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Dakshina Kannada

Dakshina Kannada district is located in the state of Karnataka in India, with its headquarters in the coastal city of Mangalore. It is part of the larger Tulu Nadu region. The district covers an area nestled in between the Western Ghats to its east and the Arabian Sea to its west. Dakshina Kannada receives abundant rainfall during the Indian monsoon. It is bordered by Udupi district (formerly a part of this district) to the north, Chikmagalur district to the northeast, Hassan district to the east, Kodagu to the southeast and Kasaragod district of Kerala to the south. According to the 2011 census of India, Dakshina Kannada district had a population of 2,083,625. It is the only district in Karnataka state to have all modes of transport like road, rail, water and air due to the presence of a major hub, Mangalore. This financial district is also known as the Cradle of Indian banking.

Geography
The district geography consists of seashore in the west and Western Ghats in the east. The soil is mostly lateritic type, characterised by high iron and aluminium content.

The major rivers are Netravathi, Kumaradhara, Gurupura (Phalguni), Shambhavi, Nandini or Pavanje and Payaswini; all join the Arabian Sea. At Uppinangadi, the Netravathi and Kumaradhara rivers rise during the monsoon and meet. This event is called "Sangam", which in Sanskrit means confluence. Near Mangalore, an estuary is formed by the union of the rivers Netravathi and the Gurupura which merge into the Arabian Sea.

The topography of the district is plain up to 30 km inside the coast and changes to undulating hilly terrain sharply towards the east in the Western Ghats. Teak, bamboo and rosewood trees are found in the hilly areas towards the east. The Geological Survey of India has identified this district as a moderately earthquake-prone region and categorised it in the Seismic III Zone. In rural Dakshina Kannada, houses are in the midst of a farm field or plantations of coconut or arecanut, separated by a few hundred metres.

Shirlalu village (in the Kudremukh range of Belthangady taluk ), with a maximum elevation of 1115 m, is the highest point in Dakshina Kannada.

Climate
Dakshina Kannada features a Tropical Monsoon climate (Am) according to the Köppen climate classification. The average annual rainfall in Dakshina Kannada is 4030 mm. The rainfall varies from 3774.1 mm at the Mangalore coast, 4530 mm at Moodabidri and 4329 mm at Puttur near the Western Ghats. The average humidity is 75% and peaks in July at 89%.

Legend
As per the Gramappadhathi, Dakshina Kannada (along with the rest of the west coast) was created by Parshurama standing on top of the Western Ghats, and caused the land to rise from the sea by throwing his axe. It was then given to 64 families of Brahmins to settle. He created a temple on Kunjaragiri Hill in memory of his mother. Kutashila spoken of in the Markandeya Purana is believed to be the town of Kollur, the abode of Mookambika Devi. Several rivers in the district, including the Netravati, are believed to be mentioned in the Markandeya Purana. Other traditions in the local Paddanas speak of Mayurasharma's inviting of Brahmins from Ahichchhatraa and his organisation of the district.

Early history
The earliest recording of what would become Dakshina Kannada district is found in Sangam literature, specifically in a poem of Mamulanar. M Govinda Pai identified the kingdom of Harita mentioned in the Harivamsha as Dakshina Kannada, specifically correlating the word Mudugara with Moger, part of the title of the fishermen community in the district. Pai speculated as an alternative that the entire strip from North Kanara to Kanyakumari was inhabited by Nagas who worshipped snakes, and that the character Shankachuda mentioned in several works including the work Nagananda, was from this region. Several scholars identified the Satiyaputras mentioned in Ashoka's edicts as belonging to this region.

The region, owing to its position on the west coast, also finds mention in Greek sources. Pliny mentioned pirates that infested the coast between the regions of Muziris and Nitiras, which many scholars have identified with the Netravati. Ptolemy mentions two ports: Barace and Maganur which modern-day scholars identified with Barsur and Mangalore respectively. Ptolemy mentioned an inland centre of pirates called Oloikhera, which has been identified with Alvakheda, or territories of the Alupas. The region also finds mention in a play called the Chariton Mime, which contains dialogue in a language scholars have variously interpreted as an early form of Kannada or Tulu.

Alupas
The Alupas (ಆಳುಪರು) ruled the erstwhile Dakshina Kannada region between the 8th and 14th century CE. Their origins go back further, and if Greek identifications are to be believed the Alupas may have been prominent local chiefs since the 2nd century CE. The Halmidi inscription of 450 CE mentions an Alupa chief fighting as a commander of the Kadambas in a battle against the Kekayas and Pallavas. In a stone inscription near Gudnapur dated to c. 500 CE, the Alupas are mentioned as subordinates to the Kadambas. In 602, the Mahakuta Pillar inscription refers to the Aluvas as being conquered by Kirtivarman I of the Chalukyas. In the Aihole inscription, it appears the Chalukyas had crushed an Alupa rebellion in the early 7th century. During the reign of Vinayadtiya, it is mentioned how the Alupa chiefs helped the king restore peace after the disastrous war with the Pallavas. This Alupa ruler, Aluvarassa I, travelled from Mangalapura (modern Mangalore). After a civil war, and the overthrow of the Chalukyas by Dantidurga in 753, the Alupas entered into tributary relations with the Pallavas. Starting in the 9th century, the Alupas began to lose territory and Rashtrakuta king Krishna II sent a military expedition which placed the Alupas firmly under Rashtrakuta control. When the Cholas occupied Alupa territory during the reign of Rajaraja I, Bankideva Alupendra drove the Cholas out. In the late 11th and early 12th century, the Alupas had to acknowledge the suzreinty of the Chalukyas of Kalyani, before it was attacked by the Hoysalas and forced to acknowledge their suzerainty. An Old Malayalam inscription (Ramanthali inscriptions), dated to 1075 CE, mentioning king Kunda Alupa, the ruler of Alupa dynasty of Mangalore, can be found at Ezhimala (the former headquarters of Mushika dynasty) near Kannur, in the North Malabar region of Kerala.

Vijayanagara Empire
A 1204 inscription shows Mangalore had regained its position as capital from Barkur. Over the course of the 13th and 14th centuries, Alupa power declined steadily until Alupakheda was annexed by the Vijayangara Empire. The first Vijayanagara inscription in the district was from 1345 in Attavara. For the next three centuries, the empire administered Tulu Nadu with a firm hand especially as Tulu Nadu was the conduit through which much of their western trade, and how they secured horses from Arabia. Harihara Raya built a fort at Barkur, and instituted a revenue system where half of crops went to the cultivators while the rest were divided between landlords, Brahmins and the state. Ibn Batutta mentioned how the Muslim governor of 'Honore' paid tribute to a Vijayanagara revenue collector in Barkur with the title Wadiyar. While passing from Karwar to Kozhikode, he stayed in a port identified as 'Manjarur', identified as Mangalore, and noted the country to be prosperous but with few wheeled vehicles.

Two hero stones dated to 1398 in Bhatkal record a rebellion in Tulu Nadu. At this time, the Alupa rule was basically ended and replaced with Barakur and Mangaluru rajyas, sometimes united into one Tulu Rajya. The governors were often transferred: during the reign of Devaraya II, there were eight governors of Mangaluru rajya. During the usurpation of Saluva Narasimharaya, he did much to improve the horse trade, which had suffered under previous rulers with his governor Mallappa Nayaka. When Krishnadevaraya came to power, he largely relied on the local feudal chiefs to remain obedient. Sadashiva Nayaka of Keladi ruled over Barakuru, Mangaluru, Chandragutti and Araga rajyas.

Portuguese arrival
When the Portuguese first arrived in the region, they described Tulunadu as a prosperous trading country populated by both Moors (Muslims) and Genitles (Hindus). They were received well by Krishnadevaraya. But when they discovered Muslim merchants in Mangalore and Barakur, they blockaded the rivers leading there in 1526, they conquered Mangalore facing some resistance. Franciscan friars began preaching in Mangalore and the surrounding regions, while the Portuguese began collecting tribute in grain and other goods. In 1530, the Portuguese stormed the Mangalore fort again facing resistance they easily annihilated. In 1547, Aliya Rama Raya entered into a treaty with the Portuguese by which all imports and exports passed through their hands. This treaty was highly unpopular among the local chiefs, who often resisted Portuguese tributary collection. Some chiefs even supported the alliance of sultanates which defeated Aliya Rama Raya at the Battle of Talikota, hoping to get rid of Portuguese influence. In 1571, this failed when the Portuguese defeated Bijapur at Goa.

Rani Abbakka, the Chowta wife of Banga Raja and the Queen of Ullal, fought the Portuguese. She stopped paying tribute to the Portuguese, causing them to send a fleet to Mangalore and force a settlement, but soon she aided the enemies of the Portuguese and again stopped tribute payment. In 1566, she defeated a Portuguese expedition and killed its commander, causing the Portuguese in Goa to send an armada to subdue her in 1567. On 15 January 1568, however, the Portuguese defeated the Rani and forced her to sign a new treaty.

Nayakas of Keladi
The Nayakas of Keladi were a Veerashaiva family which had ruled a large portion of Tulu Nadu starting in the 16th century, when they had control over Mangalore and the rest of Tulu Nadu. Eventually in 1613, Venkatappa Nayaka I became independent and was the most powerful ruler in Tulu Nadu, taking territory which owed fealty to Bijapur and aiding Rani Abbakka. Under Shivappa Nayaka, the Nayakas of Keladi, now with capital at Bidnur, conquered the entirety of Tulu Nadu. Shivappa Nayaka utterly defeated the power of the Portuguese in Tulu Nadu. His successor made a treaty with the Portuguese where they could set up unarmed factories in Mangalore and Basrur, but were not to convert the locals. His successor, Keladi Chennamma, is famous for sheltering Rajaram and fending off Aurangzeb's forces. She also put down rebellions of Tuluva chieftains. During this time Arab traders, who were kicked out by the Portuguese, burnt Mangalore and other trade towns. In 1714, due to trade disputes, the Portuguese bombarded Mangalore and defeated the ruler Basavappa Nayaka I, who promised to ban Arab traders from entering. From 1757 to 1763, while Queen Veerammaji was looking after the kingdom, the Ali Raja of Kannur along with Maratha followers led a devastating raid into the district. They plundered to Manjeshwar and took a large booty from the Kollur Mookambika temple.

