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Broiler

Breed broiler is any chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus) that is bred and raised specifically for meat production. Most commercial broilers reach slaughter weight between four and six weeks of age, although slower growing breeds reach slaughter weight at approximately 14 weeks of age. Typical broilers have white feathers and yellowish skin. Broiler or sometimes broiler-fryer is also used sometimes to refer specifically to younger chickens under 4+1/2 lb, as compared with the larger roasters.

Due to extensive breeding selection for rapid early growth and the husbandry used to sustain this, broilers are susceptible to several welfare concerns, particularly skeletal malformation and dysfunction, skin and eye lesions and congestive heart conditions. Management of ventilation, housing, stocking density and in-house procedures must be evaluated regularly to support good welfare of the flock. The breeding stock (broiler-breeders) do grow to maturity but also have their own welfare concerns related to the frustration of a high feeding motivation and beak trimming. Broilers are usually grown as mixed-sex flocks in large sheds under intensive conditions.

Modern breeding
Before the development of modern commercial meat breeds, broilers were mostly young male chickens culled from farm flocks. Pedigree breeding began around 1916. Magazines for the poultry industry existed at this time. A crossbred variety of chicken was produced from a male of a naturally double-breasted Cornish strain, and a female of a tall, large-boned strain of white Plymouth Rocks. This first attempt at a meat crossbreed was introduced in the 1930s and became dominant in the 1960s. The original crossbreed was plagued by problems of low fertility, slow growth and disease susceptibility.

Modern broilers have become very different from the Cornish/Rock crossbreeds. As an example, Donald Shaver (originally a breeder of egg-production breeds) began gathering breeding stock for a broiler program in 1950. Besides the breeds normally favored, Cornish Game, Plymouth Rock, New Hampshire, Langshans, Jersey Black Giant, and Brahmas were included. A white feathered female line was purchased from Cobb. A full-scale breeding program was commenced in 1958, with commercial shipments in Canada and the US in 1959 and in Europe in 1963. As a second example, color sexing broilers was proposed by Shaver in 1973. The genetics were based on the company's breeding plan for egg layers, which had been developed in the mid-1960s. A difficulty facing the breeders of the color-sexed broiler is that the chicken must be white-feathered by slaughter age. After 12 years, accurate color sexing without compromising economic traits was achieved.

Artificial insemination
Artificial insemination is a mechanism in which spermatozoa are deposited into the reproductive tract of a female. Artificial insemination provides a number of benefits relating to reproduction in the poultry industry. Broiler breeds have been selected specifically for growth, causing them to develop large pectoral muscles, which interfere with and reduce natural mating. The amount of sperm produced and deposited in the hen's reproductive tract may be limited because of this. Additionally, the males' overall sex drive may be significantly reduced due to growth selection. Artificial insemination has allowed many farmers to incorporate selected genes into their stock, increasing their genetic quality.

Abdominal massage is the most common method used for semen collection. During this process, the rooster is restrained and the back region located towards the tail and behind the wings is caressed. This is done gently but quickly. Within a short period of time, the male should get an erection of the phallus. Once this occurs, the cloaca is squeezed and semen is collected from the external papilla of the vas deferens.

During artificial insemination, semen is most frequently deposited intra-vaginally by means of a plastic syringe. In order for semen to be deposited here, the vaginal orifice is everted through the cloaca. This is simply done by applying pressure to the abdomen of the hen. The semen-containing instrument is placed 2–4 cm into the vaginal orifice. As the semen is deposited, the pressure applied to the hen's abdomen is released simultaneously. The person performing this procedure typically uses one hand to move and direct the tail feathers, while using the other hand to insert the instrument and semen into the vagina.

General biology
Modern commercial broilers, for example, Cornish crosses and Cornish-Rocks, are artificially selected and bred for large-scale, efficient meat production. They are noted for having very fast growth rates, a high feed conversion ratio, and low levels of activity. Modern commercial broilers are bred to reach a slaughter-weight of about 2 kg in only 5 to 7 weeks. As a consequence, the behaviour and physiology of broilers reared for meat are those of immature birds, rather than adults. Slow growing free-range and organic strains have been developed which reach slaughter-weight at 12 to 16 weeks of age.

Typical broilers have white feathers and yellowish skin. Recent genetic analysis has revealed that the gene for yellow skin was incorporated into domestic birds through hybridization with the grey junglefowl (G. sonneratii). Modern crosses are also favorable for meat production because they lack the typical "hair" which many breeds have that must be removed by singeing after plucking the carcass.

Both male and female broilers are reared for their meat.

Behavior
Broiler behavior is modified by the environment, and alters as the broilers' age and bodyweight rapidly increase. For example, the activity of broilers reared outdoors is initially greater than broilers reared indoors, but from six weeks of age, decreases to comparable levels in all groups. The same study shows that in the outdoors group, surprisingly little use is made of the extra space and facilities such as perches – it was proposed that the main reason for this was leg weakness as 80 per cent of the birds had a detectable gait abnormality at seven weeks of age. There is no evidence of reduced motivation to extend the behavioral repertoire, as, for example, ground pecking remained at significantly higher levels in the outdoor groups because this behavior could also be performed from a lying posture rather than standing.

Examining the frequency of all sexual behaviour shows a large decrease with age, suggestive of a decline in libido. The decline in libido is not enough to account for reduced fertility in heavy cocks at 58 weeks and is probably a consequence of the large bulk or the conformation of the males at this age interfering in some way with the transfer of semen during copulations which otherwise look normal.

Feeding and feed conversion
Chickens are omnivores and modern broilers are given access to a special diet of high protein feed, usually delivered via an automated feeding system. This is combined with artificial lighting conditions to stimulate eating and growth and thus the desired body weight.

In the U.S., the average feed conversion ratio (FCR) of a broiler was 1.91 kilograms of feed per kilograms of liveweight in 2011, an improvement from 4.70 in 1925. Canada has a typical FCR of 1.72. New Zealand commercial broiler farms have recorded the world's best broiler chicken FCR at 1.38. The microbiome of the broiler also has a large effect in addition to the birds nutrition and genetics on overall FCR.

Welfare issues

Artificial selection has led to a great increase in the speed with which broilers develop and reach slaughter-weight. Selection and husbandry for very fast growth means there is a genetically induced mismatch between the energy-supplying organs of the broiler and its energy-consuming organs. Rapid growth can lead to metabolic disorders such as sudden death syndrome and ascites. Breeding for increased breast muscle affects the way chickens walk and puts additional stresses on their hips and legs. There is a high frequency of skeletal problems in broilers, mainly in the locomotory system. These leg abnormalities impair the locomotor abilities of the birds, and lame birds spend more time lying and sleeping. Increased inactivity is linked with an increase in dermatitis caused by a greater amount of time in contact with ammonia in poultry litter. Broilers are usually kept at high stocking densities. This can reduce feed intake and growth. Management conditions (litter quality, temperature and humidity) are however more important than stocking density. Many broilers die during the processes of catching, packing and transport.

World production and consumption
The commercial production of broiler chickens for meat consumption is a highly industrialized process. There are two major sectors: (1) rearing birds intended for consumption and (2) rearing parent stock for breeding the meat birds. A report in 2005 stated that around 5.9 billion broiler chickens for eating were produced yearly in the European Union. Mass production of chicken meat is a global industry and at that time, only two or three breeding companies supplied around 90% of the world's breeder-broilers. The total number of meat chickens produced in the world was nearly 47 billion in 2004; of these, approximately 19% were produced in the US, 15% in China, 13% in the EU25 and 11% in Brazil.

Consumption of broilers is surpassing that of beef in industrialized countries, with demand rising in Asia. Worldwide, 86.6 million tonnes of broiler meat were produced in 2014, and, the worldwide estimation of broiler chick population was approximately 23 billion.

title: Broiler


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User:Zocky/Country bias

''This page neads a good name. Suggestions are welcome.''

This is supposed to be the FAQ for people who think wikipedia is biased against their country/nation. The intention is to replace answers to recurring issues with a link to this FAQ thus avoiding endless discussions and decreasing the general level of aggrevation.

''The introduction needs to be improved. It should be kept short, though. This also needs links to policy and naming conventions, as well as to other FAQs.''

Wikipedia is an international encyclopaedia and should be equally readable and understandable for all readers, regardless of where they come from, and it should not take sides. Where popular beliefs in two countries differ, both should be presented fairly.

If you think that your country/nation is represented unfairly or that an article is offensive to your country, please read these explanations of commonly raised issues

Wikipedia is U.S.-centric
It shouldn't be, but it sometimes is. Because this is the English-language Wikipedia, a disproportionately high number of editors are American and other native English speakers.
 * There are more articles on U.S. issues than on others. The remedy is simple: write more articles on other issues.
 * Some articles assume that the reader expects them to be about the United States. The remedy is to correct them:
 *  John Smith is an  American  blacksmith
 *  Sally Jones appeared at Liberty Square in Smalltown, Wyoming,  United States .
 *  In the United States,  a Red State is one that votes for the Republican Party
 * Use common sense. If an article makes clear it is about American issues, there is no need to describe every town, person or organization as American.
 * Do not assume that what is true in your own country should be presented as a general case. Wikipedia is an international encyclopedia. Country-specific information is welcome, but should be clearly marked as such.
 * Remember, there are probably articles that don't mention they are talking about the United Kingdom, France, Indonesia or Brazil, too.

Wikipedia uses a foreign name for a place in my country
Many places, particularly those which are -- or used to be -- important internationally have different names in different languages. This is especially true if the ethnic composition of a place has changed through time or if border changes have "moved" a place to a different country.

Wikipedia uses names of places which are most commonly used in English. Some places have English names which are unrelated to the local name (Egypt, India), others have names based on the local names but changed because of history or phonetic and spelling incompatibilities (Croatia). Sometimes this name has a specific English form (Germany), but most are same or almost the same as in some other language (Vienna, Cologne).

