text: Talk:Orion (mythology)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Orion (mythology)


text:
Wikipedia talk:Requests for comment/VeryVerily2

FYI: Accuser Neutrality has injected himself deeply into controversy at John Kerry as well
I suggest that this group consider that Neutrality has enaged in activites which could imply a hidden anti-Bush agenda. If that is true, this underscores perhaps his motivations against VeryVerily. A careful examination of Neutrality's actions at the George_W._Bush talk page and history will show he had considerable conflict with VeryVerily there.

Looking at that in the light of the conflict Neutrality has been invloved with me at John Kerry, leads me to believe that there is a drive to silence certain editors which disagree with him polticially. For your information, in a current Arbitration proceeding, my chief complaints against Neutrality are: Misleading/false eEdit summaries, excessive reversions and refusal to dialog on Talk page.

Also, please take note of the Rfc against the user name "Neutrality" and see that Neutrality is quick to "archive" anything which impacts him, while at the same time, has no problems with persuing others.

Rex071404 07:52, 15 Aug 2004 (UTC)


text:
Lambda cube

In mathematical logic and type theory, the λ-cube (also written lambda cube) is a framework introduced by Henk Barendregt to investigate the different dimensions in which the calculus of constructions is a generalization of the simply typed λ-calculus. Each dimension of the cube corresponds to a new kind of dependency between terms and types. Here, "dependency" refers to the capacity of a term or type to bind a term or type. The respective dimensions of the λ-cube correspond to:

 * x-axis ($$\rightarrow$$): types that can bind terms, corresponding to dependent types.
 * y-axis ($$\uparrow$$): terms that can bind types, corresponding to polymorphism.
 * z-axis ($$\nearrow$$): types that can bind types, corresponding to (binding) type operators.

The different ways to combine these three dimensions yield the 8 vertices of the cube, each corresponding to a different kind of typed system. The λ-cube can be generalized into the concept of a pure type system.

(λ→) Simply typed lambda calculus
The simplest system found in the λ-cube is the simply typed lambda calculus, also called λ→. In this system, the only way to construct an abstraction is by making a term depend on a term, with the typing rule:

$$\frac{\Gamma, x : \sigma \;\vdash\; t : \tau}{\Gamma \;\vdash\; \lambda x. t : \sigma \to \tau}$$

(λ2) System F
In System F (also named λ2 for the "second-order typed lambda calculus") there is another type of abstraction, written with a $$\Lambda$$, that allows terms to depend on types, with the following rule:

$$\frac{\Gamma \;\vdash\; t : \sigma}{\Gamma \;\vdash\; \Lambda \alpha. t : \Pi \alpha. \sigma} \;\text{ if } \alpha\text{ does not occur free in }\Gamma$$

The terms beginning with a $$\Lambda$$ are called polymorphic, as they can be applied to different types to get different functions, similarly to polymorphic functions in ML-like languages. For instance, the polymorphic identity of OCaml has type  meaning it can take an argument of any type   and return an element of that type. This type corresponds in λ2 to the type $$\Pi \alpha. \alpha \to \alpha$$.

(λ ω ) System F ω
In System F$$\underline{\omega}$$ a construction is introduced to supply types that depend on other types. This is called a type constructor and provides a way to build "a function with a type as a value". An example of such a type constructor is the type of binary trees with leaves labeled by data of a given type $$A$$: $$\mathsf{TREE} := \lambda A : *. \Pi B. (A \to B) \to (B \to B \to B) \to B$$, where "$$A:*$$" informally means "$$A$$ is a type". This is a function that takes a type parameter $$A$$ as an argument and returns the type of $$\mathsf{TREE}$$s of values of type $$A$$. In concrete programming, this feature corresponds to the ability to define type constructors inside the language, rather than considering them as primitives. The previous type constructor roughly corresponds to the following definition of a tree with labeled leaves in OCaml:

This type constructor can be applied to other types to obtain new types. E.g., to obtain type of trees of integers:

System F$$\underline{\omega}$$ is generally not used on its own, but is useful to isolate the independent feature of type constructors.

(λP) Lambda-P
In the λP system, also named ΛΠ, and closely related to the LF Logical Framework, one has so called dependent types. These are types that are allowed to depend on terms. The crucial introduction rule of the system is

$$\frac{\Gamma, x : A \;\vdash\; B : *}{\Gamma \;\vdash\; (\Pi x : A . B) : *}$$

where $$*$$ represents valid types. The new type constructor $$\Pi$$ corresponds via the Curry-Howard isomorphism to a universal quantifier, and the system λP as a whole corresponds to first-order logic with implication as only connective. An example of these dependent types in concrete programming is the type of vectors on a certain length: the length is a term, on which the type depends.

(λω) System Fω
System Fω combines both the $$\Lambda$$ constructor of System F and the type constructors from System F$$\underline{\omega}$$. Thus System Fω provides both terms that depend on types and types that depend on types.

(λC) Calculus of constructions
In the calculus of constructions, denoted as λC in the cube or as λPω, these four features cohabit, so that both types and terms can depend on types and terms. The clear border that exists in λ→ between terms and types is somewhat abolished, as all types except the universal $$\square$$ are themselves terms with a type.

Formal definition
As for all systems based upon the simply typed lambda calculus, all systems in the cube are given in two steps: first, raw terms, together with a notion of β-reduction, and then typing rules that allow to type those terms.

The set of sorts is defined as $$S := \{*, \square \}$$, sorts are represented with the letter $$s$$. There is also a set $$V$$ of variables, represented by the letters $$x,y,\dots$$. The raw terms of the eight systems of the cube are given by the following syntax:

$$A := x \mid s \mid A~A \mid \lambda x : A. A \mid \Pi x : A. A$$

and $$A \to B$$ denoting $$\Pi x : A. B$$ when $$x$$ does not occur free in $$B$$.

The environments, as is usual in typed systems, are given by $$\Gamma := \emptyset \mid \Gamma, x : A$$

The notion of β-reduction is common to all systems in the cube. It is written $$\to_{\beta}$$ and given by the rules$$\frac{}{(\lambda x : A . B)~C \to_{\beta} B[C/x]}$$$$\frac{B \to_{\beta} B'}{\lambda x : A. B \to_{\beta} \lambda x : A. B'}$$$$\frac{A \to_{\beta} A'}{\lambda x : A. B \to_{\beta} \lambda x : A'. B}$$$$\frac{B \to_{\beta} B'}{\Pi x : A. B \to_{\beta} \Pi x : A. B'}$$$$\frac{A \to_{\beta} A'}{\Pi x : A. B \to_{\beta} \Pi x : A'. B}$$Its reflexive, transitive closure is written $$=_\beta$$.

The following typing rules are also common to all systems in the cube:$$\frac{}{\vdash * : \square}\quad \text{(Axiom)}$$$$\frac{\Gamma \vdash A : s \quad x\text{ does not occur in }\Gamma}{\Gamma, x : A \vdash x : A }\quad \text{(Start)}$$$$\frac{\Gamma \vdash A : B \quad \Gamma \vdash C : s}{\Gamma, x : C \vdash A : B}\quad \text{(Weakening)}$$$$\frac{\Gamma \vdash C : \Pi x : A. B \quad \Gamma \vdash a : A}{\Gamma \vdash Ca : B[a/x]}\quad\text{(Application)}$$$$\frac{\Gamma \vdash A : B \quad B =_{\beta} B' \quad \Gamma \vdash B' : s}{\Gamma \vdash A : B'}\quad\text{(Conversion)}$$The difference between the systems is in the pairs of sorts $(s_1,s_2)$ that are allowed in the following two typing rules:$$\frac{\Gamma \vdash A : s_1 \quad \Gamma, x : A \vdash B : s_2}{\Gamma \vdash \Pi x : A. B : s_2}\quad\text{(Product)}$$$$\frac{\Gamma \vdash A : s_1 \quad \Gamma, x : A \vdash b : B \quad \Gamma, x : A \vdash B : s_2}{\Gamma \vdash \lambda x : A. b : \Pi x : A. B}\quad\text{(Abstraction)}$$

The correspondence between the systems and the pairs $(s_1,s_2)$ allowed in the rules is the following:

Each direction of the cube corresponds to one pair (excluding the pair $(*,*)$ shared by all systems), and in turn each pair corresponds to one possibility of dependency between terms and types:

 * $(*,*)$ allows terms to depend on terms.
 * $(*,\square)$ allows types to depend on terms.
 * $(\square, *)$ allows terms to depend on types.
 * $(\square, \square)$ allows types to depend on types.

λ→
A typical derivation that can be obtained is$$\alpha : * \vdash \lambda x : \alpha. x : \Pi x : \alpha. \alpha$$or with the arrow shortcut$$\alpha : * \vdash \lambda x : \alpha. x : \alpha \to \alpha$$closely resembling the identity (of type $\alpha$ ) of the usual λ→. Note that all types used must appear in the context, because the only derivation that can be done in an empty context is $\vdash * : \square$.

The computing power is quite weak, it corresponds to the extended polynomials (polynomials together with a conditional operator).

λ2
In λ2, such terms can be obtained as$$\vdash (\lambda \beta : * . \lambda x : \bot . x \beta) : \Pi \beta : *. \bot \to \beta$$with $\bot = \Pi \alpha : *. \alpha$. If one reads $\Pi$ as a universal quantification, via the Curry-Howard isomorphism, this can be seen as a proof of the principle of explosion. In general, λ2 adds the possibility to have impredicative types such as $\bot$, that is terms quantifying over all types including themselves. The polymorphism also allows the construction of functions that were not constructible in λ→. More precisely, the functions definable in λ2 are those provably total in second-order Peano arithmetic. In particular, all primitive recursive functions are definable.

