Aspidelaps as it is in the true cobras of the genus Naja.

Venom
Aspidelaps venom is neurotoxic, and Aspidelaps bites have caused human deaths in a few cases.

title: Aspidelaps


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ʻĀina Haina

Āina Haina is an unincorporated town of the City & County of Honolulu in the state of Hawaii of the United States. Located on the island of Oahu, Āina Haina is a residential community developed around Kalanianaole Highway east of Waikīkī and Diamond Head. Āina Haina was named after local dairyman and owner of Hind-Clarke Dairy, Robert Hind. Āina Haina in the Hawaiian language means "Hind's Land". A main street is a loop named Hind Drive for him. Āina Haina has two elementary schools (Aina Haina Elementary School and Holy Nativity School) and a shopping center.

In the 2000 U.S. Census the U.S. Census Bureau defined the area as being in the urban Honolulu census-designated place. For the 2010 U.S. Census the bureau created a new census-designated place, East Honolulu.

Education
Hawaii Department of Education operates public schools. Aina Haina Elementary School is the local elementary school.

Holy Nativity School is an Episcopal Church school operated by The Church of the Holy Nativity in Aina Haina.

Honolulu Waldorf School had a high school in Aina Haina which closed admissions in 2019 and operated until 2020.

Hawaii State Public Library System maintains the Aina Haina Public Library.

title: ʻĀina Haina


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WRBU

WRBU (channel 46) is a television station licensed to East St. Louis, Illinois, United States, broadcasting the Ion Television network to the St. Louis, Missouri area. Owned and operated by the Ion Media subsidiary of the E. W. Scripps Company, the station has offices on Richardson Road in Arnold, Missouri, and its transmitter is located near Missouri Route 21 and East Four Ridge Road in House Springs.

Early history
The station first signed on the air on September 11, 1989, as WHSL, originally operating as a full simulcast of the Home Shopping Network (HSN). Unlike most full-time HSN affiliates of the period, it was not founded by the network's broadcasting arm, Silver King Communications; instead, it was originally owned by St. Louis-based Roberts Broadcasting, a family-owned firm owned by African American businessmen Steven, Mike and Mark Roberts. WHSL was the first full-power television station to sign on in the St. Louis market since KNLC (channel 24) debuted in September 1982.

What was a placid relationship between HSN and Roberts for the station's first seven years on air soured in 1996, when HSN sued the station for breach of contract; Roberts sought to air more infomercials and fewer hours of home shopping. The move came after HSN reduced the number of local commercial minutes per hour from 5 to 2 and after Roberts considered leasing the station's airtime to River City Broadcasting (owners of KDNL-TV) or Koplar Communications, which owned KPLR-TV. A judge found in favor of HSN in the dispute. With few exceptions, Roberts was thus locked into airing HSN's programs in an arrangement that did not expire until 2003.

From HSN to UPN
In June 2001, Roberts announced that it had signed an agreement to become an affiliate of UPN, a move that would give the network its first primary affiliate in St. Louis and end the market's status as the largest U.S. city by market size that did not have a full-time affiliate of the network. The deal would begin in 2003, when the HSN contract expired. Despite the fact that St. Louis was large enough to support exclusive affiliations with all six major broadcast networks that were in operation after January 1995, WHSL's commitment to HSN prevented UPN from having a stable exclusive affiliate in the market. When the network launched, it had no affiliate in St. Louis. It finally found one in KDNL-TV, by then an ABC affiliate, which aired its programming in late night time slots from August 1995 until January 1998. When KDNL-TV opted to focus on ABC programming, it was another 16 months until UPN reached an agreement with religious independent station KNLC—which ended after just a year and with KNLC refusing to clear three-fourths of UPN's shows as inconsistent with its programming philosophy. KPLR-TV took on a part-time affiliation with UPN—although delaying its prime time shows until after the station's 9 p.m. newscast—in September 2000.

In July 2002, KPLR decided to disaffiliate from UPN and exclusively align with The WB, a move which would have affected fans of two of the network's most popular series of the period, Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Star Trek: Enterprise, forcing them to watch both shows either through UPN-affiliated superstations offered by Dish Network or by way of tape trading. Roberts management sought to remedy this by obtaining permission from HSN to allow WHSL to preempt two hours a week of programming during prime time to carry both shows starting in September 2002.

On January 17, 2003, the station changed its call sign to WRBU (a partial reference to its corporate parent). The remainder of the UPN programming lineup moved to channel 46 three months later on April 1. On that date, WRBU replaced the HSN programming with a lineup of syndicated programs to fill out the schedule, consisting of a mix of sitcoms, drama series and first-run syndicated talk, court and reality shows.

In February 2003, Roberts Broadcasting sold a 50% interest in WRBU to the TeleFutura subsidiary of Univision Communications, under the joint venture licensee St. Louis/Denver LLC; under the terms of the deal, Roberts continued to operate the station through a time brokerage agreement and was given right of first refusal on appointees for the directors of WRBU's licensee. Through its involvement in the venture, Roberts in turn transferred operational responsibilities for its station in Denver, KTVJ (now KTFD-TV), to Univision, which converted that station into a TeleFutura affiliate. Roberts Broadcasting would eventually acquire other television stations in the Midwestern and Southeastern U.S., signing on two UPN-affiliated stations (WRBJ-TV in Jackson, Mississippi, in 2005 and WZRB in Columbia, South Carolina, in 2006) and acquiring WB affiliate WAZE-TV in Evansville, Indiana, from South Central Communications in 2006.

As a MyNetworkTV affiliate
On January 24, 2006, the respective parent companies of UPN and The WB, CBS Corporation and the Warner Bros. Entertainment division of Time Warner, announced that they would dissolve the two networks to create The CW Television Network, a joint venture between the two media companies that initially featured programs from its two predecessor networks as well as new series specifically produced for The CW. On that date, The CW also signed a ten-year affiliation agreement with Tribune Broadcasting, under which sixteen of the group's eighteen WB-affiliated stations would serve as the network's charter stations. One of the stations included in the agreement was KPLR-TV, which was announced as the network's St. Louis affiliate over WRBU; although, since the network chose its affiliates based on which television station among The WB and UPN's respective affiliate bodies was the highest-rated in each market, it is likely that KPLR would have been chosen over WRBU in any event, as channel 11 had been the higher-rated of the two stations even before it became a network affiliate upon joining The WB in January 1995 and had been one of The WB's strongest affiliates for the near entirety of that network's eleven-year existence.

Subsequently, on February 22, 2006, News Corporation announced the launch of MyNetworkTV, a network operated by Fox Television Stations and its syndication division Twentieth Television that was created to primarily to provide network programming to UPN and WB stations with which The CW decided against affiliating based on their local viewership standing in comparison to the outlet that the network ultimately chose, allowing these stations another option besides converting to independent stations. On March 9, in a joint announcement by the network and Roberts Broadcasting, WRBU was confirmed as the charter MyNetworkTV affiliate for St. Louis.

Channel 46 became a MyNetworkTV affiliate when that network launched on September 5, and concurrently rebranded as "My 46"; like other UPN-affiliated stations that were committed to join MyNetworkTV, WRBU ceased carrying UPN's prime time programming, resulting in the network's final two weeks of programming—which largely consisted of repeats of network shows aired during the 2005–06 television season—not being carried in St. Louis. KPLR, meanwhile, remained a WB affiliate until September 17, and officially affiliated with The CW when that network debuted the following day on September 18. As a MyNetworkTV affiliate, the station began serving as a backup NBC affiliate during occasions when KSDK (channel 5) was forced to preempt programs from that network due to commitments to air St. Louis Cardinals baseball games, the Jerry Lewis MDA Labor Day Telethon or locally produced specials, or because of preemptions necessitated to provide breaking news or severe weather coverage. In March 2010, Roberts Broadcasting and Univision Communications filed to formally dissolve the St. Louis/Denver LLC venture, under which Roberts acquired full ownership of WRBU in exchange for selling its interest in KTFD to Univision as compensation for buying out the latter's share in WRBU.

Bankruptcy and sale
By 2010, the Roberts brothers had begun facing serious financial trouble with their various businesses. The Roberts' broadcasting unit, in particular, had become the subject of lawsuits by Warner Bros. Television, 20th Television and CBS Television Distribution over its failure to make fee payments for syndicated programs that it acquired for its CW- and MyNetworkTV-affiliated stations (Warner Bros. and CBS would win their court disputes against Roberts, which also later reached a settlement with 20th Television); the company also was unable to fund the construction of Evansville CW affiliate WAZE-TV's digital transmitter facilities, an issue that led the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to cancel that station's full-power license in March 2011 (WAZE continued to operate through its three analog-only low-power translators until their shutdown in January 2013). This culminated in Roberts Broadcasting filing for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection on October 7, 2011. The group cited the cause of its financial downturn on the loss of the UPN affiliations on WRBU, WZRB and WRBJ-TV, on the basis that much of UPN's programming slate at the time of its shutdown consisted of shows aimed at African Americans and other minority audiences that Roberts felt were compatible with the core viewership of the stations.

On February 20, 2012, Roberts announced that the company was exploring the sale of one or all four of its television stations in order to raise sufficient funding to pay off its creditors; the company would eventually sell WRBJ to the Trinity Broadcasting Network in October 2012 and WZRB to Tri-State Christian Television subsidiary Radiant Light Ministries on December 2, 2013, leaving WRBU as the last station that Roberts had yet to cut a divestiture deal.

