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United States tort law

This article addresses torts in United States law. As such, it covers primarily common law. Moreover, it provides general rules, as individual states all have separate civil codes. There are three general categories of torts: intentional torts, negligence, and strict liability torts.

Intentional torts
Intentional torts involve situations in which the defendant desires or knows to a substantial certainty that his act will cause the plaintiff damage. They include battery, assault, false imprisonment, intentional infliction of emotional distress ("IIED"), trespass to land, trespass to chattels, conversion, invasion of privacy, malicious prosecution, abuse of process, fraud, inducing breach of contract, intentional interference with business relations, and defamation of character (libel/slander).

Elements
The elements of most intentional torts follow the same pattern: intent, act, result, and causation.

Intent
This element typically requires the defendant to desire or know to a substantial certainty that something will occur as a result of his act. Therefore, the term intent, for purposes of this section, always includes either desire or knowledge to a substantial certainty.

For an example in battery, Dave shoots a gun into a crowd of people because he is specifically trying to hit someone with a bullet. This element would be satisfied, as David had an actual desire to procure the harm required for this tort. Alternatively, Dave shoots a gun into a crowd of people for some reason and genuinely hopes no one gets hit but knows that it is virtually inevitable that someone will actually get hit. This element would still be satisfied, as David had knowledge to a substantial certainty that harm would result.

In contrast, if all that can be said about the defendant's state of mind is that he should have known better, he will not be liable for an intentional tort. This situation might occur if, as opposed to the examples above, Dave shoots a gun in a remote part of the desert without looking just for fun, not wanting to hit anyone, but the bullet does hit someone. Dave did not have a desire or knowledge to a substantial certainty that someone would get hit in this situation. He may, however, be liable for some other tort, namely negligence.

Transferred intent
Transferred intent is the legal principle that intent can be transferred from one victim or tort to another. [1] In tort law, there are generally five areas in which transferred intent is applicable: battery, assault, false imprisonment, trespass to land, and trespass to chattels. Generally, any intent to cause any one of these five torts which results in the completion of any of the five tortious acts will be considered an intentional act, even if the actual target of the tort is one other than the intended target of the original tort.

Act
The element of an act varies by whatever tort is in question but always requires voluntariness. For example, if Dave has a muscle spasm that makes his arm fling out to his side and hit Paula, who is standing next to him, any case that Paula attempts to bring against Dave for battery will fail for lack of the requisite act (which will be discussed in the section on battery, below). The act was not voluntary.

Result
This element typically refers to damage, although damage is not required to prevail on certain intentional torts, such as trespass to land.

Causation
This element refers to actual cause and proximate cause. It will be treated in its own section.

Battery
A person commits a battery when he acts either intending to cause a harmful or offensive contact with another or intending to cause another imminent apprehension of such contact and when such contact results. Therefore, there is a variety of ways in which a person can commit a battery, as illustrated by the following examples of defendant Dave and plaintiff Paula.

 * Dave acts intending to cause a harmful contact with Paula, and a harmful contact does result.
 * Dave acts intending to cause a harmful contact with Paula, but an offensive contact results.
 * Dave acts intending to cause an offensive contact with Paula, and an offensive contact does result.
 * Dave acts intending to cause an offensive contact with Paula, but a harmful contact results.
 * Dave acts intending to "only" cause Paula to be imminently apprehensive of a harmful or offensive contact, but a harmful contact actually results.
 * Dave acts intending to "only" cause Paula to be imminently apprehensive of a harmful or offensive contact, but an offensive contact actually results.

Apprehension is a broader term than fear. If a defendant intends to cause the plaintiff to actually fear a harmful contact, for example, it will therefore always suffice as apprehension, but there are other ways to achieve apprehension as well.

Assault
Assault is notably similar to battery. Indeed, the elements of intent and act are identical. The only difference is the result. A person commits an assault when he acts either intending to cause a harmful or offensive contact with another or intending to cause another imminent apprehension of such contact and when such imminent apprehension results. Therefore, there is a variety of ways in which a person can commit an assault.

False imprisonment
A person commits false imprisonment when he acts intending to confine another and when confinement actually results that the confinee is either aware of or damaged by.

Confinement must typically be within boundaries that the defendant establishes. For example, a person is not confined when he is refused entry to a building, because he is free to leave. In addition, a person is not confined unless the will to leave of an ordinary person in the same situation would be overborne. For example, Dave calls Paula into a room with one door. Dave closes the door and stands in front of it. He tells Paula that if she wants to leave, he will open the door and get out of her way but also threatens to blink twice if she does so. An ordinary person's will to leave would not be overborne by Dave's threat to blink twice.

No damage is required in false imprisonment, hence the requirement of a result of awareness or damage. For example, Dave calls Paula into a room with one door. Dave closes the door and stands in front of it. He tells Paula that if she wants to leave, he will take out a gun and shoot her. (Note that this would overcome the will of an ordinary person to leave.) An hour later, Dave changes his mind and leaves the premises. Paula subsequently leaves and is not physically injured at all. Her awareness of confinement is sufficient to satisfy the element of the result in false imprisonment.

Alternatively, Paula is a narcoleptic. She suddenly falls into a deep sleep while feeding the chickens in a barn on Dave's farm in a remote area. Not wanting to move her, Dave locks her in the barn from the outside when he needs to go into town, trying to protect her but also knowing that she won't be able to leave (or call for help) if she wakes up. While Dave is away, the chickens severely scratch Paula's arms, but she does not wake up. Dave returns, unlocks the barn, and successfully wakes up Paula to tend to her wounds. Even though she was unaware of her confinement, she was damaged by it and will have a claim of false imprisonment against Dave.

Intentional infliction of emotional distress
A person is liable for intentional infliction of emotional distress (IIED) when he intentionally or recklessly engages in extreme and outrageous conduct that is highly likely to cause severe emotional distress.

This is a notable exception to the general rule given above that for almost all intentional torts only desire or knowledge to a substantial certainty will do. IIED also includes recklessness. This still distinguishes it from negligent infliction of emotional distress, though.

Extreme and outrageous conduct refers to the act. Severe emotional distress refers to the result. This is another intentional tort for which no damage is ordinarily required. However, some jurisdictions require the accompaniment of physical effects. In other words, emotional distress will not be deemed to exist in those jurisdictions unless there are physical manifestations, such as vomiting or fainting.

Trespass to land
A person commits trespass to land when he wrongfully and intentionally enters, or causes a thing or third person to enter, land owned or occupied by another.

Trespass to chattel
A person commits trespass to chattel when he acts either intending to dispossess the rightful possessor of a chattel or intending to use or intermeddle with the chattel of another and when dispossession of the chattel for a substantial time results, or damage to the chattel results, or physical injury to the rightful possessor results.

Conversion
A person commits conversion when he acts intending to exercise dominion and control and when interference with the rightful possessor's control results that is so serious that it requires the actor to pay the full value of the chattel to the rightful possessor. An exercise of dominion and control refers to the act. Serious interference refers to the result. Seriousness is determined by the following factors: The remedy for this cause of action not only requires the defendant to pay the plaintiff the full value of the chattel but also is properly considered a forced sale. The plaintiff must tender the defendant the chattel. Therefore, a plaintiff may not elect to pursue this cause of action but instead trespass to chattel, namely when he wants to keep his chattel despite its potential damage.
 * the nature of the act and how long it lasted;
 * the nature of the interference and how long it lasted;
 * the inconvenience to and expense incurred by the rightful possessor;
 * the actor's good faith (whether he was trying to help someone, for example);
 * when applicable, the mistake by the actor (he took a book that looked just like his own but was actually someone else's, for example); and
 * when applicable, the damage to the chattel.

Defamation

 * Barrett v. Rosenthal
 * Curtis Publishing Co. v. Butts
 * Dun & Bradstreet, Inc. v. Greenmoss Builders, Inc.
 * Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc.
 * Hustler Magazine v. Falwell
 * Lunney v. Prodigy Services Co.
 * McDonald v. Smith
 * Milkovich v. Lorain Journal Co.
 * Near v. Minnesota
 * New York Times Co. v. Sullivan
 * Red Lion Broadcasting Co. v. Federal Communications Commission
 * Reynolds v. Pegler
 * Time, Inc. v. Firestone
 * Westmoreland v. CBS
 * John Peter Zenger

Affirmative defenses
The following are affirmative defenses to intentional torts.

Consent
Consent can be a defense to any intentional tort, although lack of consent is occasionally incorporated into the definition of an intentional tort, such as trespass to land. However, lack of consent is not always an essential element to establish a prima facie case in such situations. Therefore, it is properly treated as an affirmative defense.

Self-defense
Self-defense is typically a defense to battery. Similar to self-defense is the defense of others.

Defense of property
This is typically a defense to trespass to land or trespass to chattels, as it can refer to realty or personalty.

Necessity
Necessity is typically a defense to trespass to land. There are two kinds of necessity, private and public.

Private necessity
This is a partial privilege. A party who has this privilege is still liable for damage caused. This defense is therefore more important when there is a concomitant issue of whether the opposing party has a valid privilege of defense of property.

The following example is derived from an actual Vermont case from 1908 called Ploof v. Putnam. Paula is sailing on a lake when a violent storm suddenly breaks out. She navigates to the nearest dock and quickly ties up her vessel, not damaging the dock at all. The dock belongs to Dave. Dave attempts to exercise the privilege of defense of property, as Paula would ordinarily be committing a trespass to land in this situation, and unties the vessel. Paula therefore drifts back away from the shore. Her boat is damaged, and she suffers personal injuries, both as a result of the storm.