λP
In λP, the ability to have types depending on terms means one can express logical predicates. For instance, the following is derivable:$$\alpha : *, a_0 : \alpha, p : \alpha \to *, q : * \vdash \lambda z : (\Pi x : \alpha . p x \to q). \lambda y : (\Pi x : \alpha . p x). (z a_0) (y a_0) : (\Pi x : \alpha . p x \to q) \to (\Pi x : \alpha . p x) \to q$$which corresponds, via the Curry-Howard isomorphism, to a proof of $$(\forall x : A, P x \to Q) \to (\forall x : A, P x) \to Q$$. From the computational point of view, however, having dependent types does not enhance computational power, only the possibility to express more precise type properties.

The conversion rule is strongly needed when dealing with dependent types, because it allows to perform computation on the terms in the type. For instance, if you have $$\Gamma \vdash A : P((\lambda x. x)y)$$ and $$\Gamma \vdash B : \Pi x : P(y). C$$, you need to apply the conversion rule to obtain $$\Gamma \vdash A : P(y)$$ to be able to type $$\Gamma \vdash B A : C$$.

λω
In λω, the following operator$$AND := \lambda \alpha : *. \lambda \beta : *. \Pi \gamma : *. (\alpha \to \beta \to \gamma) \to \gamma$$is definable, that is $$\vdash AND : * \to * \to *$$. The derivation$$\alpha : *, \beta : * \vdash \Pi \gamma : *. (\alpha \to \beta \to \gamma) \to \gamma : *$$can be obtained already in λ2, however the polymorphic $AND$ can only be defined if the rule $(\square, *)$  is also present.

From a computing point of view, λω is extremely strong, and has been considered as a basis for programming languages.

λC
The calculus of constructions has both the predicate expressiveness of λP and the computational power of λω, hence why λC is also called λPω, so it is very powerful, both on the logical side and on the computational side.

Relation to other systems
The system Automath is similar to λ2 from a logical point of view. The ML-like languages, from a typing point of view, lie somewhere between λ→ and λ2, as they admit a restricted kind of polymorphic types, that is the types in prenex normal form. However, because they feature some recursion operators, their computing power is greater than that of λ2. The Coq system is based on an extension of λC with a linear hierarchy of universes, rather than only one untypable $\square$, and the ability to construct inductive types.

Pure type systems can be seen as a generalization of the cube, with an arbitrary set of sorts, axiom, product and abstraction rules. Conversely, the systems of the lambda cube can be expressed as pure type systems with two sorts $$\{*, \square\}$$, the only axiom $\{*,\square\}$, and a set of rules $R$ such that $$\{(*,*,*)\} \subseteq R \subseteq \{(*,*,*), (*,\square, \square), (\square, *, *), (\square, \square, \square) \}$$.

Via the Curry-Howard isomorphism, there is a one-to-one correspondence between the systems in the lambda cube and logical systems, namely: All the logics are implicative (i.e. the only connectives are $\to$ and $\forall$ ), however one can define other connectives such as $$\wedge$$ or $$\neg$$ in an impredicative way in second and higher order logics. In the weak higher order logics, there are variables for higher order predicates, but no quantification on those can be done.

Common properties
All systems in the cube enjoy
 * the Church-Rosser property: if $$M \to_\beta N$$ and $$M \to_\beta N'$$ then there exists $$N$$ such that $$N \to^*_\beta N$$ and $$N' \to^*_\beta N''$$;
 * the subject reduction property: if $$\Gamma \vdash M : T$$ and $$M \to_\beta M'$$ then $$\Gamma \vdash M' : T$$;
 * the uniqueness of types: if $$\Gamma \vdash A : B$$ and $$\Gamma \vdash A : B'$$ then $$B =_\beta B'$$.

All of these can be proven on generic pure type systems.

Any term well-typed in a system of the cube is strongly normalizing, although this property is not common to all pure type systems. No system in the cube is Turing complete.

Subtyping
Subtyping however is not represented in the cube, even though systems like $$F^\omega_{<:}$$, known as higher-order bounded quantification, which combines subtyping and polymorphism are of practical interest, and can be further generalized to bounded type operators. Further extensions to $$F^\omega_{<:}$$ allow the definition of purely functional objects; these systems were generally developed after the lambda cube paper was published.

The idea of the cube is due to the mathematician Henk Barendregt (1991). The framework of pure type systems generalizes the lambda cube in the sense that all corners of the cube, as well as many other systems can be represented as instances of this general framework. This framework predates the lambda cube by a couple of years. In his 1991 paper, Barendregt also defines the corners of the cube in this framework.

title: Lambda cube


text: Category:Museums in Connecticut

title: Category:Museums in Connecticut


text:
Category:Television stations in California

 * ' broadcasting in '.


text:
Revaluation of fixed assets

In finance, a revaluation of fixed assets is an action that may be required to accurately describe the true value of the capital goods a business owns. This should be distinguished from planned depreciation, where the recorded decline in the value of an asset is tied to its age.

Fixed assets are held by an enterprise for the purpose of producing goods or rendering services, as opposed to being held for resale for the normal course of business. An example, machines, buildings, patents, or licenses can be fixed assets of a business.

The purpose of a revaluation is to bring into the books the fair market value of fixed assets. This may be helpful in order to decide whether to invest in another business. If a company wants to sell one of its assets, it is revalued in preparation for sales negotiations.

Reasons for revaluation
It is common to see companies revaluing their fixed assets. It is important to make a distinction between a 'private' revaluation and a 'public' revaluation which is carried out in the financial reports. The purposes are varied:
 * To show the true rate of return on capital employed.
 * To conserve adequate funds in the business for replacement of fixed assets at the end of their useful lives. Provision for depreciation based on historical cost will show inflated profits and lead to payment of excessive dividends.
 * To show the fair market value of assets which have considerably appreciated since their purchase such as land and buildings.
 * To negotiate fair price for the assets of the company before merger with or acquisition by another company.
 * To enable proper internal reconstruction and external reconstruction.
 * To issue shares to existing shareholders (rights issue or follow-on offering).
 * To get fair market value of assets, in case of sale-and-leaseback transaction.
 * When the company intends to take a loan from banks or financial institutions by mortgaging its fixed assets. Proper revaluation of assets would enable the company to get a higher amount of loan.
 * Sale of an individual asset or group of assets.
 * In financial firms revaluation reserves are required for regulatory reasons. They are included when calculating a firm's funds to give a fairer view of resources. Only a portion of the firm's total funds (usually about 20%) can be loaned or in the hands of any one counterparty at any one time (large exposures restrictions).
 * To decrease the debt-to-equity ratio ("leverage ratio").

Methods of revaluation of fixed assets
The common methods used in revaluing assets are:

Indexation
Under this method, indices are applied to the cost value of the assets, to arrive at the current cost of the assets. The Indices by the country's departments of Statistical Bureau or Economic Surveys may be used for the revaluation of assets.

Current Market Price (CMP)

 * Land values can be estimated by using recent prices for similar plots of land sold in the area. However, certain adjustments will have to be made for the plus and minus points of the land possessed by the company. This may be done with the assistance of brokers and agencies dealing in land, or by a licensed appraiser.
 * Buildings values can be estimated by a real estate agent (or broker or dealer) or Chartered Surveyor (in the UK) in a similar manner to land.
 * Plant and Machinery: The CMP can be obtained from suppliers of the assets concerned. This may not be possible if brands are unavailable in the market due to the closure of companies manufacturing them. Similarly, a direct CMP may not be available for a model that has been discontinued or changed by the manufacturer. Comparison of assets to most similar types available for sale, new or used, can provide an estimate of value.

CMP of an existing asset = CMP of comparable new asset × remaining useful life of asset ÷ original useful life of asset.

Appraisal method
Under this method, technical experts are called in to carry out a detailed examination of the assets with a view to determining their fair market value. A proper appraisal is necessary when the company is taking out an insurance policy for the protection of its fixed assets. It ensures that the fixed assets are neither over-insured nor under-insured. The factors which are considered in determining the value of an asset, are as follows:
 * Date of purchase.
 * Extent of use i.e. single shift, double shift, triple shift.
 * Type of asset. Whether the asset is a general purpose or special purpose asset?
 * Repairs and Maintenance policy of the enterprise.
 * Availability of spares in the future, mainly in the case of imported machines.
 * Future demand for the product manufactured by an asset.
 * If the asset is part of a bigger fixed asset, the life of the latter is crucial.

Selective revaluation
Selective revaluation can be defined as the revaluation of specific assets within a class or all assets within a specific location.

A manufacturing company may have its manufacturing facilities spread over different locations. Suppose it decides to undertake a revaluation of its plant and machinery. Selective revaluation will mean revaluing specific assets (such as the boiler, heater, central air-conditioning system) at all locations, or revaluing all items of Plant and Machinery at a particular location only. Such revaluation will lead to unrepresentative amounts being shown in the fixed asset register (FAR). In case of revaluation of specific assets of a class, while some assets will be shown at a revalued amount others will be shown at historical cost. The same will happen in case of revaluation of all assets of plant and machinery at a particular location only.

It is not consistent to value and depreciate fixed assets using different bases. Therefore, selective revaluation is generally not considered best practice.

Preliminary considerations
Revaluation will typically require liaison between the company's Production Department, Accounts Department, Technical Department, and external appraisers. To commission the project they should set out their conclusions to the following questions:
 * Why is the revaluation necessary?
 * What is the most suitable method, taking into account the type of fixed assets, statutory requirements, availability of required information? Should the values arrived at by one method be crosschecked with the values derived from another method?
 * What assets are to be revalued?
 * What is the period within which the revaluation has to be completed?
 * What guidelines should be laid down for the revaluation?
 * What modifications will be required in the FAR to show revalued figures in place of historical figures? Similarly, depreciation will be computed twice. One takes into account the historical cost, and the other as per revalued figures.

Upward revaluation
The FASB in the U.S. does not allow upward revaluation of fixed assets to reflect fair market values although it is compulsory to account for impairment costs in fixed assets (downward revaluation of fixed assets) as per FASB Statement No. 144, Accounting for the Impairment or Disposal of Long-Lived Assets.

In other countries, upward revaluation is mainly done for fixed assets such as land, and real estate whose value keeps rising from year to year. It seems the concept of upward revaluation of fixed assets such as real estate has not been widely welcomed by a majority of companies in USA on account of fear of paying higher property and capital gains taxes. Further, the provision against upward restatement ensures conservative valuation.

