text:
Minnie Bell Sharp

Minnie Bell Sharp Adney (January 12, 1865 – April 11, 1937) was a Canadian music teacher and businesswoman. From childhood on she was actively involved in her family's orchard and nursery business. She owned and operated music schools in Victoria, British Columbia and Woodstock, New Brunswick. She was the first New Brunswick woman ever to run in a Canadian federal election.

Family, early life and education
She was born in Upper Woodstock, New Brunswick, one of eight children of Francis Peabody Sharp and his wife Maria Shaw. Their first three children had all died of diphtheria within one week in 1861. Minnie Bell was the eldest of three sisters. She had one older brother and one younger.

Her father, a noted experimental pomologist, owned orchards and fruit nurseries which grew to be the largest in Canada by 1890. Minnie Bell Sharp later described her childhood and youth as "a glorious life" and her family's home as "a veritable fairyland". She recalled having "an unlimited capacity for hard work" and being "up at daylight packing and shipping apples and plums" during the harvest season.

She was educated mainly by her mother, with one year spent at Compton Ladies' College, an Anglican boarding school in the Eastern Townships of Quebec, when she was 14. Later she attended St. Margaret's Hall school in Halifax, where she excelled in music. Encouraging her musical development, her father purchased the first Steinway piano in New Brunswick

During most winters between 1883 or 1884 and 1890 she studied voice and piano in New York City. The composer and pianist William Mason was one of her teachers.

Career
She taught music in Woodstock, New Brunswick and organized local concerts in which her students performed, on one occasion joined by friends of Sharp's from Fredericton and New York. She also organized concerts in Saint John, New Brunswick and Houlton and Calais, Maine.

In 1893 she purchased the business name and goodwill of the Victoria Conservatory of Music at Victoria, British Columbia for $1200, of which $700 was in cash and the remaining $500 in the form of a promissory note. She took possession of the conservatory in September 1893 and remained its principal until 1900. It was the largest music school in the city, with as many as 60 students and 5 staff in addition to Sharp and her assistant Beth Walker, who had studied with Sharp in New York. Sharp taught voice and piano; other subjects taught included music theory and history, sight-singing by the sol-fa method, violin, elocution and languages (French, Italian and German). The conservatory regularly presented student recitals and benefit concerts in which Sharp and other teachers participated.

The Sharp family businesses in New Brunswick were losing money due to a combination of factors including the effect of the protectionist McKinley Tariff introduced in the United States in 1890, the death in 1892 from tuberculosis of Francis Peabody Sharp's son Franklin, who had taken over the businesses from his father, and the devastation of the plum orchard by an unusually cold winter in the following year. In order to assist her parents and unmarried sister, Minnie Bell Sharp sent money home, and went into debt to do so. She also spent the summer and fall of every year but 1894 and 1895 in New Brunswick helping with the fruit harvest and sale.

In 1897, while she was home for the summer, the Woodstock school district trustees presented her with a bill for back taxes owed by the Sharp orchards. She refused to pay the full amount of the bill, on the grounds that the property's value had declined. She was then arrested and spent 17 days in jail. She was released after she realized that she was not subject to arrest because she was a non-resident, a fact that she learned by reading the New Brunswick statutes while in jail. The lawyers for the school trustees said that they were unaware of this exemption. She sued the school trustees for $2,500 for false imprisonment. She won the case but was awarded only $1. She appealed the amount and a second trial took place in April 1900, in which she was awarded damages of $75.

After her marriage to Tappan Adney in Woodstock in September 1899 she returned to Victoria late in the year. She left for New Brunswick in April 1900 after closing the conservatory. In the same year she opened the Woodstock School of Music, which she ran for the next 20 years. She also led choral groups for adults and children.

Between 1906 and 1916 Minnie Bell Sharp Adney and her husband worked together to revive the Sharp nursery and orchard businesses, but they were ultimately unsuccessful.

Political candidacy
In 1919, Minnie Bell Sharp Adney announced her candidacy as an Independent for the federal constituency of Victoria—Carleton in a by-election to fill the seat vacated by the resignation of Frank Broadstreet Carvell. She declared that she would support the government in office and would "work first for justice and the people; for an adequate recompense for our wonderful soldier boys", "for the children of our land", "for our common cause, without destruction of classes or creeds or the drawing of stringent political lines, for the good of all, the public weal and humanity". Her name did not appear on the ballot because she was late filing her nomination papers.

In the general election of 1921 she again put her name forward, offering her support to the Liberal Party. Among the items in her platform were "more pay for the soldiers", "mothers' bonus such as obtains in Ontario", and "return to old high license of a liquor law or such a system as Quebec or British Columbia have, whereby the national debt could be liquidated in two years". On this occasion she presented her nomination papers on time but did not have the $200 deposit required to file the papers.

In the general election of 1925, her name appeared on the ballot as an independent candidate. Her nomination papers were filed and a $200 deposit was paid by an "agent", Helen McKibbin. She was the first woman ever nominated in a federal election in New Brunswick. The seat was won by the Conservative candidate James Kidd Flemming. Minnie Bell Adney, whose campaign slogan was "By their fruits ye shall know them", received 84 votes.

Personal life
On 12 September 1899, Sharp married Tappan Adney in Woodstock. While studying in New York she had stayed at a boarding house in Manhattan that was owned by Ruth Shaw Adney. At her invitation Mrs. Adney's son Tappan and daughter Mary Ruth visited the Sharp family in New Brunswick in the summer of 1887. Tappan Adney remained in New Brunswick until the fall of 1889 and returned several times in the following decade. Mary Ruth Adney worked with Sharp at the conservatory in Victoria from 1893 to 1896 and Tappan Adney visited the city for five months in 1895.

Minnie Bell and Tappan Adney had one child, Francis Glenn Adney (called Glenn). He was born in Woodstock in 1902. He attended McGill University in Montreal on scholarships and earned a Bachelor of Science degree in Mathematics in 1923. He played the piano, and worked as a jazz musician and dance band leader in Montreal. He worked as an actuary for the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company in New York from the early 1930s until he retired in 1966. He died in 1983 in Ramsey, New Jersey, where he had lived for 50 years.

She suffered from Fuchs' dystrophy, a degenerative eye disease, and became blind in the last years of her life. In 1933 she and her husband returned to Woodstock from Verdun, Quebec, where they had been living. Minnie Bell Sharp Adney died on 11 April, 1937. She is buried in the Upper Woodstock Cemetery with her husband, who died in 1950.

title: Minnie Bell Sharp


text:
List of administrative divisions of Inner Mongolia

Inner Mongolia, an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China, is made up of prefecture-level divisions, which are divided into county-level divisions, which are then divided into township-level divisions.

Administrative divisions
This chart lists only the prefecture-level and county-level divisions of Inner Mongolia.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Category talk:Programming languages

Overcategorization in this category
I wonder if many of the articles on programming languages in this category are overcategorized? Per, "each categorized page should be placed in all of the most specific categories to which it logically belongs. This means that if a page belongs to a subcategory of C (or a subcategory of a subcategory of C, and so on) then it is not normally placed directly into C."

I noticed this overcategorization issue when I saw that  into Category:Programming languages and into several subcategories such as Category:Dynamic programming languages and Category:High-level programming languages. (I see in 's history that may have categorized a number of other articles on programming languages similarly.) But per the guideline just mentioned, if an article is categorized into one or more subcategories of this category, it should not also be in this category (unless the subcategories are non-diffusing subcategories, but that doesn't appear to be the case here). Any comments? Biogeographist (talk) 15:08, 8 January 2018 (UTC)

Standard examples
It would be helpful if there were a small set of "standard" tasks and all pages on programming languages showed how to do them all (e.g., compute prime numbers, compute the squares of the numbers 1 to 10, print "Hello, world!"). Where should I suggest this? LachlanA (talk) 00:54, 21 January 2023 (UTC)

title: Category talk:Programming languages


text:
Talk:Mizrahi Hebrew

Yemenite Hebrew
My page about Hebrew pronunciation, with Yemenite Hebrew focus.

http://e.domaindlx.com/hebrewtalk/hebrewtalk.htm

Any other dialects
Were there any in Jordan, Saudi Arabia & etc.

Mizrahi Hebrew
I'm under the impression that there is both a LITURGICAL Mizrahi Hebrew and a Mizrahi Hebrew used in everyday speech.

The problem is, everything I've been able to find on this whole topic so far is rather vague and confusing.

Gringo300 10:34, 8 October 2005 (UTC)

"Mizrahi Hebrew?"
It seems like the term "Mizrahi Hebrew" is highly over-generalized and insensitive. Does it ever come into use? Aucaman 11:09, 25 October 2005 (UTC)

 * It could be argued that the term "American English" is also "over-generalized and insensitive". Obviously, there are different racial and ethnic variations of American English, as well as regional variations. Gringo300 (talk) 18:39, 23 March 2009 (UTC)

Hebrew naming conventions
Urgent: see Naming conventions (Hebrew) to add your opinions about this important matter. Thank you. IZAK 18:12, 11 November 2005 (UTC)

Bet vs. vet; Arabic vs. Spanish
I have moved User:TShilo12's note here from the Syrian Jews article, but I am still not convinced by it.

Lack of differentiation between bet dagesh and bet raphe is more likely to be an Arabic influence than a Spanish influence, as Arabic has no /v/ sound. So if there was any change in Arabic-speaking countries after 1492, it is more likely to have been from /b/ to /v/ than from /v/ to /b/. /b/ pronunciations tend to be found in places like Iraq with few Sephardi immigrants, while /v/ is found in Morocco where there were many.

As for Spanish, it is correct that the distinction between /b/ and /β/ is now purely a function of position and is not regarded as making a phonemic difference. The same is in fact true in Hebrew: bet and vet are alphabetically and etymologically the same letter, and the pronunciation is determined by position: the dagesh is just a reading aid to show that where this happens.