If Paula had damaged Dave's dock, she would be liable for it, even though she has a valid privilege of private necessity. More importantly, Dave is now liable to Paula for the damage to her boat and for her personal injuries. Because of the private necessity, Paula is not considered a trespasser. So, Dave did not in fact have a valid privilege of defense of property.

Ordinarily, for private necessity to be valid, the party attempting to exercise it must not have created the emergency. For example, if Paula intentionally punctures her fuel tank just so she can race over to Dave's dock and tie up, she will not have a valid privilege of private necessity. As such, she would be a trespasser, and Dave would have a valid privilege of defense of property.

Public necessity
This is a complete privilege. A party who has this privilege, typically a public official or governmental entity, is not liable for any damage caused. A famous early case on this privilege involved John W. Geary, the first mayor of San Francisco, who made the decision during a major fire to burn down several private residences to establish a fire break.

Negligence
Amongst unintentional torts one finds negligence as being the most common source of common law. Most Americans are under the impression that most people can sue for any type of negligence, but it is untrue in most US jurisdictions (partly because negligence is one of the few torts for which ordinary people can and do obtain liability insurance.) It is a form of extracontractual liability that is based upon a failure to comply with the duty of care of a reasonable person, which failure is the actual cause and proximate cause of damages. That is, but for the tortfeasor's act or omission, the damages to the plaintiff would not have been incurred, and the damages were a reasonably foreseeable consequence of the tortious conduct.

Some jurisdictions recognize one or more designations less than actual intentional wrongdoing, but more egregious than mere negligence, such as "wanton", "reckless" or "despicable" conduct. A finding in those states that a defendant's conduct was "wanton," "reckless" or "despicable", rather than merely negligent, can be significant because certain defenses, such as contributory negligence, are often unavailable when such conduct is the cause of the damages.

Professional rescuer

 * MacPherson v. Buick Motor Co., 217 N.Y. 382, 111 N.E. 1050 (1916) Judge Benjamin N. Cardozo which removed the requirement of privity of contract for duty in negligence actions.
 * Martin v. Herzog, 228 N Y. 164, 126 N.E. 814 (1920)
 * Tedla v. Ellman, 280 N.Y. 124, 19 N.E.2d 987, (1939) on negligence per se, or the violation of a duty under a statute
 * Seong Sil Kim v. New York City Transit Authority, duty of care to a person who may have been attempting suicide.

Breach of duty
Breach is ordinarily established by showing that the defendant failed to exercise reasonable care. Some courts use the terms ordinary care or prudent care instead. Conduct is typically considered to be unreasonable when the disadvantages outweigh the advantages. Judge Learned Hand famously reduced this to algebraic form in United States v. Carroll Towing Co.: Where $$B<PL$$ which means that if the burden of exercising more care is less than the probability of damage or harm multiplied by the severity of the expected loss, and a person fails to undertake the burden, he is not exercising reasonable care and is thus breaching his duty to do so (assuming he has one). In other words, the burden of prevention is less than the probability that the injury will occur multiplied by the gravity of the harm/injury. Under this formula, duty changes as circumstances change—if the cost of prevention increases, then the duty to prevent decreases; if the likelihood of damage or the severity of the potential damage increases, then duty to prevent increases.

There are other ways of establishing breach, as well.

 * United States v. Carroll Towing Co., 159 F.2d 169 (2d. Cir. 1947)

Violation of statute
This is also known as negligence per se. An incident would not have happened if there was not a breach. Breach can be shown in most jurisdictions if a defendant violates a statute that pertains to safety and the purpose of which is to prevent the result of the case. Note that this is an alternative way to show breach. A violation of statute will not have occurred in every case. Therefore, just because it cannot be shown does not mean that there has been no breach. Even if it is attempted to be shown but fails, there may be other bases of breach.

Excuse
Occasionally, there is a valid excuse for violating a safety statute, namely when it is safer or arguably safer to violate than to comply with it. This happened in Tedla v. Ellman. A statute required pedestrians using roadways to walk against traffic. At the time in question, there was heavy traffic going the opposite direction as the plaintiff. Therefore, the plaintiff would have had to walk past many more vehicles, arguably increasing his chances of being hit. So, the plaintiff walked with traffic on the other side of the road, thus violating the statute. There were far fewer vehicles travelling that direction, but the plaintiff was hit anyway. Even though the purpose of the statute was to prevent precisely the result that occurred, the plaintiff nonetheless prevailed because of a valid excuse for violating the statute, namely that it was probably safer not to comply.

Violation of custom
Breach can be shown in most jurisdictions if a defendant violates a custom that is widespread and itself reasonable. For example, where ten percent of a certain industry does a certain thing, it probably will not be considered a custom for purposes of breach in negligence. Alternatively, if 90 percent of a certain industry does a certain thing, but the thing is inherently unsafe, and it is upholding the custom as a cost-saving measure, violation of that custom (doing something safer) will not constitute breach. As with violation of statute, this is an alternative way to show breach. Therefore, just because it cannot be shown, or is attempted to be shown but fails, does not mean that there has been no breach. There may be other ways of showing breach.
 * Trimarco v. Klein, 56 N.Y.2d 98, 436 N.E.2d 502 (1982), decided that customary conduct is not conclusive (although it is good evidence) of what will be reasonable.

Res ipsa loquitur
This is a Latin phrase that means "the thing speaks for itself." It is a rare alternative basis of breach. Ordinarily, it only applies when the plaintiff has little or limited access to the evidence of negligent conduct. Res ipsa loquitur requires that the defendant have exclusive control over the thing that causes the injury and that the act be one that would not ordinarily occur without negligence. Likely defendant negligence was responsible and plaintiff was not cause.

Causation
Causation is typically a bigger issue in negligence cases than intentional torts. However, as mentioned previously, it is an element of any tort. The defendant's act must be an actual cause and a proximate cause of the result in a particular cause of action.

Actual cause
Actual cause has historically been determined by the "but for" test. If the result would not have occurred but for the defendant's act, the act is an actual cause of the result.

Several other tests have been created to supplement this general rule, however, especially to deal with cases in which the plaintiff suffers great harm, yet because multiple acts by multiple defendants, the but for test is unhelpful. This situation occurred in the famous case of Summers v. Tice. For example, Dan and Dave both negligently fire their shotguns at Paula. Paula is struck by only one pellet and it is impossible to determine which gun it was fired from. Using the but for test alone, Dan and Dave can both escape liability. Dan can say that but for his own negligence, Paula still might have suffered the same harm. Dave can make the same argument. As a matter of public policy, most courts will nonetheless hold Dan and Dave jointly and severally liable. The act of each defendant is therefore said to be an actual cause, even if this is a fiction.

A similar situation arises when it is impossible to show that the defendant(s) was/were negligent at all. This almost inevitably arises in cases also involving res ipsa loquitor. See Ybarra v. Spangard. For example, making the facts of that case more extreme, Paula goes to the hospital for an appendectomy. She wakes up, and finds her left arm has also been amputated for no apparent reason. (Note that this would implicate multiple issues and other causes of action than negligence.) For purposes of actual cause, unless there is evidence or an admission of negligent conduct, Paula will be unable to show an actual cause. In this situation too, most courts will hold all the defendants that Paula names (possibly everyone on the medical staff that was in the room during her surgery) jointly and severally liable. The act of each defendant is likewise said to be an actual cause, even if this is a fiction.

Substantial factor test
Another test deals with cases in which there are two actual causes but only one is negligent. For example, there are three equidistant points, A, B, and C. Paula's house is at point A. Dave negligently ignites a fire at point B. Lightning simultaneously strikes point C, starting a second fire. The fire at point B and the fire at point C both burn towards point A. Paula's house burns down. Unlike Summers v. Tice, there is only one defendant in this situation. Most courts will still hold Dave's negligence to be an actual cause, as his conduct was a substantial factor in causing Paula's damage. This is sometimes called the substantial factor test.

 * Summers v. Tice, 33 Cal. 2d 80 (1948)
 * Ybarra v. Spangard, 25 Cal. 2d 486 (1944)

Proximate cause
There are many tests for determining whether an actual cause is a proximate one. Most involve some form of foreseeability.

Justice Cardozo has two factors to determine if there was a proximate cause between the plaintiff's injury and the defendant's breach of duty:
 * 1) Is the plaintiff's injury a reasonably foreseeable consequence of the defendant's breach of duty?
 * 2) Is the plaintiff a reasonably foreseeable victim of the defendant's breach of duty?

Justice Andrews has several factors to determine if there was a proximate cause between the plaintiff's injury and the defendant's breach of duty:
 * 1) Was there a natural and continuous sequence between the plaintiff's injury and the defendant's breach of duty?
 * 2) Was the injury caused directly or indirectly?
 * 3) Based on human experience, would people expect the result to happen?
 * 4) Was the result too remote in time and/or place in light of the circumstances?
 * 5) Were there intervening causes? Were the intervening causes ones people would expect or were they so unusual (i.e., superseding causes) as to break the chain of causation?

 * Ultramares Corporation v. Touche, 174 N.E. 441 (1931), on proximate cause in negligent misstatement cases

Negligent infliction of emotional distress

 * Miller v. National Broadcasting Co. 232 Cal. Rptr 688 (1986)
 * Dillon v. Legg, '68 Cal. 2d 728 (1968)
 * Thing v. LaChusa 48 Cal. 3d 644, 666-667 (1989).

Medical malpractice

 * Ewing v. Goldstein
 * Tarasoff v. Regents of the University of California
 * Schloendorff v. Society of New York Hospital, 211 N.Y. 125, 105 N.E. 92 (1914), the principle of informed consent before operations
 * Jablonski by Pahls v. United States, 712 F.2d 391 (9th Cir. 1983)

Interspousal Tort Suits
Historically at common law, spouses were not allowed to sue one another at all. Initially, this was due to the doctrine of coverture. Even after this legal doctrine was abandoned with the adoption of the Married Women's Property Acts, many courts disallowed lawsuits between spouses other than divorce or criminal proceedings for the fear that it would disrupt marital harmony.

