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W. O. Bentley

Walter Owen Bentley, (16 September 1888 – 13 August 1971 was an English engineer who founded Bentley in London. He was a motorcycle and car racer as a young man. After making a name for himself as a designer of aircraft and automobile engines, Bentley established his own firm in 1919. He built the firm into one of the world's premier luxury and performance auto manufacturers, and led the marque to multiple victories at the 24 Hours of Le Mans. After selling his namesake company to Rolls-Royce in 1931, he was employed as a designer for Lagonda, Aston Martin and Armstrong Siddeley.

Early life
Bentley was born on 16 September 1888, in Hampstead, London. He was the youngest of nine children. His father Alfred Bentley was a retired businessman and his mother Emily (née Waterhouse) was born in Adelaide, Australia. As the son of a prosperous family he was privately educated at Clifton College in Bristol from 1902 until 1905, when at the age of 16 he left to start work as an apprentice engineer with the Great Northern Railway at Doncaster Works.

Locomotives
The five-year premium apprenticeship with the Great Northern, which cost his father £75, taught Bentley to design complex railway machinery and also gave him practical experience in the technical procedures to cast, manufacture, and build it. He later recalled: "The sight of one of Patrick Stirling's eight-foot singles could move me profoundly." While with the Great Northern, he came close to realising his childhood ambition to drive one of their Atlantic express locomotives, when at the end of his apprenticeship he acquired footplate experience as a second fireman on main-line expresses. "My longest day", he said, "was London to Leeds and back, on the return journey doing Wakefield to King's Cross non-stop for 175 miles. This was a total day's run of 400 miles, entailing a consumption of about seven tons of coal, every pound of it to be shovelled. Not a bad day's exercise." He completed his apprenticeship in the summer of 1910 but decided that the railways did not offer him enough scope for a satisfying career.

Motorcycles
In 1909 and 1910 Bentley raced Quadrant, Rex, and Indian motorcycles. He competed in two Isle of Man Tourist Trophy races, on a Rex in 1909 and as a member of Indian's factory team in 1910. He did not finish in either event; in 1910, his Indian's rear tyre burst on the second lap.

Theoretical engineering study, taxi company employment
After he studied theoretical engineering at King's College London, he took employment with the National Motor Cab Company, where his several duties included overseeing the maintenance of the fleet's 250 Unics. He was fascinated by the cabbies' ingenuity at fiddling the meters.

Entering the automobile industry
In 1912 he joined his brother, Horace Millner Bentley, in a company called "Bentley and Bentley" that sold French Doriot, Flandrin & Parant cars. Dissatisfied with the performance of the DFPs, but convinced that success in competition was the best marketing for them, Bentley was inspired by a paperweight to have pistons made for the engine in aluminium alloy. Fitted with the alloy pistons and a modified camshaft, a DFP took several records at Brooklands in 1913 and 1914.

Aero engines
At the outbreak of World War I, Bentley knew that using aluminium alloy pistons in military applications would benefit the national interest: they improved power output and ran cooler, allowing higher compression ratios and higher engine speeds. As security considerations prevented his broadcasting the information to engine manufacturers, he contacted the official liaison between the manufacturers and the Navy. That man, Commander Wilfred Briggs, would be his senior officer throughout the war.

Commissioned in the Royal Naval Air Service, Bentley was sent to share with manufacturers the knowledge and experience he had gained from the modifications to the engines of the DFP cars he sold in Britain. Following his first consultation, which was with the future Lord Hives at Rolls-Royce, the company's first aero engine, named the Eagle, was designed with pistons of aluminium instead of cast-iron or steel. Bentley next visited Louis Coatalen at Sunbeam, with the result that the same innovation was used in all their aero engines.

Bentley also visited Gwynnes, whose Chiswick factory made French Clerget engines under licence, and he liaised between the squadrons in France and Gwynnes' engineering staff. When they proved unwilling to implement Bentley's more important suggestions the Navy gave him a team to design his own aero engine at the Humber factory in Coventry. Designated the BR1, Bentley Rotary 1, the engine was fundamentally different from the Clerget except in the design of the cam mechanism, which was retained to facilitate production. A prototype was running in the early summer of 1916. The bigger BR2 followed in early 1918.

In recognition, Bentley was awarded the MBE. After he was invited in 1920 to make a claim, which the Clerget licensees contested unsuccessfully, the Royal Commission on Awards to Inventors awarded him £8,000.

Bentley Motors
After the war, in early 1919, Bentley founded Bentley in small premises in London with Frank Burgess (formerly of Humber) and Harry Varley (formerly of vauxhall). Clive Gallop joined the team as an engine designer to help develop their 3000 cc straight-4 engine. The 3-litre engine ran for the first time in New Street Mews, Baker Street, London. A plaque marks the building in what is now Chagford Street. Bentley's first complete Bentley 3 Litre car began road tests in January 1920 and the first production version, made in Cricklewood, was delivered in September 1921. Its durability earned widespread acclaim.

Bentley's motto was "To build a good car, a fast car, the best in class." His cars raced in hill climbs and at Brooklands, and the lone 3 Litre entered by the company in the 1922 Indianapolis 500 mile race and driven by Douglas Hawkes finished thirteenth at an average speed of 74.95 mph. Bentley entered a team of his new 3-litre modified and race-prepared cars in the 1922 Tourist Trophy, driving himself in Bentley III; the only team to finish, they received the Team Award, thereby launching Bentley's reputation; Jean Chassagne (later himself a 'Bentley Boy') on a 1921 Grand Prix Sunbeam winning outright. Bentleys set many records at the Le Mans 24-hour races, with "Bentley Boy" Woolf Barnato the only driver to win all three times he entered.

In 1923, when a rather sceptical Bentley was persuaded to attend the inaugural Le Mans race, he saw John Duff and Frank Clement's private entry take fourth place.

A Bentley 3 Litre won at Le Mans in 1924. Neither of the two Bentleys entered in the 1925 race finished it, but subsequent models won again in 1927, 1928, 1929, and 1930, with the factory team managed by Bentley's old school friend Richard Sidney Witchell. Ettore Bugatti is said to have commented that Bentley made "the fastest lorries in the world".

With Bentley Motors Ltd. in financial difficulties, and the company's board of directors critical of Bentley, Kimberley diamond magnate Barney Barnato's heir Woolf Barnato purchased the business's assets and became chairman.