Mysore rule
Due to this unrest, Hyder Ali was able to sack Bidnur in 1763 and annex Tulu Nadu the same year. He conquered Mangalore, and set a governor Latif Ali Baig. This threatened English shipping in the Arabian Sea, so during the First Anglo Mysore War in 1766 Company soldiers from Bombay conquered Mangalore. However, as soon as he heard the news of the capture of Bangalore, Tipu Sultan made a lightning attack on Mangalore and forced the British to retreat only a week after they captured Mangalore. Hyder Ali then confiscated all Portuguese holdings in the region due to their support for the English. In 1770, Hyder Ali made a treaty with the British allowing for rice to be supplied from Mangalore to Bombay. The next year, he gave Portuguese some privileges back such as the ability to evangelize. However, in 1776, Hyder Ali revoked all these privildges, ejected the Portuguese from Mangalore and built up a large navy in the region.

During the Second Anglo-Mysore War starting in 1781 the British quickly took over most of Tulunadu, as well as Bidnur, due to the treachery of the fort's guardian Iyaz Khan. In March 1783 however, they were forced to capitulate the fort. Tippu also sent a large force to besiege Mangalore, and after two months took the fort. Tippu's rule was harsh for the local chiefs, who he executed and dispossessed due to their perceived collaboration with the English.

British rule and early resistance
During the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War in 1799, the British returned the lands to their feudal chiefs. After Tippu's defeat, the British gave the Raja of Coorg several maganes which had been taken from him by Hyder Ali and set up their administration, with Thomas Munro the first Collector of Kanara. However Vittala Hegde, who had fled when Tippu campaigned in Tulunadu and returned at the start of the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War, began to develop an armed following to retake his lands. His ally Subba Rao attacked the Tehsildar of Kadaba, but was defeated by a British ally, Kumara Hegde. In July 1800, the British pursued the last remnants of Vittala Hedge's army into Shishila Ghat, where they were defeated and many of the chief rebels were arrested.

At this time, the district was in severe distress due to the many bloody wars waged across it. The British deputed an administrator to study the economic condition of Kanara district, which noted severe deprivation in the south but more commerce further north. The Company then imposed harsh revenue demands on the poor peasants, who were already reeling from depression. The peasants organised themselves and participated in a 'no-tax' campaign, forcing the British to rethink their tax policy on the poor. The British then invaded Coorg when its ruler objected to British interference and took all territory of the state below the Western Ghats, adding it to Kanara district.

In 1837, the British faced the Amara Sullia rebellion. After the British had deposed Kalyanaswami, a pretender to the throne of Coorg, he went to Bellare, and gathered a large number of supporters who marched on Puttur. Kalyanaswami defeated two companies of sepoys near Puttur, and Kalyanaswami then marched on Mangalore, causing the British to flee. For two weeks Kalyanaswami held Mangalore, released prisoners and set the homes of British soldiers alight. When British forces came from Thalassery to Mangalore, his poorly armed forces melted away. Kalyanaswami and other prominent leaders were hanged while others were deported to Singapore.

Before 1860, Dakshina Kannada was part of a district called Kanara, which was under a single administration in the Madras Presidency. In 1860, the British split the area into South Canara and North Canara, the former being retained in the Madras Presidency, while the latter was made a part of Bombay Presidency in 1862. Kundapur Taluk was earlier included in North Kanara but was later re-included in South Kanara. South Kanara included present Dakshina Kannada, Udupi, Kasaragod districts and the Aminidivi Islands.

Independence movement
During the 1920s, several newspapers in the district drew inspiration from the freedom struggle such as Tilaka Sandesh, Satyagrahi and others. South Kanara participated in the non-cooperation movement led in the district by Karnad Sadashiva Rao. All independence movement movements gained significant traction in the district, and Gandhi and Nehru both visited Mangalore during the Freedom struggle. In 1942 large numbers of leaders were jailed in the Quit India movement.

Post-independence
In 1947 South Kanara joined India as part of Madras State. In 1956, the states were reorganised on linguistic lines. The Malayalam-majority Kasaragod subdivision became a part of Kerala, the Aminidivi Islands were joined with the Laccadive and Minicoy islands in a union territory, while the Tulu and Kannada majority Dakshina Kannada subdivision became a district of Mysore State in 1956 which later was renamed Karnataka in 1973. The Udupi district was formed from the northern taluks of Dakshina Kannada in 1997. Later, the Karnataka Government, for the purpose of administration, split the greater Dakshina Kannada district into Udupi and present day Dakshina Kannada districts on 15 August 1997. Three taluks of the former district – Udupi, Karkala and Kundapura – formed the new Udupi district.

Administration
The district comprises nine talukas: Mangalore, Puttur, Sullia, Bantwal, Belthangady, Kadaba, Ullala, Mulki and Moodabidri. It used to include seven northern talukas (Udupi, Kundapur, Karkala, Hebri, Brahmavar, Kaup and Byndoor), but these were separated in August 1997 to form Udupi district. The office where taluk administration is hosted is called "Taluk Kacheri". The Taluk (Taluka or Tehsil) are further divided into Hobli's. Mangalore, Surathkal, Gurupura and Mulki are Hobli's under Mangaluru taluk. Panemamangalore, Vitla and Bantval are under Bantwal taluk. Puttur and Uppinangady are under Puttur taluk. Belthangadi, Kokkada and Venoor are under Belthangady taluk. Sulya and Panja hobli's are under Sullia taluk. The newly formed taluks of Moodabidri, Ullala and Kadaba have one Hobli each. The office in which Hoblis fuction is called "Nada Kacheri".The district has 2 revenue subdivisions, namely Mangaluru and Puttur. Mangaluru subdivision has 5 taluks and Puttur subdivision has 4 taluks.

Important cities and towns in Dakshina Kannada include Mangalore, Surathkal, Puttur, Sullia, Bantwal, Vittal, Moodabidri, Kinnigoli, Uppinangady, Nellyadi, Kadaba, Belthangady, Guruvayankere, Venur, Mulki, Dharmasthala, Ujire and Subramanya. The district is well known for beaches, red clay roof tiles (Mangalore tiles), cashew nut and its products, banking, education, healthcare and cuisine. Mangalore being the second largest city of Karnataka and Puttur are the largest and the major cities of Dakshina Kannada.

Dakshina Kannada District has 1 City Corporation (Mangalore), 2 City Municipal Councils, 3 Town Municipal Councils, and 8 Town Panchayaths.

Demographics
According to the 2011 census, Dakshina Kannada has a population of 2,089,649, of which male and female were 1,034,714 and 1,054,935 respectively. roughly equal to the nation of North Macedonia. This gives it a ranking of 220th in India (out of a total of 640). The district has a population density of 457 PD/sqkm. Its population growth rate over the decade 2001–2011 was 9.8%. Dakshina Kannada has a sex ratio of 1018 females for every 1000 males and a literacy rate of 88.62%. 47.67% of the population lived in urban areas. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes make up 7.09% and 3.94% of the population respectively.

The literacy rate of Mangalore city is 94%. According to the 2011 Indian Census, the district ranks second in per capita income, second in HDI, first in literacy and third in sex ratio among all districts in Karnataka.

Tuluvas, distributed among the Billava, Mogaveera, Bunt, Kulala, Tulu Gowda and Devadiga communities, are the largest ethnic group in the district. Of these the Billavas are the most numerous community. The Konkani people, Brahmins, Holeyas, the hill-tribes (Koragas), Muslims, Mangalorean Catholics and Arebhashe Gowdas comprise rest of the population. The Brahmins belong chiefly to the Shivalli, Saraswat, Havyaka, Chitpavan, Daivadnya and Kota sub-sections.

Religion
In Dakshina Kannada, Hindus form the majority, while Muslims and Christians form significant minorities. Muslims and Christians have greater presence in urban areas. The Beary community forms 90% of Dakshina Kannada's Muslim population. The Masjid Zeenath Baksh, the oldest mosque in the region, was built in 644 CE, only 12 years after the death of Muhammad. Almost all Muslims in Dakshina Kannada are Sunni, following the Shafi'i school of jurisprudence. The majority of Christians in the district are Catholics, now called the Mangalorean Catholics. They trace their ancestry to Goa. A minority are Protestants, its followers were converted by missionaries in the late 1800s who established numerous educational institutions.

Historically Jainism and Buddhism had a significant presence in the district. Jainism was the traditional religion of the Alupas as well as the Chowtas. The Chowtas ruled Dakshina Kannada during the Portuguese invasions of the 1500s.