On December 4, 2013, Roberts filed to sell WRBU to Tri-State Christian Television directly for $5.5 million; however, on December 11, a U.S. Bankruptcy Court hearing gave initial approval for a plan by Roberts' creditors to instead transfer WRBU and its sister stations, WZRB and former WAZE-TV translator WAZE-LP, to a trust overseen by Gary Chapman with Ion Media Networks—a creditor in Roberts' bankruptcy proceedings—as its beneficiary. The attorney representing Roberts subsequently stated that Ion Media would purchase the three stations outright. The FCC approved the deal on February 2, 2014.

As an Ion affiliate-turned-O&O
WRBU became an Ion Television affiliate on February 10, 2014, marking the network's resumption of an over-the-air presence in the St. Louis market. Mount Vernon, Illinois–based WPXS (channel 13, now a Daystar owned-and-operated station) operated as an affiliate of Ion predecessors Pax TV and i: Independent Television during two separate tenures from 1998 to 2004 and 2005 to 2008 (Paxson Communications—which evolved into Ion Media following its 2005 reorganization—owned WPXS during the first tenure; Equity Media Holdings owned the station during its tenure as an i/Ion affiliate following a one-year affiliation deferral to Daystar preceding Paxson's sale of WPXS). The network had also been available in St. Louis proper through low-power repeater KUMO-LP (channel 51), which covered portions of the St. Louis metropolitan area that had inadequate reception of the WPXS signal but had sparse cable coverage in most of the market. After WPXS dropped Ion to become a Retro Television Network affiliate in 2008, most St. Louis viewers could only receive Ion programming via cable and satellite from the network's national feed.

The sale to the Ion trust resulted in the company voiding WRBU's agreements with syndication distributors and with Fox Entertainment Group for the MyNetworkTV affiliation, with the network switch causing St. Louis to become the largest American television market at that time without a MyNetworkTV affiliate. The network would eventually return to the market when CBS affiliate KMOV (channel 4) relaunched its DT3 subchannel on November 17, 2014, acquiring both the MyNetworkTV affiliation and many syndicated shows formerly carried by WRBU that had lost local distribution in St. Louis because of the switch (through St. Louis' status as a top-25 market, KMOV-DT3 became the largest subchannel-only MyNetworkTV affiliate).

On January 29, 2015, Cedar Creek Broadcasting (a company controlled by Brian Brady, who also owns several other broadcasting companies operating as de facto arms of his flagship group, Northwest Broadcasting) agreed to purchase WRBU and WZRB from the trust for $6 million; Ion would have provided services to the stations, which would remain Ion affiliates. On May 9, 2017, the Broadcast Trust informed the FCC that the sale to Cedar Creek Broadcasting had been terminated. One month after the Cedar Creek purchase's termination (and with the FCC restoring the UHF discount), on June 20, 2017, Ion Media announced that it would purchase WRBU from the Chapman-owned/Ion-managed trust, in a two-station deal with Columbia sister station WZRB, for an undisclosed amount. The sale was completed on October 19, 2017.

Subchannels
The station's signal is multiplexed:

Until May 2014, WRBU transmitted its primary digital channel in 480i standard definition, making it one of the few network-affiliated stations in the United States that did not transmit an HD feed through its digital signal (internal promotions for the station's website and Facebook page that were produced during its MyNetworkTV affiliation were downconverted from 16:9 to a letterboxed 4:3 format when aired on the station). On March 10, 2014, exactly one month after the Chapman/Ion trust took ownership of the station, WRBU began carrying all five subchannel services carried by Ion Media on its Ion Television owned-and-operated stations; it also resulted in WRBU reuniting with HSN's over-the-air service, which Ion has carried on the DT5 feed of its stations since November 2013. On May 1, 2014, WRBU began transmitting its main feed in high definition in the network's standard 720p format.

Analog-to-digital conversion
WRBU shut down its analog signal, over UHF channel 46, on January 21, 2009. The station's digital signal continued to broadcasts on its pre-transition UHF channel 47, using virtual channel 46.

title: WRBU


text:
Siemens SX1

The Siemens SX1 is a GSM mobile phone running version 1.2 of the Series 60 platform for the Symbian OS. It was the first such smartphone from Siemens following its licensing agreement with Nokia for the use and development of Series 60. Though unveiled in February 2003, it was not launched until December 2003.

Features
The phone had a very high feature list for its time of release. It had three built in games and support for more by downloads. The three games which were bundled with the phone were Mozzies, which was awarded the title of best mobile game in 2003, Typegun, which was a game made for acquainting users to the keypad layout, and Sitris, a Tetris version with multiplayer support (via Bluetooth).

Linux on SX1
A Linux for the mobile exists, one can boot a modified Linux kernel on the mobile using Das U-Boot as a bootloader.

title: Siemens SX1


text:
Category:Elections in Zimbabwe

For elections prior to the formation of Zimbabwe, see Category:Elections in Rhodesia

title: Category:Elections in Zimbabwe


text:
Keith Levene

Julian Keith Levene (18 July 1957 – 11 November 2022) was an English musician who was a founding member of both the Clash and Public Image Ltd (PiL). While Levene was in PiL, their 1978 debut album  reached No 22 in the UK album charts, and its lead track "Public Image" broke the top 10 UK singles chart.

Levene was born and raised in London, and although initially influenced by progressive rock, his musical taste changed after meeting fellow Clash founder Mick Jones. His punk and post punk guitar sounds have been described as "both melodic and discordant, sonorous and violent".

Early years and success
Levene was born in Muswell Hill, London on 18 July 1957. His father was Jewish. He was an early fan of ska, The Beatles and progressive rock; at fifteen he worked as a roadie for Yes on their Close to the Edge tour, "cleaning Alan White's cymbals" amongst other mundane duties.

He became a founding member of the Flowers of Romance and notably the Clash, when in 1976, he helped persuade Joe Strummer to leave the pub rock band the 101ers and join the Clash. Although he left the band before their first studio recordings, he co-wrote "What's My Name", which appeared on their first album. Levene would later document his time with the Clash in his autobiography "I Was a Teen Guitarist 4 the Clash!" When interviewed about "I Was a Teenage Guitarist 4 the Clash, Levene recalled "I was a kid, I was into all sorts of music, The Beatles, reggae, and at the time, prog rock. I’d just finished a tour with Yes as a roadie, which is another story also explained in the book. So basically you’re hanging out with me from when I was about 15 when I got a job with Yes, and then I didn’t get kicked off the tour, but I kinda got told not to come back on another one. It was amazing for me and then, unplanned I started making this migration to West London and I tell you what happened, I take you there. Like when I met Mick Jones and how I talk about the scene that was emerging..."

After the late 1970s British punk group the Sex Pistols disbanded, Levene and their lead singer John Lydon co-founded Public Image Ltd (PiL) in May 1978. He played on Travis Bean metal-neck guitars. He was involved in the writing, performing and producing of PiL's early albums: First Issue, Metal Box and Flowers of Romance. While playing with PiL, their 1978 debut album  reached No 22 in the UK album charts, while the lead track "Public Image", broke the top 10 single chart.

Levene left PiL in 1983 due to creative differences over what would eventually become the band's fourth album, This Is What You Want... This Is What You Get. In 1984, he released the original versions of the songs on his own label under the title Commercial Zone; the original working title of the album. In 1985, he moved to Los Angeles where he formed a company with his second wife, journalist Shelly da Cunha.

Later years
In mid-1986, Levene was asked to produce demos for the album The Uplift Mofo Party Plan by the Red Hot Chili Peppers at Master Control in Burbank with engineers Steve Catania and Dan Nebenzal. Also in 1986, Levene worked with DJ Matt Dike, experimenting with sampling techniques and hip-hop for Ice-T and Tone Loc on their early recordings for Delicious. In 1989, he released his first solo release, Violent Opposition, on which members of the Red Hot Chili Peppers performed.

At an impromptu appearance at the Musicport Festival in Bridlington Spa on 24 October 2010, where they were joined by vocalist Nathan Maverick, Levene returned with former PiL bassist Jah Wobble. In 2011 Levene contributed to three tracks on the album Psychic Life, a collaboration between Wobble and Lonelady.

In early 2012, after some planned Japan gigs were cancelled because of visa issues, Levene and Wobble played various venues in England, Wales and Germany as Metal Box in Dub, followed by the release of a four-song EP, Yin & Yang. In 2014, Levene travelled to Prague to record the album Commercial Zone 2014, funded by a crowdsourcing campaign at Indiegogo. Tim Peacock of Record Collector noted that it was "recorded in isolation at Prague's Faust Studios", and that the album is in actuality an offering of new material. Peacock stated: "It's primarily instrumental in design, veering from the chilled, scene-stealing Behind the Law to the synth-heavy Kraftwerk-ian noir of They Came to Dance."