Bentley continued his design work as Barnato's employee. The racing version of the Bentley designed six-cylinder Speed Six—the road car was introduced in 1928—proved to be the most successful Bentley in competition, and won Le Mans in 1929 and 1930. In 1929, against Bentley's wishes, Barnato approved the development of a supercharged, "Blower" version of the 1927 4½ Litre. Tim Birkin's brainchild, the car was made in separate, purpose-built workshops, away from Bentley, in Welwyn Garden City. As Bentley had feared, durability proved poor and the car failed on the track.

Although Barnato continued racing Bentleys with distinction, and even though the company sold a hundred of its 8 Litre model, which was launched as a grand car for the ultra-rich in October 1930 (Bugatti sold three of his equivalent model, the Royale), the Great Depression took its toll.

By July 1931 Barnato's financial support had dwindled, and Bentley Motors went into voluntary liquidation. On 10 July a Receiver was appointed to the company. Bentley's cars had accumulated losses of £136,220 and had worked through three fortunes including Barnato's.

Napier & Son entered negotiations as prospective purchasers. "The Press Association understands that Messrs Napier and Son, aero-engine builders, have reached an agreement to take over Bentley Motors Limited which is in voluntary liquidation. It is expected that the matter will come before the Court within the next few days."

Cricklewood production

 * 506 of the 3-litre cars were 'Speed Models' and 15 '100 mph Models'
 * 54 of the $4 1/2$-litre cars were supercharged
 * 171 of the short-chassis $6 1/2$-litre cars were 'Speed Sixes'

Rolls-Royce Limited, Derby
However it was arch rival Rolls-Royce who bought the company, topping Napier's bid at the last minute and announcing the acquisition on 20 November 1931. Rolls-Royce had been disturbed by the 8 Litre's encroachment upon the market segment of their Phantom II. Rolls-Royce's agents had posed as the British Equitable central trust to avoid alerting Napier and inflating the price. The old business had not troubled to register their Bentley trademark. Rolls-Royce took immediate steps to remedy that. Cricklewood was closed during 1932. Thereafter production was from Rolls-Royce premises in Derby and, postwar, Crewe.

Rolls-Royce had acquired the Bentley showrooms in Cork Street, the service station at Kingsbury, the whole establishment at Cricklewood and Bentley himself. This last was disputed by Napier in court without success. Everything was sold but some 8-litre chassis which were taken to Derby. The name alone was to be kept and used for a smaller economy car but that prototype proved to be as complex and expensive as the bigger Rolls-Royces and its development was halted.

Bentley believed Barnato had bought a substantial shareholding in Rolls-Royce just before pulling out his support while visiting New York. Barnato was invited to become a director of the new Rolls-Royce subsidiary, Bentley Motors (1931) Limited.

Bentley's winter of 1931/1932 was hard, his wife divorced him and he lost any form of personal transport, when he was asked to return his personal Bentley 8 Litre. Hearing of this William Rootes arranged for him to test a new Hillman each weekend.

Lock-out
As obliged to do by the court he joined Rolls-Royce under a contract extending from 1 May 1932 to the end of April 1935. Rolls-Royce isolated him in London and Europe, keeping him occupied as liaison between customers and—at long range—the works, to test drive vehicles at Brooklands and for long test runs across the Continent and the Alps.

While he worked on testing the prototype he was only permitted to comment on the design of what would become the new Derby $4 1/2$-litre announced in October 1933. Around that time he managed to begin to report in person to the design teams at Derby making friends in the process, among them Harry Grylls and Stewart Tresilian who did some design-only work on a short-stroke replacement for the V12 engine for their Phantom III. Bentley had been effectively sequestered from the design team of the new car bearing his own name, but he did admire their achievement.

Rolls-Royce promoted its new line of Bentleys as "The Silent Sports Car". Bentley left Rolls-Royce at the end of April 1935 with a sense of freedom.

Lagonda, Staines, Middlesex
A Lagonda M45R Rapide with a Meadows engine won the 1935 Le Mans 24-hour race, and a week later Lagonda was saved from receivership by Alan P Good. Bentley joined the new board as Technical Director and moved to Lagonda with the majority of Rolls-Royce's racing department staff. Bentley again went racing. Unable to persuade Harry Grylls to join his engineering staff at Staines, Bentley obtained Stewart Tresilian's services from February 1936. Tresilian brought Frank Stark and Reg Ingham with him and Donald Bastow joined them.

Bentley made Tresilian chief designer of the V12 project, and the engine was launched in 1937. Displacing 4480 cc, it delivered 180 bhp (134 kW) and was said to be capable of going from 7 to 105 mph in top gear and revving to 5000 rpm. Tresilian left in early 1938 for a Hawker Siddeley subsidiary. Development of the V12 was not complete but Lagonda's financial difficulties prompted more staff to leave.

The car was exhibited at the 1939 New York Motor Show. The New York Times commented: "The highest price car in the show this year is tagged $8,900. It is a Lagonda, known as the "Rapide" model, imported from England. The power plant is a twelve-cylinder V engine developing 200 horsepower."

During the war Bentley worked on armaments at Lagonda. Towards the end of the war he began work on a new straight-6 engine, as it was clear that the V12 would be seen as too extravagant for the postwar market. The team developed a modern dual overhead cam straight-6 engine with an initial displacement of 2.6 L (2580 cc/157 in3). With a 78 mm (3.07 in) bore and 90 mm (3.543 in) stroke, it produced about 105 hp (78 kW) with dual SU carburettors. It would not reach the market until 1948.

Due to a shortage of materials, the Ministry of Supply, whose wartime controls over the allocation of steel would remain in force from 1945 to 1954, had allocated Lagonda the steel for only 100 cars. Although the Ministry's controls were intended to maintain supply to existing manufacturers, they were applied unevenly—while Lagonda had tooled up for quantity production and provided evidence of a substantial export order book, David Brown's companies were able to obtain the steel they required. One consequence of the controls was that aluminium was used in the construction of Land Rovers, winning them an unintended reputation for not rusting.

In August, 1947, J. R. Greenwood, Chairman of Lagonda, announced that although work had begun on the first 1,000 of the new Bentley-designed $6 1/2$-litre cars, the project had been cancelled owing to continuing production difficulties and the recently imposed double purchase tax. While Lagonda would continue with its other engineering activities, including the manufacture of a diesel-powered pile-driver, the company notified its 1,600 workers that some of them would inevitably become redundant.

David Brown, Feltham, Middlesex
A month later, in mid-September it was announced that the Lagonda specification had been bought by David Brown & Sons (Huddersfield) Limited, gear-wheel manufacturer, which would combine production with Aston Martin bought earlier that year.

Production was moved to Feltham, Middlesex.

