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James Moore (cyclist)

James Moore (14 January 1849 – 17 July 1935) was an English bicycle racer. He is popularly regarded as the winner of the first official cycle race in the world in 1868 at St-Cloud, Paris, although this claim seems to be erroneous. In 1869 he won the world's first road race Paris–Rouen sponsored by Le Vélocipède Illustré and the Olivier brothers' Michaux Bicycle Company. Moore covered the 113 km in 10 hours and 25 minutes. He was one of the first stars of cycle racing, dominating competition for many years.

Early life and education
Moore was born in Long Brackland, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk, England on 14 January 1849. Moore's father, also James, was a blacksmith and farrier. His mother was Elizabeth Ann Moore. The couple had two sons and five daughters. The sons, Alfred and James, were born in Britain, the daughters in France.

The family moved to Paris when James was four years old. The reason for the move is not known. One account says that Moore's father was French, the rest of the family of Irish and Scottish background, but there is no confirmation. The family eventually lived at 2 cité Godot-de-Mauroy. James made friends with the Michaux family of blacksmiths who lived opposite them at numbers 5 and 7. The Michaux family, either Pierre or his son Ernest is credited with being first to add cranks and pedals to a vélocipède. Moore owned a Michaux vélocipède around 1865.

One report said: "It was in 1865 that Moore became the owner of his first bicycle, having purchased in that year a heavy wooden velocipede or boneshaker from the famous pioneer cycle-manufacturing firm which had then been founded by Ernest Michaux. He rode the vehicle with the greatest enthusiasm."

Moore used the vélocipède to run errands for his father, travelling from the city centre to the suburbs.

James Moore's son, also James, said: "Six months [after moving to Paris] while most of the younger members of the family were still struggling with French, it was young Jimmy who acted as their interpreter. Obviously he was quite at home in Paris and like any other boy he was fascinated by the Cirque d'Été, the Summer Circus, which used to be pitched halfway down the Champs Elysees, a stone's throw from his home on the avenue Montaigne. It was here that he developed a love for horses which was to remain with him for the rest of his life. He got on well with the circus people, who let him ride the horses at rehearsals. The acrobats and trapeze artists, too, were his friends and he learned many of their tricks. At 18 he could do a double somersault between two trapezes – quite a feat."

This account clashes with the claim that only the two sons were born when the family moved to France.

The first cycle race - St-Cloud
Moore joined the Véloce cycling club of Paris after 1868. He began racing at the meeting held in the park at St-Cloud, west of Paris, on 31 May 1868. Moore's race is widely cited as the first formal cycle race in history and a plaque was added to the park railings to mark the event. But the validity of the claim is contested in Keizo Kobayashi's history of the Draisienne and the Michaux vélocipede, which claims Moore's race was the third that day and not even the most important.

The races on 31 May 1868, when Moore was 19, took place in the Saint-Cloud park in Paris. The races were to the park's fountain and back – 1,200 metres on a gravel path.

The French historian Pierre Chany wrote: "In Paris, 'pedalling machines' proliferated, characterised by wheels of 1m or 1m 10 in front and 80cm at the back. Their riders gave exhibitions in which they rivalled each other in technique and vigour. Seeing these demonstrations, the Ollivier brothers, who controlled the Compagnie Parisienne, decided to hold a race on 31 May 1868 in the Parc de St-Cloud, made available to them by their Imperial Majesties Cycling Record reported that the event started on the stroke of 3pm in the presence of the aristocracy of Tout-Paris, all thrilled at the idea of seeing these men rival each other in strength and virtuosity."

Although Moore's race has been widely considered the first, the Dutch historian Benjie Maso says it was the second and that the first was won by a rider called Polocini. (See below for more on the "first race" mystery). The favourite for the second event was François Drouet who was the early leader. At half way James Moore took the lead, breaking clear "at the speed of lightning", according to Cycling Record, and won in 3 minutes and 50 seconds to the "frenetic hurrahs" of the crowd. Moore and Polocini were presented with gold medals worth one hundred francs awarded by the Compagnie Parisienne. Moore's was engraved with his name and carried the effigy of Napoleon III. What is believed to have been the first cycle race in Britain took place at the Welsh Harp the day after Moore won in the Parc de St-Cloud. The race was won by Arthur Markham, who for many years had a bicycle shop nearby at 345 Edgware Road.

The St. Cloud races caught the public imagination and inspired events elsewhere. The first race in Britain was held the following day (see below) and races were held on 18 July in Ghent, Belgium. Races held in September in Brno, the capital of Moravia, marked the start of racing in central Europe.

Moore's winning bicycle is in Ely City Museum in Cambridgeshire. It has a diamond-shaped iron downtube and a top tube and tyres of flattened metal. The rest is wood, including the wheels. The back wheel has a diameter of 31 inches, the front 38 inches. The gearing is 1:1 (the pedals connected to the front hub), so the gear is low. The machine's saddle perished and disappeared before the bicycle returned to Britain.

Commemorative plaque
The Touring Club of France erected a plaque in the Saint-Cloud park reading: 'On 31 May 1868, James Moore became the winner of the first race for vélocipèdes in France'. Among those present were Godfrey Haggarel, British consul-general in Paris; Géo Lefèvre, vice-chairman of the Association of Sports Journalists and the man who thought up the Tour de France, officials from the town hall of St-Cloud and the Touring Club de France, and the racers Henry Debray, Lucien Louvet and Rodolf Moller, and Victor Breyer, the deputy organiser of the Tour de France. The plaque has since disappeared.

The 'first race' mystery
James Moore believed all his life that he had won the first cycle race in the world. Keizo Kobayashi's research and thesis, however, attempts to show that Moore's was not the first race.

Nick Clayton, editor of The Boneshaker, magazine of veteran-cycle enthusiasts in Britain, wrote:

 * Kobayashi has discovered at least five vélocipède races in France which predate St Cloud, so the blue plaque on the railings proclaiming Moore as winner of the first vélocipède race organised in France is incorrect on more than one count. True these races did not get the publicity that the Michaux organisation was able to attract for St-Cloud but it is curious why it should be James Moore's name on the plaque rather than Edward-Charles Bon, winner of the earlier 2.30 race or even Poloni [sic], winner of the Grande Course that day.

Citing Kobayashi, Clayton says the programme for St Cloud was:

 * 1. At 2.30pm, 1km race for velocipedes of less than 1m [wheel] diameter, for a silver medal. Seven amateurs were involved, the winner was Edward-Charles Bon in 2min 40sec at a speed of 22.5 km/h.

 * 2. 1 km race for velocipedes of 1 metre for a silver gilt medal. Winner James Moore in 2min 35sec, speed 23.2 km/h. Five contestants. This medal is in Ely museum.

 * 3: Slow race of 50 metres. Six contestants, won by Durruthy.

 * 4: Grande Course for a gold medal. Three riders. Won by Polonini [sic] in 2min 33sec, 23.5 km/h.

Moore's grandson put it to Clayton:

 * If you accept that James Moore believed he won the first bicycle race, then, as he surely cannot have forgotten that his race was at least scheduled to be the second of the day at St Cloud, there must have been either something different about the first race – e.g. it was not exclusively for pedal machines – or the order of the events was changed so that his race took place first. My hypothesis assumes the former proposition, and is only partly reliant on whether the rules stated that the front wheels of the velocipedes in the second race were to be precisely 1 metre diameter as stated in your article. My main argument, however, is that the word velocipede was used generically to include all types of machine including even hobby-horses for which it was originally coined. They would surely have had wheels of less than one metre diameter.

Clayton replied:

 * I think your attempt to redefine the second race at St Cloud as the first velocipede race does not hold water. Velocipedes meant boneshakers, only occasionally was there the odd tricycle or quadricycle. Boneshakers began effectively in 1867 and St Cloud was just one of several minor meetings which Duncan just happened to immortalise.

James Moore believed to his death that he had won the world's first cycle race. Of suggestions that Moore had invented the story after rising to fame by winning the Paris–Rouen race (see below), his grandson John said:

 * In that case, being only one year or so after the St Cloud race, it is incredible that, if the claim were false, no one – even from among the winners, spectators and other followers of the previous races as cited – seems to have challenged that claim.

