text:
Talk:Opel Astra

I added a bit of info...
I remember reading in Motor Trend that a design for the next generation Saturn Ion was scrapped and was going to be a rebadged Opel Astra. I added it to the article. 70.57.81.173 23:02, 27 August 2006 (UTC)

 * Please, if you could find the source and cite it then this information would be very welcome to the article (a kind of an Astra in USA...)... But we need a reference for that! Could you provide us one? Regards, Loudenvier 03:04, 28 August 2006 (UTC)

Astra in the USA
I think we should not dismiss the source |European car may be GM hit as a newspaper gossip that should not be taken. I propose we add this information again since it has a source (in fact, more than one source, because I was able to find a few places citing that the Astra will hit the USA as stated on the above dismissed link). Perhaps adding a temporal template stating that this is about a current or future event is enough. Leting this info out is diminishing the value of this article because it's a great impact to the Astra family: hit the US. If no objections are made I will restore the link and will put the temporal template in place. Regards Loudenvier 17:34, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

 * Objection - even widespread gossip is still gossip. Wikipedia, in general, should not include statements about future, unless they are absolutely certain. I believe in case of automobiles this means a statement from the manufacturer directly, i.e. a link to a media.gm.com press release. Until GM releases one (and I believe they still haven't), this is still high-profile gossip. Remember that WP should be the most factually accurate rather than most up-to-date. Bravada, talk - 18:14, 18 September 2006 (UTC)
 * A widespread gossip could have a place in wikipedia in my opinion, if it was not so then the Template:Current and all of the Temporal templates would be of no use. (Pluto as a planet discussions would have to wait for the final statement to make into wikipedia.) The wording on the article could state clearly that it is a scheduled and/or, to some extent, uncertain event. For the sake of completeness I would include this information on the article, and one of the main reasons for that is that this is a too much important piece of information that the wikipedia article should not let it out. Waiting for a manufacturer statement could be a pointless requirement for adding something to the article. If you read the Fiat Marea article you would see that the Brazilian Fiat stated that the Marea SX with 127hp didn't valve admission control phase variator of the HLX, and that exchanging the SX fuel injection chip for the HLX would be of no use. The manufacturer statement was a big lie. The Marea SX had this device disabled by way of a reprogrammed electronic fuel injection chip, and exchanging this chip for the HLX model would bring back the full 147hp of that model. All that is needed for wikipedia is a reliable source. The cited newspaper seems reliable to me. I'll wait for further discussion on the subject but I'm inclined to bring the info back to the article if no more deeper reasons for ommiting it surfaces. Regards Loudenvier 22:07, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

 * "Current" templates are one of the most abused on WP, and the sole existence of the "current automobile" template in present form is one big abuse, but I don't have the time to go back to fighting that again. It serves as a pretext for outright ignoring the "Wikipedia is not a crystal ball" WP:NOT policy, and this is why you can see so manybad examples of that. Uncertain events should have no place in WP. An encyclopedia is not about speculation, it is about information. In principle, we cannot inform about anything that has not yet happened.
 * Referring to the Fiat Marea example, it is not referenced, and one would need some really good references for the statement that the described chip change is possible, and first and foremost, to an official Fiat source declaring that it is not. As for now, it is an unreferenced claim on both accounts. Besides, the manufacturer is the one who decides whether they release a model or not - no paper can be more authoritative on that, as they are not the ones who make the decision, so this is an entirely different case.
 * And, while you may not trust manufacturers entirely (although, again, this is totally irrelevant in that case, as they are the ones who make the decisions, so there is nothing not to trust them about), the press is far less reliable, eager to "create news" out of the little gossip they have. Do I have to refer you to countless examples of press specualtions proving to be wrong, no matter how widespread some gossip was?
 * The article is currently in a laughable state, failing to convey even a brief roundup of all the factual, 100% verifiable information there are on the past 15 years of the Astra, so I guess we can live without starting a gossip column... Bravada, talk - 23:07, 18 September 2006 (UTC)
 * About the Marea chip: It's not a claim without substance. Just open the Marea caput and you'll see that the missing valve control is present. I've changed the chip on my Marea and the full 147hp were back (the engine blowed not because of the chip change, but because my mother drove the car and did not paid attention to the low oil warning light!). Many sources for that Fiat lie exists:, I could go on, but I think you will not waste your time trying to read all those sources in portuguese :-). If any previous encyclopaedia could be so dynamic as Wikipedia I'm sure they would document current events. All that is need is common sense. For example, those many games that are still in developement sometimes make good articles, even before the games are released. Grigori Perelman prove of Poincaré Conjecture would not be in wikipedia because it's still a litle controversial and current event. But, man, it's encyclopedic, as I think the information that Astra could reach the USA is also. Regards. Loudenvier 13:47, 19 September 2006 (UTC)
 * I clicked the Perelman link but it was revealed to me that he is a mathematician, and therefore I refuse to read the article on principial grounds (not to mention the scary photo ;D ). Coming back to the topic - why don't we just wait a few months until the matter gets cleared out? There is such a vast array of past, and certain, facts that are still not covered by Wikipedia that we do not have to worry that we aren't covering all the latest gossip. Bravada, talk - 13:54, 19 September 2006 (UTC)

Astra in USA
Please, until GM make a statement it still unofficial info. Wikipedia is not meant to be a newspaper. The compromise we found is a good one: citing the interveiu with Bob Lutz. Adding anything further than that will be in violation of wikipedia guidelines. I will back-up Bravada in any reverts until such a statement is made by GM or Saturn. To avoid a revert war I suggest leaving this part of the article as it reads now: it tells about the high probability of Astra in the USA, letting the reader to figure out if it is or not for certain. Regards. Loudenvier 17:24, 6 October 2006 (UTC)

Ontopic site
I have submitted a site; http://opelastrah.com to the external links, and it has been removed. I believe it is not spam, and it is very ontopic. Roy

Opening Paragraph
I find this is wording does not work. At the end of the first paragraph, it states 'It competes mainly against the Ford Focus and Volkswagen Golf.' I find this is rather amibguous now that the car will be sold in North America this year (Under the Saturn Brand). My reasoning for this is that while the Ford Focus may be considered a mid-range car in Europe, it is most certainly NOT in North America. Stating that the car competes mainly with a Ford Focus and the Volkswagen Golf will lead a person from the US or Canada to believe that the price point on an Astra can vary between $12,000 CDN to $28,000 CDN. (As the North American Focus is priced at $12,000 - $15,500 CDN and the Golf is $25,000 - $28,000 CDN) SJM 26 February 2007

Hey, thanks to whomever changed this so promtly. SJM 28 February 2007

Astra F engine spec uploaded
engine spec for astra F uploaded, information taken from Haynes service and repair manualScorpio wan1945 21:05, 29 April 2007 (UTC) —The preceding unsigned comment was added by Scorpio wan1945 (talk • contribs) 09:20, 2 April 2007 (UTC).

Panoramic windscreen
I read

panoramic windscreen (unique for a production car at the time of its launch) which extends into the roof area. This type of window is not a panoramic windscreen.

A car with a real panoramic windscreen haves A-pillars with a vertical angle like opel Kapitän P1 This way the A-pillars block Les visibility.

regards

Stef —Preceding unsigned comment added by 86.92.132.118 (talk) 10:57, 30 November 2007 (UTC)

Merge Saturn Astra into Opel Astra
Hi people, there's an on going discussion about this on the Saturn Astra article talk page. It would be interesting if we participate so that we can really reach a better understanding of the issue. Please, visit the talk page of Saturn Astra to participate. Loudenvier (talk) 19:21, 11 December 2007 (UTC)
 * You could post also to http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Automobiles

--— Typ932T 19:32, 11 December 2007 (UTC)

OK - the conclusion of that debate was a clear consensus to merge - so Saturn Astra is now a redirect to this page. The original Saturn Astra page is stored at the bottom of the talk page for that article. SteveBaker (talk) 01:14, 3 January 2008 (UTC)

Error in dimensions
There's something wrong with the width of the hatchback - it can't be 2032 mm (80 in) vs 1753 mm (69 in) / 1759 mm (69.3 in) for the other models. PMJzz (talk) 02:32, 7 June 2009 (UTC)

Easytronic
One, or more of the generations had the Easytronic transmission. I am fairly sure it was the Astra-G and Astra-F - can someone clarify/confirm, and add it to the article, thanks. 78.32.143.113 (talk) 10:27, 24 August 2009 (UTC)

Interior panorama
Do you think that is useful to add an external link to this panorama: Interior of an Opel Astra. I only propose it.--RobCatalà (talk) 08:07, 2 May 2010 (UTC)

Bad production dates
Astras F were produced and sold in Poland until late 2001 and sold as Astra Classic, as opposed to Astra G marketed in Poland as Atra II. I own this model produced in august 2001, bought in november 2001 from dealer in Poznań.

Production dates should be expanded at least to 2001 or even early 2002.