The United Kingdom, Australia, and India allow upward revaluation in the values of fixed assets to bring them in consonance with fair market values. However, the law requires disclosure of the basis of revaluation, amount of revaluation made to each class of assets (for a specified period after the financial year in which revaluation is made), and other information. Similarly, the law prohibits payment of dividend out of any reserve created as a result of the upward revaluation of fixed assets. The law in Australia has been amended recently to allow for the payment of dividends from the increase in the value of non-current assets in certain instances where a company meets other liquidity tests (see section 254T of the Corporations Act 2001 (Cth)).

Important points

 * Increase in the value of fixed assets because of revaluation of fixed assets is credited to "Revaluation Reserve", and is not available for distribution as dividend. Revaluation Reserve is treated as a Capital Reserve.
 * The increase in depreciation arising out of revaluation of fixed assets is debited to revaluation reserve and the normal depreciation to Profit and Loss account.
 * Selection of the most suitable method of revaluation is extremely important. The most used method is the appraisal method. Methods such as indexation and reference to current market prices are also used. However, when these methods are used they are crosschecked with the values arrived at by using the appraisal method.
 * When an asset is sold that has previously been revalued, the revaluation within the carrying value is debited to the Revaluation Reserve.
 * When assets are revalued, every balance sheet shall show for a specified period of years, the amount of increase or decrease made in respect of each class of assets. Similarly, the increased/decreased value shall be shown in place of the original cost.
 * In case of land and buildings, revaluation is desirable as their value generally increases over time, and is carried out every 3 to 5 years. In case of plant and machinery, revaluation is carried out only if there is a strong case for it. In case of depreciable assets such as vehicles, furniture and fittings or office equipment, revaluation is not carried out.
 * Revaluation should not result in the net book value of an asset exceeding its recoverable value.

Downward revaluation
Revaluation does not mean only an upward revision in the book values of the asset. It can also mean a downward revision (also called impairment) in the book values of the assets. However, any downward revision in the book values of the assets is immediately written off to the Profit and Loss account. Under IFRS, an asset is considered to be impaired (and is thus written down) if its carrying amount is greater than its recoverable amount. The recoverable amount is the greater of the asset's value in use (present value of future values) or net realizable value.

Successive revaluations
An upward revaluation of a fixed asset which has been previously subject to downward revaluation, an amount of the upward revaluation equal to the amount previously expensed is credited back to the Profit and Loss Account.

 * Example:
 * Machinery 'A' is purchased on 01-04-1999 for $100,000. It is depreciated using the Straight Line Method at the rate of 10% p.a.

title: Revaluation of fixed assets


text:
User:Goblin/monobook.css

body { background-attachment: fixed; } /* body, #globalWrapper { font-family: serif; } */ pre { overflow: auto; }

/* make a few corners round */ -moz-border-radius-topleft: 1em; -moz-border-radius-topright: 1em; border-radius-topleft: 1em; border-radius-topright: 1em; } -moz-border-radius-topleft: 1em; -moz-border-radius-bottomleft: 1em; border-radius-topleft: 1em; border-radius-bottomleft: 1em; } div.pBody { -moz-border-radius-topright: 1em; -moz-border-radius-bottomright: 1em; border-radius-topright: 1em; border-radius-bottomright: 1em;
 * 1) p-cactions ul li, #p-cactions ul li a {
 * 1) content {

}

.boilerplate, .metadata, .current, #toc, #catlinks, #stub { -moz-border-radius-topleft: 1em; -moz-border-radius-topright: 1em; -moz-border-radius-bottomleft: 1em; -moz-border-radius-bottomright: 1em;

}
 * 1) spoiler, #disputed { background: MistyRose; border-color: Red !important; }
 * 2) stub, #substub { background: WhiteSmoke; }
 * 3) disambig { background: #ffffdd; }

title: User:Goblin/monobook.css


text:
User:Dhan1530

Encik Zubir Zahid

title: User:Dhan1530


text: Category:Bermuda

title: Category:Bermuda


text:
Logical framework

In logic, a logical framework provides a means to define (or present) a logic as a signature in a higher-order type theory in such a way that provability of a formula in the original logic reduces to a type inhabitation problem in the framework type theory. This approach has been used successfully for (interactive) automated theorem proving. The first logical framework was Automath; however, the name of the idea comes from the more widely known Edinburgh Logical Framework, LF. Several more recent proof tools like Isabelle are based on this idea. Unlike a direct embedding, the logical framework approach allows many logics to be embedded in the same type system.

Overview
A logical framework is based on a general treatment of syntax, rules and proofs by means of a dependently typed lambda calculus. Syntax is treated in a style similar to, but more general than Per Martin-Löf's system of arities.

To describe a logical framework, one must provide the following:

 * 1) A characterization of the class of object-logics to be represented;
 * 2) An appropriate meta-language;
 * 3) A characterization of the mechanism by which object-logics are represented.

This is summarized by:

 * "Framework = Language + Representation."

LF
In the case of the LF logical framework, the meta-language is the λΠ-calculus. This is a system of first-order dependent function types which are related by the propositions as types principle to first-order minimal logic. The key features of the λΠ-calculus are that it consists of entities of three levels: objects, types and kinds (or type classes, or families of types). It is predicative, all well-typed terms are strongly normalizing and Church-Rosser and the property of being well-typed is decidable. However, type inference is undecidable.

A logic is represented in the LF logical framework by the judgements-as-types representation mechanism. This is inspired by Per Martin-Löf's development of Kant's notion of judgement, in the 1983 Siena Lectures. The two higher-order judgements, the hypothetical $$J\vdash K$$ and the general, $$\Lambda x\in J. K(x)$$, correspond to the ordinary and dependent function space, respectively. The methodology of judgements-as-types is that judgements are represented as the types of their proofs. A logical system $${\mathcal L}$$ is represented by its signature which assigns kinds and types to a finite set of constants that represents its syntax, its judgements and its rule schemes. An object-logic's rules and proofs are seen as primitive proofs of hypothetico-general judgements $$\Lambda x\in C. J(x)\vdash K$$.

An implementation of the LF logical framework is provided by the Twelf system at Carnegie Mellon University. Twelf includes
 * a logic programming engine
 * meta-theoretic reasoning about logic programs (termination, coverage, etc.)
 * an inductive meta-logical theorem prover

title: Logical framework


text: Category:Turks and Caicos Islands

title: Category:Turks and Caicos Islands


text:
International Obesity Task Force

The International Obesity Task Force (IOTF) is an organization designed to combat obesity around the world. It is part of the International Association for the Study of Obesity.

title: International Obesity Task Force


text:
Sunset morpho

Morpho hecuba, the sunset morpho, is a Neotropical butterfly and the largest species in the genus Morpho. Its wingspan can reach 20 cm, but is usually from 13 - 15 cm. "M. hecuba is the largest known Morpho and one may also call it the most interesting, on account of its habits, its susceptibility to climatic influences and its tendency to develop polychromatic forms in both sexes."

Geographic range

The sunset morpho is only found in the northern Amazon basin and the Guianas.

Taxonomy
M. hecuba has several subspecies and has sometimes also included M. cisseis as a subspecies.

Behaviour

"We are indebted to Dr. Hahnel for the most detailed information of its habits of flight. Hahnel calls it the king of the forest, and says that it traverses a wider area than any other butterfly, travelling perhaps 30 km. or more in two or three hours, continuous flight in quest of its mate, which it follows persistently for whole days, quite alone, over woods and water-courses. In the distance the flight of Morpho hecuba looks quiet and slow, but nevertheless it moves quickly enough to evade the collector and newly emerged insects in particular adopt an impetuous pace during their first hours of flight. Sometimes it happens that one of these apparently quietly hovering forms suddenly darts head downwards, and in this event it seems only to rise again with difficulty. They are driven to these violent erratic movements by dragon-flies, which lie in wait for them especially in marshy places and molest them from the tips of dry twigs, apparently more out of wantonness than from a desire to catch them."

title: Sunset morpho


text:
User:Gilgamesh he

I am a retired sysop from the Hebrew Wikipedia.

&

title: User:Gilgamesh he


text:
Category:Books by Friedrich Nietzsche

id:Kategori:Buku Friedrich Nietzsche is:Flokkur:Bækur eftir Friedrich Nietzsche pt:Categoria:Livros de Friedrich Nietzsche sr:Категорија:Дела Фридриха Ничеа

title: Category:Books by Friedrich Nietzsche


text:
Niel Gow

Niel Gow (22 March 1727 – 1 March 1807) was a Scottish fiddler in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

Early life
Gow was born in Strathbraan, Perthshire, in 1727, as the son of John Gow and Catherine McEwan. The family moved to Inver in Perthshire when Niel was an infant. He started playing the fiddle when very young, and at age 13 received his first formal lessons from one John Cameron.

In spite of being something of a musical prodigy, he originally trained as a weaver, but eventually gave up that trade to become a full-time musician. He was widely considered the best fiddle player in Perthshire, an area which was renowned for its musicians—the story goes that at age 18 he entered a competition that was being judged by John McCraw, a blind musician, who awarded him the first prize and then went on to claim that he "would ken his bow hand among a hunder[d] players" (detect Niel's style among a hundred players). This attracted the attention of the Duke of Atholl, who became Gow's patron, and also ensured his employment for balls and dance parties put on by the local nobility. In time he became renowned as a fiddler.

Musical career
According to John Glen (1895), Gow composed, or is credited with composing, eighty-seven dance tunes, "some of which are excellent." These tunes form the backstay of Scottish country dance music even today. However, it must be said that he was not above claiming good material from other composers as his own; Glen claims that at least a quarter of the eighty-seven tunes are either derived from older tunes or are copies of tunes published earlier elsewhere, often under a different title. The Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen indicates that Gow's air of Locherroch Side was the basis for Robert Burns' ballad, "Oh! stay, sweet warbling Woodlark, stay." This "borrowing" was a common practice at the time and it did not seem to hurt his reputation; Henry Raeburn was commissioned to paint him several times.