For a long time no contemporary sources could be found to support any of the claims. Until the Bibliothèque nationale de France (French National Library) digitalised numerous French newspapers and periodicals. Le Petit-Journal published a report of these races in its issue of Tuesday 2 June 1868:

The races have taken place in the following order:

VÉLOCIPÈDES SMALLER THAN ONE METRE (silver medal): Mr. Ch. Bon, in 2 minutes 40.

VÉLOCIPÈDES OF 1 METRE (gilded medal); five riders. Mr. James Moor, 1st, in 2 minutes 35.

SLOW RACE (50 metres of the track); six competitors. This race was very amusing; the riders tried their best not to go fast, without stopping; their contrary movements made them fall except for Mr. J. Darenty, student of the Grand Gymnasium, who won the prize.

GRAND RACE (gold medal). Three riders. Mr. Polinini, 1st in 2 minutes 33 seconds.

Paris–Rouen – 1869, the first road race
The Olivier brothers were delighted with the race and the next year, 1869, 7 November, promoted the Paris–Rouen race – about 130 km. The first prize was 1,000 francs, second prize a bicycle with suspension, then medals for the next three. The rules said the riders were not 'to be trailed by a dog or use sails'. 325 riders started the race. The course took them through St-Germain (16 km), Mantes (39 km), Vernon (63 km) and Louviers (97 km). The race started at the Arc de Triomphe in Paris and finished in the centre of Rouen. He is presumed to have been riding a Suriray bicycle built by Tribout and equipped with ball bearings, which were patented by Jules Suriray, a Parisian bicycle mechanic, in 1869.

Moore's son, James, recalled: "To win Paris–Rouen, my father had to show muscular power, courage and determination and intelligence. The Place de l'Étoile [site of the Arc de Triomphe] was again the scene, at seven o'clock in the morning... The pedal-driven bicycle was now established and 325 riders had entered for the 83-mile race to Rouen. The organisers were scared of starting them all together, so split the field into two groups – a little girl of five made the draw. My father was the race favourite; second favourite was Castéra, who was second at St Cloud; third favourite was an English visitor, a student from Cambridge named Johnson, who had won races at home. My father was now considered so much a friend of France that he was being called 'The Flying Parisian'."

"Castéra and Johnson both drew even numbers, which meant they went off in the first group, 30 minutes before the odd numbers. My father drew number 187. When the signal was given for the second group to move off, my father went right to the front and was soon on his own. It was raining, and it remained wet all day. Right down the Avénue de la Grande Armée and the Avénue de Neuilly, over the bridges of the Seine, and on towards the first control at St Germain-en-Laye. As he pedalled hard up the steep hill near the town, he passed a group of stragglers from the first group who were pushing their machines. My father had gained 30 minutes on them in 12 miles!"

Moore caught Castéra and then Johnson. He won in 10 hours and 25 minutes, finishing in front of an enthusiastic crowd at 6.10 pm. The average of only 13 km/h can be attributed to poor roads, lack of tyres, weight of the machine and the low gears. It was nevertheless fast enough that the mayor of Rouen, who was to present the trophies, was only stepping out of his carriage as Moore arrived. The runners-up were Jean-Eugène-André Castéra, sometimes described as a count (comte) even though the title had vanished with the Revolution, and Jean Bobillier from Voiron, on a farm bicycle weighing 35 kg. They finished 15 minutes after Moore and asked to be judged equal second. The only woman to finish in the time limit was a British woman who called herself Miss America. She came in 22nd at dawn next day.

There was a banquet in Rouen that night and Moore's bicycle was draped with the Union Jack. When he went back to collect it from where it had been left outside a café in the rue Notre Dame des Victoires, it had disappeared.

The historian Derek Roberts wrote: "What bicycle did Moore ride in the Paris–Rouen race in 1869? There are two candidates and three or four accounts. Bonneville said that Moore was riding a Suriray bicycle specially built by Tribout, fitted with ball bearings, rubber tyres 48¼-inch and 15¾-inch wheels with metal rims. It was the first high bicycle, said Bonneville, overlooking the fact that he had elsewhere said the honour belonged to Vibert. The anonymous authors of the series 'Pioneers of the Cycle Industry' in Bicycling News said that Moore rode a heavy wooden Michaux fitted with solid rubber tyres which were secured to the wheel rims by means of sheet-iron braces screwed to the latter, and his machine embodied a type of ball bearing which had been more or less handmade by a Parisian manufacturer..."

In The World on Wheels, H. O. Duncan, wrote: "'The machine ridden by James Moore in the Paris–Rouen race was manufactured in the prison of St-Pelagy, just outside Paris, under the direction of J. Suriray. Tribout (one of the best French racing men) was his foreman. H. W. Bartleet wrote: 'Moore won... on a Michaux bicycle with rubber tyres and ball bearings, the latter made (against the advice of Michaux) under Moore's own supervision, the balls being ground circular by prisoners in a Paris prison, who could not rebel at the hard work."

Moore received a gold medal at the Compagnie Parisienne office on 21 November but it is not in the collection on show at Ely museum.

Other races
Moore won a race at Le Neubourg in 1868, then the grand prix of Cognac, Le Neubourg and Vesinet in 1869. But according to Nick Clayton, Moore preferred races in which he faced lesser competition and stood to win medals rather than money.

Clayton wrote: "Moore appears to have rested on his laurels for a time and did not defend his reputation in France in 1870. However, when war came in the summer he returned to England and according to Bonneville, who can be unreliable, he won at Wolverhampton on a 1.2 m Meyer. He rode in the All-England bicycle race for £20 given by the Wolverhampton Sun Bicycle Association on 26 and 28 November 1870, when he lost in a one-mile race to Sheldon."

Moore later (in 1873) set an hour record of 14 miles, 880 yards (23.331 km) at the Molyneaux Grounds in Wolverhampton. The book Bike Cult by Gavid B. Perry lists it as the very first hour record and the only one that was ridden on a tall bike. The Ariel bicycle had a 49"-front wheel and 3.91 meters development.

Moore became an early world champion when he won the MacGregor Cup in 1872, 1873, 1874, 1875 and finally in Toulouse in 1877. He retired from racing in 1877.

Victor Breyer said: "He had attained a unique position as a crack velocipede rider. Indeed one to compare with what the great Arthur Zimmerman became a quarter of a century later. He raced in France and England, and it is a peculiar fact that he was acclaimed as the 'Flying Frenchie' on your side of the Channel and l'Anglais volant on the other. Between 1868 and 1877, the year of his retirement, he proved almost unbeatable in both countries."

Nick Clayton wrote: "Clifford maintained that Moore was certainly the first and foremost cycling athlete of his day. Kobayashi makes a more moderate claim for him as the third best rider in France at this time after Edmond Moret and André Castéra. Moore was known for his tactical skills, probably learned at the horse-racing tracks, never passing his rivals until the last lap."

Moore's son said: "He had a great interest in horse racing... Father studied the race horse in its trotting and pace, noting the great burst of power over the last 120 yards (100 m) or so. That is how I heard father rode his races, like a racehorse never swaying or losing rhythm and balance, with a strong final surge. The French horse has always been noted for its speed, English horses for stamina. That is why English horses seldom win on the shorter French courses. It is so with the cyclists also, isn't it?"

Later life
Moore worked with his father in the ambulance service in Paris during the Franco-Prussian war. He went to work at Maisons Lafitte, the French horse racing centre. In 1945 he was made a Chevalier de la Légion d'Honneur . He studied at Cambridge, England, to become a member of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons, later becoming a Fellow. He started a stud farm in Normandy.

Moore's son said: "My father retained his athletic outlook into his later years. On his 50th birthday, he gave up smoking, announcing 'I am disgusted with myself for following such a habit!' At 78, golf drew his attention. 'This is a game I must try', he said, and within three years reduced his handicap to nine, then to eight."

