text:
Thiamine pyrophosphate

Thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP or ThPP), or thiamine diphosphate (ThDP), or cocarboxylase is a thiamine (vitamin B1) derivative which is produced by the enzyme thiamine diphosphokinase. Thiamine pyrophosphate is a cofactor that is present in all living systems, in which it catalyzes several biochemical reactions.

Thiamine pyrophosphate is synthesized in the cytosol and is required in the cytosol for the activity of transketolase and in the mitochondria for the activity of pyruvate-, oxoglutarate- and branched chain keto acid dehydrogenases. To date, the yeast ThPP carrier (Tpc1p) the human Tpc and the Drosophila melanogaster have been identified as being responsible for the mitochondrial transport of ThPP and ThMP. It was first discovered as an essential nutrient (vitamin) in humans through its link with the peripheral nervous system disease beriberi, which results from a deficiency of thiamine in the diet.

TPP works as a coenzyme in many enzymatic reactions, such as:

 * Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
 * Pyruvate decarboxylase in ethanol fermentation
 * Alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex
 * Branched-chain amino acid dehydrogenase complex
 * 2-hydroxyphytanoyl-CoA lyase
 * Transketolase

Chemistry

Chemically, TPP consists of a pyrimidine ring which is connected to a thiazole ring, which is in turn connected to a pyrophosphate (diphosphate) functional group.

The part of TPP molecule that is most commonly involved in reactions is the thiazole ring, which contains nitrogen and sulfur. Thus, the thiazole ring is the "reagent portion" of the molecule. The C2 of this ring is capable of acting as an acid by donating its proton and forming a carbanion. Normally, reactions that form carbanions are highly unfavorable, but the positive charge on the tetravalent nitrogen just adjacent to the carbanion stabilizes the negative charge, making the reaction much more favorable. A compound with positive and negative charges on adjacent atoms is called an ylide, so sometimes the carbanion form of TPP is referred to as the "ylide form".

Reaction mechanisms
In several reactions, including that of pyruvate dehydrogenase, alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, and transketolase, TPP catalyses the reversible decarboxylation reaction (aka cleavage of a substrate compound at a carbon-carbon bond connecting a carbonyl group to an adjacent reactive group—usually a carboxylic acid or an alcohol). It achieves this in four basic steps:

 * 1) The carbanion of the TPP ylid nucleophilically attacks the carbonyl group on the substrate. (This forms a single bond between the TPP and the substrate.)
 * 2) The target bond on the substrate is broken, and its electrons are pushed towards the TPP. This creates a double bond between the substrate carbon and the TPP carbon and pushes the electrons in the N-C double bond in TPP entirely onto the nitrogen atom, reducing it from a positive to neutral form.
 * 3) In what is essentially the reverse of step two, the electrons push back in the opposite direction forming a new bond between the substrate carbon and another atom. (In the case of the decarboxylases, this creates a new carbon-hydrogen bond.  In the case of transketolase, this attacks a new substrate molecule to form a new carbon-carbon bond.)
 * 4) In what is essentially the reverse of step one, the TPP-substrate bond is broken, reforming the TPP ylid and the substrate carbonyl.

The TPP thiazolium ring can be deprotonated at C2 to become an ylid:
 * [[Image:TPP_thiazolium.svg|400px|left]]

A full view of TPP. The arrow indicates the acidic proton.

 * [[Image:Thiamine pyrophosphate ng.png|400px|left]]

title: Thiamine pyrophosphate


text:
Alphabet of Sirach

The Alphabet of Sira is an anonymous text of the Middle Ages inspired by the Book of Sirach and written in a Muslim country between 700 and 1000. It is a compilation of two lists of proverbs, 22 in Jewish Babylonian Aramaic and 22 in Medieval Hebrew, both arranged as alphabetic acrostics. Each proverb is followed by an aggadic commentary. Adolf Neubauer and Abraham Epstein argued for a satirical character, which reading was rejected by Louis Ginzberg.

It has been translated into Latin, Yiddish, Judaeo-Spanish, Judeo-Persian, French and German. An English translation by Norman Bronznick appeared in Stern and Mirsky (1998). A critical edition under the title סיפורי בן סירא בימי הביניים was published by Eli Yassif in 1984.

Aramaic proverbs
The Aramaic proverbs are the older part of the book. Five of them can be traced to Talmudic-Midrashic literature. The Hebrew commentary, illustrating the proverbs with fables, is much younger.

In the reading of Ginzberg:
 * 1) "Honor the physician before thou hast need of him", (Sirach 38:1)
 * 2) "If a son do not conduct himself like a son, let him float on the water."
 * 3) "Gnaw the bone that falls to thy lot whether it be good or bad."
 * 4) "Gold must be hammered, and the child must be beaten."
 * 5) "Be good and refuse not thy portion of good."
 * 6) "Woe to the wicked man and woe to his companions."
 * 7) "Cast thy bread upon the waters and upon the land, for thou shalt find it after many days" (Eccles. 11:1)
 * 8) "Hast thou seen a black ass? [Then] it was neither black nor white."
 * 9) "Bestow no good upon that which is evil, and no evil will befall thee."
 * 10) "Restrain not thy hand from doing good."
 * 11) "The bride enters the bridal chamber and, nevertheless, knows not what will befall her."
 * 12) "A nod to the wise is sufficient; the fool requires a blow." (Proverbs 22:15)
 * 13) "He who honors them that despise him is like an ass."
 * 14) "A fire, when it is kindled, burns many sheaves" (James 3:5)
 * 15) "An old woman in the house is a good omen in the house"
 * 16) "Even a good surety has to be applied to for a hundred morrows; a bad one for a hundred thousand."
 * 17) "Rise quickly from the table and thou wilt avoid disputes."
 * 18) "In thy business deal only with the upright."
 * 19) "If the goods are near at hand, the owner consumes them; but if they are at a distance, they consume him."
 * 20) "Do not disavow an old friend."
 * 21) "Thou mayest have sixty counselors, but do not give up thy own opinion"
 * 22) "He that was first satisfied and then hungry will offer thee his hand; but not he that was first hungry and then satisfied."

The second Alphabet
The 22 Hebrew proverbs are quite different in character from the Aramaic ones, and much more recent. Half of the proverbs are borrowed from the Talmud, and are only a pretext for the presentation of a number of legends surrounding Ben Sira. Ben Sira is presented as the son of Jeremiah, born to the prophet's own daughter who dipped in a mikveh into which Jeremiah was previously forced to lay seed. Ben Sira's fame reached Nebuchadnezzar II, who called him to his court. Nebuchadnezzar sets forth various ordeals for Ben Sira, who responds with 22 stories.

Editions

 * Salonica, 1514, two known surviving copies
 * Constantinople, 1519, one known complete copy in the British Library, a defective one at the Bodleian, and another defective one in Basel.
 * Venice, 1544, reprinted by Steinschneider, 1854; most later editions are based on this one.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Alphabet of Sirach


text:
Thiaminase

Thiaminase is an enzyme that metabolizes or breaks down thiamine into pyrimidine and thiazole. It is an antinutrient when consumed.

The old name was "aneurinase".

There are two types with different Enzyme Commission numbers:
 * Thiamine pyridinylase, Thiaminase I
 * pyridine + thiamine <=> 5-(2-hydroxyethyl)-4-methylthiazole + heteropyrithiamine
 * Secreted by Paenibacillus thiaminolyticus, an anaerobic organism that occurs in the human small intestine
 * Aminopyrimidine aminohydrolase, Thinaminase II
 * 4-amino-5-aminomethyl-2-methylpyrimidine + H2O <=> 4-amino-5-hydroxymethyl-2-methylpyrimidine + NH2+
 * H2O + thiamine <=> 4-amino-5-hydroxymethyl-2-methylpyrimidine + 5-(2-hydroxyethyl)-4-methylthiazole + H+
 * Produced by a wide range of plants and bacteria. In these organisms, it is mainly responsible for salvage of thiamine pyrimidine from degradation products, rather than the breakdown of thiamine. In bacteria, it stays inside their cells.

Thiaminase I
Thiaminase I works to cleave the pyrimidine ring in thiamin from the thiazolium ring at the methylene bridge. From there it adds a base compound to the pyrimidine, creating an analogue inhibitor of thiamin. Thiaminase I has the ability to use a multitude of C-N cleaving nucleophilic substrates like cysteine, pyridine, aniline, veratrylamine, dithiothreitol, and quinoline.

When analyzing the structure of Thiaminase I it shows a fold similar to that of group II periplasmic binding proteins like maltose-binding protein. These periplasmic binding proteins have two domains that each contain an α/β fold. These two domains come together to form a deep cleft that are connected by three crossover segments. Due to this structure scientists proposed that Thiaminase I could have evolved from prehistoric periplasmic binding protein that had been responsible for up taking thiamin. Between the two domains, in the cleft, sit the active site for Thiaminase I. Along the cleft there are four acidic residues and six tyrosine residues. In order for Thiamin to interact with Thiaminase I it is positioned in the active site between the pyrimidine and Asp272 by two hydrogen bonds. The Glu241 the goes on to activate the Cys113 to attack C6 of the pyrimidine. This forms a zwitterionic intermediate. The Glu241 causes and protonation and nucleophilic attack that results in the split of the bond between the pyrimidine and the thiazole. When observing the crystalline structure, it has two ⍺/ꞵ-type domains separated by a large cleft. At room temperature the two molecules have a noncrystallographic twofold axis that are bridged by a sulfate ion.

Thiaminase II
Thiaminase II cleaves but does not add a base compound. Thiaminase II can only use water as the nucleophile.

Thiaminase II has been found to be TenA. In order to cleave the C-N bond between the thiazole and pyrimidine Thiaminase only uses water as its nucleophile. When viewing Thiaminase II it is found to have a crystal structure that has 11 helices surrounding a deep acidic pocket. For each monomer present in the quaternary structure it interacts with two other monomers. There are several residues like Tyr112, Phe208, Tyr47, and Tyr163 that have some sort of contribution to the π- stacking environment surrounding the HMP ligand. The Glu205 side chain will form a hydrogen bond with the N1 nitrogen in the pyrimidine ring. Next the Tyr163 and the Asp44 side chain come together to form the hydrogen bonds with the N3 and N4'. Finally the Cys135 catalytic residue is positioned near the C2 in the pyridine ring to complete the split of thiamin into its heterocycles.

Function
It is still unclear what thiaminase does for fish, bacterial cell or insects that contain it. In ferns, thiaminase I is thought to offer protection from insects

Studies have shown that thiamine hydrolase (thiaminase II), which was originally thought to be involved solely in the degradation of thiamine, has actually been identified as having a role in thiamine degradation with the salvage of the pyrimidine moiety. Thiamin hydrolysis product N-formyl-4-amino-5-aminomethyl-2-methylpyrimidine is transported into the cell and deformylated by the amidohydrolase ylmB and hydrolyzed to 5-aminoimidazole ribotide.

When ingested
It was described in 1941 as the cause of highly mortal ataxic neuropathy in farmed foxes fed with raw carp.

It is also known as the cause of cerebrocortical necrosis of cattle and polioencephalomalasia of sheep eating thiaminase containing plants.

It was once causing economical losses in raising fisheries, e.g. in yellowtail fed raw anchovy as a sole feed for a certain period, and also in sea bream and rainbow trout. The same problem is being studied in a natural food chain system.