Brown had purchased Lagonda largely to gain Bentley's engineering expertise, and immediately placed Bentley 's newest creation, his 2.6-litre Lagonda Straight-6 engine, under the bonnet of Brown's other new acquisition, the Frank Feeley-designed DB2. This durable DOHC engine would continue in Lagondas and Aston Martins until 1959 and, Bentley noted, important design details were carried on through to their V8.

Armstrong Siddeley
Bentley moved from Aston Martin-Lagonda to Armstrong Siddeley, where he designed another twin-overhead-cam 3-litre engine before retiring. His team included Donald Bastow. According to one report the team's responsibility for the Sapphire project extended to the car's chassis, but by the time their work ended in 1949 they had contributed little more than detailed inspiration for the production version of the car that was announced in October 1952. Although Bentley's particular engine design was judged too costly for production, it was because of his involvement that the final Sapphire product received the respect of contemporary designers.

Personal life
Bentley married three times. In 1914 he married Leonie Gore, daughter of Sir St George Ralph Gore, ninth baronet of Magherabegg. She died in 1919, in the Spanish flu epidemic. In 1920 Bentley married Poppy (Audrey Hutchinson) (1895-1981), a fun-loving society woman who disliked factories, whereas Bentley was said to love spending time in the workshop. They divorced soon after the business was sold in 1931. In 1934 he married Margaret Roberts Hutton, née Murray, who survived him. He had no children.

At the time of his death on Friday 13 August 1971, shortly before his 83rd birthday, in Woking, Surrey, Bentley was the patron of The Bentley Drivers' Club. Margaret died in 1989.

Bentley was inducted into the Automotive Hall of Fame in 1995.

Obituaries
Following his lengthy obituary printed in The Times on 16 August 1971 the same newspaper printed two more contributions.

 * " . . . In the eyes of those who own, have owned, or aspire to own, one of the 3,040 Bentley cars designed and built by the 'old' Bentley company under the leadership of "W. O." he was admired and respected—indeed, I think, loved is not too strong a word—for to know his cars was to know him. During his working life "W. O." suffered a series of ups and downs which might have broken a lesser man. It certainly marked him and it was a disillusioned "W. O." I first met 25 years ago [1946]. . . . "W. O." has said that the pleasure he derived in the post-war years from Club activities; from making new friends among its members; and from seeing the loving care bestowed upon 'his' cars has more than compensated for all his earlier disappointments." S. S.

 * "The six years during which I worked for "W. O." were a period of education and pleasure. His modesty, lack of pretension, mental honesty and reasonableness endeared him to those in contact with him, and his over-riding interest in the improvement of the car provided the education in a period which included the post-war $3 1/2$-litre Lagonda development, schemes for 4 and 8 cylinder derivatives, for the pursuit of shorter strokes in engines, for a small transverse-engined front wheel drive car and for a performance engine for the Morris Minor in place of the 850cc side valve engine it then endured.

 * Though normally of reflective habit his experience showed him when swift action was necessary, and he could be very determined in pursuing it. Big enough to admit mistakes when they had occurred, he also knew when to modify and when to start afresh in remedying them.

 * It is a pity that circumstances prevented his influence on car development from being greater than it was. Though motoring and motor cars were his life he retained a keen interest in locomotives." Mr Donald Bastow.

The Bentley Drivers' Club
Woolf Barnato (1895–1948) served a term as president. Bentley agreed to become patron in 1947. Founded in 1936 the club now has nearly 4,000 members throughout the United Kingdom, Europe, US, Canada, Southern Africa, Australia, New Zealand and Japan.

title: W. O. Bentley


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Spool

Spool may refer to:
 * Bobbin, a cylinder or reel on which a quantity of thread, yarn or wire is wound for use in a particular machine or device
 * Cable reel, used to carry various types of electrical wires
 * Spool (record label), active 1998–2008
 * Spool (software company), a software company that allows users to save video and text onto their mobile devices to view the content offline
 * Spool pin, a type of pin used in pin tumbler locks to prevent picking
 * Simultaneous Peripheral Operation On-Line, Spooling, a form of multi-programming for the purpose of copying data between different devices
 * The Spooler, an operating system enhancement that provided spooling facilities for some IBM computers
 * Spool (aeronautics), the unit of rotating components inside a jet engine
 * Spooling up, increasing RPMs and thrust in a jet engine after the throttle has been advanced
 * Spool, a device used in differentials
 * Winch
 * Hoist (device)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Spool


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List of Caribbean Jews

Here is a list of some prominent Caribbean Jews, arranged by country of origin.

Antigua and Barbuda

 * Jamaica Kincaid (1949-), writer, converted to Judaism

Aruba

 * Henny Eman (1948-), Prime Minister
 * Mike Eman (1961-), Prime Minister

Cuba

 * Ruth Behar (1956-), writer
 * José Antonio Bowen (1962-), jazz musician and president of Goucher College
 * Fabio Grobart (1905-1994), Communist Party co-founder
 * Olga Guillot (1922-2010), singer
 * José Miller (1925-2006), leader of the Cuban Jewish community
 * Meyer Rosenbaum (1910-1997), Rabbi and spiritual leader
 * William Levy (1980-), actor in American film & TV, quarter Jewish

Curaçao

 * Rebecca Cohen Henriquez (1864-1935), philanthropist
 * George Maduro (1916-1940),
 * Daniel De Leon (1852-1940), socialist leader

Dominican Republic

 * Oscar Haza(1954-), journalist
 * Francisco Henríquez y Carvajal (1859-1935), Dominican President
 * Pedro Henríquez Ureña (1884-1946), academic and writer

Guyana

 * Janet Jagan (1920-2009), née Rosenberg, president (1997–99)

Haiti

 * Eric André (1983-), actor, comedian, and television host, dual American citizen star of The Eric Andre Show & Bad Trip
 * Gilbert Bigio (1935-), businessman billionaire of Syrian descent and Israeli honorary consul in Haiti
 * Luis de Torres (-1493), one of the first Jews to settle on Haiti, and also Christopher Columbus's interpreter
 * Monique Péan (1981-), fine jewelry designer
 * Sol (1988-), hip hop musician

Jamaica

 * Ivan Barrow (1911-1979), cricketer who played 11 Tests for the West Indies.
 * Chris Blackwell (1937-), founder of Island Records
 * Jacob De Cordova (1808-1868), the founder of the Jamaica Gleaner
 * Cecil Vernon Lindo (1870-1962) Jamaican banker and industrialist
 * Leander de Cordova (1877-1969), Jamaican-born actor and film director, grandnephew of Jacob de Cordova
 * Rudolph de Cordova (1860-1941), a Jamaican-born British writer, screenwriter and actor.
 * Lewis Gordon (1962-), philosopher
 * Isaac Mendes Belisario (1795-1849), artist
 * Sean Paul (1973-), singer, quarter Jewish
 * Frank Silvera (1914-1970), actor in American film & TV Killer's Kiss & Hombre, founder of Theatre of Being, half Jewish
 * Louis Simpson (1923-2012), poet, half Jewish
 * Yehoshua Sofer (1958-), Jamaican-born Israeli hip hop and rap artist, also a martial artist & trainer.