He also took up tennis, at which "he was rarely beaten". He never lost his French accent when speaking English, Lord Brain saying of him at a meeting of physicians: "Dr Moore makes a tremendous effort to conceal his French intonation we all love so much." It is unclear when Moore returned to Britain. Some reports say after the Prussian war, others that it was before the first world war and still another  that it was at the start of the second world war. He moved to 56 Wildwood Road in Hampstead, North London, where he died after a prostate operation at the age of 86. His grandson, John Moore, says the whereabouts of his grave is unknown but may be in the area of the Welsh Harp reservoir near Cricklewood in north London.

His obituary in Cycling read: "It is with deep regret that we have to record the death, at the age of 87, of Mr James Moore, who, on May 31, 1868, won the first cycle race ever held – a 25-kilometre event at Ville de St Cloud... The part that James Moore played in the history of cycle racing, while of brief duration, was historically of the greatest importance. Between 1873 and 1877 he won five international championships and smashed short-distance records galore. All these races, including the championship of the world races at the Molineux [sic] Grounds, Wolverhampton, in 1874, were ridden on a graceful old Ordinary. Mr Moore retained an interest in cycling until his death. In 1933 he was the guest of honour at the triennial dinner of the Road Records Association."

In 1966, the Saddle Club of London suggested the British Post Office produce a commemorative stamp for the 100th anniversary of the St-Cloud race. The club suggested a design but the idea was not adopted.

Burial mystery
The location of Moore's grave is not known. His grandson, John, said: "The odd thing is that my father was such a good story-teller but he couldn't or wouldn't tell me where my grandfather was buried. It was as if there was some unfinished business, some sort of mix-up, something I never understood. It's a mystery." Moore believes the site may be near the Welsh Harp reservoir – also known as Brent Reservoir – in north London.

title: James Moore (cyclist)


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Watchtower (disambiguation)

A watchtower is a type of fortification.

Watchtower or Watch Tower may also refer to:

Buildings and structures

 * Fire lookout tower, a tower usually located at a high vantage point to see any trace of fire and call for fire suppression
 * Observation tower, a stand-alone structure used to view events from a long distance and to create a full 360 degree range of vision
 * Watchtower (agricultural), a hut used in the ancient Middle East for watching over farmland and storing harvested produce

Places

 * The Watchtower (Alberta), a mountain summit in the Canadian Rockies
 * The Watchtower (Antarctica), a rock mass on the southeast extremity of James Ross Island, Antarctica
 * Watch Tower (mountain), a mountain in the Wind River Range, Wyoming, U.S.
 * Watchtower, New York, a census-designated place, United States

Arts, entertainment and media

 * Watchtower (2001 film)
 * Justice League Watchtower, the name of various headquarters of the fictional superhero team "Justice League"
 * Watchtower, the codename of the character Chloe Sullivan in the TV series Smallville

Literature

 * The Watchtower, a magazine published by Jehovah's Witnesses

Novels

 * Watchtower (novel), a 1979 novel in the Chronicles of Tornor series
 * The Watch Tower, a 1966 novel by Elizabeth Harrower

Music

 * Watchtower (band), an American progressive metal band

Songs

 * "Watchtower" (song), a 2012 song by Devlin
 * "Watchtower", a 1989 song by The Psychedelic Furs
 * "Watchtower", a 1997 song by Echo & the Bunnymen on "Nothing Lasts Forever"
 * "The Watchtower", a 2003 song by Cult of Luna on The Beyond
 * "Watchtower", a 2007 song by Abigail Williams on Legend
 * "Watchtower", a 2022 song by The Devil Wears Prada on Color Decay

Magic and religion

 * Watchtower (magic), a type of guardian spirit
 * The Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania, a publishing company of Jehovah's Witnesses
 * Watchtower movement, a religious and political movement in the Democratic Republic of the Congo

Other uses

 * Guadalcanal campaign, codenamed Operation Watchtower, a military campaign fought between 7 August 1942 and 9 February 1943

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title: Watchtower (disambiguation)


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Jack Maguire (baseball)

Jack Maguire (February 5, 1925 – September 28, 2001) was an American professional baseball player whose career lasted for eight seasons (1943; 1946–52). He played in 94 Major League games as an outfielder and utility infielder for the New York Giants, Pittsburgh Pirates and St. Louis Browns in –51. A native of St. Louis, Missouri, Maguire threw and batted right-handed. He stood 5 ft tall and weighed 165 lb.

Maguire spent five seasons in the Giants' farm system before seeing his two full years of Major League service. He logged 30 games played as a left fielder, 13 as a right fielder, six games as a third baseman, three as a second baseman, and two as a first baseman. His 46 hits included five doubles, two triples and two home runs. He saw the most playing time as a member of his hometown Browns during the closing months of the 1951 season. Maguire started 30 games as a left fielder or third baseman, and had nine multi-hit games, including three-hit efforts against the Boston Red Sox and New York Yankees on consecutive days, August 2–3.

As a youth growing up in St. Louis, Maguire gave Yogi Berra his famous nickname. One afternoon, after attending a movie that had a short piece on India, Maguire noticed a resemblance between Berra and the "yogi", or person who practiced yoga, on the screen. Maguire said "I’m going to call you Yogi" and from that moment on, the name stuck.

Maguire also wore uniform #24 of the Giants from 1950 through May 23, 1951, his final game with the club. Rookie centerfielder Willie Mays, recalled from Triple-A, made his MLB debut two days later, on May 25, wearing #14 but he soon inherited 24, and famously wore it for the rest of his Hall of Fame career.

title: Jack Maguire (baseball)


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Capital accumulation

Capital accumulation is the dynamic that motivates the pursuit of profit, involving the investment of money or any financial asset with the goal of increasing the initial monetary value of said asset as a financial return whether in the form of profit, rent, interest, royalties or capital gains. The aim of capital accumulation is to create new fixed and working capitals, broaden and modernize the existing ones, grow the material basis of social-cultural activities, as well as constituting the necessary resource for reserve and insurance. The process of capital accumulation forms the basis of capitalism, and is one of the defining characteristics of a capitalist economic system.

Definition
The definition of capital accumulation is subject to controversy and ambiguities, because it could refer to: Most often, capital accumulation involves both a net addition and a redistribution of wealth, which may raise the question of who really benefits from it most. If more wealth is produced than there was before, a society becomes richer; the total stock of wealth increases. But if some accumulate capital only at the expense of others, wealth is merely shifted from A to B. It is also possible that some accumulate capital much faster than others. When one person is enriched at the expense of another in circumstances that the law sees as unjust it is called unjust enrichment. In principle, it is possible that a few people or organisations accumulate capital and grow richer, although the total stock of wealth of society decreases.
 * A net addition to existing wealth
 * A redistribution of wealth.

In economics and accounting, capital accumulation is often equated with investment of profit income or savings, especially in real capital goods. The concentration and centralisation of capital are two of the results of such accumulation (see below).

Capital accumulation refers ordinarily to:

 * Real investment in tangible means of production, such as acquisitions, research and development, etc. that can increase the capital flow.
 * Investment in financial assets represented on paper, yielding profit, interest, rent, royalties, fees or capital gains.
 * Investment in non-productive physical assets such as residential real estate or works of art that appreciate in value.

and by extension to:

 * Human capital, i.e., new education and training increasing the skills of the (potential) labour force which can increase earnings from work.
 * Social capital, i.e. the wealth and productive capacity that the people in a society hold in common, rather than as individuals or corporations.

Both non-financial and financial capital accumulation is usually needed for economic growth, since additional production usually requires additional funds to enlarge the scale of production. Smarter and more productive organization of production can also increase production without increased capital. Capital can be created without increased investment by inventions or improved organization that increase productivity, discoveries of new assets (oil, gold, minerals, etc.), the sale of property, etc.

In modern macroeconomics and econometrics the term capital formation is often used in preference to "accumulation", though the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) refers nowadays to "accumulation". The term is occasionally used in national accounts.

Measurement of accumulation
Accumulation can be measured as the monetary value of investments, the amount of income that is reinvested, or as the change in the value of assets owned (the increase in the value of the capital stock). Using company balance sheets, tax data and direct surveys as a basis, government statisticians estimate total investments and assets for the purpose of national accounts, national balance of payments and flow of funds statistics. Usually, the reserve banks and the Treasury provide interpretations and analysis of this data. Standard indicators include capital formation, gross fixed capital formation, fixed capital, household asset wealth, and foreign direct investment.