The larvae of a wild silk worm Anaphe venata are being consumed in a rain forest district of Nigeria as a supplemental protein nutrition, and the heat-resistant thiaminase in it is causing an acute seasonal cerebellar ataxia named African seasonal ataxia or Nigerian seasonal ataxia.

In 1860–61, Burke and Wills were the first Europeans to cross Australia south to north; on their return they subsisted primarily on raw nardoo-fern. It is possible that this led to their death due to the extremely high levels of thiaminase contained in nardoo. The Aborigines prepared nardoo by soaking the sporocarps in water for at least a day to avoid the effects of thiamine deficiency that would result from ingesting the leaves raw. In the explorers' journals they noted many symptoms of thiamine deficiency, so it is thought that they did not soak the nardoo long enough. Eventually thiamine deficiency could have led to their demise. It is noteworthy to mention that there are several other hypotheses regarding what may have killed Burke and Wills and it is widely disagreed upon by historians and scientists alike.

title: Thiaminase


text:
Joseph Conrad (ship)

Joseph Conrad is an iron-hulled sailing ship, originally launched as Georg Stage in 1882 and used to train sailors in Denmark. After sailing around the world as a private yacht in 1934 she served as a training ship in the United States, and is now a museum ship at Mystic Seaport in Connecticut.

Service history

Late one night in 1905 in Copenhagen during a fireworks display over the harbor the ships crew were ordered to shut down the lights, and most of the crew went down to their bunks to sleep. A larger merchant ship came into the direction of the ship, now completely black due to no lights, and so, it crashed and filled the bunks where the boys were sleeping, killing 22 boys the ages of 14 to 17. The ship was raised afterward. It was on guard during WWI but was more of a merchant ship and not even moved from the harbor.

Australian sailor and author Alan Villiers saved Georg Stage from the scrappers and renamed the ship in honor of famed sea author Joseph Conrad. Villiers planned a circumnavigation with a crew of mostly boys. Joseph Conrad sailed from Ipswich on 22 October 1934, crossed the Atlantic Ocean to New York City, then down to Rio de Janeiro, Cape Town, and across the Indian Ocean and through the East Indies. After stops in Sydney, New Zealand, and Tahiti, Joseph Conrad rounded Cape Horn and returned to New York on 16 October 1936, having traveled a total of some 57000 mi.

Villiers was bankrupted as a result of the expedition (although he did get three books out of the episode - Cruise of the Conrad, Stormalong, and Joey Goes to Sea), and sold the ship to Huntington Hartford, heir to the A&P supermarket fortune, who added an engine and used her as a yacht.

In 1939 Hartford donated Joseph Conrad to the United States Coast Guard for use as a training ship for the merchant marine based in Jacksonville, Florida. She participated in a training cruise through the Caribbean beginning in December, 1939 and sailed in the St. Petersburg to Havana Yacht Race in early 1941, a few months before the United States entered World War II. The Coast Guard turned the vessel over to the Maritime Administration when the merchant marine training functions of the Coast Guard were transferred to the newly created War Shipping Administration on September 1, 1942. Joseph Conrad continued to serve as a training ship until the war's end in 1945.

After being laid up for two years, the ship was transferred to Mystic Seaport in Stonington, Connecticut on July 9, 1947 for "museum and youth training purposes", where she has remained ever since as an exhibit. In addition to her role as a museum, she is also a static training vessel and is employed by Mystic Seaport to house campers attending the Joseph Conrad Sailing Camp.

Awards

 * American Defense Service Medal ribbon.svg American Defense Service Medal
 * American Campaign Medal ribbon.svg American Campaign Medal
 * USA Merchant Marine Atlantic War Zone Medal ribbon.png Merchant Marine Atlantic War Zone Medal
 * World War II Victory Medal ribbon.svg World War II Victory Medal
 * Merchant Marine Victory ribbon.svg Merchant Marine World War II Victory Medal

title: Joseph Conrad (ship)


text:
Aneurin

Aneurin may refer to:

 * Aneurin, an alternative name for thiamine (vitamin B1)

 * Aneurin Barnard (born 1987), Welsh actor
 * Aneurin Bevan (1897–1960), Welsh politician
 * Aneurin Hughes (1937–2020), British diplomat
 * Aneurin Jones (1930–2017), Welsh artist

title: Aneurin


text:
Birkhoff's theorem

Birkhoff's theorem may refer to several theorems named for the American mathematician George David Birkhoff:

 * Birkhoff's theorem (relativity)
 * Birkhoff's theorem (electromagnetism)
 * Birkhoff's ergodic theorem

It may also refer to theorems named for his son, Garrett Birkhoff:

 * Birkhoff–von Neumann theorem for doubly stochastic matrices
 * Birkhoff's HSP theorem, concerning the closure operations of homomorphism, subalgebra and product
 * Birkhoff's representation theorem for distributive lattices
 * Birkhoff's theorem (equational logic), stating that syntactic and semantic consequence coincide

title: Birkhoff's theorem


text:
Commander-in-Chief of the Forces

The Commander-in-Chief of the Forces, later Commander-in-Chief, British Army, or just the Commander-in-Chief (C-in-C), was (intermittently) the professional head of the English Army from 1660 to 1707 (the English Army, founded in 1645, was succeeded in 1707 by the new British Army, incorporating existing Scottish regiments) and of the British Army from 1707 until 1904. In 1904 the office was replaced with the creation of the Army Council and the appointment of Chief of the General Staff.

Republican origins
In earlier times, supreme command of the Army had been exercised by the monarch in person. In 1645, after the outbreak of the English Civil War, Parliament appointed Thomas Fairfax "Captain General and Commander-in-Chief of all the armies and forces raised and to be raised within the Commonwealth of England". Thomas Fairfax was the senior-most military officer, having no superior, and held great personal control over the army and its officers. Lord Fairfax was styled "Lord General". None of his successors would use this title. In 1650, Fairfax resigned his post, shortly before the Scottish campaign of the War.

Oliver Cromwell, Fairfax's Lieutenant-General, succeeded him as Commander-in-chief of the Forces. Under Cromwell, the Commander-in-Chief was de facto head of state, especially after the dismissal of the Long Parliament. Cromwell held the office until 1653, when he was elected Lord Protector.

On 21 February 1660, the reconstituted Long Parliament resolved "that General George Monck be constituted and appointed Captain-General and Commander in Chief, under Parliament, of all the Land-Forces of England, Scotland and Ireland".

Post-Restoration history
After Monck's death, the post, which gave the holder significant military power, was abolished until James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth successfully petitioned Charles II and was granted it in 1674. After Monmouth's execution the post was again not filled until 1690, when it was bestowed upon John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough, during the King's absence in Ireland. It was likewise conferred on Meinhardt Schomberg, Duke of Schomberg the following year during the King's absence in Flanders, Marlborough having fallen from favour.

After 1660 it became rare for British sovereigns to lead their troops in battle (with the notable exception of King William III); instead, it became normative for command (especially in time of war) to be delegated to an individual, who usually held the appointment of Captain General or Commander-in-Chief of the Forces. (In early years these two titles were often used interchangeably, and/or the appointments were held concurrently). The office was not always filled: for example, James II and William III both functioned themselves as Commander-in-Chief; at other times the appointment simply lapsed (especially if there was no perceived immediate military threat).

With the appointment of General Lord Jeffrey Amherst in 1793, the Commander-in-Chief was given authority over matters of discipline, over supplies, training and promotions in the British Army. The establishment of a military staff took place under the oversight of his successor, Frederick, Duke of York.

In most instances, Commanders-in-Chief of the Forces were not Cabinet members (only Conway and Wellington had a seat in Cabinet by virtue of holding this office; Ligonier and Granby were also in Cabinet during their time in office, but in both cases sat as Master-General of the Ordnance). Instead, the British Army was represented variously and tenuously in government by the Paymaster of the Forces (Paymaster General from 1836), the Master-General of the Ordnance (who did not invariably have a seat in Cabinet), the Secretary at War (who was not usually a member of the Cabinet) and (from 1794) the Secretary of State for War.

With the demise of the Board of Ordnance in the wake of the Crimean War the Commander-in-Chief assumed command of the Ordnance troops: the Royal Regiment of Artillery and the Corps of Royal Engineers. The momentum of reform at this time, however, was toward increasing the authority of the Secretary of State for War. From the passing of the War Office Act 1870, as part of the Cardwell Reforms, the Commander-in-Chief was made clearly subordinate to the Secretary of State, to serve as the latter's principal military adviser, and was made to move out of his traditional office above the arch at Horse Guards and into the War Office. Nevertheless, in 1888 he is still described as having responsibility for all personnel and matériel issues for the army and auxiliary forces, and in 1895 he took on the responsibilities of chief of staff.

The appointment of Commander-in-Chief remained in the personal gift of the monarch, and its independence was guarded by Queen Victoria (among others) as emblematic of the notion that command of the Army was vested in the Crown; during her reign, however, the office was (in 1870) made much more clearly subordinate to the Secretary of State for War (and to Parliament).

Following the recommendations of the Esher Report, the office was replaced in 1904 with the creation of the Army Council and the appointment of Chief of the General Staff. The title reverted to the monarch, who remains (titular) "Commander-in-chief of the British Armed Forces".

The Forces
The British military (ie., that part of the armed forces committed to land warfare, and not to be confused with the naval forces) was originally made up of several forces, including the British Army, the others being: the Ordnance Military Corps of the Board of Ordnance (including the Royal Artillery, Royal Engineers, and Royal Sappers and Miners), being a professional, or regular force like the army);   the Militia Force (or Constitutional Force),    being a conscripted reserve infantry force able to be called out in times of emergency for home defence; the Yeomanry, being a similar mounted force; and the Volunteer Corps, made up of voluntary reserve units that normally only existed during wartime.   The Board of Ordnance was abolished in 1855 and its military corps, commissariat stores, transport, barracks and other departments were absorbed into the British Army, which was also called Regular Force or Regular Army). The Reserve Forces were also known as the Auxiliary Forces and the Local Forces (as their personnel could not originally be compelled to serve outside their local areas), and were re-organised in the 1850s with the Militia becoming voluntary (but with recruits engaging for a period of service that they were obliged to complete), and the Volunteer Force permanently established. These forces were increasingly integrated with the British Army during the final decades of the Nineteenth Century and the first decades of the Twentieth Century (the Yeomanry and Volunteer Force became the Territorial Force in 1908, and the Militia became the Special Reserve (and ceased to exist after the First World War).

Appointees
The following table lists all those who have held the post of Commander-in-Chief of the Forces or its preceding positions. Ranks and honours are as at the completion of their tenure: † denotes people who died in office.

!colspan=7|Parliamentary General-in-Chief Command
 * -style="text-align:center;"

!colspan=7|General-in-Chief Command
 * -style="text-align:center;"

 * -style="text-align:center;"
 * colspan=7|Position vacant (3 January 1670 – 30 March 1674)

 * -style="text-align:center;"
 * colspan=7|Position vacant (1 December 1679 – 3 June 1690)

 * -style="text-align:center;"
 * colspan=7|Position vacant (1691 – 24 April 1702)

 * -style="text-align:center;"
 * colspan=7|Position vacant (1714 – 1 January 1744)

 * -style="text-align:center;"
 * colspan=7|Position vacant (1745 – 1745)

 * -style="text-align:center;"
 * colspan=7|Position vacant (17 January 1770 – 19 March 1778)

!colspan=7|Commander-in-Chief
 * -style="text-align:center;"

title: Commander-in-Chief of the Forces


text:
Sodium triphosphate

Sodium triphosphate (STP), also sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP), or tripolyphosphate (TPP), ) is an inorganic compound with formula Na5P3O10. It is the sodium salt of the polyphosphate penta-anion, which is the conjugate base of triphosphoric acid. It is produced on a large scale as a component of many domestic and industrial products, especially detergents. Environmental problems associated with eutrophication are attributed to its widespread use.