Many of Gow's compositions are still played today at ceilidhs and country dances. He himself spelled his name Niel, although others sometimes spell it Neil or even Neal. The National Records of Scotland attest that Gow himself used the name 'Neil'. To add to the confusion, he had a musical grandson (by Nathaniel) who did spell his name "Neil".

The annual Niel Gow Fiddle Festival takes place in Dunkeld and Birnam, Perthshire, Scotland. It was established in 2004 to celebrate the life and music of Gow, including a fund raising campaign to erect a memorial to him in Dunkeld and Birnam.

Later life
Gow was married twice. His first wife was Margaret Wiseman, and they had five sons and three daughters. His sons William, Andrew (1760), Nathaniel (1763), and John (1764) all followed their father as fiddlers and composers of fiddle music; two of the daughters were Margaret (1759) and Grizel (1761). The youngest son, Daniel (1765), died in infancy; William died in 1791 at age 40, and Andrew died in 1794 at 34. Of Niel's sons, Nathaniel had nearly two hundred tunes to his credit.

As a widower, Gow married Margaret Urquhart from Perth in 1768, and they went on to share a happy marriage until she died in 1805, which prompted his composition of one of his most famous tunes: "Niel Gow's Lament for the Death of his Second Wife".

Gow died at Inver on 1 March 1807, aged 79 or 80.

Following on from the efforts of the fund-raising campaign, a memorial statue of Gow was commissioned with David Annand as sculptor. It was finally erected and unveiled in December 2020.

The 20th-century English composer David Gow is a descendant of Gow. He commemorated the connection in his Six Diversions on an Ancestral Theme.

Compositions

 * Admiral Nelson
 * Niel Gow's Lament For the Death of His Second Wife
 * Dunkeld Bridge
 * Farewell to Whisky
 * The Stool of Repentance
 * The Duchess of Athole’s Skipper
 * The Athole Volunteers March
 * Miss Stewart of Grantully
 * Highland Whisky
 * Niel Gow’s Lamentation for James Moray, Esq., of Abercarney
 * Major Graham of Inchbrakie
 * Lady Ann Hope’s Favourite
 * The Earl of Dalhousie's Happy Return to Scotland

Recordings

 * Quadriga Consort CD "By Yon Bonnie Banks" ORF Early Music Edition, Vienna 2007
 * Scotland's Pete Clark: In the Footsteps of Niel Gow
 * Even Now, The Music of Niel Gow by Pete Clark, Smiddymade, 1998
 * Niel Gow’s Fiddle by Pete Clark & Muriel Johnstone, Inver 229, 2017

title: Niel Gow


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/European Affairs

Non-notable grouping of members of the NationStates game. There are thousands of NationStates nations, and thousands of "continents", of which this is one. There is nothing notable about any of them. Full disclosure, I'm a member of NationStates. RickK 08:18, Aug 15, 2004 (UTC)
 * looks pretty impressive, but then I have no more idea about this kind of thing than I do about Thingymon stuff. If kept, it should be moved to something like "European Affairs (NationStates)", but I suspect this kind of stuff is better off on someone's fan site. --Ianb 11:38, 15 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: Non-notable. We're talking about a segment of an online RPG, here.  By its nature, it has no empirical realty or permanence, and by definition it is a smallish phenomenon.  The article is well written, and it's quite in-depth, but if Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire were written about a fictional civilization, I'd have to vote delete on that as well.  Geogre 12:19, 15 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Hmm. I have no interest either way on this particular article, but Geogre, I'm trying to understand what you just said. I assume you are not saying that works of fiction are invalid topics for an encyclopedia -- I labored long and hard on Tlön, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius, and it's a featured article -- so what exactly are you saying? That we can only have articles about fictions created in traditional media and not those created by an ongoing collaboration? or what? How about Nicolas Bourbaki? -- Jmabel 17:10, Aug 15, 2004 (UTC)
 * Of course not! Indeed, being a person who has studied fiction for a long time, I'm all for it.  What I was saying was fiction is less historical than reality.  A fiction that is online is less than one that has an empirical existence.  Finally, a commentary upon a fiction that is online is a step beyond that.  It was the sum of all three that made a grounds for deletion.  If Gibbon were writing a history about an online fiction, he, too, with all of his mastery, would be a secondary work on a non-empirical fiction.  Also, I was trying to say that the beauty of the writing cannot, by itself, make up for these things.  It's commendable, and it makes a valuable Wikipedian, but by itself it doesn't make the topic notable.  Sorry for writing so dramatically. Geogre 17:21, 15 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Also, Jmabel, I would never say what we "cannot" have. I was only trying to explain my own reasoning for my own view.  There are plenty of fictional authors (e.g. Flann O'Brien and Myles na gCopaleen, both of which I worked on) who are great and wonderful, but fictions that are created in a non-empirical way have a greater burden, in my own thinking, than those that can be instantly verified by sitting in a library. Geogre 17:35, 15 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. It's true that European Affairs is based on Europe, a region of NationStates.  However, it is not only the largest player-created region in NationStates, it has its own domain and server and generally keeps to itself; most actions taken in Europe have little to no effect on the rest of NationStates and vice versa.  I believe that if NationStates ceased to exist, European Affairs could easily keep going without NationStates.  Its general indepedence combined with its size makes it notable in my book.  Goobergunch [NationStates nation] 19:05, 15 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, alas. I have to say that it's one of the best articles on an absolutely nonnotable I've ever read.  God bless their little hearts...  Postdlf 19:23, 15 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, NationStates groups are not notable. At best, mention in the context of that article. -Sean Curtin 01:43, 16 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * That would be somewhat impossible to do logically, because of their isolationism to the greater NationStates community - as far as the rest of NationStates is concerned, they don't really factor into importance. Goobergunch 16:31, 16 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Wile E. Heresiarch 02:10, 16 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Ambi 03:36, 16 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * Delete. This is an online group of, what, 40 people? Well, at least they don't claim to be micronations... Average Earthman 09:32, 16 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Actually, there are 561 registered users on their forums. Goobergunch 16:31, 16 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * I sincerely hope that you do not interpret any of this as prejudicial to the writing or the worthiness of the pursuit -- both of which I think are estimable. Rather this is meant, at least for my part, to be solely a question of whether the entity has sufficient notability that strangers to the group will be searching for information on it.  Geogre 20:58, 16 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete microNationState. --Michael Snow 20:55, 16 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * As the person who wrote the article, I want to say first that if this was not a relevant thing, I would not have bothered writing it at all. Regarding what Rick (the person who voted this deletion) said first, he may not have noted, but this community is, together with The New Meritocracy, the only NS region which has its own server and a devoted community which has worked hard to succeed. I think it deserves to have one article. It is not only an online community. Being almost as old as the game itself, it has almost lost all ties with the game itself. I dare to say that it is a huge board of political simulation and roleplaying which has little connection with the game. -- MiguelFC 22:52, 16 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. It looks kinda interesting. Dmn / Դմն 01:04, 20 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. The heart says keep, but as Ianb said, "I suspect this kind of stuff is better off on someone's fan site."  Alexa Traffic Rank of 3,092,175.  SWAdair | Talk  08:45, 20 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep, I find I've heard of this game.--Plato 09:21, 20 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. NationState regions are not encyclopedic and neither are websites with Alexa rank of 3,092,175. Andris 09:28, Aug 20, 2004 (UTC)
 * Merge or Delete. This may confuse people who seek to find information about historical events about European Affairs or for that matter, current events with European Affairs.  This article would be far more suited in expanding Jennifer Government: NationStates. - Allyunion 09:32, 20 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * I wouldn't have any problem in merging the article with the NationStates one. I'm only a bit afraid that members of other regions may protest. MiguelFC 12:06, 20 Aug 2004 UTC
 * Delete - Otherwise, every region in Nationstates will want to have a page. Not relevant in an encyclopaedia sense. I am also a NS player. So there. :-) However, I agree the content is good, but it belongs on their site not here. --bquanta 11:57, 21 Aug 2004 (UTC)


text:
Human, All Too Human

Human, All Too Human: A Book for Free Spirits (Menschliches, Allzumenschliches: Ein Buch für freie Geister) is a book by 19th-century philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, originally published in 1878. A second part, Assorted Opinions and Maxims (Vermischte Meinungen und Sprüche), was published in 1879, and a third part, The Wanderer and his Shadow (Der Wanderer und sein Schatten), followed in 1880.

The book is Nietzsche's first in the aphoristic style that would come to dominate his writings, discussing a variety of concepts in short paragraphs or sayings. Reflecting an admiration of Voltaire as a free thinker, but also a break in his friendship with composer Richard Wagner two years earlier, Nietzsche dedicated the original 1878 edition of Human, All Too Human "to the memory of Voltaire on the celebration of the anniversary of his death, May 30, 1778". Instead of a preface, the first part originally included a quotation from Descartes's Discourse on the Method. Nietzsche later republished all three parts as a two-volume edition in 1886, adding a preface to each volume, and removing the Descartes quotation as well as the dedication to Voltaire.

Background
In 1876, Nietzsche broke with Wagner, and in the same year his increasingly bad health (possibly the early effects of a brain tumor) compelled him to request a leave of absence from his academic duties at the University of Basel. In the autumn of 1876, he joined his friend Paul Rée in Sorrento, at the home of a wealthy patron of the arts, Malwida von Meysenbug, and began work on Human, All Too Human.

Inspiration
The genre of the aphorism was already well established at the time of writing this book: in the German tradition, Nietzsche's most important predecessor was a figure of the Enlightenment, Georg Christoph Lichtenberg, whose writing Nietzsche greatly admired. Nietzsche's work is indebted also to Schopenhauer's, particularly his Aphorisms for Practical Wisdom (1851). Above all else is the "debt to the French tradition of the aphorism – for Nietzsche's work is a deliberate turn westward". Nietzsche cites the French aphorists Jean de La Bruyère and Prosper Mérimée, and in Aphorism 221 celebrates Voltaire.