Organisations such as the International Monetary Fund, UNCTAD, the World Bank Group, the OECD, and the Bank for International Settlements used national investment data to estimate world trends. The Bureau of Economic Analysis, Eurostat and the Japan Statistical Office provide data on the US, Europe and Japan respectively.

Other useful sources of investment information are business magazines such as Fortune, Forbes, The Economist, Business Week, etc., and various corporate "watchdog" organisations and non-governmental organization publications. A reputable scientific journal is the Review of Income and Wealth. In the case of the US, the "Analytical Perspectives" document (an annex to the yearly budget) provides useful wealth and capital estimates applying to the whole country.

Demand-led growth models
In macroeconomics, following the Harrod–Domar model, the savings ratio ($$s$$) and the capital coefficient ($$k$$) are regarded as critical factors for accumulation and growth, assuming that all saving is used to finance fixed investment. The rate of growth of the real stock of fixed capital ($$K$$) is:

 * $$ {{\Delta K} \over K} = {{{\Delta K} \over Y} \over {K \over Y}} = {s \over k }$$

where $$Y$$ is the real national income. If the capital-output ratio or capital coefficient ($$k={K \over Y}$$) is constant, the rate of growth of $$Y$$ is equal to the rate of growth of $$K$$. This is determined by $$s$$ (the ratio of net fixed investment or saving to $$Y$$) and $$k$$.

A country might, for example, save and invest 12% of its national income, and then if the capital coefficient is 4:1 (i.e. $4 billion must be invested to increase the national income by 1 billion) the rate of growth of the national income might be 3% annually. However, as Keynesian economics points out, savings do not automatically mean investment (as liquid funds may be hoarded for example). Investment may also not be investment in fixed capital (see above).

Assuming that the turnover of total production capital invested remains constant, the proportion of total investment which just maintains the stock of total capital, rather than enlarging it, will typically increase as the total stock increases. The growth rate of incomes and net new investments must then also increase, in order to accelerate the growth of the capital stock. Simply put, the bigger capital grows, the more capital it takes to keep it growing and the more markets must expand.

The Harrodian model has a problem of unstable static equilibrium, since if the growth rate is not equal to the Harrodian warranted rate, the production will tend to extreme points (infinite or zero production). The Neo-Kaleckians models do not suffer from the Harrodian instability but fails to deliver a convergence dynamic of the effective capacity utilization to the planned capacity utilization. For its turn, the model of the Sraffian Supermultiplier grants a static stable equilibrium and a convergence to the planned capacity utilization. The Sraffian Supermultiplier model diverges from the Harrodian model since it takes the investment as induced and not as autonomous. The autonomous components in this model are the Autonomous Non-Capacity Creating Expenditures, such as exports, credit led consumption and public spending. The growth rate of these expenditures determines the long run rate of capital accumulation and product growth.

Marxist concept
Marx borrowed the idea of capital accumulation or the concentration of capital from early socialist writers such as Charles Fourier, Louis Blanc, Victor Considerant, and Constantin Pecqueur. In Karl Marx's critique of political economy, capital accumulation is the operation whereby profits are reinvested into the economy, increasing the total quantity of capital. Capital was understood by Marx to be expanding value, that is, in other terms, as a sum of capital, usually expressed in money, that is transformed through human labor into a larger value and extracted as profits. Here, capital is defined essentially as economic or commercial asset value that is used by capitalists to obtain additional value (surplus-value). This requires property relations which enable objects of value to be appropriated and owned, and trading rights to be established.

Over-accumulation and crisis
The Marxist analysis of capital accumulation and the development of capitalism identifies systemic issues with the process that arise with expansion of the productive forces. A crisis of overaccumulation of capital occurs when the rate of profit is greater than the rate of new profitable investment outlets in the economy, arising from increasing productivity from a rising organic composition of capital (higher capital input to labor input ratio). This depresses the wage bill, leading to stagnant wages and high rates of unemployment for the working class while excess profits search for new profitable investment opportunities. Marx believed that this cyclical process would be the fundamental cause for the dissolution of capitalism and its replacement by socialism, which would operate according to a different economic dynamic.

In Marxist thought, socialism would succeed capitalism as the dominant mode of production when the accumulation of capital can no longer sustain itself due to falling rates of profit in real production relative to increasing productivity. A socialist economy would not base production on the accumulation of capital, instead basing production on the criteria of satisfying human needs and directly producing use-values. This concept is encapsulated in the principle of production for use.

Concentration and centralization
According to Marx, capital has the tendency for concentration and centralization in the hands of richest capitalists. Marx explains:

"It is concentration of capitals already formed, destruction of their individual independence, expropriation of capitalist by capitalist, transformation of many small into few large capitals.... Capital grows in one place to a huge mass in a single hand, because it has in another place been lost by many.... The battle of competition is fought by cheapening of commodities. The cheapness of commodities demands, ceteris paribus, on the productiveness of labour, and this again on the scale of production. Therefore, the larger capitals beat the smaller. It will further be remembered that, with the development of the capitalist mode of production, there is an increase in the minimum amount of individual capital necessary to carry on a business under its normal conditions. The smaller capitals, therefore, crowd into spheres of production which Modern Industry has only sporadically or incompletely got hold of. Here competition rages.... It always ends in the ruin of many small capitalists, whose capitals partly pass into the hands of their conquerors, partly vanish."

Rate of accumulation
In Marxian economics, the rate of accumulation is defined as (1) the value of the real net increase in the stock of capital in an accounting period, (2) the proportion of realized surplus-value or profit-income which is reinvested, rather than consumed. This rate can be expressed by means of various ratios between the original capital outlay, the realized turnover, surplus-value or profit and reinvestment's (see, e.g., the writings of the economist Michał Kalecki).

Other things being equal, the greater the amount of profit-income that is disbursed as personal earnings and used for consumption purposes, the lower the savings rate and the lower the rate of accumulation is likely to be. However, earnings spent on consumption can also stimulate market demand and higher investment. This is the cause of endless controversies in economic theory about "how much to spend, and how much to save".

In a boom period of capitalism, the growth of investments is cumulative, i.e. one investment leads to another, leading to a constantly expanding market, an expanding labor force, and an increase in the standard of living for the majority of the people.

In a stagnating, decadent capitalism, the accumulation process is increasingly oriented towards investment on military and security forces, real estate, financial speculation, and luxury consumption. In that case, income from value-adding production will decline in favour of interest, rent and tax income, with as a corollary an increase in the level of permanent unemployment.

As a rule, the larger the total sum of capital invested, the higher the return on investment will be. The more capital one owns, the more capital one can also borrow and reinvest at a higher rate of profit or interest. The inverse is also true, and this is one factor in the widening gap between the rich and the poor.

Ernest Mandel emphasized that the rhythm of capital accumulation and growth depended critically on (1) the division of a society's social product between necessary product and surplus product, and (2) the division of the surplus product between investment and consumption. In turn, this allocation pattern reflected the outcome of competition among capitalists, competition between capitalists and workers, and competition between workers. The pattern of capital accumulation can therefore never be simply explained by commercial factors, it also involved social factors and power relationships.

Circuit of capital accumulation from production
Strictly speaking, capital has accumulated only when realized profit income has been reinvested in capital assets. But the process of capital accumulation in production has, as suggested in the first volume of Marx's Das Kapital, at least seven distinct but linked moments:

 * The initial investment of capital (which could be borrowed capital) in means of production and labor power.
 * The command over surplus labour and its appropriation.
 * The valorisation (increase in value) of capital through production of new outputs.
 * The appropriation of the new output produced by employees, containing the added value.
 * The realisation of surplus-value through output sales.
 * The appropriation of realised surplus-value as (profit) income after deduction of costs.
 * The reinvestment of profit income in production.

All of these moments do not refer simply to an economic or commercial process. Rather, they assume the existence of legal, social, cultural and economic power conditions, without which creation, distribution and circulation of the new wealth could not occur. This becomes especially clear when the attempt is made to create a market where none exists, or where people refuse to trade.