Language
Tulu is the major language of the district and is spoken by 48.6% of the population. It is the oldest language of the district and has a long literary tradition. Tulu has several dialects and sociolects including a Northern dialect near Udupi and Southern dialect centred on Mangalore. It is the majority language in Bantwal, Beltangadi and Puttur taluks. Many have demanded the language's inclusion in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution. Beary is the next largest language, spoken by 22.4% of the population, and is spoken by the Muslim community who were traditionally traders. Although in origin related to Malayalam, it has undergone significant influence from Tulu as well as Arabic, Persian and the languages of other foreign traders. It is not recognized as a language in the census. Konkani is the 3rd largest language, spoken by 9.9% of the population. The dialect of Konkani here has strong influence from Tulu and Kannada. Kannada, even though the official language of the state, is only spoken by 9.3% of the population here. There are many dialects of Kannada spoken, some of which are Are Bhashe, spoken by Gowdas, and Havigannada, spoken by the Havyaka Brahmin community. Malayalam is 3.6% spoken by Maniyani (Yadava) and Vaniya community mainly in regions bordering Kerala. Deccani Urdu is spoken by 1.6% mainly seen in Mangalore city. Hindi, Marathi and Tamil are also spoken by very small minorities. Koraga is an indigenous tribal language still spoken by some individuals in the district.

Education and research
In Dakshina Kannada, primary and secondary education have reached every section of the society. Some of them are St Agnes CBSE school, St Theresa ICSE School and St Aloysius School, Vivekananda collage, A host of educational institutes offering courses in Medicine, Engineering, Pharmacy, Nursing, Hotel and Catering, Law and Management are in this district.

Dakshina Kannada is home to the National Institute of Technology Karnataka (NITK) Surathkal, one of India's top engineering colleges. The College of Fisheries is located at Yekkur near Kankanady. Mangalore University is a public university in Konaje near Mangalore. It has jurisdiction over the districts of Dakshina Kannada, Udupi and Kodagu.

The district is home to research institutes such as the Directorate of Cashew Research at Puttur. The Central Plantation Crops Research Institute is in Vitla in the Bantwal taluk. The engineering colleges in the district include St. Joseph Engineering College, KVG College of Engineering, Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering, Canara Engineering College, P A College of Engineering, Srinivas Institute of Technology, Srinivas School of Engineering, Vivekananda College of Engineering & Technology, Shree Devi Institute of Technology, Alvas Institute of Engineering & Technology, Karavali Institute of Technology, Sahyadri College of Engineering and Management, Yenepoya Institute of Technology, A J Institute of Engineering and Technology, SDM Institute of Technology, Bearys Institute of Technology and Prasanna College of Engineering & Technology.

The medical colleges in the district include A J Institute of Medical Science, Father Muller Medical College, KS Hegde Medical Academy, Kasturba Medical College, Srinivas Institute of Medical Sciences and Research Centre, Yenepoya Medical College & Research Institute, G R Medical College and KVG Medical College. Manipal College of Dental Sciences Mangalore, A B Shetty Memorial Institute of Dental Sciences, A J Institute of Dental Sciences, Yenepoya Dental College & Research Institute and Srinivas Institute of Dental Sciences are some of the dental colleges. The District is also home to Edward & Cynthia Institute of Public Health, which is the only specialized institute for public health academics, training and research in the district.

The Degree colleges in the district include St Aloysius College (Autonomous), St Agnes College (Autonomous), SDM College, Canara College, Besant College, Govinda Dasa College etc

Cultures, traditions and rituals
Most people of this district follow traditional traditions, customs and rituals. The district has many temples of Hindu gods and goddesses, which are ancient and have deep spiritualism attached to them. The people of Dakshina Kannada worship the Serpent God Subramanya. According to legend, the district was reclaimed by Parashurama from the sea. According to the 17th-century Malayalam work Keralolpathi, the lands of Kerala and Tulu Nadu were recovered from the sea by the axe-wielding warrior sage Parasurama, the sixth avatar of Vishnu (hence, Kerala is also called Parasurama Kshetram 'The Land of Parasurama' ). Parasurama threw his axe across the sea, and the water receded as far as it reached.

According to legend, this new area of land extended from Gokarna to Kanyakumari. The land which rose from sea was filled with salt and unsuitable for habitation; so Parasurama invoked the Snake King Vasuki, who spat holy poison and converted the soil into fertile lush green land. Out of respect, Vasuki and all snakes were appointed as protectors and guardians of the land. P. T. Srinivasa Iyengar theorised, that Senguttuvan may have been inspired by the Parasurama legend, which was brought by early Aryan settlers. Nagaradhane or snake worship is practiced according to the popular belief of the Naga Devatha to go underground and guard the species on the top. Rituals such as Bhuta Kola are performed to satisfy the spirits. Kambala, a form of buffalo race on muddy track in the paddy field is organised in 16 sites across the district. Cock fight (Kori Katta in Tulu) is another pastime of the rural agrarian people. Yakshagana is the popular folk art of this district. The Yakshagana is a night-long dance and drama performance practiced in Tulu Nadu with great fanfare. Pilivesha (literally, tiger dance) is a unique form of folk dance in the region fascinating the young and the old alike, which is performed during Dasara and Krishna Janmashtami. Karadi Vesha (literally, bear dance) is another popular dance performed during Dasara. The people of Dakshina Kannada also celebrate traditional Hindu festivals like Bisu, Yugadi (Ugadi), Krishna Janmashtami, Ganesha Chaturthi, Navaratri (Dasara), Deepavali, Aati Hunime, etc.

According to Kerala Muslim tradition, the Masjid Zeenath Baksh at Mangalore is one of the oldest mosques in the Indian subcontinent. According to the Legend of Cheraman Perumals, the first Indian mosque was built in 624 AD at Kodungallur with the mandate of the last the ruler (the Cheraman Perumal) of Chera dynasty, who left from Dharmadom to Mecca and converted to Islam during the lifetime of Muhammad (c. 570–632). According to Qissat Shakarwati Farmad, the Masjids at Kodungallur, Kollam, Madayi, Barkur, Mangalore, Kasaragod, Kannur, Dharmadam, Panthalayani (Koyilandy), and Chaliyam, were built during the era of Malik Dinar, and they are among the oldest Masjids in the Indian subcontinent. It is believed that Malik Dinar died at Thalangara in Kasaragod town. Two of them, Mangalore and Barkur lie in Tulu Nadu.

The 16th century work Tuhfat Ul Mujahideen written by Zainuddin Makhdoom II appears to be the first historical work written in detail about the contemporary history of Mangalore. It is written in Arabic and contains pieces of information about the resistance put up by the navy of Kunjali Marakkar alongside the Zamorin of Calicut from 1498 to 1583 against Portuguese attempts to colonize Tulu Nadu and Malabar coast.

Transport
The district is connected by air through the Mangalore International Airport at Bajpe. Airlines such as Air India, SpiceJet and IndiGo offer daily flights to national and international destinations near the Persian Gulf.

Bus services in this district are run by private players namely Dakshina Kannada Bus Operators' Association (DKBOA) and the state-run KSRTC. The district had public limited (public listed) companies running transport business even before the independence of India in 1947.

The district has five national highways connecting parts of Karnataka and India. NH-66 connects the district with Udupi, Karwar, Mumbai, Goa, Kannur, Kozhikode, Kochi and Thiruvananthapuram. NH-169 connects Shimoga with Dakshina Kannada. NH-75 connects the district with Vellore, Kolar, Bangalore, Kunigal, Hassan and Sakleshpur. The NH-73 connects Mangalore to Tumkur via Charmadi, Mudigere, Belur and Tiptur. Major ghat sections in Dakshina Kannada include Shiradi Ghat (Nelyadi to Sakleshpura), Charmadi Ghat (Charmadi to Kottigehara), Sampaje Ghat (Sampaje to Madikeri) and Bisle Ghat (Subramanya to Sakleshpura, popularly known as Green Route by trekkers). NH-275 also connects Mangalore with Bangalore via Mysore. It starts at Bantwal near Mangalore city and passes through Puttur, Madikeri, Hunsur, Mysore, Mandya and Channapatna. It ends at Bangalore spanning a length of 378 km.

In 1907, the Southern Railway connected Mangalore with Calicut (Kozhikode) along the coastline. This railway line helped connect the district with other places of the Madras presidency during the colonial rule. The Konkan Railway (1998) connects Dakshina Kannada with Maharashtra, Goa, Gujarat, Delhi, Rajasthan and Kerala by train. There are direct trains from Mangalore to Mumbai, Thane, Chennai, Margao and Trivandrum. Train services operate daily to Bangalore via Hassan and Kukke Subramanya after the conversion from metre gauge to broad gauge track.

The Dakshina Kannada district has a seaport at Panambur named New Mangalore Port. The seaport managed by New Mangalore Port Trust handles cargo, timber, petroleum and coffee exports. It is one of the major seaports of India.

Historic sites and tourism
The following are historic places to visit in Dakshina Kannada:
 * Mangaladevi Temple: Mangalore was named after the Hindu deity Mangaladevi.
 * Venur: Monolithic Bahubali statue.
 * Kadri: Temple of Lord Sri Manjunatha.
 * Shree Amrutheshwara Temple, Vamanjoor: Temple of Lord Shiva.
 * Moodabidri: Site of the ancient Jain temples and the Bhattaraka seat.
 * Krishnapura matha: One of the matha (monastery) belonging to ashta matha of Udupi.
 * Dharmasthala: The temple of Lord Sri Manjunatheshwara is here.
 * Kateel: Temple of Goddess Sri Durga Parameshwari.
 * Kadeshivalaya: Kadeshivalaya temple at Bantwal

 * Carstreet: Sri Kalikamba Vinayaka Temple Mangaluru.
 * Kudroli: Gokarnanatheshwars Temple.
 * Mundkur: Sri Durga Parameshwari Temple.
 * Karinjeshwara Temple: Temple of Lord Shiva Parvati on a huge rock.
 * Ullal: Known for the Ullal beach and Someshwara beach.
 * Kukke Subramanya: Temple of the serpent Lord Subramanya is here.
 * Mulki: Durgaparameshwari Temple.
 * Kemral,Mulki ,Suragiri Mahalingeshwara Temple.
 * St Aloysius Chapel, Mangalore.
 * Milagres Church, Mangalore
 * Sayyed Madani Mosque and Dargah, Ullal.
 * Sultan Battery, Mangalore
 * Puttur: Temple of Lord Sri Mahalingeshwara is here.
 * Uppinangadi: Sahasralingeshwara temple.
 * Kepu, Ananthadi, Balnadu: Known for goddess Ullalthi temple and its unique heritage.
 * Puttur karavadtha valiyullahi darga shareef
 * Somanatheswar Temple: Someshwara, Ullal.