In a 2014 interview from Prague regarding Commercial Zone 2014, Levene stated:

"'People kept asking 'when are you doing an autobiography?' I said 'I’m not, why would I do one?' Well, that all changed and I started doing a ton of interviews with Kathy DiTondo, talking about the times, the people, the places and it was quite fucking heavy therapy. She’d be asking me questions and some of it would be the same old story, and I’d think I’ve told this story a million times, boring, but I’m telling her because she wants to know genuinely and she thinks its important. Then I’m realising, fuck – this is heavy duty, this hurts. So what it evolved into was quite good for me. We were doing Diary of a Non-Punk Rocker, we were zooming in on areas of my life... We didn’t plan it this way, it fell into place this way. We were doing this Commercial Zone 2014 campaign, and offered previews from Diary. Kathy DiTondo came up with 'I was A Teenage Guitarist 4 The Clash' and I said 'fucking good'. Then I said “let’s do it Commercial Zone style” hand made and with the covers and so on.'"

Death
Levene died from complications of liver cancer at his home in Norfolk on 11 November 2022, aged 65.

Personal life
Levene married his first wife, Lori Montana, an American musician. The two had a son named Kirk and later divorced. Keith's second marriage was to Shelly da Cunha, though it also ended in divorce. He later lived with his partner, Kate Ransford.

Influences and style
Levene cited guitarist Steve Howe of Yes as one of his main influences and "the greatest fucking guitarist in the world", and prog rock as a genre he particularly liked.

Describing the evolution of his style, he said in a 2001 interview that "once I got good enough to know the rules, I didn't want to be like any other guitarist. I didn't go out of my way to be different. I just had an ear for what was wrong. So if I did something that was wrong, i.e. made a mistake or did something that wasn't in key, I was open-minded enough to listen to it again."

Legacy
According to John Frusciante of the Red Hot Chili Peppers, Levene's style was "spectacular... [and he]...explored the possibilities of what you can do with the guitar". Upon his death, Massive Attack described Levene as an "artist, architect and re-inventor of punk rock". Andy Bell of Ride and Mike Scott of the Waterboys also paid tribute to him on social media.

Studio albums

 * Violent Opposition (Taang!/Emergo/Rykodisc 1989)
 * Murder Global Demos (Archive 2008)
 * Yin and Yang (Cherry Red 2012) (Jah Wobble & Keith Levene)
 * Search 4 Absolute Zero (self-released 2013, Gonzo Multimedia 2014)
 * Commercial Zone 2014 (self-released 2014)

Extended Play

 * Back Too Black (Iridescence 1987)
 * Keith Levene's Violent Opposition (Fundamental/Taang! 1988)
 * Looking for Something (Taang! 1988)
 * Murder Global: Killer in the Crowd (self-released 2002, Underground, Inc. 2004)
 * EP aka Mississippi (Pressure Sounds/30 Hertz 2012) (Jah Wobble & Keith Levene)

title: Keith Levene


text:
Theophilus Riesinger

Theophilus Riesinger, OFMCap, born Francis Xavier Riesinger (February 27, 1868 - November 9, 1941) was a German-American Capuchin friar and priest, who became widely known as an exorcist in the United States.

Life
Riesinger was born in Germany. He later moved to the United States where he entered the Capuchin Order. He was ordained on 29 June 1899. In the summer of 1928, due to his previous experience in dealing with possessions, he was requested by the Bishop of Des Moines to conduct the rite of exorcism on a Anna Ecklund, a 46-year-old woman who was suspected of being possessed. While preaching at a parish mission in St. Joseph Parish in Earling, Iowa, he asked the permission of the pastor to conduct the ceremony in the parish. Receiving this, he chose a convent of Franciscan Sisters on the outskirts of the town for its privacy.

After 23 days of performing the exorcism, Riesinger was exhausted. Two days before Christmas of that year, he claimed the demons were driven out, and the woman cried "My Jesus! Mercy! Praised be Jesus Christ!"

Reverend Pastor Joseph Steiger, who oversaw the exorcism, gave his account to Reverend Carl Vogl in Germany, who published it as a pamphlet. This piece made it back to German-speaking Catholics in the United States and was translated into English in 1935 as Begone Satan by Celestine Kapsner, a Benedictine monk of Saint John's Abbey in Minnesota. Soon after, in February of 1936, Time published an article covering the pamphlet. Riesinger’s account of the exorcism was recorded by acquaintance Federick J. Bunse in 1934. It was titled The Earling possession case: An exposition of the exorcism of 'Mary', a demoniac. The church did not give approval for its publication. It remained unpublished until 2020, when it was included in Joseph P. Laycock’s The Penguin Book of Exorcisms.

Riesinger died on November 9, 1941. A necrology of Riesinger was placed on the Internet as part of the Capuchin Heritage Series.

title: Theophilus Riesinger


text:
Talk:John Forsyth (politician)

Untitled
I totally mixed this guy up with Blake Carrington, but that would be John Forsythe, right? Mike H 22:25, Jul 26, 2004 (UTC)
 * Correct - this calls for a disambig page which is now created Dl2000 23:06, 23 April 2006 (UTC)

External links modified
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title: Talk:John Forsyth (politician)


text:
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title: User:Krik~enwiki/nmp


text:
Wikipedia talk:Selected anniversaries/July 12

I don't get the Bethany Beach, Delaware one. Mike H 22:27, Jul 26, 2004 (UTC)

Edit request on 12 July 2012
I think The Twelfth should be included as one of the holidays. It was put down as "ineligible" because it was lacking references. However, over the past few days I've done a lot of work on it and added a lot of references. I think you'll agree it's in a much better state that it was before.

~Asarlaí 00:40, 12 July 2012 (UTC)
 * ✅. Nice work! — howcheng  {chat} 02:23, 12 July 2012 (UTC)

non-neutral article
Hi, I believe that presenting the fleeing of palestinian soldier from Ramle and Lod as an israeli expel order is incorrect and harmful. Even it was true, I haven't seen any mention on this table about the malicious acts of the Jordanian army against the jewish population in Jerusalem and Kfar Etzion. I demand in the name of justice and fairness remove this link, it is harmful for the Israeli visitor... by the way, hizballah on this day began the 2006 Lebanon War, please replace it for more relevant news...Exx8 (talk) 12:47, 12 July 2012 (UTC)
 * 2006 Hezbollah cross-border raid appeared four years in a row, from 2008 to 2011 inclusive. It is simply taking a break this year. Besides, if we include Hezbollah but leave out Lod/Ramle, by your logic wouldn't that make us biased in favor of Israel? If you feel that the article about Lod/Ramle is not neutral, please bring your concerns to Talk:1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle. — howcheng  {chat} 17:48, 12 July 2012 (UTC)

any expel if controversial or not is still less important than the Casus belli of a war. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 87.68.78.66 (talk) 18:23, 20 July 2012 (UTC)

2012 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 04:58, 11 July 2013 (UTC)
 * Omitted: Æthelstan; Catherine Parr; Origin of Latter Day Saint polygamy; Bisbee Deportation; Australian Aboriginal flag; 2006 Hezbollah cross-border raid
 * Included: The Twelfth (rescued from Ineligible); Saint Basil's Cathedral (first appearance); Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty (2nd appearance, last in 2010); 1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle (first appearance); Disco Demolition Night (first appearance); Albert II, Prince of Monaco (first appearance)

2013 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 06:12, 11 July 2013 (UTC)
 * Moved to Ineligible: 1967 Newark riots (maintenance)
 * Omitted: Saint Basil's Cathedral; Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty; 1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle; Disco Demolition Night; Albert II, Prince of Monaco
 * Included: Nuremberg Chronicle (first appearance); Catherine Parr (6th appearance, last in 2011); Battle of Prokhorovka (3rd appearance, last in 2010; 70th anniversary); Moors murders (first appearance; 50th anniversary); July 12, 2007 Baghdad airstrike (first appearance)

2014 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 05:07, 11 July 2014 (UTC)
 * New articles (unused): Second Battle of Algeciras
 * Omitted: Nuremberg Chronicle; Catherine Parr; Battle of Prokhorovka; Moors murders; July 12, 2007 Baghdad airstrike
 * Included: Saint Basil's Cathedral (2nd appearance, last in 2012); Camille Desmoulins (first appearance; 225th anniversary); Japanese battleship Kawachi (first appearance); The Rolling Stones (first appearance); Homosexual Law Reform Act 1986 (3rd appearance, last in 2012)

2015 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 06:40, 10 July 2015 (UTC)
 * Omitted: Saint Basil's Cathedral; Camille Desmoulins; Japanese battleship Kawachi; The Rolling Stones; Homosexual Law Reform Act 1986
 * Included: Æthelstan (2nd appearance, last in 2011); Second Battle of Algeciras (first appearance); Bisbee Deportation (2nd appearance, last in 2011); Australian Aboriginal Flag (2nd appearance, last in 2011); Albert II, Prince of Monaco (2nd appearance, last in 2012; 10th anniversary)

2016 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 07:04, 11 July 2016 (UTC)
 * Moved to Ineligible: Nuremberg Chronicle (maintenance)
 * Omitted: Æthelstan; Second Battle of Algeciras; Bisbee Deportation; Australian Aboriginal Flag; Albert II, Prince of Monaco
 * Included: Catherine Parr (7th appearance, last in 2013); Origin of Latter Day Saint polygamy (2nd appearance, last in 2011); Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty (3rd appearance, last in 2012); Homosexual Law Reform Act 1986 (4th appearance, last in 2014; 30th anniversary); 2006 Hezbollah cross-border raid (5th appearance, last in 2011; 10th anniversary)