However, it was not true in medieval Spanish, and is not true today in Ladino, where "b" and "v" are distinct letters (and, incidentally, "v" is labio-dental as in English, not bilabial as in modern Spanish). Sephardim themselves vary: /v/ was used in Greece and Turkey, while /b/ was used in England and Holland, no doubt because they were influenced by modern Spanish rather than Ladino.

So I think TShilo12's paragraph has things the wrong way round; partly because it assumes that the modern pronunciation must have been the "real" or "original" pronunciation, so that it is necessarily the /b/ rather than the /v/ pronunciation that requires explanation.--Sir Myles na Gopaleen (the da) (talk) 10:18, 10 March 2008 (UTC)

"שׂ (Sin) is pronounced [ɬ]"
What? Where did this information come from? שׂ has been pronounced /s/ at least since Mishnaic times. I'm gonna go ahead and remove this. TFighterPilot (talk) 17:42, 1 April 2012 (UTC)

(Tsadi) is pronounced
(Tsadi) is pronounced [sˤ], like Arabic ص (voiceless pharyngealized alveolar fricative) maybe is a mistake because thatsound is oclusive fricative /ts/. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 186.84.211.99 (talk) 18:19, 24 May 2013 (UTC)

What about [p]?
Of all sounds not appearing in Arabic but common in other languages, Arabs have most trouble pronouncing [p]. So they may fail to pronounce this sound even if they can say [v], [g], etc. I'm surprised then that there's no mention of any variation with this letter. I'd have imagined that it was substituted with [f] (or less likely [b]). — Preceding unsigned comment added by 93.206.130.101 (talk) 21:01, 20 October 2017 (UTC)

 * In my experience Mizrahim have no difficulty with [p]. There were enough other contact languages (Judaeo-Spanish, Persian, Arabic, Kurdish, Aramaic, French, English) in which it occurred. Just as English does not contain a "kh" sound but English Jews have no problem with pronouncing it in Hebrew. Good question though. --Sir Myles na Gopaleen (the da) (talk) 11:34, 23 October 2017 (UTC)

Tag - OR + Citations
Following the AfD close, I've tagged this article for OR and more sources. Lets see if there is improvement in this regard over the coming months. Icewhiz (talk) 15:34, 28 February 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mizrahi Hebrew


text:
Talk:Frank Buffay Jr.

I wouldn't say the assumption that "massage parlour" is an euphemism for "brothel" is strange, although it did make for a humourous misunderstanding. Kelvinc 16:36, 30 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Yeah Yeah Yeah
Who Cares? --Crestville 22:23, 31 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Evidently, we do. Just that I thought that thinking "massage parlour" = "brothel" isn't really evidence of strangeness, since the euphemism is used.
 * Kelvinc 01:00, 2 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * I'm not aruguing with you, I quite agree, I just can't think of a realistic method of changing it without altering important elements of the article. (Also, although it is a common euphemism, in the content it is used - considering Phoebe is his sister - you have to admit that is strange). (Also also, who's we?)

 * Yah, I can't think of any way to change to article as well. And now that I just re-watched the episode in question, yah it is sorta strange: he just kinda assumed that everything would be loopy and such "in the city", as he puts it.  I suppose it's hard to provide the right amount of context: the euphemism isn't usually a sign of weirdness, but in the episode it is.  I guess my only advice is for people to watch it themselves.  ;)
 * "We" = users Crestville and Kelvinc, the only people to post here.
 * Kelvinc 02:42, 3 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Oh, ok, fair enough

Child Bearing age.
I won't put it back untill i'm sure, but I think they did say that Alice was past child bearing age, or something to that effect. Also, it's fairly implicit, but i could be wrong.

--Crestville 18:20, 4 Aug 2004 (UTC)

im only using this page for my coursework. can i say that the friends writers are the best so leave their material alone!!!!!!!!

What? Thankyou?--Crestville 17:42, 19 Nov 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Frank Buffay Jr.


text:
Roma Victor

Roma Victor is an MMORPG based on the Roman Empire in Great Britain in the latter half of the 2nd century. Roma Victor was developed by RedBedlam Ltd. of Brighton and Hove, England. The in-game world was a 30x30km representation of a section along Hadrian's Wall, including several small villages and Roman forts.

Roma Victor was released by RedBedlam on July 14, 2006, with pre-order customers being let in 2 weeks earlier. In January 2010, it was announced that the purchase of new accounts would be blocked as of May 5, and that the game would remain online for another year after that, at RedBedlam's expense. However, the game was shut down almost 6 months early without warning.

Setting
Roma Victor was set in the province of Britannia just before the decline of the Roman Empire, beginning in the year 180AD. Commodus, having succeeded his father Marcus Aurelius as Emperor, was exerting a tyrannical influence across the empire.

From November 2006, the playable area encompassed the southeastern portion of Caledonia which was termed in-game as a playfield. As discussed by RedBedlam, there were further plans to expand this playable area and to create other playfields in different regions of the ancient world, if the server population had increased enough to warrant such extensions. These may have included playfields such as Germania, Hispania, Italy and Gaul, or other areas of Britannia. The additional playfields were never added, nor were some parts of southeastern Caledonia advertised as being in Roma Victor at commercial launch, such as the Roman town of Luguvalium.

In the final state of the game, the Romans began life as a slave in the ancient regional town of Corstopitum over which modern Corbridge lies. Barbarians began in the village of Erring, directly north of Corstopitum.

Playable area and factions

There were two factions in Roma Victor, the Romans and the barbarians. Each faction had its own unique advantages and disadvantages.

The playfield was divided in boards, areas with the size of one square kilometer in a 1:1 scale to the real world. Some of these boards were pre-built, but most were composed of uninhabitable wilderness. The pre-built boards represented the historical locations of Roman colonies and forts, although creative license was also used to create fictitious places. Wilderness boards could be made buildable if a guild hall was built on that board.

When a player character first began the game, they were in attending status which meant they could not attack or be attacked by other players. They could be deattended instantly by a player who was the local magistrate, or by completing a tutorial. The deattending command used by the local lord or magistrate was intended to be a tool to prevent griefers from abusing the protections of attending status. However, due to the extremely repetitive, redundant, and monotonous tutorial, player lords and magistrates were burdened with the duty of deattending thousands of players who preferred not to complete the tutorial.

Guilds
Guilds were player associations, or "clans" and formed the basis of much of the social structure in Roma Victor. Guilds in Roma Victor were exclusively made up of players—the numbers could be augmented by NPC members, which could be hired and assigned to various roles and tasks, such as protecting the guild's members, carrying out assignments, or simply acting as a merchant on behalf of the guild.

Roman guild types included Auxiliary, Legion, Patron House and Patrician House. Barbarian guilds included Tribe and Warband, and there were also religious cult guilds which could contain both Roman and barbarian characters.

Every player also had their own household. Household was the collective term applied to all the buildings and NPCs owned, employed, and/or run by an individual player. There could be many buildings and NPCs within a household and using the built-in household management interface a player could set entry fees or rent fees on their property, assign NPCs to act as merchants or guards, summon NPCs as an escort, hire and dismiss staff, etc. NPCs were known to cause lag throughout the entire history of Roma Victor, to include significant adverse effects on game performance in the starter towns.

Skills and abilities

There were no character levels in Roma Victor. However, there was a 'skill' tree which replaced this function. Character development in Roma Victor was designed to simulate real life. That is, if a player wished to improve a character's woodcutting skill, this could only be accomplished by cutting trees down. From those trees, the player could then extract sticks and turn them into handles to train the character's preparing skill. Those handles could then be used by a smith to make simple tools.

Most craftable items could be made and used by anyone, butthere were certain items, like the lorica segmentata armour, that could only be made and worn by legionaries. Several items, like the hideshirt, could only be made and worn by barbarians. There were no level or skill restrictions, but the resulting item quality suffered greatly when a character was not a master in the required skills to produce the item. A player wishing to make high-quality items had to train by practicing menial tasks requiring the involved skill. A large number of items were never made craftable, including several weapon types and a majority of armor types.

Skill areas in Roma Victor included carpentry, smithing, construction, combat, farming, animal handling and more. In the Roman faction, a slave character earned citizenship after gaining a certain number of skill masteries and reputations.

Many branches of the skill tree were never implemented.

Crafting
Roma Victor featured a crafting system, in which it was possible to find resources and components that could be put together using the related skills.

Every item in the Roma Victor universe had a current quality level and a maximum quality level. The current quality level decreased as the item was used; the maximum quality level decreased as the item was repaired (bringing the current quality back up to the maximum quality level). If one forgot to repair the item it would eventually break and be lost. A warning of breakage was issued randomly when quality reached a low level.

Construction

Construction was largely the same as crafting, only with the greater need of materials and skills. When building anything from simple devices through to complex buildings like workshops, it was important to have a ready supply of skilled labour and a good supply chain to finish the job. NPC labourers could be hired to speed up the entire process, however it was possible for individual players to also provide a helping hand. Labourers could also "bulk-add" handcart-loads full of easy-to-add items, such as firewood, or even bricks to lengthy projects.

Roma Victor featured an open-ended 'sandbox'-style environment in which players could rent structures to live in, build their own, or let them out to other players. Any structure could be set as public or private.

The construction was basically divided between devices and structures. Devices were necessary in order to craft items, such as tools and weapons. Furnaces, workbenches, and kilns were examples of devices implemented during the last stages of the game. Structures were basically buildings that could serve as housing, storage areas, and advanced crafting workshops. Buildable player-made structures aside from guild halls included roundhouses, animal pens, arenas, workshops, and horreas. However, most advanced structures were never craftable by players. Tents could also be made as portable structures that could be transported in a character's inventory before deployment.

Combat
Combat skills were structured in a similar manner to crafting skills, in that an untrained character was very unlikely to win in a fair fight against a highly trained character, regardless of player skill and reflexes. A character automatically dodged and parried incoming strikes based on randomized calculations on the server, although blocking with a shield had both an automatic calculation and would happen if the opponent accidentally clicked on the player's shield. It was also possible to disarm an opponent's weapon during a fight.

