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Upfield line

The Upfield line is a commuter railway line in the city of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. Operated by Metro Trains Melbourne, it is the city's fifth shortest metropolitan railway line at 20.1 km. The line runs from Flinders Street station in central Melbourne to Upfield station in the north, serving 19 stations via North Melbourne, Brunswick, Coburg, and Fawkner. The line operates for approximately 19 hours a day (from approximately 5:00 am to around 12:00 am) with 24 hour service available on Friday and Saturday nights. During peak hours, headways of up to 15 minutes are operated with services every 20–30 minutes during off-peak hours. Trains on the Upfield line run with a two three-car formations of Comeng trainsets.

Services on the line began in 1884 when a line opened from North Melbourne to Coburg. In October 1889, it was extended to Somerton, with track, signalling, and other upgrade works taking place. In 1961, the section from Upfield to Somerton was closed, and remains this way into the 21st century. Operations on the Upfield line were in serious doubt in the late 1980s and early 1990s with proposals for the line to be converted into a light rail line or a full closure.

With the future of the rail line secured, and patronage growth in the 2000s, infrastructure upgrades have been made to the Upfield line. Works have included replacing sleepers, upgrading signalling technology, the removal of level crossings, the introduction of new rolling stock, and station accessibility upgrades. The 2018 Victorian Rail Plan identified the need to reopen the rail line between Upfield and Roxburgh Park, and route regional and metropolitan services through an extension of the line in the near future.

19th century
The Upfield line originally began as a line from North Melbourne to Coburg. The line was opened by the Governor of Victoria Henry Loch in September 1884, with the line costing £53,000 at the time. In October 1889, it was extended to Somerton, with duplication works already underway with the additional track being provided to Royal Park in September 1888, to South Brunswick (now Jewell) in May 1889, Brunswick to Coburg in December 1891, and from South Brunswick to Brunswick in August 1892.

Early upgrades (1900–1950)
The Coburg to Somerton section closed in July 1903, but reopened as far as Fawkner in December 1906. The reopening was for funeral trains only, in conjunction with the opening of the adjacent Fawkner Cemetery. Passenger services were extended to Fawkner in 1915, with the line electrified by December 1920.

In March 1928, despite strong resistance from the Railways Commissioners, the state government ordered the reopening of the section from Fawkner to Somerton for passengers. Services were provided by an AEC railmotor, which connected with electric trains at Fawkner.

Upfield—Somerton link (1950–1970)
In May 1956, the line from Fawkner to Somerton was again closed, but only three years later, in July 1959, the Upfield to Somerton section reopened for goods trains. Also in 1959, the section from Coburg to Fawkner was duplicated and in the following month, the section from Fawkner to Upfield was reopened, after being electrified, to cater for workers at the new Ford automotive factory next to the station. In September 1958, Sunday evening services on the line after 6pm were withdrawn, being replaced by adjacent tram routes, particularly the North Coburg line (now Route 19). At the outer end of the railway line, a bus service was provided, connecting with trams in North Coburg. In June 1961, that arrangement was extended to apply for the whole of Sunday and in October 1961 it was further extended to include services after 7:30pm between Mondays and Saturdays.

In January 1963, the line from Somerton to the Ford factory was re-laid as dual gauge gauntlet track, a year after the North East standard gauge line through Somerton opened. In October 1968, electric staff working was introduced on the Upfield to Somerton section.

The track continues past Upfield to rejoin the North East line near Somerton. In the 1960s, that section was re-laid as dual gauge gauntlet track to provide a connection with the interstate standard gauge line to New South Wales. However, that part of the line, which included four industrial sidings, has not been used for some time and is out of commission. As of 2018, there have been proposals to reactivate this section of track, however, no significant progress has been made other than minor mentions in planning documents.

Proposed light rail conversion and modernisation efforts (1970–2000)
Automatic signalling advanced a little further along the line in August 1971, with Royal Park to Jewell being converted. In April 1972, the Macaulay to Royal Park section was similarly converted. By May 1988, serious consideration was given to proposals to convert the line to light rail, following the conversion of the St Kilda and Port Melbourne lines in 1987. A report submitted to the Cain government determined that the route suffered from low passenger numbers, redundancy with the Route 19 tram, outdated signalling systems, manned boom gates well past their prime, and that substantial investments would be required to modernise the line to meet modern standards. After discussions with local councils, unions, the public, and the Metropolitan Transit Authority, two options were floated. These options included:

 * The conversion of the entire line, or part of the line to light rail
 * The closure of large amounts of the line and instead running the light rail via Sydney Road

These proposals were put to rest in April 1995, when it was announced that $23 million would be spent upgrading the line. The work included the provision of power signalling for the whole line, and the installation of boomgates at all level crossings, except for a few that were closed instead. At the time, many of the numerous level crossings on the line were still controlled by gatekeepers, who opened and closed the gates manually for every train.

21st century
During the 2006 Commonwealth Games, Royal Park station played a critical role in the running of the games, as it was centrally located to the athletes village and the State Netball and Hockey Centre. The line and station became heavily utilised during the games, with increased security and staff presence at the station.

Level Crossing Removals
In 2017, a level crossing was removed at Camp Road, Campbellfield by lowering the rail line underneath the road. The rain line was elevated from Coburg to Moreland stations in 2020 to remove four level crossings. Crossings were removed at Bell Street, Moreland Road, Munro Street, and Reynard Street, with both Coburg and Moreland stations rebuilt as part of these removals. Eight further level crossings between Anstey and Royal Park stations are planned to be removed by 2030. Crossings are planned be removed at Albert Street, Albion Street, Brunswick Road, Dawson Street, Hope Street, Union Street, Victoria Street, and Park Street. In addition, Anstey, Brunswick, and Jewell stations will also be rebuilt as part of the project. At the end of these removals, the Upfield line will have 10 remaining crossings on the corridor that aren't slated for removal.

Wallan extension
Highlighted in the 2018 Victorian Rail Plan, a proposal exists for the Upfield line to be extended via the current Somerton link to the Craigieburn line, then onto Wallan. The 2018 Victorian Rail Plan has proposed the following projects take place as part of the Wallan extension: In 2018, the government announced that a business case would be completed to further investigate the possibility for these series of projects to commence. A business case was completed, however, it wasn't released to the public. Since the business case in 2018, there have been little developments despite the 'Metro Tunnel Day One' milestone of the 2018 Plan fast approaching.

Services
Services on the Upfield line operates from approximately 5:00 am to around 12:00 daily. The Upfield line has one of the least-frequent peak-period services in Melbourne's railway network, with train frequency being every 15–20 minutes while outside the peak the frequency is reduced to 20–30 minutes throughout the entire route. On Friday and Saturday nights, services run 24 hours a day, with 60-minute frequencies available outside of normal operating hours.

Train services on the Upfield line are also subjected to maintenance and renewal works, usually on selected Fridays and Saturdays. Shuttle bus services are provided throughout the duration of works for affected commuters.

Stopping patterns
Legend — Station status
 * ◼ Premium Station – Station staffed from first to last train
 * ◻ Host Station – Usually staffed during morning peak, however this can vary for different stations on the network.

Legend — Stopping patterns Some services do not operate via the City Loop
 * ● – All trains stop
 * ◐ – Some services do not stop
 * | – Trains pass and do not stop

Operators
The Upfield line has had a total of 7 operators since its opening in 1884. The majority of operations throughout its history have been government run: from its first service in 1884 until the 1999 privatisation of Melbourne's rail network, four different government operators have run the line. These operators, Victorian Railways, the Metropolitan Transit Authority, the Public Transport Corporation, and Bayside Trains have a combined operational length of 121 years.

Bayside Trains was privatised in August 1999 and later rebranded as M>Train. In 2002, M>Train was placed into receivership and the state government regained ownership of the line, with KPMG appointed as receivers to operate M>Train on behalf of the state government. Two years later, rival train operator Connex Melbourne took over the M>Train operations including the Frankston line. Metro Trains Melbourne, the current private operator, then took over the operations in 2009. The private operators have had a combined operational period of 24 years.

Route
The Upfield line forms a linear route from the Melbourne central business district to its terminus in Upfield. The route is 20.1 km long, making it the fifth shortest line on the Melbourne metropolitan network. The line is double tracked from the city to Gowrie station with the line only having a single track past that point till Upfield. The only underground section of the Upfield line is in the City Loop, where the service stops at three underground stations. Exiting the city, the Upfield line traverses mainly flat country with few curves and fairly minimal earthworks for most of the line. Some sections of the line have been elevated or lowered into a cutting to eliminate level crossings. Despite some removals, there are a number of level crossings still present with no current plans to remove them. Rare in Melbourne, the line travels underneath the CityLink toll road beside the Moonee Ponds Creek for a portion of the line, before rising up a lengthy hill in Royal Park until it reaches Jewell railway station.

The line follows the same alignment as multiple lines with the Upfield line splitting off at North Melbourne. The Upfield line continues on its northern alignment, whereas the other lines continue onto a western or south-western alignment. Most of the rail line goes through built-up suburbs and some industrial areas.

Stations
The line serves 19 stations across 20.1 km of track. The stations are a mix of elevated, lowered, underground, and ground level designs. Underground stations are present only in the City Loop, with the majority of elevated and lowered stations being constructed as part of level crossing removals. Notably, the line has one of the lowest proportion of premium stations amongst Melbourne's railway lines, with only three stations past the North Melbourne junction classified as premium stations.

Rolling stock
The Upfield line uses two different types of electric multiple unit (EMU) trains that are operated in a split six-car configuration. The primary rolling stock featured on the line is the Comeng EMUs, built by Commonwealth Engineering between 1981 and 1988. These train sets are the oldest on the Melbourne rail network and subsequently are planned to be replaced by the late 2020s.

Alongside the passenger trains, Upfield line tracks and equipment are maintained by a fleet of engineering trains. The four types of engineering trains are: the shunting train; designed for moving trains along non-electrified corridors and for transporting other maintenance locomotives, for track evaluation; designed for evaluating track and its condition, the overhead inspection train; designed for overhead wiring inspection, and the infrastructure evaluation carriage designed for general infrastructure evaluation. Most of these trains are repurposed locomotives previously used by V/Line, Metro Trains, and the Southern Shorthaul Railroad.