2017 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 07:40, 12 July 2017 (UTC)
 * Moved to Ineligible: Camille Desmoulins (maintenance); Medal of Honor (maintenance); Albert II, Prince of Monaco (maintenance)
 * Omitted: Catherine Parr; Origin of Latter Day Saint polygamy; Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty; Homosexual Law Reform Act 1986; 2006 Hezbollah cross-border raid
 * Included: Saint Basil's Cathedral (3rd appearance, last in 2014); Second Battle of Algeciras (2nd appearance, last in 2015); Bisbee Deportation (3rd appearance, last in 2014; 100th anniversary); Moors murders (2nd appearance, last in 2013); July 12, 2007 Baghdad airstrike;(2nd appearance, last in 2013; 10th anniversary) Bertrada of Laon (first appearance); George Eastman (4th appearance, last in 2008; previously appeared on September 4); Ruth Norman (first appearance)

2018 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 16:44, 12 July 2018 (UTC)
 * Omitted: Saint Basil's Cathedral; Second Battle of Algeciras; Bisbee Deportation; Moors murders; July 12, 2007 Baghdad airstrike; Bertrada of Laon; George Eastman; Ruth Norman
 * Included: Æthelstan (3rd appearance, last in 2015); Origin of Latter Day Saint polygamy (3rd appearance, last in 2016; 175th anniversary); Japanese battleship Kawachi (2nd appearance, last in 2014; 100th anniversary); 1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle (2nd appearance, last in 2012; 70th anniversary); Australian Aboriginal Flag (3rd appearance, last in 2015); Margaret Theresa of Spain (first appearance); Gertrude Bell (first appearance); Sanjay Manjrekar (first appearance)

2019 Notes
The current image caption is wrong. That was not Prokhorovka, but Pokrovka, which is is 40 kilometres (25 mi) southwest of Prokhorovka. EyeTruth (talk) 08:29, 21 June 2019 (UTC)
 * OK, I replaced it with File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-022-2950-15A, Russland, Panzer im Einsatz.jpg, which is in the infobox of the battle article. Thanks. — howcheng  {chat} 16:44, 21 June 2019 (UTC)

2019 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 18:14, 18 July 2019 (UTC)
 * Rescued from Ineligible (unused): Albert II, Prince of Monaco
 * Omitted: Æthelstan; Origin of Latter Day Saint polygamy; Japanese battleship Kawachi; 1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle; Australian Aboriginal Flag; Margaret Theresa of Spain; Gertrude Bell; Sanjay Manjrekar
 * Included: Catherine Parr (8th appearance, last in 2016); Second Battle of Algeciras (3rd appearance, last in 2017); Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty (4th appearance, last in 2016); Battle of Prokhorovka(4th appearance, last in 2013); Disco Demolition Night (2nd appearance, last in 2012; 40th anniversary); Alexander Hamilton (first appearance); Margherita Piazzola Beloch (first appearance); Mary Glen-Haig (first appearance)

2020 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 17:32, 13 July 2020 (UTC)
 * Deleted: Battle of the Boyne (moved to July 11)
 * New articles (unused): Gertrude Bell
 * Omitted: Catherine Parr (ineligible—maintenance); Second Battle of Algeciras; Battle of Prokhorovka; Disco Demolition Night; Alexander Hamilton; Margherita Piazzola Beloch; Mary Glen-Haig
 * Included: Saint Basil's Cathedral (4th appearance, last in 2017); Origin of Latter Day Saint polygamy (4th appearance, last in 2018); The Rolling Stones (2nd appearance, last in 2014); Homosexual Law Reform Act 1986 (5th appearance, last in 2016); Charles Chalmot de Saint-Ruhe (first appearance); Sanjay Manjrekar (2nd appearance, last in 2018); Anne-Sophie Pic (first appearance)
 * Repeats: Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty (2nd consecutive appearance, 5 total; 100th anniversary)

2021 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 07:24, 14 July 2021 (UTC)
 * Deleted: Australian Aboriginal Flag (date not certain)
 * New articles (unused): Eila Campbell
 * Omitted: Saint Basil's Cathedral; Origin of Latter Day Saint polygamy; Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty; The Rolling Stones; Homosexual Law Reform Act 1986; Charles Chalmot de Saint-Ruhe; Sanjay Manjrekar; Anne-Sophie Pic
 * Included: Æthelstan (4th appearance, last in 2018); Second Battle of Algeciras (4th appearance, last in 2019); Japanese battleship Kawachi (3rd appearance, last in 2018); 2006 Hezbollah cross-border raid (6th appearance, last in 2016); Bahlul Lodi (first appearance); Josiah Wedgwood (first appearance); Elsie de Wolfe (first appearance)

2022 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 07:36, 13 July 2022 (UTC)
 * Moved to Ineligible: Bisbee Deportation (maintenance); Albert II, Prince of Monaco (maintenance)
 * Omitted: Second Battle of Algeciras; Japanese battleship Kawachi; 2006 Hezbollah cross-border raid; Bahlul Lodi; Josiah Wedgwood
 * Included: Choe Bu (first appearance); Battle of Prokhorovka (5th appearance, last in 2019); The Rolling Stones (3rd appearance, last in 2020; 60th anniversary); Margaret Theresa of Spain (2nd appearance, last in 2018); George Eastman (5th appearance, last in 2017)
 * Repeats: Æthelstan (2nd consecutive appearance, 5 total); Elsie de Wolfe (2nd consecutive appearance, 2 total)


text:
Swedish War of Liberation

The Swedish War of Liberation (1521–1523; Befrielsekriget), also known as Gustav Vasa's Rebellion and the Swedish War of Secession, was a significant historical event in Sweden. Gustav Vasa, a nobleman, led a rebellion and civil war against King Christian II. The war resulted in the deposition of King Christian II from the throne of Sweden, effectively ending the Kalmar Union that had united Sweden, Norway, and Denmark. This conflict played a crucial role in shaping Sweden's national identity and history.

Background
King Christian II, along with his ally, Swedish Archbishop Gustav Trolle, attempted to suppress the separatist Sture party within the Swedish nobility by executing numerous members during the Stockholm Bloodbath. The King faced discontent due to his imposition of high taxes on the peasantry. Furthermore, the presence of German and Danish nobles and commoners in most Swedish castles further fueled the anger of native Swedish nobility.

Economics
In the background was an economic power struggle over the mining and metal industry in Bergslagen, Sweden's main mining region in the 16th century. This struggle significantly increased the financial resources available to the military, while also exacerbating existing conflicts over the Kalmar Union. The key players in this economic competition were:
 * Jakob Fugger, an early and immensely wealthy industrialist in the mining and metal industries on the continent, who sought to execute a hostile business takeover of Bergslagen. He formed alliances with Pope Leo X and the Swedish Archbishop Gustav Trolle, both of whom depended on him economically, as well as with the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I and Christian II of Denmark/Norway, who asserted his claim to the throne of the Union, including Sweden. His marriage to Isabella of Austria in 1515 strengthened this alliance.
 * The Hanseatic League, represented by the Free City of Lübeck, which had a virtual monopoly on trade with Sweden and Bergslagen. The League was allied with the Swedish regents Sten Sture the Younger and later Gustav Vasa, creating a strong dependence on the League.

Christian II's planned invasion of Sweden, coupled with Fugger's intended takeover of the industry in Bergslagen, was financed both by the substantial dowry of Christian II's wife and by Fugger himself. However, Fugger withdrew from the battle in 1521 after being defeated by Gustav Vasa at the Battle of Västerås, relinquishing control of shipping from Bergslagen. As a result, Christian II lost both the resources needed to win the war against Gustav Vasa and the means to maintain his position in Denmark against his uncle, Frederick I of Denmark, by 1523.

The significant increase in funding and financial dependence allowed the parties to at times afford larger numbers of expensive hired mercenaries, leading to fluctuations in power and abrupt shifts in the dynamics of the war. The costs were considerable, and after Christian III's victory alongside Gustav Vasa's Sweden in the Count's Feud in Skåne and Denmark, the funds were exhausted by 1536, marking the end of the influence of the Catholic Church and the Hanseatic League in the Nordic countries.

Rebellion 1521
The war began in January 1521, when Gustav Vasa was appointed hövitsman (commander) over Dalarna by representatives of the people in the northern part of the province. After Gustav Vasa captured the copper mine at Stora Kopparberget and the town of Västerås, more men joined his army. In 1522, the Hanseatic city of Lübeck formed an alliance with the Swedish rebels. After the capture of Stockholm in June 1523, the rebels effectively ruled Sweden, and on 6 June, Gustav Vasa was elected King of Sweden in the town of Strängnäs. By September, Gustav Vasa's supporters also controlled Swedish Finland. The Treaty of Malmö, signed on 1 September 1524, formalized Sweden's secession from the Kalmar Union.

Initially, Gustav's role in the war against Christian II was as one of several rebel leaders, each active in different parts of the country. The war that eventually led to his coronation was only partially instigated and led by him. The term "Gustav Vasa's War of Liberation", often used in historiography, derives primarily from the war's outcome—Gustav Vasa's ascension to the throne of an independent Sweden—rather than its initial impetus and course. Contemporary research also indicates that Gustav himself did not directly oversee any military operations, delegating such responsibilities to associates with greater military experience.