From the 1860s until 1913, courts completely rejected the notion of interspousal liability. Then, in 1914, one woman was allowed to bring a civil suit against her husband for assault and false imprisonment. Between 1914 and 1920, there were seven state supreme courts that allowed spouses to sue one another for claims such as assault and battery, wrongful imprisonment, wrongful death, and infliction of venereal disease. However, recognition of spouses' ability to sue one another stalled around 1921. Scholars suggest this change in direction is due to the rise of tort suits arising out of automobile accidents. Courts declined to extend spouses the ability to sue each another after car accidents for fear of collusion and insurance fraud. This fear stems from the fact that both sides of a negligent car accident suit between spouses want the injured party to recover. Courts then blurred the lines between willful and negligent tort suits to disallow any interspousal tort suits. This argument contrasts the popular narrative that patriarchal restrictions were responsible for interspousal immunity from suit.

Public authorities

 * Dolan v. United States Postal Service, post office immune under the Federal Tort Claims Act
 * Feres v. United States, 340 U.S. 135 (1950), US immune from suit from members of the military
 * Warren v. District of Columbia, 444 A.2d. 1, D.C. Ct. of Ap. (1981) holding that the police were not responsible for failing (though repeatedly warned) to respond to calls and arrest people committing crimes

Damages

 * Joint liability
 * Walt Disney World Co. v. Wood, 489 So. 2d 61 (Fla. Dist. Ct. App. 1986)

 * Comparative negligence

 * Li v. Yellow Cab Co., 532 P.2d 1226, 13 Cal.3d 804 (1975),

Punitive damages (sums intended to punish the defendant) may be awarded in addition to actual damages intended to compensate the plaintiff. Punitive damage awards generally require a higher showing than mere negligence, but lower than intention. For instance, grossly negligent, reckless, or outrageous conduct may be grounds for an award of punitive damages. These punitive damages awards can be quite substantial in some cases.
 * Punitive damages

 * BMW of North America, Inc. v. Gore, Constitutional limits on punitive damages
 * Liebeck v. McDonald's Restaurants
 * Pearson v. Chung (2005)

Strict liability
Strict liability torts are brought for injuries resulting from ultrahazardous activities, for which the defendant will be held liable even if there was no negligence on his/her part. Strict liability also applies to some types of product liability claims and to copyright infringement and some trademark cases. Some statutory torts are also strict liability, including many environmental torts. The term "strict liability" refers to the fact that the tortfeasor's liability is not premised on their culpable state of mind (whether they knew or intended to accomplish the wrongful act, or violated a standard of care by doing so,) but, instead, strictly on the conduct itself or its result.

Product liability
Product liability refers to the liability of manufacturers, wholesalers and retailers for unreasonably dangerous products.

 * Escola v. Coca-Cola Bottling Co., 24 Cal.2d 453, 150 P.2d 436 (1944)
 * Sindell v. Abbott Laboratories, 26 Cal. 3d 588, 607 P.2d 924 (1980)

Federal torts
Although federal courts often hear tort cases arising out of common law or state statutes, there are relatively few tort claims that arise exclusively as a result of federal law. The most common federal tort claim is the 42 U.S.C. § 1983 remedy for violation of one's civil rights under color of federal or state law, which can be used to sue for anything from a free speech claim to use of excessive force by the police. Tort claims arising out of injuries occurring on vessels on navigable waters of the United States fall under federal admiralty jurisdiction.

title: United States tort law


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Talk:Agdistis

Pronouns
Hi folks, I have copyedited this article somewhat to make it easier reading. It is unclear to me what pronouns to use for Agdistis, at least pre-castration, so I settled for they until Agdistis was presented as conventionally fem.. Before I edited, the article flip-flopped between he and she. If anyone out there reads ancient Greek or can find a scholarly consensus on what pronouns to use (I have looked on JSTOR and google scholar and couldn't find anything, but I'm no expert) for Agdistis please update the article. Ta & have a nice day :) Rainbow the Magpie (talk) 15:29, 1 June 2022 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Agdistis


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Australian Museum

The Australian Museum is a heritage-listed museum at 1 William Street, Sydney central business district, New South Wales, Australia. It is the oldest museum in Australia, and the fifth oldest natural history museum in the world, with an international reputation in the fields of natural history and anthropology. It was first conceived and developed along the contemporary European model of an encyclopedic warehouse of cultural and natural history and features collections of vertebrate and invertebrate zoology, as well as mineralogy, palaeontology and anthropology. Apart from exhibitions, the museum is also involved in Indigenous studies research and community programs. In the museum's early years, collecting was its main priority, and specimens were commonly traded with British and other European institutions. The scientific stature of the museum was established under the curatorship of Gerard Krefft, himself a published scientist.

The museum is located at the corner of William Street and College Street in the Sydney central business district, in the City of Sydney local government area of New South Wales, and was originally known as the Colonial Museum or Sydney Museum. The museum was renamed in June 1836 by a sub-committee meeting, when it was resolved during an argument that it should be renamed the "Australian Museum". The Australian Museum building and its collection was added to the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999.

Its current CEO and Executive Director is Kim McKay.

Establishment
The establishment of a museum had first been planned in 1821 by the Philosophical Society of Australasia, and although specimens were collected, the Society folded in 1822. An entomologist and fellow of the Linnean Society of London, Alexander Macleay, arrived in 1826. After being appointed New South Wales Colonial Secretary, he began lobbying for a museum.

The museum was founded in 1827 by Earl Bathurst, then the Secretary of State for the Colonies, who wrote to the Governor of New South Wales of his intention to found a public museum and who provided yearly towards its upkeep. In 1832 George Bennett, curator of the Australian Museum, explained the role of the museum: "'Here, in a public museum, the remains of the arts, etc., as existing among them, may be preserved as lasting memorials of the former races inhabiting the lands, when they have ceased to exist.'" From a "beautiful Collection of Australian curiosities", the Museum has grown to an internationally recognised collection of over 21 million cultural and scientific objects. The Museum plays a leading role in taxonomic and systematic research, and at its research station at Lizard Island conducts significant research on coral reef ecology. Through exhibitions and other public programs the Australian Museum continues to inform and amaze generations of visitors about the unique flora, fauna and cultures of Australia and the Pacific.

Building
The heritage-listed building has evolved to encompass a range of different architectural styles and when its building expanded, it was often in conjunction with an expansion of the collections.

The first location of the museum in 1827 was probably a room in the offices of the Colonial Secretary, although over the following thirty years it had several other locations in Sydney, until it moved into its current home in 1849. The Long Gallery is part of the wing designed by New South Wales Colonial Architect Mortimer Lewis, and the earliest building on the site, c. 1846. This is a handsome building of Sydney sandstone in the Greek Revival style on the corner of College and William Streets, opposite Hyde Park, designed by the Colonial Architect James Barnet, and it was first opened to the public in May 1857.

In order to accommodate the expanding collections of the museum, Barnet was responsible for the construction of the neoclassical west wing along William Street in 1868. A third storey was added to the north Lewis wing in 1890, bringing cohesion to the building design.

In 1963, the floor space of the museum almost doubled when Joseph van der Steen under the Government Architect, Edward Farmer, designed a six-story extension linked to the Lewis building for the scientific and research collections, the reference library and a public restaurant. There were also two basement floors providing workspace for scientific staff. This International Style extension became known as the Parkes/Farmer eastern wing. In 1977, to mark the Museum's 150th anniversary, bronze lower case letters were added to the façade identifying the building as "The Australian Museum".

In 2008, a significant expansion took place on the College Street site with the addition of the new Collection and Research building which added 5000 square metres of office, laboratory and storage areas for scientists.

In 2015, the museum's carbon-neutral glass box entryway known as the "Crystal Hall" was opened. Designed by Neeson-Murcutt, it returned the entry to William Street and provided access via a suspended walkway. In December 2016, the Museum made public a $285 million master plan proposing to greatly expand its available exhibition space, by adding a 13-storey building on the block's east, adding a large central glazed atrium space.

2020 upgrade
At the end of 2020, after being closed for 15 months, the 200 year old museum reopened following a major $57.5 million upgrade. Subsequent to its refurbishment, Museum entry will be free for the public and the building will provide a physical space that "equals the importance of the collection and the scientific research" done there. This included the new Hintze Hall, shop, café, members lounge, and education rooms, along with a expanded exhibition area for temporary exhibitions.

Administration
The museum was administered directly by the colonial government until June 1836, until the establishment of a Committee of Superintendence of the Australian Museum and Botanical Garden. Sub-committees were established for each institution. Members of these committees were generally the leading members of the political and scientific classes of Sydney; and scions of the Macleay served until 1853, at which point the committee was abolished. In that year, the government enacted the Australian Museum Act, thereby incorporating it and establishing a board of trustees consisting of 24 members. William Sharp Macleay, the former committee chairman, continued to serve as the chairman of this committee.

Curators and directors
The position of "curator" was renamed "director and curator" in 1918 and from, 1921 "director". In 1948, the "scientific assistants" (the scientific staff) were redesignated "curators" and "assistant curators". In 1983, during a period of reorganisation, the position of curator was renamed as "collection manager".

20th century
After a run of field collecting activities by the scientific staff in the 1880s and 1890s, field work ceased until after the First World War. In the 1920s, new expeditions were launched to New Guinea, the Kermadec Islands and Santa Cruz in the Solomon Islands, as well as to many parts of Australia, including the Capricorn Islands off the coast of Queensland.