Planned rolling stock
From the middle of 2020s, the next generation of the X'Trapolis family of electric EMUs—the X'Trapolis 2.0—will be introduced. This new model will fully replace the existing fleet of Comeng EMUs currently operating on the line currently with new, modern, and technologically advanced trains. The new trains will feature:

 * Modernised doors to reduce the boarding times at stations to under 40 seconds
 * Passenger information systems to display that train's journey in real time
 * Higher energy efficiency to work with a lower network voltage, to fit in line with modern rail systems overseas
 * New interior designs including tip-up seating to allow space for wheelchair spaces.
 * Designated bicycle storage areas
 * Passenger operated automatic wheelchair ramps located behind driver cabs
 * 6 car fully walk through carriages

Accessibility
In compliance with the Disability Discrimination Act of 1992, all stations that are new-built or rebuilt are fully accessible and comply with these guidelines. The majority of the stations on the corridor are fully accessible, however, there are some stations that haven't been upgraded to meet these guidelines. These stations do feature ramps, however, they have a gradient greater than 1 in 14. Stations that are fully accessible feature ramps that have a gradient less than 1 in 14, have at-grade paths, or feature lifts. These stations typically also feature tactile boarding indicators, independent boarding ramps, wheelchair accessible myki barriers, hearing loops, and widened paths.

Projects improving station accessibility have included the Level Crossing Removal Project, which involves station rebuilds and upgrades, and individual station upgrade projects. More than 90% of Upfield line stations are now classed as fully accessible. Future station upgrade projects are planned to increase the number of fully accessible stations overtime.

Signalling
The Upfield line uses three-position signalling which is widely used across the Melbourne train network. Three-position signalling was first introduced in 1928, with the final section of the line converted to the new type of signalling in 1972.

title: Upfield line


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Robert Morison

Robert Morison (1620 – 10 November 1683) was a Scottish botanist and taxonomist. A forerunner of John Ray, he elucidated and developed the first systematic classification of plants.

Biography
Born in Aberdeen, Morison was an outstanding scholar who gained his Master of Arts degree from the University of Aberdeen at the age of eighteen. During the English Civil War he joined the Charles I of England's Cavaliers and was seriously wounded at the 1639 Battle of the Bridge of Dee during the Civil War. On recovering, he fled to France when it became apparent that the cause was lost. In 1648, he took a doctorate in medicine at the University of Angers in Western France and from then on devoted himself entirely to the study of botany. He studied in Paris under the guidance of Vespasien Robin, botanist to the king of France, who introduced him to Gaston, Duke of Orléans. On Robin's recommendation, Morison became director of the Royal Gardens at Blois, Central France, a post which he subsequently held for ten years.

In 1660, despite inducements to make him stay in France, Morison returned to England following the Restoration and became physician to Charles II as well as his botanist and superintendent of all the royal gardens with a salary of £200 per annum, and a free house.

Earlier in 1621, Henry Danvers, 1st Earl of Danby had given Oxford University 250 pounds for the purchase of land for a "Physic Garden". At the same time, the earl bequeathed "certain revenues" to fund a chair in botany at the university; in 1669 Morison became the first professor of botany, a post that he held until 1683.

In the year that he began teaching at Oxford, Morison published Praeludia Botanica, a work which stressed using the structure of a plant's fruits for classification. At the time, classification focused on the habitat and medicinal properties of the plant and Morison's criticism of systems promoted by botanists such as Jean and Gaspard Bauhin caused some anger among his contemporaries.

In 1669, he also published 'Hortus Regius Blesensis' by the newly revived University Press, it was a catalogue of the Blois garden to which Morison added the description of 260 previously un-described plants, although Richard Pulteney (A General View of the Writings of Linnaeus, 1781) disagreed and noted that they were only varieties and others were already described.

In the preface to his Plantarum Umbelliferarum Distributio Nova (1672), Morison gave a definitive statement of the principles of his method and was the first person ever to write a "monograph of a specific group of plants", the Umbelliferae.

Morison was fatally injured by the pole of a carriage as he was crossing the street on 9 November 1683 and died the following day at his house in Green Street, Leicester-fields. He was buried in the church of St Martin-in-the-Fields, Westminster.

Works

 * (1669) An octavo volume made up of:
 * pp. 1–347: Hortus Regius Blesensis Auctus (a new edition of Abel Brunier's Hortus Regius Blesensis with Morison's contributions).
 * pp. 351–459: Hallucinationes Caspari Bauhini in Pinace, item Animadversiones in tres Tomos Universalis Historiae Johannis Bauhini.
 * pp. 463–499: Dialogus inter Socium Collegii Regii Gresham dicti et Botanographum Regium.
 * Plantarum Umbelliferarum Distributio Nova, per Tabulas Cognationis et Affinitatis, ex Libra Naturae observata et detecta (1672).
 * Historia Plantarum Universalis Oxoniensis (Vol. 1, 1680)

Legacy
Morison was vain, yet he cannot be sufficiently praised for having revived [a] system which was half expiring. If you look through Tournefort's genera you will readily admit how much he owes to Morison, full as much as the latter was indebted to Cesalpino, though Tournefort himself was a conscientious investigator. All that is good in Morison is taken from Cesalpino, from whose guidance he wanders in pursuit of natural affinities rather than of characters.
 * At the time of his death, Morison's opus magnum the Historia Plantarum Universalis Oxoniensis remained unfinished, with only one volume published in 1680 detailing fifteen classes of his classification system. He had collaborated on this volume with Charles Hatton. It was entrusted by Oxford University to Jacob Bobart the Younger, who on the death of his father Jacob Bobart the Elder published a second and final instalment of the Historia in 1699 dealing with the remaining ten sections of herbaceous plants.
 * Around 1737, in a letter to Swiss naturalist Albrecht von Haller, Carl Linnaeus wrote:

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Robert Morison


text:
Rocky the Flying Squirrel

Rocket "Rocky" J. Squirrel, also known as Rocky the Flying Squirrel, is a fictional character and one of the two male protagonists of the 1959–1964 animated series Rocky and His Friends and The Bullwinkle Show (both shows often referred to collectively as The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show), produced by Jay Ward. Rocky is the best friend and ally of the western moose, Bullwinkle. Both Rocky and Bullwinkle were given the middle initial "J" as a reference to Ward.

Creation
Jay Ward and partner Alex Anderson originally created Rocky as part of The Frostbite Falls Review, a proposed pilot that wasn't developed. The character was later used as the star of the series Rocky and His Friends. However, when the show changed networks from ABC to NBC, its name was changed to The Bullwinkle Show, with Bullwinkle replacing Rocky as the lead role due to the moose having larger popularity than Rocky.

Biography
Rocky shared a house with Bullwinkle, in the fictional small town of Frostbite Falls, Minnesota, a parody of the real-life American town of International Falls, Minnesota. Rocky and Bullwinkle would often have various adventures that usually saw them thwart the various schemes of the series' villains, Boris Badenov and Natasha Fatale (and also occasionally Boris and Natasha's superior, Fearless Leader).

Rocky's most frequently used catchphrase was "Hokey smoke!"

Personality
Rocky's personality was meant to be that of an upstanding, if slightly naive, all-American youth. As the brains and straight man of the "moose and squirrel" duo, Rocky often was shown as coming up with creative solutions to the various situations the duo found themselves in on their adventures. However, he is no less gullible toward Boris Badenov's and Natasha Fatale's disguises than Bullwinkle. The best he can do is to occasionally remark, "Those two look familiar!" or "That voice, where have I heard it before?"

Powers and abilities
Rocky often made extensive use of his ability to fly, which was presented with, appropriate to his full name, a jet engine sound effect. The original opening title of Rocky and His Friends introduces Rocky as "that Jet Age aerial ace", complete with Rocky performing a solo air show for a crowd of spectators. His airborne abilities have been depicted inconsistently; some episodes, such as the first season's "Jet Fuel Formula" storyline, presented this ability as limited to gliding (similar to the abilities of a real flying squirrel). Other episodes presented Rocky's flight abilities as similar to those of Superman (hovering in mid-air, ascending in altitude, carrying objects, etc.); one example is Rocky flying from Minnesota to Washington, D.C. under his own power in the second season's "Greenpernt Oogle" storyline.

Occasionally, Rocky would rely on Bullwinkle's strength (via an acrobatic maneuver) to provide him with an extra boost in flight speed, as shown in his attempt to reach the hovering Mount Flatten in the second season's "Upsidaisium" storyline.

According to the series, Rocky learned his aerial skills at the Cedar Yorpantz Flying School (a play on the idiomatic expression "seat of your pants").

Voice
Voice actress June Foray was the voice of Rocky, as well as the voice of Natasha Fatale, Nell Fenwick and other female characters. Foray continued to voice the character in modern media depictions of Rocky and Bullwinkle including the 2000 film until her retirement in 2014.

As Rocky returns in the 2018 Amazon Video series The Adventures of Rocky and Bullwinkle, where Tara Strong took over as the voice of Rocky.

Other appearances
The Rocky character made an appearance in Gary Larson's The Far Side comic strip, causing Larson to comment, "I've discovered an interesting phenomenon. Once you've drawn Rocky the Flying Squirrel, you can never draw him again. In the final version, I must have drawn and erased that miserable little rodent fifty times, and he ultimately ended up looking like Rocky the Flying Hamster."

In 2014, Rocky and Bullwinkle appeared in a GEICO television commercial where the GEICO Gecko is looking at the Rocky Mountains with them, and trying to explain what they were named after.

During a broadcast of an Atlanta Braves baseball game in the late 1990s, a real squirrel scampered onto the field and caused a delay in play. During the delay, the squirrel was featured on camera with a superimposed graphic identifying him as "Rocket J. Squirrel". His position was listed as "Shortstop".

Comics

 * Rocky and his Friends (1960) (Dell)
 * Bullwinkle (1962) (Gold Key)
 * Rocky and His Fiendish Friends (1962) (Gold Key)
 * Bullwinkle Mother Moose Nursery Pomes (1962) (Dell)
 * Bullwinkle and Rocky (1970) (Charlton)
 * Bullwinkle and Rocky (1987) (Star Comics)
 * Bullwinkle and Rocky Marvel Moosterworks (1992) (Marvel)
 * Rocky and Bullwinkle (2014) (IDW)

Video games

 * The Adventures of Rocky and Bullwinkle and Friends (1992)
 * Rocky and Bullwinkle (2008)

title: Rocky the Flying Squirrel


text:
Talk:Mars Express

Italian Space Agency
why is the italian space agency pointed out here ? Italy is part of the ESA and all the space agencys from ESA's member countries took part in the programm, right ? e.g. CNES, DLR, ...

i have corrected information about "why it is called express" according to reality and information from ESA--Kyknos 19:27, 18 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Unmanned
This article doesn't seem to make it clear that that the Mars Express was an unmanned or robotic mission. It would be natural to assume that everyone already understands this, but one can imagine a naive person reading of the loss of contact with the lander and feeling very sad about the poor explorers stranded on the red planet.