Dalarna
The details of Gustav Vasa's activities in Dalarna in 1520 remain largely unknown due to the scarcity of sources. The most comprehensive account available was written during Gustav's reign by his close associate, Bishop Peder Andreæ Swart of Västerås, which some historians speculate was heavily influenced by Gustav himself.

In 1520, Gustav Vasa traveled to the Swedish province of Dalarna, disguised as a peasant to avoid detection by King Christian's scouts. Arriving in the city of Mora in December, he sought the peasants' help in his uprising against Christian II. When he was rebuffed, Gustav Vasa decided to travel north in search of supporters for his cause. A couple of refugees arrived in Mora and told of the atrocities committed by Christian II and his troops. Moved by these accounts, the people of Mora decided to locate Gustav Vasa and join his rebellion, sending two skilled skiers for the task. They eventually intercepted him in Sälen. (The Vasaloppet, a 90 km ski race, commemorates this remarkable escape from Christian II's soldiers in the winter of 1520–1521, but follows the reverse route from Sälen back to Mora. Legend has it that he fled on skis).

Upon his return to Mora, on New Year's Eve 1521, Gustav Vasa was appointed hövitsman by emissaries from all the parishes of northern Dalarna.

In March, Gustav Vasa left Mora with about 100 men and plundered Kopparberg. Soon after, the peasants of Bergslagen rallied to the cause, swelling Gustav Vasa's forces to over 1,000 men.

Battle of Brunnbäck Ferry
When news of the Swedish uprising reached Christian II, he sent a contingent of Landknechten to put down the rebellion. In April 1521, the Union forces clashed with Gustav Vasa's followers at Brunnbäck Ferry, resulting in the decisive defeat of the king's army. This triumph greatly boosted the morale of the Swedish rebels.

An emergency mint was set up in Dalarna to produce the copper coins needed to finance the war effort.

Battle of Västerås
The rebel army advanced south to Västerås, which they captured and plundered in the Battle of Västerås 29 April 1521. Upon hearing of Gustav Vasa's triumph, supporters of the Sture family decided to join the rebellion. Västerås marked a pivotal moment in Gustav Vasa's fortunes, as the rebels gained control of the shipping routes from Bergslagen and Fugger stopped funding Christian II.

In April, Gustav Trolle had been sent to Hälsingland, but when his two hundred cavalry encountered the thousand strong peasant army, they fled south. By the end of April 1521, Gustav Vasa had secured supremacy in Dalarna, with support from Gästrikland, Västmanland, and Närke, but without the fortresses.

On July 15, 1521, the Riksdag met in Stockholm and offered Gustav Vasa a free lease on Stockholm with forgiveness for all transgressions. As a gesture of goodwill, Gustav Trolle had Didrik Slagheck imprisoned, and was promised substantial supplies of malt and hops. Gustav Vasa hesitated and waited for developments. The rebellion soon reached Brunkeberg, although the peasants found it impossible to besiege the town.

The summer of 1521 brought relative peace. Many returned to their farms to help with the harvest.

After Västerås – Professional armies
The importance of peasant armies diminished in the conflict, and the war was fought primarily by German mercenaries and recruited Swedish soldiers, supplemented by cavalry from the Swedish nobility.

1521 – Gustav Vasa becomes head of state
Lars Siggesson Sparre, who had previously been a hostage of Christian II but had defected to the king's side, now sided with Gustav Vasa. Hans Brask and Ture Jönsson Tre Rosor also switched allegiance to Gustav Vasa, and in the second half of August he was recognized as the leader of Sweden by the provinces of Gotland at a meeting in Vadstena. At the same time, the government appointed by Christian II withdrew from Swedish territory.

The assembly in Vadstena in 1521, which declared Gustav as head of state, consisted of a relatively small group of prominent individuals, mainly from the southern provinces. The peasants and other supporters who had propelled him forward in the earlier stages of the uprising were not represented. In addition, most of the nobility in Östergötland, Sörmland, and Uppland remained loyal to King Christian of the Union. However, the continued expansion of the rebellion and the election of the nobleman Gustav as head of state caused many to switch sides or flee to Denmark to avoid reprisals.

1522 – The Hansa joins
Just before Christmas in 1521, Berend von Melen, the commander of Stegeborg in Östergötland, transferred control to Gustav Eriksson, resulting in the castle's capture by the rebel army. With Berend's help, Gustav gained a valuable ally with considerable military experience and strong connections to the Hanseatic League in Lübeck.

The castles of Örebro and Västerås were besieged and taken in early 1522. However, the most important fortresses remained strong. Gustav and his allies realized that these fortresses could not be taken without warships and heavy artillery.

Negotiations began with Lübeck, which had its own interest in unimpeded trade, free from the restrictions imposed by the Danish king. In exchange for aid in the form of ships, soldiers, cannons and other essential supplies, Lübeck was promised exemption from customs duties in Sweden. From May, Lübeck took an active part in the conflict, and in the fall it intensified the siege of the Danish strongholds of Stockholm and Kalmar. At the same time, Gustav, Berend von Melen, and Lübeck strategized an operation to conquer Skåne and other regions in eastern Denmark. A naval battle near Stockholm cut off vital supplies to the Danish garrison stationed there.

1523 – Gustav Vasa becomes king
The campaign against Skåne was planned for January 1523, but was not carried out. Instead, Blekinge and parts of Norwegian Bohuslän were taken. In March, Christian II was deposed by a Danish uprising and Frederick I was elected King of Denmark. As a result, Lübeck's interest in cooperating with Gustav in the conquest of Scania waned, and the campaign was halted.

Kalmar fell on 27 May 1523. Gustav Eriksson (Vasa) was proclaimed King of Sweden at the Riksdag in Strängnäs on 6 June 1523.

Stockholm was taken on June 17, and on Midsummer's Eve, June 23, 1523, the newly crowned King Gustav entered the capital. Throughout the summer and fall, the remaining fortresses in the Finnish part of the country surrendered, and in late fall Gustav launched an unsuccessful attempt to capture Gotland from Denmark. Larsson (2002) pages 106–107

1523 – Change of power in Denmark
The events in Sweden raised questions about the regime of Christian II in Denmark. After the executions during the Stockholm bloodbath, his relationship with the Church, both in Rome and in Denmark, became strained. In a failed attempt to create a scapegoat, he executed his advisor Didrik Slagheck, whom he had recently appointed Archbishop of Lund, in January 1522. Christian also enforced a new national land law that limited the power of the nobility and established hereditary royal power. In response, the bishops and councilors of Jutland called for an uprising against Christian. After unsuccessful negotiations, Christian left Denmark in April 1523 and sailed for the Netherlands with his family and his unpopular advisor, Sigbrit Willoms. The rebels' candidate for the royal crown was Christian's uncle, Frederik av Gottorp, who was crowned King Frederick I of Denmark on 7 August 1524.

Christian had attempted to limit the power of Lübeck and the Hanseatic League and to make Copenhagen a free staple city and trading center. However, with Frederik's accession to power, which effectively took place in April 1523, this policy changed. Lübeck, which had supported the Danish rebellion, was promised freedom from tariffs not only in Denmark and Norway, but also in Sweden. Initially, Frederick had plans to assert his authority as king in Sweden as well, but he abandoned these plans when Lübeck did not provide the support he expected. Lübeck had no interest in a revived Nordic Union, preferring to maintain good political relations and trade terms with all the Nordic countries.

1524 – Peace
Gustav Vasa and Frederik I met in Malmö in August 1524, mediated by Lübeck. Shortly thereafter, a peace treaty was negotiated that gave Lübeck and the Hanseatic League responsibility for determining the long-term status of the eastern Danish provinces. This agreement, known as the Malmö Recess, was finalized on 1 September 1524. The result was that Blekinge, Skåne, and Gotland would remain under Danish control, while Sweden ceded its conquest of northern Bohuslän to Norway.

The Count's Feud in Denmark 1536 – The Catholic Church and the Hanseatic League runs out of money
The Swedish War of Liberation ended with the Count's Feud in Skåne and Denmark in 1536, resulting in the victory of Christian III with the support of Gustav Vasa's Sweden.

The financial resources of the Catholic Church and the Hanseatic League were exhausted, leading to the end of their influence in the Nordic countries. This period also marked the beginning of the Lutheran Reformation in Sweden, coinciding with similar reforms in Denmark. The once powerful and influential Hanseatic League, which had held sway for centuries, gradually receded from the political landscape and found itself on the wrong side of history in the final stages of the war.

The new Baltic competition emerges
The resolution of old issues was finally achieved through the understanding between Gustav Vasa and Christian III, which led to a 25-year period of peace during their reigns.

After the deaths of Christian III and Gustav Vasa in 1559 and 1560, respectively, Sweden and Denmark-Norway were ruled by young and assertive monarchs: Eric XIV of Sweden and Frederick II of Denmark–Norway. Frederick II sought to revive the Kalmar Union under Danish leadership, while Eric sought to diminish Denmark–Norway's dominant position.

By 1563, during the Northern Seven Years' War, Sweden and Denmark–Norway emerged as competitors for political and economic control of the Baltic region. In 1561, when a significant portion of the Order's northern Baltic states were secularized by Grand Master Gotthard Kettler, both Denmark–Norway and Sweden were drawn into the Livonian War, marking the beginning of a competition that would continue through five major conflicts between the two countries until the Scanian War in 1679.