In fact Marx argues that the original or primitive accumulation of capital often occurs through violence, plunder, slavery, robbery, extortion and theft. He argues that the capitalist mode of production requires that people be forced to work in value-adding production for someone else, and for this purpose, they must be cut off from sources of income other than selling their labor power.

Simple and expanded reproduction
In volume 2 of Das Kapital, Marx continues the story and shows that, with the aid of bank credit, capital in search of growth can more or less smoothly mutate from one form to another, alternately taking the form of money capital (liquid deposits, securities, etc.), commodity capital (tradeable products, real estate etc.), or production capital (means of production and labor power).

His discussion of the simple and expanded reproduction of the conditions of production offers a more sophisticated model of the parameters of the accumulation process as a whole. At simple reproduction, a sufficient amount is produced to sustain society at the given living standard; the stock of capital stays constant. At expanded reproduction, more product-value is produced than is necessary to sustain society at a given living standard (a surplus product); the additional product-value is available for investments which enlarge the scale and variety of production.

The bourgeois claim there is no economic law according to which capital is necessarily re-invested in the expansion of production, that such depends on anticipated profitability, market expectations and perceptions of investment risk. Such statements only explain the subjective experiences of investors and ignore the objective realities which would influence such opinions. As Marx states in Vol.2, simple reproduction only exists if the variable and surplus capital realized by Dept. 1—producers of means of production—exactly equals that of the constant capital of Dept. 2, producers of articles of consumption (p. 524). Such equilibrium rests on various assumptions, such as a constant labor supply (no population growth). Accumulation does not imply a necessary change in total magnitude of value produced but can simply refer to a change in the composition of an industry (p. 514).

Ernest Mandel introduced the additional concept of contracted economic reproduction, i.e. reduced accumulation where business operating at a loss outnumbers growing business, or economic reproduction on a decreasing scale, for example due to wars, natural disasters or devalorisation.

Balanced economic growth requires that different factors in the accumulation process expand in appropriate proportions. But markets themselves cannot spontaneously create that balance, in fact what drives business activity is precisely the imbalances between supply and demand: inequality is the motor of growth. This partly explains why the worldwide pattern of economic growth is very uneven and unequal, even although markets have existed almost everywhere for a very long time. Some people argue that it also explains government regulation of market trade and protectionism.

Origins
According to Marx, capital accumulation has a double origin, namely in trade and in expropriation, both of a legal or illegal kind. The reason is that a stock of capital can be increased through a process of exchange or "trading up" but also through directly taking an asset or resource from someone else, without compensation. David Harvey calls this accumulation by dispossession. Marx does not discuss gifts and grants as a source of capital accumulation, nor does he analyze taxation in detail (he could not, as he died even before completing his major book, Das Kapital).

The continuation and progress of capital accumulation depends on the removal of obstacles to the expansion of trade, and this has historically often been a violent process. As markets expand, more and more new opportunities develop for accumulating capital, because more and more types of goods and services can be traded in. But capital accumulation may also confront resistance, when people refuse to sell, or refuse to buy (for example a strike by investors or workers, or consumer resistance).

Capital accumulation as social relation
"Accumulation of capital" sometimes also refers in Marxist writings to the reproduction of capitalist social relations (institutions) on a larger scale over time, i.e., the expansion of the size of the proletariat and of the wealth owned by the bourgeoisie.

This interpretation emphasizes that capital ownership, predicated on command over labor, is a social relation: the growth of capital implies the growth of the working class (a "law of accumulation"). In the first volume of Das Kapital Marx had illustrated this idea with reference to Edward Gibbon Wakefield's theory of colonisation:

In the third volume of Das Kapital, Marx refers to the "fetishism of capital" reaching its highest point with interest-bearing capital, because now capital seems to grow of its own accord without anybody doing anything. In this case,

Markets with social influence
Product recommendations and information about past purchases have been shown to influence consumers choices significantly whether it is for music, movie, book, technological, and other type of products. Social influence often induces a rich-get-richer phenomenon (Matthew effect) where popular products tend to become even more popular.

title: Capital accumulation


text:
Talk:Watch tower

This should be a more general article than a redirect to the magazine. RickK 23:17, Jul 20, 2004 (UTC)
 * Your wish, sahib, ... --Gary D 00:17, 30 Jul 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Watch tower


text:
U.S. Acres

U.S. Acres (known as Orson's Farm outside the United States and as Orson's Place in Canada) is an American comic strip that ran in newspapers from 1986 to 1989, created by Jim Davis, author of the comic strip Garfield.

U.S. Acres was launched on March 3, 1986, in a then-unprecedented 505 newspapers by United Feature Syndicate. Most papers only ran the Sunday strip, usually in the same page as Garfield. For most of the last year of the strip's existence, Brett Koth, who had been assisting Davis on Garfield at that time, was given co-creator's credit in the strip, and signed his name to the strips along with Davis. The strip was centered on a group of barnyard animals, with the main character being Orson, a small pig who had been taken from his mother shortly after being born.

At the peak of the comic's popularity, there were children's books, plush animals (particularly of the characters Orson, Roy, Wade, Booker, Sheldon, and Cody), and posters of the main characters. Shirts, mugs, mousepads, and keychains of the characters would later be available. An animated adaptation was included in the TV show Garfield and Friends (1988-1994) as a spin-off segment, and continued to be so for several years after the strip ended. The final daily strip was printed on April 15, 1989, while the final Sunday appeared on May 7, 1989.

The strip was relaunched as an online webcomic on October 1, 2010, and was announced the day before in a question and answer column in USA Today. Later, in celebration of the strip's twenty-fourth anniversary, the U.S. Acres strips prior to August 1, 1986 were released on Garfield.com. On August 7, 2016, a Garfield comic strip showed the U.S. Acres gang (sans Bo and Blue) in its logo box, featuring Garfield eating a bag of chicken feed.

In August 2019, Jim Davis sold the rights to U.S. Acres to Paramount Global (formerly ViacomCBS) as part of its acquisition of Paws, Inc. In April 2020, the strip was removed from GoComics. On June 19, 2020, Garfield.com shut down, redirecting to Nickelodeon's website. As a result, the strip was removed as well as the webcomic being discontinued entirely. Garfield.com was later resurrected with a limited number of selected Garfield comics, but U.S. Acres is currently unavailable on the new website.

Characters
The primary traits of the strip's main characters were established during the run of the comic strip, even down to such visual gags as the head on Wade's inner tube having the same facial expression as Wade himself.

Orson Pig
Orson Pig (voiced by Gregg Berger): A good-natured yet naïve pig whose work ethic makes him the functional leader. His good humor being tested is one of the common gags in the cartoons. Originally, Orson had long eyelashes (to represent him as a young piglet); they disappeared on December 31, 1987 (permanently on January 3, 1988). Booker and Sheldon called him Mom (though it was inconsistent because at other times they just call him Orson). Being the runt of his litter, Orson's original owner intended to get rid of him. Orson fell from the pick-up taking him away from his birthplace and moved to an unnamed farm, where he was later found by a farm girl who persuaded Orson to follow her to her father's farm. Orson's alter-ego is a costumed superhero named Power Pig, which more often than not causes his friends or adversaries to fall down laughing at him. Orson loves books, but is very influenced by them, by sometimes doing what's in the book. Sometimes when Orson reads a book, particularly a scary one, the stuff he reads about usually appears behind him and scares the others away. He was also originally going to make a cameo in an episode of The Garfield Show, but was cut due to the international laws prohibiting cartoons from featuring talking pigs out of concern of offending Malaysian audiences. While Orson has a mixed relationship with Roy in the strip, in the cartoon series he has a somewhat strong bond with him and is a lot more forgiving of his pranks.