 * Summer Sand Beach Resort at Ullal.
 * Pilikula Nisargadhama: Pilikula, Moodushedde, Mangalore.
 * Kudupu temple: Kudupu, Mangalore.
 * Shri Rajarajeshwari Temple Polali: Temple of Shri Rajarajeshwari.
 * Kumbladi Balasubrahmanya.
 * Charvaka Kapileshwara Devasthaana.
 * Shri Kshetra Daipila.
 * Masjidu Thaqwa Pumpwell Mangalore.
 * Bellye Palli (Big Masjid) Bunder Mangalore.
 * Manjusha Car Museum, Dharmastala
 * Srimanthi Bhai Memorial Government Museum
 * Sawthadka Shri Mahaganapathi Temple.
 * Mulki - Bappanadu Sri Durga Parameshwari Temple

Some of the hill stations in close proximity to this district corresponding to their elevation above sea level are Kudremukh peak 1894 m, Pushpagiri 1712 m, Madikeri 1150 m, Mudigere 970 m and Sakleshpur 956 m.
 * Nearby hill stations

Agriculture
Agriculture, which was once a major occupation of the people of Dakshina Kannada, has taken a backseat because of the influx of money from natives settled in other cities, states and countries. Significant number of people from this district work in the Gulf (Middle East) countries and other states of India. Farms and fields have been converted into residential plots and commercial (shopping) complexes around Mangalore city. Horticulture, though, has made some strides, and measures have been taken to improve the fruit plantation sector. The main crops of Dakshina Kannada are Paddy, Coconut, Arecanut, Black Pepper, Cashew and Cocoa. Rice is generally cultivated three seasons in a year, Karthika or Yenel (May–October), Suggi (October to January) and Kolake (January to April). Urad (Black gram) is grown in some areas during the season of Suggi. The Karnataka Milk Federation has a milk processing plant at Kulshekar in Mangalore. This plant processes milk procured from the cattle owned by farmers of the district.

Cuisine
Some of the well-known Tuluva community dishes in this district include Kori Rotti (dry rice flakes dipped in chicken gravy), Bangude Pulimunchi (spicy sour silver-grey mackerels), Beeja-Manoli Upkari, Neer dosa, Boothai Gasi and Kadubu. In Coastal Karnataka, the Mangalorean Fish Curry is a popular dish. The Konkani community's specialties include Daali thoy, Bibbe-upkari (cashew based), Val val, Avnas ambe sasam, Kadgi chakko, Paagila podi, Malpuri, Patrode and Chane gashi. Mangalore bajji, also known as Golibaje, is a popular snack made from maida, curd, rice flour, chopped onion, coriander leaves, coconut, cumin, green chillies, and salt. Tulu vegetarian cuisine in Mangalore, also known as Udupi cuisine, is known and liked throughout the state and the coastal region. Being a coastal district, fish forms the staple diet of most people.

The Beary community have their own unique dishes. Pattir, Pole, Pulchepole, Kalthappa, Aapa, Neyyappa, Neypathir, Irmandappa, Pindi, Erchi pindi, Kunji pindi, and Vodupole are some of the traditional breakfasts and are primarily made from rice. Various dishes made from fresh or dried fish are also extensively consumed. Molavtanni made from lentils or sprouted pulses is the traditional soup usually eaten along with rice. Kakka is the traditional gravy made from fish,chicken,egg or mutton. Like in other coastal cuisine, coconut and its products form integral part of the Beary cuisine.

Mangalorean Catholics' Sanna-Dukra Maas ("Sanna" means Idli fluffed with toddy or yeast and "Dukra Maas" means Pork) Pork Bafat and Sorpotel. Pickles such as Happala, Sandige and Puli munchi are unique to Mangalore.

Commerce and industry
The district along with Udupi district is known as "The Cradle of Indian banking". Major nationalised banks of India such as Canara Bank, Corporation Bank, Syndicate Bank, Vijaya Bank and private sector Karnataka Bank evolved from these two districts.

Red clay tiles (Mangalore Tiles), Cashew processing factories and Beedi industry once flourished in this district.

Dakshina Kannada district has a per capita income of Rs. 218,580 which is second only to Bangalore Urban district. Despite ranking 8th in the list of most populous districts in Karnataka, the district is the second largest contributor to the state's GSDP, with a contribution of 5.8%. In other words, despite a low population share of 3.4%, the district's share in state GSDP stands at 5.8%.

As the district is on the shore of the Arabian sea, fishing is one of the major occupation of many people. The major fishing places are Bunder (Old harbour), Panambur, Surathkal, Kotekar and Sasihitlu.

The major industries in Dakshina Kannada concentrated around Mangalore are Mangalore Chemical and Fertilizers Ltd. (MCF), Kudremukh Iron Ore Company Ltd. (KIOCL), The Canara Workshops Limited (manufacturers of Canara Springs), Mangalore Refinery and Petrochemicals Ltd. (MRPL), HPCL, BPCL, BASF, TOTAL GAZ, Bharati Shipyard Limited (BSL) etc. There is a chocolate manufacturing plant at Puttur run by CAMPCO. Major information technology and outsourcing companies have their facilities in Mangalore namely Infosys, Cognizant, Atlantic Data Bureau Services Pvt. Ltd., Lasersoft infosystems Ltd., Mphasis BPO and Endurance International Group. Two IT parks have been constructed, one Export Promotion Industrial Park (EPIP) at Ganjimutt and a second IT SEZ near Mangalore University. The Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) plans to set up a multiproduct SEZ (Special Economic Zone) with an investment of over Rs. 350 billion.

Villages
• Aramboor

• Bantwal

• Belthangady

• Dharmasthala

• Elikkala

• Kakkinje

• Kudipady

• Moodabidri

• Pudu, census town

• Punjalkatte

• Puttur

• Shamboor

• Sullia

• Thokur-62

title: Dakshina Kannada


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User:Krik~enwiki/stars

Article status : ★ Article status : ★★ Article status : ★★★ Article status : ★★★★ Article status : ★★★★★ Article status : ★★★★★★

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Krik~enwiki/stars


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Blindheim

Blindheim, traditionally known in English as Blenheim , is a village and a municipality in the Bavarian district of Dillingen in southern Germany. It is north of Augsburg, on the left bank of the Danube River.

The municipality consists of four villages (Blindheim, Unterglauheim, Wolpertstetten and Berghausen). Its population is roughly 1,700. For administrative purposes, it is affiliated with the municipal association of Höchstädt an der Donau.

Since about 1700 the Lordship of Blindheim in the Electorate of Bavaria has been held by the Counts of Rechberg.

On 13 August 1704 the Battle of Blenheim (Schlacht von Höchstädt) was fought in the vicinity, having decisive importance on the War of the Spanish Succession. Blenheim Palace in England and Blenheim, the most populous town in the region of Marlborough, were named in memory of the battle, and thus ultimately after Blindheim.

In June 1800, the armies of the French First Republic, under command of Jean Victor Moreau, fought Habsburg regulars and Württemberg contingents, under the general command of Pál Kray. At this battle, the culmination of the Danube Campaign of 1800, Moreau forced Kray to abandon Ulm and withdraw into eastern Bavaria.

title: Blindheim


text:
File:Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix.jpg

Jacket art of the Bloomsbury edition of Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, the fifth book in J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter series

Scanned by me, Mark Ryan.

Cover art by Jason Cockcroft © 2003 Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. Harry Potter, names, characters and related indica are copyright and trademark Warner Bros.

Fair use for Harry Potter
This image, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix.jpg, is being linked here; though the picture is subject to copyright I (TonyJoe) feel it is covered by the U.S. fair use laws because it is low resolution and doesn't hinder the publisher's ability to profit from it and accompanies a critical commentary on the cover.


text:
List of prime ministers of Guinea

This article lists the prime ministers of Guinea, since the establishment of the office of Prime Minister in 1972.

List of officeholders
{{legend||Democratic Party of Guinea – African Democratic Rally (PDG–RDA)|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}} {{legend||Unity and Progress Party (PUP)|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}} {{legend||Union for the Progress of Guinea (UPG)|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}} {{legend||Rally of the Guinean People (RPG)|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}} {{legend|#011796|Union of Democrats for the Renaissance of Guinea (UDRG)|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}
 * Political parties

{{legend||Military|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}} {{legend||Independent|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}
 * Other factions

title: List of prime ministers of Guinea


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Bakkeveen

Bakkeveen is a village in the municipality of Opsterland in eastern Friesland (Fryslân) in the Netherlands. It had a population of around 1,465 in January 2017.

History
The village was first mentioned in 1232-1233 as "apud Backenvene", and means "raised bog of Bakke (person)". Bakkeveen developed in the 13th century around the outpost Mariënhof of monastery Mariëngaarde in Hallum.

In 1685, the Bakkeveense vaart was dug by the Drachtster Company to exploit the peat in the region. From 1732 onwards, the houses were moved to the canal by order of Jonkheer Tjaerd van Aylva. A church was planned and a model had even been made, however it was never built.