Roma Victor featured real-time combat, which was largely decided by character skills similar to the character 'levels' found in most MMOs. However, unlike some other games, there were several tricks that were harder to pull off than just pushing a button. Timing and tactics also played a big role in your character's survival.

Roma Victor had hitboxes for each bodypart on a player, so that clicking the attack button while aiming the mouse on a particular part of an opponent's body would attempt to hit exactly that part of the body. After the character's automatic chance to evade the attack based on skill numbers, the attack damage would be applied to the hit points in that bodypart if the calculations failed. In this way, a player could repeatedly click at the weak or unarmoured parts on an opponent.

Death and the afterlife

When the hitpoints of a particular bodypart reach zero, the player would become incapacitated. When incapacitated (i.e. knocked out) in combat, the player's character would not necessarily die straight away. He would be unconscious on the ground for a variable time, unless someone administered basic aid or a killing blow. If someone administered first aid, the character would be back on his feet and ready to fight in a few seconds, albeit severely wounded. If a deathblow was administered, then the player was taken away from the combat to Elysium, a small area for dead players. In Elysium, the player had to walk toward an NPC that would return the character to a designated spawn-in spot on the main gameworld. If a player was deathblown and had high skills, they may suffer decay. Player kills dealt more skill loss than other forms of death.

The Roma Victor website claimed that after death the player character would have to navigate their way through "fantastic landscapes, puzzles, physical challenges, demons and duels," varying in difficulty depending on the character's badges and reputations (life decisions), but this was never implemented.

Being deathblown was not the only way to die in Roma Victor. Other means of dying included drowning in a river if the character ran out of vigour whilst still swimming, bleeding to death after receiving a fatal wound without proper medical treatment, and suicide. If a player wished to commit suicide in the game, they could do so at any time. One attribute (muscle, vision, agility, dexterity, intuition, or stamina) would be completely zeroed.

Roman provincial law
Certain areas were well-policed by NPC representatives of Roman law, such as legionaries, who would attempt to uphold the law and prevent violence. In Roman settlements, it was impossible to break the laws, while in others a player could break the law but the NPC guards would, regardless of location, know of the act and respond later. Offending players would receive a "badge" upon their characters marking them as a criminal. The badge would be removed upon death or after a set amount of time.

Barbarians north of Hadrian's Wall were beyond the reach of the law altogether, so the barbarian lands were effectively a full PvP environment. There were no negative consequences for attacking other barbarians; aside from a reputation amongst fellow players.

Subscription
There were no monthly subscription fees in Roma Victor. The game used a variant of the micropayment economic model, which consisted of buying in-game currency (known as sesterces) with real money through the VERM system. It was not possible to exchange virtual currency earned in-game into real world money.

Development
Roma Victor was sporadically 'in development' since its release in 2006. While there had been many patches and some new content added, features such as player-built roads and fortifications, territorial conquest, and mounts were not implemented. Even at the time that the game was shut down, more than 4 years after release, a large number of features advertised as being available at commercial launch were still not in the game, and along with other features later advertised as part of future updates, were never developed and implemented. There were also a number of known critical bugs in game that were not fixed.

The speed of development and regular lack of customer support or communication was attributed by the creators to a relatively low budget and small development team. However, RedBedlam staff often worked on Roma Victor on a voluntary or part-time basis, a fact that was hidden from the community until several years after commercial launch.

RV2
RV2, an overhaul of the Roma Victor client featuring improved graphics and gameplay, was announced in August 2009 to be implemented sometime in 2010. The developers stated that existing customers would be transferred over to the new version without a fee, as would existing buildings, characters and their belongings.

In January 2010, it was announced that the current Roma Victor would be shutting down in May 2011. It was stated that RV2 is still in development and may be released as soon as 2011. However, RedBedlam shut down the game in January 2011, almost 6 months early, without any prior announcement.

As of April 2021, RedBedlam had not released RV2 nor mentioned any development of such a project on its website.

title: Roma Victor


text:
ROTOR

ROTOR was an elaborate air defence radar system built by the British Government in the early 1950s to counter possible attack by Soviet bombers. To get it operational as quickly as possible, it was initially made up primarily of WWII-era systems, notably the original Chain Home radars for the early warning role, and the AMES Type 7 for plotting and interception control. Data from these stations was sent to a network of control stations, mostly built underground, using an extensive telephone and telex network.

Work also began on a new microwave frequency radar to replace Chain Home c. 1957. The experimental system Green Garlic was so successful that it began replacing Chain Home starting in 1954. In service, these proved so accurate that they could replace the Type 7 radars as well, and their greatly improved range meant that fewer radars would be needed to provide coverage over the entire United Kingdom. This led to the Master Radar Stations that filled both early warning and ground controlled interception roles. The original ROTOR plans for 66 radars was repeatedly reduced, ultimately only requiring half that number of stations. Many of the operations rooms, recently completed, were sold.

ROTOR called for the continual upgrading of the network over time, both the radars and the command and control systems. The introduction of the carcinotron radar jammer in the mid-1950s was a serious blow to these plans; a single aircraft carrying a carcinotron could jam the ROTOR radars so completely that they were rendered useless. At the same time, the introduction of the hydrogen bomb and ballistic missile greatly changed the nature of the strategic threat, and the idea of whole-country defence became untenable. The only way to defend against missile attacks was deterrence, and if that failed, interceptor aircraft and missiles would have no measurable effect on the eventual outcome.

ROTOR was initially to be replaced by a new network dedicated largely to defending the V-bomber force, the "1958 Plan". This role was eventually abandoned, leaving only the task of locating aircraft carrying jammers to keep the BMEWS radars free from interference and prevent a successful sneak attack by missiles. Such a system did not require a large number of radars nor country-wide coverage. To reduce the cost of this much smaller network, studies on integrating the military radars with civilian air traffic control led to the Linesman/Mediator system of only five primary stations. The original ROTOR was replaced by Linesman in stages, starting in 1967.

A similar expedient system in the United States was the Lashup Radar Network.

Post-war situation
As the threat of German air attack became ever more remote, UK radar operations were wound down late in the war, and by the time the war ended were already largely unused. When the war ended, there was a general feeling that another war was at least ten years in the future. Given the rapid ongoing improvements in radar systems through this period, the Air Ministry felt there was no point introducing new radars that would likely become obsolete in a few years. They planned to allow radar to continue developing through this period and use the existing WWII-era systems in the meantime.

To consider the issue in more depth, the Cherry Report was commissioned in 1945. This report noted that the increasing speeds of new bombers, and especially future designs that were jet-powered, would travel across the plotting boards of the existing Dowding system so rapidly that they would fly off the maps before the interception could be arranged. The report suggested that a radar with 250 mile range would be needed to replace the existing AMES Type 7/GCI systems, which were limited to about 90 mile against bomber-sized targets. Estimating that such a radar would be available around 1957, the report suggested that existing GCI stations should receive upgraded antennas with more accuracy, new electronics for better performance, upgrades to their display systems, four Type 13's for height measuring, and two Type 14 units for anti-jamming use. Additionally, their information would be sent to six new command centres, who would produce much larger maps of the airspace, up to 1000 miles across. Additionally, all of the sites would be upgraded with hardened bunkers to allow them to survive a near miss.

New urgency
The Berlin Blockade of July 1948 led to concerns about the next war's estimated time-frame. A White Paper on the state of the network was completed in March 1949. This found that the stations were in a terrible state, with many of them suffering weather damage and a number of them having been broken into and vandalized. A complete defense would also require 1152 fighters and 265 AA regiments, of which only 352 fighters and 75 regiments were actually available. All of this was given extreme urgency with the 29 August 1949 test of the first Soviet atomic bomb. That month, a new directive stated RAF Fighter Command's mission was the defense of Great Britain.

It was known that the Soviets had made exact copies of the B-29 Superfortress as the Tupolev Tu-4, and these aircraft had the performance needed to reach the UK with a nuclear payload. These were fast, but not fast enough to escape the existing radars if they were upgraded as the Cherry Report suggested. Most of the new network would be made up of 28 rebuilt Chain Home systems, while the rest were taken from the existing selection of Chain Home Low, Chain Home Extra Low and the various Ground-controlled interception (GCI) radars. This was, in part, a stop-gap measure anticipating the availability of the dramatically improved radar, which was now known as the Microwave Early Warning, which was expected in the 1957 time-frame. Interception guidance would still be handled by existing systems in either case.

All of the radars were to be improved in terms of siting, with the addition of hardened control bunkers to protect the operators from a conventional attack. On the east coast, where a Soviet attack would be most likely, the bunkers were underground in the 'R' series (R1, R2, R3 and R4 etc.), while those on the western side of the UK were generally semi-sunken hardened structures ('R6') or above ground 'Secco' type huts (Hartland Point etc.). The R-series bunkers themselves were otherwise similar, featuring 10 ft concrete walls with all equipment, operations generators and air conditioning located inside.

Additionally, ROTOR re-arranged the existing RAF Fighter Command structure into six "Sector Operational Commands" (SOC) with their own command bunkers (three level 'R4' protected accommodation). Only four of these were built. Additional "Anti-Aircraft Operations Rooms" were built to coordinate the British Army's AA defences in the same overall system. The entire network of bunkers, radars, fighter control and command centres used up 350,000 tons of concrete, 20,000 tons of steel and thousands of miles of telephone and telex connections.

The work was mainly carried out by the Marconi Wireless and Telegraph Company in several phases, called ROTOR 1, ROTOR 2 and ROTOR 3.

Post-ROTOR
As work on the Microwave Early Warning system began, researchers at the Royal Radar Establishment were experimenting with new cavity magnetrons and crystal detectors that, combined with a ad hoc antenna, increased the range of their existing microwave radars on the order of four times. While the resulting "Green Garlic" did not meet all of the requirements for the original MEW, it was close enough and would be available years earlier.