The Lutheran Reformation
The dependencies were strong and the pope was firm, which resulted in Sweden being under papal interdict for fifteen years. As a result, the Lutheran Reformation took root in Sweden. The regent was presented with an irresistible proposal by the Lutherans: a state church in which the clergy would serve as the king's civil servants, thereby severing ties with the Catholic Church indefinitely. The nationalization of the Catholic Church's assets provided funds for the new ruler's regime.

The sovereign Swedish state
Five centuries later, it remains a significant national "paradigm shift".

The war freed Sweden from international economic and political dependencies, as well as the influence of outspoken enemies. This independence has lasted for 500 years, marked by local security and peace since 1523, with foreign armies absent from its soil except in border areas. There has also been general peace for over 200 years since 1814. The War of Liberation is widely revered by Swedes as the catalyst for their political and economic independence, shaping the structure and organization of their society today. Swedes see it as a national "paradigm shift", marking a radical change in social perspectives that still underpins the foundations of their society.

Battles

 * Battle of Falun (February 1521)
 * Battle of Brunnbäck Ferry (April 1521)
 * Battle of Västerås (29 April 1521)
 * Conquest of Uppsala (18 May 1521)
 * Conquest of Kalmar (27 May 1523)
 * Conquest of Stockholm (16–17 June 1523)

title: Swedish War of Liberation


text:
User:Littleendian

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title: User:Littleendian


text:
Robert Klark Graham

Robert Klark Graham (June 9, 1906 – February 13, 1997) was an American eugenicist and businessman who made millions by developing shatterproof plastic eyeglass lenses and who later founded the Repository for Germinal Choice, a sperm bank for geniuses, in the hope of implementing a eugenics program.

Graham created his "Nobel sperm bank" in 1980. Initially, his intent was to obtain sperm only from Nobel laureates, but the scarcity of donors and the low viability of their sperm (because of age) forced Graham to develop a looser set of criteria.

These criteria were numerous and exacting: for example, sperm recipients were required to be married and to have extremely high IQ, though the bank later relaxed this policy so it could recruit athletes for donors as well as scholars.

By 1983, Graham's sperm bank was reputed to have 19 genius repeat donors, including William Bradford Shockley (recipient of the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics and proponent of eugenics ) and two anonymous Nobel Prize in Science winners.

The bank closed in 1999, two years after the death of its founder. A total of 218 children had been born under its auspices.

Graham's overriding goals were the genetic betterment of the human population and the nurture of newly conceived geniuses. This was a form of "positive" eugenics, meant to increase the number of designated "fit" individuals in a population through selective breeding. However, Graham's "genius sperm bank" was highly controversial.

However, due to lack of proper screening techniques, donors and recipients were not always those who met Graham's selective criteria.

title: Robert Klark Graham


text:
Some Folks Call It a Sling Blade

Some Folks Call It a Sling Blade is a 1994 short film written by Billy Bob Thornton, directed by George Hickenlooper and starring Thornton, Molly Ringwald, and J. T. Walsh.

It was adapted into the 1996 feature film Sling Blade, also starring Thornton, which won Thornton the Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay, as well as a nomination for Best Actor in a Leading Role.

Overview
Thornton plays Karl Childers, an intellectually disabled man who has been in a mental hospital for the past 25 years for murdering his mother and her lover. On the day of his release, he is interviewed by a reporter, Theresa Tatum (Molly Ringwald), who is writing an article with the intent of examining whether criminals judged to be insane should be released. Before the interview, Tatum is of the opinion that criminals like Childers should never be released. During the interview, however, Tatum must question her previous beliefs.

The title of the film comes from Childers's description of the murders. He admits to committing murder with a kaiser blade: "Some folks call it a sling blade, I call it a Kaiser blade."

title: Some Folks Call It a Sling Blade


text:
Talk:Tachyon condensation

Comments
Actually, if you look at the QFT of a tachyonic field, you'd find it does not violate causality. However, it happens to be unstable with no lowest energy state. Phys 22:39, 26 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * This second statement is not correct. Just because a field is tachyonic when expanded around a certain point of the potential does not mean that there is not a minimum. The Higgs field is such an example. Joshua Davis 06:04, 28 September 2006 (UTC)

How we can travel in time Palakula saitarun (talk) 07:22, 26 August 2017 (UTC)

Merger
Maybe this article should be merged with tachyon? I'm not sure what the terminology is, but I would actually suggest that this becomes a subsection of tachyon. Joshua Davis 06:04, 28 September 2006 (UTC)

Time
How to travel in time Palakula saitarun (talk) 07:26, 26 August 2017 (UTC)

article is incomprehensible jargon
I have a phd in molecular biology and can't make head or tail of this needs, at very least the intro, re write in language that people other then astrophysics phds can undertand
 * I have a PhD in astrophysics, and I still get nothing out of this article 202.140.199.194 (talk) 07:08, 18 May 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Tachyon condensation


text:
Espinho, Portugal

Espinho is a city and a municipality located in the Aveiro District, Portugal. It is located in both the Greater Porto and the Metropolitan Area of Porto, 16 km from its city centre. It is one of the smallest municipalities in Portugal and was, until 1899, part of the Santa Maria da Feira Municipality.

In 2021, Espinho had a population of 31,027, a slight decrease from the previous census in 2011, when 31,786 were registered, in an area of 21.06 km2.

The current Mayor is Maria Manuel Cruz, elected by the PS.

It is a beach resort and a zone of legal gambling with a casino - Casino Solverde. Its fair - Feira de Espinho, having been first organised in 1894, is well known in Portugal. The city is home to CINANIMA - Festival Internacional de Cinema de Animação, an international animation festival, and FEST - New Directors New Films Festival, an international film festival. The municipal holiday is June 16.

Sports
Volleyball

The city, known as the volleyball capital in Portugal, is the home of nine Portuguese sports clubs: Novasemente/Cavalinho, Sporting Clube de Silvalde, Associação Desportiva de Anta, Clube de Voleibol de Espinho, Sporting Clube de Espinho, Associação Académica de Espinho, Academia de Ténis de Espinho, Clube de Ténis de Espinho and Associação Desportiva Rio Largo.

Sporting Clube de Espinho and Associação Académica de Espinho are regular presences in the Portuguese Volleyball First Division. The first one is the Portuguese team with more titles (including a CEV Cup, formerly known as CEV Top Teams Cup) and the second one was once national champion.

Football

Sporting Clube de Espinho (Os Tigres da Costa Verde) plays in Campeonato Nacional de Seniores, the third football championship in Portugal.

Former Portugal national football team player Fernando Couto, coach Vítor Pereira, the Olympic medalist António Leitão and volleyball players, such as Miguel Maia and João Brenha, were born in Espinho.

Beach Volleyball

The city hosted the 2017 FIVB Beach Volleyball World Tour, between the 28th and 30 July. Espinho also hosted the FIVB Beach Volleyball World Tour in 2019, between the 16th and 21 July.

Beach Soccer

The city hosted the 2015 FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup, between the 9th and 19 July.

Surf

Surf event Espinho Surf Destination is an annual event held in Espinho, organized by the World Surf League.

Golf

The oldest golf club in Portugal and Spain, Oporto Golf Club, is also located in Espinho.

Demographics
Espinho is also home to a significant Madeiran immigrant community.

Parishes
Administratively, the municipality is divided into 4 civil parishes (freguesias):
 * Anta e Guetim
 * Espinho
 * Paramos
 * Silvalde

Cities and towns

 * Espinho (city)
 * Silvalde (town)
 * Anta (town)
 * Paramos (town)
 * Guetim (town)
 * Esmojães (town)

Politics

 * Carlos Guimarães Pinto (born in Espinho, Portugal, in 1983), a Portuguese economist, author, university professor, think tank executive, blogger and politician. A prominent member of the Liberal Initiative party.

Sport

 * António Jesus (1955–2010), known as Jesus, was a football goalkeeper with 383 club caps and 7 for Portugal
 * António Leitão (1960–2012) a Portuguese long distance athlete; bronze medallist in the men's 5000 metres at the 1984 Summer Olympics
 * Jaime Alves (1965–2020), known as Alves, was a Portuguese footballer with 271 club caps and 3 for Portugal
 * Vítor Pereira (born 1968) a Portuguese former player and current manager who managed teams like Porto, Olympiacos and Fenerbahçe
 * Fernando Couto (born 1969) a Portuguese former footballer with 438 club caps and 110 for Portugal
 * Filipe Gonçalves (born 1984) a Portuguese footballer with over 420 club caps
 * João Carlos Dias Correia (born 1985) known as Carlitos, is a Portuguese footballer with almost 400 club caps
 * Fábio Espinho (born 1985) known as Espinho, is a Portuguese footballer with over 400 club caps

title: Espinho, Portugal


text:
Celestine Kapsner

Reverend Father Celestine Kapsner O.S.B. (April 29, 1892 – January 1973), was a Catholic priest and exorcist who was stationed at St. John's Abbey at Collegeville, Minnesota, in the early 1960s.

Biography
Father Kapsner began working with St. John's parish mission in 1928. Among other duties and activities, Kapsner was in charge of the garden. Kapsner was known to have taken part in exorcisms. He translated a 1928 account of an exorcism by Father Theophilus Riesinger from a German magazine article, and published it, in 1935, in pamphlet form as Begone Satan!.