Bakkeveen was home to 453 people in 1840. The Dutch Reformed church was finally built in 1856 in neoclassic style. The Slotplaats was a farm built in 1818. In 1922, it was transformed into an estate by Baron van Harinxma thoe Slooten. The estate has a 200 ha forest. The estate was purchased by Vereniging Natuurmonumenten in 1997.

In the late-20th century, the forests and heaths attracted recreational tourism to Bakkeveen.

Notable people

 * Folkert Idsinga (born 1971), lawyer and politician
 * Eddy Schurer (born 1964), former racing cyclist
 * Riemer van der Velde (born 1940), football functionary, former chairman of SC Heerenveen

title: Bakkeveen


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Edward Cardwell

Edward Cardwell (1787 – 23 May 1861) was an English theologian also noted for his contributions to the study of English church history. In addition to his scholarly work, he filled various administrative positions in the University of Oxford.

Life
Cardwell was born at Blackburn in Lancashire. He was educated at Brasenose College, Oxford (B.A. 1809; M.A. 1812; B.D. 1819; D.D. 1831), and after being for several years tutor and lecturer, was appointed, in 1814, one of the examiners to the university.

In 1825, Cardwell was chosen Camden Professor of Ancient History and held the chair for 35 years, the longest of any occupant to date. In 1831, he succeeded Archbishop Whately as principal of St Alban Hall (later merged with Merton College).

Cardwell was one of the best men of business in the university, and held various important posts, among which were those of delegate of the press, curator of the university galleries, manager of the Bible department of the press, and private secretary to successive chancellors of the university. He established the Wolvercot paper mill.

Cardwell died at Oxford on 23 May 1861.

Works
Cardwell's major works were in the field of English church history. He planned an extensive work on the entire synodical history of the church in England, which was to be based on David Wilkins's Concilia Magnae Britanniae et Hiberniae. He carried out some portions only. The first published was Documentary Annals of the Reformed Church of England from 1546 to 1716, which appeared in 1839.

It was followed by a History of Conferences, etc., connected with the Revision of the Book of Common Prayer (1840). On 1842 appeared Synodalia, a Collection of Articles of Religion, Canons, and Proceedings of Convocation from 1547 to 1717, completing the series for that period. Closely connected with these works is the Reformatio Legum Ecclesiasticarum (1850), which treats of the efforts for reform during the reigns of Henry VIII, Edward VI, and Elizabeth I.

During his tenure as Camden Professor, Cardwell published editions of the "Ethics" of Aristotle (Oxford, 1828) and his course of Lectures on the Coinage of the Greeks and Romans (Oxford, 1832). He published in 1837 a students' edition of the Greek Testament, and an edition of the Greek and Latin texts of the History of the Jewish War, by Josephus, with illustrative notes.

Cardwell also published in 1854 a new edition of Bishop Gibson's Synodus Anglicana.

title: Edward Cardwell


text:
Grove (nature)

A grove is a small group of trees with minimal or no undergrowth, such as a sequoia grove, or a small orchard planted for the cultivation of fruits or nuts. Other words for groups of trees include woodland, woodlot, thicket, and stand.

A grove is sometimes called "arbour" or "arbor", which is not to be confused with the garden structure pergola, which also sometimes goes under that name.

The main meaning of "grove" is a group of trees that grow close together, generally without many bushes or other plants underneath. It is an old word in the English language, with records of its use dating as far back as the late 9th century. The word's true origins are unknown; the word, or a related root, cannot be found in any other Germanic language.

Naturally-occurring groves are typically small, perhaps a few acres at most. In contrast, orchards, which are normally intentional planting of trees, may be small or very large, like the apple orchards in Washington state, and orange groves in Florida.

Historically, groves were considered sacred in pagan, pre-Christian Germanic and Celtic cultures. Helen F. Leslie-Jacobsen argues that "we can assume that sacred groves actually existed due to repeated mentions in historiographical and ethnographical accounts. e.g. Tacitus, Germania."

title: Grove (nature)


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Edmund Gibson

Edmund Gibson (1669 – 6 September 1748) was a British divine who served as Bishop of Lincoln and Bishop of London, jurist, and antiquary.

Early life and career
He was born in Bampton, Westmorland. In 1686 he was entered a scholar at Queen's College, Oxford. Shortly after Thomas Tenison's elevation to the see of Canterbury in 1694 Gibson was appointed chaplain and librarian to the archbishop, and in 1703 and 1710 respectively he became rector of Lambeth and archdeacon of Surrey.

Episcopal career
In 1716 Gibson was presented to the see of Lincoln, whence he was in 1723 translated to London. For twenty-five years he exercised influence, being consulted by Sir Robert Walpole on ecclesiastical affairs.

While a conservative in church politics, and opposed to Methodism, he was no persecutor, and indeed broke with Walpole on the Quakers' Relief Bill of 1736. He exercised oversight over the morals of his diocese; and his denunciation of the masquerades which were popular at court finally lost him the royal favour. He served as a founding governor of a charity called the Foundling Hospital. His endorsement can be seen as significant since the Foundling Hospital, created by royal charter, was the nation's first non-church initiated institution to target this sort of social ill.

Gibson died in 1748, and is buried at All Saints Church, Fulham, London.

Works
In 1692 Gibson published an edition of the Saxon Chronicle with a Latin translation, indices and notes, and later a similar translation of the Lindsey Chronicle. These were followed in 1693 by an annotated edition of the De institutione oratoria of Quintilian, and in 1695 by a translation of William Camden's Britannia, with additions and improvements, for which he recruited a team of antiquaries including Edward Lhuyd, William Lloyd and John Smith.

In the discussions which arose during the reigns of William and Anne relative to the rights and privileges of the Convocation, Gibson took a very active part, and in a series of pamphlets warmly argued for the right of the archbishop to continue or prorogue even the lower house of that assembly.

The controversy suggested to him the idea of those researches which resulted in the Codex juris ecclesiastici Anglicani, published in two volumes folio in 1713, a work which discusses more learnedly and comprehensively than any other the legal rights and duties of the English clergy, and the constitution, canons and articles of the English Church. His substantial collection of pamphlets on which his research is based are housed at Lambeth Palace Library (where he began his clerical career as Librarian), as part of the Sion College Collection.

Among the literary efforts of his later years the principal were a series of Pastoral Letters in defence of the gospel revelation, against lukewarmness and enthusiasm, and on various topics of the day; also the Preservative against Popery, in 3 vols. folio (1738), a compilation of numerous controversial writings of eminent Anglican divines, dating chiefly from the period of James II.

A second edition of the Codex juris, revised and improved, with large additions by the author, was published at Oxford in 1761. Besides the works already mentioned, Gibson published a number of Sermons, and other works of a religious and devotional kind. The Vita Thomae Bodleii with the Historia Bibliothecae Bodleianae in the Catalogi librorum manuscriptorum (Oxford, 1697), and the Reliquiae Spelmannianae (Oxford, 1698), are also from his pen.

title: Edmund Gibson


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Townsend's warbler

Townsend's warbler (Setophaga townsendi) is a small songbird of the New World warbler family.

Taxonomy
Townsend's warbler was formally described in 1837 by the American naturalist John Kirk Townsend under the binomial name Sylvia townsendi. The type locality is Fort Vancouver on the Columbia River in the state of Washington. After the merger of the genera Dendroica and Setophaga, Townsend's warbler is now placed in the genus Setophaga that was introduced by the English naturalist William Swainson in 1827. The species is monotypic: no subspecies are recognised.

Description
Townsend's warbler has a yellow face with a black stripe across its cheeks extending into an ear patch, a thin pointed bill, two white wing bars, olive upperparts with black streaks on their backs and flanks, and a white belly. Adult males have a black cap, black throat and yellow lower breast; females have a dark cap and a yellow throat. Immature birds are similar to females with a dark green cap and cheeks.

Life history
Their breeding habitats are coniferous forests with large trees on the northwestern coast of North America. Their nests are shallow cups built with grass and lined with moss. These nests are usually placed atop a branch in a conifer. The female lays 4 to 5 brown-speckled white eggs.

This bird is closely related to the hermit warbler, and the two species interbreed where their ranges overlap.

Birds from Haida Gwaii migrate short distances further south on the Pacific coast. Other birds winter in Mexico, Central America, and the south-western United States.

They forage actively in the higher branches, often gleaning insects from foliage and sometimes hovering or catching insects in flight. They mainly eat insects and spiders and seeds. Outside of the nesting season, these birds forage in mixed flocks. In winter, they also eat berries and plant nectar, and honeydew directly from the anus of scale insects.

The song of the male bird is a buzzed zee-zee-zee-bzz-zee or weazy weazy weazy weazy twea, somewhat similar to that of its eastern relative, the black-throated green warbler. The call is a sharp tup.

This bird was named after the American ornithologist, John Kirk Townsend. Although Townsend is also credited with first describing this bird, he used a name chosen by Thomas Nuttall, who was travelling with him, and so sidestepped the convention against naming a species after oneself.

Books

 * Wright, A. L., G. D. Hayward, S. M. Matsouka, and P. H. Hayward. 1998. Townsend’s Warbler (Dendroica townsendi). In The Birds of North America, No. 333 (A. Poole and F. Gill, eds.). The Birds of North America, Inc., Philadelphia, PA.

Thesis

 * Pearson SF. Ph.D. (1997). Behavioral and ecological tests of four models explaining narrow hybrid zones between hermit and Townsend's warblers. University of Washington, United States, Washington.