Preparation and properties
Sodium tripolyphosphate is produced by heating a stoichiometric mixture of disodium phosphate, Na2HPO4, and monosodium phosphate, NaH2PO4, under carefully controlled conditions.
 * 2 Na2HPO4 +  NaH2PO4   →   Na5P3O10  +  2 H2O

In this way, approximately 2 million tons are produced annually.

STPP is a colourless salt, which exists both in anhydrous form and as the hexahydrate. The anion can be described as the pentanionic chain [O3POP(O)2OPO3]5−. Many related di-, tri-, and polyphosphates are known including the cyclic triphosphate (e.g. sodium trimetaphosphate). It binds strongly to metal cations as both a bidentate and tridentate chelating agent.

Detergents
The majority of STPP is consumed as a component of commercial detergents. It serves as a "builder", industrial jargon for a water softener. In hard water (water that contains high concentrations of Mg2+ and Ca2+), detergents are deactivated. Being a highly charged chelating agent, TPP5− binds to dications tightly and prevents them from interfering with the sulfonate detergent.

Food
STPP is a preservative for seafood, meats, poultry, and animal feeds. It is common in food production as E number E451. In foods, STPP is used as an emulsifier and to retain moisture. Many governments regulate the quantities allowed in foods, as it can substantially increase the sale weight of seafood in particular. The United States Food and Drug Administration lists STPP as Generally recognized as safe.

Other
Other uses (hundreds of thousands of tons/year) include ceramics (decrease the viscosity of glazes up to a certain limit), leather tanning (as masking agent and synthetic tanning agent - SYNTAN), anticaking agents, setting retarders, flame retardants, paper, anticorrosion pigments, textiles, rubber manufacture, fermentation, antifreeze." TPP is used as a polyanion crosslinker in polysaccharide based drug delivery. Toothpaste may contain sodium triphosphate.

Health effects
High serum phosphate concentration has been identified as a predictor of cardiovascular events and mortality. Whilst phosphate is present in the body and food in organic forms, inorganic forms of phosphate such as sodium triphosphate are readily adsorbed and can result in elevated phosphate levels in serum. Salts of polyphosphate anions are moderately irritating to skin and mucous membranes because they are mildly alkaline.

Environmental effects
Because it is very water-soluble, STPP is not significantly removed by waste water treatment. STPP hydrolyses to phosphate, which is assimilated into the natural phosphorus cycle. Detergents containing phosphorus contribute to the eutrophication of many fresh waters.

title: Sodium triphosphate


text: Category:Sodium compounds

title: Category:Sodium compounds


text:
Bellerive

Bellerive may refer to:

 * Bellerive, Missouri, a suburb of St. Louis, United States
 * Bellerive, Switzerland, municipality in the district of Avenches in the canton of Vaud
 * Collonge-Bellerive, Switzerland, a municipality in the canton of Geneva
 * Bellerive, Tasmania, Australia, a suburb of the City of Clarence, part of the greater Hobart area
 * Bellerive Studios, films studios located in Zurich, Switzerland

title: Bellerive


text:
Phosphorescent (musician)

Phosphorescent is the stage name of American singer-songwriter Matthew Houck. Originally from Huntsville, Alabama, Houck began recording and performing under this nickname in 2001 in Athens, Georgia. He is currently based in Nashville, Tennessee.

Overview
Before recording under the name Phosphorescent, Matthew Houck toured under the name Fillup Shack and self-released a limited pressing of the album Hipolit in 2000. Houck later changed his stage name to Phosphorescent and released the full-length LP A Hundred Times or More in 2003 through Athens, Georgia-based independent label Warm Records. The following year, he released the EP The Weight of Flight. Phosphorescent rose to wider critical acclaim after releasing Aw Come Aw Wry in August 2005 and Pride in October 2007. The latter was named the 12th best album of 2007 by Stylus Magazine and received an 8.0 rating from the online indie magazine Pitchfork. In 2009, inspired by Willie Nelson's tribute album to Lefty Frizzell To Lefty from Willie, Houck crafted a tribute album to Nelson himself entitled To Willie, released through Dead Oceans. Phosphorescent released Here's to Taking It Easy in 2010.

Muchacho, Phosphorescent's sixth studio album, was released in 2013 to critical acclaim. The full studio album C'est La Vie followed in 2018.

In January 2024, Phosphorescent announced their new album Revelator, to be released in April on Verve Records. For the first time, it features a song written by someone other than Houck - his partner and collaborator, Jo Schornikow.

title: Phosphorescent (musician)


text:
Pinwheel (TV series)

Pinwheel is an American children's television series that was the first show to air on the then-rebranded Nickelodeon, as well as the first to appear on its Nick Jr. block along reruns until 1990. The show was aimed at preschoolers aged 3–5. It was created by Vivian Horner, an educator who spent her earlier career at the Children's Television Workshop, the company behind PBS's Sesame Street. The show was geared to the "short attention span of preschoolers," with each episode divided into short, self-contained segments including songs, skits, and animations from all over the world.

The series is set in a boarding house called Pinwheel House, which is powered by a pinwheel on the roof. The house's residents are a mix of live-action humans and puppets. Most of the show's songs are set to music in the style of a wind-up music box.

Pinwheel premiered on December 1, 1977, on Channel C-3 of QUBE's local cable system in Columbus, Ohio. In April 1979, Channel C-3 expanded into a national television network, now rebranded Nickelodeon. Pinwheel continued to air on the network until 1990, and exclusively during the then-new Nick Jr. block starting in 1988. It was gradually phased out in favor of another preschool series, Eureeka's Castle. The Los Angeles Times called Eureeka's Castle a successor series to Pinwheel.

History
Pinwheel was created by Vivian Horner and produced by Sandy Kavanaugh, two educators who had previously worked at the Children's Television Workshop. The show was created for QUBE, a local cable system tested in Columbus, Ohio. QUBE's developers wanted to offer a series for preschoolers, so they hired Horner and Kavanaugh based on their previous experience in preschool television. Starting in December 1, 1977, Pinwheel was shown on Channel C-3, one of the experimental channels offered to QUBE subscribers. The channel was cited as "the world's first TV channel geared strictly to preschoolers."

In 1979, Pinwheel was expanded into a national network rebranded Nickelodeon (now part of Paramount). Pinwheel was reformatted as a series of hour-long episodes shown in three- to five-hour blocks, a format which eventually became the model for Nickelodeon's Nick Jr. block. There were a total of 260 Pinwheel episodes recorded from 1977 to 1984. For international distribution, Nickelodeon edited Pinwheel into a package of half-hour episodes. It aired in Canada on Superchannel (from 1983 to 1988) and TVOntario (from 1990 to 1993). The series was also broadcast in the UK whereas it aired on the defunct children's cable and satellite television network The Children's Channel from 1985-1987 and was even shown in a few Eurasian countries, including Channel 5 in Singapore, TV1 and TV2 in Malaysia and ATV World in Hong Kong as part of their afternoon children's programming block Tube Time.

On January 4, 1988, Nickelodeon introduced the Nick Jr. block, a weekday morning block for preschoolers, to its schedule. Pinwheel was the first series that aired as part of the block. Pinwheel continued to air as a staple of Nick Jr. until July 6, 1990, when the show aired its last rerun. Another puppet series for preschoolers, Eureeka's Castle, was made to replace it. In an article titled "Nickelodeon's New Lineup for Preschoolers," the Los Angeles Times called Eureeka's Castle the successor to Pinwheel.

Premise
The show takes place in and around a large Victorian-style boarding house called Pinwheel House, which is powered by a pinwheel on one of the peaks. Live action casting interact with puppets, discussing several concepts familiar to children's programming like sharing, being considerate, the environment, and colors. All of the characters live and work in the various areas in and around the house. The Ohio episodes relied heavily on songs mostly performed by Jake. A package of children's shorts from Coe Film Associates were shown as inserts between the show's usual puppet/human segments.

Pinwheel underwent several changes when it moved to national television in 1979. Taping of Pinwheel moved to Matrix Studios in New York City, where the set was rebuilt. Arline Miyazaki, Betty Rozek, and Dale Engel joined the cast as Kim, Sal, and Smitty. Craig Marin and Olga Felgemacher created new puppet characters. Coe Film Associates' collection of short films were also used as inserts for other early Nickelodeon shows, including Hocus Focus and By the Way.

Humans
The characters are ordered per the first season credits, with later cast members added to the end.
 * Franci (Franci Anderson) - a storyteller who likes to write and perform in plays. She keeps a terrarium that houses a group of small alien marionettes called the Wonkles. She likes to sketch pictures as she tells stories. She only appeared in the first season.
 * Coco (Caroline Cox Loveheart from 1977 to 1979, Lindanell Rivera from 1979 to 1984) - a Parisian mime who never speaks and has a knack for fixing things. She often hosts her own segments, performing magic tricks and mime routines while an off-screen narrator describes her actions.
 * Jake (George James) - an African-American boarder who enjoys music. He collects unusual sounds in small boxes and opens them up whenever he needs musical inspiration. He keeps a wide variety of musical instruments in his room, and he displays them unconventionally on a coatrack.
 * Smitty (Dale Engle) and Sal (Betty Rozek) - an elderly couple who run a local newspaper called The Daily Noodle. One of Smitty's long-running obsessions is to capture a photograph of the elusive Admiral Bird for the front page of the Daily Noodle, though he constantly misses his chance.
 * Kim (Arline Miyazaki) - Aurelia's Asian niece who is the resident artist of Pinwheel House. She is commonly seen wearing a painter's smock and carrying a painting palette. In addition to painting, she sometimes makes sculptures.