During the 19th century, galleries had mainly included large display cases overly filled with specimens and artefacts. During the 1920s, museum displays grew to include dioramas showing habitat groups, but otherwise the Museum was largely unchanged during the period beginning with the curatorship of Robert Etheridge Jr (1895–1919), until the appointment of John Evans in 1954, when under his direction, additional buildings were built, several galleries were overhauled, and a new Exhibitions department was created. The size of the education staff was also radically increased. By the end of the 1950s, all of the galleries had been completely overhauled.

The museum's growth in the field of scientific research continued with a new department of environmental studies, created in 1968. The museum support society, The Australian Museum Society (TAMS), now known as Museum Members) was formed in 1972, and in 1973 the Lizard Island Research Station (LIRS), was established near Cairns.

The Australian Museum Train, an early outreach project, was officially launched on 8 March 1978. The train was described as "a wonderful new concept of the travelling circus! The only difference is that the travelling Museum Train will bring school children and the people of NSW into contact with the wonders of nature, evolution and Wildlife." The two-carriage train was renovated and refurbished at Eveleigh Carriage Works, and fitted out with exhibits by the Australian Museum at a cost of about $100,000. One carriage displayed the evolution of the earth, animals and man. The second carriage was a lecture and visual display area. The train ceased operations in December 1988 but the museum's outreach work in regional communities continues.

In 1991, the museum established a commercial consulting and project management group, the Australian Museum Business Services (AMBS), now known as Australian Museum Consulting. In 1995, the museum established new research centres in conservation, biodiversity, evolutionary research, geodiversity and "People and Places". These research centres have now been incorporated into the museum's natural science collection programs. In 1998, the djamu gallery opened at Customs House, Circular Quay, the first major new venue for the museum beyond College Street site. A series of exhibitions on Indigenous culture were displayed until the gallery closed at the end of 2000.

21st century
In 2001, two rural associate museums were established, The Age of Fishes Museum in Canowindra and the Australian Fossil and Mineral Museum in Bathurst which includes the mineral and dinosaur Somerville Collection donated by Warren Somerville.

In 2002, ICAC launched Operation Savoy to investigate thefts of the zoological collections by a museum employee.

In 2011, the museum launched its first Mobile App – "DangerOZ" – about Australia's most dangerous animals.

Jurassic Lounge was established in early 2011 by the Australian Museum and non-profit company The Festivalists, a seasonal display event of contemporary art. Combining events, live music, art, cultural displays, and new media with standard exhibition space in the museum precinct, Jurassic Lounge is a seasonal display-event held on Tuesdays for two seasons annually. Jurassic lounge first opened on 1 February 2011. It is held after-hours at the Australian Museum. It allows the public to discover Sydney's newest artists, musicians and performers. 2018's event included a burlesque show, a silent disco, live painting, a photobooth, interaction with museum animals (snake and stick insects).

In 2017, museum researchers reassigned a Tasmanian species of semi-slug from the genus Helicarion to Attenborougharion, named after the museum's Lifetime Patron David Attenborough, hence known as Attenborougharion rubicundus.

Australian Museum Research Institute
In September 2013, the Australian Museum Research Institute (AMRI) was launched. AMRI's purposes are:
 * to provide a focal point for the many researchers working in the museum
 * to facilitate collaborations with government research agencies, universities, gardens, zoos and other museums
 * to showcase the important scientific research that is being done at the museum, focusing on climate change impacts on biodiversity; the detection and biology of pest species; understanding what constitutes and influences effective biodiversity conservation.

FrogID
In 2017, the museum began a citizen science project called FrogID to help conserve and document the distribution of frog populations throughout Australia.

Exhibitions and permanent galleries
The museum has hosted various exhibitions since 1854 to the present day, including permanent, temporary and touring exhibitions, such as "Dinosaurs from China", "Festival of the Dreaming", "Beauty from Nature: Art of the Scott Sisters" and "Wildlife Photographer of the Year".

Some exhibitions were directly curated by the museum and have exhibited internationally include "Sharks" and "Tyrannosaurs: Meet the Family".

Permanent galleries
In 2008, two permanent galleries were opened, "Dinosaurs" and "Surviving Australia".

In 2014, the permanent exhibition "Garrigarrang: Sea Country" was opened, displaying objects relating to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples.

When the Crystal Hall was opened as the museum's new entrance in August 2015, the former foyer, the Barnet Wing, became the permanent gallery housing "Wild Planet" – a display of over 400 animals that explores and explains evolution and the tree of life.

In 2017, the permanent exhibition "200 Treasures of the Australian Museum" was reopened as part of the "Westpac Long Gallery", being Australia's first museum gallery, which was previously called the "Long Gallery". Some of the objects on display include the wooden sled used during Sir Douglas Mawson's expedition to Antarctica, an Egyptian mummy, and a feathered cape given to Captain James Cook on his arrival to Hawaii. The expanded gallery also contains the Birds of Australia gallery.

In 2022, the permanent minerals gallery was opened.

In late 2023, "Wansolmoana" (lit. 'One Salt Ocean'), a permanent exhibition of hundreds of Pacific cultural objects opened. This replaced the interim "Pacific Spirit" gallery, which opened in 2015 and was stated to be one of the world's biggest collections of Pacific artwork at the time.

Other notable temporary exhibitions
In 2012, an exhibition called Sydney Elders was opened. It consisted of photographs by renowned Aboriginal photographer Mervyn Bishop of a selection of local Elders who have "contributed to the important role of culture, education, health, community or social justice". The collection is accompanied by an essay written by Djon Mundine, entitled "Growing Old on Eora Country". Elders whose portraits were included in the collection include Christine Donnelly, founder of the Aboriginal Dance Theatre Redfern; Naomi Mayers, founder of the Aboriginal Health Service; Sol Bellear , member and leader of many Aboriginal organisations; and singer-songwriter Vic Simms; and activists and leaders Dulcie Flower , Paul Coe, and Lyall Munro Jnr.

In 2012–13, the museum hosted "Alexander the Great: 2000 years of treasures" which exhibited a collection of artefacts from the Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg, Russia.

In 2014-15, the museum hosted "Aztecs", a collection of 200 artefacts from around 20 Mexican museums, being the first time an Aztec-themed exhibition was displayed in the Southern Hemisphere.

In 2015, "Trailblazers: Australia's 50 greatest explorers" opened, honouring the work of Bourke and Wills, Nancy Bird Walton, Dick Smith, Jessica Watson and Tim Jarvis, among others.

In 2021, "Unsettled" opened, a temporary exhibition on the colonisation of Australia through Indigenous perspectives.

The museum was due to hold "Tutankhamun: The Treasures of the Golden Pharaoh" in 2021, however this was cancelled due to the Covid-19 pandemic. However in late 2023, the museum was the fourth in the world to open "Ramses & the Gold of the Pharaohs". It was announced that Ramses' coffin would also be loaned to the Australian Museum, with Sydney being the second city in the world outside of Egypt to display the artefact.

Heritage listing
As at 14 November 2014, the Australian Museum buildings house the first public museum inaugurated in Australia, one of Australia's oldest scientific and cultural institutions. Conceived and developed initially along the contemporary European model of an encyclopedic warehouse of cultural and natural history, the museum buildings evolved as the institution evolved, partly in response to its visiting public, to pursue and expand knowledge of the natural history of Australia and the nearby pacific region. The museum continues to occupy the site provided, and the building constructed, as its first permanent home, commenced in 1846 and opened to the public in 1857. The extended and enlarged complex of buildings which now provide its principal exhibition, administrative and research accommodation reflect the growth of the institution and its prestige, as well as the evolving attitudes of Australian Government and society to science and research.

The Museum's various buildings further comprise a unique aggregation of work by successive colonial and Government Architects of New South Wales, exhibiting:
 * changes in the philosophy and functional requirements of museum design
 * changing stylistic influences and design approaches in architecture from the early 19th century to the present, and
 * corresponding developments in building technology, materials and craftsmanship.

Individually the various elements of the Museum complex remain significantly intact, with potential for enhancement of their cultural significance through conservation techniques, though conflicts exist between conservation of fabric and contemporary use, particularly exhibition techniques. Of special note are the exteriors and principal interiors of the three earliest wings of the complex, which despite varying degrees of alteration, remain in substantial original condition. The interlinked exhibition galleries comprise an important group of 19th and early 20th century public interests.

Through its development, the Museum complex has assumed a prominent stature in the townscape of Sydney. With its frontage to William and College Street, the Museum commands the eastern reaches of Hyde Park and forms and extension of the principal historic civic and religious precincts adjoining the northern boundaries of the park in Macquarie and College streets. Through recent expansion the museum site includes the former grounds and two surviving buildings of the William Street National School, which, established in 1851, is one of the earlier public schools continued in educational use for almost 100 years.

Australian Museum was listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999.

Controversy
In December 2023, the Museum became the subject of criticism for its controversial decision to reword an exhibition panel by World Heritage Exhibitions that originally read: 'In his teens, Ramses was second in command, fighting alongside Seti in Libya and Palestine'. That panel was updated to refer to 'what is today known as Libya and Palestine'. This was done after the Australian Jewish Association had accused the Museum of 'inaccurate use of the word "Palestine" in an exhibit on Ancient Egypt'.

According to the president of the Australian Palestine Advocacy Network, Nasser Mashni, this incident was another case of 'Palestine, Palestinians, our history, our cultural heritage and stories being invisibilised, minimised, rewritten, if not completely erased, by an Australian institution at the command of a Zionist lobby group'. The Australian Friends of Palestine Association added, 'To let this rewriting of history go unchallenged amounts to cultural genocide, the ideological expunging of cultural identity from history'.