Merge? (Mars Express Orbiter + Mars Express)
I'm suggesting a merge of the Mars Express Orbiter into the Mars Express page. Some reasons:

 * 1) Lots of the same information is in both (for instance, both include a list of instruments).
 * 2) Launch information and timelines could really be combined as they apply to the same spacecraft.
 * 3) The Mars Express page currently like just a portal to get to the Beagle 2 and Mars Express Orbiter pages.

Why should Mars Express be the destination?
 * 1) Since the loss of Beagle 2, when someone says "Mars Express", they really mean "Mars Express Orbiter". I.e. if they look the orbiter up (like I did), they probably just search for "Mars Express".
 * 2) The Beagle 2 page could have a short description and link there with a "Main Page" template.

This is just a suggestion, any comments?--will 02:20, 19 June 2006 (UTC)
 * Additionally, no where besides Wikipedia is the orbiter (of "Mars Express Orbiter") capitalized. I don't believe that it's the true name of the spacecraft or the mission.  It was really "the orbiter of Mars Express".  Beagle is, of course, a different story.  With no major objections I'll try to merge these sometime soon if no one beats me to it. --Koeppen 01:04, 25 June 2006 (UTC)

I agree that the two should be merged. Alternately, if there is enough information about the overarching mission, perhaps the 'Mars Express' page could be renamed to 'Mars Express mission', with links to the 'Beagle2' and 'Mars Express Orbiter' pages. Then all mission objective, contributers, etc. could be on the 'mission' page, and the specific spacecraft information could be moved to the orbiter page. The launch information and timelines would then fit on the 'mission' page.

Blumunky 03:54, 21 June 2006 (UTC)

I support merging the two; I searched for Mars Express to see what had become of the mission since I last read of it, and came away thinking Wikipedia had almost no content on the topic -- before I spotted that ~-Orbiter contained all the useful information! Chris Smowton 09:54, 4 September 2006 (UTC)

 * I have a friend who is part of the Mars Express team in Darmstadt and whenever he e-mails with news he refers to it as "Mars Express" or more recently MEX (a redirect I created as I've also seen it referred to in published papers).

 * Mars Express is actually the mission under which all the research and instrumentation control is carried out. The orbiter is just one part of this (obviously the fundamental part) but is just the instrument that is used to conduct the mission. If there is enough info the orbiter does justify it's own page but the main article should be Mars Express the mission with the orbiter details linked from there. An easy way to think of it is something like the Deep Sky Survey (looks like I'd better create that one - can't believe it's not there!) that these days primarily uses the Hubble Space Telescope to gather it's data. The mission and the instrument are separate but intimately linked things. The confusion arises here because the instrument was built for the mission and is currently used for nothing else.

 * I suspect this grew up historically as originally the only part of the mission that was active was the orbiter construction and control team. The rest had to wait until the orbiter was launched and had passed it commissioning tests. Sophia  11:21, 4 September 2006 (UTC)

 * I just remover inter-wiki from Mars Express Orbiter it was linking to pl:Mars Express Orbiter and ru:Марс-экспресс so not logical. Looks like merging Mars Express Orbiter and Mars Express is necessary because it is the only siccessful part and beagle 2 is only crash —The preceding unsigned comment was added by Rdfr (talk • contribs) 15:06, 7 February 2007 (UTC).

New image necessary
Hey, it looks like the main image for this article will be "deleted soon without warning". We need to find one that's public domain....--Koeppen 01:30, 25 June 2006 (UTC)

 * Good luck. Most ESA images are like that, including every image either released through press or the PDS (which is about as rare as an albino unicorn). Either all those images are deleted, or the policy changes. That fact that this things has been orbiting Mars for 2 and a half years, and only one image has been put in the article really tells me that not all is as it should be. But on the other hand, the Mars Global Surveyor has been around for a decade, and there are only 4 images for it. Anyways, back to MEX. If you can go to the PDS site and process the images they have put in there, that will quite probably be public domain, as far as I can tell (Derivative work?). Press images are sometimes ugly, and always garish anyway, so it would be an improvement over the lone propaganda image anyway.--Planetary 10:10, 24 August 2006 (UTC)

Note about the link to ASI in the page: the MARSIS instrument is not an EDI (ESA Developed Instrument) but has been provided by the Italian Space Agency (ASI) which developed it using national fundings, in cooperation with JPL. Being it a direct contributor to the mission, I think the link is justified. FlyerAlpha 22:44, 6 February 2007 (UTC)

Looks like the bot removed all the pictures
Does the ESA not release all images to the public domain? 98.196.164.63 (talk) 00:34, 27 May 2008 (UTC)

 * See ESA media. I think we can restore images when a "fair use" claim has been made. (sdsds - talk) 01:27, 27 May 2008 (UTC)
 * I see that more than a year has gone by without any pictures at all taken by this spacecraft appearing on the article page. Does anybody know enough about policy to determine if the ESA conditions of (image) use page allows this? In paticular: "You may use ESA images or videos for educational or informational purposes. The publicly released ESA images may be reproduced without fee, on the following conditions: Credit ESA as the source of the images..." Davidelit (talk) 06:18, 7 September 2009 (UTC)

Orbital period
The 7.5 h figure given for the orbital period is incorrect, at the level of significance indicated. 6.7 h is the correct figure, at the start of the mission. This value has also changed with time, and is now ~7.0 h.  These values were derived from the ESA-provided trajectory information. An appropriate citation for these parameters would be the mission overview, http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004ESASP1240....3C but this gives a figure of 6.75 h, which also seems inaccurate. The value given in the article could be changed to '7 h', and that would be accurate to the given precision. Irbdavid (talk) 15:29, 8 August 2013 (UTC)

source for mission extension until the end of 2016
http://sci.esa.int/director-desk/54999-working-life-extensions-for-esas-science-missions/

©Geni (talk) 03:18, 29 April 2015 (UTC)

New infobox image
Hi,

we've just retroactively licenced a lot of MEX imagery under CC, including

May I suggest to replace the current infobox image with this one?

Thanks Mtrova (talk) 09:47, 17 February 2017 (UTC)mtrova

Power DOES or DOES NOT affect science substantially
I would like to propose a clarifying description for the following under the "Power" section:

"The originally planned power was to be 660 W at 1.5 AU but a faulty connection has reduced the amount of power available by 30%, to about 460 W. This loss of power does significantly impact the science return of the mission."

Does the "power significantly impact the science return of the mission" or does it NOT? It leaves me wondering if this is a typographical error or it is indeed significant. Could we perhaps reword this for clarification to either confirm or refute this?

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 09:00, 30 June 2021 (UTC)
 * ZhurongIcon.png

MSN's A Mars Spacecraft Has Been Running on Windows 98 Era Software for 19 Years, But No More
Here is an article from MSN that the ESA is upgrading the software for the orbiter. The article can be found at A Mars Spacecraft Has Been Running on Windows 98 Era Software for 19 Years, But No More. Rjluna2 (talk) 15:01, 28 June 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mars Express


text:
Karl Philipp Moritz

Karl Philipp Moritz (Hameln, 15 September 1756 – Berlin, 26 June 1793) was a German author, editor and essayist of the Sturm und Drang, late Enlightenment, and classicist periods, influencing early German Romanticism as well. He led a life as a hatter's apprentice, teacher, journalist, literary critic, professor of art and linguistics, and member of both of Berlin's academies.

Biography
Moritz was born into impoverished circumstances in Hameln in 1756. After receiving a scanty schooling, he was apprenticed to a hat maker. After distressful attempts to gain a living, he caught the attention of a patron in Hanover and entered a gymnasium; however, he soon accepted an engagement as actor under Ekhof at Gotha, failing in which he returned to study (1776) at Erfurt; but tiring again he joined the Herrnhuter (Moravian Church) at Barby, and studied theology at Wittenberg (1777); then taught philanthropy at the Potsdam military orphanage, soon again to take to wandering.

Teaching in Berlin, he made a reputation as writer, preacher and poet, and went to England. Then he became professor at the gymnasium (high school) at Berlin (Köllnisches Gymnasium). Next he tried editing the Vossische Zeitung to make it proletarian, but failed. Later he traveled to Italy (1786) where he met Goethe, and on his return to Germany he took up residence as Goethe's guest at Weimar. Duke Karl August helped him join the Berlin Academy of Sciences, and in 1789 Moritz became a professor of antiquities at the Royal Academy of Fine Arts in Berlin. Among his students were Ludwig Tieck, Wilhelm Heinrich Wackenroder and Alexander von Humboldt. He was an avid admirer of Jean Paul, and befriended Moses Mendelssohn, and Asmus Jakob Carstens.

Works
Apart from a four-part autobiographical novel, Anton Reiser, and two fictional Andreas Hartknopf novels, he also wrote a number of theoretical writings on aesthetics, especially "Über die bildende Nachahmung des Schönen" (On the Formative Imitation of Beauty), which Goethe excerpted in his Italian Journey. Moritz's Magazin zur Erfahrungsseelenkunde als ein Lesebuch für Gelehrte und Ungelehrte (Journal of Experiential Psychology, as reading for scholars and laymen) was one of the first Germanophone journals of psychology. His works include:

 * Blunt oder der Gast, 1781
 * Beiträge zur Philosophie des Lebens aus dem Tagebuch eines Freimäurers, 1780
 * Magazin zur Erfahrungsseelenkunde als ein Lesebuch für Gelehrte und Ungelehrte. 1783–1793
 * Reisen eines Deutschen in England im Jahre 1782, 1783. English: Journeys of a German in England in 1782
 * Ideal einer vollkommnen Zeitung, 1784
 * Anton Reiser (Part 1), 1785
 * Andreas Hartknopf, Eine Allegorie, 1785
 * Anton Reiser (Parts 2 and 3), 1786
 * Denkwürdigkeiten, aufgezeichnet zur Beförderung des Edlen und Schönen, 1786
 * Versuch einer deutschen Prosodie, 1786
 * Versuch einer kleinen praktischen Kinderlogik, 1786
 * Fragmente aus dem Tagebuche eines Geistersehers, 1787
 * Über die bildende Nachahmung des Schönen, 1788
 * Italien und Deutschland, 1789
 * Monats-Schrift der Akademie der Künste und Mechanischen Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1789
 * Über eine Schrift des Herrn Schulrath Campe, und über die Rechte des Schriftstellers und Buchhändlers, 1789
 * Andreas Hartknopfs Predigerjahre, 1790
 * Anton Reiser (Part 4), 1790
 * Neues ABC-Buch, 1790
 * Annalen der Akademie der Künste und Mechanischen Wissenschaften, 1791
 * Anthusa oder Roms Alterthümer, 1791
 * Götterlehre oder Mythologische Dichtungen der Alten, 1791
 * Grundlinien zu meinen Vorlesungen über den Styl, 1791
 * Italienische Sprachlehre für die Deutschen, 1791
 * Über die Vereinfachung der menschlichen Kenntnisse, 1791
 * Lesebuch für Kinder, 1792
 * Mythologischer Almanach für Damen, 1792
 * Reisen eines Deutschen in Italien in den Jahren 1786 bis 1788, 1792
 * Vom richtigen deutschen Ausdruck, 1792
 * Allgemeiner deutscher Briefsteller, 1793
 * Die große Loge oder der Freimaurer mit Waage und Senkblei, 1793
 * Grammatisches Wörterbuch (4 vols. 1793–1800)
 * Mythologisches Wörterbuch zum Gebrauch für Schulen, 1793
 * Reisen eines Deutschen in Italien in den Jahren 1786 bis 1788, 1793
 * Vorbegriffe zu einer Theorie der Ornamente, 1793
 * Vorlesungen über den Styl (Part 1), 1793
 * Die neue Cecilia, (1793, fragment)

title: Karl Philipp Moritz


text:
Francesco Morlacchi

Francesco Giuseppe Baldassare Morlacchi (14 June 1784 – 28 October 1841) was an Italian composer of more than twenty operas. During the many years he spent as the royal Royal Kapellmeister in Dresden, he was instrumental in popularizing the Italian style of opera.

Biography
Born in Perugia, Morlacchi was from a family of musicians. He composed from a very young age, first studying with his uncle Giovanni Mazzetti and later with Luigi Caruso in Perugia. He later studied at Loreto with Zingarelli (1803-4). Finally, he ended up in Bologna at the school of Stanislao Mattei (1805) where he met Gioacchino Rossini.

Morlacchi was quickly successful as an opera composer. His first operatic works were written in 1807, and were a farce and a comic opera. His first truly effective theatre work was the opera seria Corradino (Parma, 1808), and led to commissions from opera houses in Rome and Milan. In 1810 he was brought to Dresden by contralto Marietta Marcolini, and in 1811 Morlacchi was made Kapellmeister of the Italian Opera in Dresden. While in Dresden, he had to work to establish himself in the eyes of critics. By this time, German opera was well established, and Morlacchi and his compositions were seen to represent the old order both of composers and the aristocracy. In 1815 Morlacchi set Il barbiere di Siviglia with a libretto of Giuseppe Petrosellini and one year later Rossini presented his own with a newer libretto by Cesare Sterbini.

One of Morlacchi's most successful works was Tebaldo e Isolina (La Fenice, Venice, 1822). Giovanni Battista Velluti premiered the work, and made the role his own. The opera was performed in 40 cities over the next ten years, largely thanks to Velluti's skillful performance.

The architect Gottlob Friedrich Thormeyer painted his portrait in 1829.

Morlacchi died in Innsbruck.

Works

 * Oratorio - La passione di Gesù Cristo 1812, one of the last settings of Metastasio's libretto of 1730.

Although sometimes credited with it, Francesco Morlacchi did not compose "The Swiss Shepherd", ( "Il pastore svizzero" in Italian ). "The Swiss Shepherd" was instead written by Italian flautist Pietro Morlacchi (1828-1868).

title: Francesco Morlacchi


text:
Charkha

Charkha may refer to:

 * Charkha (spinning wheel), a type of Indian spinning wheel referenced in the teachings of Mahatma Gandhi
 * "The Cult of the Charkha", a 1925 essay by Rabindranath Tagore
 * Charkha (Dhari, Gujarat), a village and former princely state in Gujarat, western India
 * Charkha Audiobooks, an imprint of the publisher Karadi Tales

title: Charkha


text:
Talk:Fumoto no iro

The anon who created this seems to be an alias of User:Wikisux, see Votes for deletion/Constantia Jones. Andrewa 19:30, 18 Jul 2004 (UTC)

''From User talk:Wikisux:

What exactly are your sources for Constantia Jones and Fumoto no iro? They're orphans, and they bring up nothing on Google. -- Andre 03:35, 11 Jul 2004 (UTC)

For the former, Peter Linebaugh's excellent The London Hanged: Crime and Civil Society in the Eighteenth Century (2nd ed.), page 147. For the latter, Timon Screech's Sex and the Floating World: Erotic Images in Japan, 1700-1820. I added these articles partly because I found the subject matter interesting and partly because I feel Wikipedia leans too much towards regurgitating trivia that's already available elsewhere on the Internet. Wikisux 08:06, 11 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Copied here by Andrewa 20:08, 18 Jul 2004 (UTC)

from VfD
On 5 Aug 2004, this article was nominated for deletion. See Votes for deletion/Fumoto no iro for a record of the debate.

title: Talk:Fumoto no iro


text: Category:Koochiching County, Minnesota

title: Category:Koochiching County, Minnesota


text:
Independence movement in Puerto Rico

Throughout the history of Puerto Rico, its inhabitants have initiated several movements to gain independence for the island, first from the Spanish Empire between 1493 and 1898 and since then from the United States. Today, the movement is most commonly represented by the flag of the Grito de Lares (Cry of Lares) revolt of 1868.

A spectrum of pro-autonomy, pro-nationalism, and pro-independence sentiments and political parties exist on the island. Since the beginning of the 19th century, organizations advocating independence in Puerto Rico have attempted both peaceful political means as well as violent revolutionary actions to achieve its objectives. The declaration of independence of Puerto Rico occurred on September 23, 1868 during the Grito de Lares (Cry of Lares) revolt against Spanish rule. The revolting members and followers of the Revolutionary Committee of Puerto Rico proclaimed the flag of the revolt as the national flag of an independent “Republic of Puerto Rico”, making it the first flag of Puerto Rico. However, the rebels replaced the flag with a new revolutionary flag, the current flag of Puerto Rico, in 1895.

Since the second half of the 20th century, the independence movement has trailed significantly behind the pro-Commonwealth and pro-statehood movements at the ballots. In a status referendum in 2012, 5.5% voted for independence while Statehood obtained 61.1% of the votes cast. Independence also received the least support, less than 4.5% of the vote, in the status referendums in 1967, 1993 and 1998.

A fourth referendum was held in 2012, with 54% voting to change Puerto Rico's status but the federal government took no action to do so. The fifth plebiscite was held on June 11, 2017. With a voter turnout of 23%, it had the lowest turnout of any status referendum held in Puerto Rico. The independence option only received 1.52% of the vote in the referendum.

In the 2020 Puerto Rican general election, the Puerto Rican Independence Party achieved 13.6% of the vote, a significant increase in support from the 2016 Puerto Rican general election when it received only 2.1% of votes.

Taíno revolts
Some Modern Puerto Rican independence movements have claimed historic connection to the 16th century and the Taíno rebellion of 1511 led by Agüeybaná II. In this revolt, Agüeybaná II, the most powerful cacique of the native Taíno people of Puerto Rico at the time, together with Urayoán, cacique of Añasco, organized a revolt in 1511 against the conquistadors in the southern and western parts of the island. He was joined by Guarionex, cacique of Utuado, who attacked the Villa de Sotomayor (Sotomayor Village) in present-day Aguada, killing 80 Spanish settlers. First explorer and governor of Puerto Rico, Juan Ponce de León, led the Spaniards in a series of offensives that culminated in the Battle of Yagüecas. Agüeybaná II's people, who were armed only with spears, bows, and arrows, were no match for the guns of the Spanish forces, resulting in Agüeybaná II being shot and killed in the battle. The revolt ultimately failed, and many Taíno either committed suicide or fled to the interior, mountainous regions of the island.

Puerto Rican revolts
Several revolts against the Spanish rulers by the native born, or Criollos, occurred in the 19th century. These include the conspiracy at San Germán in 1809, and the uprisings of people in Ciales, San Germán and Sabana Grande in 1898.

Many Puerto Ricans became inspired by the ideals of Simón Bolívar to liberate South America from Spanish rule. Bolívar sought to create a federation of Latin American nations, to include Puerto Rico and Cuba. Brigadier General Antonio Valero de Bernabé, also known as "The Liberator from Puerto Rico", fought for the independence of South America together with Bolívar; he also wanted an independent Puerto Rico.

María de las Mercedes Barbudo, the first female Puerto Rican Independentista, joined forces with the Venezuelan government, under the leadership of Simón Bolívar, to lead an insurrection against the Spanish colonial forces in Puerto Rico. The Spanish occupation forces were the object of more than thirty conspiracies. Some, like the Lares uprising, the riots and sedition of 1897 and the Secret Societies at the end of the 19th century, became popular rebellions. The most widespread popular revolts, however, were the one in Lares in 1868, and the one in Yauco in 1897.

In 1868, the Grito de Lares (Cry of Lares) took place, in which revolutionaries occupied the town of Lares and declared the independence of the Republic of Puerto Rico on September 23, 1868. Ramón Emeterio Betances was the leader of this revolt. Earlier, Segundo Ruiz Belvis and Betances had founded the Comité Revolucionario de Puerto Rico (Revolutionary Committee of Puerto Rico) from their exile in the New York. Betances wrote several Proclamas, or statements attacking the exploitation of the Puerto Ricans by the Spanish colonial system, and called for immediate insurrection. These statements were rapidly circulated throughout the island as local dissident groups began to organize.

Most dissidents were Criollos (born on the island). The critical state of the economy, along with the increasing repression imposed by the Spanish, served as catalysts for the rebellion. The stronghold of the movement were towns located on the mountains of the west of the island. The rebels looted local stores and offices owned by peninsulares (Spanish-born residents) and took over the city hall. They took as prisoners Spanish merchants and local government officials. The revolutionaries placed their revolutionary flag on the high altar of the church to signify that the revolution had begun. The Republic of Puerto Rico was proclaimed, and Francisco Ramírez Medina was proclaimed interim president. The revolutionaries offered immediate freedom to any slave who would join them.