The decision was made to make the MEW a long-term development with additional features such as moving target indication while the Green Garlic would be mated to an enormous antenna that would give it range over 200 nmi. Installations, under the name AMES Type 80, began in 1954 with the first systems declared operational the next year. As installations continued, it was found that the accuracy was such that it could also be used to direct the interceptors, with no need to forward the information to the ROTOR control centres. By concentrating all of the plotting at a single site the total number of operators was greatly reduced.

As a result of the introduction of the Type 80, many of the existing ROTOR sites were rationalized into Master Radar Stations (MRS), while the rest were made redundant, some only two years after opening. During the same period, the introduction of the first surface-to-air missiles rendered the anti-aircraft guns obsolete, and the Army handed the air defence mission entirely to the RAF. All of the AAOR sites were closed.

A few of the ROTOR and AAOR stations were re-used for Regional Seats of Government or local authority wartime headquarters. Until the end of the Cold War, many of the sites were retained by the government. They were later sold to private buyers, converted into museums (for example Hack Green) or transferred to the National Air Traffic Control Centre.

UK sites
At the Radar Research Establishment in Malvern, Worcestershire a ROTOR bunker was constructed above ground to allow equipment to be tested in an operational environment. The building, locally designated as H Building, originally incorporated a replica of the sector operations centre at RAF Bawburgh. The building was demolished June 2020.

The sites today
RAF Staxton Wold is the only Chain Home site still used as a military radar site but with no remains of the CH station on site after being rebuilt for Linesman/Mediator in 1964. Today it is the former home of an RAF TPS 77 RRH (remote radar head).

RAF Boulmer is a working RAF building, which is housed in an ex-"ROTOR" R3 RAF Boulmer ('EZS') GCI R3 ROTOR Radar Station & Control and Reporting Centre in the UK Air Surveillance and Control System.

In terms of current condition, the ROTOR sites vary from demolished to intact.

For example, West Myne in Somerset was the last ROTOR 3 CHEL site. It was completed in 1957 after the introduction of the Type 80 radar and after many ROTOR stations had already closed. The site was within Exmoor National Park and its creation was strenuously opposed by the National Trust who lost no time in obliterating the site immediately after closure.

Many of the buildings have been re-purposed since being active as ROTOR sites. An example is the Bawburgh R4 SOC which was re-purposed as SRHQ4.1 and then RGHQ4.1 to suit the evolving needs of government. The building is intact, but it has been significantly reconfigured since its use as a ROTOR SOC, notably with the addition of an extra floor and the flooring-over of the original R4 operations well.

July 2019; Kent Underground Exploration are starting talks with TDC hoping to be given access to find and uncover the Foreness, Kent station which grid ref is TR 385710

title: ROTOR


text:
William Radford

William Radford (September 9, 1809 – January 8, 1890) was a rear admiral of the United States Navy who served during the Mexican–American War and the American Civil War, in which he remained loyal to the Union, despite his Virginia birth. Radford commanded the Ironclad Division in the attacks on Fort Fisher (December 1864/January 1865) to assert Union control of Cape Fear.

Ancestry and early life
On December 23, 1806, John Radford [May 27, 1785 – April 15, 1817] married Harriet Kennerly [July 28, 1788 – December 25, 1831] in Fincastle, Virginia, at Santillane, the estate of her uncle George Hancock. On or after January 5, 1807, William Clark arrived at Greenfield, the estate of army buddy William Preston. Clark asked George Hancock for Julia Hancock's hand in marriage. John and Harriet remained in Fincastle to attend the January 25, 1807, marriage between William and Julia (Harriet's cousin). Then they departed in that spring for Lewis County, Kentucky to live on their 1,000-acre farm between Vanceburg and Concord on the bank of the Ohio River, where William and his two siblings were born.

In 1817, John Radford was killed by the wild boar he was hunting. Widow Harriet moved her three children to join her brothers and first cousin in Saint Louis, Missouri. The Radfords resided with her brother James Kennerly.

Julia Clark succumbed on June 27, 1820. Widower William Clark married Harriet November 28, 1821 in Saint Louis and adopted the Radford children and then added to their combined family:
 * Harriet Clark [dates unknown; died as infant].
 * Jefferson Kearny Clark [February 29, 1824 – January 10, 1900]
 * Edmund Clark [September 9, 1826 – August 12, 1827]

After his mother's second marriage, Radford initially refused to move into the Clark house, so he was sent to a school in Perth Amboy, New Jersey, where he became acquainted with the sea. He asked stepfather William Clark for a recommendation to the U.S. Navy. Clark sent a personal request to President John Quincy Adams. There is a discrepancy about William's birthdate, with some references giving it as March 1, 1808, but that date was provided to the Navy because William was underage. Family records and the U.S. Federal Census forms support the 1809 date.

William Clark's diaries mention Radford accompanying him in 1824 from Saint Louis to Washington, D.C. Before returning home, they diverted to New York City to observe the hero's welcome for Marquis de Lafayette. On April 29, 1825, Lafayette paid a visit to Saint Louis, where William Clark hosted his stay and introduced Radford, none aware that Radford would be a member of the crew sailing Lafayette back to France.

Radford embarked upon another Clark trip to Washington, D.C., in the fall of 1828. An excursion in early January 1829 to visit stepbrother Meriwether Lewis Clark at West Point was abandoned due to ice floes on the Hudson River. After witnessing the inauguration of President Andrew Jackson they returned to Saint Louis.

Mediterranean and West Indies Squadrons
Radford was accepted March 1, 1825 into the United States Navy as a midshipman. He reported 1 August 1825 to Captain Charles Morris for duty aboard USS Brandywine (1825) at Washington Navy Yard. While the ship normally carried only 8 to 10 midshipmen, President Adams appointed a total of 24, at least one from each state, to commemorate the return of Lafayette to France. Radford represented the state of Missouri.

Lafayette was delivered to Le Havre on October 9, 1825. From there Brandywine was attached to the Mediterranean Squadron under Commodore John Rodgers. Upon the departure of Brandywine February 25, 1826, Radford transferred to USS Constitution to remain in the Mediterranean monitoring the Greek War of Independence and coup against the Janissaries. Rodgers was succeeded by Commodore William Crane March 30, 1827. Constitution, in need of major repairs, was recalled to Boston Navy Yard arriving on July 4, 1828.

Radford returned to Saint Louis and received orders August 10, 1829, to join USS Erie (1813) at Norfolk Naval Shipyard for deployment to the West Indies Squadron commanded by Commodore Charles Ridgely. Radford was promoted to passed midshipman June 4, 1831 and reported for duty in Philadelphia Naval Shipyard. In September 1831, he requested a six-month leave and was with his mother Harriet when she died December 25, 1831, Christmas Day. He was then entered into a furlough due to the general stagnation of naval affairs.

Radford was assigned to the receiving ship USS Sea Gull (1818) at Philadelphia in February 1834. Then in June 1834 he returned to the Mediterranean Squadron aboard USS John Adams (1799) as the acting Master. He suffered an attack of cholera in November 1834 and was sent ashore to recover in the south of France. Still afflicted in January 1836, he was in New Orleans, Louisiana, and, during October 1836, was recuperating at the home of his uncle William Radford II in Lynchburg, Virginia.

On February 9, 1837, Radford was appointed lieutenant. In September he rejoined the West Indies Squadron, reporting to Commodore Alexander Dallas and fighting in the second Seminole War. The maiden voyage of USS Preble (1839) took Radford to Labrador in June 1840. In November, he returned for a third tour with the Mediterranean Squadron, Commodore Isaac Hull in charge. On March 6, 1841, due to the Oregon Question, Radford was summoned to New York via Brandywine.

Radford traveled May 1841 to Norfolk for duty on USS Pennsylvania (1837). On December 20, 1841, he received USS Ontario (1813) as his first command and delivered her from New York to the Rendezvous at New Orleans where she was employed as a receiving ship. Relieved of recruitment detail in August 1843, he was ordered on board the inaugural cruise of USS Savannah (1842) where she became the flagship of the Pacific Squadron for Commodore Alexander Dallas.

Pacific Squadron
Radford was attached April 24, 1844, to USS Warren (1827) and visited Society Islands, Sandwich Islands and the western coastline of the Americas. Commodore Dallas died at Callao, Peru and was replaced by Commodore John Sloat. Radford's January 1845 letter to brother-in-law Stephen Kearny predicted California "can never be a very densely populated country" and Oregon "is not a very desirable country" yet "we should and ought by rights to have some possessions on the Pacific". He also mentions that "dysentery killed seven of the crew" and that "I was dangerously ill myself".

By May 1845 at Callao, he was again debilitated by dysentery to a degree where ship surgeons recommended he should be removed from the ship "to a more favorable climate". However, he remained aboard and, through mid-1845, patrolled the California coast where rumor of war with Mexico was rife.

Reaching Honolulu October 4, 1845, orders were received that once Mexico declared war, the squadron should "blockade or occupy such ports as force might permit". Warren set return sail on October 16 to Mazatlán to await the onset of war. Months passed until June 6, 1846, when confirmation arrived from William Maxwell Wood that land war had commenced. Warren remained at Mazatlán as the other ships of the squadron captured ports along the California coast, generally with the inhabitants cooperating. English warships, also awaiting news of war, reacted too late to offer their protectorate flags to Mexico.

Warren left Mazatlán with dispatches from Washington, D.C. and arrived at Monterey on August 17, 1846, to find Commodore Robert Stockton in charge of the Pacific Squadron. Ordered back to resume the blockade of Mazatlán, Warren arrived early morning of September 7 to find the Mexican warship Malek Adhel in the harbor. Radford commanded the boarding party which inserted during the siesta hour and securely fastened the hatches while the entire crew was below deck. Over the course of the next months, "13 or 14" additional ships were captured by the blockade, eliminating further threat from the Mexican Navy.