On 3 January 2024, the World Heritage Exhibitions, the creator of the exhibition panel, released a statement that 'the exhibition does not intend to convey any political assertions' and announced that it 'upholds the exhibition's curatorial authenticity and, consequently, has no plans to modify the exhibition's textual content'.

title: Australian Museum


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Nez Perce Horse

The Nez Perce Horse is a spotted horse breed of the Nez Perce Tribe of Idaho. The Nez Perce Horse Registry (NPHR) program began in 1995 in Lapwai, Idaho and is based on cross-breeding the old-line Appaloosa horses (the Wallowa herd) with an ancient Central Asian breed called Akhal-Teke.

This program seeks to re-establish the horse culture of the Nez Perce, a tradition of selective breeding of Appaloosa horses and horsemanship that was nearly destroyed by the U.S. Government in the 19th century. The breeding program was financed by the United States Department of Health and Human Services, the Nez Perce Tribe and a nonprofit group called the First Nations Development Institute, which promotes such businesses.

The Nez Perce Horse is "fit to carry the Nez Perce name," according to Rudy Shebala, director of the Tribe’s Horse Registry and the Nez Perce Young Horsemen program.

The Akhal-Teke is an ancient breed that originated in Turkmenistan (near Afghanistan). They are known for their superb endurance and "metallic" coats. The Akhal-Teke coat colors commonly include palominos, buckskins, and dark bays. A typical Nez Perce Horse is a buckskin or palomino with Appaloosa characteristics—mottled skin with a spotted coat or a blanket.

The Nez Perce Horse 's conformation is longer and leaner than the Quarter Horses or other stock horses of the Western U.S., with narrower shoulders and hindquarters, a longer back, and a lean runner's appearance. They are good at long rides and compete well in endurance races; they are also good jumpers. The Nez Perce Horses are often gaited, with a fast and smooth running walk.

The Nez Perce people are historically known for their selective horse breeding practices, according to NPHR breeders Jon and Rosa Yearout.

title: Nez Perce Horse


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Fuller's earth

Fuller's earth is a term for various clays used as an absorbent, filter, or bleaching agent. Products labeled fuller's earth typically consist of palygorskite (also known as attapulgite) or bentonite. Primary modern uses include as absorbents for oil, grease, and animal waste (cat litter), and as a carrier for pesticides and fertilizers. Minor uses include filtering, clarifying, and decolorizing; as an active and inactive ingredient in beauty products; and as a filler in paint, plaster, adhesives, and pharmaceuticals. It also has a number of uses in the film industry and on stage.

Etymology
The English name reflects the historic use of the material for fulling (cleaning and shrinking) wool, by textile workers known as fullers. In past centuries, fullers kneaded fuller's earth and water into woollen cloth to absorb lanolin, oils, and other greasy impurities as part of the cloth finishing process.

The original spelling was without an apostrophe, but the apostrophe became more common in the 19th century, both before or after the s. Fuller's earth is the most common spelling today, but both fullers earth and fullers' earth remain in wide use.

Fuller's earth is also known by the following other names:

 * Bleaching clay, probably because fulling whitened the cloth.
 * Whitening clay, particularly when used to treat facial pigmentation, such as melasma.
 * (Hindustani: Urdu Pakistani, मुल्तानी मिट्टी; ), widely used in the Pakistan and Indian subcontinent in cosmetics. The name comes from the city of Multan, in modern-day Pakistan, the area of its origin.

Occurrence and composition
Fuller's earth consists primarily of hydrous aluminum silicates (clay minerals) of varying composition. Common components are montmorillonite, kaolinite, and attapulgite. Small amounts of other minerals may be present in fuller's earth deposits, including calcite, dolomite, and quartz. In some localities fuller's earth refers to calcium bentonite, which is altered volcanic ash composed mostly of montmorillonite.

In 2005, the United States was the largest producer of fuller's earth with an almost 70% world share followed at a distance by Japan and Mexico. In the United States fuller's earth is typically derived from deposits of volcanic ash of Cretaceous age and younger (glacial clays do not form fuller's earth). Fuller's earth deposits have been mined in 24 states. The first discovery of fuller's earth in the United States was near Quincy, Florida, in 1893; previously it was imported from England. In 1939 mines near Quincy produced half the U.S. production.

In the United Kingdom, fuller's earth occurs mainly in England. It has been mined in the Lower Greensand Group and the Vale of White Horse, Oxfordshire. The Combe Hay Mine was a fuller's earth mine operating to the south of Bath, Somerset, until 1979. Other sites south of Bath included Frome, Lonsdale, Englishcombe, Tucking Mill, and Duncorn Hill. Although these sites had been used since Roman times, William Smith developed new methods for the identification of deposits of fuller's earth to the south of Bath. Other English sources include a mine near Redhill, Surrey (worked until 2000), and Woburn, Bedfordshire, where production ceased in 2004.

Hills, cliffs, and slopes that contain fuller's earth can be unstable, since this material can be thixotropic when saturated by heavy rainfall.

Historical significance
Fulling is an important step in the production of woolen garments, and can be traced back to ancient times. Cuneiform texts from Mesopotamia mention a raw material, im-bab-bár (𒅎𒌓, gaṣṣu: 'gypsum, plaster'), literally "white earth", which was delivered to fullers for the finishing of cloth. There are several Biblical references to fulling (2 Kings 18:17; Isaiah 7:3 and 36:2; Malachi 3:2; Mark 9:3), but the materials used to whiten the fabric are not specified. Pliny the Elder mentions several types of fuller's earth (creta fullonia in Latin) from a variety of locations, each with different properties and therefore different uses.

The first references to fulling mills are from Persia, and by the time of the Crusades in the late eleventh century, fulling mills were active throughout the medieval world.

The use of fuller's earth across the Pakistan and Indian subcontinent dates back to at least 1879. While its household use and transportation by local carts in the Sindh Pakistan region predates the 1800s, export by rail was first recorded in 1929 in British India.

The value of fuller's earth is a plot point in the Sherlock Holmes story The Adventure of the Engineer's Thumb (1892). In the story, an engineer is paid an outlandish sum to repair a hydraulic press, accepting his client's explanation that the potential profit from fuller's earth warrants both the expense and total secrecy. The adventure is set in 1889, implying that fuller's earth was then well-known as a lucrative commodity, 'only found in one or two places in England'.

Uses

Fuller's earth is utilized in a number of industries. Most important modern applications make use of the minerals' natural absorbent properties in products sold as absorbents or filters.

 * In the fulling of raw fibers, historically, and most importantly, removing the lanolin from sheep's wool.
 * Treatment for poisoning. Even given the risk of salmonella, the clay content of soil could save the life of a person exposed to paraquat, for example, as paraquat is intended to break down in soil.
 * Decontamination: Fuller's earth is used by military and civil emergency service personnel to decontaminate the clothing and equipment of servicemen and CBRN (chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear) responders who have been contaminated with chemical agents.
 * Cleaning agent: In the Pakistan and Indian subcontinent, it has been used to clean marble. As a good absorbent, it removes dust, dirt, impurities and stains from the surface and replenishes the shine of marble. It has been used numerous times to clean the Taj Mahal, India.
 * Cat litter: Since the late 1940s, fuller's earth has been used in commercial cat litter.
 * Cosmetology and dermatology: The same properties that make fuller's earth effective at removing oils, dirt, and impurities from wool are also effective on human hair and skin.
 * In the laboratory, for filtering, decolorizing, absorbing, and mimicking natural sediment (as in experiments simulating the weathering effects of erosion and deposition in geological experiments, and hatching fish eggs).
 * Fuller's earth has been used extensively for many years in motion pictures for a variety of applications, spanning from make-up, wardrobe, and set dressing, to special effects. In the area of special effects, it is used in pyrotechnics explosions and dust clouds, because it spreads farther and higher than most natural soils, resulting in a blast that looks larger, and is safer than naturally occurring soil should the blast spray hit actors. It was used in the tornado sequence in The Wizard of Oz as the artificial twister ploughed its way toward the farmhouse. Fuller's earth is also widely used by the make-up, props, wardrobe, and set dresser departments, because it is considered a "clean" dirt, safer to use around people, and it cleans up easily. However, health concerns in this regard have been debated. Fuller's earth is available in small quantities by make-up suppliers for use in making the face and body appear dirty. It is used by props technicians to make furniture look dusty. Wardrobe dressers use a small, loose-mesh cloth bag filled with fuller's earth to apply it to clothing to make it appear dusty. Set dressers use fuller's earth to change paved streets into dirt roads, to create dust trailing from a moving vehicle over a dirt road, or to indicate a vehicle trail over untravelled ground.

title: Fuller's earth


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Talk:Gaiji

I'm afraid that the first stab at a gaiji writeup is inaccurate. The concept of gaiji has been around a lot longer than Unicode, and is in no way specific to Unicode. I'm going to take a shot at a rewrite adamrice 19:17, 18 Jul 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Gaiji


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Pherusa

Pherusa or Pherousa (Ancient Greek: Φέρουσά means 'the bringer' ) was the name of two female deities in Greek mythology:

 * Pherusa, one of the 50 Nereids, marine-nymph daughters of the 'Old Man of the Sea' Nereus and the Oceanid Doris. Her name, a participle, means "she who carries." She, along with her sister Dynamene, were associated with the power of great ocean swells. Pherousa and her other sisters appear to Thetis when she cries out in sympathy for the grief of Achilles at the slaying of his friend Patroclus.
 * Pherusa, one of the Horae according to Hyginus.

title: Pherusa


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Thomas Cowling

Thomas George Cowling FRS (17 June 1906 – 16 June 1990) was an English astronomer.