In the next town, San Sebastián del Pepino, the Grito de Lares (Cry of Lares) revolutionaries encountered heavy resistance from the Spanish militia and retreated to Lares. The Spanish militia rounded up the rebels and quickly brought the insurrection to an end. The government imprisoned some 475 rebels, and a military court imposed the death penalty, for treason and sedition, on all the prisoners. But in Madrid, Eugenio María de Hostos and other prominent Puerto Ricans were successful in interceding, and the national government ordered a general amnesty and release of all the prisoners. Numerous leaders, such as Betances, Rojas, Lacroix, Aurelio Méndez and others, were sent into exile.

In 1896, a group of residents of Yauco who supported independence joined forces to overthrow the Spanish government in the island. The group was led by Antonio Mattei Lluberas, a wealthy coffee plantation owner, and Mateo Mercado. Later that year, the local Civil Guard discovered their plans and arrested all those involved. They were soon released and allowed to return home.

In 1897, Lluberas traveled to New York City and visited the Puerto Rican Revolutionary Committee, which included the exiled group from the Grito de Lares (Cry of Lares) revolt of 1868. They made plans for a major coup in Puerto Rico. Lluberas returned to Puerto Rico with the new revolutionary flag of Puerto Rico adopted by the committee in 1895, the current flag of the island, to be flown at the coup. The Mayor of Yauco, Francisco Lluch Barreras, learned of the planned uprising, and notified the island's Spanish governor. When Fidel Velez, one of the separatist leaders, learned that the word was out, he met with other leaders and forced them to begin the insurrection immediately.

On March 24, 1897, Velez and his men marched towards Yauco, planning to attack the barracks of the Spanish Civil Guard, to gain control of their arms and ammunition. At arrival, they were ambushed by Spanish forces. When a firefight broke out, the rebels quickly retreated. On March 26, a group headed by Jose Nicolas Quiñones Torres and Ramon Torres fought Spanish colonial forces (mostly island men) in a barrio called Quebradas of Yauco, but were overcome. The government arrested more than 150 rebels, charged them with various crimes against the state, and sent them to prison in the City of Ponce. These attacks became known as the Intentona de Yauco (Attempted Coup of Yauco). It was the first time that the flag of Puerto Rico was flown on the island.

Velez fled to St. Thomas where he lived in exile. Mattei Lluberas went into exile in New York City, joining a group known as the Puerto Rican Commission.

Spanish Charter of Autonomy
After four hundred years of colonial rule by the Spanish Empire, Puerto Rico gained autonomy as an overseas autonomous community of Spain on November 25, 1897 through a Carta de Autonomía (Charter of Autonomy). It was signed by Spanish Prime Minister Práxedes Mateo Sagasta and ratified by the Spanish Cortes. The newfound autonomy was short-lived, as Puerto Rico was invaded, occupied, and annexed by the United States during the Spanish-American War in 1898.

Seeking independence from the United States

The United States was granted possession of Puerto Rico as part of the Treaty of Paris of 1898, which concluded the Spanish–American War.

After Puerto Rico became an American possession during the Spanish–American War in 1898, Manuel Zeno Gandía traveled to Washington, D.C. where, together with Eugenio María de Hostos, he proposed the idea of independence for Puerto Rico. The men were disappointed when their ideas were rejected by the US government and the island was organized as a US territory. Zeno Gandia returned to the island and continued as an activist.

A number of leaders, including a well-known intellectual and legislator called José de Diego, sought independence from the United States via political accommodation. On June 5, 1900, President William McKinley named De Diego, together with Rosendo Matienzo Cintrón, José Celso Barbosa, Manuel Camuñas, and Andrés Crosas to an Executive Cabinet under U.S.-appointed Governor Charles H. Allen. The Executive Cabinet also included six American members.

De Diego resigned from the position in order to pursue independence. On 19 February 1904, he co-founded the Unionist Party, or the Union of Puerto Rico, the first mass party to advocate for independence for Puerto Rico in the form of a sovereign nation, along with Luis Muñoz Rivera, Rosendo Matienzo Cintrón and Antonio R. Barceló. De Diego was elected to the House of Delegates, the only locally elected body of government then allowed by the U.S., over which De Diego presided from 1904 to 1917. The House of Delegates was subject to the U.S. President's veto power and unsuccessfully voted for the island's right to independence and self-government. It petitioned against imposition of U.S. citizenship to Puerto Ricans in 1917, but the US granted citizenship to island residents. Despite these failures, De Diego became known as the "Father of the Puerto Rican Independence Movement." The newly created Puerto Rico Union Party advocated allowing voters to choose among non-colonial options, including annexation, an independent protectorate, and full autonomy. Another new party called the Puerto Rico Independence Party emerged, founded by Rosendo Matienzo Cintrón in 1912, which promoted Puerto Rico's independence. That same year, Scott Colón, Zeno Gandía, Matienzo Cintrón, and Luis Lloréns Torres wrote a manifesto for independence. The Independence Party was the first party in the history of the island to openly support independence from the United States as part of its platform.

American business
Through the 1930s, U.S. banking interests and corporations expanded their control of lands throughout Latin America. Taking Puerto Rico was seen as a part of American "Manifest destiny." The American government supported American corporations with military force on occasion. The profits generated by this one-sided arrangement were enormous, as US corporations developed large plantations.

Several years after leaving office, in 1913 Charles H. Allen, the first civilian U.S. governor of Puerto Rico, succeeded to the presidency of the American Sugar Refining Company after serving as treasurer. He resigned in 1915, but stayed on the board. The company operated the largest sugar-refining operation in the world and was later renamed as the Domino Sugar company. According to historian Federico Ribes Tovar, Charles Allen leveraged his governorship of Puerto Rico into a controlling interest over the entire Puerto Rican economy through Domino Sugar.

American professor and activist Noam Chomsky argued in the late 20th century that, after 1898 "Puerto Rico was turned into a plantation for U.S. agribusiness, later an export platform for taxpayer-subsidized U.S. corporations, and the site of major U.S. military bases and petroleum refineries." By 1930, over 40 percent of all the arable land in Puerto Rico had been converted into sugar plantations owned by Domino Sugar and U.S. banking interests. These bank syndicates also owned the insular postal system, the coastal railroad, and the San Juan international seaport.

Formation of the Nationalist Party

In 1919, Puerto Rico had two major organizations that supported independence: the Nationalist Youth and the Independence Association. Also in 1919, José Coll y Cuchí, a member of the Union Party of Puerto Rico, left the party and formed the Nationalist Association of Puerto Rico. In 1922, these three political organizations joined forces and formed the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party, with Coll y Cuchi as party president. The party's chief goal was to achieve independence from the United States. This party contended that by international law, the Spanish had no authority under the Treaty of Paris to cede the island, as it was no longer theirs. In 1924 Dr. Pedro Albizu Campos joined the party and was named vice-president.

On May 11, 1930, Pedro Albizu Campos was elected president of the Nationalist Party. Under his leadership, in the 1930s the party became the largest independence movement in Puerto Rico. But, after disappointing electoral outcomes and strong repression by the territorial police, by the mid-1930s Albizu opted against the electoral political process. He advocated violent revolution as the means to achieve independence.

In 1932, the pro-independence Liberal Party of Puerto Rico was founded by Antonio R. Barceló. The Liberal Party's political agenda was the same as that of the original Union Party, urging independence for Puerto Rico. Among those who joined him in the "new" party were Felisa Rincón de Gautier and Ernesto Ramos Antonini.

By 1932 Luis Muñoz Rivera's son, Luis Muñoz Marín, had also joined the Liberal Party. Muñoz Marín was eventually the first democratically elected Governor of Puerto Rico.

During the 1932 elections, the Liberal Party faced the Alliance, then a coalition of the Republican Party of Puerto Rico and Santiago Iglesias Pantin's Socialist Party. Barceló and Muñoz Marín were both elected Senators. By 1936, differences between Muñoz Marín and Barceló began to surface, as well as between those followers who considered Muñoz Marín the true leader and those who considered Barceló as their leader.

Muñoz Marín and his followers, who included Felisa Rincón de Gautier and Ernesto Ramos Antonini, held an assembly in the town of Arecibo to found the Partido Liberal, Neto, Auténtico y Completo (Clear, Authentic and Complete Liberal Party), later named the People's Democratic Party (PPD for Spanish name). During the 1930s and 1940s, Nationalist partisans took part in violent incidents:

 * On April 6, 1932, Nationalist partisans marched into the Capitol building in San Juan to protest the legislative proposal to approve the present Puerto Rican flag, the official flag of the insular government. Nationalists preferred the flag used during the Grito de Lares.
 * On October 24, 1935, a confrontation with police at University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras campus, killed four Puerto Rican Nationalist Party supporters and one policeman. The event came to be known as the Río Piedras massacre.
 * On February 23, 1936, Colonel Elisha Francis Riggs, formerly of the US Army and the highest police officer in the island, was assassinated in retaliation for the Río Piedras events by Nationalists Hiram Rosado and Elías Beauchamp. Rosado and Beauchamp were arrested, and summarily executed without a trial at the police headquarters in San Juan.
 * On March 21, 1937, a march in Ponce by the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party, organized to commemorate the ending of slavery in Puerto Rico, resulted in the deaths of 17 unarmed citizens and 2 policemen at the hands of the territorial police, an event known as the Ponce massacre.
 * In 1936, the U.S. Senator Millard Tydings presented a legislative proposal to grant independence to Puerto Rico, but many people believed that it had unfavorable economic conditions. Barceló and the Liberal Party favored the Bill, because it would give Puerto Rico its independence; Muñoz Marín opposed the Bill because he wanted Puerto Rico's immediate independence but with favorable conditions.
 * On July 25, 1938, shots were fired at the US colonial governor, Blanton Winship during a parade; they killed Police Colonel Luis Irizarry. Soon afterward, two Nationalist partisans attempted to assassinate Robert Cooper, judge of the Federal Court in Puerto Rico. Winship tried to suppress the Nationalists.
 * On June 10, 1948, the United States-appointed Governor of Puerto Rico, Jesús T. Piñero, signed into law a bill passed by the Puerto Rican Senate, which was controlled by elected PPD representatives. It prohibited discussion of independence, militant independence activism, and significantly curtailed other Puerto Rican independence activities. The Ley de la Mordaza (Gag Law) also made it illegal to sing a patriotic song, and reinforced the 1898 law that had made it illegal to display the Flag of Puerto Rico, with anyone found guilty of disobeying the law in any way being subject to a sentence of up to ten years imprisonment, a fine of up to US$10,000, or both.