At the beginning of the second section, Nietzsche mentions La Rochefoucauld—named here as a model, the epitome of the aphorist—and it is known that Nietzsche had a copy of La Rochefoucauld's Sentences et maximes (1665) in his library. He had been reading it shortly before beginning to write Human, All Too Human, on the train ride to Sorrento. More than that of the other French aphorists mentioned, it is La Rochefoucauld's work that lies behind that of Nietzsche.

Style
Unlike his first book, The Birth of Tragedy, which was written in essay style, Human, All Too Human is a collection of aphorisms, a style which Nietzsche would use in many of his subsequent works.

The aphorisms of Human, All Too Human range from a few words to a few pages, but most are short paragraphs. The 638 aphorisms of the first installment are divided by subject into nine sections, with a short poem as an epilogue. The eponymous phrase itself appears in Aphorism 35 (originally conceived as the first aphorism) "when Nietzsche observes that maxims about human nature can help in overcoming life's hard moments". Implicit also, is a drive to overcome what is human, all too human through understanding it, through philosophy. The second and third installments are an additional 408 and 350 aphorisms respectively.

Nietzsche's work, while inspired by the work of aphorists like La Rochefoucauld who came before him, "is unique"; "[H]e covers a range of issues far greater than the social and psychological area of interest to La Rochefoucauld. To the cynicism typical of the genre, Nietzsche brings a new dimension by his combination of nihilistic energy with historical consciousness. Finally, he expands the genre to include not merely insights, but argument as well.'"The aphorism "allows for a loosely organised, shifting whole containing specific ideas but no iron-clad explanation for everything, – [it] constitutes the style that best represents his philosophy".

This book represents the beginning of Nietzsche's 'middle period', with a break from German Romanticism and from Wagner and with a definite positivist slant. Reluctant to construct a systematic philosophy, this book comprises more a collection of debunkings of unwarranted assumptions than an interpretation; it "contains the seeds of concepts crucial to Nietzsche's later philosophy, such as the need to transcend conventional Christian morality". He uses his perspectivism and the idea of the will to power as explanatory devices, though the latter remains less developed than in his later thought.

Of First and Last Things
In this first section, Nietzsche deals with metaphysics, specifically its origins as relating to dreams, the dissatisfaction with oneself, and language as well.

On the History of Moral Feelings
This section, named in honor of his friend Paul Rée's On the Origin of Moral Sensations, Nietzsche challenges the Christian idea of good and evil, as it was philosophized by Arthur Schopenhauer.

At the waterfall. When we see a waterfall, we think we see freedom of will and choice in the innumerable turnings, windings, breakings of the waves; but everything is necessary; each movement can be calculated mathematically. Thus it is with human actions; if one were omniscient, one would be able to calculate each individual action in advance, each step in the progress of knowledge, each error, each act of malice. To be sure the acting man is caught in his illusion of volition; if the wheel of the world were to stand still for a moment and an omniscient, calculating mind were there to take advantage of this interruption, he would be able to tell into the farthest future of each being and describe every rut that wheel will roll upon. The acting man's delusion about himself, his assumption that free will exists, is also part of the calculable mechanism.

From the Soul of Artists and Writers
Nietzsche uses this section to denounce the idea of divine inspiration in art, claiming that great art is the result of hard work, not a higher power or 'genius'. This can be interpreted as a veiled attack on his former friend Wagner (a strong believer in genius), though Nietzsche never mentions him by name, instead simply using the term 'the artist'.

Signs of Higher and Lower Culture
Here, Nietzsche criticizes Charles Darwin, as he frequently does, for being naive and derivative of Thomas Hobbes and early English economists, as well as for being without an account of life from the 'inside'. Consider, in this light, Darwin's own introduction to the first edition of Origin; also Nietzsche's critique to the effect that Darwinism, as typically understood, is trading in a new version of the Providential: Wherever progress is to ensue, deviating natures are of greatest importance. Every progress of the whole must be preceded by a partial weakening. The strongest natures retain the type, the weaker ones help to advance it. Something similar also happens in the individual. There is rarely a degeneration, a truncation, or even a vice or any physical or 'moral' loss without an advantage somewhere else. In a warlike and restless clan, for example, the sicklier man may have occasion to be alone, and may therefore become quieter and wiser; the one-eyed man will have one eye the stronger; the blind man may see deeper inwardly, and certainly hear better. To this extent, the famous theory of the survival of the fittest does not seem to be the only viewpoint from which to explain the progress of strengthening of a man or of a race. Nietzsche writes of the 'free spirit' or 'free thinker' (freigeist), and his role in society; a sort of proto-Übermensch, forming the basis of a concept he extensively explores in his later work, Thus Spoke Zarathustra. A free spirit is one who goes against the herd, and "onwards along the path of wisdom" in order to better society. 'Better', for Nietzsche, appears to mean ordered toward the production of rare genius and is hardly to be confused with what 'a newspaper reader' as Nietzsche might put it, would expect. The essential thing to keep in mind in considering Zarathustra, in particular, is that Nietzsche presents Zarathustra as failing.

Man in Society and Women and Child
These two sections are made up of very short aphorisms on men's, women's and the child's nature or their 'evolution' in Nietzsche's subtle, anti-Darwinian sense. Scholar Ruth Abbey has commented of works from Nietzsche's 'middle period' that, "Contrary to the common classification of Nietzsche as a misogynist, the works of the middle period do not openly denigrate or dismiss women... Nietzsche's views on women were at this time more nuanced and less vitriolic than they became". In this section, Nietzsche remarks that the perfect woman is a "higher type of human being than the perfect man: also something much rarer".

Man Alone with Himself
Like sections six and seven, Nietzsche's aphorisms here are mostly short, but also poetic and at times could be interpreted as semi-autobiographical, in anticipation of the next volumes: "He who has come only in part to a freedom of reason cannot feel on earth otherwise than as a wanderer".

Nietzsche also distinguishes the obscurantism of the metaphysicians and theologians from the more subtle obscurantism of Kant's critical philosophy and modern philosophical skepticism, claiming that obscurantism is that which obscures existence rather than obscures ideas alone: "The essential element in the black art of obscurantism is not that it wants to darken individual understanding but that it wants to blacken our picture of the world, and darken our idea of existence".

Reception
Within his lifetime, prior to his mental breakdown in 1889, few of Nietzsche's books sold particularly well, and Human, All Too Human was no exception. The first installment was originally printed in 1,000 copies in 1878, selling only 120 at the time, and selling less than half by 1886, when it was resold as the complete two-volume set. Though his friendship with Richard Wagner was nearly over, Wagner actually received a signed copy. Although he did not read it at first, saying Nietzsche would thank him for this one day, Wagner would later quote and respond to it in a number of works.

Oehler and Nazism
Most notoriously, Human, All Too Human was used by archivist Max Oehler, a strong supporter of Hitler, as supposed evidence of Nietzsche's support for nationalism and anti-Semitism, both of which he writes against. Oehler wrote an entire book, Friedrich Nietzsche und die Deutsche Zukunft ('Friedrich Nietzsche and the German Future'), dealing with Nietzsche and his connection to nationalism (specifically National Socialism) and anti-Semitism, using quotes from Human, All Too Human, though out of context. Nietzsche would speak against anti-Semitism in other works including Thus Spoke Zarathustra and, most strongly, in The Antichrist: "An anti-Semite is certainly not any more decent because he lies as a matter of principle". In Zarathustra, Nietzsche set Wagner up as a straw man, lampooning his anti-Semitism in the process.

Oehler also had control of Nietzsche's archive during the Nazis' rule, which he shared with Nietzsche's sister, Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche, a Hitler supporter herself, until her death, when he took it over. It was not until much of Walter Kaufmann's work in the 1950s through the 1970s that Nietzsche was able to shed this connection with nationalism and anti-Semitism.

Translations
The work was first translated into English in 1908 by Alexander Harvey, a Belgian-born American journalist, and was published in Chicago by Charles. H. Kerr, a small but notable publishing house of socially progressive literature. Following this, a 1909 translation by writer Helen Zimmern was published as part of a complete edition of Nietzsche's books in English, but was never translated by Walter Kaufmann when he translated most of Nietzsche's works into English in the 1950s and 1960s.

Finally, in the 1980s, the first part was translated by Marion Faber and completely translated by R.J. Hollingdale the same decade. Faber was critical of Zimmern's "antiquated Victorian style" which made Nietzsche "sound in her translation like a fusty contemporary of Matthew Arnold". Faber further noted bowdlerizations and errors in Zimmern's work. For example, in Aphorism 61 where Schaf ('sheep') is translated by Zimmern as fool, where the reference is to Sophocles' play Ajax in which the hero charges a herd of sheep.

title: Human, All Too Human


text:
Nimar

Nimar is the southwestern region of Madhya Pradesh state in west-central India. This region has sub-regions which include Nimar, Khandwa and Harda.

The region lies south of the Vindhya Range, and consists of two portions of the Narmada and Tapti river valleys, separated by a section of the Satpura Range, about 15 miles (24 km) in breadth. On the highest peak, about 800 ft (244 m) above the plain and 1800 ft (549 m) above sea-level, stands the fortress of Asirgarh, commanding a pass which has for centuries been the chief highway between Upper India and the Deccan.

The Nimar region is home to the Nimadi language.

History
According to historical records found in the Indore Gazetteer, Bija Gawli, also known as Bija Singh Ahir, held the position of king in Nimar during the 14th century. The Ain-i-Akbari, a significant historical document, makes reference to Khargao, a Mahal (Palace) located in Bijagarh, Nimar. As we progress into the fifteenth century, it becomes apparent that numerous Gawli or Ahir/Yadav chiefs took initiative in establishing small municipalities in southern Nimar, which notably included the Bijagarh fort. The Gazetteer firmly asserts that their dominion over these territories is an indisputable historical fact.