Early life and education
Cowling was born in Hackney, London, the second of four sons of George Cowling and Edith Eliza Cowling (nee Nicholls). He was educated at Sir George Monoux Grammar School in Walthamstow and read mathematics at Brasenose College, Oxford from 1924 to 1930. From 1928 to 1930 he worked under Edward Arthur Milne. In 1929, Milne had no problems left to ask his student to work on and appealed to Sydney Chapman, who proposed that they work on an article on which he was working that dealt with the Sun's magnetic field. Cowling found an error in the paper that invalidated Chapman's results. After Cowling's doctorate, Chapman proposed that they work together.

Academic career
In 1933 Cowling wrote an article, The magnetic field of sunspots. Joseph Larmor had worked in this area, arguing that sunspots regenerate themselves through a dynamo effect. Cowling showed that Larmor's proposed explanation was incorrect. His article assured him of a good reputation in the field of astrophysics.

During the 1930s, Cowling also worked on stellar structure involving radiation and convection, at the same time as Ludwig Biermann but independently of him. He constructed a model of star with a convective core and radiative envelope, named the Cowling model by Chandrasekhar. He also studied magnetic fields within stars and classified the modes of non-radial oscillation of the body of a star, the basis of the field of helioseismology.

Cowling became an Assistant Lecturer at the University College of Swansea (now Swansea University) in 1933. He was subsequently a Lecturer at the University of Dundee (1937–38) and at the University of Manchester (1938–45) before being appointed Professor of Mathematics at the University College of North Wales (now Bangor University). In 1948 Cowling was appointed Professor of Applied Mathematics at the University of Leeds in succession to Professor Selig Brodetsky. Cowling retired from his chair at Leeds in 1970 with the title Emeritus Professor.

Honours
Cowling was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in March 1947. He won the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1956 and the Bruce Medal of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific in 1985. He was elected president of the Royal Astronomical Society from 1965 to 1967. He was also awarded the Hughes Medal two days before his death.

Marriage and children
Cowling married Doris Marjorie Moffatt in 1935. They had a son and two daughters.

Death
Cowling died in Leeds on 16 June 1990, one day before his 84th birthday. He was survived by his wife and children.

Obituary

 * QJRAS 32 (1991) 201

title: Thomas Cowling


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Mutor

Mutor was proposed for deletion. This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was DELETE

Advertisement for some San Francisco DJ. Not notable and definitely not encyclopedic. --Diberri | Talk 19:19, Jul 18, 2004 (UTC) This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like other '/delete' pages is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion or on the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.
 * Delete: Having done work on this on CU, I wondered why we were documenting every person with a record player. Geogre 20:56, 18 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete vanity page. Is it that we've been getting a lot of these lately, or that we've always been getting these? --Ardonik 00:09, Jul 19, 2004 (UTC)
 * Oh, this is a common thing. On the other hand, combination vanity and ad articles are rare.  Delete, by the way. - Lucky 6.9 01:44, 19 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Sometimes it seems all these "DJ"s do is spam wikipedia. -- orthogonal 11:12, 19 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Yawn, delete Ianb 15:57, 19 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * The time has come to delete the Mutor. Brequinda 16:45, 20 Jul 2004 (BST)
 * Mute the Mutor. Delete.  Postdlf 14:50, 23 Jul 2004 (UTC)

title: Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Mutor


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Merrivale, Devon

Merrivale (formerly also Merivale) is a locality in western Dartmoor, in the West Devon district of Devon, England. It is best known for the nearby series of Bronze Age megalithic monuments to the south and a former granite quarry.

Merrivale hamlet
The hamlet, which lies within the civil parish of Whitchurch, is situated at the crossing of the River Walkham on the B3357 (formerly the main Ashburton to Tavistock road), midway between the towns of Princetown and Tavistock. There is an older disused bridge to the north of the modern road. The hamlet is dominated by the spoil tip from the former Merrivale granite quarry (originally known as Tor Quarries), which closed in 1997. The few buildings include houses built originally for quarry workers and the Dartmoor Inn, which sells Merrivale Ale. There was once also a Wesleyan chapel.

Archaeology
The main area of archaeological interest is to the south-east of the hamlet at. Although it has been diminished over time, the site includes a 3.8m standing stone, a stone circle and a stone row.

Also visible are two stone avenues running parallel to each other on either side of a stream. The southern avenue is 263.5 metres long and has the remains of a barrow in the middle. The northern avenue is slightly shorter. Both avenues are only about 1 metre wide down the centre. The southernmost double row has a kistvaen set within the stone row. The eastern end of the rows is passed by a section of the Great Western Reave, running roughly NW-SE. To the south of the avenues is a large kistvaen which contained a flint scraper, a number of flint flakes and a whetstone for polishing metal items. The 'lid' of the cist was broken in two by a farmer sometime in the past who made a gatepost out of it. Numerous tors are visible from the site, including King's Tor and Staple Tor.

The stone row was formerly known in the area as the Potato Market or Plague Market, supposedly since provisions for Tavistock were left here during an outbreak of plague. William Crossing remarked on how insignificant the stones appear, given the size of some of the raw materials available.

More recent archaeology includes the remains of tin mining and smelting along the River Walkham and its side streams.

Geology and geomorphology
Merrivale straddles the western edge of the Dartmoor granite outcrop. The hamlet, quarry and Staple Tors to the north are on the granite, while Cox Tor immediately to the west is on the metamorphic aureole, with altered Carboniferous sedimentary rocks of the Culm Measures lower down and calc-silicate hornfels and intrusive dolerite at the summit. The Merrivale Granite is coarse grained, porphyritic, with crystals that are dark grey, white/cream and orange in colour.

The Merrivale Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) to the north of the hamlet was the 4000th SSSI declared in England, in 1997. Besides the quarry it includes Cox Tor, Roos Tor and Staple Tors. It has a range of periglacial landscape features, including blockfields, boulder runs and boulder stripes, formed under tundra conditions (arctic to sub-arctic climate) during the Pleistocene. It is important in understanding how the landscape of South West England and the granite tors of Devon and Cornwall were formed.

title: Merrivale, Devon


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Harry Stonecipher

Harry Curtis Stonecipher (born May 16, 1936) is an American business executive who was president and chief executive officer of American aerospace companies: Sundstrand, McDonnell Douglas, and The Boeing Company. Stonecipher was widely credited with the seeming resurgence of Boeing after government procurement scandals. However, his tenure also included major decisions to change Boeing's design and sourcing process for the new 787 airliner. These decisions later proved to be organizationally and financially disastrous for the company. Stonecipher was forced to resign from Boeing following the disclosure of an affair with a subordinate, in violation of the Boeing Code of Conduct.

Early life and education
Stonecipher was born in Robbins, Tennessee.

In 1958, he graduated with a Bachelor of Science degree in physics at the Tennessee Polytechnic Institute. In May 2002, Stonecipher received an Honorary Doctorate Degree of Science from Washington University in St. Louis.

Career
Stonecipher began his career at General Motors' Allison Division, where he worked as a lab technician and was influenced by Jack Welch.

He moved to General Electric's Large Engine Division in 1960, and began to move up the ranks. He became a vice president at GE in 1979, then a division head in 1984.

In 1984, he left for Sundstrand, where he became President and CEO in 1989.

McDonnell Douglas
In September 1994, Stonecipher was elected President and CEO of McDonnell Douglas, holding this post until its merger with Boeing in 1997. During this period he became much more of a public figure, and even began hosting the company's quarterly video report. He remained on the Board following the successful completion of that transaction, serving as President and COO of the merged entity. In 2001, he was elected Vice Chairman and retired as President and COO the next year, while continuing to serve on the Board as Vice Chairman.

Boeing
Stonecipher came out of retirement to lead Boeing, following the resignation of Chairman and CEO Phil Condit in December 2003 over several scandals. These scandals surrounded allegations of documents stolen from competitors and the hiring of a government procurement officer who at the time was involved in the United States Air Force's KC-767 contract. Stonecipher assumed the titles of President and CEO, which was not considered an interim appointment as there was no search initiated for a new Chief Executive, while Lewis Platt became non-executive Chairman of the Board.

Under Stonecipher's guidance, the Air Force lifted a 20-month suspension of Boeing's Launching Systems Group, which had been involved in one of the scandals, allowing them to bid on Pentagon contracts again. He also oversaw the launch of the Boeing 787 Dreamliner in order to challenge Airbus. Although not fully evident at the time, the results of major changes to Boeing's airplane program design, sourcing and financing made during Stonecipher's and Condit's tenures would later prove disastrous. Shares of the company traded as high as $58.74 in 2005, up 54 percent during his tenure. However, the outsourcing and divestment decisions made 20 years earlier continue to cause Boeing serious problems in 2023.

After the merger, McDonnell executives took charge of the combined entity, and it was McDonnell’s financial management, under Stonecipher, that prevailed. "McDonnell Douglas bought Boeing with Boeing’s money" was a joke heard in Seattle. Stonecipher was said to refer to the company’s engineers as "arrogant". Stonecipher submitted his resignation upon request of the Boeing Board of Directors on March 6, 2005, after an internal investigation revealed a consensual relationship with Boeing executive Debra Peabody. The probe found that Boeing business operations were unaffected, that Peabody's career and compensation were not influenced, and that there was no improper use of company expenses or property. Nonetheless, the board of directors decided that there would be "zero tolerance on breaches of ethics". His wife of 50 years, Joan Stonecipher, filed for divorce just days after news of his affair became public. Stonecipher was succeeded as president and CEO on an interim basis by Chief Financial Officer James A. Bell, until Board Member James McNerney was hired on a full-time basis.

Personal life
In 1955, at age 18, Stonecipher married Joan in Rossville, Georgia. Stonecipher and his wife have two children.