Despite the ease of the Conquest of California for the Navy, hostilities continued on land until a flag of truce was delivered by residents of Los Angeles on January 10, 1847. General Stephen Kearny paid a visit February 17, 1847, to his brother-in-law at Yerba Buena. After nearly four years abroad, Radford was granted leave to depart May 31, 1847, for home overland with Kearny and his troops.

New York and East India Squadron
Radford arrived back in Saint Louis on August 28, 1847. He was ordered December 20, 1847, to testify in the court-martial of John C. Frémont at the Washington Arsenal. A leave was approved March 2, 1848, which indicated Radford intended to revisit Mexico with General Kearny but his letter of July 3, 1848, was sent from New York requesting a three-month extension. He went to see his cousin William Preston Griffin at Morristown, New Jersey, met Mary Lovell, married her and settled there. He commuted to his assignment at the Rendezvous in New York through January 21, 1851. On July 26, 1851, Radford took command of USS Lexington (1825) and sailed again to the Pacific Squadron. By March 1852 he arrived in San Francisco where he met with brother John and brother-in-law Benjamin Lovell. On the way home, a letter from his father-in-law Joseph Lovell advised that Radford's infant son, Willie, had died. Detached from Lexington on September 22, 1852, Radford returned to Morristown.

For the period 1852 until 1860, Radford was assigned shore duties in New York despite his applications for a command. For three years, he worked at the Brooklyn Navy Yard and witnessed for numerous courts-martial. In June 1855, he was given command of U.S. steamer City of Boston to prevent ships connected with filibustering expeditions from leaving the harbor. On July 20 he was appointed a member of a committee to "examine and report on the different Life Boats." Finally, Radford had a brief stint as Inspector of the Third Lighthouse District. During these years, he again shuttled from his residence in Morristown.

Radford was fortunate to receive a commission as commander September 14, 1855. Throughout 1855 and early 1856, promotions were at a standstill in the Navy partly due to the shortage of ships. Many officers were given leave to take command of merchant ships (such as U.S. Mail steamers) at significantly higher pay. To overcome this quandary, a Naval Retiring Board was formed which upset the older officers but cheered younger members of the service.

He took command of USS Dacotah (1859) April 23, 1860, and sailed to Hong Kong as a unit of the East India Squadron for Commodore Cornelius Stribling. However, after the onset of the Civil War, both Radford and Stribling were relieved of their commands and ordered to return Washington, D.C. despite their declarations of allegiance to the Union. Commodore Samuel Du Pont in Washington, D.C. explained to Radford's wife Mary that, with the number of defections from both the Army and Navy, all officers from slave states must be evaluated for risk. Radford arrived home October 12, 1861, seriously ill with smallpox but recovered quickly. After an interview with Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles, he was reappointed Inspector of the Third Lighthouse District at New York.

Civil War
On February 8, 1862, Radford accepted command of USS Cumberland (1842). He was aboard USS Roanoke (1855) as a member of a Naval Board of Inquiry March 8, 1862, when his ship was sunk by the Confederate ram CSS Virginia during the Battle of Hampton Roads.

A Naval Board convened in April 1862 at the Naval Academy Preparatory School with Radford as a member. He received, June 10, 1862, temporary duty as Executive Officer of Brooklyn Navy Yard under command of Rear Admiral Hiram Paulding. The assignment stretched into almost two years of equipping and fitting-out hundreds of vessels for the Navy. Radford received promotion to captain July 16, 1862, and then to commodore April 24, 1863.

On May 15, 1864, Radford was directed to report to Rear Admiral John Dahlgren at Philadelphia for command of the armored ship USS New Ironsides. Upon arrival it was determined the ship required repairs so Radford was relieved and ordered to a Naval Board in Washington, D.C. during July 1864. He was recommitted to New Ironsides on August 16, 1864, and joined the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron at Hampton Roads. Rear Admiral David Porter assembled a fleet to attack Fort Fisher for the control of Cape Fear River. He placed Radford in command of the Ironclad Division, consisting of flagship New Ironsides, USS Dictator (1863), USS Monadnock (1863), USS Canonicus (1863), USS Saugus (1863) and USS Mahopac (1863) during attacks on Fort Fisher in December 1864 and in January 1865. David Porter commended Radford's support for the Union forces ashore and eight members of his crew were awarded the Medal of Honor.

New Ironsides sailed January 24, 1865, up the James River to Bermuda Hundred to protect the stores of the Army of the Potomac from a threatened raid by Confederate rams during the siege of Petersburg. Radford took charge of the flotilla assembled there and coordinated with Generals Ulysses Grant and Edward Ord. Radford transferred his flag to USS Dumbarton (1861) when New Ironsides was sent to Norfolk Naval yard February 18, 1865, for repairs. With the end of war near, Dumbarton departed from the James River March 22, 1865, and officers and crew were detached upon arrival at the Washington Navy Yard.

On April 4, 1865, Radford sailed USS Phlox (1864) from Washington, D.C. up the James River and arrived at City Point, Virginia, the next evening. From there, he conveyed Vice President Andrew Johnson and Preston King to Richmond, Virginia, and back. President Abraham Lincoln was already in Richmond, unaccompanied by any of his Cabinet, to witness the downfall of the Confederate stronghold. He became agitated about the Johnson and King arrival and ordered Radford to keep both of his passengers elsewhere. While moored for two days, Radford discovered stepbrother Meriwether Clark was a prisoner of war and brought him aboard Phlox to await release.

North Atlantic and European Squadrons
Commodore Radford was appointed April 28, 1865, to command the North Atlantic Squadron as Acting Rear Admiral. He transferred his flag May 15, 1865, from Phlox to USS Malvern (1860), which remained his flagship during his tenure. He was called October 10, 1865, to oversee the Washington Navy Yard. He moved his wife, two daughters and three sons from New Jersey to a Washington, D.C. home in November.

In March 1866, Radford was elected as a companion of the Pennsylvania Commandery of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States. He was promoted to rear admiral on July 25, 1866.

Radford left Washington January 20, 1869, with his family in tow and arrived in New York to embark on USS Franklin (1864) to Lisbon, Portugal. After seventeen days of stormy passage, Radford arrived to take charge of the European Squadron and found all attached vessels, USS Ticonderoga (1862), USS Richmond (1860), USS Swatara (1865), USS Frolic (1862) and USS Guard (1857), lying at anchor in the harbor waiting for his orders.

As Radford performed his duties, his family traveled with him on Franklin to Spain, Algiers, France, the Netherlands and Italy. During 1870, the children attended school at Lausanne, Switzerland. A month after the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War, Radford relinquished his command August 10, 1870, to Rear Admiral Oliver Glisson. He travelled to Lausanne to retrieve his children believing any battles would be distant. After arrival in Paris, the surrender of the French Army on September 2, 1870, caused the Radford family to flee the advancing Prussian Army. At Havre they negotiated commercial passage to the United States.

Radford was listed by the Navy as retired on March 1, 1870. However, from October 1, 1870, through the next two years, he served on several Naval Boards of Inquiry chaired by Rear Admiral Joseph Smith, Rear Admiral Theodorus Bailey and Vice Admiral Stephen Rowan.

Marriage and family
Radford married Mary "Minnie" Elizabeth Lovell [April 12, 1829 – October 27, 1903] in St. Peter's Church, Morristown, New Jersey November 3, 1848. The ceremony was overcast due to the death of brother-in-law Stephen Kearny a few days before. The Radfords resided on Mount Kemble Avenue for almost twenty years in a house previously owned by John Doughty.

Children of William and Elizabeth (all born in Morristown, New Jersey except Henry who was born in Washington, D.C.) were: Mary Lovell Radford; William Radford; Sophie Adelaide Radford; Stephen Kearny Radford; George Reginald Radford; Edmund Ironsides Radford; and Henry Carlton Radford.

Daughter Sophie became a writer including a play produced on Broadway and her father's biography Old Naval Days.

Son George Reginald and grandson William Radford Coyle (from daughter Mary Lovell Radford Coyle's lineage) married sisters. Mary and Jane Dodson respectively were daughters of Weston Dodson, founder of Weston Dodson & Company in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. Coyle served three terms from Pennsylvania as a member of the U.S. House of Representatives.

Granddaughter Mary Lovell Radford (from son Stephen Kearny Radford's lineage), on April 5, 1918, during World War I, launched USS Radford (DD-120), a Wickes-class destroyer named for her grandfather.

Granddaughter Edith Lovell Coyle (from daughter Mary Lovell Radford Coyle's lineage) married François E. Matthes. On May 13, 1942, during World War II, she launched the USS Radford (DD-446), a Fletcher-class destroyer in the United States Navy named for her grandfather.

Great-granddaughter (from son Stephen Kearny Radford's lineage) Rosemary Radford Ruether pioneered feminist theology.

Radford died on January 8, 1890. He was interred at Oak Hill Cemetery in Washington, D.C.

Legacy
When the Brandywine arrived in France in 1825, Radford purchased a set of dining room chairs which he shipped back to the Clark household in St. Louis, Missouri. The Clark family referred to them as the "Lafayette Chairs" per the trip's famous passenger.

Radford, as a witness, signed at least three treaties between the United States and Indian nations. He had attended the ceremonies with stepfather William Clark, who was serving as Superintendent of Indian Affairs.

Radford built an elegant Victorian mansion during 1875 at 1736 (now 1734) N Street NW in the DuPont Circle neighborhood of Washington, D.C. It is now the General Federation of Women's Clubs Headquarters.

Two ships of the U.S. Navy were named USS Radford in his honor.

title: William Radford


text:
Tired light

Tired light is a class of hypothetical redshift mechanisms that was proposed as an alternative explanation for the redshift-distance relationship. These models have been proposed as alternatives to the models that involve the expansion of the universe. The concept was first proposed in 1929 by Fritz Zwicky, who suggested that if photons lost energy over time through collisions with other particles in a regular way, the more distant objects would appear redder than more nearby ones.