Some things to consider:
 * The article's title should be the most common name in English.
 * All other common names - important historical names, official and commonly used unofficial name(s) in local langugage(s) - should be listed in the article's introduction.
 * All other relevant names should be reported lower in the article.
 * Usage of any name in Wikipedia does not imply a position in any dispute.
 * If there is a controversy around certain names, or a dispute regarding naming, Wikipedia should report it, and report the parties involved. Merely reporting that a certain commonly used name exists and is controversial implies no endorsement of whatever position.
 * Other articles should refer to the place by its most common English name and other names relevant to that article.
 * If you still think that the article uses wrong name(s), check the articles history and talk page to see if the issue has been discussed before. Research and discuss the correct usage and provide evidence for your point of view.
 * Names of places are to a large extent a matter of language. This is Wikipedia in English, and native English speakers are often the right people to ask for an opinion.
 * The fact that your country or town has names in foreign languages is an indication of its international importance and potentially something to be proud of.

Wikipedia uses a foreign name for a person from my country
Names of some famous people (especially from history) are spelled and pronounced differently in different languages (Aristotle, Christopher Columbus). Also, in some periods, it was common for people to use translations of their names in other languages, particularly Latin, and some English names are derived from these translations.

Names of foreign monarchs and nobility are commonly (but not always) translated in many languages, so George III of the United Kingdom is known in other languages as "Siôr III", "Jerzy III", "Georg III", "Jurij III", "Jorge III" and many other variants. Again, Wikipedia uses the one most commonly used in English.
 * The article's title should be the person's most commonly used name in English.
 * All other common names - commonly used nicknames, aliases, stage names etc. - should be listed in the article's introduction.
 * All other relevant names, nicknames, rarely used stage names, etc. should be reported lower in the article.
 * Usage of any name in Wikipedia does not imply a position in any dispute.
 * Other articles should refer to the person by their most common English name and other names relevant to that article.
 * If you still think that the article uses wrong name(s), check the articles history and talk page to see if the issue has been discussed before. Research and discuss the correct usage and provide evidence for your point of view.

That's not the history I know
There are several kinds of history. The first is the one taught in schools, which helps form the sense of identity for people in a country. It is always somewhat biased: it concentrates on the parts of history important for that country and it describes events from that country's point of view. One country's days of glory can be another country's age of foreign occupation.

Another kind is the "history" created by popular mythology and media. Some of it may be accurate and some maybe outrageous misrepresentations. This is the kind of history we should report (including its sources), but never present as facts. (Indeed, it may be interesting to document facts such as the deliberate omission of some historical episode in the standard history curriculum of a country.)

Yet another kind of history is the one that takes all views into account and tries to establish facts through careful research of written sources and evidence. Wikipedia is an encyclopedia and it's international, so it's interested in this kind of history.

Factual information

 * If you disagree with a description of an event:
 * Check the article's history and talk page to see if the issue has been discussed before.
 * Research and read sources carefully, both those you agree with and those you don't.
 * Form an opinion of a similar event with reversed roles, either from history or imaginary.
 * Form an opinion of a similar event with different sides involved, either from history or imaginary.
 * Consider that different opinions can be due to different world views, tastes, values and other things you can't change.
 * Consider that for some events, no accurate description can be formed because of insufficient or conflicting sources and evidence.
 * If an event can't be accurately described, it could be unencyclopedic or it could require fair representation of different interpretations.
 * If you discover that a commonly held view is in fact legend, describe it as such and include links to evidence.
 * If you are not certain your information is accurate and complete, present your argument on the article's talk page before editing the article.

Discussing the objectives or intents of historical figures
Many historical disputes do not focus on the historical facts (who invaded whom...) but on the intentions, objectives, beliefs and future plans of political leaders. Such concerns are inherently subject to speculation, since there are usually fairly few hard facts to validate one thesis or another. Depending on one's national and political point of view, one may be more likely to believe the pretended intents of some leader, or believe that their "real intents" were otherwise.
 * If there are hard facts supporting some thesis as to the intentions or beliefs of a leader, please state them. Remember that memoirs and other such documents may have been written so as to convey a particular version of history.
 * Beware of assigning intentions to a group of people. In particular, there often exist discrepancies between the displayed intentions or objectives of the leader of a country, their real intentions, the displayed opinions of the citizens of the country and their real opinions.
 * Beware of discrepancies between the display intentions and goals of a government of their actual action in practice. What one considers as the legitimate liberation of a country from an oppressive regime may be considered by another as a colonial or imperialist invasion.

Discussing alternative histories
Another possible area of dispute is speculations as to what could have happened should some historical event not have occured, or occured differently. These often arise in arguments excusing a country from some behavior considered reprehensible: "sure, this action was dreadful, but if they had not done it, worse things would have happened".
 * Even though one can validly discuss the validity of speculations about alternative pasts and futures, one should never forget that speculations are... speculative, and leave ample ground for unfounded suppositions. One should therefore be extremely prudent in discussing theories on alternative histories.

"Wikipedia misrepresents my country" or "I consider writing on a foreign country"
In all countries, the education system and the media propagate some false or inexact information on foreign countries, sometimes intentionally, but often by error and inertia. Information that people believe because they heard in school and heard it repeated in the media may simply be a self-replicating error. It is therefore not surprising that such inadequate representations may occasionally creep in encyclopedia articles. On Wikipedia, we must do as much as possible in order to remove such misinformation.
 * If you think that your country is misrepresented in an article, you are free to correct the misrepresentation. If necessary, provide links to authoritative sources of information on the talk page.
 * Some misrepresentation is actually an accurate representation of a past situation. It is commonplace for people to have ideas about foreign countries based on situations that were current decades ago. Feel free to update the information.
 * When reporting governmental decisions, some precautions have to be taken. In all countires, decisions can be taken by several authorities: the national executive, the supreme court or equivalent, a lower court, etc. It is also a different thing for a law proposal or a declaration to emanate from an individual member of a legislature, from a major political group, or from the national government or the majority party. Feel free to correct any such error.
 * When discussing legal matters, keep in mind the difference between de jure ("according to the law") requirements and de facto ("in practice") behavior. When discussing a law, give, if possible, a reference to its actual text.
 * Beware of journalistic or polemical hyperbole. Political and other pressure groups often tend to use excessive phrases, terms or adjectives, so as to attract attention. It is generally an error to consider them to be meant literally.
 * When reporting about opinions published in the media, be careful not to imply that they are representative of the opinions in the general population, unless there is some fact or at least strong indications to back this up.
 * Media often focuses on outrageous, exceptional, or picturesque events. This is especially true for news from faraway places and foreign countries. Do not assume that international media reports are representative of the general situation of a specific country.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Zocky/Country bias


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Magic Johnson Enterprises

Magic Johnson Enterprises is a Beverly Hills–based investment company owned by retired NBA Hall of Fame legend Magic Johnson. The company was founded in 1987.

Magic Johnson Enterprises formerly owned Magic Johnson Theatres in four cities, 3 Burger King restaurants in the Southeast, and 13 24-Hour Fitness/Magic Johnson Sport health clubs. Over the years, Magic Johnson Enterprises has continually invested ownership in many lucrative businesses such as the Los Angeles Lakers, movie theaters and restaurants in the United States, including T.G.I. Friday's, Sodexo, and Burger King locations.

Investments
In 1995, Johnson took an equity stake along with what was then the Loews chain in the 12-screen multiplex movie theater in Baldwin Hills (now owned by Cinemark).

The company teamed up with Starbucks in 1998, acquiring around 125 stores and in October 2010 sold 105 of the stores in a $100 million deal.

In March 2008, Johnson signed a multi-year marketing deal to help electronics retailer Best Buy Co. bolster sales in urban neighborhoods.

In October 2010, he sold his 4% interest in the Los Angeles Lakers for an estimated $27 million to Patrick Soon-Shiong.

In 2006, the company made headlines for concluding a deal with Sodexo, one of the largest food services and facilities management companies in the world. The initiative includes a marketing agreement and the formation of SodexoMAGIC, LLC, a new joint venture that is 51 percent owned by Johnson.

In June 2015, the company announced it had acquired a controlling interest in EquiTrust Life Insurance Co.

Sports teams
Co-ownership of the LA Dodgers was purchased by Magic Johnson Enterprises in 2012 for a reported $2 billion.

In 2023, Magic Johnson Enterprises, along with a group of others, purchased the Washington Commanders for $6.05 billion.

Canyon-Johnson Urban Fund
Johnson's urban investments were formed in 2001 as the Canyon-Johnson Urban Fund, an alliance with Canyon Capital. The alliance has financed 31 real estate developments in 13 states and the District Of Columbia. The first Canyon-Johnson Urban Fund struggled for two years to raise $300 million to invest in urban neighborhoods. A subsequent fund raised $600 million while the third and biggest investment fund was started in April 2008 and drew $1 billion from pension funds and other investors. The Canyon-Johnson fund was involved in the $100-million purchase of the 32-story former Transamerica Center complex in downtown Los Angeles that subsequently was renovated and sold for $205 million. The fund also had a stake in Sunset+Vine in Hollywood, which was built for $125 million and sold for $160 million.

title: Magic Johnson Enterprises


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Chalk Group

The Chalk Group (often just called the Chalk) is the lithostratigraphic unit (a certain number of rock strata) which contains the Upper Cretaceous limestone succession in southern and eastern England. The same or similar rock sequences occur across the wider northwest European chalk 'province'. It is characterised by thick deposits of chalk, a soft porous white limestone, deposited in a marine environment.