Puppets

 * Aurelia - a bohemian-style character who is the owner and mother figure of Pinwheel House. She has a ginger bob, olive green eyes, fuchsia lips and wears colorful headscarfs and large hoop earrings. She is friendly and bubbly, but firm and sometimes full of herself. She works as a fortune teller and has a touch-tone crystal ball that works like a telephone.
 * Ebenezer T. Squint - a green-skinned inventor and part-time magician who talks in a nasal voice. He lives in a basement storage room where he makes machines and conspires to be featured in Smitty's newspaper. He pretends to be antisocial, but he secretly enjoys being included in the house activities. In his words, he loves to play as "the villain" and cause trouble for no good reason. He has collections of dust and weeds.
 * Luigi O'Brien - an Italian produce vendor who runs a small food stand in the backyard of the boarding house. He has a happy-go-lucky, relaxed attitude and is often a source of advice. All of his produce items talk, sing, and have individual personalities, but they are only known by their respective fruit and vegetable names (Pear, Tomato, etc.).
 * Plus and Minus (voiced by Jinkins and unknown) - Aurelia's twin nephews who live in the attic room. The color schemes for the twins were the exact opposite, with Plus having black hair and orange skin and Minus with white hair and purple skin. Minus is very upbeat and enthusiastic, while Plus is more thoughtful and easily discouraged. A recurring sketch is Plus's attempt to board a spaceship to the moon, and Minus distracting him and causing him to miss the take-off. Their favorite game is "Gotcha Last," a combination of tag and hide-and-seek.
 * Molly the Mole - an elderly mole who lives in a tree in the backyard and often introduces cartoon shorts in the form of telling stories. She is sometimes visited by another mole named Leo.
 * The Admiral Bird - a bright red bird marionette who is known for being elusive and hard to catch. He often drops from the sky with a strange, echoing call. It is Smitty's dream to capture a picture of the Admiral Bird for his newspaper, but he never succeeds. The Admiral Bird enjoys teasing Smitty.
 * Silas the Snail - an elderly snail who is constantly on his way to an annual snail gathering. He never makes it further than the back garden due to snails being so slow. He extolls the virtues of slowing down and enjoying life, telling people that "half the fun is getting there."
 * The Hobo Bugs - a brother-and-sister pair of marionettes named Herbert and Lulu. They like to dance and play on the hedges in the backyard, and they often visit Luigi's produce stand to ask for special items, such as an impossible pair of custom sandals that Luigi somehow manages to produce. They also love to play with Ebenezer, who typically tells them to leave him alone in a grumpy manner, even though he really enjoys their company.
 * The Wonkles - a group of alien marionettes from the planet Zintar who live in Franci's garden terrarium. Three of them are bird-like: Tika (yellow and pink), Gorkle (blue), and Woofle (red). A fourth Wonkle, an abstract-looking green creature named Sorbin, also visits occasionally. They were retired from the show along with Franci and Spiderbelle in 1979.
 * Spiderbelle - a purple spider marionette who wears a bonnet. She was retired from the show along with Franci and the Wonkles in 1979.

List of shorts
Nickelodeon secured the rights to a number of international short segments (usually acquired from Coe Film Associates), including those that were already written in English, such as the Franco-British children's show The Magic Roundabout. Pinwheel became a showcase for these acquisitions and featured a wide variety of both animated and stop-motion animation shorts or cartoons from each different country such as Europe.

 *  The Adventures of the Mole
 * The Adventures of Mr. Rossi
 * Alfie Atkins
 * Balthazar le Mille-pattes
 * Bod
 * Brumme og Co.
 * Bernard and Barney (Brundibáři)
 * Bunny in the Suitcase
 * Chapi Chapo
 * Charlie's Climbing Tree
 * Crystal Tipps and Alistair
 * Curious George
 * Emily
 * Hattytown Tales
 * Indendørslege
 * Jim & Jam
 * King Rollo
 * Lille P.'s verden
 * Lilliput Put
 * Madeline (UPA short)
 * The Magic Carousel
 * Mixometric
 * Die Sendung mit der Maus mouse spots
 * Die Abenteuer der Maus auf dem Mars
 * Musti
 * The Naughty Owlet
 * Paddington
 * Peelie and Poolie
 * Piggeldy and Frederick
 * The Pilis
 * Professor Balthazar
 * Schnoodle
 * Simon in the Land of Chalk Drawings
 * Unser Sandmännchen
 * Vad är det som låter?

Reception
The New York Times wrote that Pinwheel had "attracted praise from critics," and The Chicago Tribune called the show a "highly acclaimed Nickelodeon cable series for preschoolers." Writing for The New York Times in 1982, Alexis Greene commended Pinwheel for catering specifically to preschoolers and called the show "a colorful, well-written mix of songs and skits, puppets and 'real people.'"

title: Pinwheel (TV series)


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Christopher Brennan

Christopher John Brennan (1 November 1870 – 5 October 1932) was an Australian poet, scholar and literary critic.

Biography
Brennan was born in Haymarket, an inner suburb of Sydney, to Christopher Brennan (d. 1919), a brewer, and his wife Mary Ann née Carroll (d. 1924), both Irish immigrants. His education took place at two schools in Sydney: he first attended St Aloysius' College, and after gaining a scholarship from Patrick Moran, he boarded at St Ignatius' College, Riverview.

Brennan entered the University of Sydney in 1888, taking up studies in the Classics, and won a travelling scholarship to Berlin. There he met his future wife, Anna Elisabeth Werth; there, also, he encountered the poetry of Stéphane Mallarmé. About this time, he decided to become a poet. In 1893 Brennan's article "On the Manuscripts of Aeschylus" appeared in The Journal of Philology. Brennan began forming a theory about the descent of Aeschylus' extant manuscripts in 1888.

Returning to Australia, Brennan took up a position as a cataloguer in the public library, before being given a position as assistant lecturer in French and German in the department of modern languages and literature and in 1920 the position of  associate professor in German and comparative literature at the University of Sydney. In 1914, he produced his major work, Poems: 1913.

After Brennan's marriage broke up in 1922, he went to live with Violet Singer, the 'Vie' of his later poems, and, as a result of both his divorce and increasing drunkenness, he was removed from his position at the university in June 1925. The death of Singer in an accident in the same year left him distraught, and he spent most of his remaining years in poverty. Brennan died in 1932 from cancer.

Legacy
Brennan influenced Australian writers of his own generation and many who succeeded him, including R. D. Fitzgerald, A. D. Hope, Judith Wright and James McAuley. In remembrance, the Fellowship of Australian Writers established the Christopher Brennan Award which is presented annually to "an Australian poet who has written work of sustained quality and distinction".

Brennan Hall and Library at St John's College within the University of Sydney, the Christopher Brennan building in the university's Arts Faculty, and the main library at Saint Ignatius' College, Riverview are named in his honour.

There was for several decades a Christopher Brennan Society "founded in... the 1970s by Axel Clark, Robin Marsden and John Fletcher", whose patrons included "some who knew Brennan: Professor A. R. Chisholm; Margaret Delmer; Professor Ralph Farrell; Sister Peter, of the Sisters of Charity; Walter Stone; Professor G. P. Shipp; Richard Pennington".

Works by Brennan

 * Sir Roger de Coverley, Selections from The Spectator (Sydney : Turner and Henderson, 1892). Edited with: A. B. Piddington. ISBN 978-1533275691
 * XVIII Poems: Being the First Collection of Verse and Prose (Sydney : privately stylographed, 1897).
 * XXI Poems: MDCCCXCIII-MDCCCXCVII: Towards the Source (Sydney : Angus and Robertson, 1897).
 * Fact and Idea (Sydney : Govt. Printer, 1899).
 * From Blake to Arnold: Selections from English Poetry, 1783–1853 (London : Macmillan, 1900). Edited with: J. P. Pickburn & J. Le Gay Brereton.
 * A Mask (Sydney : Sydney U. Women's College, 1913). With: J. Le Gay Brereton.
 * Poems (Sydney : G. B. Philip and Son, 1914). Commonly referred to as Poems (1913).
 * Passages for Translation into French and German (London : Oxford University Press, 1914). Compiled with: G. G. Nicholson.
 * A Chant of Doom: and Other Verses (Sydney : Angus and Robertson, 1918).
 * Twenty Three Poems (Sydney : Australian Limited Editions Society, 1938).
 * The Burden of Tyre (Sydney : Harry F. Chaplin, 1953).
 * The Verse of Christopher Brennan ed. by A. R. Chisholm and J. J. Quinn (Sydney : Angus and Robertson, 1960).
 * The Prose of Christopher Brennan ed. by A. R. Chisholm and J. J. Quinn (Sydney : Angus and Robertson, 1962).
 * Selected Poems of Christopher Brennan (Sydney : Angus and Robertson, 1965). Ed. by: A. R. Chisholm.
 * Selected Poems of Christopher Brennan (Sydney : Angus and Robertson, 1973). Ed. by: G. A. Wilkes.
 * Prose-Verse-Poster-Algebraic-Symbolico-Riddle Musicopoematographoscope & Pocket Musicopoematographoscope (Erskineville, NSW : Hale and Iremonger, 1981). Ed. by: Axel Clark. ISBN 9780908094882
 * Terry Sturm, ed., Christopher Brennan, Edited with an Introduction and Notes ( St. Lucia, Qld: University of Queensland Press, 1984) (Portable Australian Authors series). ISBN 978-2747580007
 * 13 Poems (Pearl Beach, NSW : Escutcheon Press, 1987). Ed. by: R. E. Summers.
 * Interludes: Six Poems (Pearl Beach, NSW : Escutcheon Press, 1991). ISBN 9780958806633
 * The Autumnal Glory of Valvins: Christopher Brennan on Mallarmé (Banora Point : Wind and Wave Press, 2007). Ed. by: Phillip A. Ellis.
 * Like a Dream of Stone: Selected Verse Translations by Christopher Brennan (Banora Point : Wind and Wave Press, 2007). Ed. by: Phillip A. Ellis.

Works about Brennan

 * Katherine Barnes, The Higher Self in Christopher Brennan’s Poems: Esotericism, Romanticism, Symbolism, Leiden: Brill, 2006. ISBN 978-9004152212
 * Alan Rowland Chisholm, Christopher Brennan: The Man and his Poetry, Sydney: Angus & Robertson, 1946.
 * Alan Rowland Chisholm, Study of Christopher Brennan's "Forest of Night", Melbourne University Press, 1970. ISBN 978-0522839562
 * Axel Clark, Christopher Brennan: A Critical Biography, Melbourne University Press, 1980.
 * T. Inglis Moore, Six Australian Poets: Hugh McCrae, Shaw Neilson, Bernard O'Dowd, William Baylebridge, Christopher Brennan, R. D. FitzGerald, Melbourne, Robertson & Mullens, 1942.
 * Simone Kadi, Christopher Brennan, poète, Université de Nanterre 1994.
 * Simone Kadi, ed. and tr., Christopher Brennan: Introduction suivie de 12 poèmes – textes et traductions – avec commentaires, Paris: Editions L'Harmattan, 2005 (Poètes des Cinq Continents).
 * Richard Pennington, Christopher Brennan: Some Recollections, Sydney: Angus & Robertson, 1970. Foreword by G. A. Wilkes.
 * Walter W. Stone and Hugh Anderson, Christopher John Brennan: A Comprehensive Bibliography with Annotations, Cremorne (N.S.W.), Stone Copying Company, 1959 (Studies in Australian Bibliography, No. 9).

title: Christopher Brennan


text: Category:Nitro compounds

title: Category:Nitro compounds


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North America and West Indies Station

The North America and West Indies Station was a formation or command of the United Kingdom's Royal Navy stationed in North American waters from 1745 to 1956, with main bases at the Imperial fortresses of Bermuda and Halifax, Nova Scotia. The North American Station absorped the separate Newfoundland Station in 1825 (becoming the North America and Newfoundland Station), and the Jamaica Station in 1830, to form the North America and West Indies Station. It was briefly abolished in 1907 before being restored in 1915. It was renamed the America and West Indies Station in 1926, absorbing what had been the South East Coast of America Station and the Pacific Station. It was commanded by Commanders-in-Chief whose titles changed with the changing of the formation's name, eventually by the Commander-in-Chief, America and West Indies Station.

History

The squadron was formed in 1745 to counter French forces in North America, with the headquarters at the Halifax Naval Yard in Nova Scotia (now CFB Halifax).

Royal Navy ships and vessels in the area had been designated as the North American Station in 1767, under the command of Commodore Samuel Hood. The headquarters was located in Halifax from 1758 to 1794, and thereafter in Halifax and Bermuda. Land and buildings for a permanent Naval Yard were purchased by the Royal Navy in 1758 and the Yard was officially commissioned in 1759. The Yard served as the main base for the Royal Navy in North America during the Seven Years' War, the American Revolution, and the French Revolutionary Wars.