Puerto Rico

 * Quiara Alegría Hudes (1977-), author, playwright. Wrote the book for Broadway's musical In the Heights. Her play, Elliot, a Soldier's Fugue, was a Pulitzer Prize finalist in 2007.
 * Sandy Alomar Sr. (1943-), Baseball player, father was Jewish but an agnostic who allowed his children to be brought up as a Catholic
 * Axel Anderson (1929-2012), German-born actor/director, Anderson made his debut in Puerto Rican television with a sitcom named Qué Pareja a local version of I Love Lucy.
 * David Blaine (1978-), magician, Blaine is also an endurance artist and Guinness Book of Records world record-holder, American born, half Jewish.
 * Mathias Brugman (1811-1866), was a leader in Puerto Rico's independence revolution against Spain known as El Grito de Lares (Lares' Cry), half Jewish
 * Julio Kaplan (1950-), Argentina-born chess player and former world junior champion.
 * Raphy Leavitt (1948-2015), composer, director and founder of "La Selecta"
 * Ari Meyers (1969-), actress, Best known for her role as Emma Jane McArdle in the Kate & Allie (1984) TV series, born but not raised in Puerto Rico
 * Joaquin Phoenix (1974-), actor, won Best Actor Oscar (for Joker), was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor, Gladiator in 2000 and in 2005, he was nominated for the Best Actor Oscar, and won a Golden Globe in the same category in 2006 for his role as Johnny Cash in Walk the Line.
 * Geraldo Rivera (1943-), journalist, half Jewish New York City born
 * Jorge Seijo (1942-) Puerto Rican radio and television personality
 * A. Cecil Snyder (1907-1959) Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Puerto Rico, continual US born

Suriname

 * Edgar Davids (1973-), footballer (Jewish grandmother)
 * Jacques Judah Lyons (1814-1877), rabbi, later immigrated to the United States of America
 * Pim de la Parra (1940-), film maker

US Virgin Islands

 * Gabriel Milan (1631-1689), Governor of the Danish West Indies (U.S. Virgin Islands)
 * Judah Benjamin (1811-1844), US and Confederate politician
 * Ralph Moses Paiewonsky (1907-1991), businessman, politician and governor
 * Camille Pissarro (1807-1903), artist
 * David Levy Yulee (1810-1866), US politician

title: List of Caribbean Jews


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Villa Borghese gardens

Villa Borghese is a landscape garden in Rome, containing a number of buildings, museums (see Galleria Borghese) and attractions. It is the third-largest public park in Rome (80 hectares or 197.7 acres), after the ones of the Villa Doria Pamphili and Villa Ada. The gardens were developed for the Villa Borghese Pinciana ("Borghese villa on the Pincian Hill"), built by the architect Flaminio Ponzio, developing sketches by Scipione Borghese, who used it as a villa suburbana, or party villa, at the edge of Rome, and to house his art collection. The gardens as they are now were remade in the late 19th century.

History
In 1605, Cardinal Scipione Borghese, nephew of Pope Paul V and patron of Bernini, began turning this former vineyard into the most extensive gardens built in Rome since Antiquity. The vineyard's site is identified with the gardens of Lucullus, the most famous in the late Roman republic. Domenico Savino da Montepulciano was responsible for the layout of the gardens. The Borghese Balustrade was crafted by G di Gincome and P. Massoni in 1618 for the south forecourt of the Casino Nobile. At the center opening there were two stone statues on top and fountains with shell-shaped basins below. The statues were a later addition from 1715 by Claude-Augustin Cayot. In 1882, President Chester A. Arthur appointed William Waldorf Astor Minister to Italy, a post he held until 1885. While living in Rome, Astor developed a lifelong passion for art and sculpture. In 1896, he purchased the balustrade and had it installed at his English estate Cliveden. It is a Grade II Listed Building. In 2004, a colony of small Mediterranean land snails of the species Papillifera bidens was discovered living on the Borghese Balustrade. Presumably, this species, new to the English fauna, was accidentally imported along with the balustrade in the late 19th century and managed to survive the intervening winters to the present day.

In the 18th century, Marcantonio Borghese, 5th Prince of Sulmona transformed the villa's gardens from a formal garden architecture into an English landscape garden. Architect Antonio Asprucci and his son Mario worked on landscaping the villa's gardens, from 1782 for over twenty years. They placed statues around the park and started the construction of the Garden of the Lake and Piazza di Siena. They built the Temple of Aesculapius in the ionic style in the center of the lake between 1785 and 1792.

The Sea Horse Fountain was executed by Vincenzo Pacetti in 1791, based on a design by Christopher Unterberger. The Fountain of Venus was probably designed by Giovanni Vasanzio.

Marcantonio's sons, Camillo and Francesco Borghese expanded the park further. The Villa Borghese gardens were long informally open, but was bought by the commune of Rome and given to the public in 1903. Since 1904 monuments depicting famous foreign personalities and writers such as Victor Hugo, have been placed along the avenues of the villa. The statue of Goethe was a gift to the city of Rome from Wilhelm II, German Emperor.

The large landscape park in the English taste contains several villas. The Spanish Steps lead up to this park, and there is another entrance at the Porte del Popolo by Piazza del Popolo. The Pincio (the Pincian Hill of ancient Rome), in the south part of the park, offers one of the greatest views over Rome.

Camillo Borghese threw grandiose shows and popular festivals, such as a ride in an air balloon from the Piazza di Siena. The first horse show was held at the Piazza di Siena in 1922. The Piazza di Siena hosted the equestrian dressage, individual jumping, and the jumping part of the eventing competition for the 1960 Summer Olympics.