Chalk is a limestone that consists of coccolith biomicrite. A biomicrite is a limestone composed of fossil debris ("bio") and calcium carbonate mud ("micrite"). Most of the fossil debris in chalk consists of the microscopic plates, which are called coccoliths, of microscopic green algae known as coccolithophores. In addition to the coccoliths, the fossil debris includes a variable, but minor, percentage of the fragments of foraminifera, ostracods and mollusks. The coccolithophores lived in the upper part of the water column. When they died, the microscopic calcium carbonate plates, which formed their shells settled downward through the ocean water and accumulated on the ocean bottom to form a thick layer of calcareous ooze, which eventually became the Chalk Group.

The Chalk Group usually shows few signs of bedding, other than lines of flint nodules which become common in the upper part. Nodules of the mineral pyrite also occur and are usually oxidized to brown iron oxide on exposed surfaces.

Well-known outcrops include the White Cliffs of Dover, Beachy Head, the southern coastal cliffs of the Isle of Wight and the quarries and motorway cuttings at Blue Bell Hill, Kent, (which has been classified as a Site of Special Scientific Interest) and at the Stokenchurch Gap on the Oxfordshire/Buckinghamshire border where the M40 motorway cuts through the Aston Rowant National Nature Reserve.

Subdivisions
The Chalk Group is now divided into a White Chalk Subgroup and a Grey Chalk Subgroup, both of which are further subdivided into formations. These modern divisions replace numerous earlier divisions, references to which occur widely on geological maps and in other geological literature. Previously no subgroups were defined but three formations were identified; the Upper Chalk, Middle Chalk and Lower Chalk. Different formations are defined within the 'northern' and 'southern' provinces, from Norfolk northwards and south of the Thames valley respectively. A 'transitional province' between the two and covering much of East Anglia and the Chiltern Hills is also recognised. A different approach again is taken as regards the succession beneath the North Sea.

Grey Chalk Subgroup
The Grey Chalk Subgroup (formerly the Lower Chalk minus the Plenus Marls) is usually relatively soft and greyish in colour. It is also the most fossiliferous (especially for ammonite fossils). The strata of this subgroup usually begin with the 'Glauconitic Marl Member' (formerly known as the Glauconitic or Chloritic Marl), named after the grains of the green minerals glauconite and chlorite which it contains. The remainder of the subgroup is argillaceous in its lower part (the West Melbury Marly Chalk Formation (formerly the 'Chalk Marl') and becomes progressively purer in the 'Zig-zag Chalk Formation' (the former 'Grey Chalk'). In the central Chilterns the two parts are separated by the hard Totternhoe Stone, which forms a prominent scarp in some places. There are few, if any, flint nodules present.

These two formations are not recognised within the northern province i.e. the outcrop north from East Anglia to Yorkshire, where the entire sequence is now referred to as the 'Ferriby Chalk Formation'. The thickness of the Grey Chalk Subgroup strata varies, averaging around 200 ft, depending upon the location. They often contains fossils such as the ammonites Schloenbachia, Scaphites, and Mantelliceras, the belemnite Actinocamax, and the bivalves Inoceramus and Ostrea.

White Chalk Subgroup
The White Chalk Subgroup includes what were formerly designated the Middle Chalk and Upper Chalk Formations, together with the Plenus Marls (topmost part of the former Lower Chalk Formation). In the southern province it is divided in the following way (youngest/uppermost at top):
 * Portsdown Chalk Formation (formerly part of 'Upper Chalk' and the equivalent of Rowe Chalk Formation, below)
 * Culver Chalk Formation (formerly part of 'Upper Chalk')
 * Spetisbury Chalk Member (formerly part of 'Upper Chalk')
 * Tarrant Chalk Member (formerly part of 'Upper Chalk')
 * Newhaven Chalk Formation (formerly part of 'Upper Chalk')
 * Seaford Chalk Formation (formerly part of 'Upper Chalk')
 * Lewes Nodular Chalk Formation (formerly part of 'Upper Chalk')
 * New Pit Chalk Formation (formerly part of 'Middle Chalk')
 * Holywell Nodular Chalk Formation (formerly part of 'Middle Chalk')
 * Plenus Marls Member

In the northern province the sequence is divided thus:
 * Rowe Chalk Formation (formerly part of 'Upper Chalk' and the equivalent of Portsdown Chalk Formation, above)
 * Flamborough Chalk Formation (formerly part of 'Upper Chalk')
 * Burnham Chalk Formation (formerly part of 'Upper Chalk')
 * Welton Chalk Formation (formerly 'Middle Chalk')
 * Plenus Marls Member

In the southern province, the former Middle Chalk, now the Holywell Nodular Chalk Formation and overlying New Pit Formation, averages about 200 ft in thickness. The sparse fossils found in this sequence include the brachiopod Terebratulina and the echinoid Conulus.

The former Upper Chalk by comparison is softer than the underlying sequence and the flint nodules it contains are far more abundant in the South of England, although in Yorkshire the underlying strata have the highest concentration of flints. It may contain ammonite and gastropod fossils in some nodular layers. The thickness of this sequence varies greatly, often averaging around 300 ft. Fossils may be abundant and include the bivalve Spondylus, the brachiopods Terebratulina and Gibbithyris, the echinoids Sternotaxis, Micraster, Echinocorys, and Tylocidaris, the crinoid Marsupites, and the small sponge Porosphaera. A possible azhdarchoid pterosaur is known from Coniacian-aged rocks that form part of the Upper Chalk, making it the youngest known pterosaur discovered to date in England.

The youngest beds of the sequence are found on the coast of Norfolk. Other fossils commonly found in this formation include: solitary corals (such as Parasmilia), marine worm tubes (such as Rotularia), bryozoans, scattered fragments of starfish and fish remains (including shark teeth such as Cretolamna and Squalicorax).

Chalk landscapes of England
The Chalk outcrops across large parts of southern and eastern England and forms a significant number of the major physiographical features. Whilst it has been postulated that a chalk cover was laid down across just about all of England and Wales during Cretaceous times, subsequent uplift and erosion has resulted in it remaining only southeast of a line drawn roughly between The Wash and Lyme Bay in Dorset and eastwards from the scarps of the Lincolnshire and Yorkshire Wolds. Gentle folding of the Mesozoic rocks of this region during the Alpine orogeny has produced the London Basin and the Weald–Artois Anticline, the Hampshire Basin and the less gentle Purbeck-Wight monocline.

The broadly western margin of the Chalk outcrop is marked, from northeast to southwest, to south by the Chalk downlands of the Yorkshire Wolds, the Lincolnshire Wolds, a subdued feature through western Norfolk, including Breckland, the Chiltern Hills, the Berkshire Downs, Marlborough Downs and the western margins of Salisbury Plain and Cranborne Chase and  the North and South Dorset Downs. In parts of the Thames Basin and eastern East Anglia the Chalk is concealed by later deposits, as is the case too within the Hampshire Basin.

Only where the Weald–Artois Anticline has been 'unroofed' by erosion i.e. within the Weald is the Chalk entirely absent. In this area the long north-facing scarp of the South Downs and the longer south-facing scarp of the North Downs face one another across the Weald. For similar reasons, the Chalk is largely absent from the rather smaller area to the south of the Purbeck-Wight Monocline, save for the downs immediately north of Ventnor on the Isle of Wight.

Some of the best exposures of the Chalk are where these ranges intersect the coast to produce dramatic, often vertical cliffs as at Flamborough Head, the White Cliffs of Dover, Seven Sisters, Old Harry Rocks (Purbeck) and The Needles on the Isle of Wight. The Chalk, which once extended across the English Channel, gives rise to similar cliff features on the French coast.

Northern Ireland
In the 'Ulster Cretaceous Province' of Northern Ireland the clastic-dominated Hibernian Greensands Group and the overlying Ulster White Limestone Group are the stratigraphical equivalents of the Chalk Group of England. They are best exposed near the Antrim coast.

Scotland
In the 'Scottish Chalk Province' (extending from Mull to Skye) the Inner Hebrides Group is the stratigraphical equivalent of England's Chalk Group. It comprises largely sandstones and mudstones though the Santonian age Gribun Chalk Formation of Mull and nearby Morvern is recognised.

The Low Countries
The Dutch (Krijtkalk-Groep) and Belgian (Krijt-Groep) equivalents of the Chalk Group are basically continuous and crop out as a slightly northwest dipping monocline in a belt from the German city of Aachen to the city of Mons, where they join Cretaceous deposits of the Paris Basin. North of Namur the Cretaceous is overlain by younger Paleocene and Eocene deposits of the Landen Group.

In the Low Countries, the Chalk Group succession is divided into five formations, from top to base: In Belgium, the Houthem Formation is sometimes not included in the Chalk Group because it is not a Cretaceous formation. Some stratigraphers therefore prefer to put it in the lower Paleogene Hesbaye Group.
 * the Houthem Formation, consisting of Paleocene calcareous arenites;
 * the Maastricht Formation, consisting of Maastrichtian chalk and calcareous arenites;
 * the Gulpen Formation, consisting of Campanian to Maastrichtian chalk;
 * the Vaals Formation, consisting of alternating Campanian clays, glauconiferous sands and silts;
 * the Aachen Formation, consisting of Santonian glauconiferous sands and silts.

The English Channel
The Channel Tunnel linking England and France was constructed by tunnelling through the West Melbury Marly Chalk (formerly the 'Chalk Marl' - a prominent sub-unit of the Grey Chalk Subgroup).

The North Sea
The chalk is also an important petroleum reservoir in the North Sea Central Graben, mainly in Norwegian and Danish sectors and to a lesser extent in the United Kingdom Continental Shelf sector (UKCS).

Across the north central and northern North Sea, the Chalk Group is a major seal unit, overlying a number of blocks of reservoir rocks and preventing their fluid contents from migrating upwards. North of the line of the Mid-North Sea - Ringkobing - Fyn structural high, the Chalk Group is still recognisable in drilled samples, but becomes increasingly muddy northwards. North of the Beryl Embayment (59°30' N 01°30'E), the Chalk Group is a series of slightly to moderately calcareous mudstones grouped under the name of the Shetland Group. With the exception of some thin sandy units in the inner Moray Firth, this sequence has neither source potential nor reservoir capacity and is not generally considered a drilling target. Its thickness and homogeneity does make it a common target for carrying out directional drilling manoeuvers.