In 1995, Stonecipher and his wife Joan celebrated their 40th wedding anniversary in Chicago with friends.

In 2005, after the news broke regarding Stonecipher's affair with a Boeing executive, his wife Joan filed for divorce.

Stonecipher subsequently married Debra Peabody. Debra Stonecipher bought the historic Moubray House in Edinburgh.

title: Harry Stonecipher


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Ernest Nathan Morial

Ernest Nathan "Dutch" Morial (October 9, 1929 – December 24, 1989), was an American politician and a leading civil rights advocate. He was the first black mayor of New Orleans, serving from 1978 to 1986. He was the father of Marc Morial, who served as Mayor of New Orleans from 1994 to 2002.

Early life and education
Morial, a New Orleans native, grew up in the Seventh Ward in a French-Creole Catholic family. His father was Walter Etienne Morial, a cigarmaker, and his mother was Leonie V. (Moore) Morial, a seamstress. He attended Holy Redeemer Elementary School and McDonogh No. 35 Senior High School. He graduated from Xavier University of Louisiana in New Orleans, Louisiana in 1951. In 1954, he became the first African American to receive a law degree from Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge.

Career
Morial came to prominence as a lawyer fighting to dismantle segregation and as president of the local from 1962 to 1965. He followed in the cautious style of his mentor A. P. Tureaud in preferring to fight for Civil and political rights in courtroom battles, rather than through sit-ins and demonstrations.

After unsuccessful electoral races in 1959 and 1963, he became the first black member of the Louisiana State Legislature since Reconstruction when he was elected in 1967 to represent a district in New Orleans' Uptown neighborhood. He ran for an at-large position on New Orleans' City Council in 1969 and 1970, and lost narrowly. He then became the first black Juvenile Court judge in Louisiana in 1970. When he was elected to the Louisiana Fourth Circuit Court of Appeal in 1974, he was the first black American to have attained this position as well.

Mayorship
In the election of 1977 he became the first African American mayor of New Orleans by defeating City Councilman Joseph V. DiRosa, a fellow Democrat allied with former Mayor Victor Schiro, by a vote of 90,500 to 84,300. Morial won with 95 percent of the black vote and 20 percent of the white vote, which came mainly from middle and upper class Uptown precincts. He won this election without the support of major local black political organizations, like SOUL and COUP. During most of the election campaign, Morial was viewed by most commentators as a spoiler candidate with little chance of victory. Morial was a polarizing figure as mayor of New Orleans.

Morial waged long-standing political battles with the City Council, led by his archrival Sidney Barthelemy, and with COUP, Barthelemy's political organization. He spent much of his time as mayor trying to increase the strength and influence of the mayor's office over independent, state-chartered governmental bodies, like the Sewerage and Water Board and the Dock Board (the supervisory body for the Port of New Orleans), an effort he described as a democratization of city governance. He built a powerful patronage machine using unclassified city employees and used it to defeat opponents in the state legislature — including Hank Braden, Louis Charbonnet, and Nick Connor — by personally sponsoring little-known challengers. In 1978, Braden and Charbonnet competed over a vacant state senate seat, which Braden claimed by a 14-vote margin.

In his first term, Morial faced a sanitation workers’ strike and a police strike which led him to cancel the 1979 Mardi Gras parade season. The police union wagered, among its membership, that a strike coinciding with Mardi Gras would force the city to grant many of their demands, but Morial refused to give in and was supported by leaders of many of the city's Carnival krewes. The New Orleans krewes either canceled their parades that year or moved them to suburbs in other parishes. Emblematic of Morial's hard-line stance toward the police strikers was the Napoleonic gesture he made by placing his arm inside his coat and striking a characteristically pugnacious pose at the announcement that he was canceling Mardi Gras.

Most of Morial's achievements occurred in his first term as mayor. Expanding upon the efforts of his predecessor Moon Landrieu, Morial redoubled the city's commitment to affirmative action in hiring city workers and introduced minority hiring quotas for city contractors. The proportion of black employees on the city's workforce increased from 40% in 1977 to 53% in 1985 under Morial's tenure. Under Morial's administration the number of black officers in the NOPD was increased to make up one third of the force. But continued incidents of police brutality — most notably the police killing of four blacks in Algiers in 1980 — damaged Morial's reputation in the black community.

Morial was responsible for getting federal Urban Development Action Grant (UDAG) funding for several major projects, including Canal Place and the Jax Brewery development in the French Quarter. He continued to support previous mayor Moon Landrieu’s emphasis on tourism and tried to diversify the economy by developing the Almonaster-Michoud Industrial District in New Orleans East, now called the New Orleans Regional Business Park. Downtown New Orleans underwent an impressive building boom, with multiple office towers constructed to house the headquarters, or large regional offices, for companies such as Freeport-McMoRan, Pan American Life Insurance, Exxon, Chevron, Gulf Oil, Amoco, Mobil, Murphy Oil and Texaco. By the mid-1980s these firms, with other large employers, such as Royal Dutch Shell, Louisiana Land and Exploration and McDermott International, employed thousands of white collar workers downtown, with thousands more employed by others providing services to them. Due to a multitude of factors, including the Oil Bust (1986), inexorable corporate mergers and downsizings, and less-than-effective support from subsequent administrations' economic development departments, none of these firms, or their successors, maintain a large presence in New Orleans today — apart from Shell and Pan American Life Insurance.

Morial won his second term in a March 1982 runoff election with fellow Democrat, Ron Faucheux, a young white Democratic member of the Louisiana House of Representatives from New Orleans East. Morial prevailed, 100,703 votes (53.2 percent) to Faucheux's 88,583 (46.8 percent). Faucheux later became a nationally known political consultant and pundit.

By Morial's second term the city's economy was slowing and increased conflict with the City Council led to a decrease in the ability of the Morial administration to govern effectively. The 1984 World's Fair, which transpired midway through Morial's second term, was an embarrassing financial debacle that was negatively remarked upon nationally. The World's Fair declared bankruptcy while still operating and failed to pay many contractors, mortally wounding numerous New Orleans-based design and construction companies. More generally, the financial failure of the World's Fair severely undermined the community's morale and ominously presaged the hard times of 1986's Oil Bust.

Later life and death
After serving two terms as mayor, Morial was prevented by the city charter from seeking a third term. He twice tried to convince voters to change the charter to allow him to run again, but both proposals were soundly defeated.

Morial's political strength did not end after he left City Hall in 1986. He considered running for mayor again in the election of 1990, and his sudden death in 1989 of a heart attack during the election campaign influenced Mayor Barthelemy's re-election, since Morial died before he could endorse an opponent. Morial was 60.

Legacy
New Orleans renamed its convention center, which spans over 10 blocks, the Ernest N. Morial Convention Center in 1992 for the late mayor. The convention center has been a major economic engine for the city's large tourist industry and, in 2005, became a highly publicized national symbol when it served as a makeshift evacuation center in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina. In 1997, the Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center posthumously honored Morial with the dedication of the Ernest N. Morial Asthma, Allergy and Respiratory Disease Center. The facility is Louisiana's first comprehensive center for the education, prevention, treatment and research of asthma and other respiratory diseases. "Dutch" suffered and eventually died from complications associated with asthma. Morial was the 23rd general president of Alpha Phi Alpha, the first intercollegiate Greek-letter organization established for African Americans. In 1993, Morial was named one of the first thirteen inductees into the Louisiana Political Museum and Hall of Fame in Winnfield, the first African American so honored.

A public school in New Orleans East was named after him: Ernest N. Morial Elementary.

Sources and further reading

 * Biographical Dictionary of American Mayors, 1820–1980. Greenwood Press, 1981.
 * DuBos, Clancy. "As an opponent, he had no equal." Gambit Weekly, January 1, 1991.
 * Hirsch, Arnold and Joseph Logsdon. Creole New Orleans:  Race and Americanization.  LSU Press, 1992.
 * Hirsch, Arnold. "Harold and Dutch Revisited: A Comparative Look at the First Black Mayors of Chicago and New Orleans." in African-American Mayors:  Race, Politics, and the American City.  Edited by David Colburn and Jeffrey Adler.  University of Illinois Press, 2001.
 * Hirsch, Arnold R. "Fade to black: Hurricane Katrina and the disappearance of Creole New Orleans." Journal of American History 94.3 (2007): 752–761. https://doi.org/10.2307/25095136
 * Johnson, Allen Jr. "The Morial Years: Highs and Lows."  New Orleans Tribune, May 1986.
 * Piliawsky, Monte. "The impact of black mayors on the black community: The case of New Orleans’ Ernest Morial." Review of Black Political Economy 13.4 (1985): 5-23.
 * Whelan, Robert K., Alma Young, and Mickey Lauria. Urban Regimes and Racial Politics: New Orleans during the Barthelemy Years.  UNO, 1991.

title: Ernest Nathan Morial


text:
Onga

Onga may refer to:

 * Onga District, Fukuoka, a district of Fukuoka Prefecture, Japan
 * Onga, Fukuoka, a town in that district
 * Onga, Hungary, a town
 * Onga, Gabon, in the department of Djoue

title: Onga


text:
SpaceX Kestrel

The SpaceX Kestrel was an LOX/RP-1 pressure-fed rocket engine. The Kestrel engine was developed in the 2000s by SpaceX for upper stage use on the Falcon 1 rocket. Kestrel is no longer being manufactured; the last flight of Falcon 1 was in 2009.

Kestrel was built around the same pintle architecture as the SpaceX Merlin engine but does not have a turbopump and is fed only by tank pressure.