Villas in the gardens

 * Today the Galleria Borghese is housed in the Villa Borghese itself. The garden Casino Borghese, built on a rise above the Villa by the architect Giovanni Vasanzio, was set up by Camillo Borghese to contain sculptures by Bernini from the Borghese collection, including his David and his Daphne, and paintings by Titian, Raphael and Caravaggio
 * The Villa Giulia adjoining the Villa Borghese gardens was built in 1551 - 1555 as a summer residence for Pope Julius III; now it contains the Etruscan Museum (Museo Etrusco).
 * The Villa Medici houses the French Academy in Rome, and the Fortezzuola a Gothic garden structure that houses a collection memorializing the academic modern sculptor Pietro Canonica. In the 1650s, Diego Velázquez painted several depictions of this Villa's garden casino festively illuminated at night. Before electricity, such torchlit illuminations carried an excitement hard to conceive today.
 * Other villas scattered through the Villa Borghese gardens are remains of a world exposition in Rome in 1911.
 * The Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Moderna located in its grounds has a collection of 19th- and 20th-century paintings emphasizing Italian artists.
 * Architecturally the most notable of the 1911 exposition pavilions is the English pavilion designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens (who later designed New Delhi), now housing the British School at Rome.

Gardens

 * Giardino del Lago
 * The accesses to the garden are in via Madama Letizia and in viale Pietro Canonica. This is an English garden, transformed by Piano dei licini by Marcantonio IV Borghese at the end of the 18th century into a fashionable garden. Together with the Aspruccis as directors of the works, people like Jacob More alternated between gardeners and artists. Characteristic is the lake in which the Temple of Aesculapius is reflected.
 * The first historical sources attesting to the works on the Piano dei Licini date back to 1784, works which ended in 1790 with Mario Asprucci as director. In addition to the aforementioned temple of Aesculapius, the temple of Antoninus and Faustina and the temple of Diana were inserted, all in neoclassical style, works immersed in a English garden style garden., although the presence of straight paths and the use of classical furnishings were quite far from the fashionable gardens of the time in France and England. Very little remains of these furnishings: in addition to the three temples, the sarcophagus of Phaethon, a column, some ollas and a statue. But contemporary citations suggest the area was dotted with statues. The most recent statuary group is the bronze one with satyrs playing with their little one, from 1929.

 * Piazzale Scipione Borghese Garden or Rear Garden of Casino Nobile
 * Originally there was the Narcissus fountain surrounded by ancient statues, furnishings and four herms perhaps by Pietro Bernini and Gian Lorenzo Bernini. The garden, as we see it today, is a twentieth-century development with the replacement of the previous fountain with that of Venus surrounded by a classical garden.

 * Giardini Segreti (Secret Gardens)
 * They are located in Viale dell'Uccelliera, on the border between the first and second enclosures.
 * Originally they were located on both sides of the Casino Nobile . The first was called melangoli, while the second was called flowers. They date back to the period of Cardinal Scipione . There are two others dating back to around 1680 located between the Uccelliera and Meridiana pavilions. They were used for plantations of rare and exotic flowers, mainly bulb  . One of these gardens had rows of citrus trees near the long surrounding walls and flowers in the central avenues. In the ledgers of 1610 there are payment orders for bulbous plants . The fourth garden, or propagation garden, is used as a nursery for plants to be used for the other three secret gardens.
 * These gardens are derived from the ' hortus conclusus of the Middle Ages, the Renaissance and the Baroque era. In these periods the secret gardens are always surrounded by walls.
 * After the oldest gardens, marble fountains were placed with the function of pilo.
 * In the 19th century the secret gardens were devastated by French bombings.
 * At the beginning of the 20th century with the opening to the public, a new rearrangement rearranged the plants by removing all the plants considered inappropriate at the time and the rearrangement was simpler and more linear and divided into four flowerbeds located around the central fountains. Towards the beginning of the First World War, a new intervention was already planned for the first three secret gardens with the arrangement of two gazebos for guests, but already after the war these gazebos no longer existed, as did the Narcissus fountain, leaving the square bare and empty. New flowerbeds were then inserted which were destroyed during the Second World War, however, after various transformations over the centuries, little remains of the original layout of the secret gardens.
 * You can get guided tours of the Giardini Segreti.

 * Giardini di Valle Giulia
 * They are located in Piazzale Ferdowsi. They were created for the Italian National Exhibition: Turin, Rome, Florence of 1911 to decorate the staircase created by Cesare Bazzani as a connection from Valle Giulia to Villa itself. The gardens balustrade consist of two nymphaeums neoclassical.

 * Parco dei Daini
 * It is located in via P. Raimondi. The garden was a reserve of the prince and was surrounded by some herms by Pietro and Gian Lorenzo Bernini. Attached to the border wall there was the "Perspective of the Theatre", from 1615, with relief decorations. The name derives from the fact that in the park, until the end of the Nineteenth century, there were fallow deer and gazelles.
 * On the edge of the Parco dei Daini, on the corner between via Pinciana and via Pietro Raimondi, is located the "Villa Umberto Barracks", headquarters of the mounted squad of the Polizia di Stato.

 * Valle dei Platani
 * Valle dei Platani in Villa Borghese.jpg

It is located in Largo P. Picasso. It has remained more or less unchanged since the 17th century and is also known by the name of "Valle dei cani" ("Valley of the dogs"), because it is used as a play area for dogs. It consists, among other things, of platani planted by Cardinal Scipione.

Museums
Numerous museums are located inside or near the park:
 * The Galleria Borghese
 * The Museo Canonica
 * The Museo Carlo Bilotti
 * The Galleria Nazionale d’Arte Moderna
 * The National Etruscan Museum of Villa Giulia
 * The Museo Civico di Zoologia

Furthermore, the park hosts the Casa del cinema, the Casina di Raffaello and the Gigi Proietti Globe Theatre.

Other points of interest

 * The garden contains a replica of the Shakespeare's Globe Theatre built in 2003.
 * Beside the 1911 Exposition's villas, there is the Exposition's Zoo, recently redesigned, with minimal caging, as the Bioparco, and the Zoological Museum (Museo di Zoologia). Nearby is the Casina di Raffaello playroom, which has crafts and reading rooms, and a space where children can dress up in royal outfits.
 * In 1873 a hydrochronometer on the 1867 design of Gian Battista Embriaco, O.P. inventor and professor of the Roman College of St. Thomas was built in the gardens in emulation of the one at the College of St. Thomas. Another version stands in the gardens of the Pincian Hill.  Embriaco had presented two prototypes of his invention at the Paris Universal Exposition in 1867 where it won prizes and great acclaim.

In popular culture

 * The Villa's gardens feature in one of Ottorino Respighi's tone poem Pines of Rome
 * The gardens are the setting of chapters 8-11 of Nathaniel Hawthorne's novel The Marble Faun
 * The Villa is referenced by Phil Collins in his 1996 song, Lorenzo.
 * The gardens are featured in the "Rome Avanti" course in the video games Mario Kart Tour and Mario Kart 8 Deluxe.
 * The Villa is mentioned in Fyodor Dostoevsky’s 1864 novel Notes from Underground.