In the Shearwater and Eastern Trough Area Project areas (around 56°30' N 02°30'E, UKCS quadrants 22,23,29 and 30), the Chalk Group can be significantly overpressured. Further south in UKCS quadrant 30 and Norwegian quadrants 1 and 2, this overpressure helps preserve porosity and enables the Chalk to be an effective reservoir.

Reservoir stratigraphy

 * Chalk Unit 6 - Ekofisk Formation - Danian age (major reservoir in the Ekofisk oil field and others)
 * Chalk Unit 5 - Tor Formation - Maastrichtian age, (major reservoir in many fields including Joanne oil field (UKCS), Valhall oil field (NCS))
 * Chalk Unit 4 - Hod Formation - Late Campanian age (mostly non reservoir)
 * Chalk Unit 3 - Hod Formation - Santonian to Middle Campanian
 * Chalk Unit 2 - Hod Formation - Middle Turonian to Coniacian
 * Turonian shale - Early Turonian (non reservoir)
 * Plenus Marl - Late Cenomanian (non reservoir)
 * Chalk Unit 1 - Hidra Formation - Cenomanian (non reservoir)

Reservoir geology
The majority of Chalk reservoirs are redeposited allochthonous beds. These include debris flows and turbidite flows. Porosities can be very high when preserved from diagenesis by early hydrocarbon charge. However, when these hydrocarbons are produced, diagenesis and compaction can restart which has led to several metres of subsidence at seabed, the collapse of a number of wells, and some extremely expensive remedial work to lift the platforms and re-position them.

Fossils
Fossils of the echinoid Micraster from the Chalk Group have been studied for their continuous morphogical variation throughout the record. Mosasaur remains referred to "Mosasaurus" gracillis from the Turonian aged Chalk Group deposits actually are more closely allied to the Russellosaurina. A single partial maxillar tooth from Cenomanian aged Chalk Group described as "Iguanodon hilli" belongs to a non-Hadrosaurid Hadrosauroid.

title: Chalk Group


text:
Shōnan, Chiba

Shōnan (沼南町) was a town located in Higashikatsushika District, Chiba Prefecture, Japan.

On April 1, 1889 the villages of Kazahaya and Tega were established within the district of Minamisōma District, Chiba. On April 1, 1897, Minamisōma District merged with Higashikatsushika District. Shōnan Village was formed on March 30, 1955. through the merger of Kazahaya and Tega. On February 1, 1964 Shōnan was elevated to town status.

On March 28, 2005, Shōnan was merged into the expanded city of Kashiwa, and thus no longer exists as an independent municipality.

In April 2005 (the last data available before its merger into Kashiwa), the town had an estimated population of 46,875 and a population density of 1116 persons per km2. Its total area was 41.99 km2.

title: Shōnan, Chiba


text:
Talk:Chalk Group

I have added a section on the petroleum geology of the North sea chalk, I will expand this as time allows

A.Foum

The capitalization, i.e. "Upper Chalk" is deliberate. Please don't change it.

Dlloyd 09:11, 28 Jul 2004 (UTC)

http://www.bbm.me.uk/portsdown/PH_743_Chalk.htm says...

''As described in stratigraphy, the Chalk of the Britain has been divided into 3 Provinces, the 'Northern', the 'Southern', and the 'Transitional'. These geographical classifications replace the old age-based units of 'Upper', 'Middle' and 'Lower' - which are, however, still used informally.''

Now with the creation of the Southern England Chalk Formation page this can be a much more technical article about how Chalk is formed -- Any Geologists :) as I don't feel qualified to do this --Davelane 16:49, 1 Jan 2005 (UTC)

This article is close to Good Article level, if some one is prepared to propose and repair! GB 10:42, 4 July 2007 (UTC)
 * It is not. It is very confusing in its terminology and the division in paragraphs should be clearer too. Some points that need urgent attention:
 * Is the Chalk a formation (as the title suggests) or a group (as appears from the text about its subdivisions) or even something else (somewhere it is called a series)? When describing a lithostratigraphic unit we should at least have the lithostratigraphic definitions clear.
 * If you describe lithostratigraphy, an essential point is to name the units immediately above and below the one described. It could even go in a template. Yet it is lacking.
 * It is said that the Chalk is "most prominently" found in England. That is an Anglocentric POV and should be removed, because chalk is also a lithology.
 * It is not clear with which other formations the Chalk is correlated, for example in Northern France, the low countries or in Germany. Do they have the same lithology? What is different and why?
 * The article lacks a good paleogeographic description.
 * The Chalk is called an important reservoir unit. Yet, further in the text, it is called a seal. It cannot be both, so which is it?
 * It should be made clear that there are two definitions of the word chalk: a lithology and a lithostratigraphic unit.
 * Unfortunately, I have no literature here on the lithostratigraphy of England. I can guess that the Chalk is a group, since it is divided into formations. As for the rest I would say the article needs a thorough revision by an expert. Best regards all, Woodwalker (talk) 15:20, 31 May 2008 (UTC)

 * I have to agree with a lot of what Woodwalker says. The Chalk is problematic, it's generally defined lithostratigraphically and this rock type continues across the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary into the overlying Danian so we can't even refer to it as Cretaceous. There is an agreed nomenclature used in the offshore areas and quite a lot of this has been included here, however, it dosen't fit in with the rest of the article, which describes it from an onshore exposure perspective.
 * To answer two of Woodwalker's points,
 * it does act as both seal and reservoir due to variations in the distribution of the permeable allochthonous chalks. The Joanne oifield has a Tor chalk reservoir, the neighbouring Jade gas condensate field has a slightly older Hod chalk top seal.
 * The article actually says that the chalk "appears" most prominently in England, for which I read "is exposed"; this just needs rewording to both clarify and include the equally dramatic exposures on the other side of the channel.
 * An overall correlation diagram showing how the onshore exposures in the UK, France, Belgium, Netherlands & Germany fit in with the sequences defined offshore would be extremely useful. Mikenorton (talk) 16:26, 31 May 2008 (UTC)
 * Thanks for your fast reply Mike. Your first answer should be incorporated in the text, it clearifies the confusing reservoir/seal stuff. Your second answer: I know that at least in the low countries and Germany, the group/formation (?? I assume group but am not sure) has a different name. No surprise there, because the British Geologic Survey has no influence on lithostratigraphic names outside the UK... As far as I know (I am not sure about France) the name "Chalk" is therefore in a lithostratigraphic sense restricted to England. That its age is not only Cretaceous, is no problem and a common feature of larger lithostratigraphic units (that's why there is a difference between lithostratigraphy and chronostratigraphy I guess). To the point: I think this article should only refer to the Chalk unit in the UK, and mention its correlation with similar units in France and elsewhere. The article on chalk (the lithology) can then mention all exposures across the world. Woodwalker (talk) 18:54, 31 May 2008 (UTC)

Terminology: formations
This article refers to the Chalk Group appearing in England in three formations: Upper, Middle and Lower. However the image of The Needles is captioned as being part of the Southern England Chalk Formation, with no reference to any of the previous three terms. Also the article Southern England Chalk Formation itself makes no reference to the three terms, nor even indeed to the term Group. This is confusing (at least it is to a non-geologist like myself), and I think requires explanation on both articles. PaleCloudedWhite (talk) 08:28, 20 January 2012 (UTC)
 * I've adddressed some of this by using the modern terms and made reference to various earlier one which will remain 'at large' for years to come. Further work required here to help clarify what is a confusing situation with stratigraphic names changing so frequently - hopefully we're now enetring a period of stability! cheers Geopersona (talk) 08:23, 17 February 2012 (UTC)

Would it be possible, as part of the further work required, to address the definition of 'provinces', and how they relate to the Group? At the moment it isn't clear which way the hierarchy works - in the introduction it states that the Chalk Group in England forms part of a wider 'province', thus implying that 'group' is a subdivision of 'province', whereas later in the body of the text, the relationship is the other way round (and to add to the confusion, according to the Geological unit article, 'province' isn't a recognised unit - only Supergroup and Formation are named as being the relevant larger and smaller units relating to Group). PaleCloudedWhite (talk) 19:20, 18 February 2012 (UTC)
 * Useful conversation, helping the article become clearer. In fact 'province' is not a part of the stratigraphical hierarchy, it is a geographical descriptor; it defines different areas within which the rock sequence has been laid down and which may have - indeed do have, in this case - differing sequences (reflecting different depositional histories) even though all of the rocks are lumped together within the same stratigraphic group. Does that help? (See Province - though that description might be made clearer) cheers Geopersona (talk) 06:32, 19 February 2012 (UTC)

Yes that does help, thanks. It wasn't clear to me before, but I can see now (I hope I have got this right!) that different geological units are applied to strata according to how the strata relate to each other within a depositional sequence. Of course, that means that different units also relate to one another, simply because the strata are deposited one on top of another, but their spatial relationships are not the for how they are classified. So 'Formation' and 'Group' etc are temporally-based terms referring to layers within a sequence, whereas 'Province' is a spatially-based term referring to a particular spatial extent of those layers. Is that right? PaleCloudedWhite (talk) 21:17, 19 February 2012 (UTC)
 * Indeed! It can become confusing because as our knowledge of geological processes and more importantly, of depositional and erosional histories increases so we are better able to make correlations in both time and space between different 'units' of rock, and as a result, associate these rock units (temporally) into different groups, formations and so forth and (spatially) into various provinces etc. Often new names are conceived, at other times old names are co-opted - in any case earlier associations remain in the literature for years, decades, centuries even, waiting to trap the unwary! I guess a role for the interested Wikipedian is to guide others through this maze. I'm currently doing battle with the 'Southern England Chalk Formation' which seems to have proliferated through dozens of Wiki articles. I am unable to find any original reference to it ever having existed though. This phrase appears to be a fiction which has arisen from a Chalk formation described from southern England, getting mention in the 1911 edition of Encyclopaedia Britannica (see http://www.archive.org/stream/encyclopaediabrit05chisrich#page/806/mode/2up/search/chalk) - a publication which in 2012 has so many shortcomings yet nevertheless has been copied wholesale into innumerable Wikipedia articles. The term 'formation' appears to have been understood in the modern sense of a defined rock unit by wikipedia authors, unaware that it was more loosely defined back then - indeed the word, like so many others, has a tightly defined modern scientific meaning but also a much looser general one; senses which are often mixed to the detriment of understanding. Geopersona (talk) 06:07, 20 February 2012 (UTC)