Yanc —Preceding unsigned comment added by 77.253.149.39 (talk) 10:11, 13 August 2010 (UTC)

Engine
The engine table really needs to clarfify which engine code corresponds with which model. It is also missing the 1.2 Corsa engine used in some (underpowered) Astras82.141.196.178 (talk) 16:27, 5 January 2012 (UTC)

 * Also, I believe putting 5.7 V8 or 4.0 V8 on the list is wrong and foolish, for these are either concepts or race cars. Its same as saying a big block 455 Chevy is a VW Beetle engine, as people swap for drag racing.85.110.172.75 (talk) 23:16, 29 April 2012 (UTC)

Merge Vauxhall in Opel
I think we should merge Vauxhall in Opel — Preceding unsigned comment added by 203.212.27.97 (talk) 08:08, 22 May 2012 (UTC)

 * You don't mention any reasons why. It could be a bit confusing for UK readers as the Astra nameplate has been used on both Vauxhall versions of Kadetts and Astras for thirty years and is rather notable - particularly as several versions are built in Britain. However, from an international point of view it might make more sense. The Vauxhall Astra page has been rationalised in places to better reflect the Opel host car, and maybe this can be improved so that the Vauxhall Astra page is more specific about UK derivatives. Warren (talk) 08:21, 22 May 2012 (UTC)

 * neutral: Well it certainly would make things easyer by merging the pages for me when giving information that is relevant to both Vauxhall and Opel brands, instead of having to go back and forth putting all the information on both pages but I understand that it might create certain problems so ill leave it for whoevers in charge to sort it out.                                                  yesilikecars (talk) 01:00, 28 June 2012 (UTC)

 * Others such as Corsa and Vectra were redirected to Opel as that was where the names were originally used, or where the Vauxhall version (e.g. Nova) would only be part of the Opel model article. Astra was originally a Vauxhall name so the situation would be reversed (and Vauxhall Astra shouldn't be a disambiguation page, as it isn't about unrelated uses of a name). Peter James (talk) 13:16, 23 November 2012 (UTC)

 * Weak Oppose - Didn't the Vauxhall Astra exist before the Opel Astra according to the articles or am I misremembering another attempted merge that was similar? Thanks ツ Jenova  20  (email) 08:47, 26 June 2015 (UTC)

 * Strong Oppose - The Vauxhall Astra has existed for 12 years before the Opel Astra. If anything the Opel Astra should be merged into the Vauxhall Astra. Thanks ツ Jenova  20  (email) 08:54, 26 June 2015 (UTC)

 * I did some digging and here is a link to how this went the last time it was proposed for anyone interested. Thanks ツ Jenova  20  (email) 13:04, 26 June 2015 (UTC)

Astra J 1.7 Circle L engine torque figures
I'm not completely sure about this but I believe the 1.7 L diesel unit (Circle L engine) produced 221 lbs/ft (300 N.m) of torque as of 2012 as well as the previous 207 lbs/ft (280 N.m) and 192 lbs/ft (260 N.m) stated. I would put forward this information myself only I can't verify it. yesilikecars (talk) 22.28, 27 June 2012 (UTC)

Conversion chart for other Astra
Hey, I was wondering if it might be a good idea to add a chart that shows the various models of Astra across the world and their equivalents.

So, showing that a Opal Astra G is the equivalent of a Holden Astra TS.

Just a thought.

KhevaKins (talk) 06:52, 12 June 2015 (UTC)
 * Unfortunately, such a thing would probably violate our original research policies, and I'm also not convinced that it is particularly encyclopaedic. Wikipedia is not a comparison site, after all. Luke no 94  (tell Luke off here) 09:25, 12 June 2015 (UTC)

 * I don't know, it sounds like it would just be a basic presentation of facts. Converting known facts into table form wouldn't be OR, would it?  Mr.choppers |   ✎  21:47, 26 June 2015 (UTC)

Astra Coupe
According to Vauxhall's literature, the Astra GTC at least is a coupé:  and Parker's Car Guides have a section for the 2000-2004 coupé as well:   Possibly more, but I stopped with the first two results. Chaheel Riens (talk) 11:37, 23 August 2015 (UTC)
 * thanks for this, as a result of which, I won't make (a third set of) changes. I guess automotive descriptors have no role or boundaries anymore. I've also given up noting how the similar Renault Megane gets described. CtrlXctrlV (talk) 11:05, 24 August 2015 (UTC)
 * Can't comment on the Renault Megane, but with regard to the Astra, even if we discount that a manufacturer may be generous with the term "coupe" to try to attract sales, when somebody like Parkers agrees with the term, we have to accept it. The Coupe section kind of agrees with your opinion of blurred lines, but certainly in the case of the Astra, there is a very different body shape when the "coupe" model is compared to the 5-door:

 * 5-Door
 * Coupe

 * (And I'll tell you something else - if you want to buy a 5-door 2003 era Astra, according to Google image search, the world's your oyster!)

 * It's not like the VW Golf, for example, where a 5-door and 3-door are very definitely the same body shell. Chaheel Riens (talk) 11:49, 24 August 2015 (UTC)

External links modified
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Astra H Platform?
All, it appears that the Astra H (Mk 5) is not based on the Delta platform, but based on the T-platform. I am currently trying to find more references to this before I make any changes, so if you have any to share that would be great. VX1NG (talk) 16:13, 5 November 2015 (UTC)

 * C&D concurs: http://www.caranddriver.com/news/2008-saturn-astra-car-news-1 73.48.150.124 (talk)
 * "There is a distant relationship with the Chevrolet Cobalt and Pontiac G5, but Opel's engineers eschewed the Cobalt/G5's Delta architecture in favor of modifying the previous Astra's platform." Which makes sense as no Delta platform car had the stereo and gauge cluster that T-Body did. Even the Saturn Ion (which was Delta) had the standard double-DIN radio gap (and used the Bowtie GMLAN radio in its final year). — Preceding unsigned comment added by 73.48.150.124 (talk) 20:53, 10 June 2016 (UTC)

Production Plant for Astra F and G
The Opel/Vauxhall Astra F and G were also produced in 3-door & 5-door liftback Version in Opel Eisenach Plant in Germany. EA-Henning (talk) 23:14, 6 March 2016 (UTC)

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adpost and eBay as a source
This piece of text got to go, This was also a feature of the first generation Holden Astra in New Zealand, although this was later changed to an Opel-style grille, bringing it into line with Australia, as well as the Opel Astra in India.

New Zealand portion is only supported by ebay and Australia and India part was supported by adpost. These are both not reliable sources. Adding the information back with citation needed tag does not cut it. Every information which is not supported by a reliable source is doubted and your summary and reason in the tag is misleading. I request that you remove this information until you can support it with a reliable source. Sheriff | ☎ 911 | 02:44, 2 July 2018 (UTC)

 * The source link links only a nice message saying that "they" can't find the page .  I have taken the liberty of concealing the contentious bit.   Please feel free to restore it when you have found a reliable verifiable source for it.   If you do not do that, then presumably it will make sense simply to remove the thing.   Regards Charles01 (talk) 07:33, 2 July 2018 (UTC)
 * This is how useful our article would be if I took that fundamentalist advice about "Every information which is not supported by a reliable source is doubted" seriously and to it's logical conclusion.
 * Pretty sparse, enigmatic and unhelpful, eh?
 * If you seriously doubt the information about the grille, by all means remove it until it is cited. (I shan't be doing that, because I know from personal knowledge that it's accurate.)
 * Otherwise, and if you only have mild doubts as to it's veracity, it's probably best to just tag it as needing reliable sources - after all the grille information has been in there for a long time and I'm sure a Kiwi would have challenged this before now if it was false - this is quite a frequently edited article!
 * Apologies for my original reversion, User:SheriffIsInTown - I thought that URL spamming was happening until I realised that you were using a semi automated tool to place citation templates on a number of unrelated articles, and had probably not checked to see if the source was reliable and the web page title appropriate. It was only after I saw the changes that you were making to other citations on other unrelated articles that same day that I realised you were an entirely kosher editor and not a link spammer and self-reverted (I was NOT the original author of either the "facts" or the dodgy citations...)
 * Thanks, User:Charles01 for your wise and pragmatic edit.--BushelCandle (talk) 12:30, 2 July 2018 (UTC)

Opel and Vauxhall Astra H
The saloon was offered as an Opel but the hatchback and estate was offered by Opel and Vauxhall. GroppeBoucher (talk) 09:43, 29 October 2022 (UTC)

Opel Astra-e
The Opel Astra-e will be launched in Europe on 2023 (rebadged as a Vauxhall in the United Kingdom). Derwydd74 (talk) 03:53, 21 December 2022 (UTC)

Potentially incomplete edit (needs clean up)
The second paragraph of the section headed "OPC" under "Astra H (A04; 2004)" (see here: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opel_Astra#OPC ) has issues with readability which suggests it has been poorly edited and needs cleanup.