Transport Links

 * Metropolitana di Roma - logo linea A.svg Flaminio and Spagna metro stations
 * It can be reached from the Flaminio terminus of the tram
 * It can be reached from the Valle Giulia terminus and from the Galleria Arte Moderna, Aldrovandi and Bioparco stops of the tram
 * Villa Giulia Museo Etrusco - Bioparco - Galleria Nazionale d’Arte Moderna - Aldrovandi stops of the tram
 * Flaminio railway station

title: Villa Borghese gardens


text:
Ferrero SpA

Ferrero International SpA, more commonly known as Ferrero Group or simply Ferrero, is an Italian multinational company with headquarters in Alba. Ferrero is a manufacturer of branded chocolate and confectionery products, and the second biggest chocolate producer and confectionery company in the world. Ferrero SpA is a private company owned by the Ferrero family and has been described as "one of the world's most secretive firms".

It was founded on 14 May 1946 in Alba, Piedmont, Italy, by Pietro Ferrero, a confectioner and small-time pastry maker who laid the groundwork for Nutella. The company saw a period of tremendous growth and success under Pietro's son Michele Ferrero, who in turn handed over the daily operations to his sons, Pietro Jr. and Giovanni Ferrero (the founder's grandsons).

Pietro Jr., who oversaw global business, died in April 2011 of a heart attack while cycling in South Africa at the age of 47.

The Ferrero Group worldwide – now headed by executive chairman Giovanni Ferrero – includes 38 trading companies, 18 factories, and approximately 40,000 employees, and produces around 365,000 tonnes of Nutella each year.

History
In 1946, Pietro Ferrero invented a cream of hazelnuts and cocoa, derived from gianduja and called it Pasta Gianduja. The initial product came in solid loaves wrapped in aluminium foil, which had to be sliced with a knife, and was succeeded by a spreadable version called Supercrema.

With assistance from his brother Giovanni Ferrero Sr., Pietro Ferrero created his new company to produce and market the initial product. Pietro was succeeded by his son Michele Ferrero as chief executive. Michele and his wife Maria Franca relaunched his father's recipe as Nutella, which was first sold in 1964. After World War II, they opened production sites and offices abroad, and Nutella eventually became the world's leading chocolate-nut spread brand. Ferrero is the world's largest consumer of hazelnuts, buying up 25% of global production in 2014. The company is currently run by Giovanni Ferrero, grandson of Pietro and son of Michele Ferrero.

The company places great emphasis on secrecy, reportedly to guard against industrial espionage. It has never held a press conference and does not allow media visits to its plants. Ferrero's products are made with machines designed by an in-house engineering department.

Acquisitions

 * In 2014, Ferrero acquired Oltan Group, the largest hazelnut supplier in the world.
 * In June 2015, Ferrero acquired the British chocolate retailer Thorntons for £112 million.
 * In 2016, Ferrero SpA acquired Belgian biscuit brands Delacre and DeliChoc from United Biscuits.
 * In March 2017, Ferrero SpA bought the US chocolate maker Fannie May from 1-800-Flowers.com. The deal closed on 30 May 2017, and Ferrero paid $115 million. Ferrero indicated that they hope to expand Fannie May, with locations across the US, not just in Chicago.
 * In September 2017, Lapo Civiletti became the first non-family CEO in the history of the company. Giovanni Ferrero instead became the executive chairman, focusing on long-term strategy.
 * In October 2017, Ferrero announced that they would acquire the Ferrara Candy Company. The acquisition was completed that December.
 * In January 2018, it was reported that Ferrero was purchasing Nestlé's American confectionery business for $2.8 billion. The deal included such brands as Baby Ruth, Crunch Bar and Butterfinger, but did not affect Nestlé's confectionery business elsewhere, and did not include Kit Kat, Nesquik or the Toll House baking line. The acquisition was completed in March 2018.
 * In July 2019, Ferrero further expanded its US operations by purchasing a collection of business owned by Kellogg's. Included in the deal were Kelloggs' cookie, fruit and fruit-flavoured snack, ice cream cone and pie crust businesses including famous brands such as Famous Amos, Murray's, Keebler, Mother's and Little Brownie Bakers (one of the producers of the cookies for the Girl Scouts of the USA), as well as a leased manufacturing facility in Baltimore, six food manufacturing facilities across the country, and two plants in Chicago. Ferrero paid Kellogg's $1.3 billion.
 * In early 2020, a subsidiary of Ferrero purchased Campbell Soup Company's stake in the Danish bakery Kelsen Group for $300 million.
 * In October 2020, it was announced that Ferrero would buy UK company Fox's Biscuits for £250 million. In December 2020, Ferrero announced it was acquiring healthy snack company Eat Natural.
 * In June 2021, Ferrero bought British firm Burton's Biscuit Company, which at the time of purchase employed 2,000 people at six plants in the UK. It is believed the transaction was made for about £360 million.
 * In April 2022, it was announced Ferrero had acquired the Dublin-based vitamin and protein bar producer Fulfil Nutrition.
 * In December 2022, the company announced its acquisition of Wells Enterprises, an American ice cream manufacturer based in LeMars, Iowa. Wells Enterprises is best known for Blue Bunny, Blue Ribbon, Bomb Pop, and Halo Top brands.
 * In February 2023, it was announced Ferrero would acquire the Naples-based frozen bakery company Fresystem SPA.

2022 salmonella outbreak
On 6 April 2022, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) began investigating a "rapidly evolving" outbreak of salmonella linked to Kinder Surprise chocolate eggs.

The outbreak affected European countries, with products being recalled "as a precautionary step". Products were also recalled in Canada and the US.

On 8 April, Belgian authorities ordered the closure of a Kinder chocolate factory in Arlon suspected to be behind the outbreak. On 12 April, the EFSA and the ECDC published a rapid outbreak assessment on a multi-country outbreak of monophasic salmonella typhimurium linked to chocolate products made at the Belgian factory. The report found that in December 2021, salmonella was detected in a buttermilk tank at the Belgian establishment during the manufacturer's own checks, and the chocolate products were distributed across Europe and globally.

As of 8 April 2022, 150 cases had been reported in ten European countries, including Belgium, France, Germany, Ireland, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden and the United Kingdom.

Products
Ferrero produces several lines of confectionery goods under various brand names, as well as the chocolate-hazelnut spread Nutella (since 1964). Ferrero uses one-quarter of the world's annual hazelnut supply.