Later on Nimar was formed as a district of British India, in the Nerbudda Division of the Central Provinces. The administrative headquarters were at Khandwa; but the capital in Muslim times was Burhanpur. Area, 4273 mi² (11,067 km²), population (1901) 329,615. The staple crops were cotton and millet; ganja or Indian hemp was also allowed to be grown under government supervision. The Great Indian Peninsula railway ran through the district, and a branch of the Rajputana line from Indore joined it at Khandwa. There were factories for ginning and pressing cotton at Khandwa, and manufacture of gold-embroidered cloth at Burhanpur. The district contained extensive forests, and the government preserved a section known is the Punasa forest, which extended for about 120 miles (190 km) along the south bank of the Narmada, home to forests of teak (Tectona grandis), sain (Terminalia tomentosa) and anjan (Hardwickia binata) trees.

Nimar was also a district in the princely state of Indore lying west of the British district on both banks of the Narmada. Area, 3871 mile² (10,026 km²); pop. (1901) 257,110. From 1823 onwards this tract, then belonging to Sindhia rulers of Gwalior, was under British management; in 1861 it was ceded in full sovereignty to the British, but in 1867 it passed to Holkar rulers of Indore as the result of an exchange of territory.

After Indian independence in 1947, The former British district became the Nimar District of the new state of Madhya Pradesh, with its administrative seat at Khandwa; the Nimar District of Indore state became the Nimar district of the new state of Madhya Bharat, with its administrative seat at Khargone. When Madhya Bharat was merged into Madhya Pradesh on 1 November 1956, The former Madhya Bharat district became West Nimar District, while the eastern district became East Nimar District. West Nimar district was split into the districts of Barwani and Khargone on 24 May 1998 and similarly East Nimar district was split into the districts of Khandwa and Burhanpur on 15 August 2003. The population of this region according to the 2011 Census is 7,044,884 people.

Districts of Nimar

 * Barwani
 * Burhanpur
 * Harda
 * Jhabua
 * Khandwa
 * Khargone
 * Dhar (Southern part)
 * Barwaha (Proposed)

Cities of Nimar

 * Anjad
 * Bagh
 * Barwaha
 * Barwani
 * Beria
 * Bhagwanpura
 * Bhikangaon
 * Burhanpur
 * Dhamnod
 * Dharampuri
 * Dharampuri
 * Gogawan
 * Harda
 * Harsud
 * Jhabua
 * Jhirniya
 * Kasrawad
 * Kenud
 * Khandwa
 * Khargone
 * Khetia
 * Kukshi
 * Kukshi
 * Maheshwar
 * Manawar
 * Manawar
 * Mandav
 * Mandhata
 * Mandleshwar
 * Mundi
 * Nepanagar
 * Pandhana
 * Punasa
 * Pansemal
 * Rajpur
 * Sanawad
 * Satwas
 * Sendhwa
 * Shahpur
 * Thikri

Notable people

 * Tantia Bhīl - a tribal leader who actively fought against British Raj between 1878 and 1889
 * Nandkumar Singh Chauhan
 * Vijayalaxmi Sadho
 * Arun Yadav Former Member of Parliament,Khandwa
 * Sachin Yadav - MLA and former Agricultural minister of Madhya Pradesh.
 * Subhash Yadav - Former deputy chief minister.
 * Narayan Patel

title: Nimar


text:
Natasha Bedingfield

Natasha Anne Bedingfield (born 26 November 1981) is an English singer and songwriter. She released her debut album, Unwritten, in 2004, which contained primarily up-tempo pop songs and was influenced by R&B music. It enjoyed international success with more than 2.3 million copies sold worldwide. Bedingfield received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance for the title track "Unwritten", and at the 2005 and 2006 Brit Awards, she was nominated for Best British Female Artist. Unwritten also produced her only UK number one, "These Words".

Her second album, N.B. (2007), yielded the UK top 10 singles "I Wanna Have Your Babies" and "Soulmate". N.B. was not released in North America, but six tracks from it were included with seven new ones and released in 2008 under the name Pocketful of Sunshine, with the singles "Love Like This" and "Pocketful of Sunshine" earning success on the charts. In December 2010, Bedingfield released her third album in North America, Strip Me, with the song of the same name charting on the US Billboard Hot 100 at 91. Bedingfield has sold over 10 million albums and 10 million singles worldwide, totalling over 20 million records worldwide. In 2012, VH1 ranked Bedingfield number 66 on the list of 100 Greatest Women in Music.

Early life
Bedingfield was born in England to New Zealander parents and grew up both in London and Auckland, New Zealand. Later she attended Lynfield College. When Bedingfield was a teenager, she and her siblings, Daniel and Nikola, formed a dance/electronic group, The DNA Algorithm. The group provided Bedingfield with the opportunity to explore different musical genres and expand her songwriting abilities. She provided vocals for the group which primarily performed dance-pop music about independence and empowerment, themes that would later be found in her own solo compositions. At age 14, Bedingfield sang vocals on Origins Refined Intricacy (Steelyard Records).

Bedingfield attended a year at the University of Greenwich, where she studied psychology, then left to concentrate on singing and songwriting. At first, she recorded demos in the garages of friends who had recording studios, which she presented to record companies. In the early 2000s, Bedingfield composed, wrote and recorded songs for Hillsong Church UK. Her songs appeared on the live albums Blessed, Shout God's Fame, and the children's album Jesus Is My Superhero by Hillsong Music Australia.

2003–2006: professional career and Unwritten
Bedingfield was introduced to Phonogenic founder and A&R Paul Lisberg by the artist's manager Gary Wilson. Lisberg was initially hesitant, later telling HitQuarters: "[They] were good but weren't right for us ... " However, it was when, at a meeting together, Lisberg heard her singing ability and creative vocal ad-libbing first-hand that he became excited by Bedingfield's potential. Label interest was later confirmed when a trial studio session together with writers Steve Kipner and Andrew Frampton produced songs that were in keeping with Lisberg's vision for Phonogenic. Bedingfield signed a recording contract with BMG UK & Ireland, through its imprint Phonogenic Records, in July 2003.

Her debut studio album Unwritten was released in September 2004 and featured collaborations with Steve Kipner, Danielle Brisebois, Nick Lachey, James Reilly, Andrew Frampton, Wayne Wilkins, Kara DioGuardi, Guy Chambers, Patrick Leonard and the rapper Bizarre. The album contained uptempo pop-rock songs and influences from R&B music. Bedingfield's lyrics focused on independence, opportunism and female empowerment. Reviews of the album were generally positive, and it was described as a "well-made pop album for the new millennium" by Allmusic. The album debuted on the UK Albums Chart at number one and reached the top thirty in the U.S. It sold well, reaching multi-platinum status in the UK and Gold status in the U.S. The first single released from the album was "Single", which reached number three on the UK Singles Chart. The song's lyrics and accompanying music video depict Bedingfield's single lifestyle. "These Words" was released as the album's second single. The song became Bedingfield's first UK number one and US top twenty single. "Unwritten" was released as the album's third single in 2004: the song reached number six on the UK Singles Chart and it also became the most played song on US radio in 2006. "I Bruise Easily" was released as the album's fourth single, it did not perform as well as its predecessors but was still a moderate success, reaching number twelve on the UK Singles Chart.

At the 2005 Brit Awards, Bedingfield was nominated for four awards, though did not win any of her nominated categories. She was also nominated for an award at the 2006 Brit Awards, and in 2007, she was nominated for "Best Female Pop Vocal Performance" at the 2007 Grammy Awards, though was again unsuccessful in winning in any of her nominated categories.

2007–2008: N.B. and Pocketful of Sunshine
Bedingfield's second album, N.B., was released in Europe in April 2007. The album received mixed reviews by critics and peaked at number nine in the UK. "I Wanna Have Your Babies", the album's lead single, was moderately successful, reaching number seven in the UK, number eight in Ireland and the top fifty in various other markets. "Soulmate" was released as the album's second single on 2 July 2007 and also peaked at number seven in the UK. To promote N.B., Bedingfield embarked on the FutureSex/LoveShow tour in May 2007.

On 1 July 2007, Bedingfield performed "Unwritten" at the Concert for Diana held at Wembley Stadium, London, an event which celebrated the life of Princess Diana almost ten years after her death. The North American version of her second album, titled Pocketful of Sunshine, featured six songs from N.B.. The album was released on 22 January 2008, after the lead single, "Love like This", was released in September 2007 and charted at No. 11 on the Billboard Hot 100. The title track was released as the second single in February 2008 and peaked at No. 5 on the Billboard Hot 100. On 18 January 2008, Bedingfield's UK tour was cancelled for the second time, one month before it was supposed to start, so she could spend more time promoting her album in the U.S. In August 2008, Bedingfield and other singers including Beyoncé, Rihanna, Melissa Etheridge, Carrie Underwood, Miley Cyrus, Leona Lewis and Mariah Carey recorded the charity single, "Just Stand Up" produced by Babyface and L.A. Reid, to support "Stand Up to Cancer". On 5 September 2008, the singers performed it live on TV.

2009–2011: Strip Me and Strip Me Away
Bedingfield stated on her blog that she would start work on her new album in early 2009. She was confirmed to be writing for the new album while on holiday in New Zealand; she said "I'm here for a couple of weeks to do a bit of writing. It is such an inspiring place to write music. I love coming here as often as I can, usually once a year to fuel up on ideas for my next album". She also confirmed she was working with Brian Kennedy, who produced/co-wrote Rihanna's hit single "Disturbia" and was writing songs with him while on tour to have the album released by the end of 2009. Bedingfield also stated that Wyclef Jean, Sam Sparro and Mike Elizondo would be working on the record.