The economy of Bermuda had been entirely dependent on maritime activities, including privateering, since the 17th Century.

Following American independence in 1783, Bermuda was the only British territory left between Nova Scotia and the West Indies (by agreement with the Spanish government, a Royal Navy base was maintained in Florida until this was ceded to the United States), and was selected as the new headquarters for the region. The establishment of a base there was delayed for a dozen years, however, due to the need to survey the encircling barrier reef to locate channels suitable for large warships. Once this had been completed, a base was established at St. George's in 1794, with the fleet anchoring at Murray's Anchorage in the northern lagoon, named for Vice Admiral Sir George Murray, who became the Commander-in-Chief of the new River St. Lawrence and Coast of America and North America and West Indies Station. The Admiralty also began purchasing land at Bermuda's West End, including Ireland Island, Spanish Point, and smaller islands in the Great Sound with the intent of building the Royal Naval Dockyard, Bermuda, and a permanent naval base there, with its anchorage on Grassy Bay. The construction of this base was to drag on through much of the Nineteenth Century.

Admiral Sir John Borlase Warren was appointed Commander-in-Chief in 1812, and he and his staff seem to have spent most of their time at Bermuda during the War of 1812 (he was replaced by Vice Admiral Sir Alexander Inglis Cochrane in 1813), from where the blockade of much of the Atlantic Seaboard of the United States and raids such as the Battle of Craney Island were orchestrated. 2,500 soldiers under Major-General Robert Ross aboard HMS Royal Oak (1809), three frigates, three sloops and ten other vessels, was sent to Bermuda in 1814, following British victory in the Peninsular War, and joined with the naval and military forces already at, or operating from, Bermuda to carry out the Chesapeake campaign, a punitive expedition which included the Raid on Alexandria, the Battle of Bladensburg, and the Burning of Washington was launched in August, 1814.

In 1813, the area of command had become the North America Station again, with the West Indies falling under the Jamaica Station, and in 1816 it was renamed the North America and Lakes of Canada Station. The headquarters was initially in Bermuda during the winter and Halifax during the summer, but Admiralty House, Bermuda, became the year-round headquarters of the station in 1821, when the area of command became the North America and Newfoundland Station (with the absorption of the Newfoundland Station). In 1818 Halifax became the summer base for the squadron which shifted to the Royal Naval Dockyard, Bermuda, for the remainder of the year. In 1819, Bermuda, which was better positioned to counter threats from the United States, became the main base of the station year-round. Halifax continued to be used as the summer base for the station until 1907. Virtually impregnable to attack over the ocean, and impossible to attack over land,  Bermuda's importance following the war was described by Royal Naval Purser Richard Cotter in 1828:

"The possession of Bermuda, as the key of all our Western Colonies, is of the first importance to England, for if a foe of any maritime strength had possession of it, our trade would be exposed to much annoyance, if not total destruction."

Sir Henry Hardinge reported, in the House of Commons, on the 22 March 1839:

"All who were conversant with the interests of our West Indian and North American possessions must know that Bermuda was one of our most important posts—a station where the navy could be refitted with the greatest ease, where during the last war we had about 2,000,000l. value in stores, where our ships (such was the safety of the anchorage) could at all times take refuge. This island had been fortified at very great expense; for some years 5,000 convicts had been engaged on the works, and it was most important in every point of view that this island should be maintained in a state of perfect security. For a long time even after the determination of the sympathisers in the United States to attack us had been known, the force at Bermuda was never greater than a small battalion of 480 or 500 men, perfectly inadequate to do the duties of the station. Considering that this post was one of great consequence, that immense sums had been expended upon it, and that the efficiency of the navy in those seas was chiefly to be secured by means of it, it was indispensable, that it should be in safe keeping."

In 1830 the station absorbed the Jamaica Station and was redesignated as the North America and West Indies Station, and remained so until 1907, when the North America and West Indies Station was abolished and its squadron replaced by the 4th Cruiser Squadron. This was based in England and Bermuda was redesignated from a base to a coaling station, although the dockyard remained in operation. The Commander-in-Chief, North America and West Indies Station, remained in Bermuda. The Royal Navy withdrew from Halifax in 1905, and the Halifax Naval Yard was handed over to the Royal Canadian Navy in 1910. The Esquimalt Royal Navy Dockyard on the Pacific coast of Canada was also transferred to the dominion government in 1905.

An official letter sent by the Commander-in-Chief during the Venezuelan crisis of 1902–1903 listed the following ships at the station on 1 January 1903: cruisers HMS Ariadne, HMS Charybdis, HMS Pallas, HMS Indefatigable, HMS Retribution, and HMS Tribune; sloops HMS Fantome and HMS Alert; destroyers HMS Quail and HMS Rocket; and the tender HMS Columbine.

The North America and West Indies Station was restored in 1915, and incorporated the 8th Cruiser Squadron from 1924 to 1925. After the First World War, relying on the Panama Canal (completed in 1914), it absorbed the geographic area formerly belonging to the Pacific Station, as reported in the Daily Colonist newspaper on 16 July, 1919:

"Under the new dispensation of British naval power all over the world, now that the preoccupation in the North Sea is at an end, it was thought that no provision had been made for the North Pacific Ocean, but latest official information shows the Admiralty has no intention of abandoning these waters. The North America and West Indies Squadron is to have a wide area to patrol, comprising the North Atlantic, the West Indies and the North Pacific-from the Galapagos Islands to the Bering Straits. While any of the vessels of this squadron are in the Pacific their headquarters will be at Esquimalt. The squadron is to be composed of four of the most powerful light cruisers afloat, and will be in command of Vice-Admiral Sir Trevelyn Napier, who will have his headquarters at Bermuda. There will also be smaller craft attached to the squadron for police duties."

and, in 1928, South America (what had once been the South East Coast of America Station) was added to the geographic limits of the North America and West Indies Station and the station was renamed the "America and West Indies Station". In May, 1928, HMS Dauntless (D45) was recommissioned and transferred to the Station from the Mediterranean to augment the vessels of the 8th Light Cruiser Station. South American waters had previously been patrolled by the "South American Squadron", but this had been withdrawn due to financial constraints in 1921, since when the British flag has been shown there only by special visits (such as during the world cruise of the First Cruiser Squadron in 1924 or by HMS Repulse during the March to October, 1925, tour of Africa and South America by the Prince of Wales'), or by detaching a ship from the North America and West Indies Station. In 1942 the title of C-in-C America and West Indies was re-styled Senior British Naval Officer, Western Atlantic.

In 1945 the America and West Indies title was restored.

In 1951, the Royal Naval Dockyard, Bermuda, was reduced to a base without drydock facilities, with the Admiralty Floating Dock No. 5 towed to Britain by HM Tugs Warden and Reward (the smaller AFD 48 remained). The position of Senior Naval Officer West Indies (SNOWI) was established as a Sub-Area Commander under the Commander-in-Chief of the America and West Indies station. The occupant of this position was a commodore, and was provided with a shore office on Ireland Island (which was beside the Victualling Yard until 1962), but was required to spend much of his time at sea in the West Indies. A flagship (between 1951 and April, 1956, this was successively HMS Sheffield (C24), HMS Superb (25), HMS Sheffield, HMS Kenya (14)) and other vessels of the America and West Indies Squadron continued to be based at the South Yard of the former Royal Naval Dockyard, where the Royal Navy maintained a Berthing Area under the command of a Resident Naval Officer (RNO), but were detached from the Home Fleet, and their refits and repairs were thenceforth to be carried out in Britain. The RNO had his own office in one of the houses of Dockyard Terrace. Admiralty land not required for the continued naval operations was sold to the colonial government. There was also an RNO in Nassau.

In 1952, the Commander-in-Chief, Vice Admiral Sir William Andrewes, became the initial Deputy Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic.

Disestablishment and successor, SNOWI
On 29 October 1956, the post of Commander-in-Chief, America and West Indies Station, was abolished, leaving the Senior Naval Officer, West Indies as his replacement. SNOWI reported directly to the Commander-in-Chief, Home Fleet, flying his flag back in the United Kingdom. SNOWI also served as Island Commander Bermuda (ISCOMBERMUDA) in the NATO chain of command, reporting to Commander-in-Chief, Western Atlantic Area, as part of SACLANT. The ships of the command were reduced to two Station Frigates.

All remaining Admiralty land, including Admiralty House at Clarence Hill and Ireland Island, along with War Department lands in Bermuda, were sold to the colonial government between 1957 and 1965. That part of the dockyard still required for naval operations remained under Admiralty control under a ninety-nine year lease as the South Yard Berthing Area, which was commissioned on 1 June 1965 as HMS Malabar (shore establishment), under the command of the RNO, with the headquarters of SNOWI and the RNO in Moresby House (originally built in the 1899s as the residence of the civilian Officer in Charge, Works). In December, 1967, the position of RNO Bermuda was abolished, with its duties passing to SNOWI's secretary and SNOWI taking over command of HMS Malabar. As SNOWI was frequently in the West Indies, he was unable to effectively command HMS Malabar and a Lieutenant-Commander was consequently appointed to the roles of Commanding Officer of HMS Malabar and RNO in 1971.

The former Royal Naval wireless station land at Daniels Head was leased to the Royal Canadian Navy on 1 January 1963, for the purpose of a new radio station. It became CFS Daniel's Head when the Royal Canadian Navy became part of the Canadian Forces in 1969.

After the assassination of the Governor of Bermuda, Sir Richard Sharples, in February 1973, HMS Sirius (F40) provided enhanced security for Commodore Cameron Rusby, the then-SNOWI. A detachment of Royal Marines (subsequently replaced by soldiers from the Parachute Regiment) was posted to the Dockyard to guard SNOWI.

While Bermuda had been the ideal base of operations for the North America and West Indies Station, at a thousand miles north of the Virgin Islands, it was far too distant to serve as an effective headquarters for only the West Indies. This meant that both SNOWI and the Station Frigates spent little time in or near Bermuda. On 1 April 1976, the post of SNOWI was abolished, and the Station Frigates were withdrawn. The RNO and his staff remained, and a frigate was appointed West Indies Guardship, but seldom visited Bermuda. HMS Malabar ceased to be a base and was rated only as a supply station.

By 1995, when Malabar was handed over to the Government of Bermuda,   the Royal Naval presence in the North-Western Atlantic and Caribbean had been reduced to only the West Indies Guard Ship, a role which was rotated among the fleet's escorts, which took turns operating extended patrols of the West Indies.

Years after the disestablishment of the SNOWI post, the West Indies Guard Ship task was redesignated Atlantic Patrol Task (North).

Sub commands

 * Jamaica Division consisting of naval vessels
 * Jamaica Dockyard shore establishment.