Articles
-->
 * Catherine ES & Sievert R. (2000). A phenotypic test of Haldane's rule in an avian hybrid zone. The Auk. vol 117, no 3. p. 578.
 * Deviche P, Greiner EC & Manteca X. (2001). Interspecific variability of prevalence in blood parasites of adult passerine birds during the breeding season in Alaska. Journal of Wildlife Diseases. vol 37, no 1. p. 28-35.
 * Greenberg R, Caballero CM & Bichier P. (1993). Defense of homopteran honeydew by birds in the Mexican highlands and other warm temperate forests. Oikos. vol 68, no 3. p. 519-524.
 * Jackson WM, Wood CS & Rohwer S. (1992). Age-Specific Plumage Characters and Annual Molt Schedules of Hermit Warblers and Townsend's Warblers. The Condor. vol 94, no 2. p. 490.
 * Kissling ML & Garton EO. (2006). Estimating detection probability and density from point-count surveys: A combination of distance and double-observer sampling. Auk. vol 123, no 3. p. 735-752.
 * Mannan RW, Hale BS & Morrison ML. (1983). Observations of Nesting Townsends Warblers Dendroica-Townsendi in Northeastern Oregon USA. Murrelet. vol 64, no 1. p. 23-25.
 * Mannan RW & Meslow EC. (1984). Bird Populations and Vegetation Characteristics in Managed and Old-Growth Forests Northeastern Oregon USA. Journal of Wildlife Management. vol 48, no 4. p. 1219-1238.
 * Manuwal DA. (1991). Spring Bird Communities in the Southern Washington Cascade Range USA. U S Forest Service General Technical Report PNW. vol 285, p. 161-175.
 * Matsuoka SM, Handel CM & Roby DD. (1997). Nesting ecology of Townsend's Warblers in relation to habitat characteristics in a mature boreal forest. Condor. vol 99, no 2. p. 271-281.
 * Matsuoka SM, Handel CM, Roby DD & Thomas DL. (1997). The relative importance of nesting and foraging sites in selection of breeding territories by Townsend's warblers. Auk. vol 114, no 4. p. 657-667.
 * Mizrahi DS & Wagner SJ. (1996). Georgia's second state record for Townsend's warbler. Oriole. vol 61, no 4. p. 81-82.
 * Morrison ML. (1983). Analysis of Geographic Variation in the Townsends Warbler Dendroica-Townsendi. Condor. vol 85, no 4. p. 385-391.
 * Owen-Ashley NT & Butler LK. (2004). Androgens, interspecific competition and species replacement in hybridizing warblers. Proceedings of the Royal Society Biological Sciences Series B. p. 6) S498-S500, December 497, 2004.
 * Pearson SF. (2000). Behavioral asymmetries in a moving hybrid zone. Behav Ecol. vol 11, no 1. p. 84-92.
 * Pearson SF & Manuwal DA. (2000). Influence of niche overlap and territoriality on hybridization between Hermit Warblers and Townsend's Warblers. Auk. vol 117, no 1. p. 175-183.
 * Pearson SF & Rohwer S. (2000). Asymmetries in male aggression across an avian hybrid zone. Behav Ecol. vol 11, no 1. p. 93-101.
 * Rappole JH, King DI & Barrow WC Jr. (1999). Winter ecology of the endangered Golden-cheeked Warbler. Condor. vol 101, no 4. p. 762-770.
 * Rohwer S. (1994). 2 NEW HYBRID DENDROICA WARBLERS AND NEW METHODOLOGY FOR INFERRING PARENTAL SPECIES. Auk. vol 111, no 2. p. 441-449.
 * Rohwer S. (1994). Two new hybrid Dendroica warblers and new methodology for inferring parental species. Auk. vol 111, no 2. p. 441-449.
 * Rohwer S. (2004). Using age ratios to infer survival and despotic breeding dispersal in hybridizing Warblers. Ecology. vol 85, no 2. p. 423-431.
 * Rohwer S, Bermingham E & Wood C. (2001). Plumage and mitochondrial DNA haplotype variation across a moving hybrid zone. Evolution. vol 55, no 2. p. 405-422.
 * Rohwer S, Wood C & Bermingham E. (2000). A new hybrid warbler (Dendroica nigrescens x D-occidentalis) and diagnosis of similar D-townsendi x D-occidentalis recombinants. Condor. vol 102, no 3. p. 713-718.
 * Sallabanks R, Haufler JB & Mehl CA. (2006). Influence of forest vegetation structure on avian community composition in west-central Idaho. Wildl Soc Bull. vol 34, no 4. p. 1079-1093.
 * Scott FP & Sievert R. (1998). Influence of breeding phenology and clutch size on hybridization between Hermit and Townsend's Warblers. The Auk. vol 115, no 3. p. 739.
 * Sievert R & Christopher W. (1998). Three hybrid zones between Hermit and Townsend's warblers in Washington and Oregon. The Auk. vol 115, no 2. p. 284.
 * Thompson LC. (1993). First Georgia record of a Townsend's Warbler. Oriole. vol 58, no 1-4. p. 1-3.
 * Tiedemann AR & Woodard PM. (2002). Multiresource effects of a stand-replacement prescribed fire in the Pinus contorta-Abies lasiocarpa vegetation zone of Central Washington. U S Forest Service Pacific Northwest Research Station General Technical Report PNW GTR. vol 535, p. 1-26.
 * Vidal RM, Macias-Caballero C & Duncan CD. (1994). The occurrence and ecology of the Golden-cheeked Warbler in the highlands of Northern Chiapas, Mexico. Condor. vol 96, no 3. p. 684-691.

title: Townsend's warbler


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Talk:False negative

signal detection
"The term false negative is also used when spam email is not detected as such but rather classified as non-spam email. A low number of false negatives is an indicator of the efficiency of spam filtering methods."

is that correct? maybe i'm missing something. but, a low number of false negatives doesn't mean anything unless you have a correspondingly low/good number of false positives.

if a spam filter simply labels ALL INCOMING MAIL as "spam", it will have zero false negatives. --very low, but very wrong.

it's the same thing as a lie detector that buzzes on every statement, therefore signalling 100% of lies, but...... also fale-alarming on every single truth.

of course i'm very tired, so i might be accidentally reversing the thing completely, but either way, the point still stands.

"condition"
I dont mind the term condition, but there are situations where that phrase would not be as apporpriate as singal. Condition also sounds like a disease or state of body instead of a state of reality. If there are better terms then signal or condition let me know, im checking some dictionary definitions of false negative/positive to find the best word. --ShaunMacPherson 10:56, 7 Aug 2004 (UTC)

The article on false negatives incorrectly defines a false negative rate as 1 minus the specificity. It is not. It is 1 minus the sensitivity.

Agreed. This is now fixed MDReid

Missed events vs. detected but incorrectly classified events
Maybe we could add that a false negative might be the result of: 1) detecting an event and incorrectly declaring it as positive; and 2) not detecting a positive event (e.g. a positive event was not even read) For example, a medical test in the lab can be very accurate and reliable, but somehow the reporting process or the bureaucracy around the test might be flawed: the positive outcome was not reported and for some reason the lab concludes the test was negative. For example, in computer security, a packet carrying a malware payload might have been missed completely by the intrusion detection system, but is is still a false negative.

False negative vs. false positive
There has been a simple error of juxtaposition here which I have corrected. False negative (the error of rejecting something that should have been accepted) is a type I error. False positive (the error of accepting something that should have been rejected) is a type II error. See, for example, Moulton, R.T., "Network Security", Datamation, Vol.29, No.7, (July 1983), pp.121-127:
 * The appropriate access control device may be difficult for the user to define. It must be capable of rejecting imposters while having a minimal rate of rejecting authorized users (Type I error). It must also have a high rate of accepting authorized users and a low rate of accepting imposters (Type II error).

I have also adjusted the redirections so that now has type I error to False negative; and Type II error to false positive. Once my piece on Four types of error is finished, and it will be finished very soon, the entire issue will be very plainLindsay658 08:07, 23 June 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:False negative


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Richard Estcourt

Richard Estcourt (1668–1712) was an English actor, who began by playing comedy parts in Dublin.

His first London appearance was in 1704 as Dominick, in Dryden's Spanish Friar, and he continued to take important parts at Drury Lane, being the original Pounce in Steele's Tender Husband (1705), Sergeant Kite in Farquhar's Recruiting Officer, and Sir Francis Gripe in Mrs Centlivre's Busybody. He was an excellent mimic and a great favourite socially.

Estcourt wrote a comedy, The Fair Example, or the Modish Citizen (1703), and Prunella (1704), an interlude. He also was the first president of the first London Beefsteak Club.

title: Richard Estcourt


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Sheraton City Tower

Delete, not notable, or explain why it is notable. Pud 11:01, 7 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep: There is precedent for skyscrapers having articles at Tall buildings in London. There are also a number of very active skyscraper-enthusiast groups around the world, so there would be interest in these articles, in my opinion, irregardless of how notable the structure is in general. This article is just a stub: there is bound to be more information that can be added to it (although I don't pretend to know any of it myself); but I have planned to create articles for Australian skyscrapers, and I know that there is a lot of information available on these, even the relatively small ones. Keep it as a valid stub. A skyscraper, unlike a not-particularly-notable person for example, is something that can be know to a very large group of people. I think I'm rambling, but you've got my vote, anyway... TPK 11:38, 7 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * I like sky scrapers too. Where i live, however, this would not a notable building. But then I guess that is a POV. Pud 12:12, 7 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Doesn't seem notable to me. Delete this stub unless greatly expanded   — Chameleon Main/Talk/Images 13:41, 7 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: I'm for the project and its work, but I don't think this building is really especially remarkable as a tall building. I would also like to point out that "Sheraton City" is present in a number of places, and there are multiple Sheraton City Towers. Geogre 17:32, 7 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Notability? Do we really want the name and brief description of every large building as part of Wikipedia? Skyler 03:22, Aug 9, 2004 (UTC)
 * I'd say only if they're notable in terms of architectural, cultural or political importance. If an article can do more than just give its height, on the other hand, then it doesn't appear to be significant. 'Delete' unless the article is revised to explain why it is notable. Average Earthman 11:45, 9 Aug 2004 (UTC)


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List of districts of Karnataka

The southern Indian state of Karnataka consists of 31 districts grouped into 4 administrative divisions, viz., Belagavi, Bengaluru, Gulbarga, and Mysore. Geographically, the state has three principal variants: the western coastal stretch, the hilly belt comprising the Western Ghats, and the plains, comprising the plains of the Deccan plateau.