Kestrel was ablatively cooled in the chamber and throat and radiatively cooled in the nozzle, which was fabricated from a high strength niobium alloy. As a metal, niobium is highly resistant to cracking compared to carbon-carbon. According to SpaceX, an impact from orbital debris or during stage separation might dent the metal but have no meaningful effect on engine performance. Helium pressurant efficiency is substantially increased via a titanium heat exchanger on the ablative/niobium boundary.

Thrust vector control is provided by electro-mechanical actuators on the engine dome for pitch and yaw. Roll control (and attitude control during coast phases) is provided by helium cold gas thrusters.

A TEA-TEB pyrophoric ignition system is used to provide multiple restart capability on the upper stage. In a multi-manifested mission, this design would allow for drop off at different altitudes and inclinations.

Kestrel 2
Enhancements to the design of the original Kestrel engine were planned, called the Kestrel 2.

The engine design was still pressure-fed, and was supposed to fly on a newly designed second stage that used Aluminium-lithium alloy 2195, rather than the 2014 Aluminum used in the Falcon 1 second stage. Engine changes were to include tighter tolerances to improve consistency, higher Isp, and lighter weight. The Kestrel 2 did not remain in active development after the Falcon 1 was replaced by the much larger Falcon 9 v1.0 which used an improved Merlin 1C for its upper stage.

title: SpaceX Kestrel


text:
Higinio Morínigo

Higinio Nicolás Morínigo Martínez (11 January 1897 – 27 January 1983) was a Paraguayan military officer and politician who served as the 35th president of Paraguay from 1940 to 1948, ruling as a military dictator.

Born to a mestizo family, Morínigo pursued a military career, serving as a prominent officer of the Paraguayan Army during the Chaco War. After the war he served in the cabinet of liberal President Félix Paiva. In May 1940, Morínigo was appointed Minister of War by President José Félix Estigarribia. After Estigarribia's death on 7 September, Morínigo succeeded him as acting president.

Due to the new constitution enacted by Estigarribia shortly before his death, which gave immense power to the president, Morínigo was able to establish a military dictatorship. In 1943, after three years serving as acting president, Morínigo was elected to a full term, having run unopposed as all political parties were banned.

He was overthrown and was forced to resign in 1948 due to suspicions that he wanted to perpetuate himself in power, despite Juan Natalicio González being chosen as his successor, he was replaced by then President of the Supreme Court of Justice Juan Manuel Frutos as Provisional President.

Early life and military career
Higinio Nicolás Morínigo Martínez was born on 11 January 1897 in Paraguarí, Paraguarí Department, to a mestizo family of merchants. He grew up speaking both Spanish and Guarani.

He attended military college and entered the Paraguayan Army in 1922. He participated in the Chaco War and was appointed the Army's Chief of Staff in 1936. Morínigo gained fame in Paraguay during the February Revolution of 1936 by heading an expedition to the site of the Battle of Cerro Corá to retrieve the remains of Francisco Solano López. President José Félix Estigarribia, himself a Chaco War hero and supporter of the Liberal Party, promoted Morínigo to general and appointed him as Minister of War on May 2, 1940.

After Estigarribia's unexpected death in an airplane crash on September 7, Morínigo was chosen by the army and Liberal ministers as interim President for the two-month period leading to new Presidential elections.

Dictatorship (1940-1948)
On September 30, 1940, after growing disagreements with the President, the Liberal ministers resigned from the government. On October 16 Morínigo announced that the aPresidential elections would be postponed for two years. Soon afterward he announced a policy of "discipline, hierarchy and order" (disciplina, jerarquia, y orden) and stated that persons who spread subversive ideas would be "subject to confinement".

On November 30, Morínigo banned all political parties and imposed a state of siege, which gave him the right to suspend civil liberties and arrest and detain people without trial. In a midday radio address announcing these measures, Morínigo declared, "The people and the Army from this moment will be under a single command." In his self-coup and subsequent rule, he was greatly assisted by the 1940 Constitution, a severely authoritarian document written by Estigarribia a few months earlier that gave the president sweeping executive powers.

To strengthen his authority, on February 4, 1941, Morínigo removed the influential Colonel Peredes from the post of interior minister. On April 17, 1941, he suppressed a febrerista uprising by supporters of the February Revolution.

On April 25, 1942, he banned the Liberal Party, accusing them of conspiring with the Bolivians and exiled Party's leaders. Morínigo's only remaining supporters were radicals from the Colorado Party and the Army. During his dictatorship he faced widespread resistance, including general strikes and military revolts, but he survived by maintaining the loyalty of the Paraguayan Army, which received 45% of the country's budget.

Morínigo relied on the right-wing Colorado faction Guión Rojo (the "Red Banner"), led by Juan Natalico Gonzalez, as a paramilitary police force to intimidate febreristas and Liberals. Opposition newspapers were shut down and publishers exiled.

Morínigo finally held presidential elections on February 15, 1943; he was the sole candidate.

Pro-fascist sympathies
Just as in other South American countries, pro-Nazi and pro-fascist sympathies at this time were quite strong in the society and among military officers. After it entered World War II in 1941, the United States tried to exert some pressure on Morínigo to limit the influence of Axis supporters. He kept Paraguay neutral for most of the war. He only officially declared war against the Axis in February 1945, without sending any soldiers to fight.

A surge of German influence in the region and Argentina's pro-Axis leanings alarmed the United States, which sought to wean Paraguay away from German and Argentine influence. At the same time, the United States sought to enhance its presence in the region and pursued close cooperation with Brazil, Argentina's traditional rival. To this end, the United States provided to Paraguay sizable amounts of funds and supplies under the Lend-Lease Agreement, provided loans for public works, and gave technical assistance in agriculture and health care. The United States Department of State approved of closer ties between Brazil and Paraguay and especially supported Brazil's offer to finance a road project designed to reduce Paraguay's dependence on Argentina.

United States protests over German and Argentine activities in Paraguay fell on deaf ears. While the United States defined its interests in terms of resisting the fascist threat, Paraguayan officials believed their best interests lay in economic expediency and were reluctant to antagonize Germany until the outcome of the war was no longer in doubt. Many Paraguayans believed Germany was no more of a threat to Paraguay's sovereignty than the United States.

Much to the displeasure of the United States and Britain, Morínigo refused to act against German economic and diplomatic interests until the very end of the war. German agents had successfully converted many Paraguayans to the Axis cause. South America's first Nazi Party branch had been founded in Paraguay in 1931. German immigrant schools, churches, hospitals, farmers' cooperatives, youth groups, and charitable societies became active Axis backers. All of those organizations prominently displayed swastikas and portraits of Adolf Hitler.

Morínigo's regime was pro-Axis. Large numbers of Paraguayan military officers and government officials were openly sympathetic to the Axis. Among these officials was the national police chief, who named his son Adolfo Hirohito after the best-known Axis leaders. By 1941, the official newspaper El País had adopted an overtly pro-German stance. At the same time, the government strictly controlled pro-Allied labor unions. Police cadets wore swastikas and Italian insignia on their uniforms.

The December 1941 Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and Germany's declaration of war against the United States gave the United States the leverage it needed, however, to force Morínigo to commit himself publicly to the Allied cause. Morínigo officially severed diplomatic relations with the Axis countries in 1942, although he did not declare war against Germany until February 1945. Nonetheless, Morínigo continued to maintain close relations with the heavily German-influenced Argentine military throughout the war and provided a haven for Axis spies and agents.

The outbreak of World War II eased Morínigo's task of ruling Paraguay while keeping the army happy, because it stimulated demand for Paraguayan export products, such as meat, hides, and cotton, and boosted the country's export earnings. More important, United States policy toward Latin America at this time made Paraguay eligible for major economic assistance. Paraguay received American financial help which was used for improving roads and other infrastructure projects.

Postwar liberalization
Pressure from the US for democratization swept South America after the war. On June 9, 1946, Morínigo dismissed Colonel Benitez Vera, the right-wing head of the army, and crushed a short uprising by Vera's supporters. He then created a civilian coalition government formed by Colorado Party members and leftist febreristas, followers of former dictator Rafael Franco and allowed some political freedoms, going so far as legalizing the Paraguayan Communist Party. Despite all this, in September 1946 he ordered suppression of opposition groups and used the Red Banner paramilitary group to attack the office of the Liberal newspaper El País.

Civil war of 1947
Feeling that Morínigo was favouring the right-wing Colorados, the febreristas made common cause with the Liberal Party and the Communist Party in the Civil War of 1947.

The relaxation of the dictatorship was used by political parties to assert their influence in state institutions. In January 1947 officers loyal to the Colorado Party gained control of the army, and on January 11 febreristas quit the government and called on the army to overthrow Morínigo, who responded by declaring a state of siege and arresting febreristas, Liberals and Communists.

On March 7 a bloody civil war started. Despite the fact that 80% of soldiers and 90% of officers were against him, Morínigo had the backing of Colorado party militias and Argentinian President Juan Peron; he managed to win a conflict that caused many thousand deaths and up to 300,000 people to flee as refugees. The future dictator Alfredo Stroessner was one of the few officers who remained loyal to Morínigo during the civil war. For the next 15 years, the Colorados were the only legal party in Paraguay.

Removal from power
On February 15, 1948, Morínigo organized presidential elections which were won by the only candidate allowed to run, Juan Natalicio González —leader of the Colorado Party's Red Banner faction In return for his support of Gonzalez for president, Morínigo would have continued as commander-in-chief once he relinquished the presidency. Suspecting that Morínigo intended to use this as a means to retain power, on June 3 some Colorado Party loyalists under Felipe Molas López revolted and sent him into exile in Argentina. Supreme Court Chief Justice Juan Manuel Frutos was sworn in as interim president, serving the last two months of Morínigo's term until González was officially inaugurated on August 15, 1948.

title: Higinio Morínigo