It also produces the line of Ferrero branded chocolate products, including Pocket Coffee, Mon Chéri, Confetteria Raffaello, Ferrero Küsschen and the Ferrero Prestige line, which comprises three different brands of pralines: Ferrero Rocher, Ferrero Rondnoir, and Garden Coco.

Ferrero's Kinder brand line of chocolate products includes Kinder Surprise, Kinder Joy, Kinder Chocolate, Kinder Happy Hippo, Kinder Maxi, Kinder Duplo, Kinder Country, Kinder Délice, and Kinder Bueno.

The company also produces Tic Tac mints, available in a variety of flavours,  along with sugar free versions. Other Ferrero products include Giotto, Fiesta Ferrero, Hanuta chocolate hazelnut-filled wafers, and Gran Soleil frozen desserts, which won the company an innovation award in March 2011. Ferrero has been producing Thorntons products since acquiring the company in 2015.

Philanthropy
In 1983, the company established the Ferrero Foundation in Alba, Piedmont at the wish of Michele Ferrero. The foundation promotes activities in the areas of art, science, history and literature by organizing conventions, conferences, seminars and exhibitions. It also offers health and social assistance to ex-employees who have been with the group for at least 25 years.

title: Ferrero SpA


text:
Talk:John Oswald (composer)

comment
Didn't have the patience, but a list of available scores might be in order.

Moved this from the main page, because it is more about plunderphonics, and this topic is discussed quite extensively at that entry:

A good example of this would be his piece, "Pretender", in which a recording of Dolly Parton singing Buck Ram's song, "The Great Pretender," has been electronically manipulated, slowed-down, and sped-up. The overall result of this might leave the listener thinking that Dolly is pretending to be a man, African-American, or both. At least, she seems to be what she's not.

He released a compact disc collection of his manipulations and collages, which was sued out of existence by Michael Jackson's lawyers and a Canadian record industry group. The cover art of the disc was an altered photograph of a nude woman's body with Mr. Jackson's head, which was the provocation for the lawsuit.

What the...?
What is the bizarre, long, out of place text added below the discography? Is this just simply cut-and-pasted from another site about Oswald? It really needs to be cleaned up if not excised completely. Inoculatedcities 23:50, 10 May 2007 (UTC)

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title: Talk:John Oswald (composer)


text:
Operation Rentier

Operation Rentier ('Reindeer') was a German operation during World War II intended to secure the nickel mines around Petsamo in Finland, against a Soviet attack in the event of a renewed war between Finland and the Soviet Union.

The planning for the operation started on 13 August 1940, after the German occupation of Norway was complete and was finalized in October that year. The plan called for the two divisions of the Gebirgskorps Norwegen to occupy Petsamo and prevent Soviet capture of the mines.

The operation was carried out by the Wehrmacht as part of Operation Barbarossa, the German attack on the Soviet Union and began on 22 June 1941. The 2nd Mountain Division occupied the area around Liinakhamari and the 3rd Mountain Division occupied Luostari. The operation was followed up by Operation Platinum Fox, which was an attack by the two divisions against Murmansk as a part of the larger Operation Silver Fox.

title: Operation Rentier


text:
Braxton Hicks (album)

Braxton Hicks is the fourth studio album by Australian alternative rock band Jebediah. It was recorded between January and February 2004 and released on 12 July 2004 by record label Redline, a defunct independent record label that was co-owned by the band, making it the band's first independent release.

Recording
The album was recorded in January and February 2004 and was co-produced by the band together with engineer Matt Lovell (Silverchair, Something for Kate, The Mess Hall), in a converted Masonic Lodge (Kingdom Studios) located in the inner Perth suburb of Maylands. The album was mixed by Shaun O'Callaghan (John Butler, Eskimo Joe, Gyroscope) at Studio Couch in North Fremantle.

Content
Braxton Hicks, as the band have explained, are the false labour contractions some women experience before childbirth, named after the 19th-century English doctor who "discovered" them. Mitchell was struck by the term when he read it in a medical book. He explains, "We saw it as an analogy for songwriting in that the songwriting process is like the contractions, and the end product, the song, is like the child. And you can take it as far as you want really."

Promotion
The first single, "First Time", released on 24 May 2004, reached No. 50 on Australian ARIA Singles Charts. The second single, "No Sleep", was released 1 August 2004 and did not chart on the mainstream charts but entered Triple J's Net 50 at No. 8. It is featured on the 2006 WAMi dual disc compilation Kiss My WAMi 2006, with the audio on the CD album and its video on the DVD. Bass guitarist Vanessa Thornton was nominated for a WAMi Award for 'Best Bassist'.

Release
Braxton Hicks was released on 12 July 2004 by record label Redline. It was the first album released by Jebediah following the band's status as an independent band; the band's longtime label Murmur (a subsidiary of Sony Music Australia) ceased contractual arrangements in 2002. Bassist Vanessa Thornton has since stated that she was unhappy with Sony's promotion of the band's previous, self-titled album, a history that also involved the band's manager at the time.

It entered the Australian charts at No. 26, a poor result given that the band's first two albums had debuted in the top ten. However, the band estimated that it could break even with fewer sales as an independent act than on a major label.

Initial copies of the album were released with a bonus DVD, The Winnie Cobb Sessions (the name "Winnie Cobb" is, according to the band's manager at the time, associated with the band's tour of the United States and refers to a guru-type figure). The DVD features the band at Perth's Blackbird Studios (the band would record its next album at the same recording studio) performing songs from the Braxton Hicks writing and recording period.

title: Braxton Hicks (album)


text:
Century Falls

Century Falls is a British cross-genre series broadcast in six twenty-five-minute episodes on BBC1 in early 1993. Written by Russell T Davies, it tells the story of teenager Tess Hunter and her mother, who move to the seemingly idyllic rural village of Century Falls, only to find that it hides many powerful secrets.

Background
Russell T Davies had worked in the BBC Children's Department for many years, writing the science-fiction series Dark Season for the weekday afternoon Children's BBC strand in 1991. The following year, he had left the BBC to work for Granada Television, where he was producing and writing for their children's medical drama Children's Ward.

The director of Dark Season, Colin Cant, had been assigned to direct another children's series for BBC1, but had little enthusiasm for the script. Instead, he wrote to Davies asking if he could provide something else. Davies quickly wrote the first episode of Century Falls for Cant to take to his superiors, who then fully commissioned the programme.

The production was shot entirely on location around Richmond, Langthwaite, Muker and locations around the northern Yorkshire Dales. The waterfall of Century Falls was actually Gibson's Cave, just north of Bowlees.