Yes, I had noticed you had tackled a few of the pages which linked to 'Southern England Chalk Formation' - perhaps you had noticed my own sandbox in that list, as recently I've been chipping away at a gestating 'Geography of Dorset' article (following the discussion which took place at Geology of Dorset a while back), and I had also adopted 'Southern England Chalk Formation' as an accepted term, until I read around a bit and found 'Chalk Group', and realised something wasn't quite right! So these recent discussions have been helpful for me in a particular way regarding my writing of 'Geography of Dorset', as well as more generally. (Incidentally if you have a look at my sandbox and see any glaring errors, feel free to correct them). As a minor contribution to this article, I've slightly re-worded the first sentence, eliminating the "this is the name of" wording - I can recall a discussion ages ago at the WikiProject Plants talk page when it was decided that these kind of introductory sentences ("X is the name applied to a type of Y") were somewhat superfluous, and better replaced by just stating that "X is a type of Y". However, if I have missed some subtlety of geological description, just revert my edit. Cheers, PaleCloudedWhite (talk) 22:06, 20 February 2012 (UTC)
 * No you've not missed anything, I can be a bit over-wordy sometimes. There's always some tweaking to be done regarding style. Did you notice that I'd thought further about the 'Southern England Chalk Formation' article and considered that there is a place for an article describing the assemblage of landforms which rocks of the Chalk Group give rise to in southern and eastern England? Provided that is, that it does not contain the potentially confusing word 'formation' in its title. Geopersona (talk) 06:38, 21 February 2012 (UTC)

Yes I had noticed your proposal, but hadn't had time to formulate a proper reply. I have now however - it's at the 'SECF' talk page. PaleCloudedWhite (talk) 09:14, 21 February 2012 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Chalk Group


text:
Higashi-Katsushika District, Chiba

Higashi-Katsushika (東葛飾郡) was a district located in Chiba Prefecture, Japan until March 27, 2005.

On March 28, 2005 the district was dissolved when the town of Shōnan was merged into the expanded city of Kashiwa.

Area
The Higashi-Katsushika District (April 1, 1897 – March 28, 2005) is now covering the following cities:
 * The following cities was part of this district at the time of founding:
 * Urayasu, Ichikawa, Matsudo, Nagareyama, Noda, Kamagaya, large parts of Funabashi, Kashiwa (Former municipalities of Kashiwa, Tanaka, Tsuchi, and Kogane areas)
 * The following cities was part of Minamisōma District (1889-April 1, 1897):
 * Abiko, Kashiwa (Former towns of Shōnan and Tomise areas)

History
Katsushika District, of the Musashi Province was broke off by their respective prefectures and thus Higashi-Katsushika District was placed within Chiba Prefecture. The seat was located in Matsudo.

In 1897, Minamisōma District (Broke off from Sōma District in Kazusa Province by their respective prefectures and Minamisōma was placed in Chiba Prefecture) was later absorbed into Higashi-Katsushika District.

After the one and the only town in Higashi-Katsushika District, Shōnan was merged into the city of Kashiwa on March 28, 2005, the district dissolved. But the region covering the former district is now known as the Tokatsu Region (東葛地域).

Timeline

 * April 1, 1897 - The district absorbed Minamisōma District.
 * September 1, 1909 - The village of Urayasu was elevated to town status. (12 towns, 31 villages)
 * October 10, 1914 (12 towns, 29 villages)
 * The villages of Chiyoda and Toyoshiki were merged to create the village of Chiyoda.
 * The villages of Tanaka and Toyofuta were merged to create the village of Tanaka.
 * August 10, 1924 - The village of Nakayama was elevated to town status. (13 towns, 28 villages)
 * September 15, 1926 - The village of Chiyoda was elevated to town status and was renamed to Kashiwa. (14 towns, 27 villages)
 * January 1, 1931 - The village of Katsushika was elevated to town status. (15 towns, 26 villages)
 * April 1, 1933 - The town of Matsudo, and the village of Mei were merged to create the town of Matsudo. (15 towns, 25 villages)
 * November 3, 1934 - The towns of Ichikawa, Yawata, Nakayama, and the village of Kokubun were merged to create the city of Ichikawa. (12 towns, 24 villages)
 * April 1, 1937 - The towns of Funabashi and Katsushika, and the villages of Yasaka, Hoden, and Tsukada were merged to create the city of Funabashi. (10 towns, 21 villages)
 * April 15, 1937 - The village of Minamigyotoku was elevated to town status. (11 towns, 20 villages)
 * April 1, 1938 - The village of Yabashira was merged into the town of Matsudo. (11 towns, 19 villages)
 * April 1, 1943 - The town of Matsudo, and the villages of Mabashi and Takagi were merged to create the city of Matsudo. (10 towns, 17 villages)
 * November 3, 1949 - The village of Ogashiwa was merged into the city of Ichikawa. (10 towns, 16 villages)
 * May 3, 1950 - The town of Noda, and the villages of Asahi, Shichifuku, and Umesato were merged to create the city of Noda. (9 towns, 13 villages)
 * April 1, 1951 - The town of Nagareyama, and the villages of Yagi and Shinkawa were merged to creare the town of Edogawa. (9 towns, 11 villages)
 * January 1, 1952 - The town of Edogawa was renamed to Nagareyama.
 * September 1, 1954 - The towns of Kogane and Kashiwa, and the villages of Tuchi and Tanaka were merged to create the city of Tokatsu. (7 towns, 9 villages)
 * November 1, 1954 - The village of Tomise broke off and some of its localities were merged into the town of Abiko and the city of Tokatsu (respectively). (7 towns, 8 villages)
 * March 30, 1955 - The villages of Kazahaya and Tega were merged to create the village of Shōnan. (7 towns, 7 villages)
 * March 31, 1955 - The town of Gyotoku was merged into the city of Ichikawa. (6 towns, 7 villages)
 * April 29, 1955 - The towns of Abiko and Fusa, and the village of Kohoku were merged to create the town of Abiko. (5 towns, 6 villages)
 * July 20, 1955 - The town of Sekiyado, and the villages of Kimagase and Futakawa were merged to create the town of Sekido. (5 towns, 4 villages)
 * October 1, 1956 - The town of Minamigyotoku was merged into the city of Ichikawa. (4 towns, 4 villages)
 * April 1, 1957 - The villages of Fukuda and Kawama were merged into the city of Noba (4 towns, 2 villages)
 * August 1, 1958 - The village of Kamagaya was elevated to town status. (5 towns, 1 village)
 * February 1, 1964 - The village of Shōnan was elevated to town status. (6 towns)
 * January 1, 1967 - The town of Nagareyama was elevated to city status. (5 towns)
 * July 1, 1970 - The town of Abiko was elevated to city status. (4 towns)
 * September 1, 1971 - The town of Kamagaya was elevated to city status. (3 towns)
 * April 1, 1981 - The town of Urayasu was elevated to city status. (2 towns)
 * June 6, 2003 - The town of Sekiyado was merged into the expanded city of Noda. (1 town)
 * March 28, 2005 - The town of Shōnan was merged into the expanded city of Kashiwa. Higashikatsushika District was dissolved as a result of this merger.

title: Higashi-Katsushika District, Chiba


text:
Talk:Korean War order of battle

Untitled
Is it me, or should this order of battle not include People's Liberation Army, People's Liberation Volunteer Army, People's Liberation Air Force, People's Army of North Korea, etc, and other divisions that took part in the Korean War? This OOB only includes American, NATO and ROK forces (the "Good Guys," as some would put it).

Commonwealth Division
Is there a reason the Commonwealth Division or its predecessor brigades isn't listed? I suppose it may have operated under one of the US corps, but this should be made clear. As it stands, this order of battle is incomplete. Leithp (talk) 13:48, 5 December 2005 (UTC)
 * Nor does it include any of the Turkish, Belgian or other nations' forces that took part. I have put an incomplete list tag on it. Leithp (talk) 13:54, 5 December 2005 (UTC)

Yes, it's incomplete.
The Unites States Army wasn't the only branch of the Armed Services that fought in the Korean War. No list of military action in any combat zone is complete without including the US Marine Corps. I have started a list of Marine units, it will need to be expanded.

Magnet For Knowledge (talk) 05:30, 7 October 2008 (UTC)

Aditions
I figured that it would be better to add as many ground forces as possible, though my list is not full - particularly with regard to US divisions. I cannot discover what units Philippine forces were attached to. ---Brigade Piron (talk) 12:46, 21 August 2012 (UTC)

Columbian forces
Reference for Columbia:

title: Talk:Korean War order of battle


text:
Shisui

Shisui (酒々井町) is a town located in Chiba Prefecture, Japan. , the town had an estimated population of 20,660 in 9,888 households and a population density of 1,100 persons per km2. The total area of the town is 19.02 km2.