It says "This vehicle was sold until late 2009 in Australia and New Zealand by Holden Special Vehicles as the HSV VXR. HSV VXRs but it never offered a sedan in the UK and Australia are sold as standard with full leather trim, climate control, 6 disc CD and 19-inch alloy wheels."

The second sentence seems to be missing something, and the paragraph then goes on to say "The sedan was discontinued in Australia and United Kingdom in 2003" which goes against the earlier mention of the sedan never being offered in UK and Australia. KumoAcademic (talk) 03:57, 20 September 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Opel Astra


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Talk:2003 in games

Untitled
Ummmmm... so here goes the "does Ambition belong here" question. Is this game so notable that it belongs on a summary of gaming activity in 2003? This page isn't even really a good summary, since Mike only created it as a vehicle for mentioning Ambition. Isomorphic 05:23, 18 Jul 2004 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:2003 in games


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Stroke play

Stroke play is a scoring system in the sport of golf. In the regular form of stroke play, also known as medal play, the total number of strokes is counted over one or more rounds of 18 holes. In a regular stroke play competition, the winner is the player who has taken the fewest strokes over the course of the round, or rounds. Other forms of stroke play include Stableford, whereby points are gained based on hole scores, maximum score, in which there is a limit to the number of strokes that may be taken on each hole, and par (or bogey), where holes are won or lost against a target score on each hole.

Although most professional tournaments are played using the regular stroke play scoring system, some notable exceptions exist. In match play, the player, or team, earns a point for each hole in which they have bested their opponents. Match play scoring is used in the WGC-Match Play Championship, the World Match Play Championship, and most team events, for example the Ryder Cup. A few tournaments such as the Barracuda Championship have used a modified Stableford system.

Scoring
In stroke play scoring, players record the number of strokes taken at each hole and total them up at the end of a given round, or rounds. The player with the lowest total is the winner. In handicap competitions, the players would subtract their handicaps from the total (gross) score to generate their net scores, and the player with the lowest net score is the winner.

Scores may be reported in relation to par for easy comparison with other golfers' scores. For example, a player whose score is three strokes over par after a given hole would appear as "+3" on the scoreboard.

If two or more players have the same number of strokes, it may be desired to determine an outright winner. Two of the more common methods are a playoff and scorecard count back.

Cut
Multi-round tournaments may enforce a "cut" to reduce the size of the field for later rounds. In a typical 72-hole elite tournament, played over one or two courses, there is a cut after 36 holes; tournaments played over three courses have a cut after 54 holes. The number of players who make the cut depends on the tournament rules – in a typical PGA Tour event, the top 65 (formerly the top 70) professionals (plus ties) after 36 holes. Any player who returns a score higher than the cut mark takes no further part in the tournament.

Tournaments may also employ another cut after 54 holes if a large number of players make the 36-hole cut. Players missing this cut are designated as "made cut, did not finish" (MDF). The PGA Tour employed a secondary cut prior to reducing the cut line to the top 65 for the 2020–21 season.

Playoff
One of the most common methods for settling ties is by means of a playoff, whereby those players who have tied for the lead replay a set number of holes. If still tied after those holes, then further sudden-death holes may also be played until a winner emerges.

Ties in professional golf are generally settled by means of a playoff. Different tournaments have various formats for their playoffs, ranging from another full round, as employed in the U.S. Open, through to a three- or four-hole playoff as used in the PGA Championship and the Open Championship (British Open), to straightforward sudden death, which is used in most tournaments including the Masters Tournament and all other regular PGA Tour and European Tour events. In the longer playoff formats, if at least two players remain tied after such a playoff, then play generally continues in sudden-death format.

Count back
One method of breaking ties commonly used in amateur competitions, especially when a playoff is not practical, and used in professional tournaments to seed players in knockout rounds (such as the World Super 6 in Perth, Australia) is a scorecard "count back", whereby the player with the lowest cumulative score over the last 18, 9, 6, 3, or 1 hole(s) is declared the winner.

title: Stroke play


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File:PavementDemolitionPlot.jpg

Artwork for the Pavement EP Demolition Plot J-7.

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File:PavementPerfectSoundForever.jpg

Artwork for the Pavement EP Perfect Sound Forever.

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File:PavementSummerBabe.jpg

Artwork for the Pavement single "Summer Babe"

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William Stuart-Houston

William Patrick Stuart-Houston (born William Patrick Hitler; 12 March 1911 – 14 July 1987) was an English-born half-nephew of Adolf Hitler. Born and raised in the Toxteth area of Liverpool to Adolf's half-brother Alois Hitler Jr. and his Irish wife Bridget Dowling, he later relocated to Germany to work for his half-uncle before emigrating to the United States, where he received American citizenship (in addition to his British citizenship) and ended up serving in the United States Navy against his half-uncle and Nazi Germany during World War II, changing his surname after the war.

Early life
Stuart-Houston was born William Patrick Hitler in the Toxteth area of Liverpool, England on 12 March 1911, the son of Adolf Hitler's half-brother Alois Hitler Jr. and his Irish wife Bridget Dowling. The couple met in Dublin when Alois was living there during 1909; they married in London's Marylebone district in 1910 and relocated to Liverpool. The family lived in a flat at 102 Upper Stanhope Street, which was later destroyed during the last German air raid of the Liverpool Blitz on 10 January 1942. Dowling wrote a manuscript titled My Brother-in-Law Adolf, in which she claimed that Adolf had lived in Liverpool with her from November 1912 to April 1913 to avoid conscription in Austria. The book is largely considered a work of fiction, as Adolf was residing in the Meldemannstraße dormitory in Vienna at the time.

In 1914, Alois left Bridget and William for a gambling tour of Europe. He later returned to Germany. Unable to rejoin his family due to the outbreak of World War I, he abandoned them, leaving William to be brought up by his mother. He remarried bigamously, but wrote to Bridget during the mid-1920s to ask her to send William to Germany's Weimar Republic for a visit. She finally agreed in 1929, when William was 18. By this time, Alois had another son named Heinz with his German wife. Heinz, in contrast to William, became a committed Nazi, joined the Wehrmacht, and died in Soviet captivity in 1942.

Nazi Germany
In 1933, William travelled to what had become Nazi Germany in an attempt to benefit from his half-uncle's growing power. Adolf, who was now chancellor, found him a job at the Reichskreditbank in Berlin, a job that he held for most of the 1930s. He later worked at the Opel automobile factory as a car salesman. Dissatisfied with these jobs, he again asked his half-uncle for a better job, writing to him with blackmail threats of selling embarrassing stories about the family to the newspapers unless his "personal circumstances" improved.

In 1938, Adolf asked William to relinquish his British citizenship in exchange for a high-ranking job. Suspecting a trap, William fled Nazi Germany and again tried to blackmail his uncle with threats. This time, William threatened to tell the press that Adolf's alleged paternal grandfather was actually a Jewish merchant. He returned to London, where he wrote the article "Why I Hate My Uncle" for Look magazine.

Immigration to the United States
In January 1939, the newspaper magnate William Randolph Hearst brought William and his mother to the United States for a lecture tour. He and his mother were stranded when World War II began. After making a special request to President Franklin D. Roosevelt, William was eventually approved to join the United States Navy in 1944; he relocated to the Sunnyside neighbourhood of Queens, New York. William was drafted into the United States Navy during World War II as a pharmacist's mate (a designation later changed to hospital corpsman) until he was discharged in 1947. On reporting for duty, the induction officer asked his name. He replied, "Hitler." Thinking he was joking, the officer replied, "Glad to see you, Hitler. My name's Hess." It is claimed William was wounded in action during the war and awarded the Purple Heart.

Later life
After being discharged from the Navy, William changed his surname to "Stuart-Houston". In 1947, he married Phyllis Jean-Jacques, who had been born in Germany in the mid-1920s. After their relationship began, William and Phyllis, along with Bridget, tried to live a life of anonymity in the United States. They moved to Patchogue, New York, where William used his medical training to establish a business that analyzed blood samples for hospitals. His laboratory, which he called Brookhaven Laboratories, was located in his home, a two-story clapboard house at 71 Silver Street.

Stuart-Houston and his wife had four sons: Alexander Adolf (b. 1949), Louis (b. 1951), Howard Ronald (1957–1989), and Brian William (b. 1965). None of his sons had children of their own. In his 2001 book The Last of the Hitlers, journalist David Gardner speculated that the four brothers had made a verbal pact not to sire children. Eldest son Alexander denied this claim, stating that before his death Howard Ronald had been engaged and intending to have children, while another brother had been engaged once, but family notoriety had destroyed the relationship. His third son, Howard Ronald Stuart-Houston, worked as a Special Agent with the Criminal Investigation Division of the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) and died in a car accident on September 14, 1989 while driving on Route 25, New York, near to Dietz Avenue, in a double frontal impact, while en route to subpoena for a money laundering investigation. Special Agent Stuart-Houston was subsequently buried in Coram, New York.

Stuart-Houston died in Patchogue on 14 July 1987. His remains were buried next to his mother's at the Holy Sepulchre Cemetery in Coram, New York. His widow, Phyllis, died in 2004.