Father Kapsner died in Minnesota in January 1973. His pamphlet was important because it brought a detailed account of an American exorcism to a large audience for the first time in the United States.

Published works

 * The Ordinary of the Mass as a Means of Inculcating Religious Truth; an Essay, 1928
 * Begone Satan!, 1935

title: Celestine Kapsner


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Dunnet Head

Dunnet Head (Ceann Dùnaid) is a headland in Highland, on the north coast of Scotland. Dunnet Head includes the most northerly point of both mainland Scotland and the island of Great Britain.

Caithness is the historic county that Dunnet Head was within, the county town was Wick.

Geography
The point, also known as Easter Head, is at grid reference, about 18 km west-northwest of John o' Groats and about 20 km from Duncansby Head. Dunnet Head can be seen also as the western limit of the Pentland Firth on the firth's southern, or Caithness, side (Duncansby Head is the eastern limit). Although Easter Head is the most northerly point on the Scottish mainland, the northernmost point of Scotland lies in the Shetland islands, approximately 170 mi further north.

The headland's boundary with the rest of the Scottish mainland can be defined as a north–south line running from Little Clett to the mouth of Dunnet Burn  in Dunnet Bay. This line is followed along most of its route by a single track road, the B855, which links Brough with the village of Dunnet, making this the most northerly road on mainland Britain. From this line, the headland projects westward and northward into the Atlantic Ocean and the Pentland Firth and shelters the more southerly waters of Dunnet Bay.

The peninsula is north-east of the burgh of Thurso, and on a clear day, it affords views of the islands of Stroma to the east, and Hoy and the Orkney Mainland, 15 km (9 miles) away to the north, across the Pentland Firth.

Military use
Near the Dunnet Head lighthouse are minor fortifications built during World War II to protect the naval base at Scapa Flow, including a Chain Home Low radar station and a bunker used by the Royal Observer Corps during the Cold War. Burifa Hill on Dunnet Head was the site of the master station and a monitoring station of the northern GEE chain of radio navigation stations during World War II. There was also an artillery range on Dunnet Head during World War II.

Angling
Dunnet Head lochs are restocked every two years with brown trout fry; fishing by permit is between 1 April and early October.

Bird watching
Dunnet Head has a viewing platform where visitors can watch birds in the neighbouring cliffs. Depending on the season, birds may include fulmars, guillemots, kittiwakes, puffins, great skuas, arctic skuas, razorbills, and - at sea - gannets and herring gulls.

Geodesy
Dunnet Head was the central meridian of the 6 in and 1:2500 Ordnance Survey maps of Caithness.

Ptolemaic Record
Dunnet Head is recorded as Virvedrum in Ptolemy's 2nd-century Geography.

title: Dunnet Head


text:
Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment

The Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment (Te Kaitiaki Taiao a Te Whare Pāremata in Māori) is an independent Officer of the New Zealand Parliament appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the House of Representatives for a five-year term under the Environment Act 1986. The Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment replaced the Commission for the Environment, a Government agency which was formed in 1972.

Role
The Commissioner is one of three officers of Parliament (the Ombudsmen and the controller and auditor general) who are independent of the executive and who may review activities of the executive government and report directly to Parliament.

The Commissioner's role is to review and provide advice on environmental issues and the system of agencies and processes established by the Government to manage the environment. The primary objective of the office is to contribute to maintaining and improving the quality of the environment in New Zealand through advice given to Parliament, local councils, business, tangata whenua, communities and other public agencies.

The Commissioner may:
 * investigate any matter where the environment may be, or has been adversely affected;
 * assess the capability, performance and effectiveness of the New Zealand system of environmental management; and
 * provide advice and information that will assist people to maintain and improve the quality of the environment.

Commissioners for the environment

 * Ian Baumgart (1974–1980)


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Great ape language

Research into great ape language has involved teaching chimpanzees, bonobos, gorillas and orangutans to communicate with humans and each other using sign language, physical tokens, lexigrams, and imitative human speech. Some primatologists argue that the use of these communication methods indicate primate "language" ability, though this depends on one's definition of language. The cognitive tradeoff hypothesis suggests that human language skills evolved at the expense of the short-term and working memory capabilities observed in other hominids.

By that extension, contemporary animal cognition research leans toward not teaching apes human forms of communication, but rather observing apes in their inter-species communication. Additionally, earlier distinguished case studies in the research field such as Nim Chimpsky and Koko have been criticized as having subjects produce results based on operant conditioning.

However, there is still evidence of certain apes, such as Kanzi the Bonobo, understanding crucial aspects of human language such as grammar, extensive vocabulary and reversible sentences.

Apes that demonstrate understanding
Non-human animals have produced behaviors that resemble human sentence production. Some animals in the following species can be said to "understand" (receive), and some can "apply" (produce) consistent, appropriate, grammatical messages. David Premack and Jacques Vauclair have cited language research for the following animals (but see "Criticisms of primate language research", below):
 * Chimpanzees
 * Bonobos
 * Gorillas
 * Orangutans

While all wild animals seem to communicate, primates communicate via autonomic behaviors and displays. Among primates, behaviors like body posture, facial expressions, vocalizations and scent production have been observed to convey information to other animals, revealing emotions or alerts about potential danger. Affiliative behaviors like grooming are used to promote group cohesion and individual status, while displays of aggression create divisions among groups. Humans by contrast have developed a reliance on verbal language, a skill that may be harder for non-human hominids to replicate due to a higher degree of evolved innateness in humans. Primatologist Tetsuro Matsuzawa proposes in his cognitive tradeoff hypothesis that humans exchanged short-term and working memory for better language skills over their evolution.

Use of sign language
Primate language research uses sign language and computer keyboards because non-human primate have less tongue and lower jaw control and their vocal cords cannot close fully. However, primates do possess the manual dexterity required for keyboard use.

Many animal language researchers have presented evidence of linguistic abilities in animals. Many of their conclusions have been disputed.

It is now generally accepted that apes can learn to sign and are able to communicate with humans. However, it is disputed as to whether they can form syntax to manipulate such signs.

Washoe
Washoe, a common chimpanzee, was caught in the wild in 1966. When she was about ten months old, she was received by the husband-and-wife research team of Beatrix T. Gardner and Robert Allen Gardner. Chimpanzees are completely dependent until two years of age and semi-dependent until the age of four. Full adult growth is reached between 12 and 16 years of age. Accordingly, the Gardners received her at an appropriate age for research into language development. The Gardners tried to make Washoe's environment as similar as possible to what a human infant with deaf parents would experience. There was always a researcher or assistant in attendance during Washoe's waking hours. Every researcher communicated with Washoe by using American Sign Language (ASL), minimizing the use of the spoken voice. The researchers acted as friends and companions to Washoe, using various games to make the learning as exciting as possible.

The Gardners used many different training methods:
 * Imitation: After Washoe had learned a couple of words, she started, like chimpanzees usually do, to imitate naturally. For example, when she entered the Gardners' bathroom, she spontaneously made the sign for "toothbrush", simply because she saw one.
 * Babbling: In this case, "babbling" does not mean vocal babbling. Instead, Washoe used untaught signs to express a desire. She used a begging gesture, which was not much different from the ASL signs "give me" and "come". (Human infants who are learning sign language often babble with their hands.)
 * Instrumental conditioning: The researchers used instrumental conditioning strategies with Washoe. For example, they taught the word "more" by using tickling as a reward. This technique was later applied to a variety of relevant situations.

The results of the Gardners' efforts were as follows:
 * Vocabulary: When a sign was reported by three independent observers, it was added to a checklist. The sign had to occur in an appropriate context and without prompting. The checklist was used to record the frequency of a sign. A sign had to be used at least once a day for 15 consecutive days before it was deemed to have been acquired. Alternatively, a sign had to be used at least 15 days out of 30 consecutive days. By the end of the 22nd month of the project, thirty-four signs had been learned.
 * Differentiation: Washoe used the sign "more" in many different situations until a more specific sign had been learned. At one point, she used the sign for "flower" to express the idea of "smell". After additional training, Washoe was eventually able to differentiate between "smell" and "flower".
 * Transfer: Although the same object was presented for each learning trial (a specific hat, for example), Washoe was able to use the sign for other similar objects (e.g. other hats).
 * Combinations: Washoe was able to combine two or three signs in an original way. For example, "open food drink" meant "open the fridge" and "please open hurry" meant "please open it quickly".

Washoe also taught other chimpanzees, such as Loulis, some ASL signs without any help from humans.

Nim Chimpsky
Linguistic critics challenged the animal trainers to demonstrate that Washoe was actually using language and not symbols. The null hypothesis was that the Gardners were using conditioning to teach the chimpanzee to use hand formations in certain contexts to create desirable outcomes, and that they had not learned the same linguistic rules that humans innately learn.

In response to this challenge, the chimpanzee Nim Chimpsky (whose name is a play on linguist Noam Chomsky) was taught to communicate using sign language in studies led by Herbert S. Terrace, documented in his 1987 book.

Nim was taken from his mother at a young age by Terrace and put into a household of hippie-like people who had no background with sign language, nor did they use it. Nim was treated as more of a house pet than a wild animal. During his time in the house, Nim's family gave him access to both illegal and legal substances, such as marijuana and alcohol, and did not think twice about letting him use them. Nim's experience did not begin as an observational exercise; there were no log books kept at this point in his life.