Roy Rooster
Roy Rooster (voiced by Thom Huge): A loud, wisecracking rooster who endlessly enjoys practical jokes with Orson and Wade being his favorite targets. With a few exceptions, he is tolerated because his job of waking up everyone and 'tending' to the chickens is important, but he does his best to avoid labor whenever possible. In the cartoon, he is far kinder, friendlier and more well-liked by the others and is often the one to defeat the series' antagonists such as Orson's brothers. In spite of his lazy nature, Roy has proven to be a very capable protector of the chickens, coolly outsmarting and defeating the predators, such as the Weasel and the Fox (both of whom try to kidnap them) with a series of practical jokes and gags. He is also serious about being a cartoon star and does whatever he can to remain in the spotlight. Even though he is a jerk and insults everyone, Roy is not a bully and doesn’t really mean any harm. He is allergic to flowers, a fact that was first established in a strip published on July 2, 1986.

Booker
Booker (voiced by Frank Welker): A chick named by Orson for his love of books. Booker and Sheldon were still eggs when Orson found them abandoned and decided to hatch them. Booker is extremely adventurous and (over) confident despite his small size. He often chases worms but can never seem to catch them. In the comic, he often addressed Orson as "Mom".

Sheldon
Sheldon (voiced by Frank Welker): Booker's twin brother, who decided not to hatch. He becomes very philosophical and introspective over the course of the strip, and begins musing on his "Sanctum Sanctorum" (a small mound of grass). A recurring gag has him describe his shell as the perfect living space, which is never shown.

Wade Duck
Wade Duck (voiced by Howard Morris): The "cowardly craven duck" of the farm. His good nature is sometimes shadowed by his overwhelming hypochondria and panphobia. He is always seen wearing a kiddie pool flotation inner tube, which (as part of a continuous running gag) has a duck head in front of it that shares the same facial expressions as Wade – even down to the direction in which he is looking. He lost his fears as part of his final appearance on April 12, 1989.

Bo Sheep
Bo Sheep (voiced by Frank Welker): A sheep who is unintelligent and perky. In the TV series, he is not usually bright but always calm, cool, collected, dependable, and a skillful cook who speaks with a Southern Californian dialect.

Lanolin Sheep
Lanolin Sheep (voiced by Julie Payne): Bo's twin sister, who is usually shown as a hard worker, but with a personality the polar opposite of her brother: loud and disagreeable. She is named after the grease produced by wool-bearing animals, such as sheep. In the comic strip, she is much more abrasive than in the television series.

Secondary characters

 * Filbert (voiced by Howard Morris): A worm Booker often chases, but with no success. He lives in a hole with his wife Estelle and their son Willy.
 * Cody: A puppy who takes pleasure in chasing the barnyard's animals and trying to maul them. He was eventually removed from the strip without any explanation and does not appear in Garfield and Friends. His final appearance was on September 13, 1988.
 * Blue: A blue cat who is friends with Cody and keeps him in line. She disappeared from the strip after March 28, 1988, and, like Cody, is not present in Garfield and Friends.
 * Mort, Gort, & Wart (voiced by Frank Welker, Thom Huge, and Howard Morris, respectively): Orson's three larger, meaner brothers who play a much bigger role in the animated series than in the comic strip, where they are unnamed. They stopped appearing in the strip after Orson was taken away from his mother. They constantly torment Orson and in the animated series, they are frequent burglars of the farm's crops. Their leitmotif in the series samples the melody of the classical piece "In the Hall of the Mountain King".
 * Max the Skateboarding Bird: An eccentric, flightless bird that first appears as a mysterious creature in a wall to whom Wade speaks on October 13, 1986. Jim Davis solicited ideas from readers (specifically children) as to what they thought the creature might be. On March 3, 1987, Davis revealed his choice in the strip. Max does not appear again following the week.
 * The Weasel (voiced by Gregg Berger): A television-exclusive character who often tries to kidnap the chickens so that he can eat them, but is usually stopped by Roy. The only other regularly recurring antagonist in the animated series (he never appeared in the strip), he occasionally attempts to catch and eat Sheldon as well.
 * Fido the Bull: A mean bull that lives in the barnyard.
 * The Worms: Random worms that Booker chases.

Comic strip collections
Five comic strip collections were published, by Topper Books of New York City.

 * 1) (1986-03-03 through 1986-10-04)
 * 2) (1986-10-05 through (1987-05-09)
 * 3) (1987-05-10 through 1987-12-13)
 * 4) (1987-12-14 through 1988-07-17)
 * 5) (1988-07-18 through 1989-02-18)

Also, at least six comic strip collections were published by Berkley Books of New York City. However, some of these books are missing months of the strip and / or have strips out of order.
 * 1) (1986-05-24 through 1987-08-16)
 * 2) (1986-08-18 through 1986-11-03)
 * 3) (1987-04-14 through 1987-05-09, 1987-12-14 through 1988-02-08)
 * 1) (1987-04-14 through 1987-05-09, 1987-12-14 through 1988-02-08)
 * 1) (1987-04-14 through 1987-05-09, 1987-12-14 through 1988-02-08)
 * 1) (1987-04-14 through 1987-05-09, 1987-12-14 through 1988-02-08)

The final two months of U.S. Acres were not published as part of an American collection. The last U.S. Acres collection was published in England as a mass-market paperback, titled Orson's Farm Cuts the Corn. The collection, which has since gone out of print along with the rest of the U.S. Acres books, contains fifty-nine of the final sixty strips (one Sunday strip was not printed) and is the rarest of any U.S. Acres/Orson's Farm collection.

Children's books

 * Wade Dives In
 * Wade's Haunted Halloween (from 1990)
 * Happy Birthday, Sheldon
 * Wade Dives In
 * Wade's Haunted Halloween (from 1990)
 * Happy Birthday, Sheldon
 * Wade's Haunted Halloween (from 1990)
 * Happy Birthday, Sheldon
 * Wade's Haunted Halloween (from 1990)
 * Happy Birthday, Sheldon

title: U.S. Acres


text:
Talk:Economic history of Britain

"The pound has continued to fluctuate however, reaching a low against the dollar in 2001 (to a rate of $1.37 per £1), but rising again in 2004/2005 to a rate of approximately $1.80 per £1. Against the Euro, the pound has become steady at a rate of approximately €1.45 per £1."

That means it's the dollar that has flucuated against the pound and not the pound itself if the rate has been steady against the euro!

This article is far too focused on overseas trade and imperialism. - SimonP 23:18, Jul 20, 2004 (UTC)

Agreed. It seems astonishing to me that an article on the economic history of Great Britain should make no mention of the changes in trade patterns between Scotland and England, the two major components of the island. In particular the trade embargoes of the 17th century, the Darien disaster, and the political/economic union of 1707 had major effects on the British economy. -- Derek Ross | Talk 04:44, 2004 Sep 16 (UTC)

Tin
Can someone explain exactly how Tin gave it's name to the country? Not sure I follow AndrewMcQ 19:42, 21 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * Agreed it makes very little sense -- SCRA5071

err... Bri-tin? I don't really get it either. Rahk E✘ my disscussions | Who Is''' ]] 22:33, 10 September 2007 (UTC)

 * Well it isn't exactly 'tin' is it? It's more 'tayne'. So I wouldn't exactly see britain being named after a can o' bean as true :-) —Preceding 172.212.82.226 (talk) 18:05, 2 October 2007 (UTC)

Improvement drive
A related topic, spice trade, is currently nominated on WP:IDRIVE. Support or comment on the nomination there if you are interested.--Fenice 09:37, 8 August 2005 (UTC)

When referrering to the 'Age of Navigation', perhaps this article is referring to the Age of Discovery?

I have started to rewrite the section on the Industrial Revolution, and will add sources later.--Train guard 10:10, 30 August 2007 (UTC)

Cleanup/Splitting
I think much of the imperial elements to the latter end of the article should be moved to their own page, and linked to/summarised from the main Economic history of Britain page. There also seems to be a large amount of PoV and unreferenced statements. Johnwalton 22:23, 24 February 2006 (UTC)

 * No - to splitting "Economy of the British Empire". However there may be scope for a separate article on that topic that gives a balanced view of the economic relationships within the empire as a whole, rather than just the British aspect of it.
 * Probably not - to splitting "Economy of Britain during the Industrial Revolution" - how would you define when to begin and end the article, in relation to the rest of the economic history of Britain?
 * Probably yes - to splitting "Modern economic history of Britain". I can see some merit in this. The main question would be whether to start this after WWI - when the empire started to slide and the country had to start standing on it's own feet, plus it would then include the Great Depression and leaving the Gold Standard (events which still have some ressonance today) - or after WWII. I'd probably opt for WWI as the demarcation line.