In the media
The family's story and Bridget's memoirs were first published by Michael Unger in the Liverpool Daily Post in 1973. Unger also edited Bridget Dowling's memoirs, which were first published as The Memoirs of Bridget Hitler in 1979; a completely updated version, titled The Hitlers of Liverpool, was published in 2011.

Beryl Bainbridge's 1978 novel Young Adolf depicts the 23-year-old Adolf Hitler's alleged 1912–13 visit to his Liverpool relatives. Bainbridge adapted the story into a play as The Journal of Bridget Hitler with director Philip Saville, which was broadcast as a Playhouse (BBC 2) in 1981.

Grant Morrison and Steve Yeowell's 1989 comic book The New Adventures of Hitler is likewise based on the alleged Liverpool visit.

In October 2005, The History Channel broadcast a one-hour documentary titled Hitler's Family, in which William Patrick Hitler is described along with other relatives of Adolf Hitler.

Netflix aired a documentary titled The Pact: Le serment des Hitler (2014), directed by Emmanuel Amara, which was billed as a retracing of the life of Hitler, and an exploration of what became of the Hitler family line.

William Patrick Hitler was portrayed in the sketch "Willy Hitler Fights the Germans" in the 19 June 2018 episode of the American Comedy Central television series Drunk History, which aired as the eighth episode of that show's fifth season.

title: William Stuart-Houston


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Odawara Castle

Odawara Castle (小田原城) is a reconstructed Japanese castle in the city of Odawara in Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan.

The current donjon (keep) was constructed out of reinforced concrete in 1960 on a stone foundation of the former donjon, torn down from 1870–1872 during the Meiji Period. There has been fortifications at or around the castle's current site since the Kamakura Period (1185–1333).

The reconstructed Odawara Castle was listed as one of the 100 Fine Castles of Japan by the Japan Castle Foundation in 2006.

History
Odawara was a stronghold of the Doi clan during the Kamakura period, and a fortified residence built by their collateral branch, the Kobayakawa clan, stood on the approximate site of the present castle. After the Uesugi Zenshū Revolt of 1416, Odawara came under the control of the Omori clan of Suruga. They were in turn defeated by Ise Moritoki of Izu, founder of the Odawara Hōjō clan in 1495. Five generations of the Odawara Hōjō clan improved and expanded on the fortifications of Odawara Castle as the center of their domains, which encompassed most of the Kantō region.

During the Sengoku period, Odawara Castle had very strong defenses, as it was situated on a hill, surrounded by moats with water on the low side, and dry ditches on the hill side, with banks, walls and cliffs located all around the castle, enabling the defenders to repel attacks by Uesugi Kenshin in 1561 and Takeda Shingen in 1569. In 1587, the defences of the castle were greatly expanded by the Odawara Hōjō in anticipation of the coming conflict with Toyotomi Hideyoshi. However, during the Battle of Odawara in 1590, Hideyoshi forced the surrender of the Odawara Hōjō without storming the castle through a combination of a three-month siege and bluff. After ordering most of the fortifications destroyed, he awarded the holdings of the Odawara Hōjō to his leading general Tokugawa Ieyasu.

Edo period Odawara Castle
After Ieyasu completed Edo Castle, he turned the site of Odawara Castle over to one of his senior retainers, Ōkubo Tadayo, who reconstructed the castle in its present form on a considerably reduced scale, with the entire castle fitting inside what was once the third bailey of the Sengoku period Hōjō castle. However, his successor Ōkubo Takachika was dispossessed by the shogunate in 1614. From 1619-1623, the castle was assigned to Abe Masatsugu. After 1623, Odawara Domain reverted to tenryō status and a palace was constructed in the inner bailey to serve as a retirement home of Shōgun Tokugawa Hidetada; however, Hidetada chose to remain in Edo during this retirement. On his death, Odawara Domain was revived as an 85,000 koku holding for Inaba Masakatsu, the eldest son of Kasuga no Tsubone, the wet nurse to Shōgun Tokugawa Iemitsu. Iemitsu visited Odawara Castle in 1634. Under the Inaba clan, the castle was extensively renovated. In 1686, the Inaba were transferred, and the Ōkubo clan returned to Odawara, with the domain expanded in kokudaka to 103,000 koku. The castle suffered great damage during the 1703 Genroku earthquake, which destroyed most of the castle structures. The donjon was restored by 1706, but the rest of the castle took until 1721. Extensive damage occurred again during the 1782 Tenmei earthquake and once more during the 1853 Kaei earthquake. During the Boshin War of the Meiji restoration, Ōkubo Tadanori permitted the pro-Imperial forces of the Satchō Alliance to pass through Odawara on their way to Edo without opposition.

Odawara Castle in the modern era
The new Meiji government ordered the destruction of all former feudal fortifications, and in compliance with this directive, all structures of Odawara Castle were pulled down from 1870–1872. In 1893, the stone base of the former donjon become the foundation for a Shinto shrine, the Ōkubo Jinja, dedicated to the spirits of the generations of Ōkubo daimyō. In 1901, the Odawara Imperial Villa was constructed within the site of the former inner and second bailies. The Imperial Villa was destroyed by the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake, which also caused many of the stone facing on the castle ramparts to collapse. Repair work was made to the stone walls from 1930–1931, but with very poor workmanship. In 1934, two of the remaining yagura (which had been destroyed in the 1923 earthquake) were restored, but on a half-scale.

In 1938, the castle site was proclaimed a National Historic Site, with the area under historic preservation restrictions expanded in 1959, and again in 1976 based on further archaeological investigations.

In 1950, repairs were made to the stone base of the former donjon, which had been in ruins since the Great Kantō earthquake, and the area was made into the Odawara Castle Park, which included an art museum, local history museum, city library, amusement park and zoo. The three-tiered, five-storied donjon, the top floor of which is an observatory, was rebuilt in 1960 out of reinforced concrete to celebrate the 20th anniversary of the proclamation of Odawara as a city. However, the reconstructed donjon is not historically accurate, as the observation deck was added at the insistence of the Odawara City tourism authorities. Plans have been discussed since the late 1960s on a more accurate restoration of the central castle grounds to its late Edo period format. These plans resulted in the reconstruction of the Tokiwagi Gate (常磐木門) in 1971, the Akagane Gate (銅門) in 1997, and the Umadashi Gate (馬出門) in 2009. The castle tower was remodelled from July 2015 until April 2016 to improve earthquake resistance and to modernise its exhibits. Odawara City government donated all entry fees on the day of the re-opening to Kumamoto City government, to be put towards repairs to Kumamoto Castle that was damaged in the 2016 Kumamoto earthquakes.

The reconstructed Odawara Castle was listed as one of the 100 Fine Castles of Japan by the Japan Castle Foundation in 2006.

title: Odawara Castle


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Tabor College

Tabor College may refer to:

 * Tabor College (Iowa), a defunct institution formerly located in Iowa
 * Tabor College (Kansas), a four-year Christian liberal arts institution in Kansas
 * Tabor College, Australia

title: Tabor College


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Arachosia

Arachosia (Ἀραχωσία ), or Harauvatis, was a satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire. Mainly centred around the Arghandab River, a tributary of the Helmand River, it extended as far east as the Indus River. The satrapy's Persian-language name is the etymological equivalent of in Vedic Sanskrit. In Greek, the satrapy's name was derived from, the Greek-language name for the Arghandab River. Around 330 BCE, Alexander the Great commissioned the building of Alexandria Arachosia as Arachosia's new capital city under the Macedonian Empire. It was built on top of an earlier Persian military fortress after Alexander's conquest of Persia, and is the site of today's Kandahar in Afghanistan.

Etymology
"Arachosia" is the Latinized form of Greek Ἀραχωσία (Arachōsíā). "The same region appears in the Avestan Vidēvdāt (1.12) under the indigenous dialect form 𐬵𐬀𐬭𐬀𐬓𐬀𐬌𐬙𐬍 Haraxvaitī- (whose -axva- is typical non-Avestan)." In Old Persian inscriptions, the region is referred to as 𐏃𐎼𐎢𐎺𐎫𐎡𐏁, written h(a)-r(a)-u-v(a)-t-i. This form is the "etymological equivalent" of Vedic Sanskrit -, the name of a river literally meaning "rich in waters/lakes" and derived from sáras- "lake, pond." (cf. Aredvi Sura Anahita).

"Arachosia" was named after the name of a river that runs through it, known in ancient Greek as the Arachōtós and today as the Arghandab River, a left-bank tributary of the Helmand River.

Geography
Arachosia bordered on Drangiana to the west, on the Paropamisadae to the north, Hindush to the east, and Gedrosia to the south. Isidore and Ptolemy (6.20.4-5) each provide a list of cities in Arachosia, among them (yet another) Alexandria, which lay on the river Arachotus. This city is frequently misidentified with present-day Kandahar in Afghanistan, the name of which was thought to be derived (via "Iskanderiya") from "Alexandria", reflecting a connection to Alexander the Great's visit to the city on his campaign towards India. But a recent discovery of an inscription on a clay tablet has provided proof that 'Kandahar' was already a city that traded actively with Persia well before Alexander's time. Isidore, Strabo (11.8.9) and Pliny (6.61) also refer to the city as "metropolis of Arachosia."