It was not until Nim was introduced to Laura-Ann Petitto that he began his journey with learning sign language. To no surprise, Nim was almost unresponsive to sign language unless there was something in it for him if he did the sign. With many observers and trainers guiding Nim in his learning of sign language, the observations gave clear insight on what the outcome truly was. The trainers noted that Nim had made over 20,000 sequences, only for Terrace to disprove that by noticing that Nim was merely repeating signs done by his trainers. This observation had Terrace believing that, in total, Nim knew about 125 signs.

After years of being a test subject, Nim became aggressive and extremely dangerous to those around him. He would attack the researchers, sending some of them to the hospital. He bit Pettito several times, which in one instance, led to her having to get 37 stitches, and he nearly tore off another woman's cheek. In his later years, Nim was housed at a ranch, supported by the Fund for Animals in Texas, where he had access to the interior of the house, and during one incident, a small household poodle barked at him, and was subsequently smashed to death by the chimpanzee.

Overall, the experiment done on Nim did not produce much useful information. Through all of the tests it is seen that Nim merely copied the signs shown to him. This experiment also showed that non-human primates are able to memorize the outcome of certain things and if they enjoy what they get from it, they are more likely to replicate it because their memory shows them that they can get what they want with certain signs. Due to the fact that there was little to no meaningful outcomes from this project, scientists determined that non-human primates mimic, are able to memorize things with different outcomes and they have a higher likelihood of becoming dangerous and aggressive when taken out of their natural habitat at a young age.

Koko
Francine "Penny" Patterson, a student of the Gardners, in 1972 began an ongoing program to teach ASL to a lowlands gorilla named Koko. Unlike the Gardners she did not limit her English speech around Koko, and as a result Koko was reported to understand approximately 1,000 ASL signs and 2,000 English words. Her results were similar to the Gardners' results with chimpanzees; although the gorilla learned a large number of signs, she never understood grammar or symbolic speech, and did not display any cognition beyond that of a 2–3 year old human child.

Approximately 72 hours of video were taken recording Koko's interactions and learning behaviors. While Koko's ability to successfully produce language has been argued among researchers, behaviors that appear to mimic speech, such as breathing heavily into a telephone or other learned physical gestures have been labeled as intentional but ultimately not communicative. From a biological standpoint, non-human primates lack the correct anatomy necessary to produce the same audible speech found in humans; however vocalizations, gestures, and expressions remain a common form used to communicate in the natural world. Koko learned and was taught to compensate for this by creating cues to emulate sounds replicating speech and through her use of visual indicators.

Plastic tokens
Sarah and two other chimpanzees, Elizabeth and Peony, in the research programs of David Premack, demonstrated the ability to produce grammatical messages of token selections. The selections came from a vocabulary of several dozen plastic tokens; it took each of the chimpanzees hundreds of trials to reliably associate a token with a referent, such as an apple or banana. The tokens were chosen to be completely different in appearance from the referents. After learning these protocols, Sarah was then able to associate other tokens with consistent behaviors, such as negation, name-of, and if-then. The plastic tokens were placed on a magnetic slate, within a rectangular frame in a line. The tokens had to be selected and placed in a consistent order (a grammar) in order for the trainers to reward the chimpanzees.

One other chimpanzee, Gussie, was trained along with Sarah but failed to learn a single word. Other chimpanzees in the projects were not trained in the use of the tokens. All nine of the chimpanzees could understand gestures, such as supplication when asking for food; similarly, all nine could point to indicate some object, a gesture which is not seen in the wild. The supplication is seen in the wild, as a form of communication with other chimpanzees.

A juvenile Sumatran orangutan Aazk (named after the American Association of Zookeepers) who lived at the Roeding Park Zoo (Fresno, California) was taught by Gary L. Shapiro from 1973 to 1975 how to "read & write" with plastic children's letters, following the training techniques of David Premack. The technique of conditional discrimination was used such that the orangutan could eventually distinguish plastic letter (symbols) as representations of referents (e.g., object, actions) and "read" an increasingly longer series of symbols to obtain a referent (e.g., fruit) or "write" an increasingly longer series of symbols to request or describe a referent. While no claim of linguistic competence was made, Aazk's performance demonstrated design features of language, many similar to those demonstrated by Premack's chimpanzee, Sarah.

Kanzi
Kanzi, a bonobo, is believed to understand more human language than any other non-human animal in the world. Kanzi apparently learned by eavesdropping on the keyboard lessons researcher Sue Savage-Rumbaugh was giving to his adoptive mother. Kanzi learned to communicate with a lexigram board, pushing symbols that stand for words. The board is wired to a computer, so the word is then vocalized out loud by the computer. This helps Kanzi develop his vocabulary and enables him to communicate with researchers.

One day, Rumbaugh used the computer to say to Kanzi, "Can you make the dog bite the snake?" It is believed Kanzi had never heard this sentence before. In answering the question, Kanzi searched among the objects present until he found a toy dog and a toy snake, put the snake in the dog's mouth, and used his thumb and finger to close the dog's mouth over the snake. In 2001, Alexander Fiske-Harrison, writing in the Financial Times, observed that Kanzi was "asked by an invisible interrogator through head-phones (to avoid cueing) to identify 35 different items in 180 trials. His success rate was 93 percent." In further testing, beginning when he was $7 1/2$ years old, Kanzi was asked 416 complex questions, responding correctly over 74% of the time. Kanzi has been observed verbalizing a meaningful noun to his sister.

Kanzi relies highly on the lexigrams for communication, and frequently uses them to specify where he wants to go, or an item he wants to have. He does this by expressing his goal (location or object) first, and his action (go, chase, carry, give, etc.) last. This notified researchers that Kanzi's way of communicating was different from that of spoken English, especially because Kanzi would communicate many of his action words using simple gestures. In addition, Kanzi is frequently seen linking two action words together using the lexigrams, like "I Tickle", "Chase Hide", or "Chase Bite". These word combinations are not necessarily structured in a way that humans would use spoken English, but they closely resemble lists, consisting of preferred actions, in preferred order of Kanzi's social play. Because of this inconsistency of Kanzi's use of language with the spoken English language, many question whether Kanzi's understanding of English "crosses the boundary with true language".

Attempts to mimic human speech and communication
Great apes mimicking human speech is rare although some have attempted to do so, and Viki, a chimpanzee, is one of them. During the 1940s and 1950s, Keith and Catherine Hayes of the Yerkes Laboratories of Primate Biology began working with a chimpanzee named Viki in an attempt to get her to mimic human speech. After undergoing months of speech therapy, Viki became their success story. Viki learned to say the words: "mama", "papa", "cup" and "up". Over the years she learned to say up to seven words. Viki was extremely intelligent and like many other non-human primates, would lead people to where she wanted to go as well as move the hands of people onto objects she wanted them to manipulate. However, she would rarely point to objects that she wanted; instead she would use signs to indicate what she wanted to do. For example, when she wanted to help with ironing she would move her hand back and forth above the ironing board. This experiment with Viki would inspire other researchers to conduct similar experiments.

Question asking
Despite their impressive (although still sometimes disputed) achievements, Kanzi and other apes who participated in similar experiments, failed to ask questions themselves. Joseph Jordania suggested that the ability to ask questions is probably the central cognitive element that distinguishes human and animal cognitive abilities. (However, a parrot named Alex was apparently able to ask simple questions. He asked what color he was, and learned "grey" after being told the answer six times. ) Enculturated apes, who underwent extensive language training programs, successfully learned to answer quite complex questions and requests (including question words "who", "what", "when", "where", and "why"), although so far they failed to learn how to ask questions themselves. For example, David and Anne Premack wrote: "Though she [Sarah] understood the question, she did not herself ask any questions – unlike the child who asks interminable questions, such as What that? Who making noise? When Daddy come home? Me go Granny's house? Where puppy? Sarah never delayed the departure of her trainer after her lessons by asking where the trainer was going, when she was returning, or anything else". The ability to ask questions is sometimes assessed in relation to comprehension of syntactic structures. Jordania suggested that this approach is not justified, as (1) questioning is primarily a cognitive ability, and (2) questions can be asked without the use of syntactic structures (with the use of specific intonation only). It is widely accepted that the first questions are asked by humans during their early infancy, at the pre-syntactic, one word stage of language development, with the use of question intonation.

Criticisms of primate language research
Some scientists, including MIT linguist Noam Chomsky and cognitive scientist Steven Pinker, are skeptical about claims made for great ape language research. Among the reasons for skepticism are the differences in ease with which human beings and apes can learn language; there are also questions of whether there is a clear beginning and end to the signed gestures and whether the apes actually understand language or are simply doing a clever trick for a reward.

While vocabulary words from American Sign Language are used to train the apes, native users of ASL may note that mere knowledge of ASL's vocabulary does not equate to knowledge of ASL.

Researchers

 * Roger Fouts
 * Francine Patterson
 * David Premack
 * Sue Savage-Rumbaugh

Research subjects

 * Ai (chimpanzee)
 * Chantek (orangutan)
 * Kanzi (bonobo)
 * Lana (chimpanzee)
 * Koko (gorilla)
 * Lucy (chimpanzee)
 * Nim Chimpsky (chimpanzee)
 * Panbanisha (bonobo)
 * Sarah (chimpanzee)
 * Washoe (chimpanzee)
 * Viki (chimpanzee)

title: Great ape language