History

Karnataka took its present shape in 1956, when the former states of Mysore and Coorg were unified into a linguistically homogenous Kannada-speaking state along with agglomeration of districts of the former states of Bombay, Hyderabad, and Madras as part of the States Reorganisation Act of 1956. The unified Mysore State was made up of ten districts, viz., Bangalore, Kolar, Tumkur, Mandya, Mysore, Hassan, Chikkamagalur, Shimoga, Chitradurga, and Ballari which had been transferred from Madras Presidency to Mysore State earlier in 1953, when the new state of Andhra Pradesh was created out of Madras' northern districts. Coorg State became Kodagu district, South Canara was transferred from Madras State, North Canara, Dharwad, Belgaum, and Bijapur from Bombay State. Bidar, Gulbarga, and Raichur from Hyderabad State. The state received its new name of Karnataka in the year 1973.

Formations of districts
Currently there are demands to carve out the following district,
 * Bailhongala, Kitturu, Chikkodi and Gokak from Belagavi (largest district)
 * Tipaturu from Tumakuru
 * Sirsi from Uttara Kannada
 * Jamakhandi from Bagalkote

Administrative structure
A district of an Indian state is an administrative geographical unit, headed by a Deputy Commissioner (DC), an officer belonging to the Indian Administrative Service. The deputy commissioner is assisted by a number of officers belonging to the Karnataka Administrative Service. The Deputy Commissioner is also the Collector and District Magistrate of the district. The deputy commissioner/collector is assisted by assistant commissioners and tahsildars, who are incharge of subdivisions and taluks respectively.

A Superintendent of Police (SP), usually an officer belonging to the Indian Police Service (IPS), is entrusted with the responsibility of maintaining law and order and related issues of the district. He is assisted by the officers of the Karnataka Police Service and other Karnataka Police officials. Big cities like Bengaluru, Belagavi, Hubballi-Dharwad, Kalaburagi, Mangaluru and Mysuru are headed by a Commissioner of Police holding the rank of Additional Director General of Police(ADGP) for Bengaluru, Inspector General of Police (IGP) for Mysuru and Deputy Inspector General of Police (DIG) for Belagavi, Hubballi-Dharwad, Kalaburagi and Mangaluru. They are assisted by officers belonging to the Karnataka Police Service (KSPS).

A Deputy Conservator of Forests, an officer belonging to the Indian Forest Service selected through the UPSC examination is responsible for managing the forests, the environment and wildlife of the district. He is assisted by the officers of the Karnataka Forest Service selected through the KPSC examination.

Sect-oral development is looked after by the district head of each development department such as Public Works, Health, Education, Agriculture, Animal husbandry, etc. These officers belong to the various state services.

Alphabetical listing of districts

title: List of districts of Karnataka


text:
Susanna Centlivre

Susanna Centlivre (c. 1669 (baptised) – 1 December 1723), born Susanna Freeman, and also known professionally as Susanna Carroll, was an English poet, actress, and "the most successful female playwright of the eighteenth century". Centlivre's "pieces continued to be acted after the theatre managers had forgotten most of her contemporaries." During a long career at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, she became known as the second woman of the English stage, after Aphra Behn.

Life
The main source of information on Centlivre's early life is Giles Jacob, who claimed he had received an account of it directly from her. This was published in The Poetical Register of 1719, yet it includes little information about her early life. Centlivre was probably baptised Susanna Freeman at Whaplode, Lincolnshire on 20 November 1669, as the daughter of William Freeman of Holbeach and his wife, Anne, the daughter of Mr Marham, a gentleman of Lynn Regis, Norfolk. Her father was a dissenter and a parliamentarian; as a result, the family certainly faced persecution at the Restoration.

Several biographical sources state that Holbeach was the possible place of her birth or at least the place where she spent her childhood. There is some mystery surrounding her early life, but it is generally believed that her father died when she was three, her mother died shortly after remarrying, and her stepfather married soon after that.

There are two stories that tell of her transition to acting and eventual arrival in London. The romanticized version has Centlivre found weeping by the roadside by Anthony Hammond, a student at St John's College, Cambridge. Enraptured by her manners and good looks, he smuggled her into his college, where she was disguised as a male cousin, Jack. There she remained hidden for some months studying grammar and acquiring "some of the terms of logic, rhetoric, and ethics" before "attracting too much attention" and deciding to head to London. The more believable scenario has her joining a company of strolling actors in Stamford (about 25 miles from Holbeach), where she gained popularity acting in breeches roles, for which she was suited due to a "small Wen on her left Eye lid, which gave her a Masculine Air."

Centlivre's skill in such roles charmed many men, especially Mr Fox, who would soon become Centlivre's first husband when she was sixteen. However, he died less than a year later. Following Fox's death, Centlivre is claimed to have married an army officer named Carroll, who died in a duel a year and a half after their union. She kept the name Carroll until her next marriage. Although much of her early years is speculation, biographers agree that Susanna's knowledge was predominantly self-acquired through reading and conversation. Looking at her use of French drama, it is not hard to see that Centlivre also had a sound knowledge of the French language. After her husband's death, Centlivre spent much of her time in London, where she turned to writing partly for financial support.

By 1706, Centlivre had made a small name for herself; however, she still relied on financial support from strolling (acting). It was during a performance when she played the role of Alexander the Great in Nathaniel Lee's tragedy The Rival Queens, or the Death of Alexander the Great for the court at Windsor Castle that she caught the eye of Joseph Centlivre. Though he was of a lower social class, a mere "yeoman of the mouth [cook] to Queen Anne," they were married on 23 April 1707.

There is no evidence to suggest where they resided for the first seven years of their marriage. Eventually, in late 1712 or early 1713, the Centlivres moved into residence at Buckingham Court, Spring Gardens, paying the highest rent second only to the Admiralty Office. After a long, illustrious career in high literary esteem with writings in the form of poems, letters, books, and, most famously, plays, Susanna Centlivre died on 1 December 1723, from lingering effects of a serious illness contracted in 1719. The Evening Post, London Journal, British Journal, and Weekly Journal had brief notices of her death. Centlivre's body was buried three days after her death in St. Paul's, Covent Garden. A little over a year later, her husband followed.

Writings 1700–1710
Giles Jacob mentions Centlivre's inclination to poetry with her first poem being written when she was merely seven years old. However, her first published work, a series of five letters, would not appear until May 1700. These letters contain playful, witty back-and-forth banter between her and the correspondent. Although early in her career, she is complimented as woman of sense. In July 1700, Abel Boyer published a second set of Centlivre's letters (among other writers). This time, Centlivre published the letters under the name of Astrea, a pen name previously used by Aphra Behn, a move that was most likely motivated by a wish for public attention. In the letters, the exchange between Astrea and Celadon (Capt. William Ayloffe) are of particular interest due to their intense romantic suggestions. However, biographers generally agree that this was merely practice for the epistolary fiction form.

We also get a glimpse of Centlivre's poetry in her correspondence with George Farquhar, who also sometimes published under the name Celadon. Again, it is hard to suggest a definitive romantic relationship between Farquhar and Centlivre; the letters may have been intended for the public eye. Centlivre continued in September 1700, when she contributed a poem, "Of Rhetorick," under the name Polumnia, to The Nine Muses, an elegiac poetry collection left on the grave of John Dryden.

In October 1700, Centlivre published her first play, The Perjur'd Husband: or, The Adventures of Venice. This tragicomedy (although considered a tragedy at the time) was performed at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane and, according to Centlivre, "went off with a general Applause." It was published under Susanna's own name, and the prologue made a point of pride out of its female authorship. By the end of 1700, with a long list of literary acquaintances and actors alike, Centlivre was well established in London.

Her next play, The Beau's Duel, was performed in June 1702. Well received in its own right, the play did not see a lengthy stage life. Over the next five years or so, Centlivre's work was less successful. As a result, her next two plays, The Stolen Heiress (December 1702) and Love's Contrivance (June 1703), were performed under attempts to conceal the sex of the author. Although received well, all of Centlivre's plays up to this point had been performed at inopportune times in the season. It wasn't until Love's Contrivance that the experience and reputation of the cast allowed for a three-night run (in addition to some later productions and an eventual revival, three years after her death). Centlivre's next comedy, The Gamester, was first performed in February 1705. Here, she declared her intent to reform gamblers. This play was Centlivre's most successful to date and was frequently revived in later years.

In 1705, Centlivre, in a brief moment away from the theatre, wrote a complimentary poem for a collection by Sarah Fyge Egerton. Centlivre continued the gambling theme in her next play entitled The Basset Table, performed in November 1705. Although not explicit regarding its authorship, this play's Epilogue indirectly attributes the play to a woman. Following her success with The Basset Table, Centlivre wrote Love at a Venture and saw it performed in 1706.