In his list, Ptolemy also refers to a city named Arachotus (Arachote ; Ἀραχωτός) or Arachoti (acc. to Strabo), which was the earlier capital of the land. Pliny the Elder and Stephen of Byzantium mention that its original name was Cophen (Κωφήν). Hsuan Tsang refers to the name as Kaofu. This city is identified today with Arghandab which lies northwest of present-day Kandahar.

History
The region is first referred to in the Achaemenid-era Elamite Persepolis fortification tablets. It appears again in the Old Persian, Akkadian and Aramaic inscriptions of Darius I and Xerxes I among lists of subject peoples and countries. It is subsequently also identified as the source of the ivory used in Darius' palace at Susa. In the Behistun inscription (DB 3.54-76), the King recounts that a Persian was thrice defeated by the Achaemenid governor of Arachosia, Vivana, who so ensured that the province remained under Darius' control. It has been suggested that this "strategically unintelligible engagement" was ventured by the rebel because "there were close relations between Persia and Arachosia concerning the Zoroastrian faith."

The chronologically next reference to Arachosia comes from the Greeks and Romans, who record that under Darius III the Arachosians and Drangians were under the command of a governor who, together with the army of the Bactrian governor, contrived a plot of the Arachosians against Alexander (Curtius Rufus 8.13.3). Following Alexander's conquest of the Achaemenids, the Macedonian appointed his generals as governors (Arrian 3.28.1, 5.6.2; Curtius Rufus 7.3.5; Plutarch, Eumenes 19.3; Polyaenus 4.6.15; Diodorus 18.3.3; Orosius 3.23.1 3; Justin 13.4.22). In 316 BCE Antigonus I Monophthalmus sent most of the elite Argyraspides, a veteran Macedonian corps with over forty years experience, to Arachosia to protect the Eastern frontier with India. However they were sent with the order to Sibyrtius, the Macedonian satrap of Arachosia, to dispatch them by small groups of two or three to dangerous missions so that their numbers would rapidly dwindle and remove them as a military threat to his power.

Following the Wars of the Diadochi, the region became part of the Seleucid Empire, which traded it to the Mauryan Empire in 305 BCE as part of an alliance. The Shunga dynasty overthrew the Mauryans in 185 BC, but shortly afterwards lost Arachosia to the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom. It then became part of the break-away Indo-Greek Kingdom in the mid 2nd century BCE. Indo-Scythians expelled the Indo-Greeks by the mid 1st century BCE, but lost the region to the Arsacids and Indo-Parthians. At what time (and in what form) Parthian rule over Arachosia was reestablished cannot be determined with any authenticity. From Isidore 19 it is certain that a part (perhaps only a little) of the region was under Arsacid rule in the 1st century CE, and that the Parthians called it Indikē Leukē, "White India."

The Kushans captured Arachosia from the Indo-Parthians and ruled the region until around 230 CE, when they were defeated by the Sassanids, the second Persian Empire, after which the Kushans were replaced by Sassanid vassals known as the Kushanshas or Indo-Sassanids. In 420 CE the Kushanshas were driven out of present Afghanistan by the Chionites, who established the Kidarite Kingdom. The Kidarites were replaced in the 460s CE by the Hephthalites, who were defeated in 565 CE by a coalition of Persian and Turkish armies. Arachosia became part of the surviving Kushano-Hephthalite Kingdoms of Kapisa, then Kabul, before coming under attack from the Moslem Arabs. These kingdoms were at first vassals of Sassanids. Around 870 CE the Kushano-Hephthalites (aka Turkshahi Dynasty) was replaced by the Saffarids, then the Samanid Empire and Muslim Turkish Ghaznavids in the early 11th century CE.

Arab geographers referred to the region (or parts of it) as 'Arokhaj', 'Rokhaj', 'Rohkaj' or simply 'Roh'.

Inhabitants
The inhabitants of Arachosia were Iranian peoples, and were referred to as Arachosians or Arachoti. They were called Pactyans in reference to their individual ethnicity, and that name may have been in reference to the modern-day ethnic group known as the Pashtuns.

Isidore of Charax, in his 1st-century CE "Parthian stations" itinerary, described an "Alexandropolis, the metropolis of Arachosia", which he said was still Greek even at such a late time: "'Beyond is Arachosia. And the Parthians call this White India; there are the city of Biyt and the city of Pharsana and the city of Chorochoad and the city of Demetrias; then Alexandropolis, the metropolis of Arachosia; it is Greek, and by it flows the river Arachotus. As far as this place the land is under the rule of the Parthians.'"

A theory of Croatian origin traces the origin of the Croats to the area of Arachosia. This connection was at first drawn due to the similarity of Croatian (Croatia - Croatian: Hrvatska, Croats - Croatian: Hrvati / Čakavian dialect: Harvati / Kajkavian dialect: Horvati) and Arachosian name, but other researches indicate that there are also linguistic, cultural, agrobiological and genetic ties. Since Croatia became an independent state in 1991, the Iranian theory gained more popularity, and many scientific papers and books have been published.

title: Arachosia


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Cointreau

Cointreau is a brand of orange-flavoured triple sec liqueur produced in Saint-Barthélemy-d'Anjou, France. It is consumed as an apéritif and digestif, and is a component of several well-known cocktails. It was originally called Curaçao Blanco Triple Sec. Despite the orange bottle, Cointreau is colourless. Cointreau also produces Cointreau Noir, a blend of 70% Cointreau and 30% cognac from the House of Rémy Martin.

Production
Cointreau Distillery was set up in 1849 by Adolphe Cointreau, a confectioner, and his brother Édouard-Jean Cointreau. Their first success was with the cherry liqueur Guignolet, but they also found success when they blended sweet and bitter orange peels and pure alcohol from sugar beets. The first bottles of Cointreau were sold in 1875. An estimated 13 million bottles are sold each year, in more than 150 countries. Ninety percent of production is exported. Cointreau & Cie SA was family-owned until 1990, when it merged with Rémy Martin to form Rémy Cointreau, now a publicly traded company.

The production methods and recipe are a family secret, but public tours of the facility are offered. Photography is restricted in many areas to protect the production process from being copied.

Cocktails
In addition to being consumed neat (or often on ice), Cointreau is used in many popular cocktails. The official IBA recipes for the margarita, Corpse Reviver #2, and the cosmopolitan include Cointreau. When mixed with water, Cointreau exhibits the Ouzo effect.

Publicity
In the 1980s, Avirex, now Cockpit USA, issued an A-2 limited-edition leather flight jacket featuring Cointreau Original Margarita nose art on the back of the jacket. In early 2008, the burlesque entertainer Dita Von Teese became the new face of Cointreau's "Be Cointreauversial" advertising and marketing campaign, a campaign created in 2003 by the New York advertising agency KraftWorks.

title: Cointreau


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Adolf Brand

Gustav Adolf Franz Brand (14 November 1874 – 2 February 1945) was a German writer, egoist anarchist, and pioneering campaigner for the acceptance of male bisexuality and homosexuality.

Early life
Adolf Brand was born on 14 November 1874 in Berlin, which was then part of the German Empire. He grew up in Wilhemshagen. His father was a blacksmith.

Career

He became a school teacher briefly before establishing a publishing firm and producing a German homosexual periodical, Der Eigene (The Unique) in 1896. This was the first ongoing homosexual publication in the world, and ran until 1931. The name was taken from writings of egoist philosopher Max Stirner, who had greatly influenced the young Brand, and refers to Stirner's concept of "self-ownership" of the individual. Der Eigene concentrated on cultural and scholarly material, and may have had an average of around 1500 subscribers per issue during its lifetime, although the exact numbers are uncertain. Contributors included Erich Mühsam, Kurt Hiller, John Henry Mackay (under the pseudonym Sagitta) and artists Wilhelm von Gloeden, Fidus and Sascha Schneider. Brand contributed many poems and articles himself. Brand's writings, together with those of other contributors to Der Eigene, aimed at a revival of Greek pederasty as a cultural model for modern homosexuality.

In 1899/1900 Brand published Elisar von Kupffer's (1872–1942) influential anthology of homoerotic literature, Lieblingminne und Freundesliebe in der Weltliteratur. The work was reprinted in 1995.

In 1900, he was sentenced to a year in prison for insulting Center Party leader Ernst Lieber. In 1903, he was incarcerated for two months due to the sexual content published in Der Eigene.

Brand became involved in Magnus Hirschfeld's Scientific-Humanitarian Committee (the first public homosexual rights organization), until there was a split in 1903.