In an interview with IN:DEMAND Producer, Ryan Tedder said: "I'm gonna try and bring Natasha Bedingfield back here in the UK with some quirky, kinda weird stuff". On 18 March Bedingfield stated on her official site that she was in Los Angeles and she was putting the finishing touches on her album. "Touch", the lead single from the album, was made available as a digital download 18 May 2010. Bedingfield performed the song on The Ellen DeGeneres Show on 24 May 2010. "Touch" was officially sent to US radio stations on 29 June 2010. On 15 July Bedingfield announced via Twitter that the title of her new album would be Strip Me. The album was originally scheduled for release on 9 November 2010 but was released on 7 December. The second single, also titled "Strip Me", was sent to US radio on 30 August 2010 and it became available as a digital download on 21 September 2010. It was written by Bedingfield, Ryan Tedder and Wayne Wilkins. The song was selected to head the soundtrack for the 2010 comedy Morning Glory. Bedingfield appeared on rapper Nicki Minaj's debut album, Pink Friday, on a track called "Last Chance", and on Rascal Flatts' album Nothing Like This on a track called "Easy", released as the album's third single. On New Year's Eve 2010–11, Bedingfield appeared on Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve.

In 2010, Bedingfield joined forces with Avon as a celebrity judge for Avon Voices, Avon's first-ever global, online singing talent search for women and songwriting competition for men and women. On 6 April 2011, Bedingfield visited Radio Hamburg and confirmed that the song "Pocketful of Sunshine" (originally the second single from her US album Pocketful of Sunshine) would be the first European single from the forthcoming European release of Strip Me, titled Strip Me Away. The lead single "Pocketful of Sunshine" was released on 15 April in Germany. Strip Me Away was released on 13 May. Bedingfield was featured on Simple Plan's new single from their new album Get Your Heart On!, released on 21 June 2011. The song, "Jet Lag" was released on 26 April 2011 as the band's first single from their fourth album. On 5 July, Bedingfield performed her song "Weightless" from her "Strip Me" album on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno. Filipino singer Jake Zyrus confirmed that Bedingfield had written a song for him called "Lighthouse", which is included on his second studio album Infinity. On 9 November 2011, Bedingfield wowed American audiences when she joined Rascal Flatts to perform "Easy," on the Country Music Awards show on ABC. Bedingfield has released a Christmas song 'Shake Up Christmas', which has been confirmed to be on the 2011 Coca-Cola Christmas television advertisements.

2012–2017: other projects

In April 2012, Bedingfield announced that she was working on her fourth studio album, originally titled The Next Chapter, mentioning her plans to release the album worldwide, not just focusing on America. The album was said to feature production from RedOne, Dr. Luke, Benny Blanco, Paul Williams and Marshall Altman. The Next Chapter was presumably scrapped or shelved, given that it never materialized after that. In September 2012, Bedingfield was featured on Lifehouse's single "Between the Raindrops". On 13 May 2013, she appeared as a guest judge on the New Zealand version of The X Factor alongside her brother Daniel Bedingfield.

In 2013, Bedingfield composed the music of "Non mi ami", a single by Italian singer-songwriter Giorgia, included on the album Senza Paura. In 2014, Bedingfield contributed to the soundtrack for the Disney animated film, The Pirate Fairy, with a track titled "Who I Am". On 13 January 2015, Bedingfield released a charity single with Philosophy Skin Care titled "Hope". With the release of "Hope", Bedingfield announced via Twitter that she would become more publicly active again, promising "many more music releases to come". The release of the music video for "Hope" followed a day later. Later in 2015, Bedingfield contributed to Band of Merrymakers' album Welcome to Our Christmas Party and toured with the group in 2015 and 2016. Bedingfield also collaborated with Belgian record producer Basto during this time. The duo released a single titled "Unicorn" in March 2016.

Bedingfield toured Europe in late 2016 with Night of the Proms. In January 2017 it was announced that Bedingfield would open for Train's 2017 summer concert tour. On 10 March 2017 she appeared on the soundtrack of Tangled: Before Ever After in the track "More Of Me".

2018–present: Roll with Me
Bedingfield released a new record, "Let Go" with Nestea on 17 March 2018. She signed a record deal with Linda Perry's record label We Are Hear in the same year. Bedingfield co-wrote the song "Black Sky" with Kimbra for her 2018 album Primal Heart. In July 2019, Bedingfield announced that her fourth studio album and first studio release in nearly nine years, Roll with Me, which was released on 30 August 2019. Before the announcement, she had released the song "Roller Skate" as the album's lead single on 19 July and was preceded by its second single "Kick It". Bedingfield collaborated on the Other Girl Version of "Alibi", with Ella Henderson and Rudimental; the single was released on 5 April 2024.

Philanthropy
Bedingfield has donated time and money to organisations such as the Global Angels, an international children's charity founded by her mother, Molly Bedingfield. She became associated with the organisation in 2006 and said she hoped to help "people around the world, particularly children, who live in conditions that would horrify us".

Bedingfield is now an ambassador for Global Angels, and in November 2006 she visited India for three weeks in support of the charity. She visited an orphanage in Kolkata and a refugee camp for former child prostitutes in Mumbai to learn more about the situation and the conditions in these areas. Bedingfield later expressed her shock at what she had witnessed. Video diaries filmed during her trip were posted on her official website in early 2007. She is also an advocate for Stop the Traffik, a global coalition which works to end human trafficking and a member of the (RED) campaign. In a 2008 rockumentary, Call+Response, headed by Justin Dillon, Bedingfield performed acoustic versions of "Unwritten" and "Soulmate" in support of the film's cause: a movement against modern slavery and human trafficking.

Non-musical projects
In 2004, Bedingfield showed interest in acting and made her debut in the James Bond video game From Russia with Love in November 2005. She voiced the character Elizabeth Stark, the British Prime Minister's daughter who is kidnapped in the opening sequence. Bedingfield commented that she would like to do more acting, but only if the film "was good enough, and it was a role that [would] fit me." She has made an appearance in the seventh-season finale of the Canadian television series Degrassi: The Next Generation. Bedingfield also guest-starred on Nickelodeon's mockumentary series The Naked Brothers Band "Christmas Special" alongside Whoopi Goldberg and Leon Thomas III. She has made guest appearances on the NBC series Lipstick Jungle.

She guest-starred on Nickelodeon's True Jackson, VP in November 2009. She sang the song "These Words". In 2012, Bedingfield made an appearance in three episodes of Web Therapy's fourth season.

In December 2012, VH1 announced that Bedingfield would perform at their 2012 VH1 Divas show, a concert benefiting the Save The Music Foundation charity. Bedingfield performed Deee-Lite's "Groove Is in the Heart" with Bootsy Collins and Iggy Azalea.

On 22 September 2014, Bedingfield performed a song titled "Love Song to the Earth" at the United Nations 2014 Equator Prize Gala in New York City. The song is a special anthem she and Toby Gad co-wrote for the United Nations Climate Summit 2014.

In 2021, Bedingfield competed in season six of The Masked Singer as "Pepper". She was eliminated alongside John Lydon as "Jester".

Personal life
On 21 March 2009, Bedingfield married American businessman Matt Robinson in Malibu, California, US. In November 2017, their son, Solomon Dylan, was born.

Discography

 * Unwritten (2004)
 * N.B. (2007)
 * Strip Me (2010)
 * Roll with Me (2019)

Tours

 * Headlining
 * Verizon VIP Tour (2008)
 * Less Is More Tour (2011)
 * Roll With Me Tour (2019)

 * Co-headlining
 * Energy Music Tour (with Sophie Ellis-Bextor and Fall Out Boy) (2007)
 * Night of the Proms with (Ronan Keating and Simple Minds) (2016)

 * Opening act
 * C'mon C'mon Tour (for Sheryl Crow) (2004)
 * FutureSex/LoveShow (for Justin Timberlake) (2007)
 * New Kids on the Block Live (New Kids on the Block) (2008)
 * Play That Song Tour (for Train) (2017)
 * Timeless Tour (for Meghan Trainor) (2024)

Awards and nominations
Bedingfield's debut album Unwritten contained primarily uptempo pop songs and was influenced by R&B music. It enjoyed international success with over three million copies sold worldwide. In 2007, she received a Grammy Award nomination for "Best Female Pop Vocal Performance" for the song "Unwritten", the third single from the album of the same name. Bedingfield's second album N.B. yielded the singles "Soulmate"; "Say It Again"; and "I Wanna Have Your Babies", written and produced by Natasha Bedingfield, Wayne Wilkins, Andrew Frampton and Steve Kipner. Bedingfield has received four nominations from the BRIT Awards but has won none. As of July 2008, she has won five awards from eleven nominations.

The Billboard Music Awards honor artists for commercial performance in the U.S., based on record charts published by Billboard. The awards are based on sales data by Nielsen SoundScan and radio information by Nielsen Broadcast Data Systems. The award ceremony was held from 1990 to 2007, until its reintroduction in 2011.
 * Billboard Music Awards

 * 2006
 * "Unwritten"
 * Pop 100 Airplay Song of the Year
 * Nominated
 * rowspan=2|2008
 * rowspan=2|Herself
 * Top Hot Dance Club Play Artist
 * Nominated
 * Top Hot Dance Airplay Artist
 * Nominated
 * Top Hot Dance Airplay Artist
 * Nominated
 * Nominated

Established in 2004, the Billboard Touring Awards is an annual meeting sponsored by Billboard magazine which also honors the top international live entertainment industry artists and professionals.
 * Billboard Touring Awards

 * 2011
 * Natasha Bedingfield Less Is More Tour Presented By Freschetta
 * Concert Marketing & Promotion Award
 * Nominated
 * Nominated

The BRIT Awards are the British Phonographic Industry's annual pop music awards. Bedingfield has received four nominations.
 * BRIT Awards

 * rowspan=4| ||rowspan=3| Natasha Bedingfield || British Female Solo Artist || Nominated
 * British Breakthrough Act || Nominated
 * British Pop Act || Nominated
 * "These Words" || British Single || Nominated
 * British Pop Act || Nominated
 * "These Words" || British Single || Nominated
 * "These Words" || British Single || Nominated
 * "These Words" || British Single || Nominated

The BT Digital Music Awards honour music distributed digitally by methods such as mobile devices, online downloads and blogging. Bedingfield has won one award.
 * BT Digital Music Awards