Commanders in Chief
Commanders of the station have included: ❌ = died in post

Commander-in-Chief, North American Station

 * Commodore James Douglas (1746–48) - appointed Commodore of Newfoundland at this time.
 * Commodore Charles Watson (1748–49)
 * Commodore Augustus Keppel (1754–55)
 * Vice-Admiral Edward Boscawen (1755–56)
 * Commodore Lord Colville (November 1759 – October 1762)
 * Commodore Richard Spry (October 1762 – October 1763)
 * Rear Admiral Lord Colville (October 1763 – September 1766)
 * Captain Joseph Deane (September 1766 – November 1766)
 * Captain Archibald Kennedy (November 1766 – July 1767)
 * Commodore Samuel Hood (July 1767 – October 1770)
 * Commodore James Gambier (October 1770 – August 1771)
 * Rear Admiral John Montagu (August 1771 – June 1774)
 * Vice Admiral Samuel Graves (June 1774 – January 1776)
 * Vice Admiral Richard Howe (February 1776 – September 1778)
 * Vice Admiral James Gambier (1778–79)
 * Vice Admiral John Byron (1779)
 * Vice Admiral Mariot Arbuthnot (1779–81)
 * Vice Admiral Sir Thomas Graves (1781)
 * Rear Admiral Robert Digby (1781–83)
 * Rear Admiral Sir Charles Douglas (1783–85)
 * Vice Admiral Sir Herbert Sawyer (1785–89)
 * Vice Admiral Sir Richard Hughes (1789–92)
 * Captain Sir Rupert George (1792-1794)
 * Vice Admiral George Murray (1794–96)
 * Vice Admiral George Vandeput (1797–1800) ❌
 * Vice Admiral Sir William Parker (1800–02)
 * Vice Admiral Sir Andrew Mitchell (1802–06) ❌
 * Vice Admiral Sir George Cranfield Berkeley (1806–07)
 * Vice Admiral Sir John Warren (1807–10)
 * Vice Admiral Sir Herbert Sawyer (1810–13)
 * Admiral Sir John Warren (1813–14)
 * Vice Admiral Sir Alexander Cochrane (1814–15)
 * Vice Admiral Sir David Milne (1816)
 * Vice Admiral Sir Edward Colpoys (1816–21)

Commander-in-Chief, North America and West Indies Station

 * Vice Admiral Sir William Fahie (1821–24)
 * Vice Admiral Sir Willoughby Lake (1824–27)
 * Vice Admiral Sir Charles Ogle (1827–30)
 * Vice Admiral Sir Edward Colpoys (1830–32)
 * Vice Admiral Sir George Cockburn (1832–36)
 * Vice Admiral Sir Peter Halkett (1836–37)
 * Vice Admiral Sir Charles Paget (1837–39) ❌
 * Commodore Peter John Douglas (1839)
 * Vice Admiral Sir Thomas Harvey (1839–41) ❌
 * Commodore Peter John Douglas (1841)
 * Vice Admiral Sir Charles Adam (1841–44)
 * Vice Admiral Sir Francis Austen (1844–48)
 * Vice Admiral Sir Thomas Cochrane (1848–51)
 * Vice Admiral Sir George Seymour (1851–53)
 * Vice Admiral Sir Arthur Fanshawe (1853–56)
 * Vice Admiral Sir Houston Stewart (1856–60)
 * Vice Admiral Sir Alexander Milne (1860–64)
 * Vice Admiral Sir James Hope (1864–67)
 * Vice Admiral Sir Rodney Mundy (1867–69)
 * Vice Admiral Sir George Wellesley (1869–70)
 * Vice Admiral Sir Edward Fanshawe (1870–73)
 * Vice Admiral Sir George Wellesley (1873–75)
 * Vice Admiral Sir Astley Key (1875–78)
 * Vice Admiral Sir Edward Inglefield (1878–79)
 * Vice Admiral Sir Francis McClintock (1879–82)
 * Vice Admiral Sir John Commerell (1882–85)
 * Vice Admiral The Earl of Clanwilliam (1885–86)
 * Vice Admiral Sir Algernon Lyons (1886–88)
 * Vice Admiral Sir George Watson (1888–91)
 * Vice Admiral Sir John Hopkins (1891–95)
 * Vice Admiral Sir James Erskine (1895–97)
 * Vice Admiral Sir Jackie Fisher (1897–99)
 * Vice Admiral Sir Frederick Bedford (1899–15 July 1902)
 * Vice Admiral Sir Archibald Douglas (15 July 1902 – 1904)
 * Vice Admiral Sir Day Bosanquet (1904–07)
 * Vacant (1907–13)

 * Vice Admiral Sir Christopher Cradock (1913–14) ❌
 * Rear Admiral Robert Hornby (1914–15)
 * Vice Admiral Sir George Patey (1915–16)
 * Vice Admiral Sir Montague Browning (1916–18)
 * Vice Admiral Sir William Grant (1918–19)
 * Vice Admiral Sir Morgan Singer (1919)
 * Vice Admiral Sir Trevylyan Napier (1919–20) ❌
 * Vice Admiral Sir William Pakenham (1920–23)
 * Vice Admiral Sir Michael Culme-Seymour (1923–24)
 * Vice Admiral Sir James Fergusson (1924–26)

Commander-in-Chief, America and West Indies Station

 * Vice Admiral Sir Walter Cowan (1926–28)
 * Vice Admiral Sir Cyril Fuller (1928–30)
 * Vice Admiral Sir Vernon Haggard (1930–32)
 * Vice Admiral Sir Reginald Plunkett (1932–34)
 * Vice Admiral Sir Matthew Best (1934–37)
 * Vice Admiral Sir Sidney Meyrick (1937–40)
 * Vice Admiral Sir Charles Kennedy-Purvis (1940–41)

Senior British Naval Officer, Western Atlantic

 * Vice Admiral Sir Charles Kennedy-Purvis (1942)
 * Vice Admiral Sir Alban Curteis (1942–44)
 * Vice Admiral Sir Irvine Glennie (1944–45)

Commander-in-Chief, America and West Indies Station
After the end of the Second World War the former name of the station was restored.

 * Vice Admiral Sir William Tennant (1946–49)
 * Vice Admiral Sir Richard Symonds-Tayler (1949–51)
 * Vice Admiral Sir William Andrewes (1951–53)
 * Vice Admiral Sir John Stevens (1953–55)
 * Vice Admiral Sir John Eaton (1955–56)

title: North America and West Indies Station


text:
Wikipedia:Using JPL images

NASA is a part of the United States Federal Government, and most images published by NASA (unless noted otherwise) are in the public domain : "NASA material is not protected by copyright unless noted."

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According to JPL Website, "the Jet Propulsion Lab is a NASA field center managed by the California Institute of Technology." However, "unlike other NASA centers, which are staffed by government civil servants, JPL is managed for NASA by Caltech under a contractual arrangement begun in 1958 and renewed every five years. Thus, JPLers are Caltech employees."

JPL grants the right to use the images published on the JPL Web Site, under condition that the JPL Image Policy is followed: By electing to download the material from this web site the user agrees:

1. that Caltech makes no representations or warranties with respect to ownership of copyrights in the images, and does not represent others who may claim to be authors or owners of copyright of any of the images, and makes no warranties as to the quality of the images. Caltech shall not be responsible for any loss or expenses resulting from the use of the images, and you release and hold Caltech harmless from all liability arising from such use.

2. '''to use a credit line in connection with images. Unless otherwise noted in the caption information for an image, the credit line should be "Courtesy NASA/JPL-Caltech."'''

3. that the endorsement of any product or service by Caltech, JPL or NASA must not be claimed or implied.

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When a JPL image is used, the image caption should include a JPL credit line.

One way to do this is to include (Courtesy NASA/JPL-Caltech), as in the following example.

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title: Wikipedia:Using JPL images


text:
Talk:Command & Conquer

"Modding of Command & Conquer" listed at Redirects for discussion
An editor has identified a potential problem with the redirect Modding of Command & and has thus listed it for discussion. This discussion will occur at Redirects for discussion/Log/2022 April 15 until a consensus is reached, and readers of this page are welcome to contribute to the discussion. Jay (talk) 06:12, 15 April 2022 (UTC)

How many players have played command and conquer
I want to know 😁💙 149.255.196.22 (talk) 21:39, 15 April 2022 (UTC)

Command & Conquer: Legions
Just noticed new C&C game: Command & Conquer: Legions. Trailer at IGN's YouTube page is 4 months old (uploaded August 23). Anyone who knows more have time to add to article? Perhaps in Recent section where "Command & Conquer: Rivals" is included? Thanks. EarthFurst (talk) 03:58, 7 January 2024 (UTC)

Should Renegade X stay on the page?
Looks like there's some disagreements. Renegade X is a fan-made mod/project. There aren't any official connections to the franchise. It seems that its only argument is that it was "allowed" to continue by the IP owners (but not actually funded or initiated). Figured I'd post here instead of continuing an edit war. Xanarki (talk) 03:31, 5 March 2024 (UTC)

 * Even though my concerns are still valid, the issue seems less important, as the other registered user is a SPA (their only edits so far are to vandalize said game). Xanarki (talk) 03:53, 5 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Command & Conquer


text:
Phil Keoghan

Philip John Keoghan (born 31 May 1967) is a New Zealand television personality, best known for hosting the American version of The Amazing Race on CBS, since its 2001 debut. He is the creator and host of No Opportunity Wasted, which has been produced in the United States, New Zealand, and Canada. Keoghan also co-created and hosts the American reality competition programme Tough as Nails, which debuted on CBS on 8 July 2020. As of 2021, he has been involved with winning 10 Primetime Emmy Awards related to his work on The Amazing Race, where the show consecutively won the Outstanding Reality-Competition Program seven times.

Early life
Keoghan was born in Lincoln, a satellite town of Christchurch, New Zealand. Due to his father's career, Keoghan spent a considerable part of his childhood in Antigua and Canada. His family had returned to Christchurch by the time he was in high school, and following that, Keoghan attended St Andrew's College, Christchurch.

Television
While completing a TV cameraman apprenticeship, Keoghan successfully auditioned for the New Zealand children's show Spot On at age 19. After a series of further presenter work in New Zealand television, including as a reporter on That's Fairly Interesting, he, at 23, and his wife Louise left for the United States after his show Keoghan's Heroes was picked up by a U.S. network.

Keoghan originally auditioned for the host of Survivor. Though he made the shortlist, the CBS network ultimately chose Jeff Probst for Survivor, and offered Keoghan the hosting duties for The Amazing Race. Keoghan has been host for the show from its inception and also serves as a producer. He currently has a contract extending for "several years" following The Amazing Race 18 in 2011 that will allow him to also develop other shows for CBS. In a 2002 interview, Keoghan admitted that his pay for a single episode of The Amazing Race is more than an entire year on Spot On.

Shortly after the February 2011 Christchurch earthquake, Keoghan visited his hometown to ensure his family was safe but also to record segments for The Early Show to implore viewers to provide aid to the New Zealand Red Cross and to promote continued tourism, a fundamental part of New Zealand's economy, to the country. At the same time, he participated in recording Air New Zealand's new safety video for its domestic jet fleet. Keoghan has hosted over 1,000 different programme episodes.

In June 2010, it was announced that Keoghan would host and produce a new reality series about the Velux 5 Oceans Race.

Keoghan told TMZ in 2010 that during the 10th season of The Amazing Race he was detained in Ukraine for two days until the U.S. ambassador in Ukraine intervened to free him.

Keoghan hosted National Geographic Explorer starting in the show's 11th season, to start airing in 2018. According to Keoghan, he had wanted to produce for Explorer and he and his wife-to-be had even filmed and submitted a pitch tape to the show's production at that time.