Events under Commonwealth status
The Puerto Rican independence movement took new measures after the Free Associate State was authorized. On October 30, 1950, with the new autonomist Commonwealth status about to go into effect, multiple Nationalist uprisings occurred, in an effort to focus world attention on the Movement's dissatisfaction with the new commonwealth status.

They catalyzed roughly a dozen skirmishes throughout Puerto Rico including Peñuelas, the Jayuya Uprising, the Utuado Uprising, the San Juan Nationalist revolt, and other shootouts in Mayagüez, Naranjito, and Arecibo. During the 1950 Jayuya Uprising, Blanca Canales declared Puerto Rico a free republic. Two days after the creation of the Commonwealth, two Nationalists attempted to assassinate US President Harry S. Truman in Washington, DC.

Acknowledging the importance of the question of Puerto Rican status, Truman supported a plebiscite in Puerto Rico in 1952 on the new constitution, to determine the status of the island's relationship to the U.S. The people voted by nearly 82% in favor of the new constitution and Free Associated State, or Commonwealth. Nationalists criticized the constitution because the Commonwealth was subject to US laws and to approval by the US executive and legislative branches of government, branches which Puerto Ricans did not participate in electing. As the government suppressed the Nationalist leaders, their political activities and influence waned.

In the 1954 United States Capitol shooting incident, four nationalists opened fire on US Representatives during a debate on the floor of the US Congress, wounding five men, one seriously. The Nationalists were tried and convicted in federal court and sentenced effectively to life imprisonment. In 1978 and 1979, their sentences were commuted by President Jimmy Carter to time served, and they were allowed to return to Puerto Rico.

In the 1960s, the United States received international condemnation for holding onto the world's oldest colony. By the 1960s, a new phase of the Puerto Rican independence movement began. Several organizations began to use "clandestine armed struggle" against the US government. Underground "people's armies" such as Movimiento Independentista Revolucionario en Armas (MIRA), Comandos Armados de Liberación (CAL), Fuerzas Armadas de Liberación Nacional (FALN), Organización de Voluntarios por la Revolución Puertorriqueña (OVRP), The Ejército Popular Boricua (EPB), and others began engaging in subversive activities against the US government and military to bring attention to the colonial condition of Puerto Rico. In 1977, Rubén Berríos Martínez, then the President of the Puerto Rican Independence Party, wrote a long and detailed article in Foreign Affairs that declared that the 'only solution' was independence for Puerto Rico.

Political support
A number of social groups, political parties, and individuals worldwide have supported the concept of Puerto Rican independence. On the island itself, it is a fringe but intense movement, with the Washington Post reporting that "calls for Puerto Rico's independence have existed since the days of Spanish colonial rule and continued after the United States seized control of the island in 1898 ... although many Puerto Ricans express deep patriotism for the island, the independence impulse has never translated in the polls."

The Democratic Party in the United States asserted in its 2012 platform that it "will continue to work on improving Puerto Rico's economic status by promoting job creation, education, health care, clean energy, and economic development on the Island." The Republican Party asserts that it "support[s] the right of the United States citizens of Puerto Rico to be admitted to the Union as a fully sovereign state if they freely so determine," that Congress should "define the constitutionally valid options for Puerto Rico" to gain permanent non-territorial status, and said that, while Puerto Rico's status should be supported by a referendum sponsored by "the U.S. government." Neither of the two major parties in Puerto Rico supports independence: the Popular Democratic Party supports the current status of Puerto Rico as a self-governing unincorporated territory, and the New Progressive Party of Puerto Rico supports statehood.

Minority parties have expressed different positions: in 2005, Communist Party USA passed a resolution about Puerto Rico, condemning American imperialism, "colonialism," etc., while stating that "the Communist Party of the USA ... continues its support for independence of Puerto Rico and the transfer of all sovereign powers to Puerto Rico." Their platform supported the people's "acquisition of their internationally recognized right to independence and self-determination ..." In 2012, the Green Party of the United States had a platform supporting independence. Socialist Party USA does not support independence for Puerto Rico, but calls for "full representation for the U.S. territories of Guam and Puerto Rico, all Native American reservations, and the District of Columbia."

During the summit of the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States in Havana, Cuba in January 2014, Nicolas Maduro, the President of Venezuela, told The Wall Street Journal that he supported Puerto Rican independence, saying that "it's an embarrassment that Latin America and the Caribbean in the 21st century still have colonies. Let the imperial elites of the U.S. say whatever they want." Also at this summit, the president of Argentina, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, pledged to vote for independence of Puerto Rico; and Raúl Castro "called for an independent Puerto Rico."

Other individuals and groups supporting Puerto Rican independence have included: poet Martín Espada, professor and writer Jason Ferreira, the group Calle 13, FALN leader Oscar López Rivera, Roberto Barreto, a member of Organizacion Socialista Internacional; Puerto Rican nationalist Carlos Alberto Torres, and US Representative Luis Gutiérrez.

In March 2023, Cuba reiterated its commitment to self-determination and independence of the people of Puerto Rico.

20th century to present

Levinson and Sparrow in their 2005 book suggest the Foraker Act, and the Jones–Shafroth Act reduced political opposition in the island, as they vested the U.S. Congress with authority and veto power over any legislation or referendum initiated by Puerto Rico.

Founded in 1922, the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party worked for independence. In 1946, Gilberto Concepción de Gracia founded the Puerto Rican Independence Party (PIP). It has continued to participate in the island's electoral process.

In the mid-century, the "Cointelpro program" was a project conducted by the United States Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) to surveil, infiltrate, discredit, and disrupt domestic political organizations which it classified as suspect or subversive. The police documented thousands of extensive carpetas (files) concerning individuals of all social groups and ages. Approximately 75,000 persons were listed as under political police surveillance. Historians and critics found that the massive surveillance apparatus was directed primarily against Puerto Rico's independence movement. As a result, many independence supporters moved to the Popular Democratic Party to support its opposition to statehood.

In the 21st century, a majority of Independentistas seek to achieve independence either through peaceful political means or violent revolutionary actions. The Independence Party has elected some legislative candidates, but in recent elections has not won more than a small percentage of votes for its gubernatorial candidates (2.04% in 2008) or the legislative elections (4.5-5% of the island-wide legislative vote in 2008).

In March 2023, a diaspora group petitioned the United States Congress to create an American-Puerto Rican Commission to promote the decolonization and independence of Puerto Rico from the United States of America.

In April 2023, Puerto Rico's Status Act, which seeks to resolve its territorial status and relationship with the United States through a binding plebiscite at the federal level, was reintroduced in the House by Democrats..

United Nations' view
Since 1953, the United Nations has been considering the Political status of Puerto Rico and how to assist it in achieving "independence" or "decolonization". In 1978, the Special Committee determined that a "colonial relationship" existed between the US and Puerto Rico.

Note that the UN's Special Committee has often referred to Puerto Rico as a nation in its reports, because, internationally, the people of Puerto Rico are often considered to be a Caribbean nation with their own national identity. Most recently, in a June 2016 report, the Special Committee called for the United States to expedite the process to allow self-determination in Puerto Rico. More specifically, the group called on the United States to expedite a process that would allow the people of Puerto Rico to exercise fully their right to self-determination and independence: "allow the Puerto Rican people to take decisions in a sovereign manner, and to address their urgent economic and social needs, including unemployment, marginalization, insolvency and poverty".

2012 status referendum
The main political parties in Puerto Rico have supported a continuing relationship with the United States and been supported by the electorate. By the 1940s, voters had elected a majority of Partido Popular Democrático (PPD) members in the legislature. In 1952, they voted by nearly 82% in support of the new constitution of the Estado Libre Associado or Commonwealth.

Sixty years later, a majority of those who voted on the second question of a 2012 referendum, to indicate what type of arrangement they preferred, voted to seek admission as a state into the United States. 61.16% voted for statehood, 33.34% voted for free association and 5.49% voted for independence. Hundreds of thousands of voters abstained from the question, so the proportion of voters for statehood was actually 45% of the total eligible electorate rather than a majority.

In a status referendum in 2012, which had a two-part vote, 5.5% voted for independence. Analysts noted that the results were ambiguous because of issues related to the structure of questions and supporters of the commonwealth status urging voters to abstain from voting on the second question. Journalist Roque Planas, co-founder of the Latin American News Dispatch, wrote as an editor in HuffPost:

Similarly, as reported by the New York Daily News, Juan Gonzalez, journalist and a co-host of the TV show Democracy Now! said:

In October 2013, The Economist reported on the island economy's "dire financial straits." Referring to the 2012 referendum, it said that "Puerto Rico is unlikely to become a state any time soon. Because the island remains a territory, the decision is ultimately out of boricuas' hands ... the legislature is highly unlikely to prioritise a Puerto Rican statehood bill ... the Republican Party would surely use every tactic at its disposal to block a statehood bill," as the island voters have been overwhelmingly supportive of Democratic Party presidential candidates and could be expected to vote for the same party for Congressional seats if statehood were approved by Congress.

The Washington Post reported in December 2013 that, since Puerto Ricans became US citizens in 1917, they have "been divided over their relationship with the mainland" on whether to become a US state, become independent, or a self-governing territory under US control.

2017 status referendum
The previous plebiscites provided voters with three options: statehood, free association, and independence. The 2017 referendum offered three options: Statehood, Commonwealth and Independence/Free Association. If the majority vote for the latter, a second vote will be held to determine the preference: full independence as a nation or associated free state status with independence but with a "free and voluntary political association" between Puerto Rico and the United States.

The White House Task Force on Puerto Rico offers the following specifics: "Free Association is a type of independence. A compact of Free Association would establish a mutual agreement that would recognize that the United States and Puerto Rico are closely linked in specific ways as detailed in the compact. Compacts of this sort are based on the national sovereignty of each country, and either nation can unilaterally terminate the association." The content of the Compact of Free Association might cover topics such as the role of the US military in Puerto Rico, the use of the U.S. currency, free trade between the two entities, and whether Puerto Ricans would be U.S. citizens.

Former Governor Ricardo Rosselló was strongly in favor of statehood to help develop the economy and help to "solve our 500-year-old colonial dilemma ... Colonialism is not an option . ... It's a civil rights issue ... 3.5 million citizens seeking an absolute democracy," he told the news media. Benefits of statehood include an additional $10 billion per year in federal funds, the right to vote in presidential elections, higher Social Security and Medicare benefits, and a right for its government agencies and municipalities to file for bankruptcy. The latter is currently prohibited.