That year, Brand formed Gemeinschaft der Eigenen with the scientist (and principal theorist) Benedict Friedlaender and Wilhelm Jansen. The GdE met weekly at Brand's house. To this new group, male-male love, in particular that of an older man for a youth, was viewed as a simple aspect of virile manliness available to all men; they rejected the medical theories of doctors such as Magnus Hirschfeld who found that a gay man was a certain type of person, the intermediate sex. The GdE was a sort of scouting movement that echoed the warrior creed of Sparta and the ideals of pederasty in Ancient Greece, and the ideas on pedagogic eros of Gustav Wyneken. The GdE was heavily involved with camping and trekking. They occasionally practised nudism – the latter then common as part of the Nacktkultur ('culture of nudity') sweeping Germany. In the 1920s this would develop into the Freikörperkultur under Adolf Koch.

The Gemeinschaft opposed Hirschfeld and the Scientific-Humanitarian Committee's stance that homosexuality existed on a continuum with femininity. Brand and the Gemeinschaft instead believed that homosexuality was the epitome of manliness and brotherly love, to be expressed by any man. The group tended towards elitism who based their ideas of attractiveness around Germanic racial purity. Their views towards women were often misogynistic. The Gemeinschaft followed a strategy of outing high-visibility homosexuals. They termed this strategy the "path over corpses" (Weg uber Leichen).

The GdE was similar to other such groups in Germany at the time, such as the Wandervogel. Wilhelm Jansen, co-founder of the Gemeinschaft der Eigenen, was one of the chief financial supporters of the Wandervogel and also a leader in it.

The writings and theories of the romantic anarchist John Henry Mackay (1864–1933) had a significant influence on the GdE from 1906. Mackay had lived in Berlin for a decade and had become a friend of Friedlaender, who did not share the anarchist leanings of Brand and Mackay, favoring instead the thinking on 'natural rights' and land reform, then current in Germany.

Brand was imprisoned multiple times for his actions. Even in court, he unapologetically identified with his bisexuality.

Later life
In the early 1930s, Brand retreated from activism, married a woman, and retired.

He and his wife were killed by an Allied bomb in Berlin-Rahnsdorf on 2 February 1945. He was 70 years old.

title: Adolf Brand


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Gedrosia

Gedrosia (Γεδρωσία or گِد رۏچ) is the Hellenized name of the part of coastal Balochistan that roughly corresponds to today's Makran. In books about Alexander the Great and his successors, the area referred to as Gedrosia runs from the Indus River to the north-eastern edge of the Strait of Hormuz. It is directly to the south of the countries of Bactria, Arachosia and Drangiana, to the east of the country of Carmania and due west of the Indus River which formed a natural boundary between it and Western India. The native name of Gedrosia might have been Gwadar as there are two towns by that name and a bay (Gwadar Bay) in central Makran.

Geography
Pliny the Elder while explaining the extent of India included four satrapies Arachosia, Gedrosia, Aria and Parapanisidae as western borders of India.

People
According to Arrian, Nearchus mentions a race called Ichthyophagi ("fish-eaters") as inhabiting the barren shores of the Gwadar and Pasni districts in Makrān. During the homeward march of Alexander the Great, his admiral, Nearchus led a fleet in Arabian Sea along the Makrān coast and recorded that the area was dry and mountainous, inhabited by the Ichthyophagoi or Fish-Eaters. They are also identified on the 4th century Peutinger Map, as a people of the Baluchistan coast. The existence of such tribes was confirmed by Sir Richard F Burton.

Another group of people named as Oreitans were mentioned inhabiting modern Lasbela District in Balochistan province of Pakistan. Alexander the Great crossed Hub River through Lasbela on his way back to Babylon after conquering Northwestern India. Alexander mentions the river name as Arabius, and local people as Oreitans.

Gedrosia (satrapy)
Gedrosia is a dry, mountainous country along the northwestern shores of the Indian Ocean. It was occupied in the Bronze Age by people who settled in the few oases in the region. Other people settled on the coast and became known in Greek as Ichthyophagi. The Persian king Cyrus the Great attacked to conquer this country but was defeated and lost his entire army (559-530 BCE). Finally after the defeat of the sons of Cyrus this country conquered by Darius the Great. although information about his campaign is comparatively late. The capital of Gedrosia was Pura, which is probably identical to modern Bampur, forty kilometers west of Irânshahr.

Several scholars have argued that the Persian satrapy Maka is identical to Gedrosia (which is a Greek name). One argument is the similarity of the name Maka to the modern name Makran, a part of Pakistan and Iran that is situated a bit more to the east. However, it is more likely that Maka is to be sought in modern Oman, which was called Maketa in Antiquity.

Alexander's campaign
Gedrosia became famous in Europe when the Macedonian king Alexander the Great tried to cross the Gedrosian desert and lost one third of his men.

Following his army's refusal to continue marching east at the Hyphasis River in 326 BCE, Alexander the Great crossed the area after sailing south to the coast of the Indian Ocean on his way back to Babylon. Upon reaching the Ocean, Alexander divided his forces in half, sending half back by sea to Susa under the command of Nearchus. The other half of his army was to accompany him on a march through the Gedrosian desert, inland from the ocean. Throughout the 60-day march through the desert, Alexander lost at least 12,000 soldiers, in addition to countless livestock, camp followers, and most of his baggage train. Some historians say he lost three-quarters of his army to the harsh desert conditions along the way. However, this figure was likely based on exaggerated numbers in his forces prior to the march, which were likely in the range of no fewer than 30,000 soldiers.

There are two competing theories for the purpose of Alexander's decision to march through the desert rather than along the more hospitable coast. The first argues that this was an attempt to punish his men for their refusal to continue eastward at the Hyphasis River. The other argues that Alexander was attempting to imitate and succeed in the actions of Cyrus the Great, who had failed to cross the desert.

After the death of Alexander, this region became part of the holdings of Seleucus, who held Aria, Arachosia, and Gandhara, in addition to Gedrosia.

Mauryan Empire
The territories, known collectively as Ariyana were later lost to the Mauryan Empire of ancient India under the reign of Chandragupta Maurya. Gedrosia, along with Saurashtra, were regions in ancient India that formed an important part of the Maurya Empire, before being attacked by Indo-Greeks from the west.

title: Gedrosia


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Bearded bellbird

The bearded bellbird (Procnias averano), also known as the campanero or anvil-bird, is a passerine bird which occurs in northern South America. The male is about 28 cm long with white plumage apart from a brown head and black wings. At his throat hang several black, unfeathered wattles. The female is a little smaller with olive-green head and upper parts, yellow underparts streaked with green and a yellow vent area. The male has a loud, repeated metallic hammering call, as well as various other vocalisations.

There are two subspecies, the nominate subspecies is only found in northeastern Brazil, while the other subspecies occurs in Trinidad, Venezuela, Colombia, Guyana, eastern Bolivia and northern Brazil. This bird is found in moist tropical forests where it feeds mainly on fruit and berries which are picked on the wing. The nest is a rather flimsy mass of stems and slender twigs built far out on a branch of an isolated tree. A single buff-coloured egg is laid and incubated solely by the female.

Description
Like other cotingas, the bearded bellbird has a broad hooked-tipped bill, rounded wings, strong legs and a striking appearance. The male is approx 28 cm 11 in long, and weighs 180 g. His plumage is white or greyish-white apart from the black wings and warm brown head. He sports a "beard" of un-feathered, black stringy wattles.

The female is smaller, at approx. 27 cm and 130 g. Her upperparts are olive-green (duskier on the head), most of the underparts are yellow streaked with green, and the vent is pure yellow. She lacks the facial wattles ("beard"). Both sexes have dark eyes, a black bill and grey to black legs.

The males' advertising calls are a very loud dull Bock repeated every few seconds and a somewhat less loud, metallic hammering tonk-tonk-tonk-tonk. It sounds like a hammer rapidly hitting an anvil and is repeated 20–30 times. Additionally, a number of regional calls are known, e.g. an unmusical, almost hissing, bisset in southern Venezuela and a disyllabic teek-terong in northern Venezuela. Apparently, the last mentioned call is no longer heard in Trinidad. The female is essentially silent.

Distribution and habitat
The bearded bellbird is native to Venezuela (as well as adjacent parts of Colombia and Guyana), Trinidad and Tobago and northeastern Brazil, where it occurs in humid forests and woodland. It is mainly resident, but some populations take part in altitudinal migrations; breeding at altitudes of up to 1900 m and spending the non-breeding season in the lowlands. There are two subspecies; the nominate taxon, P. a. averano, in northeastern Brazil and P. a. carnobarba in Venezuela, Trinidad, extreme northeastern Colombia, western Guyana and far northern Brazil. It is a localised and uncommon bird in Venezuela, but is fairly common in Trinidad. The nominate Brazilian race is relatively rare due to extensive habitat destruction in its range and heavy trapping for the cagebird trade, and as such is considered "vulnerable" by Brazilian environmental authority (IBAMA).