No Opportunity Wasted
While 19 and filming for Spot On, Keoghan and a partner dived down to the shipwreck of the MS Mikhail Lermontov, 120 ft underwater. During filming, he was separated from his partner in the ship's ballroom and suffered a panic attack, considering it a near-death experience. He was rescued by his dive partner, and though shaken, insisted on facing his fear and returned the next day to complete filming. From then on, Keoghan set out to live his life to the fullest by accomplishing exotic goals and taking risks, creating a "No Opportunity Wasted" (NOW) list of activities he wanted to complete in his life; In his book No Opportunity Wasted, Keoghan wrote: "It was the first time I really stopped to think what dying could mean. I grabbed a pen and paper and wrote down all the things I had to do in life: hand-feed sharks, travel the world, climb Mt Everest, go into space."

Since then, Keoghan has broken a world bungee jumping record, gone diving in the world's longest underwater caves, eaten a meal on top of an erupting volcano, and renewed his vows underwater while feeding sharks. He was a guest on The Oprah Winfrey Show, where he shared with Oprah his list of things he wants to do before he dies.

Keoghan co-developed the television show No Opportunity Wasted, initially premiering in 2004, that reflected on this "No Opportunity Wasted" mantra. He also wrote a companion book, No Opportunity Wasted: 8 Ways to Create a List for the Life You Want.

Cycling
Keoghan is an avid cyclist. From 28 March to 9 May 2009, Keoghan performed in "Ride Across America", in partnership with several organisations including GNC, to raise money for multiple sclerosis research. Keoghan and others biked 3,500 mi from Los Angeles to New York City, averaging 100 mi per day. Keoghan stopped in 39 cities en route, attending various events and participating in casting for season 15 of The Amazing Race; the ride culminated a day before the finale of season 14. The event raised $500,000, with over $400,000 coming from in-store donations during the ride. His documentary movie The Ride about his ride across America, premiered on 3 February 2011.

Keoghan later came across information about Harry Watson, an early-20th-century New Zealand cyclist that formed a team of four to become the first English-speaking team to ride in the Tour de France in 1928. Looking to celebrate Watson's legacy, Keoghan prepared to ride the same Tour de France course from 1928 (then, 22 legs at nearly 5400 km compared to the modern Tour at 3500 km), using the same type of gear-less bicycle as Watson and his team used, outside of using a modern riding seat. He and his riding partner Ben Cornell completed the ride in 2013, with their progress filmed by Keoghan's wife Louise and others. The footage was assembled for another film called Le Ride, which premiered in the Isaac Theatre Royal in Christchurch at the New Zealand Film Festival in July 2016.

Personal life
Keoghan's father, John, is an agricultural scientist involved with conservation in New Zealand. He appeared alongside his son as a Pit Stop greeter during the 13th season of The Amazing Race when the racers stopped in New Zealand. John Keoghan and his wife run a bed and breakfast in Rolleston, New Zealand.

Keoghan's brother Andrew was a television reporter on Television New Zealand's One News and is a jazz singer. His sister, Ruth Keoghan Cooper, specialises in coaching, training and development programmes for professional women who wish to combine careers with motherhood.

Keoghan currently lives with his wife and producing partner Louise Keoghan (née Rodrigues), and their daughter. Louise is an Australian-born television producer and director and co-creator of No Opportunity Wasted and Tough as Nails. They currently reside in Los Angeles, California. They also have homes in Matarangi on the Coromandel Peninsula, and in Westport.

Awards
Keoghan was recognised in 2012 as one of six "Emerging Leaders" during the Sir Peter Blake Leadership Awards, due to his use of his celebrity status to support efforts such as Christchurch earthquake relief and efforts for multiple sclerosis.

In 2008, Keoghan was awarded the World Class New Zealand award in the 'Creative' category.

In the 2014 New Year Honours, Keoghan was appointed a Member of the New Zealand Order of Merit, for services as a television presenter and to tourism.

For his hosting of The Amazing Race, Keoghan was nominated for the 2009 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Host for a Reality or Reality-Competition Program in the second year of the award's creation but lost to Jeff Probst of Survivor.

In 2018, Keoghan was inducted into the International Sports Hall of Fame.

Shows
Keoghan has worked in more than seventy countries as a television host, producer, writer, and cameraman. Some of the shows Keoghan has been involved with include:
 * 3.45 Live (1990) – Presenter
 * The Amazing Race (2001–present) – Host
 * Best of Both Worlds – Co-host
 * Breakfast Time (FX TV series) – Road Warrior
 * The Early Show – Travel Correspondent
 * FOX After Breakfast (1996) – Reporter
 * That's Fairly Interesting – Reporter
 * Go For It – Host
 * The Human Edge (2002) – Co-creator
 * Phil Keoghan's Adventure Crazy – Co-creator
 * Adventure Crazy – Host
 * Keoghan's Heroes – Co-creator
 * Miss World 2003 (2003) – Host
 * No Opportunity Wasted (2004) – Host
 * Spot On – Host
 * Surprise, Surprise – Host
 * Whose House is it Anyway? (2000) – Host
 * Speed Test Drive (2006) – Cameo appearance as a student of the Jim Russell Racing School
 * Everest: After the Climb (2007) – Host
 * CBS News Sunday Morning (2008) – Contributor
 * Star Trek: Phase II (2008) – Cameo as Admiral Keoghan in "Blood & Fire" Part One
 * Million Dollar Password (2008) – Guest appearance/Himself
 * I Get That a Lot (2013) – Himself
 * Big Brother (2015) – Takeover guest who revealed The Amazing Race 26 alums Jeff and Jackie as the final two HouseGuests.
 * Earth Live (2017) – Co-host with Jane Lynch
 * American Dad! (2017) – Guest voice as host of "The Bitchin' Race" in the episode "The Bitchin' Race"
 * National Geographic Explorer (2018) – Host
 * Tough as Nails (2020–present) – Host, Executive Producer, Director, Co-Creator
 * Secret Celebrity Renovation (2023) – Himself

title: Phil Keoghan


text:
Ujjain

Ujjain (, Hindustani pronunciation: [ʊd͡ːʒɛːn], old name Avantika ) or Ujjayinī is a city in Ujjain district of the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. It is the fifth-largest city in Madhya Pradesh by population and is the administrative centre of Ujjain district and Ujjain division. It is one of the Hindu pilgrimage centres of Sapta Puri famous for the Kumbh Mela (Simhastha) held there every 12 years. The famous temple of Mahakaleshwar Jyotirlinga is located in the center of the city. The city has been one of the most prominent trade and political centres of the Indian Subcontinent from the time of the ancient Mahājanapadas until the British colonisation of India.

An ancient city situated on the eastern bank of the Shipra River, Ujjain was the most prominent city on the Malwa plateau of central India for much of its history. It emerged as the political centre of central India around 600 BCE. It was the capital of the ancient Avanti kingdom, one of the sixteen Mahājanapadas. During the 18th century, the city briefly became the capital of the Scindia state of the Maratha Empire, when Ranoji Scindia established his capital at Ujjain in 1731. It remained an important political, commercial, and cultural centre of Central India until the early 19th century, when the British administrators decided to develop Indore as an alternative to it. Ujjain continues to be an important place of pilgrimage for Shaivites, Vaishnavites and Shaktas.

According to Puranic legend, Ujjain, along with Haridwar, Nashik, and Prayag, is one of four sites where drops of amrita, the elixir of immortality, accidentally spilled over from a kumbha (pitcher) while being carried by the celestial bird Garuda during the Samudra Manthana, or the churning of the ocean of milk.

Ujjain has been selected as one of the hundred Indian cities to be developed as a smart city under Prime Minister Narendra Modi's flagship Smart Cities Mission.

Prehistoric era
Excavations at Kayatha (around 26 km from Ujjain) have revealed Chalcolithic agricultural settlements dating to around 2000 BCE. Chalcolithic sites have also been discovered at other areas around Ujjain, including Nagda, but excavations at Ujjain itself have not revealed any Chalcolithic settlements. Archaeologist H. D. Sankalia theorised that the Chalcolithic settlements at Ujjain were probably destroyed by the Iron Age settlers.

According to Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund, Avanti, whose capital was Ujjain, "was one of the earliest outposts in central India" and showed signs of early incipient urbanisation around 700 BCE. Around 600 BCE, Ujjain emerged as the political, Commercial, and cultural centre of Malwa plateau.

The ancient walled city of Ujjain was located around the Garh Kalika hill on the bank of the river Kshipra, in the present-day suburban areas of the Ujjain city. This city covered an irregular pentagonal area of 0.875 km2. It was surrounded by a 12 m high mud rampart. The archaeological investigations have also indicated the presence of a 45 meter wide and 6.6 m deep moat around the city. According to F. R. Allchin and George Erdosy, these city defences were constructed between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE. Dieter Schlingloff believes that these were built before 600 BCE. This period is characterised by structures made of stone and burnt-brick, tools and weapons made of iron, and black and red burnished ware.

According to the Puranic texts, a branch of the legendary Haihaya dynasty ruled over Ujjain.

Ancient period
In the 4th century BCE, the Mauryan emperor Chandragupta annexed Avanti to his empire. The edicts of his grandson Ashoka mention four provinces of the Mauryan empire, of which Ujjain was the capital of the Western province. During the reign of his father Bindusara, Ashoka served as the viceroy of Ujjain, which highlights the importance of the town. As the viceroy of Ujjain, Ashoka married Devi, the daughter of a merchant from Vedisagiri (Vidisha). According to the Sinhalese Buddhist tradition, their children, Mahendra and Sanghamitra, who preached Buddhism in modern Sri Lanka, were born in Ujjain.

From the Mauryan period, Northern Black Polished Ware, copper coins, terracotta ring wells, and ivory seals with Brahmi text have been excavated at Ujjain. Ujjain emerged as an important commercial centre, partially because it lay on the trade route connecting north India to the Deccan, starting from Mathura. It also emerged as an important center for intellectual learning among Jain, Buddhist, and Hindu traditions. After the Mauryans, Ujjain was controlled by a number of empires and dynasties, including local dynasties, the Shungas, the Western Satraps, the Satavahanas, and the Guptas.

Ujjain remained as an important city of the Guptas during the 4th and the 5th centuries. Kalidasa, the great Indian classical poet of the 5th century who lived in the times of the Gupta king Vikramaditya wrote his epic work Meghadūta in which he describes the richness of Ujjain and its people. In the 6th century CE the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang visited India. He describes the ruler of Avanti as a king who was generous to the poor and presented them with gifts.

Bhartṛhari is said to have written his great epics, Virat Katha, Neeti Sataka, the love story of Pradyot Princess Vasavadatta and Udayan in Ujjayini, as the city was called during his times. The writings of Bhasa are set in Ujjain, and he probably lived in the city. Kalidasa also refers to Ujjain multiple times, and it appears that he spent at least a part of his life in Ujjain. Mrichchhakatika by Shudraka is also set in Ujjain. Ujjain also appears in several stories as the capital of the legendary emperor Vikramaditya of the Parmar dynasty. Somadeva's Kathasaritsagara (11th century) mentions that the city was created by Vishwakarma, and describes it as invincible, prosperous and full of wonderful sights. Ujjain was sacked several times by the Arabs of the Umayyad Caliphate in the 8th century CE. The Arabs called the city Uzayn.

Medieval period

The Paramaras (9th-14th century CE) shifted the region's capital from Ujjain to Dhar. Mahmud of Ghazni sacked the city and forced it to pay tribute during his invasion in India. In 1235 CE, Iltutmish of the Delhi Sultanate plundered the city. With the decline of the Paramara kingdom, Ujjain ultimately came under Islamic rule, like other parts of north-central India. The city continued to be an important city of central India. As late as the time of the Mughal vassal Jai Singh II (1688-1743), who constructed a Jantar Mantar in the city, Ujjain was the largest city and capital of the Malwa Subah. The city continued to be developed during Muslim rule, especially under the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire. It was used as an important military headquarters.