At approximately the same time as the referendum, Puerto Rico's legislators voted on a bill that allows the Governor to draft a state constitution and hold elections to choose senators and representatives to the federal Congress. Regardless of the outcome of the 2017 referendum and the bill, action by the United States Congress will be necessary to implement changes to the status of Puerto Rico under the Territorial Clause of the United States Constitution.

 Online rise in “Reunification”

In recent years, primarily in online spaces their has been a growth in support for reunification with Spain rather than statehood in what is known as Hispanism Those who believe in reunification tend to be Catholic, Anti-Protestant, Anti-Masonic, Anti-English and Some even Anti-Semitic.

title: Independence movement in Puerto Rico


text:
Involute

In mathematics, an involute (also known as an evolvent) is a particular type of curve that is dependent on another shape or curve. An involute of a curve is the locus of a point on a piece of taut string as the string is either unwrapped from or wrapped around the curve.

The evolute of an involute is the original curve.

It is generalized by the roulette family of curves. That is, the involutes of a curve are the roulettes of the curve generated by a straight line.

The notions of the involute and evolute of a curve were introduced by Christiaan Huygens in his work titled Horologium oscillatorium sive de motu pendulorum ad horologia aptato demonstrationes geometricae (1673), where he showed that the involute of a cycloid is still a cycloid, thus providing a method for constructing the cycloidal pendulum, which has the useful property that its period is independent of the amplitude of oscillation.

Involute of a parameterized curve
Let  $$  \vec c(t),\; t\in [t_1,t_2] $$ be a regular curve in the plane with its curvature nowhere 0 and $$a\in (t_1,t_2)$$, then the curve with the parametric representation

$$\vec C_a(t)=\vec c(t) -\frac{\vec c'(t)}{|\vec c'(t)|}\; \int_a^t|\vec c'(w)|\; dw $$

is an involute of the given curve.

Adding an arbitrary but fixed number $$l_0$$ to the integral $$ \Bigl(\int_a^t|\vec c'(w)|\; dw\Bigr) $$ results in an involute corresponding to a string extended by $$l_0$$ (like a ball of wool yarn having some length of thread already hanging before it is unwound). Hence, the involute can be varied by constant $$a$$ and/or adding a number to the integral (see Involutes of a semicubic parabola).

If $$\vec c(t)=(x(t),y(t))^T$$ one gets

 * $$\begin{align}

X(t) &= x(t) - \frac{x'(t)}{\sqrt{x'(t)^2 + y'(t)^2}} \int_a^t \sqrt{x'(w)^2 + y'(w)^2} \,dw \\ Y(t) &= y(t) - \frac{y'(t)}{\sqrt{x'(t)^2 + y'(t)^2}} \int_a^t \sqrt{x'(w)^2 + y'(w)^2} \,dw \;. \end{align}$$

Properties of involutes
In order to derive properties of a regular curve it is advantageous to suppose the arc length $$s$$ to be the parameter of the given curve, which lead to the following simplifications: $$\;|\vec c'(s)|=1\;$$ and $$\;\vec c''(s)=\kappa(s)\vec n(s)\;$$, with $$\kappa$$ the curvature and $$\vec n$$ the unit normal. One gets for the involute:

 * $$\vec C_a(s)=\vec c(s) -\vec c'(s)(s-a)\ $$ and
 * $$\vec C_a'(s)=-\vec c''(s)(s-a)=-\kappa(s)\vec n(s)(s-a)\; $$

and the statement: and from $$\; \vec C_a'(s)\cdot\vec c'(s)=0 \;$$ follows: The family of involutes and the family of tangents to the original curve makes up an orthogonal coordinate system. Consequently, one may construct involutes graphically. First, draw the family of tangent lines. Then, an involute can be constructed by always staying orthogonal to the tangent line passing the point.
 * At point $$ \vec C_a(a)$$ the involute is not regular (because $$| \vec C_a'(a)|=0$$ ),
 * The normal of the involute at point $$\vec C_a(s)$$ is the tangent of the given curve at point $$\vec c(s)$$.
 * The involutes are parallel curves, because of $$\vec C_a(s)=\vec C_0(s)+a\vec c'(s)$$ and the fact, that $$\vec c'(s)$$ is the unit normal at $$\vec C_0(s)$$.

Cusps
This section is based on.

There are generically two types of cusps in involutes. The first type is at the point where the involute touches the curve itself. This is a cusp of order 3/2. The second type is at the point where the curve has an inflection point. This is a cusp of order 5/2.

This can be visually seen by constructing a map $$f: \R^2 \to \R^3$$ defined by $$(s, t) \mapsto (x(s) + t\cos(\theta), y(s) + t\sin(\theta), t)$$where $$(x(s), y(s))$$ is the arclength parametrization of the curve, and $$\theta$$ is the slope-angle of the curve at the point $$(x(s), y(s))$$. This maps the 2D plane into a surface in 3D space. For example, this maps the circle into the hyperboloid of one sheet.

By this map, the involutes are obtained in a three-step process: map $$\R$$ to $$\R^2$$, then to the surface in $$\R^3$$, then project it down to $$\R^2$$ by removing the z-axis: $$s \mapsto (s, l- s) \mapsto f(s, l- s) \mapsto (f(s, l- s)_x, f(s, l- s)_y)$$where $$l$$ is any real constant.

Since the mapping $$s \mapsto f(s, l-s)$$ has nonzero derivative at all $$s\in \R$$, cusps of the involute can only occur where the derivative of $$s \mapsto f(s, l-s)$$ is vertical (parallel to the z-axis), which can only occur where the surface in $$\R^3$$ has a vertical tangent plane.

Generically, the surface has vertical tangent planes at only two cases: where the surface touches the curve, and where the curve has an inflection point.

cusp of order 3/2
For the first type, one can start by the involute of a circle, with equation$$\begin{align} X(t) &= r(\cos t + (t - a)\sin t)\\ Y(t) &= r(\sin t - (t - a)\cos t) \end{align}$$then set $$a = 0$$, and expand for small $$t$$, to obtain$$\begin{align} X(t) &= r + r t^2/2 + O(t^4)\\ Y(t) &= rt^3/3 + O(t^5) \end{align}$$thus giving the order 3/2 curve $$Y^2 - \frac{8}{9r} (X-r)^{3} + O(Y^{8/3}) = 0 $$, a semicubical parabola.

cusp of order 5/2
For the second type, consider the curve $$y = x^3$$. The arc from $$x= 0$$ to $$x = s$$ is of length $$\int_0^s \sqrt{1 + (3t^2)^2}dt = s + \frac{9}{10} s^5 - \frac 98 s^9 + O(s^{13})$$, and the tangent at $$x = s$$ has angle $$\theta = \arctan(3s^2)$$. Thus, the involute starting from $$x= 0$$ at distance $$L$$ has parametric formula$$\begin{cases} x(s) = s + (L-s-\frac{9}{10}s^5 + \cdots)\cos\theta \\ y(s) = s^3 + (L-s-\frac{9}{10}s^5 + \cdots)\sin\theta \end{cases}$$Expand it up to order $$s^5$$, we obtain$$\begin{cases} x(s) = L - \frac 92 L s^4 + (\frac 92 L - \frac{9}{10}) s^5 + O(s^6)\\ y(s) = 3Ls^2 - 2 s^3 + O(s^6) \end{cases}$$which is a cusp of order 5/2. Explicitly, one may solve for the polynomial expansion satisfied by $$x, y$$:$$\left(x - L + \frac{y^2}{2L} \right)^2 - \left(\frac 92 L + \frac{51}{10} \right)^2 \left(\frac{y}{3L} \right)^5 + O(s^{11}) = 0$$or $$x = L - \frac{y^2}{2L} \pm \left(\frac 92 L + \frac{51}{10} \right) \left(\frac{y}{3L} \right)^{2.5} + O(y^{2.75}),\quad \quad y \geq 0 $$which clearly shows the cusp shape.

Setting $$L=0$$, we obtain the involute passing the origin. It is special as it contains no cusp. By serial expansion, it has parametric equation$$\begin{cases} x(s) = \frac{18}{5} s^5 - \frac{126}{5} s^9 + O(s^{13}) \\ y(s) = -2s^3 + \frac{54}{5} s^7 - \frac{318}{5} s^{11} + O(s^{15}) \end{cases}$$or $$x = -\frac{18}{5 \cdot 2^{1/3}}y^{5/3} + O(y^3)$$

Involutes of a circle
For a circle with parametric representation $$(r\cos(t), r\sin(t))$$, one has $$\vec c'(t) = (-r\sin t, r\cos t)$$. Hence $$|\vec c'(t)| = r$$, and the path length is $$r(t - a)$$.

Evaluating the above given equation of the involute, one gets
 * $$\begin{align}

X(t) &= r(\cos (t+a) + t\sin (t+a))\\ Y(t) &= r(\sin (t+a) - t\cos (t+a)) \end{align}$$ for the parametric equation of the involute of the circle.

The $$a$$ term is optional; it serves to set the start location of the curve on the circle. The figure shows involutes for $$a = -0.5$$ (green), $$a = 0$$ (red), $$a = 0.5$$ (purple) and $$a = 1$$ (light blue). The involutes look like Archimedean spirals, but they are actually not.

The arc length for $$a=0$$ and $$0 \le t \le t_2$$ of the involute is
 * $$L = \frac{r}{2} t_2^2.$$

Involutes of a semicubic parabola
The parametric equation $$\vec c(t) = (\tfrac{t^3}{3}, \tfrac{t^2}{2})$$ describes a semicubical parabola. From $$\vec c'(t) = (t^2, t)$$ one gets $$|\vec c'(t)| = t\sqrt{t^2 + 1}$$ and $$\int_0^t w\sqrt{w^2 + 1}\,dw = \frac{1}{3}\sqrt{t^2 + 1}^3 - \frac13$$. Extending the string by $$l_0={1\over3}$$ extensively simplifies further calculation, and one gets
 * $$\begin{align} X(t)&= -\frac{t}{3}\\

Y(t) &= \frac{t^2}{6} - \frac{1}{3}.\end{align}$$

Eliminating $t$ yields $$Y = \frac{3}{2}X^2 - \frac{1}{3},$$ showing that this involute is a parabola.

The other involutes are thus parallel curves of a parabola, and are not parabolas, as they are curves of degree six (See ).