Purpose
Is this article supposed to be about the United Kingdom, Great Britain, or the British Isles? Bastin8 11:52, 28 March 2006 (UTC)

 * I believe more than half of this article, as it now stands, outlines the economic history of the United Kingdom.

 * I think that this article should highlight only the economic history of Britain when that region was a country in its own right. The period of time we're talking about would be after the amalgamation of Scotland and England under the throne of James I of England (James VI of Scotland), and up until the inclusion of Ireland into the economy. I'm not sure how long that period is.. presumably pretty short (1707 until 1801?.. if that).

 * This article should be renamed Economic history of the United Kingdom as per Wikipedia convention of Foo by country, and the relevent information be split into a new Economic history of Britain article. In other words, copy the info from this to a new article (Economic history of the UK) and keep only the relevent info in this one. --Mal 16:28, 28 August 2006 (UTC)

Slavery and imperialism
This article has much too great an emphasis on imperialism and slave trade. Sugar and tobacco from the slave colonies were not the main driving force of British economic growth. Even if you count every slave as a consumer, the population of all colonies put together was much smaller than that of the mother country. However statistics on English overseas trade are readily available and those on most sectors of the home economy are not. The extent to which the home economy grew is thus not apparent.

The emphasis of the article on these factors depends on the views of many years ago. It does not reflect the content of recent text books on early modern and industrial revolution England (or Britain). Peterkingiron 22:12, 27 April 2006 (UTC)

The Great Depression
In the section on the Great Depression, someone had referred to Germany and hyperinflation. I'm a history teacher and I see this error ALL THE TIME. It's driving me mad. Hyperinflation occured in Germany in the early 20s, brought about partly by the government's economic policy during WW1 and partly through other factors such as reparations. It ended with the introduction of the Rentenmark in November 1923 -6 years before the Wall Street crash and the Great Depression. All of this is on wiki, could you check before getting your history muddled up. I've deleted the reference to hyperinflation now.

Lawson Boom
How can this article not contain information on the Lawson Boom? --Tiresais 11:32, 4 July 2006 (UTC)

 * The following discussion is an archived debate of the . Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

no consensus for moving. --Dijxtra 11:43, 27 September 2006 (UTC)

Requested move
Economic history of Britain → Economic history of the United Kingdom – I believe more than half of this article, as it now stands, outlines the economic history of the United Kingdom.

I think that this article should highlight only the economic history of Britain when that region was a country in its own right. The period of time we're talking about would be after the amalgamation of Scotland and England under the throne of James I of England (James VI of Scotland), and up until the inclusion of Ireland into the economy. I'm not sure how long that period is.. presumably pretty short (1707 until 1801?.. if that).

This article should be renamed Economic history of the United Kingdom as per Wikipedia convention of Foo by country, and the relevent information be split into a new Economic history of Britain article. In other words, copy the info from this to a new article (Economic history of the UK) and keep only the relevent info in this one. Mal 12:08, 9 September 2006 (UTC)

Survey
Add "* Support" or "* Oppose" followed by an optional one-sentence explanation, then sign your opinion with ~
 * Support, but with extraneous information being moved to create new 'Economic history of the British Isles' article (per History of the British Isles). Bastin 12:14, 9 September 2006 (UTC)
 * Support as per Bastin above (asuming economic history of the region warrants another article). --Mal 19:19, 9 September 2006 (UTC)
 * Keep the present name unless Ireland is included after the passage of the Act of Union regarding Ireland. Passer-by 21:22, 10 September 2006 (UTC)
 * Oppose move; Abstain on split: This is a split... See discussion section. —Wknight94 (talk) 04:09, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

Discussion
Even by nom's suggestion, this is an article split request, not an article move request. The non-Britain parts of the article can be cut/pasted over the top of the current Economic history of the United Kingdom redirect. Splits do not need admin assistance unless a compelling reason is given to move the edit history for this article to the U.K. article. —Wknight94 (talk) 04:09, 17 September 2006 (UTC)
 * You're correct Wknight94. I am not aware of a page in wikipedia to propose a split though, so I put it on one I do know: the move request page. I think you should change your vote to support to highlight the fact that you support my proposal basically as written.
 * I think the split should be done as soon as possible. --Mal 11:02, 18 September 2006 (UTC)
 * The vote above is to do a move which would move the entire edit history. I'm opposed to that unless someone can give a good reason.  As far as the content being split, I'm not familiar enough with the topics involved to say whether that's a good idea.  As far as proposing a split, this is a fine place to do it but WP:RM is a place to do administrative page and edit history moves.  —Wknight94 (talk) 12:50, 18 September 2006 (UTC)
 * If I re-word the proposal and inform the current voters of the change, would you support the proposal Wknight94? --Mal 14:13, 22 September 2006 (UTC)
 * My point is that a split doesn't need a vote at all. Just do it.  Why do you need a move?  I'm not opposing the split - go ahead.  —Wknight94 (talk) 14:26, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

 * The request relisted for no consensus. --Dijxtra 08:57, 19 September 2006 (UTC)
 * The request didn't reach consensus, so it failed. --Dijxtra 11:42, 27 September 2006 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

This article, despite being broad in exapnse, should not be divided, as it provides easy-to-access information that could be hard to connect were it in separate articles.

1973-4 stock market crash
Neither this article nor anywhere else I can see from a bit of a search of Wikipedia says anything about the 1973-4 UK stock market crash, e.g. what it was all about. Perhaps someone should add it to this article. Ben Finn 21:02, 29 March 2007 (UTC)
 * If you know what it is... Maybe you could add it? (you probably don't because you asked) Rahk E✘ my disscussions | Who Is''' ]] 22:34, 10 September 2007 (UTC)

 * The crash was worldwide, although it affected the UK more than it did the other (future) G7 economies. I'll create a proper article about it tomorrow. Bastin 00:11, 11 September 2007 (UTC)
 * Now created. It's stubby, but at least it exists: Stock market crash of 1973–4. Bastin 13:21, 11 September 2007 (UTC)

splitting template
Is putting the template on every section really necessary? Why not just subst the template and modify it to suit the need? Rahk E✘ my disscussions | Who Is''' ]] 23:08, 10 September 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Economic history of Britain


text:
Talk:Hedonism

Removed original research
I've removed a large amount of original research from this article that related Hedonism, the philosophical movement developed in the 18th century on the basis of a few ancient Greek philosophical schools, to many other philosophical movements throughout history. This is not a catch-all article for any philosophical movement that happened to include some sort of concept of pleasure. If reliable academic sources happen to compare other philosophical movements to Hedonism, they can certainly be included in this article with support from those secondary sources. But without that secondary source support, doing so constitutes original research.  - car chasm (talk) 20:02, 3 February 2023 (UTC)

 * I agree. It might well be that some of the removed passages describe forms of hedonism but we need a source that says so. I checked a few of the sources and they didn't mention the term "hedonism". Phlsph7 (talk) 20:07, 3 February 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Hedonism


text:
Talk:Muzafer Sherif

= Comments =

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 4 September 2019 and 27 November 2019. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Psyprise.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 04:43, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

Is this a cut and paste?
Found almost exact text here Is that wiki-kosher? 96.10.21.82 (talk) 14:59, 15 May 2008 (UTC)
 * Nope. Looks like a copyright violation to me. I'm going to remove the text. Sad. It's a wonderful read. — m a k o ๛  03:35, 11 November 2008 (UTC)

Just a note--the text is now quite different than it was when (allegedly) lifted from age-of-the-sage.org —Preceding unsigned comment added by Christiancrandall (talk • contribs) 21:31, 31 July 2009 (UTC)