Zwicky acknowledged that any sort of scattering of light would blur the images of distant objects more than what is seen. Additionally, the surface brightness of galaxies evolving with time, time dilation of cosmological sources, and a thermal spectrum of the cosmic microwave background have been observed—these effects should not be present if the cosmological redshift was due to any tired light scattering mechanism. Despite periodic re-examination of the concept, tired light has not been supported by observational tests and remains a fringe topic in astrophysics.

History and reception
Tired light was an idea that came about due to the observation made by Edwin Hubble that distant galaxies have redshifts proportional to their distance. Redshift is a shift in the spectrum of the emitted electromagnetic radiation from an object toward lower energies and frequencies, associated with the phenomenon of the Doppler effect. Observers of spiral nebulae such as Vesto Slipher observed that these objects (now known to be separate galaxies) generally exhibited redshift rather than blueshifts independent of where they were located. Since the relation holds in all directions it cannot be attributed to normal movement with respect to a background which would show an assortment of redshifts and blueshifts. Everything is moving away from the Milky Way galaxy. Hubble's contribution was to show that the magnitude of the redshift correlated strongly with the distance to the galaxies.

Basing on Slipher's and Hubble's data, in 1927 Georges Lemaître realized that this correlation could fit non-static solutions to the equations of Einstein's theory of gravity, the Friedmann–Lemaître solutions. However Lemaître's article was appreciated only after Hubble's publication of 1929. The universal redshift-distance relation in this solution is attributable to the effect an expanding universe has on a photon traveling on a null spacetime interval (also known as a "light-like" geodesic). In this formulation, there was still an analogous effect to the Doppler effect, though relative velocities need to be handled with more care since distances can be defined in different ways in an expanding universe.

At the same time, other explanations were proposed that did not concord with general relativity. Edward Milne proposed an explanation compatible with special relativity but not general relativity that there was a giant explosion that could explain redshifts (see Milne universe). Others proposed that systematic effects could explain the redshift-distance correlation. Along this line, Fritz Zwicky proposed a "tired light" mechanism in 1929. Zwicky suggested that photons might slowly lose energy as they travel vast distances through a static universe by interaction with matter or other photons, or by some novel physical mechanism. Since a decrease in energy corresponds to an increase in light's wavelength, this effect would produce a redshift in spectral lines that increase proportionally with the distance of the source. The term "tired light" was coined by Richard Tolman in the early 1930s as a way to refer to this idea. Helge Kragh has noted "Zwicky’s hypothesis was the best known and most elaborate alternative to the expanding universe, but it was far from the only one. More than a dozen physicists, astronomers and amateur scientists proposed in the 1930s tired-light ideas having in common the assumption of nebular photons interacting with intergalactic matter to which they transferred part of their energy." Kragh noted in particular John Quincy Stewart, William Duncan MacMillan, and Walther Nernst.

Tired light mechanisms were among the proposed alternatives to the Big Bang and the Steady State cosmologies, both of which relied on the general relativistic expansion of the universe of the FRW metric. Through the middle of the twentieth century, most cosmologists supported one of these two paradigms, but there were a few scientists, especially those who were working on alternatives to general relativity, who worked with the tired light alternative. As the discipline of observational cosmology developed in the late twentieth century and the associated data became more numerous and accurate, the Big Bang emerged as the cosmological theory most supported by the observational evidence, and it remains the accepted consensus model with a current parametrization that precisely specifies the state and evolution of the universe. Although the proposals of "tired light cosmologies" are now more-or-less relegated to the dustbin of history, as a completely alternative proposal tired-light cosmologies were considered a remote possibility worthy of some consideration in cosmology texts well into the 1980s, though it was dismissed as an unlikely and ad hoc proposal by mainstream astrophysicists.

By the 1990s and on into the twenty-first century, a number of falsifying observations have shown that "tired light" hypotheses are not viable explanations for cosmological redshifts. For example, in a static universe with tired light mechanisms, the surface brightness of stars and galaxies should be constant, that is, the farther an object is, the less light we receive, but its apparent area diminishes as well, so the light received divided by the apparent area should be constant. In an expanding universe, the surface brightness diminishes with distance. As the observed object recedes, photons are emitted at a reduced rate because each photon has to travel a distance that is a little longer than the previous one, while its energy is reduced a little because of increasing redshift at a larger distance. On the other hand, in an expanding universe, the object appears to be larger than it really is, because it was closer to us when the photons started their travel. This causes a difference in surface brilliance of objects between a static and an expanding Universe. This is known as the Tolman surface brightness test that in those studies favors the expanding universe hypothesis and rules out static tired light models.

Redshift is directly observable and used by cosmologists as a direct measure of lookback time. They often refer to age and distance to objects in terms of redshift rather than years or light-years. In such a scale, the Big Bang corresponds to a redshift of infinity. Alternative theories of gravity that do not have an expanding universe in them need an alternative to explain the correspondence between redshift and distance that is sui generis to the expanding metrics of general relativity. Such theories are sometimes referred to as "tired-light cosmologies", though not all authors are necessarily aware of the historical antecedents.

Specific falsified models
In general, any "tired light" mechanism must solve some basic problems, in that the observed redshift must:
 * admit the same measurement in any wavelength-band
 * not exhibit blurring
 * follow the detailed Hubble relation observed with supernova data (see accelerating universe)
 * explain associated time dilation of cosmologically distant events.

A number of tired light mechanisms have been suggested over the years. Fritz Zwicky, in his paper proposing these models investigated a number of redshift explanations, ruling out some himself. The simplest form of a tired light theory assumes an exponential decrease in photon energy with distance traveled:

$$E(x)=E_0 \exp\left(-\frac{x}{R_0}\right)$$

where $$E(x)$$ is the energy of the photon at distance $$x$$ from the source of light, $$E_0$$ is the energy of the photon at the source of light, and $$R_0$$ is a large constant characterizing the "resistance of the space". To correspond to Hubble's law, the constant $$R_0$$ must be several gigaparsecs. For example, Zwicky considered whether an integrated Compton effect could account for the scale normalization of the above model:

"... light coming from distant nebulae would undergo a shift to the red by Compton effect on those free electrons [in interstellar spaces] [...] But then the light scattered in all directions would make the interstellar space intolerably opaque which disposes of the above explanation. [...] it is evident that any explanation based on a scattering process like the Compton effect or the Raman effect, etc., will be in a hopeless position regarding the good definition of the images."

This expected "blurring" of cosmologically distant objects is not seen in the observational evidence, though it would take much larger telescopes than those available at that time to show this with certainty. Alternatively, Zwicky proposed a kind of Sachs–Wolfe effect explanation for the redshift distance relation:

"One might expect a shift of spectral lines due to the difference of the static gravitational potential at different distances from the center of a galaxy. This effect, of course, has no relation to the distance of the observed galaxy from our own system and, therefore, cannot provide any explanation of the phenomenon discussed in this paper."

Zwicky's proposals were carefully presented as falsifiable according to later observations:

"... [a] gravitational analogue of the Compton effect [...] It is easy to see that the above redshift should broaden these absorption lines asymmetrically toward the red. If these lines can be photographed with a high enough dispersion, the displacement of the center of gravity of the line will give the redshift independent of the velocity of the system from which the light is emitted."

Such broadening of absorption lines is not seen in high-redshift objects, thus falsifying this particular hypothesis.

Zwicky also notes, in the same paper, that according to a tired light model a distance-redshift relationship would necessarily be present in the light from sources within our own galaxy (even if the redshift would be so small that it would be hard to measure), that do not appear under a recessional-velocity based theory. He writes, referring to sources of light within our galaxy: "It is especially desirable to determine the redshift independent of the proper velocities of the objects observed". Subsequent to this, astronomers have patiently mapped out the three-dimensional velocity-position phase space for the galaxy and found the redshifts and blueshifts of galactic objects to accord well with the statistical distribution of a spiral galaxy, eliminating the intrinsic redshift component as an effect.

Following after Zwicky in 1935, Edwin Hubble and Richard Tolman compared recessional redshift with a non-recessional one, writing that they

"both incline to the opinion, however, that if the red-shift is not due to recessional motion, its explanation will probably involve some quite new physical principles [... and] use of a static Einstein model of the universe, combined with the assumption that the photons emitted by a nebula lose energy on their journey to the observer by some unknown effect, which is linear with distance, and which leads to a decrease in frequency, without appreciable transverse deflection." These conditions became almost impossible to meet and the overall success of general relativistic explanations for the redshift-distance relation is one of the core reasons that the Big Bang model of the universe remains the cosmology preferred by researchers.

In the early 1950s, Erwin Finlay-Freundlich proposed a redshift as "the result of loss of energy by observed photons traversing a radiation field". which was cited and argued for as an explanation for the redshift-distance relation in a 1962 astrophysics theory Nature paper by University of Manchester physics professor P. F. Browne. The pre-eminent cosmologist Ralph Asher Alpher wrote a letter to Nature three months later in response to this suggestion heavily criticizing the approach, "No generally accepted physical mechanism has been proposed for this loss." Still, until the so-called "Age of Precision Cosmology" was ushered in with results from the WMAP space probe and modern redshift surveys, tired light models could occasionally get published in the mainstream journals, including one that was published in the February 1979 edition of Nature proposing "photon decay" in a curved spacetime that was five months later criticized in the same journal as being wholly inconsistent with observations of the gravitational redshift observed in the solar limb. In 1986 a paper claiming tired light theories explained redshift better than cosmic expansion was published in the Astrophysical Journal, but ten months later, in the same journal, such tired light models were shown to be inconsistent with extant observations. As cosmological measurements became more precise and the statistics in cosmological data sets improved, tired light proposals ended up being falsified,  to the extent that the theory was described in 2001 by science writer Charles Seife as being "firmly on the fringe of physics 30 years ago; still, scientists sought more direct proofs of the expansion of the cosmos".

title: Tired light


text:
Gordon Brown (rugby union)

Gordon Lamont Brown (1 November 1947 – 19 March 2001) was a Scottish rugby union footballer. Nicknamed "Broon frae Troon" (i.e. Brown from Troon, his home town), Brown is considered one of Scotland's greatest-ever rugby players. Playing as a second row forward, he was an integral part of Scotland's tight five during the early 1970s, along with Ian McLauchlan, Sandy Carmichael, Frank Laidlaw and Alastair McHarg, which became known collectively as the Mean Machine. He also represented the British and Irish Lions on three tours with distinction. Brown was inducted into the International Rugby Hall of Fame in 2001, which later integrated with the World Rugby Hall of Fame, into which he was inducted in 2015. He was also an inductee to the Scottish Rugby Union Hall of Fame in 2010.