Involutes of a catenary
For the catenary $$(t, \cosh t)$$, the tangent vector is $$\vec c'(t) = (1, \sinh t)$$, and, as $$ 1 + \sinh^2 t =\cosh^2 t,$$ its length is $$|\vec c'(t)| = \cosh t$$. Thus the arc length from the point $(0, 1)$ is $$\textstyle\int_0^t \cosh w\,dw = \sinh t.$$

Hence the involute starting from $(0, 1)$ is parametrized by
 * $$(t - \tanh t, 1/\cosh t),$$

and is thus a tractrix.

The other involutes are not tractrices, as they are parallel curves of a tractrix.

Involutes of a cycloid
The parametric representation $$\vec c(t) = (t - \sin t, 1 - \cos t)$$ describes a cycloid. From $$\vec c'(t) = (1 - \cos t, \sin t)$$, one gets (after having used some trigonometric formulas)
 * $$|\vec c'(t)| = 2\sin\frac{t}{2},$$

and
 * $$\int_\pi^t 2\sin\frac{w}{2}\,dw = -4\cos\frac{t}{2}.$$

Hence the equations of the corresponding involute are
 * $$X(t) = t + \sin t,$$
 * $$Y(t) = 3 + \cos t,$$

which describe the shifted red cycloid of the diagram. Hence

 * The involutes of the cycloid $$(t - \sin t, 1 - \cos t)$$ are parallel curves of the cycloid
 * $$(t + \sin t, 3 + \cos t).$$

(Parallel curves of a cycloid are not cycloids.)

Involute and evolute
The evolute of a given curve $$c_0$$ consists of the curvature centers of $$c_0$$. Between involutes and evolutes the following statement holds:
 * A curve is the evolute of any of its involutes.

Application
The most common profiles of modern gear teeth are involutes of a circle. In an involute gear system the teeth of two meshing gears contact at a single instantaneous point that follows along a single straight line of action. The forces exerted the contacting teeth exert on each other also follow this line, and are normal to the teeth. The involute gear system maintaining these conditions follows the fundamental law of gearing: the ratio of angular velocities between the two gears must remain constant throughout.

With teeth of other shapes, the relative speeds and forces rise and fall as successive teeth engage, resulting in vibration, noise, and excessive wear. For this reason, nearly all modern planar gear systems are either involute or the related cycloidal gear system.

The involute of a circle is also an important shape in gas compressing, as a scroll compressor can be built based on this shape. Scroll compressors make less sound than conventional compressors and have proven to be quite efficient.

The High Flux Isotope Reactor uses involute-shaped fuel elements, since these allow a constant-width channel between them for coolant.

title: Involute


text:
Edward Appleton

Edward Appleton may refer to:

 * Edward Victor Appleton (1892–1965), English physicist
 * Ed Appleton (1892–1932), American baseball player

title: Edward Appleton


text:
James Wilson Morrice

James Wilson Morrice (August 10, 1865 – January 23, 1924) was one of the first Canadian landscape painters to be known internationally. In 1891, he moved to Paris, France, where he lived for most of his career. W. Somerset Maugham knew him and had one of his characters say, "...when you've seen his sketches...you can never see Paris in the same way again."

In Canada, James Morrice Street in New Bordeaux, Ahuntsic-Cartierville, Montreal is named in his memory.

Biography
Morrice was born in Montreal, Canada East, the son of a merchant, and studied law in Toronto from 1882 to 1889. In 1890 he left to study painting in England. The next year he arrived in Paris, where he studied at the Académie Julian from 1892 to 1897. At the Académie Julian, he befriended Charles Conder and Maurice Prendergast, and also met Robert Henri. Also in 1896, he began to paint his small sketches on wooden panels, called "pochades". He then took lessons at the atelier of Henri Harpignies, who encouraged his students to paint en plein air.

Morrice continued to live in Paris until the First World War, although he spent most of his winters in Canada and travelled widely abroad. He was influenced by the art work he saw in Paris such as the Fauves at the 1905 Salon d'Automne, (which he participated in) while also remaining in touch with the Canadian art world. He joined the Canadian Art Club in Toronto (1907).

During this period he was also in contact with the literary milieu, with English expatriate intellectuals living in Paris, such as W. Somerset Maugham, Arnold Bennett, and Clive Bell. In 1911, he wrote Edmund Morris that there was excitement in London over the Post-Impressionism exhibition. As he wrote,"Everybody laughed and jeered but with a few exceptions it consisted of good things - art that will last." In the winters of 1912 and 1912-1913, he stayed in Tangiers. His second trip coincided with a trip by Matisse whom he met and with whom he exchanged ideas about art. He was elected an honorary non-resident member of the Royal Canadian Academy in 1913.

With the advent of World War I, Morrice went to Montreal, and then to Cuba. There he began to succumb to alcoholism. The output of his last period is uneven and infrequent. In the summer of 1922 he travelled to Algiers, where he painted with Albert Marquet. This would be the last time that he painted, as his health began to rapidly deteriorate. He died, aged 58, in Tunis.

Gallery
Morrice's paintings before the turn of the century are thinly painted and inspired by Whistler, both in sentiment and in treatment of colour. Just prior to World War I he began to paint, in a thicker style, winter Canadian scenes influenced by the Impressionists and particularly by Maurice Cullen, whom he met in 1897. In 1905, he would have seen Fauvist paintings in the Salon d'Automne and been influenced by their pure, bright hues. Some of his works during his Caribbean period are considered his best and are painted in a loose style influenced by Post-Impressionism and suggest artists such as Matisse.

He is noted for his sense of observation and ability to distill the essence of what he saw in his work, often in "pochades", little sketches. Morrice's images of café culture, or other public gatherings, including seasonal "fêtes," regatta or circus scenes, remain unique in Canadian art", as one curator writes. "The artist with the delicate eye", Matisse called him in 1925.

 * Prow of a Gondola, Venice, 1897 National Gallery of Canada
 * Return from School, 1901
 * Quai des Grands-Augustins, 1903. The National Gallery of Canada
 * The Ferry, Quebec, 1906. NGC
 * Blanche Baume, 1912. NGC
 * House in Santiago, 1915 Tate Gallery
 * Village Street, West Indies, 1919. Montreal Museum of Fine Arts

Recognition and legacy
In 1958, works by Morrice along with those of Jacques de Tonnancour, Anne Kahane and Jack Nichols represented Canada at the Venice Biennale.

The Montreal Museum of Fine Arts is one of the two main repositories of his work along with the National Gallery of Canada. Montrealers David Rousseau Morrice (1903-1978) and F. Eleanore Morrice (1901-1981) willed to the Montreal Museum of Fine Arts many works of art they had collected during their lives, published as A Montreal Collection: Gift From Eleanore and David Morrice and exhibited at the Museum in 1983. Several significant gifts have enhanced the National Gallery's collection, enhanced by major publications such as Charles C. Hill's Morrice A Gift to the Nation The G. Blair Laing Collection (1992). In 2016, Ash K. Prakash gave the National Gallery a major collection of Morrice, which the National Gallery exhibited as James Wilson Morrice: The A.K. Prakash Collection in Trust to the Nation (2017) and travelled nationally (2018-2019).

title: James Wilson Morrice


text:
Charles Morris (naval officer)

Charles Morris (July 26, 1784 – January 27, 1856) was a United States naval officer and administrator whose service extended through the first half of the 19th century.

Biography
Morris was born in Woodstock, Connecticut on July 26, 1784. After being appointed a midshipman in July 1799, he served in the Quasi-War with France, First Barbary War, the Second Barbary War, and the War of 1812. He was promoted to captain in March 1813. He served as a Navy Commissioner from 1823 to 1827, and as the Chief of the Bureau of Construction, Equipment, and Repairs from 1844 to 1847.

In 1812, Morris was appointed first lieutenant of USS Constitution under the command of Isaac Hull during her battle with HMS Guerriere (1806), in which action Morris was severely wounded. He was promoted to captain on March 3, 1813. In 1814, he commanded USS Adams (1799) in raiding expeditions against British commerce. Cornered in the Penobscot River in Maine by a British squadron under Captain Robert Barrie, Morris and his men went ashore with their cannons and, assisted by local militia attempted to hold off the British amphibious force in the Battle of Hampden. The British regulars routed the Americans, however, and Morris and his crew had to burn the ship and escape overland to Portsmouth, New Hampshire.

In 1819 after protracted negotiation, the government of Venezuela granted all the demands of the United States on 11 August negotiated by Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry. However, during the passage down the Orinoco River, Perry was stricken with yellow fever and died on board USS John Adams (1799).

Morris succeeded Perry in command of the squadron and USS John Adams accompanied his flagship USS Constellation (1797) on a voyage to the Plata River to continue the negotiations inaugurated by Perry to establish friendly relations with the new Latin American republics and to protect American commerce from South American privateers. After visiting Montevideo and Buenos Aires, both ships returned to the United States, arriving at Hampton Roads on 24 April 1820.

In 1835, his daughter Louise eloped and married William Wilson Corcoran, a banker and philanthropist living in Washington, D.C.

In his later career, Morris commanded the Mediterranean Squadron and served as the chief of the Bureau of Ordnance. He was elected an Associate Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1840.

Charles Morris died at his home in Washington, D.C., on January 27, 1856, from a lung ailment. At the time of his death, he was the second highest-ranking officer in the Navy after Charles Stewart. He was buried at Oak Hill Cemetery in Washington, D.C., near the large family mausoleum built by his son-in-law, William Wilson Corcoran. Corcoran paid for a large, decorative headstone to be placed at the grave.

Family
Charles Morris was married to Harriet Bowen in February 1815. They had four sons and six daughters. His eldest son, Charles W. Morris served in the United States Navy during the Mexican–American War. As a flag lieutenant under Commodore David Connor he died from wounds received in an attack on Tabasco, October 1846. Another son Brevet Lieutenant Colonel Robert Murray Morris, served as an officer in the U.S. Army from 1846 to 1873, distinguishing himself at Contreras and Chepultapec in the Mexican–American War and at Valverde and the Battle of Dinwiddie Court House the American Civil War. His youngest son, Commander George Upham Morris also served in the United States Navy from 1846 to 1874, in the Mexican–American War and in American Civil War where he commanded USS Cumberland (1842) in its engagement with CSS Virginia, June 8, 1862.

Namesakes
Ships in the United States Navy have been named USS Morris and USS Commodore Morris for him.

Charles Morris Court, a street inside the Washington Navy Yard in Washington, D.C., is named after him.

Charles Morris Avenue, a street inside the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard in Kittery, Maine, is named after him.

title: Charles Morris (naval officer)