Etymology
The name of Shisui in the Japanese language is formed from three kanji characters. The first,, means "sake", The second, , is an ideographic iteration mark, indicating a repetition of the first character, and the third, means "well". The area in present-day Shisui was noted for its freshwater springs, and a local legend arose that pure sake gushed freely from the ground, creating "wells of sake".

Geography
Shisui is located on the Shimōsa Plateau in northeastern Chiba Prefecture, about 20 kilometers from the prefectural capital at Chiba and within 40 to 50 kilometers from the center of Tokyo. The town overlooks the Inba Marsh. The town sits on relatively flat, even ground. The south of Shisui is crossed by three small rivers: the Takazaki, Egawa, and Nakagawa, all of which empty into the Inba Marsh.

Neighboring municipalities
Chiba Prefecture
 * Narita
 * Inzai
 * Sakura
 * Yachimata
 * Tomisato

Climate
Shisui has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa) characterized by warm summers and cool winters with light to no snowfall. The average annual temperature in Shisui is 14.8 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1429 mm with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 26.3 °C, and lowest in January, at around 4.5 °C.

Demographics
Per Japanese census data, the population of Shisui increased rapidly in the 1970s and 1980s, but has remained steady over the past 30 years.

History
The area around Shisui has been inhabited since at least the Japanese Paleolithic, and archaeologists have found stone tools and the foundations of houses dating 24,000 years ago. During the Muromachi period, the area was under control of the Chiba clan. After the start of the Edo period, much of the area of Shisui was part of Sakura Domain, a feudal domain under the Tokugawa shogunate. After the Meiji Restoration, Shisui Town was founded on April 1, 1889 within Inba District of Chiba Prefecture with the creation of the modern municipalities system. Proposals to merge Shisui with the neighboring city of Sakura failed to pass a public referendum in 2002.

Government
Shisui has a mayor-council form of government with a directly elected mayor and a unicameral town council of 16 members. Together with the city of Sakura, Shisui contributes three members to the Chiba Prefectural Assembly. In terms of national politics, the town is part of Chiba 13th district of the lower house of the Diet of Japan.

Economy
Shisui was historically a center of rice and sake production. The town is located directly south of Narita International Airport. The central part of the town was developed as a regional commercial center beginning in 1975 due to the construction and expansion of the airport.

Education
Shisui has two public elementary schools and one public middle school operated by the town government. The town does not have a public high school, but has one private high school.

Railway
JR East – Narita Line JR East – Sōbu Main Line Keisei Electric Railway – Keisei Main Line
 * Shisui
 * Minami-Shisui
 * Keisei Shisui – Sōgosandō

Local attractions

 * Moto Sakura Castle, a National Historic Site

title: Shisui


text:
Inba, Chiba

Inba (印旛村) was a village located in Inba District, Chiba Prefecture, Japan.

Inba Village was created on March 10, 1955 through the merger of Rokugo and Munakata Villages. The development of Chiba New Town greatly accelerated the development of the village, which became a bedroom community for Chiba.

As of February 2011, the village had an estimated population of 13,731 and a population density of 295 persons per km2. The total area was 46.57 km2.

On March 23, 2010, Inba, along with the village of Motono (also from Inba District), was merged into the expanded city of Inzai.

title: Inba, Chiba


text:
User talk:Emmanuel.e

Hi, Could someone tell me how broilers are bred? I have heard something about grandparents and pulllets.

title: User talk:Emmanuel.e


text:
Motono, Chiba

Motono (本埜村) was a village located in Inba District, Chiba Prefecture, Japan.

Motono Village was created on April 1, 1914, through the merger of Hongo and Yawara Villages. The development of Chiba New Town greatly accelerated the development of the village, which became a bedroom community for Chiba.

As of February 2011, the village had an estimated population of 9,055 and a density of 382 persons per km2. The total area was 23.72 km2.

On March 23, 2010, Motono, along with the village of Inba (also from Inba District), was merged into the expanded city of Inzai.

title: Motono, Chiba


text:
Sakae, Chiba

Sakae (栄町) is a town located in Chiba Prefecture, Japan. , the town had an estimated population of 20,325 in 9138 households and a population density of 630 persons per km². The total area of the town is 32.46 sqkm.

Geography
Sakae is located in the northern center of Chiba prefecture, about 30 kilometers from the prefectural capital at Chiba, and about 45 to 55 kilometers from the center of Tokyo. The town is within the Kanto Plain, and the northwestern and southern parts of the town are flat with paddy fields. The eastern plateau is on the Shimōsa Plateau, with many forests and fields. The Tone River flows to the north of the town.

Neighboring municipalities
Chiba Prefecture
 * Narita
 * Inzai
 * Tone
 * Kawachi

Climate
Sakae has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa) characterized by warm summers and cool winters with light to no snowfall. The average annual temperature in Sakae is 14.6 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1382 mm with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 26.2 °C, and lowest in January, at around 4.1 °C.

Demographics
Per Japanese census data, the population of Sakae more than doubled between 1980 and 1990 before peaking around the year 2000 and going into decline.

History
Sakae village was founded on April 1, 1889 through the merger of seven small hamlets in Shimohabu District with the establishment of the modern municipalities system. On the same day, Fukama Village in Inba District was founded through the merger of 15 small hamlets. On December 28, 1892, Sakae Village was promoted to town status and renamed Ajiki Town. On April 1, 1897, Shimohabu District was abolished, and Ajiki Town became part of Inba District. On December 1, 1955, the town of Ajiki and the village of Fukama merged to form the new town of Sakae. In a border of adjustment on January 1, 1956, Sakae annexed a portion of neighboring Kawachi, Ibaraki to gain its current borders.

Government
Sakae has a mayor-council form of government with a directly elected mayor and a unicameral town council of 14 members. Sakai, together with neighboring Inzai contributes two members to the Chiba Prefectural Assembly. In terms of national politics, the town is part of Chiba 13th district of the lower house of the Diet of Japan.

Economy
Sakae is a regional commercial center with light manufacturing, primarily related to the food processing industries.

Education
Sakae has four public elementary schools and one public middle school operated by the town government. The town does not have a high school.

Railway
JR East – Narita Line
 * Ajiki

Local attractions

 * Ryukaku-ji - Buddhist temple founded in the Nara period, containing numerous Kofun period burial mounds

Notable people from Sakae

 * Masafumi Togano, professional baseball player

title: Sakae, Chiba


text:
Inba District

Inba District (印旛郡) is a district located in Chiba Prefecture, Japan.

As of 2011, the district has an estimated population of 43,480 and a density of 845 persons per km2. The total area is 51.48 km2.

There are two towns within the district.
 * Sakae
 * Shisui

District timeline

 * January 1, 1957 - Parts of Yotsukaidō merged into the city of Sakura.
 * September 1, 1964 - The village of Shiroi gained town status.
 * April 1, 1981 - The town of Yotsukaidō gained city status.
 * April 1, 1985 - The village of Tomisato gained town status.
 * April 1, 1992 - The town of Yachimata gained city status.
 * April 1, 1996 - The town of Inzai gained city status.
 * April 1, 2001 - The town of Shiroi gained city status.
 * April 1, 2002 - The town of Tomisato gained city status.
 * March 23, 2010 - The villages of Inba and Motono merged into the city of Inzai.

title: Inba District


text: Category:Repetitive DNA sequences

title: Category:Repetitive DNA sequences


text:
Bart Somers

Bartolomeus Jozef Lodewijk Rosalia "Bart" Somers (born 12 May 1964 in Mechelen) is a Belgian, Flemish politician. He is currently the mayor of Mechelen. In 2017, Bart Somers was awarded 2016 World Mayor Prize as recognition for his outstanding achievements in welcoming refugees during recent years and for the long-term integration of immigrants from different cultures, religions and social backgrounds. He obtained a law degree from the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven.

Political career
Bart Somers is the son of the former People's Union parliamentarian, Joos Somers, who was notably a deputy and a senator. After a law degree at KU Leuven, Bart Somers went through the Volksunie before joining the Open VLD in 1992.

Between 2003 and 2004, he was the Minister-President of Flanders.

After the regional elections of June 2004 he was appointed the interim chairman of the Flemish Liberals and Democrats (VLD). On 4 December 2004, he was elected with just over 50 percent of the vote to a full term as chairman.

Bart Somers was one of the three negotiators for the Open VLD during the 2007 Belgian government formation.

After his party's defeat in the regional elections of 2009, he resigned as chairman of the Flemish Liberals and Democrats.

In June 2016, the European Committee of the Regions adopted Bart Somers report on "Combatting Radicalisation and Violent Extremism: Prevention mechanisms at local and regional level". His opinion won cross-party support for its calls for more effective policing, for more cooperation between local, regional, national and European authorities, and for an approach based on respect for core principles.

In October 2016, Bart Somers was elected as Leader of the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe in the European Committee of the Regions.

In February 2017, he received the "World Mayor Prize 2016", an election for the year's best mayor in the world.

In October 2019, he became Vice minister-president of the Flemish Government and Flemish Minister for Living Together and Domestic Administration in the Jambon Government. On November 6, 2023, he decided to resume his position and focus on his mayoralty of Mechelen.