Why is this not on a page about Robber Cave
The Robber Cave experiment was recently featured on DamnedInteresting along with a link back here, and as such, may see increased visits. This article comes to very different conclusions than the Wikipedia entry, and they should probably both be considered carefully. Reader beware! http://www.damninteresting.com/?p=595

lots of material, e.g. http://www.age-of-the-sage.org/psychology/social/sherif_robbers_cave_experiment.html

 * This content is almost entirely about Robber Cave - and hardly anything on the Muzafer Sherif himself. This should be moved to a new page for Robber Cave and this page should be more biographical information.--Ryan Gardner 05:53, 31 August 2006 (UTC)

Redirects
Currently searches for info about the Robber's Cave study redirect here. God willing we'll eventually have a stand-alone bio for Sherif and introduce a seperate article about the study. Avraham 04:01, 6 April 2006 (UTC)

Date of death
The Date of death was inserted two times, with the cause of death given in the second example. I think the cause of death is irrelevant to most biographical articles as long as it is not a special, unusual death (e.g. asassination), and we are, in fact, not giving this information in other biographical articles. Therefore, I removed the last paragraph. 84.168.55.52 17:27, 7 June 2006 (UTC)
 * Sorry, meant age at time of death. 84.168.55.52 17:27, 7 June 2006 (UTC)

None of the boys were previously acquainted
According to the original report, none of the boys were previously acquainted before the experiment.

http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Sherif/chap3.htm

169.236.72.140 19:14, 30 April 2007 (UTC)

Marriage to Carolyn Wood
The current version says Sherif married "Carolyn Sherif" which isn't true, of course, he married Carolyn Wood, who then became Carolyn Wood Sherif. The problem is, there is a link to the Carolyn Sherif Wikipedia entry, which doesn't have "Wood" in the name.

Can someone else resolve this? There are two issues--the logical one that her name wasn't Sherif until after the marriage, and the factual one is that she always used "Wood" professionally. But I cannot resolve this issue. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Christiancrandall (talk • contribs) 21:30, 31 July 2009 (UTC)
 * I've used a piped link. —Saric (Talk) 17:57, 24 June 2011 (UTC)

Superordinate Goals (not Subordinate Goals)
In the following para, the goals the researchers helped to boys reach are termed "superordinate" not "subordinate," which is exactly the opposite, in fact. This should be corrected.

Researchers then gave all boys a two day cooling-off period, and asked them to list characteristics of the two groups. Each of group tended to make higher evaluations for their own group, and characterized the other group in extremely unfavorable terms. "Sherif then attempted to reduce the prejudice between the two groups. Simply by increasing the contact of the two groups only made the situation worse. Forcing the groups to work together to reach subordinate goals, or common goals, eased the prejudice and tension among the groups (Baron, Byrne 1997; Cialdini, Kenrick, Neuberg,1999)." — Preceding unsigned comment added by 99.225.88.61 (talk) 01:42, 16 April 2013 (UTC)

External links modified
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title: Talk:Muzafer Sherif


text:
Talk:Pope Sixtus IV

Questionable dates
I removed this sentence: He supported the claim by Portugal to ownership of the newly discovered Americas by a bull in 1481.

Weren't the Americas discovered 11 years later? Or there's something I missed? I know only of a bull made by Pope Alexander IV in 1493/94.

---''The Papal Bull Aeterni regis was issued on June 21 1481 by Pope Sixtus IV, and confirmed the substance of the Treaty of Alcáçovas in confirming Castile in its possession of the Canary Islands and granting all further acquisitions made by Christian powers in Africa (and eastward to the Indies) to Portugal. Cvnunavik''

—Preceding unsigned comment added by Cvnunavik (talk • contribs) 17:15, 1 February 2009 (UTC)

Another funny one: When the Jews were expelled from Spain in 1492, he welcomed them to Rome, for many were fleeing to their relatives in Constantinople.

If he died in 1484 how can he welcome people in 1492? Snowdog 23:41, 20 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Article cleanup
I referred this article to cleanup:

His last memoirs were recently found in an excavation of his crypt shocking many as it revealed Sixtus IV to be, in fact, a Jew who hid his Hebrew ancestry his entire tenure as pope.

References do not support article; in particular, I cannot find any references for the claim that Pope Sixtus IV was either of Jewish ancestry or secretly a practicing Jew. Adambondy 10:16, 5 May 2006 (UTC)

 * We can thank anonymous abuser:68.80.172.175 for the joke. --09:48, 7 May 2006 (UTC)

Citations missing
I've changed the citecheck flag to a citations missing template. It appears that the problem is a shortage of citations, not the appropriateness of the citations actually provided. Durova 01:53, 3 September 2006 (UTC)

Sentence was too long and didn't make sense
Changed this sentence "With his election, and after some ineffective sorties against the Ottoman Turks in Smyrna, where fund-raising energy was more successful than half-hearted attempts to storm Smyrna and some attempts at unification with the Greek Church, he turned to temporal issues and dynastic considerations."

"...though he is said to have fathered his sister's son." This phrase has been suppressed. --Wetman 09:25, 26 September 2006 (UTC)

Character
This sentence serves as the last under the subheading "Character":
 * However, such accusations by Protestant polemicists can be dismissed as attempts at anti-Catholic propaganda.

That is not necessarily true; even more so, though not necessarily, if the theological scholar and historian documented the sources from which he drew such a conclusion. This sentence is clearly either written by a Catholic, or someone with pro-Catholic sentiments: neither of which should infiltrate a supposed non-biased historical article.

It would appear that Bale is not the only one to draw the conclusions he did about Sixtus, so either let this pro-Catholic "propaganda" sentence be removed, or the author of it cite a legitimate source countering Bishop Bale's accusation.--Slim Jim (talk) 05:38, 5 April 2010 (UTC)

 * I added this section so happy to respond to try and meet your concerns. I did look again at the sentence to see if it was being unfairly harsh but it does sound to me that while Bale may have stumbled upon something with Sixtus himself, he surely made up the bit about sodomy in the summer (to which the propaganda aspect is addressed). How do we know Bale had any evidence for this - he is the only source? And let's be honest he pretty much called all monks "sodomites" regardless of whether they were or they weren't so not that reliable. Contaldo80 (talk) 12:18, 6 April 2010 (UTC)

Image of Tomb Added
This image is already in wikipedia, though another image is much clearer. However, that image has no attribution, so it's impossible to know if copyright issues are involved. --Janko (talk) 11:04, 2 June 2012 (UTC)

Confusing sentence in #Consistories
The Pope created 34 cardinals in eight consistories held during his reign, among them three nephews, one grandnephew and one other relative, thus continuing the practice of nepotism that he and his successors would engage in during this period. The bolded part is hard to understand. "This period" is his term as Pope, so his successors wouldn't do anything "during this period". The part about "continuing the practice" — should that be "beginning"? There's nothing said about as pre-existing practice of nepotism that he was continuing. Maybe ...and one other relative, thus establishing a practice of nepotism that he and his successors would engage in.? There's no cite for the sentence so I can't go to the source to see what was said. Schazjmd  (talk)  20:46, 8 October 2020 (UTC)

Sorted in LGBT cats
Pope Sixtus IV was a LGBT Roman Catholic pope. That should be sorted in category. --188.96.230.248 (talk) 20:58, 6 July 2021 (UTC)
 * Category:LGBT Roman Catholic popes
 * Advocate.con: 21 Gay Popes, Cardinals, and Assorted Catholic Leaders, By Jacob Ogle

propose deletion for outdated sources
Melchior2006 (talk) 20:07, 11 January 2023 (UTC)
 * Havelock Ellis (1906). Studies in the psychology of sex is simply too outdated to be of much use.
 * Sex Lives of the Popes. This book is described on Amazon as follows: "Sex Lives of the Popes is a humorous expose of papal promiscuity." Perhaps not suited to a general reference project like WP?
 * ""Sisto IV (1414–1484)", Palazzo-Medici Riccardi Archived 2014-08-10 at the Wayback Machine" is copied from here, p. 123.
 * If it is ok with you, I will delete or update these references.
 * since no one made any suggestions, I went ahead and deleted Havelock and the "humorous exposé". --Melchior2006 (talk) 12:32, 18 January 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Pope Sixtus IV