Family
Brown was from a sporting family, his elder brother Peter also played for and captained the Scottish side. His father, John played goalkeeper for the Scottish football side and also appeared in the Scottish Open at Royal Troon alongside golfing greats such as Arnold Palmer.

He is also the nephew of footballers Tom and Jim Brown.

Speaking of the brothers Brown, he thinks their skill was in their genes, but that Peter and Gordon were very different: "They inherited sporting ability, for their father was an international goalkeeper. They were both big, the young Gordon, being at 6 feet 5 inches a couple of inches the taller, and they were both natural ball-players. There the resemblance stopped: Gordon's play could have been recorded on film and used to educate any aspirant lock-forward. He was exemplary in his orthodoxy. Peter was an individualist, eccentric, surprising and brilliant. Not surprisingly he was a great Sevens player: I don't think Gordon shone at the short game. I doubt if it could rouse him sufficiently."

Rugby
A product of Marr College and West of Scotland, Brown won his first cap for Scotland on 6 December 1969 against South Africa in a 6–3 victory at Murrayfield Stadium. He retained his place for the Five Nations opener against France but was dropped for the Wales match for his brother Peter. Gordon Brown then went on to replace Peter Brown at half-time due to injury, and this was the first time a brother replaced a brother in an international match.

He was selected on the 1971 British Lions tour to New Zealand and despite two other second row forwards travelling, Brown achieved test selection. He went on the 1974 British Lions tour to South Africa where he won five caps, and partnered Willie John McBride in the engine room of the scrum, during which he scored a remarkable eight tries and won a further 3 caps. He went on a third tour and played in a non-cap match against Fiji at the end of the 1977 British Lions tour to New Zealand.

A major criticism of Brown was that he played better for the British Lions than his own country. Although, on a Lions tour he was given the ability to live and train as a full-time rugby player and, with world class teammates. "He was what is often called a player's player. The average spectator, not good at seeing who wins the ball in the line-out for instance, could watch a match without being aware of Gordon Brown. Yet the fact remains that packs that contained him invariably did better than the same pack with a replacement. He was the supreme working forward, and the most important member of what may be the best front five Scotland has ever had... In contrast... it was a frequent criticism that he never played quite so well for Scotland as people had heard he had done for the Lions."

Unfortunately his International rugby career came to a somewhat inauspicious end. In December, 1976, he was playing in a match between Glasgow and the North-Midlands, he was suspended for three months after getting into a fight with Allan Hardie, in which Brown chased Hardie, threw him to the ground and kicked him. Prior to this, Hardie had kneed Brown in the face and proceed to stamp on the open wound on Brown's brow after the initial attack went unnoticed by the referee. The suspension meant that he missed three internationals and was banned from training at any rugby club. He trained daily at Ibrox stadium under the guidance of Jock Wallace of Rangers who put him through a gruelling fitness regime. Gordon remembered being made to sprint up and down the terraces at Ibrox until he was sick. After missing three months of rugby he was selected for the British Lions tour of New Zealand 1977. Because of a string of injuries, he never played for Scotland again. LP

Death
Gordon Brown died from non-Hodgkin lymphoma aged 53 in March 2001. His funeral was attended by former Scotland and Lions teammates and opponents from the whole rugby world.

"The [99 call] battles [of the 1974 British Lions tour to South Africa] created one of rugby's immortal tales: Brown hit his opposite number, Johan de Bruyn, so hard that the Orange Free State man's glass eye flew out and landed in the mud. 'so there we are, 30 players plus the ref, on our hands and knees scrabbling about in the mire looking for this glass eye,' recalled Brown in an interview before his death from non-Hodgkin lymphoma in 2001, aged 53. 'Eventually, someone yells 'Eureka' whereupon de Bruyn grabs it and plonks it straight back in the gaping hole in his face.'"

As reported by The Daily Telegraph, at a fundraising dinner held in late February 2001 for Brown due to his illness, he met with de Bruyn again. "Twenty-seven years on and De Bruyn was tracked down ... and persuaded, with little or no effort, to fly over and wait in the wings on Wednesday night as a clip of Brown telling his famous story was played on the big screen. At which stage MC Fergus Slattery interrupted proceedings and beckoned the 24-stone De Bruyn to the stage and, to the amazement of Brown, the former Springbok presented him with the glass eye which was mounted on a carved wooden rugby ball. 'I'll be keeping my eye on you for ever more,' said De Bruyn, meeting Brown for the first time since the incident. 'I never realised Gordon used the story in his speeches but I am glad, it is a funny story and a true one. It was wonderful to meet him and I wish him well in his fight for health.'"

title: Gordon Brown (rugby union)


text:
Shell Canada

Shell Canada Limited (Shell Canada Limitée) is the principal Canadian subsidiary of British energy major Shell plc and one of Canada's largest integrated oil companies. Exploration and production of oil, natural gas and sulphur is a major part of its business, as well as the marketing of gasoline and related products through the company's approximately 1,800 stations across Canada.

After a global reorganization by the European parent, Shell's North American operations are controlled by Shell Energy North America, which is headquartered in Houston, Texas. Shell Energy North America's Canadian operational unit, Shell Canada, maintains a regional corporate office in Calgary, Alberta. Shell Canada also maintains a major office in Toronto, Ontario.

History
Shell Canada's shares were originally independently traded on the Toronto Stock Exchange. The company was 78% owned by Royal Dutch Shell which in 2006 launched an $8.7-billion takeover of the 22% of Shell Canada that it didn't own. In March 2007 the shareholders of Shell Canada Ltd. accepted a $45.00 per share cash offer from Royal Dutch Shell plc. This acquisition was primarily driven by the desire of the parent company to take total control of its Canadian division's unconventional resources, specifically the oil sands. The move was unanimously approved by the independent members of the board of directors.

In 2003, Royal Dutch Shell had appointed a British executive, and former Chairman of Shell in the UK, Clive Mather, as president and CEO of Shell Canada.

As a consequence of the stock acquisition by Royal Dutch Shell, all Shell Canada executives holding stock options benefitted. Shell Canada announced on Mather's retirement from the company shortly after the acquisition was completed that his total pay package for his final year (2006–2007) was $4.9 million including bonuses, stock options and pension contributions and that on leaving the company, Mather was additionally eligible for a lump sum payment equal to his annual gross salary. His total benefit in that year was, therefore $9.8 million of which some $5 million was from exercised stock options, making him one of the highest remunerated employees in Royal Dutch Shell.

In 2006, Shell Canada acquired the oil sands developer BlackRock Ventures Inc. for $2.4 billion. As part of this deal, Shell acquired the Orion oil-sands project near Cold Lake, Alberta. In May 2012, Shell announced that it has put the project up for sale.

In 2007, the company invested $20 million into an expansion at the Brockville Lubricant Plant. In January 2019, it announced plans to invest a further $16 million towards new equipment that will increase production and efficiency.

In November 2015, the Shell Canada Quest Energy project began commercial operations. Part of the Athabasca Oil Sands Project, it involves Shell as the major shareholder (60%), Chevron Canada Limited (20%), and Marathon Canadian Oil Sands Holding Limited (20%). It is identified as being the first commercial-scale CCS project, proposing to reduce CO2 emissions in Canada by 1 million tonnes per year.

In April 2017, the company completed an expansion project at the Scotford refinery, growing hydrocracker production by 20%.

Management and employees
The current Shell Canada directors are Susannah Pierce (President and Country Chair), Leanne Gawley (Vice President and Controller), Andrew Harris (Vice President), Barry Tyndall (Vice President, General Counsel and Assistant Secretary) and Zoe Yujnovich (Executive Vice President).

In October 2008, Shell Canada Limited was named one of "Canada's Top 100 Employers" by Mediacorp Canada Inc., and was featured in Maclean's news magazine. Later that month, Shell Canada was also named one of Alberta's Top Employers, which was announced by the Calgary Herald and the Edmonton Journal.

Refineries

 * Scotford Upgrader and Refinery: 100000 oilbbl/d
 * Corunna Refinery: 85000 oilbbl/d
 * Montreal East Refinery: 161000 oilbbl/d; closed in 2010

President

 * Patrick M. Fowlie, 1929–1948
 * William M. V. Ash, 1948–1961
 * Paul L. Kartzke, 1962–1968
 * Harold Bridges, 1968–1970
 * John F. Bookout, 1970–1974
 * C. William Daniel, 1974–1985
 * John M. MacLeod, 1985–1993
 * Charles W. Wilson, 1993–1999
 * Timothy W. Faithfull, 1999–2003
 * Linda Cook, 2003–2004
 * H. Clive Mather, 2004–2007
 * W. Adrian Loader, 2007
 * David R. Collyer, 2008–2009
 * Lorraine Mitchelmore, 2009–2015
 * Michael Crothers, 2016–2021
 * Susannah Pierce, 2021–

title: Shell Canada


text:
Category:Manufacturing

Manufacturing is the transformation of raw materials into finished goods for sale, or intermediate processes involving the production or finishing of semi-manufactures.

title: Category:Manufacturing


text:
Encyclopaedia Judaica

The Encyclopaedia Judaica is a multi-volume English-language encyclopedia of the Jewish people, Judaism, and Israel. It covers diverse areas of the Jewish world and civilization, including Jewish history of all eras, culture, holidays, language, scripture, and religious teachings. First published in 1971–1972, by 2010 it had been published in two editions accompanied by a few revisions.