Personal life
He was formerly married to Miet Bourlon (currently divorced) and he has two children, a girl Lieze and a boy Jan Klaas.

title: Bart Somers


text:
Richard Guest

Richard Guest (born 14 August 1967) is an artist and short story author. Educated at the Slade School of Art 1986–1990, he began his writing career with two operas, The Swiss Admiral's Trousers (1986) and The Maginot Line (1987) which were staged at the Slade School of Fine Art and the Riverside Studios, Hammersmith respectively. Published works include Americancola2 *, A Lemming Named Desire, Stephen Milliner's Beautiful Rockery, and Minestrone. He was also co-owner, and publisher with Roy Marchant of RMG Books (1990–1998), a small press which published artists' books and poetry including Nature Poetry, and Adventures in the West by Christopher Twigg and Play by Andrew Bick *.

title: Richard Guest


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User:Emmanuel.e

Hi, This is my personal page. The only article I have written on Wikipedia can be found at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broiler. Visit me at http://emmanuel_e.tripod.com/

title: User:Emmanuel.e


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Freeinformationsociety

Vanity page. Delete. -- The Anome 09:36, 28 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * as a member of the masses, I feel it is my inalienable right to have certain information withheld from me. Any deities wishing to contact me may leave a message on my talk page, or just send a bolt of lightning. Delete. Ianb 09:59, 28 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: theamericanmassesdonotspeakGerman and donot use threewordcombiningforms often use. I don't want to know how average I am or how indifferent the government is to my existence, so I prefer to believe they're keeping things from me. Geogre 12:59, 28 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Believe it or not, Googling on "freeinformationsociety" yields Your search - freeinformationsociety - did not match any documents. No pages were found containing "freeinformationsociety" But I am sure Google will soon yield dozens of hits to Wikipedia and its mirrors. Dpbsmith 21:47, 28 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Started by 'god', eh? Non-notable, vanity, advertisement, substub.  Why does this article still exist?  Delete.  --Ardonik 06:39, Jul 29, 2004 (UTC)
 * Good question. "God" giveth, Wikipedia taketh away.  Deleteth. - Lucky 6.9 22:29, 30 Jul 2004 (UTC)


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Wikipedia talk:Requests for summaries

Requests for summaries (from the village pump)
Is Requests for summaries watched by anyone who is likely to fill requests? There seems to have been practically no activity for most of a year, and no completed requests. The page seems well-intended but poorly executed. --Eequor 22:12, 26 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * I didn't even know it existed. :-) I'd say, if it is determined that it can serve a useful function, it needs someone to "captain" it and make it functional.  Most projects here don't survive without that.  Right now....I can't make heads or tails of it.  Does anyone know what it was intended to do? Jwrosenzweig 23:16, 26 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Perhaps move to Peer review? [[User:Poccil|Peter O. (Talk)]] 23:17, Aug 26, 2004 (UTC)

Presumably people realise that there is a Borgesian joke in there. Charles Matthews 07:29, 25 Oct 2004 (UTC)

vfd
This page was proposed for deletion December 2004. The archived discussion is available at Votes for deletion/Requests for summaries. Joyous 22:28, Jan 8, 2005 (UTC)

title: Wikipedia talk:Requests for summaries


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State government

A state government is the government that controls a subdivision of a country in a federal form of government, which shares political power with the federal or national government. A state government may have some level of political autonomy, or be subject to the direct control of the federal government. This relationship may be defined by a constitution.

The reference to "state" denotes country subdivisions that are officially or widely known as "states", and should not be confused with a "sovereign state". Most federations designate their federal units "state" or the equivalent term in the local language; however, in some federations, other designations are used such as Oblast or Republic. Some federations are asymmetric, designating greater powers to some federal units than others.

Provinces are usually divisions of unitary states but occasionally the designation is also given to the federal units such as the Provinces of Argentina or Canada. Their governments, which are also provincial governments, are not the subject of this article. Many people confuse the state with city governments, and while a small ticket or small crime will be overlooked by the federal government and handled by the state or city government, that are not the same.

Australia
The Commonwealth of Australia is a federal nation with six states (and two mainland territories). Section 51 of the Australian Constitution sets out the division of legislative power between the states and the Commonwealth (federal) government. The Commonwealth government is given a variety of legislative powers, including control of foreign policy, taxation (although this cannot discriminate between states or parts of states), and regulation of interstate commerce and corporations. Since the original ratification of the constitution, the High Court of Australia has settled a number of disputes concerning the extent of the Commonwealth's legislative powers, some of which have been controversial and extensively criticised; these included a dispute in 1982 over whether the Commonwealth was entitled to designate land for national heritage purposes under United Nations agreements, as well as numerous disputes over the extent of the Commonwealth's power over trade union and industrial relations legislation.

One difference between the Australian and United States models of federalism is that, in Australia, the Commonwealth Parliament has explicit constitutional power over marriage legislation; this has been a focal point for recent controversies over same-sex marriage.

Government structure
Each state of Australia has a governor, who represents the King of Australia (currently Charles III) and performs the ceremonial duties of a head of state. Unlike the Canadian lieutenant-governors, a state governor is appointed by the Monarch on the advice of the state government, not the federal government. Every state also has a parliament; most states have a bicameral parliament, except for Queensland, where the upper chamber (the Legislative Council) was abolished in 1922. Like their Indian counterparts, Australian states have a Westminster system of parliamentary government; the head of government, known in each state as a Premier, is drawn from the state parliament.

Austria
In Austria, a Landtag (state parliament) elects a Landeshauptmann, who is not only the chairman of a state government but also the representative of the federal government and responsible for the enforcement of federal legislation.

Germany
Germany has sixteen states with their own governments.

India
In India, state governments are the governments ruling over the country's 28 states and two of its eight union territories (Delhi and Puducherry). Under the Constitution of India, the executive power of a state is vested in its Governor; however, the real executive power rests with a Council of Ministers, headed by a Chief Minister. The legislative structure consists of a directly-elected legislative assembly and, in the case of 6 states, an indirectly-elected legislative council. The judicial setup consists of the state's high court and the district courts subordinate to it.

Mexico
Mexico also has states.

Nigeria
In Nigeria, States are constituent political entities of which there are currently 36. States have an elected Governor and legislature and broad powers in some areas. Powers not given to the states belong to the federal government under the Constitution of Nigeria.

Pakistan
In Pakistan, the Provinces of Pakistan are the federal units. There are currently four.

The Provincial Governments are each headed formally by a Provincial Governor but for practical purposes power is exercised by the Chief Minister, in a parliamentary system similar to that of the Federal government of Pakistan.

South Africa
South Africa is usually considered a unitary state but its government system possesses a strong similarity to a federal one. The Constitution of South Africa does not describe the state as federal or unitary.

South Africa is divided into nine provinces which have their own elected governments. Chapter Six of the Constitution of South Africa describes the division of power between the national government and the provincial governments, listing those "functional areas" of government that are exclusively reserved to the provincial governments and those where both levels of government have concurrent powers; the remaining areas not listed are reserved to the national government. In areas where both levels have concurrent powers there is a complex set of rules in the event of a conflict between national and provincial legislation. Generally in such a case the provincial legislation prevails, but national legislation may prescribe standards and frameworks for provinces to follow, and may prevent provinces from adversely affecting national interests or the interests of other provinces. The functional areas in which the provincial governments have powers include agriculture, arts and culture, primary and secondary education, the environment and tourism, health, housing, roads and transport, and social welfare.

The provincial governments are structured according to a parliamentary system in which the executive is dependent on and accountable to the legislature. The unicameral provincial legislature is elected by party-list proportional representation, and the legislature in turn elects one of its members as Premier to head the executive. The Premier appoints an Executive Council (a cabinet), consisting of members of the legislature, to administer the various departments of the provincial administration.

United States
The United States is divided into 50 states, which comprise the federated polities. Under the 10th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, all governmental powers not granted to the Federal government of the United States nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, making the United States a decentralised federation. However, State law is trumped by Federal law when the two may come into contact. U.S. states all share a similar system of government to the national level with a directly elected and usually quite powerful executive styled Governor and a state legislature exercising legislative authority. In 49 states out of 50 as well as three of the inhabited Territories of the United States (Puerto Rico, Northern Mariana Islands, and American Samoa), the legislature is bicameral with the houses commonly, though not exclusively being styled House of Representatives and Senate although the name of the legislative body as a whole varies between the states (the most common are General Assembly (Itself sometimes a term for the lower house of a state legislature) such as in North Carolina or simply Legislature as in Texas). In Nebraska, United States Virgin Islands and Guam (the latter two being federal territories rather than states) the legislature is unicameral. The states are semi-sovereign republics in their own right and maintain much control over their internal affairs with issues such as public transport and law enforcement generally being the domain of state governments (although the Federal government often works with states in these areas). Large portions of the welfare state in the United States are administered at a state level as well which means that levels of social services vary from state to state. This has sometimes been controversial, such as in the case of Medicaid expansion. There are also several territories, the most notable of which is Puerto Rico. Puerto Rico is treated in a manner similar to a state in many areas but in others is quite different. Most notably it does not have representation in the United States Congress other than its non-voting Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico. However, it does enjoy more autonomy in taxation and some other areas than the states and thus is commonly classified as a sort of autonomous region for the Puerto Rican people, who are culturally distinct from the Americans on the mainland. There exists a debate as to the future status of the territory with proposals including full statehood, maintenance of the autonomous territory status, or some form of independence (either retaining limited reliance upon the United States or full independence with no special relationship)

title: State government


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French America

French America (Amérique française), sometimes called Franco-America, in contrast to Anglo-America, is the French-speaking community of people and their diaspora, notably those tracing back origins to New France, the early French colonization of the Americas. The Canadian province of Quebec is the centre of the community and is the point of origin of most of French America. It also includes communities in all provinces of Canada (especially in New Brunswick, where francophones are roughly one third of the population), Saint Pierre and Miquelon, Saint Martin, Saint Barthélemy, Martinique, Guadeloupe (all are parts of France), Saint Lucia and Haiti in the Caribbean; French Guiana (overseas region of France) in South America. Also there are minorities of French speakers in part of the United States (New England, Louisiana, Mississippi, Florida, Texas, California, Illinois and New York), the Dominican Republic, Dominica, Grenada and Trinidad and Tobago.

The Ordre des francophones d'Amérique is a decoration given in the name of the community to its members. It can also be described as the Francophonie of the Americas.

Because French is a Romance language, French America is sometimes considered to be part of Latin America, but this term more often refers to Hispanic America and Portuguese America, or simply the Americas south of the United States.