Ecology
These arboreal bellbirds feeds entirely on fruit and berries, mainly taken on the wing. Lauraceae and Burseraceae are particularly favoured (as well as Araliaceae and Melastomataceae), and the young are fed regurgitated Lauraceae by the female.

The flimsy nest of twigs is built by the female and usually placed in the outer branches of a tree. The nests are not located in the jungle, but in free-standing trees in semi-cleared areas, probably to reduce the risk from the many effective predators of nests in the jungle such as monkeys, toucans and snakes.

The single brown-mottled, light tan egg is incubated entirely by the female, leaving the polygamous male free to spend much of his time advertising with his distinctive songs. Laying season varies over its range; April-Nov in Trinidad and May-Sep in N. Venezuela. The first recorded egg was discovered near Cumaca, Trinidad, in the mid-1950s.

title: Bearded bellbird


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Nedumangad

Nedumangad is a municipal town in the Thiruvananthapuram district in the Indian state of Kerala. It is the headquarters of Nedumangad Tehsil and Nedumangad Revenue Division. It is a suburb of the extended metropolitan region of Thiruvananthapuram. It is located around 16 km to the north-east of Thiruvananthapuram on the State Highway 2. It is an important commercial center in the district. It is a growing commercial and educational hub and all important government institutions are situated in the town. The Nedumangadu market has significance in southern Kerala. It is an important centre for commercial trade in hill products such as pepper and rubber. A wholesale market set up by the Department of Agriculture (with the assistance of the European Union) is also situated there.

History
Nedumangad panchayat was formed in 1936. It was one among the four Panchayats sanctioned by Sir C.P.Ramaswamy Iyer (Diwan-Thiruvithamcore). The others were Paravur, Boothapandi and Perumbavoor. In 1978 Nedumangad Municipality was established.

===Nedumangad Chantha Revolt ===

Nedumangad was a main center of trade in Thiruvananthapuram. Lower caste people were not allowed to enter in the trade markets (Chantha) of Nedumangad and items brought by them from their farms have to be placed outside and used to get a lower price. A group of people under the leadership of Ayyankali questioned this social injustice which resulted in a great revolt and fought back their rights to enter and sell the goods of lower caste people in Nedumangad market and the trade markets nearby. This is known as Nedumangad Chantha revolt.

Behind the name Nedumangad
There are still many opinions as to how the taluk Nedumangad got its name. It is said that there is a fruit called Neduvan and that it is the land of a local ruler named Neduvan. According to some historical sources, the old name of Nedumangad was Ilavallur Nadu.

Social and cultural history
The adivasis are the tribal people of the region. From 1677 to 1689 AD, Umayamurani, who ruled Travancore, lost a battle and escaped to Koyikkal Palace, Nedumangad. The queen sought the help of Kerala Varma to defeat the Mukkappappa. History has indicated that Kerala Varma defeated Mukulapada in Thiruvattar and took Umayamma Rani to Trivandrum. With the arrival of Umayamma Rani to Koyikkal Palace, merchants, gold smiths and the Tamil Brahmins who became Puajaris also settled here. The Tamil Brahmins became the heirs of most land in the area. The palace at Karipur, Pulellunthu Mallan's family head, Karippur Mudipura are some of the historical places linked to the ancient history of Nedumangad. Nedumangad Koyikkal palace is one of the few buildings that was built in the 15th century Kerala Architectural style. The historic Koyikkal Palace has been maintained since 1979 by the Kerala State Department of Archaeology. Nedumangad Street struggle was one of the historical struggles of the national movement during Independence. The LLA LP School, which started as "Pallalu school", is the first school to be established here. The first library was the Guruvayur Vidyalaya. Karimbikkavu Sree DharmaSastha Temple, Thirichittoor Siva-Vishnu Temple, Mannamkonam Sree Bhagavathy Temple, Indalayappan Temple, Ardhanarisheshwara Temple, Muthumariamman Temple, Melamcode Temple, Mutharamman Temple, Pathadavu, Pazhavadi Ganapati Temple, Paranthokha Bhagwati Temple, Nedumangad Town Muslim Jamaath Complex and the Christian Church are some of the oldest shrines in the region. Nedumangad's commercial history is connected with agriculture. Nedumangad Public Market is the largest market in the district of Thiruvananthapuram. It is the largest market for the hill stations and agricultural commodities. The Agrarian Sales Complex, by the Department of Agriculture, is set up with the help of the European Economic Community. Thiruvananthapuram - Chenkotta (State Highway 2) and Shorlakode – Nedumangad State Highway (SH 3) are the most important interstate routes passing through Nedumangad. The road that connects Ponmudi to Thiruvananthapuram City passes through Nedumangad. The distance from Nedumangad to the capital city is only 18 km. The first Folklore Museum and the Museum of Numismatics in Kerala was established at Nedumangad Koyikkal Palace on 27 March 1992. The Koyikkal Palace is located next to the municipal office. Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC), a research and development centre functioning under Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), is located at Valiyamala near Nedumangad.

Geography
Nedumangad is located at 8.6°N, 77°W. It has an average elevation of 68 metres (223 feet).

It lies 18 km from Thiruvananthapuram (or Trivandrum) on the way to Thenkasi and Ponmudi hill resort. It is the capital of the taluk and is unique for lacking a coastal belt and railway lines.

It is bounded on the west by Trivandrum Taluk, on the east by the State of Tamil Nadu, on the south by Neyyattinkara Taluk and on the north by Kollam District.

==Places of interest == Nedumangad is a gate way of various tourist places in Trivandrum. The main attractions are: Agasthyarkoodam, a mountain preserve famous for its abundant ayurvedic herbs and medicinal plants is around 50 km away. About 32 km from Nedumangad, en route to the Ponmudi Hill Resort lies the Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary, which is of particular interest to ornithologists. Near Nedumangad town another Monolithic – Thirichittoor Rock (Thiruchittapara) is located. With Siva Vishnu Temple, many monkeys congregated here. The name Nedumangadu means kadu (forest) of Vishnu, who was called Neduman, Neduvan, and Nediyavan in ancient texts like Chilappadikaram.

Kerala's Numismatic museum is at Koikkal Palace within Nedumangad Town. The palace was the residence of one of the prominent matriarchal lines of Travancore.

 * Aruvikkara Dam
 * Peppara Dam
 * Neyyar Dam
 * Mankayam waterfalls
 * Vazhvanthol waterfalls
 * Meenmutty waterfalls
 * Lower meenmooty
 * Thenmala Dam
 * Ponmudi

Road Transport
Nedumangad has well road network which connect nearby towns and cities. Four important State Highways (SH) pass through Nedumangad. There is no National Highway through Nedumangad. The main interstate Road through Nedumangad is Thiruvananthapuram –Thenmala (State Highway 2) is connecting the city of Trivandrum with Tenkasi and other major roads are SH 3 connecting Surulacod / Kanyakumari / Aralvaimozhi, SH 45 connecting Ponmudi hill station and SH 47 connecting Attingal NH 66 / Vembayam SH 1 / Main-Central Road and also SH 1
 * Main-Central Road is only 9 km from Nedumangad Town. Bus service is operated by Kerala state Road Transport Corporation (Ksrtc). KSRTC operate services from Nedumangad to high ranges, all parts of district and major towns and cities of Kerala and Outside.

Air

 * Nearest airport is Thiruvananthapuram International Airport (TRV) – 22 km

Rail
No railway lines pass through Nedumangadu. The nearest railway station is Thiruvananthapuram – 18 km. The next nearest railway station is Chirayinkeezhu near Attingal – 31 km.Thenmala Railway station 54 Km

Demographics
Population of Children with age of 0–6 is 5676 which is 9.43% of total population of Nedumangad (M). In Nedumangad Municipality, Female Sex Ratio is of 1073 against state average of 1084. Moreover, the Child Sex Ratio in Nedumangad is around 926 compared to Kerala state average of 964. Literacy rate of Nedumangad city is 93.28% lower than state average of 94.00%. In Nedumangad, Male literacy is around 95.80% while female literacy rate is 90.97%.

Taluk
Nedumangad (tehsil) is bounded on the west by Thiruvananthapuram Taluk, on the east by the State of Tamil Nadu, on the south by Kattakada Taluk and on the north by Kollam District. Nedumangad Taluk has 25 villages and one Municipality headed by tehsildar. It is the second-most-populous and largest taluk in Thiruvananthapuram District

Villages
Anad, Aruvikkara, Aryanad, Kallara, Karakulam, Karippooru, Koliyakode, Kurupuzha, Manikkal, Nedumangad, Nellanad, Palode, Panavoor, Pangode, Peringamala, Pullampara, Theakada, Thennoor, Tholicode, Uzhamalackal, Vamanapuram, Vattappara, Vellanad, Vembannur, Vembayam, Vithura.

Municipalities
There is only one municipality, Nedumangad, which is also the headquarters of the taluk. In 1978 Nedumangad panchayath is upgrade into Municipality. The municipality has 39 electoral wards. Sreeja CS of CPIM is chairperson of Nedumangad Municipality.