The series was broadcast as part of Children's BBC on BBC1 on Wednesday afternoons at 5:10 pm from 17 February to 24 March 1993. Each episode was repeated on BBC2 the Sunday morning after transmission.

Century Falls was released on DVD by 2|entertain Ltd on 24 July 2006. Upon release, it received a British Board of Film Classification rating of PG.

Plot
When Tess Hunter and her mother arrive in Century Falls, they gradually find it to be a strange village, haunted by a disaster that befell it during the performance of an occult ceremony forty years earlier.

Tess befriends the only other children in the village, brother and sister Ben and Carey Naismith, and finds that Ben has strange powers which he draws from the waterfall that gives the village its name.

The Naismiths' uncle Richard is working with his aged father, Dr Josiah Naismith, to complete the unfinished ceremony using Ben's powers, hoping to raise the spirit of a mysterious God-like being, Century. They are eventually stopped by Tess's actions, aided by the local Harkness sisters, who knew the original tragedy of the 1950s events.

Cast and crew
Russell T Davies had already gained a good reputation from his work on Dark Season and Children's Ward. He later went on to forge a career as one of Britain's top writers of television drama, although he did not write again for the BBC until he penned an episode of Linda Green, transmitted on BBC One in 2001. Davies became the chief writer of the revival of Doctor Who in 2005, for which he won several awards, including a BAFTA for Best Drama.

Colin Cant had, for many years, been the Producer of the BBC's long-running school drama Grange Hill, and had directed several well-received children's series before Century Falls, such as Moondial (1990) and Dark Season.

Of the cast, the three teenage leads were unknown: Catherine Sanderson as Tess, Simon Fenton as Ben, and Emma Jane Lavin as Carey. Simon Fenton has since gone on to appear in several well-known television dramas, such as ITV's police soap opera The Bill (in 2002) and Steven Spielberg's Band of Brothers (2001).

Many of the adult cast were already well-known character actors from a range of British television dramas. Bernard Kay (Richard Naismith) had appeared in episodes of many long-running British television dramas, such as Doctor Who, Crossroads, Dixon of Dock Green and Z-Cars, as well as films such as Carry On Sergeant (1958) and Doctor Zhivago (1965). Mary Wimbush (Esme Harkness) appeared in the BBC's famous adaptation of Poldark (1975) and several episodes of ITV's Jeeves and Wooster (1990–1992). She was probably best known, however, as the voice of Julia Pargetter in BBC Radio 4's long-running rural soap opera The Archers.

title: Century Falls


text:
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text:
Battle of Gemmano

The Battle of Gemmano took place during World War II, between September 4, and September 15 of 1944. The battle occurred in the area of the Gothic Line, near the Apennine Mountains in northern Italy, which would soon turn out to be the last line of defense for the Axis Powers in Italy. The village of Gemmano was eventually captured on September 9, 1944, by the invading Eighth Army (United Kingdom), but two more subsequent attacks were needed to secure the area surrounding the village of Gemmano. Fighting was so fierce, similar to that of the famous battle of Monte Cassino, that the battle was sometimes referred to as, “ The Cassino of the Adriatic”.

Tactics and strategy
Under Operation Olive, the objective for the British Eighth Army on the Adriatic Coast was to break the German defenses and enter the Po Plains. The US Fifth Army would then follow up with an attack north of Florence, completing the German defeat. The first assault, as well as the following ten, would prove to be futile for the Allies. The final assault brought on by the 4th Indian Infantry Division, after heavy bombardment, would prove to be successful in the capture and securement of all German positions in Gemmano.

Initial reconnaissance of Gemmano
Two days before the first attack on September 4, a British Battalion sent a platoon of 30 men to determine the size and strength of the German defenses. The British made an unfortunate mistake, underestimating the size of the German forces as only one battalion. The actual size of the German force was approximately three battalions or 4,500 men of the 100th Gebirgsjager that were overlooking the allied positions. The Allies left only one battalion to fight the battle at Gemmano because of their wrong estimation of the German forces. These German battalions consisted of antiaircraft weaponry as well, which could also be used as artillery on the advancing allied infantry and armored vehicles.

General conditions
As the numerous attacks on the village of Gemmano took place, heavy rainfall hindered the advance of Allies as well. This heavy rainfall caused roads to crumble, rivers to overflow, and mud to form, all of which made it difficult for movement and transportation. Slopes of mountains became slick and slippery and allowed for weapon malfunctions to occur.

Below are personal memoirs, testimony, and description of the battle by soldiers who were involved.

"All around the bullet-chipped cross on Pt.449, the dead, khaki and field-grey, lay heaped, unburied, in score upon score; at their center a soldier of the Lincolns whose hands were still frozen in death round the cross itself, which he had reached in his battalion's first attack. Few regiments of 8th Army had ever known fiercer fighting than that of Gemmano"

"Within twenty-four hours the only men left in the village of Gemmano... were the men who would never leave".

"They sat, wedged side by side, in the ruined cellars of the old stone houses; sprawled in piles on the doorways of barns; lay in untidy heaps in the little peasants' houses where they had crawled to die".

Holworthy (CO 4th Indian Div.) wrote in his diary : "A good show. Gemmano full of dead and smells like another Cassino"

Casualties
Casualties from both sides are not well documented, but according to British sources, Germans killed in action were more than 900. Lt.Col.Ernst also estimated more than 2,400 casualties of dead, wounded, and MIA of his regiment alone. British casualties were immense too: every battalion lost, on average, 100 to 150 men. More than 100 civilians were also killed during the battle, mainly due to the Royal Navy and its bombardment of Gemmano.

Medals and awards
The German 100th Mountain Regiment, or Gebirgsjager, under the orders from Lt. Col. Richard Ernst, earned the regiment 6 Ritterkreuz des Eisernes Kreuz for valor demonstrated during the battle of Gemmano as well as acts of bravery in combat far beyond the normal fulfillment of duty.

Ritterkruez awards were given to:

Lt. Col. Richard Ernst

Capt. Heinrich Hermann

Capt. Fritz Bachmaier

Ensign August Rappel

Corp. Lorenz Schmied

Lt. Karl Kurz

Bibliography and external links

 * Gerhard Muhm : German Tactics in the Italian Campaign
 * Gerhard Muhm : La Tattica tedesca nella Campagna d'Italia, in Linea Gotica avanposto dei Balcani, (Hrsg.) Amedeo Montemaggi - Edizioni Civitas, Roma 1993

title: Battle of Gemmano