Countries, administrative divisions and French possessions
This is a list of countries, administrative divisions and French possessions in the Americas having the French language as an official language or where a French-based creole language is commonly spoken. The data of each place are based in the 2012–2013 Census.

Members and corresponding diasporas

 * Acadia—(Acadians)
 * Cajuns

title: French America


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Hypochlorite

In chemistry, hypochlorite, or chloroxide is an anion with the chemical formula ClO−. It combines with a number of cations to form hypochlorite salts. Common examples include sodium hypochlorite (household bleach) and calcium hypochlorite (a component of bleaching powder, swimming pool "chlorine"). The Cl-O distance in ClO− is 1.69 Å.

The name can also refer to esters of hypochlorous acid, namely organic compounds with a ClO– group covalently bound to the rest of the molecule. The principal example is tert-butyl hypochlorite, which is a useful chlorinating agent.

Most hypochlorite salts are handled as aqueous solutions. Their primary applications are as bleaching, disinfection, and water treatment agents. They are also used in chemistry for chlorination and oxidation reactions.

Acid reaction
Acidification of hypochlorites generates hypochlorous acid, which exists in an equilibrium with chlorine. A lowered pH (ie. towards acid) drives the following reaction to the right, liberating chlorine gas, which can be dangerous:

 * 2 +  +    +

Stability
Hypochlorites are generally unstable and many compounds exist only in solution. Lithium hypochlorite LiOCl, calcium hypochlorite Ca(OCl)2 and barium hypochlorite Ba(ClO)2 have been isolated as pure anhydrous compounds. All are solids. A few more can be produced as aqueous solutions. In general the greater the dilution the greater their stability. It is not possible to determine trends for the alkaline earth metal salts, as many of them cannot be formed. Beryllium hypochlorite is unheard of. Pure magnesium hypochlorite cannot be prepared; however, solid Mg(OH)OCl is known. Calcium hypochlorite is produced on an industrial scale and has good stability. Strontium hypochlorite, Sr(OCl)2, is not well characterised and its stability has not yet been determined.

Upon heating, hypochlorite degrades to a mixture of chloride, oxygen, and chlorates:

 * 2 → 2  +
 * 3 → 2  +

This reaction is exothermic and in the case of concentrated hypochlorites, such as LiOCl and Ca(OCl)2, can lead to dangerous thermal runaway and is potentially explosive.

The alkali metal hypochlorites decrease in stability down the group. Anhydrous lithium hypochlorite is stable at room temperature; however, sodium hypochlorite is explosive as an anhydrous solid. The pentahydrate (NaOCl·(H2O)5) is unstable above 0 °C; although the more dilute solutions encountered as household bleach are more stable. Potassium hypochlorite (KOCl) is known only in solution.

Lanthanide hypochlorites are also unstable; however, they have been reported as being more stable in their anhydrous forms than in the presence of water. Hypochlorite has been used to oxidise cerium from its +3 to +4 oxidation state.

Hypochlorous acid itself is not stable in isolation as it decomposes to form chlorine. Its decomposition also results in some form of oxygen.

Reactions with ammonia
Hypochlorites react with ammonia first giving monochloramine, then dichloramine , and finally nitrogen trichloride.

 * + →  + Cl

 * Cl + →  +

Hypochlorite salts
Hypochlorite salts formed by the reaction between chlorine and alkali and alkaline earth metal hydroxides. The reaction is performed at close to room temperature to suppress the formation of chlorates. This process is widely used for the industrial production of sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) and calcium hypochlorite (Ca(ClO)2).
 * Cl2 + 2 NaOH → NaCl + NaClO + H2O

 * 2 Cl2 + 2 Ca(OH)2 → CaCl2 + Ca(ClO)2 + 2 H2O

Large amounts of sodium hypochlorite are also produced electrochemically via an un-separated chloralkali process. In this process brine is electrolyzed to form which dissociates in water to form hypochlorite. This reaction must be conducted in non-acidic conditions to prevent release of chlorine:
 * 2 →  + 2 e−

Some hypochlorites may also be obtained by a salt metathesis reaction between calcium hypochlorite and various metal sulfates. This reaction is performed in water and relies on the formation of insoluble calcium sulfate, which will precipitate out of solution, driving the reaction to completion.
 * Ca(ClO)2 + MSO4 → M(ClO)2 + CaSO4

Organic hypochlorites
Hypochlorite esters are in general formed from the corresponding alcohols, by treatment with any of a number of reagents (e.g. chlorine, hypochlorous acid, dichlorine monoxide and various acidified hypochlorite salts).

Biosynthesis of organochlorine compounds
Chloroperoxidases are enzymes that catalyzes the chlorination of organic compounds. This enzyme combines the inorganic substrates chloride and hydrogen peroxide to produce the equivalent of Cl+, which replaces a proton in hydrocarbon substrate:
 * R-H +  Cl−  +  H2O2  +  H+  →   R-Cl  +  2 H2O

The source of "Cl+" is hypochlorous acid (HOCl). Many organochlorine compounds are biosynthesized in this way.

Immune response
In response to infection, the human immune system generates minute quantities of hypochlorite within special white blood cells, called neutrophil granulocytes. These granulocytes engulf viruses and bacteria in an intracellular vacuole called the phagosome, where they are digested.

Part of the digestion mechanism involves an enzyme-mediated respiratory burst, which produces reactive oxygen-derived compounds, including superoxide (which is produced by NADPH oxidase). Superoxide decays to oxygen and hydrogen peroxide, which is used in a myeloperoxidase-catalysed reaction to convert chloride to hypochlorite.

Low concentrations of hypochlorite were also found to interact with a microbe's heat shock proteins, stimulating their role as intra-cellular chaperone and causing the bacteria to form into clumps (much like an egg that has been boiled) that will eventually die off. The same study found that low (micromolar) hypochlorite levels induce E. coli and Vibrio cholerae to activate a protective mechanism, although its implications were not clear.

In some cases, the base acidity of hypochlorite compromises a bacterium's lipid membrane, a reaction similar to popping a balloon.

Industrial and domestic uses
Hypochlorites, especially of sodium ("liquid bleach", "Javel water") and calcium ("bleaching powder") are widely used, industrially and domestically, to whiten clothes, lighten hair color and remove stains. They were the first commercial bleaching products, developed soon after that property was discovered in 1785 by French chemist Claude Berthollet.

Hypochlorites are also widely used as broad spectrum disinfectants and deodorizers. That application started soon after French chemist Labarraque discovered those properties, around 1820 (still before Pasteur formulated his germ theory of disease).

As oxidizing agents
Hypochlorite is the strongest oxidizing agent of the chlorine oxyanions. This can be seen by comparing the standard half cell potentials across the series; the data also shows that the chlorine oxyanions are stronger oxidizers in acidic conditions.

Hypochlorite is a sufficiently strong oxidiser to convert Mn(III) to Mn(V) during the Jacobsen epoxidation reaction and to convert to. This oxidising power is what makes them effective bleaching agents and disinfectants.

In organic chemistry, hypochlorites can be used to oxidise primary alcohols to carboxylic acids.

As chlorinating agents
Hypochlorite salts can also serve as chlorinating agents. For example, they convert phenols to chlorophenols. Calcium hypochlorite converts piperidine to N-chloropiperidine.

Related oxyanions
Chlorine can be the nucleus of oxyanions with oxidation states of −1, +1, +3, +5, or +7. (The element can also assume oxidation state of +4 is seen in the neutral compound chlorine dioxide ClO2).

title: Hypochlorite


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John Cunningham (VC 1916)

Private John Cunningham VC (28 June 1897 – 21 February 1941) was a British Army soldier and an English recipient of the Victoria Cross (VC), the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces. John was born in Swains Yard off Manley Street, Scunthorpe and was the eldest son of Charles and Mary Cunningham.

Cunningham was 19 years old, and a private in the 12th (Service) Battalion (the 'Hull Sportsmen'), a Pals battalion of the East Yorkshire Regiment in 31st Division during World War I, when the following deed took place for which he was awarded the VC.

"On 13 November 1916, the opening day of the Battle of the Ancre (the final offensive of the Battle of the Somme), attacking from opposite Hebuterne the 31st Division was to seize the German trenches and form a defensive flank north of Serre. After the enemy's front line had been captured, Private Cunningham went with a bombing section up a communication trench where much opposition was met and all the rest of the section were either killed or wounded. Collecting all the bombs from the casualties Private Cunningham went on alone and when he had used up all the bombs he had he returned for a fresh supply and again went up the communication trench where he met a party of 10 Germans. He killed all 10 and cleared the trench up to the new line."

His Victoria Cross is displayed at York Army Museum, England.

John was married to Eva Harrison in June 1917 at Hull and had two children, Annie who died in infancy and John who was born in 1920 at Hull. John Cunningham died 20 February 1941 at 5 Beaufort Terrace Campbell Street Hull aged 43 years and his funeral took place in Hull on 24 February 1941, John is buried in grave No: 17509, compartment No; 180 at the Western Cemetery, Kingston upon Hull.

title: John Cunningham (VC 1916)


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Shimofusa

Shimofusa (下総町) was a town located in Katori District, Chiba Prefecture, Japan.

During the Edo period, the area of present-day Shimofusa was part of Takaoka Domain, a minor feudal domain of the Tokugawa shogunate. Modern Namekawa Village was established on April 1, 1889. On February 11, 1955, it merged with the villages of Takaoka and Komikado to form the town of Shimofusa.

On March 27, 2006, Shimofusa, along with the town of Taiei (also from Katori District), was merged into the expanded city of Narita, and thus no longer exists as an independent municipality.

In February 2006, the last data available before its merger into Narita, the town had an estimated population of 7,868 and a population density of 246 km2. Its total area was 32.00 km2.

Education
Shimofusa High School (千葉県立下総高等学校) is located in the former town.

title: Shimofusa