Assembly constituencies
Nedumangad (tehsil) comprises the constituencies of Nedumangadu, Aruvikkara and Vamanapuram. These assembly constituencies are part of Attingal (Lok sabha constituency)

Revenue Division
Thiruvananthapuram district is divided into two revenue divisions, Thiruvananthapuram and Nedumangad. Nedumangad revenue division comprises Nedumangad and Kattakada taluks headed by Revenue Divisional officer.

Block panchayath
Nedumangad taluk comprises three block anchayaths: Nedumangad, Vellanad, and Vamanapuram. Nedumangad block panchayath consists of five grama panchayaths.
 * Anad Grama panchayath
 * Aruvikkara Grama panchayath
 * Karakulam Grama panchayath
 * Panavoor Grama panchayath
 * Vembayam Grama panchayath

Educational institutions

 * Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST)
 * Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Thiruvananthapuram
 * Government Girls HSS
 * Government VHSS for Boys
 * Government HSS Poovathoor
 * Government HSS Karipooru
 * Government Technical HSS
 * Government Polytechnic College
 * Government College Nedumangad
 * Government Teachers Training College
 * Government Town LPS
 * Government Boys UPS
 * Sree Narayana Vilasam HSS, Anad
 * Lourdes Mount Higher Secondary School, Vattappara
 * Darsana HSS
 * Kairali Vidhya Bhavan CBSE
 * Nightingale college of Nursing
 * Mohandas College of Engineering
 * Heera College of Engineering
 * Muslim Association college of Arts and Science

Politics
Nedumangad assembly constituency is part of the Attingal (Lok Sabha constituency). G R Anil of CPI is MLA of Nedumangad assembly constituency and Adoor Prakash of INC is MP of Attingal Lok Sabha constituency. Nedumangad assembly constituency includes:
 * Nedumangad Municipality
 * Karakulam Grama panchayath
 * Vembayam Grama panchayath
 * Manikkal Grama panchayath
 * Pothencode Grama panchayath
 * Andoorkonam Grama panchayath

Places of worship

 * SreeMuthaaramman Devi Temple
 * SreeMuthmaariamman Devi Temple
 * Melamcode Devi Temple
 * Sree Mahadeva Temple Koyikkal
 * Thirichittoor Siva-Vishnu Temple
 * Mukhavoor Mahavishnu Temple
 * Nedumangad Town Juma Masjid
 * Valicode Juma Masjid
 * Markas Masjid
 * Aurthur Parker Memorial Csi Church
 * St Jerome Malankara Catholic Church
 * Christhu Raja Forona Church

title: Nedumangad


text:
Spotted skunk

The genus Spilogale includes all skunks commonly known as spotted skunks. Currently, there are four accepted extant species: S. gracilis, S. putorius, S. pygmaea, and S. angustifrons. New research, however, proposes that there may be up to seven.

Extant species
In the past, anywhere between two and fourteen species of Spilogale have been recognized, but today most authorities accept a four species model (seen below). A 2021 DNA analysis of 203 specimens from across their known range suggests that there may be as many as seven distinct species in the genus, some cryptic.

Description
Mammalogists consider S. gracilis and S. putorius different species because of differences in reproductive patterns, reproductive morphology, and chromosomal variation. However, interbreeding has never been disproved. The name Spilogale comes from the Greek word spilo, which means "spotted", and gale, which means "weasel". Putorius is the Latin word for "fetid odor". Gracilis is the Latin word for "slender". Several other names attributed to S. putorius include: civet cat, polecat, hydrophobian skunk, phoby skunk, phoby cat, tree skunk, weasel skunk, black marten, little spotted skunk, four-lined skunk, four-striped skunk, and sachet kitty.

Range
The western spotted skunk (Spilogale gracilis) can be found west of the Continental Divide from southern British Columbia to Central America, as well as in some parts of Montana, North Dakota, Wyoming, Colorado, and western Texas. Eastward, its range borders that of the eastern spotted skunk (Spilogale putorius). Spilogale gracilis generally occupies lowland areas but they are sometimes found at higher elevations (2600 m). Although the western spotted skunk is now recognized as S. gracilis, previously, skunks west of the Cascade Crest in British Columbia, Washington, and Oregon were recognized as a distinct subspecies (S. p. latifrons).

Spilogale putorius is found throughout the central and southeastern United States, as well as northeastern Mexico. In Mississippi, S. putorius is found throughout the whole state, except for the northwestern corner by the Mississippi River. In the Great Plains, there has been an observed increase in the geographical range of these skunks, and the cause of this is thought to be a result of an increase in agriculture. This would lead to an increase in mice, which happen to be one of the primary prey for S. putorius.

Habitat
Spilogale usually like to reside in covered thickets, woods, riparian hardwood, shrubbery, and areas that are located near streams. However, S. putorius usually enjoy staying in rocky and woody habitats that have copious amounts of vegetation. These sly creatures prefer to dwell in a den or natural cavities such as stumps or hollow logs. Spotted skunks have been found to adjust well to a wide array of dry prairie ecosystems in shallow dens. They take on a negative relationship with elevation, particularly in regions such as the Northern and Southern Appalachians of the United States. Although they have very effective digging claws, they prefer to occupy dens that are made by gophers, wood rats, pocket gophers, striped skunks, or armadillos. They occupy dens that are positioned to be completely dark inside. Spilogale are very social creatures and frequently share dens with up to seven other skunks. Although skunks often live in this way, maternal dens are not open to non-maternal skunks.

Reproduction
Around the time of March, the males’ testes begin to enlarge and are most massive by late September. The increase in size is accompanied by a larger testosterone production. Similarly, a female begins to experience an increase in ovarian activity in March. Spilogale begin to mate during March as well. Implantation occurs approximately 14–16 days after mating. For the western spotted skunk, most copulations occur in late September and the beginning of October. Post copulation the zygotes are subject to normal cleavage but stop at the blastocyst stage, where they can remain in the uterus for roughly 6.5 months. After implantation, gestation lasts 30 days and between April and June their offspring are born. Although litter sizes vary considerably, the average litter size is about 5.5 and the gender ratio is 65 M: 35 F.

Growth
The newborn skunks are covered with fine hair that shows the adult color pattern. The eyes open between 30 and 32 days. The kits start solid food at about 42 days and are weaned at about two months. They are full grown and reach adult size at about four months. The males do not help in raising the young.

Defenses
Spotted skunks protect themselves by spraying a strong and unpleasant scent. Two glands on the sides of the anus release the odorous oil through nipples. When threatened, the skunk turns its body into a U-shape with the head and anus facing the attacker. Muscles around the nipples of the scent gland aim them, giving the skunk great accuracy on targets up to 15 feet away. As a warning before spraying, the skunk stamps its front feet, raises its tail, and hisses. They may warn with a unique "hand stand"—the back vertical and the tail waving.

The liquid is secreted via paired anal subcutaneous glands that are connected to the body through striated muscles. The odorous solution is emitted as an atomized spray that is nearly invisible or as streams of larger droplets.

Skunks store about 1 tablespoon (15 g) of the odorous oil and can quickly spray five times in row. It takes about one week to replenish the oil.

The secretion of the spotted skunks differs from that of the striped skunks. The two major thiols of the striped skunks, (E)-2-butene-1-thiol and 3-methyl-1-butanethiol are the major components in the secretion of the spotted skunks along with a third thiol, 2-phenylethanethiol.

Thioacetate derivatives of the three thiols are present in the spray of the striped skunks but not the spotted skunks. They are not as odoriferous as the thiols. Water hydrolysis converts them to the more potent thiols. This chemical conversion may be why pets that have been sprayed by skunks will have a faint "skunky" odor on damp evenings.

Deodorizing
Changing the thiols into compounds that have little or no odor can be done by oxidizing the thiols to sulfonic acids. Hydrogen peroxide and baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) are mild enough to be used on people and animals but changes hair color.

Stronger oxidizing agents, like sodium hypochlorite solutions—liquid laundry bleach—are cheap and effective for deodorizing other materials.

Diet
Skunks are omnivorous and will eat small rodents, fruits, berries, birds, eggs, insects and larvae, lizards, snakes, and carrion. Their diet may vary with the seasons as food availability fluctuates. They have a keen sense of smell that helps them find grubs and other food. Their hearing is acute but they have poor vision.

Life expectancy
Spotted skunks can live 10 years in captivity, but in the wild, about half the skunks die after 1 or 2 years.

Conservation
The eastern spotted skunk, S. putorius, is a conservation concern. Management is hampered by an overall lack of information from surveying. During the 1940s, Spilogale populations seemingly crashed and the species is currently listed by various state agencies as endangered, threatened, or ‘of concern’ across much of its range. The species S. pygmaea is endemic to the Mexican Pacific coast and is currently threatened. The tropical dry forest of western Mexico, where these skunks live, is a highly threatened ecosystem that has been placed on conservation priority. S. pygmaea is also the smallest carnivore native to Mexico as well as one of the smallest worldwide.

title: Spotted skunk