The Encyclopaedia Judaica was also published on CD-ROM. The CD-ROM version has been enhanced by at least 100,000 hyperlinks and several other features, including videos, slide shows, maps, music and Hebrew pronunciations. While the CD-ROM version is still available, the publisher has discontinued producing new copies for sale.

The encyclopedia was written by Israeli, American and European professional subject specialists.

Preceding attempts
Between 1901 and 1906 The Jewish Encyclopedia had been published in 12 volumes, and was heavily used as a source by the 16-volume Jewish Encyclopedia, published by Brockhaus and Efron in Saint Petersburg (1906–1913, in Russian). It was followed by the Jüdisches Lexikon I–II (1927–28, in German), Encyclopaedia Judaica I–II (1927–28) and Zsidó Lexikon (1929, edited by Újvári Péter, in Hungarian).

An unfinished German-language Encyclopaedia Judaica was published by Nahum Goldmann's Eshkol Publishing Society in Berlin 1928–1934. The chief editors were Jakob Klatzkin and Ismar Elbogen. Ten volumes from Aach to Lyra appeared before the project halted due to Nazi persecutions. Two Hebrew-language volumes A-Antipas, were also published under the title Eshkol (Hebrew: אשכול). A few of the articles from the German Judaica and even some of the reparations payments to Goldmann were used in making the English-language Judaica.

First edition
The English-language Encyclopaedia Judaica was first published from 1971–1972 in sixteen volumes, in Jerusalem by Keter Publishing House, and in New York City by the Macmillan Company. Between 1973 and 1991 eight "Year Books" were published (dated 1973, 1974, 1975–76, 1977–78, 1983–85, 1986–87, 1988–89, and 1990–91) along with two "Decennial" volumes dated 1973–1982 (also published as "Volume 17") and 1983–1992. Together these volumes contained more than 15 million words in over 25,000 articles.

Its general editors were, successively, Cecil Roth and Geoffrey Wigoder. Advertisers describe it as the result of about three decades of study and research by about 2,200 contributors and 250 editors around the world. Contributors included Gershom Scholem.

A Shorter Jewish Encyclopedia in Russian, launched in the early 1970s as an abridged translation of the Encyclopaedia Judaica, evolved into a largely independent publication that by late 2005 included eleven volumes and three supplements. A number of editions of a version of the English Encyclopaedia for youth were also published.

Because of its comprehensive scope, authority, and widespread availability, the Encyclopaedia Judaica has been recommended by the Library of Congress and by the Association of Jewish Libraries for use in determining the authoritative romanization of names of Jewish authors. Its guidelines for transliterating Hebrew into English are followed by many academic books and journals.

The first edition generated both positive and negative reviews.

The word Judaica is commonly used to refer to objects of Jewish art and Jewish ceremonial objects.

Second edition
In July 2003, Thomson Gale announced that it had acquired the rights to publish a second edition of Encyclopaedia Judaica, expecting to publish in December 2006 under one of its imprints, Macmillan Reference US. The 22-volume work was published on December 30, 2006 and released in January 2007.

Together with original publishers Keter Publishing House, Gale made major updates to many sections of Encyclopaedia Judaica for the new edition, including the entries on the Holocaust, American Jewry, Israel.

Fred Skolnik, who served as a co-editor on the original edition of Judaica, was retained as Editor-in-Chief for the second edition. American Holocaust scholar Michael Berenbaum, adjunct professor of theology at the American Jewish University as well as director of its Sigi Ziering Institute: Exploring the Ethical and Religious Implications of the Holocaust, serves as the editor for the Holocaust and Americana sections of the encyclopedia and executive editor for the work at large. Judith Baskin, University of Oregon Judaic Studies department head, was brought on to supervise improvement of women's studies and gender issues coverage. In total, more than 50 divisional editors, including five winners of the Israel Prize, oversaw contributions from nearly 1,200 scholars and editors. This edition contains more than 21,000 signed entries, including 2,600 brand-new entries and 12,000 changed entries.

Online access
All volumes of the first edition, some year books and the Decennial Book 1983 - 1992: events of 1982 - 1993 are at the Internet Archive separately.

All volumes of the second edition are at the Internet Archive together.

Most entries of the second edition are accessible via the Encyclopedia.com search engine. At the head of some entries "updated" appears.

Critical reception and awards
Reviews from library literature have been positive. Donald Altschiller of Boston University, writing in Choice, states that the second edition of Encyclopaedia Judaica "has already attained a secure place in the reference pantheon...Essential." Barbara Bibel, writing in Booklist, calls the set "a welcome addition to reference collections."

Dartmouth Medal
The second edition of the Encyclopaedia received a number of major awards for excellence, including the 2007 Dartmouth Medal from the American Library Association, the most prestigious award in the field of reference publishing." In presenting the award, Edward Kownslar, the chairman of the Dartmouth Medal committee said: "This 22-volume set is an authoritative, interdisciplinary and comprehensive examination of all aspects of Jewish life, history and culture. This title is an extensive revision of the first edition, which was published in 1972, and has 2600 new entries. In addition to updating all world and political events affecting Jewish life and culture since the early 1970s, 'Judaica' has significantly enhanced biblical studies and the Holocaust from the first edition. This title has also expanded the area of women's studies."

Other awards
The Encyclopaedia was also named in the "Best Reference 2007" list by the Library Journal, and was added to the list of "Outstanding Reference Sources for Small and Medium-sized Libraries" by the Reference and User Services Association of the American Library Association in 2008.

title: Encyclopaedia Judaica


text:
Caproni Ca.3

The Caproni Ca.3 is an Italian heavy bomber of World War I and the postwar era. It was the most produced version of the series of aircraft that began with the 1914 Caproni Ca.1 and continued until the more powerful 1917 Caproni Ca.5 variant.

Development
The development of the Ca.1 to the Ca.2 suggested the benefits of increasing amounts of power to the very sound airframe. The Ca.3 was a development of Ca.2, by replacing the two engines mounted on the booms with the same Isotta-Fraschini engine that had been used as the central, pusher engine on that design. The prototype flew in late 1916 and was soon put into production. Known by Caproni at the time as the Caproni 450 hp, the Italian Army designated it the Ca.3. In Caproni's postwar renaming, it became the Ca.33. Between 250 and 300 of these aircraft were built, supplying the Italian Army and Navy (the latter using the type as a torpedo bomber), and the French Army. Late in the war, Robert Esnault-Pelterie licence-built an additional 83 (some sources say only 19) aircraft in France.

''Note: there is some variation in published sources over early Caproni names. The confusion stems, in part, from three schemes used to label the aircraft – Caproni's in-house designations of the time, those used by the Italian Army and names created after the war by Caproni for past designs.''

Design
The Ca.3 was a three-engined biplane of wooden construction, with a fabric-covered frame. The crew of four were placed in an open central nacelle (front gunner, two pilots and rear gunner-mechanic). The rear gunner manned upper machine guns, standing upon the central engine in a protective "cage" in front of a propeller. The fixed conventional undercarriage had double mainwheels under each engine and a tailskid under the extreme tail of each boom. A substantial double nosewheel prevented damaging and dangerous nose-overs.

Armament consisted of two to four Revelli 6.5 mm or 7.7 mm machine guns, one in a front ring mount and one, two or sometimes even three in an upper ring mount. Bombs were suspended under the hull.

Operational history

The Ca.1 entered service with the Italian Army in the middle of 1915 and first saw action on 20 August, attacking the Austrian air base at Aisovizza. Fifteen bomber squadrons (1°–15° Squadriglia) were eventually equipped with Ca.1, Ca.2 and Ca.3 bombers, mostly bombing targets in Austro-Hungary. The 12° Squadriglie operated in Libya. In 1918, the 3°, 14° and 15° Squadriglia operated in France.

Apart from the Italian Army, original and licence-built examples were used by France (original Capronis were used in French CAP escadres, licence-built examples in CEP escadres). They were also used by the American Expeditionary Force. There has been some confusion regarding the use of the Ca3 by the British Royal Naval Air Service. The RNAS received six of the larger triplane Ca4s and did not operate the Ca3. The British Ca4s were not used operationally and were returned to Italy after the war. Some of the Ca.36Ms supplied after the war were still in service long enough to see action in Benito Mussolini's first assaults on North Africa.

Variants
''All of the following names were applied after the war. At the time, all were known as the 300 hp by Caproni and the Ca.3 by the Army.''

 * Ca.34 and Ca.35 with a modified central nacelle to seat the two pilots in tandem and therefore improve aerodynamics. No production.
 * Ca.36 with removable outer wing panels for ease of storage.
 * Ca.36M or Ca.36 mod (for modificato – "modified") – a lightened and simplified variant put into production after the war. 153 were delivered between 1923 and 1927, 144 of them to the new Regia Aeronautica.
 * Ca.36S – air ambulance version (small number converted from Ca.36Ms)
 * Ca.39 – seaplane version. Prototype CA 211.
 * Ca.56a – airliners created by remanufacturing war-surplus Ca.3s.

Operators
🇦🇷  Kingdom of Italy 🇫🇷 🇺🇸 USA
 * Argentine Air Force
 * Corpo Aeronautico Militare
 * Regia Aeronautica
 * French Air Force
 * American Expeditionary Force

Italy

 * Unknown ID – Ca.36 on static display at the Italian Air Force Museum in Bracciano, Lazio.
 * Replica – Ca.33Z airworthy with the Jonathan Collection in Nervesa della Battaglia, Treviso.

Slovakia

 * Reproduction – Ca.33 on static display since June 2012 in the departure hall of M. R. Štefánik Airport in Bratislava, on loan from the Vojenské historické muzeum in Piešťany, Trnava.

United States

 * Unknown ID – Ca.36 on static display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force in Dayton, Ohio.

title: Caproni Ca.3