Modern period
During the 18th century, the city briefly became the capital of Scindia state of the Maratha Empire, when Ranoji Scindia established his capital at Ujjain in 1731. Mahadji Scindia constructed a grand palace with a hundred rooms around which the Maratha sardars constructed their own mansions. Ruined and destroyed temples were restored and newer ones were built. But his successors moved to Gwalior, where they ruled the Gwalior State in the latter half of the 18th century. The struggle of supremacy between the Holkars of Indore and Scindias (who ruled Ujjain) led to rivalry between the merchants of the two cities. On 18 July 1801, the Holkars defeated the Scindias at the Battle of Ujjain. On 1 September, Yashwantrao Holkar entered the city, and demanded a sum of 15 lakh rupees from the city. He received only 1/8th of this amount; the rest was pocketed by his officers. A force sent by Daulatrao Scindia later regained control of Ujjain. After both Holkar and Scindias accepted the British suzerainty, the British colonial administrators decided to develop Indore as an alternative to Ujjain, because the merchants of Ujjain had supported certain anti-British people. John Malcolm, the British administrator of Central India, decided to reduce the importance of Ujjain "by transferring a great part of that consequence it now enjoys to the Towns of Indore and Rutlam cities, which are and will continue more under our control."

After Indian independence, Ujjain was placed in Madhya Bharat state, which in turn was fused into Madhya Pradesh in 1956.

Geography
Ujjain is located in the west-central part of India, and is north of the upper limit of the Vindhya mountain ranges. Located on the Malwa plateau, it is higher than the north Indian plains and the land rises towards the Vindhya Range to the south. Ujjain's coordinates are 23.16667°N, 75.76667°W with an average elevation of 494 m (1620 ft). The region is an extension of the Deccan Traps, formed between 60 and 68 million years ago at the end of the Cretaceous period. The city is on the bank of the river Shipra which flows into the nearby Chambal.

Ujjain is 57 km (35 mi) away from Indore via Indore-Sanwer Road, 40 km (25 mi) away from Dewas and 197 km (122 mi) from the State Capital Bhopal via MP State Highway 28 and MP State Highway 18.

Climate
Climate of the city features an typical version of the humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cwa). Summers usually starts by the middle of March which lasts up until late June. During which temperatures normally reaches up to 45 °C, with average maximum peaking in May with 41 °C. Monsoon starts in late June and ends in late September. These months see about 36 inches (914 mm) of precipitation, frequent thunderstorms and flooding. This season usually features wet phase of comfortable with average temperatures around 24 °C (76 °F) but this is accompanied with frequent downpours. This wet phase is followed by dry phase which results in humid weather with high temperatures. Temperatures rise again up to early November when winter starts,  which lasts up to early March. Winters are cool, dry and sunny with occasional cold snaps during which temperature may drop to close to freezing (0° to 3°C). Otherwise temperatures are very much comfortable, with average daily temperatures around 16 °C (61 °F).

Demographics
According to the 2011 census, Ujjain had a population of 515,215, comprising 265,291 males and 249,924 females, giving a sex ratio of 942 per 1000. The overall literacy rate was 85.55%, with male literacy at 91.16% and female literacy at 79.62%.

Hindi is the most-spoken language. Being the heartland of the Malwa region, Malvi is also widely spoken.

Government and jurisdiction
Most of the regions surrounding the city are administered by the Ujjain Municipal Corporation (UMC). The city is administered by a Divisional Commissioner and a Collectorate Office as well as the Mayor. They are responsible for the town and Country Planning Department, Forest Department, Public Health Engineering, Public Works Department and MP Electricity Board.

Ujjain has been a metropolitan municipality with a mayor-council form of government. The Ujjain Municipal Corporation (UMC) was established in 1956 under the Madhya Pradesh Nagar Palika Nigam Adhiniyam. The UMC was established in 1886 as Nagar Palika, but the Municipal Corporation of Ujjain was declared on a par with the Gwalior Municipal Corporation. The UMC is responsible for public education, correctional institutions, libraries, public safety, recreational facilities, sanitation, water supply, local planning and welfare services. The mayor and councillors are elected to five-year terms.

The Ujjain Development Authority, also known as UDA, is the urban planning agency serving Ujjain. Its headquarters are located in the Bharatpuri area of Ujjain. It was established under the Madhya Pradesh Town and Country Planning Act, 1973.

Ujjain Lok Sabha constituency is one of the 29 Lok Sabha constituencies in Madhya Pradesh state in central India. This constituency came into existence in 1951 as one of the 9 Lok Sabha constituencies in the erstwhile Madhya Bharat state. It is reserved for the candidates belonging to the Scheduled Castes since 1966. This constituency covers the entire Ujjain district and part of Ratlam district. Previously, Dr. Chintamani Malviya of the Bharatiya Janata Party was the member of parliament who won in the 2014 Indian general elections.

The Current Member of Parliament from Ujjain is Anil Firojiya (BJP) after the Lok Sabha Election of 2019.

Tourism

 * Mahakal Lok Corridor
 * Mahakaleshwar Jyotirlinga
 * Kal Bhairav Temple
 * Sandipani Ashram
 * Mangalnath Temple

University

 * Maharshi Panini Sanskrit University
 * Vikram University
 * Avantika University

Medical Colleges
Govt. Medical College Amaltas Medical College
 * Ruxmaniben Deepchand Gardi Medical College

Engineering Colleges

 * Ujjain Engineering College (Govt.)
 * School of Engineering Vikram University (Govt.)
 * MIT Group of Institutes, Ujjain
 * Shree Guru Sandipani Institute of Science and Technology
 * Prashanti Institute of Technology
 * Alpine Institute of Technology

Schools

 * St. Paul's convent H.S. School
 * Christu Jyoti Convent School
 * Ujjain Public School
 * Lokmanya Tilak higher Secondary School, Ujjain
 * St. Mary's Convent School
 * Nirmala Convent School
 * Takshshila Junior College
 * Kalidas Montessori Sr. Sec. School
 * Carmel Convent Sr. Sec. School

Industry
Major industrial areas surrounding Ujjain are 'Dewas Road Industrial Area', 'Maxi Road Industrial Area' Vikram Udhogpuri,and 'Tajpur Industrial Area'.

Indore and Dewas are the cities where majority of the industries are present. Both Indore and Dewas are in close proximity to Ujjain, providing employment to people in Ujjain and nearby areas.

The Government of Madhya Pradesh has allotted 1,200 acres for the development of an industrial area on the Dewas-Ujjain Road (MP State Highway 18) near Narwar village. Originally named "Vikramaditya Knowledge City", the area was envisaged as an educational hub. Due to diminished investment prospects, it was renamed to "Vikram Udyog Nagari" ("Vikram Industrial City"). As of 2014, the government has conceptualized it as a half-industrial, half-educational area. The stakeholders in the project include the state government and the Delhi Mumbai Industrial Corridor (DMIC) Trust.

Airport
Ujjain does not have any airport but has an airstrip on Dewas road which is used for air transport purposes. In 2013, the Government of Madhya Pradesh started a Ujjain-Bhopal air services as a joint venture with Ventura AirConnect. Due to very low booking, the ambitious project was scrapped. The main reason for the failure of the plan was due to improper timing of flights. The nearest airport is the Devi Ahilyabai Holkar International Airport at Indore (57 km).

Railway

Ujjain Junction is the main railway station of Ujjain, and it is directly or indirectly well-connected to all the major railway stations in India. It lies on the Indore–Dewas, Ratlam–Bhopal, Indore–Nagda and Guna–Khandwa route. To the west it is connected to Ratlam Junction, to the north it is connected with Nagda Junction, to the east it is connected with Maksi Junction, Bhopal Junction, and to the south it is connected to Indore Junction BG, Dewas Junction Harda BG.

C&W Training Centre/Ujjain/WR

There are six railway stations in the Ujjain city and its suburbs:

Road

Dewas Gate Stand and Nana Kheda Bus Stand are the two bus stands in the city that provide service to destinations located in the states. A large number of state run private buses are available for Ahmedabad, Jaipur, Ajmer, Khajuraho, Harda, Indore, Bhopal, Pune, Mumbai, Kota, Mandu, Jhalawar and various other locations. The city has a well connected road network including Indore Road, Badnagar Road, Dewas Road, Agar Road, Nagda Road and Maksi Road. There are three national highways; 47 connects to Ahmedabad, proposed 148NG connects to Garoth and 552G connects to Indore.

Other regional highways passing through the city are:

 * Indore – Ujjain Road via SH 27 part of NH 552G
 * Kota / Agar – Ujjain Road via NH 552G
 * Bhopal / Dewas – Ujjain Road via SH 18 now NH 148NG
 * Ratlam / Barnagar – Ujjain Road via SH 18 now NH
 * Jaora / Nimach – Ujjain Road via SH 17
 * Maksi – Ujjain Road (Connects to NH 3)
 * Harda - Ujjain Road (Connects to Via National Highway 59A NH 47) and SH 18
 * Ujjain - Garoth Proposed New Green Field Four Lane National Highway No NH 148NG

Local transport
Ujjain depends on an extensive network of auto rickshaws, city busses, private taxis and Tata Magic, that operate throughout the city, connecting one part with another. UMC has recently introduced city buses with a public private partnership project as the city was identified urban agglomerations with less than 1 million population under the Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission.

Sports
Cricket is one of the most popular sports in the city. Ujjain is also home to the Ujjain Divisional Cricket Association which is affiliated to BCCI. The city does not have any big stadium, but hosted Ranji Trophy matches at Pipe Factory Ground in 1977 and 1980.

Kite flying is another popular activity in the city around Makar Sakranti.

Smart city
Ujjain city was shortlisted under the Government of India's flagship programme Smart Cities Mission. Under the mission, UMC (UMC, Ujjain Ujjain Municipal Corporation) shall participate in the smart cities challenge by Ministry of Urban Development. As part of this, UMC is preparing a Smart City Proposal (SCP). SCP will include smart city solutions based on the consultations to be held with the key stakeholders of the city. UMC invited the suggestions from citizens of Ujjain to make ‘Ujjain as a smart city’. The citizens were able to post their views pertaining to basic services such as water supply, sewerage, urban transport, social infrastructure and e-governance.

Notable people
Notable people who were born or lived in Ujjian include:

 * Sage Sandipani
 * Varāhamihira
 * Bhāskara II
 * Chashtana
 * Kālidāsa
 * Devi (wife of Ashoka)
 * Shivmangal Singh Suman
 * Shreeram Shankar Abhyankar
 * Bharthari
 * Yashoda Devi
 * Vivian Dsena
 * Thawar Chand Gehlot
 * Gundecha Brothers
 * Satyanarayan Jatiya
 * Hukam Chand Kachwai
 * Sachida Nagdev
 * Naman Ojha
 * Paramartha
 * Sartaj Singh
 * Saumya Tandon
 * Vikramaditya
 * Viraj Mahajan
 * Juhi Parmar
 * Goverdhan Lal Oza
 * Sharma Bandhu
 * V. S. Wakankar
 * Sharad Joshi
 * Mohan Yadav

title: Ujjain