 * 2005
 * rowspan=3|Natasha Bedingfield
 * Best Use of Mobile
 * Won
 * rowspan=2|2007 || Artist of the Year || Nominated
 * Best Pop Artist || Won
 * rowspan=2|2007 || Artist of the Year || Nominated
 * Best Pop Artist || Won
 * Best Pop Artist || Won

 * Disney Channel Kids Awards

!Ref.
 * rowspan=2|2004
 * Natasha Bedingfield
 * Best Newcomer
 * Nominated
 * rowspan=2|
 * "These Words"
 * Best Single
 * Nominated
 * Best Single
 * Nominated

 * Glamour Awards

!Ref.
 * 2005
 * Natasha Bedingfield
 * UK Solo Artist
 * Won
 * Won

The Grammy Awards are awarded annually by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences. Bedingfield has received one nomination.
 * Grammy Awards

 * || "Unwritten" || Best Female Pop Vocal Performance || Nominated
 * || "Unwritten" || Best Female Pop Vocal Performance || Nominated

 * Groovevolt Music and Fashion Awards

!Ref.
 * 2006
 * Natasha Bedingfield
 * Best New Artist
 * Nominated
 * Nominated

The Hit FM Music Awards was established in 2008 to honour excellence in Western music based on a public-voted process.
 * Hit FM Music Awards

 * 2009
 * "Pocketful of Sunshine"
 * Song of the Year
 * Nominated
 * Nominated

The Ivor Novello Awards are awarded for songwriting and composing. The awards, named after the Cardiff born entertainer Ivor Novello, are presented annually in London by the British Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors (BASCA).
 * Ivor Novello Awards

 * 2005
 * "These Words"
 * Best Song Musically And Lyrically
 * Nominated
 * Nominated

The MTV Europe Music Awards is an annual awards ceremony established in 1994 by MTV Europe. Bedingfield has received one nomination.
 * MTV Europe Music Awards

 * 2004 || Natasha Bedingfield || Best UK and Ireland act || Nominated
 * 2004 || Natasha Bedingfield || Best UK and Ireland act || Nominated

Launched in 2001, the Meteor Music Awards are awarded for achievements in the Irish and international record industry.
 * Meteor Music Awards

 * 2005
 * Herself
 * Best International Female
 * Nominated
 * Nominated

The MVPA Awards are annually presented by a Los Angeles-based music trade organization to honor the year's best music videos.
 * Music Video Production Awards

 * rowspan=3 | 2006
 * rowspan=3 | "These Words"
 * Best Pop Video
 * Nominated
 * Best Colorist/Telecine
 * Nominated
 * Best Special Effects
 * Nominated
 * Best Special Effects
 * Nominated
 * Nominated

The New Music Awards are given for excellence in music to both recording artists and radio stations by New Music Weekly magazine.
 * New Music Awards

 * 2006
 * "Unwritten"
 * AC Single of the Year
 * Won
 * 2008
 * Natasha Bedingfield
 * AC Female Artist of the Year
 * Won
 * AC Female Artist of the Year
 * Won

The People's Choice Awards is an American awards show recognising the people and the work of popular culture. The show has been held annually since 1975 and is voted on by the general public.
 * People's Choice Awards

 * 2009
 * "Love Like This" (feat. Sean Kingston)
 * Favourite Combined Forces
 * Nominated
 * Nominated

Pop Magazine is an online music magazine created by Hotspot Entertainment and published by A-Z Publishings. The magazine was launched on April 24, 2014. In 2018, Pop Magazine launched the first annual Pop Awards with 25 nominees across 5 categories.
 * Pop Awards

 * 2020
 * "Roller Skate"
 * Song of the Year
 * Nominated
 * Nominated

The Radio Disney Music Awards (RDMA) is an annual awards show which is operated and governed by Radio Disney, an American radio network. Beginning in 2013, the ceremony began to be televised on Disney Channel.
 * Radio Disney Music Awards

 * 2006
 * "Unwritten"
 * Best Song to Listen to While Getting Ready for School
 * Nominated
 * Nominated

The Smash Hits Poll Winners Party was an awards ceremony which ran from 1988 to 2005. Each award winner was voted by readers of the Smash Hits magazine.
 * Smash Hits Poll Winners Party

 * rowspan=2|2004
 * Herself
 * Hot New Talent
 * Won
 * "These Words"
 * Favorite Download
 * Nominated
 * Favorite Download
 * Nominated

The TMF Awards is an annual television awards show broadcast live on The Music Factory. Bedingfield has received one award.
 * TMF Awards

 * 2005 || Natasha Bedingfield || Best International New Artist || Won
 * 2005 || Natasha Bedingfield || Best International New Artist || Won

The Teen Choice Awards were established in 1999 to honor the year's biggest achievements in music, movies, sports and television, being voted by young people aged between 13 and 19.
 * Teen Choice Awards

 * 2006
 * Natasha Bedingfield
 * Choice Music: Breakout Artist - Female
 * Nominated
 * Nominated

 * Žebřík Music Awards

!Ref.
 * 2004
 * Natasha Bedingfield
 * Best International Surprise
 * Nominated
 * Nominated

title: Natasha Bedingfield


text:
IBM 4300

The IBM 4300 series    are mid-range systems compatible with System/370 that were sold from 1979 through 1992. They featured modest electrical and cooling requirements, and thus did not require a data center environment. They had a disruptive effect on the market, allowing customers to provide internal IBM computing services at a cost point lower than commercial time-sharing services. All 4300 processors used a 3278-2A, 3279-C or 3205 display console rather than a 3210 or 3215 keyboard/printer console.

Models
Each model - 4331, 4341, 4361, and 4381 - had various sub-models, such as the 4341 model 1 (or 4341-1) and 4341 model 2 (4341-2). The 4381-13 through 4381-24 (announced in 1987) were entry-level machines for the 370-XA architecture. They were positioned between the IBM 9370 and IBM 3090 in performance at the time of announcement.

The 4381-3, 4381-14, 4381-24 and 4381-92 are dual-CPU models. Other models included 1, 2, 11, 12, 13, 21, 22, 23, 90 and 91.

IBM 4321
The IBM 4321 was announced on 18 November 1981.

IBM 4331
The IBM 4331 (and the 4341) were announced on 30 January 1979. It came with an integrated adapter that permitted attaching up to 16 of two newly introduced direct-access storage devices (DASD):
 * The IBM 3310, described as having "a storage capacity of 64.5 million characters", was to be used with "Storage disks .. sealed to reduce the possibility of damage, loss, misuse or contamination".
 * The IBM 3370 with up to 571 million characters could also be used with an IBM 4341.

The 4331 was withdrawn on 18 November 1981.

IBM 4341
The IBM 4341 (and the 4331) were announced on 30 January 1979. Like the 4331, it came with an integrated adapter that permitted attaching up to 16 of the newly introduced IBM 3370 DASD. The 4341 did not support the much lower capacity IBM 3310. The 4341 Introduced the Extended Control Program Support:VM (ECPS:VM), Extended Control Program Support:VS1 (ECPS:VS1) and Extended Control Program Support:Virtual Storage Extended (ECPS:VSE) features. The 4341-2 introduced the Extended Control Program Support:MVS (ECPS:MVS) option, a subset of System/370 extended facility.

On 20 October 1982, IBM announced a new entry-level 4341 model, Model Group 9 and a new top-of-the-line 4341, Model Group 12. Model Group 12 included the Dual Address Space (DAS) facility.

The 4341 was withdrawn on 11 February 1986.

IBM 4361
The IBM 4361 Model Groups 4 and 5 were announced on 15 September 1983.

Model Group 3 was announced the following year on 12 September 1984.

New features
Among the new/optional features for the 4361 were:
 * Auto-Start—automatically turns on the processor by telephone via the Remote Operator Control Facility or at a predetermined time and day of the week. The processor powers on and proceeds with initial microcode load, sets the clock and loads the system.

APL keyboard

 * A Workstation Adapter that includes support for terminals with APL keyboards, supporting the APL syntax and symbols.

High-Accuracy Arithmetic Facility
While floating-point arithmetic has long been part of computing history, and was present in System/360, this feature's advancement, conceptualization of which, as Karlsruhe Accurate Arithmetic, had been under development for decades, was implemented as an optional feature on the 4361.

The 4361 was withdrawn on 17 February 1987.

IBM 4381
The IBM 4381 had a greater longevity than any of the above systems.

Model Groups 1 and 2 were announced Sep 15, 1983 and withdrawn on 11 February 1986.

Model Group 3 was announced on 25 October 1984 and withdrawn on 11 February 1986. Model Groups 11, 12, 13 and 14 were announced on 11 February 1986.

Model Groups 21, 22, 23 and 24 were announced on 19 May 1987 and withdrawn on 19 August 1992.

Operating systems
New releases of: supported the 4300 series as well as other System/370-compatible processors.
 * Disk Operating System/Virtual Storage Extended (DOS/VSE)
 * Virtual Machine Facility/370 (VM/370) Release 6
 * Operating System/Virtual Storage 1 (OS/VS1) Release 7

For the 4321 and 4331:
 * Small Systems Executive/Virtual Storage Extended (SSX/VSE), a simplified version of the DOS/VSE operating system for the IBM 4321 and IBM 4331 processors.

Other

 * Hughes Aircraft Company was the first IBM customer to install Endicott's initial IBM 4341 processor
 * The IBM 4331 Model 2 was developed by the Boeblingen lab and manufactured in Endicott.
 * The IBM 4341 Model 2 was developed by the intermediate systems group, and manufactured by SPD, in Endicott.
 * Subsequent processors had development and manufacturing activities in Endicott, Havant, Boeblingen, Valencia, and Sumare.

title: IBM 4300


text:
User talk:Dhan1530

Thanks for experimenting with Wikipedia. Your test worked, and has been reverted or removed. Please use the sandbox for any other tests you want to do. Take a look at the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our encyclopedia. Thanks. RickK 08:25, Aug 15, 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Dhan1530


text: User talk:198.81.26.13

title: User talk:198.81.26.13