Centlivre was a highly successful professional playwright. A similarly renowned playwright, Colley Cibber, was accused of borrowing parts of Love at a Venture to write his own play, The Double Gallant. However, in an apparent reconciliation he accepted a part in Centlivre's next play, The Platonick Lady (November 1706). Having grown weary with anonymous authorship, Centlivre used the preface to The Platonick Lady to express her distaste for society's outlook on the female writer.

Following her third marriage, Centlivre took some time off. This decision turned out to be a good one; her time away resulted in her most successful comedy, The Busie Body (May 1709). The play ran for thirteen nights, a remarkable run for the time, and was revived the following season.

Centlivre's next play, The Man's Bewitch'd, was first performed in December 1709, and satirized the squirearchy of Tory gentlemen. This political satire appeared during an ongoing election campaign, and the Tory press struck back. The weekly Female Tatler printed an "interview" that it claimed to have done with Centlivre, where she insulted the actors and blamed them for all her failures. The acting company was on the verge of walking out on her before she persuaded them that she was the victim of a politically inspired hoax.

Writings 1710–1723
All of Centlivre's later works have a clear anti-Tory, pro-Whig political affiliation, "notable through the characters of tory fathers or guardians, whose party fervour forms another obstacle to the happiness of young lovers – always whiggishly inclined."

In March 1710, Centlivre released A Bickerstaff's Burying, a political satire. Despite the risk of annoying Anne, Queen of Great Britain, Centlivre was not afraid to openly support the Hanoverian succession. Next, Centlivre took it upon herself to write a sequel to the successful The Busy Body, entitled Marplot, or, The Second Part of the Busie-Body (December 1710). Although it didn't receive the same attention as its precursor, it was performed seven times. The sequel reflects Centlivre's continuing interest in politics, specifically the battle between Whig and Tory. Once again, Centlivre turned to poetry with a complimentary poem on the recovery of the Duke of Newcastle's daughter. Although this might seem an odd subject to modern readers, Centlivre was merely following conventional protocol in securing patronage.

With her next comedy, The Perplex'd Lovers (January 1712), Centlivre became outspoken in her political stance. Most of her plays over the next five years were directly related to the advancement of the Whigs and the House of Hanover. The play's success was limited, and it only ran for three nights. The theatre managers banned the Epilogue for fear of backlash.

In 1713, after moving into a new home in Buckingham Court, Centlivre wrote two poems. The first poem is a response to Anne Oldfield's brilliant performance in a play. The second, entitled "The Masquerade," is addressed to the Duke d'Aumont, ambassador from France. Centlivre's next play was The Wonder (April 1714), a comedy. She dedicated the play to the then Duke of Cambridge. This political move of showing loyalty to the House of Hanover was risky, but, in the end, paid off for Centlivre when the Duke ascended the throne as King George I. We can see her gloating in an ironic autobiographical poem, "A Woman's Case." Not solely a political play, The Wonder was a popular hit and notably was the performance in which famous actor/playwright David Garrick chose "to make his farewell to the stage on 10 June 1776."

Centlivre's next two plays, A Gotham Election and A Wife Well Manag'd, were published in 1715 (although A Gotham Election would not be performed until 1724) and fell under her now common theme, political farce. These two plays illustrate how Centlivre was ahead of her time with her exemplification of social problems in the theatre.

In 1716, as a response to a Whig leader's illness and subsequent retirement, Centlivre contributed a poem to a small publication entitled State Poems. Her contribution was "Ode to Hygeia". She followed this with a series of poems in response to the political climate of the time. After attacks by satirist Alexander Pope on Centlivre and others, she and co-author Nicholas Rowe published her next play, The Cruel Gift (December 1716). It was her first heroic drama (often considered tragedy): the reception was good, and the play was performed seven times that year. In February 1718 Centlivre published A Bold Stroke for a Wife. This comical farce was very successful and is considered by some to be her best play. It is the only play for which Centlivre claims complete originality. (It was not uncommon for dramatists to procure various plot pieces and characters from other works.)

Continuing her political works, in 1717 Centlivre directed her attention to Charles XII, a Swedish king threatening to attack England. She published a poem, entitled "An Epistle from a Lady of Great Britain to the King of Sweden, on the intended Invasion," in response to Charles's threats. We have two records of poems to Mr. Rowe (Nicholas) in 1718. The first was written during a visit to her hometown of Holbeach and is entitled "From the Country, To Mr. ROWE in Town. M.DCC.XVIII." The second poem followed Rowe's death and is entitled "A PASTORAL TO THE Honoured Memory of Mr. ROWE." The sincerity in the elegy brought Centlivre positive attention.

In 1719, Centlivre became seriously ill. Although the effects of this illness would linger until her death, she continued to write. We find two more published poems in 1720. Both are included in Anthony Hammond's A New Miscellany of Original Poems, Translations, and Imitations. Following this, Centlivre published a poem entitled "A Woman's CASE: in an Epistle to CHARLES JOYE, Esq; Deputy-Governor of the South Sea", that traces her political associations and shines some light on her relationship with her husband. She continued to write poetry until her death. Her last play, The Artifice, was produced and published in October 1722.

Themes and genres
Centlivre reflected positively on England's political, economic, and juridical systems. Her plays were often concerned with a theme of liberty within the areas of marriage and citizenry.

Politics
Centlivre was sometimes a political dramatist. She was anti-Catholic to an extreme, as is shown by some of her play dedications, prologues and epilogues. This is especially apparent in her dedication at the beginning of The Wonder, where she expressed her strong support for the proposed Protestant succession. The majority of her plays eschew party political commentary, her only work with an overtly political agenda being The Gotham Election. Some of her more controversial epilogues, such as that of The Perplexed Lovers where she identifies the out-of-favour war hero Marlborough as the "ONE", were not spoken in the theatre, just published in the play text.

Comedies
Centlivre is best known for her comedies, often following the Spanish style, which is "romantic in plot and spirit, [but containing] far more of the emotions of love and jealousy than Restoration comedies." This type of comedy tended to focus on the romantic intrigues among a triangle of wealthy main characters (generally one young woman being fought over by two young men, one promiscuous, the other devoted). It often involves disguises, duels (or talk of them), and scenarios that balance emotion and farce. Her best-known comedies feature quick-witted female intellects to equal their male counterparts. Due to the widespread prejudice against women playwrights, Centlivre sometimes wrote under a pseudonym, or withheld more controversial messages.

Tragedies
Little positive is said of her two tragi-comedies, The Perjur'd Husband and The Stolen Heiress, although her pure tragedy, The Cruel Gift, was somewhat better received. These plays were thought to have "figures [that] are shadowy and [a] plot [that] is unconvincing."

Reception and criticism
Her plays were popular with audiences but less so with literary critics such as William Hazlitt who wrote condescendingly of them. Satirist Alexander Pope found her writings offensive for political and religious reasons, and thought them a threat to greater dramatists by pandering to popular taste. He assumed that she had helped with Edmund Curll's anti-Catholic pamphlet The Catholic Poet: or, Protestant Barnaby's Sorrowful Lamentation. Regardless of her peers' opinions, her plays continued to be performed for over 150 years after her death.

The diarist Agnes Porter, governess to the children of Henry Fox-Strangways, 2nd Earl of Ilchester, saw a performance of Centlivre's The Busy Body at the Little Theatre, Haymarket on 7 March 1791, but wrote that it was "very badly performed".

Plays

 * The Perjur'd Husband: or, The Adventures of Venice (1700)
 * The Beau's Duel; or, A Soldier for the Ladies (1702)
 * The Stolen Heiress; or, the Salamanca Doctor Outplotted (1702; published 1703)
 * Love's Contrivance (1703)
 * The Gamester (1705)
 * The Basset Table (1705)
 * Love at a Venture (1706)
 * The Platonick Lady (1706)
 * The Busie Body (1709)
 * The Man's Bewitched; or, The Devil to Do About Her (1709)
 * A Bickerstaff's Burying; or, Work for the Upholders (1710)
 * Marplot; or, the Second Part of The Busie Body (1710; published 1711)
 * The Perplex'd Lovers (1712)
 * The Wonder: A Woman Keeps A Secret!!! (1714)
 * A Gotham Election (1715, never produced)
 * A Wife Well Managed (1715; produced 1724)
 * The Cruel Gift (1716; published 1717)
 * A Bold Stroke for a Wife (1718)
 * The Artifice (1722)

Books

 * Familiar and Courtly Letters as Astraea (1700)
 * The Second Volume of Familiar Letters as Astraea (1701)
 * Letters of Wit, Politicks and Morality as Astraea (1701)

Poems

 * "Polminia: Of Rhetorick" (1700, unconfirmed)
 * "To Mrs. S.F. on her incomparable Poems" (1706)
 * "The Masquerade, A Poem, Humbly Inscribed to his Grace the Duke D'Aumont" (1713)
 * "On the Right Honourable Charles Earl of Halifax being made Knight of the Garter" (1714)
 * "A Poem Humbly Presented to His Most Sacred Majesty George, King of Great Britain, France, and Ireland. Upon his Accession to the Throne" (1714)
 * "An Epistle to Mrs. Wallup, Now in the Train of Her Royal Highness, The Princess of Wales" (1714)
 * "To Her Royal Highness, the Princess of Wales. At her Toylet, on New-Years Day" (1715)
 * "Ode to Hygeia" (1716)
 * "Upon the Bells ringing at St. Martins in the Fields, on St. George's Day, 1716, being the Anniversary of Queen Anne's Coronation" (1716)
 * "These Verses were writ on King George's Birth-Day, by Mrs. Centlivre, and sent to the Ringers while the Bells were ringing at Holbeach in Lincolnshire" (1716)
 * "An Epistle to the King of Sweden from a Lady of Great-Britain" (1717)
 * "A Woman's Case: In an Epistle to Charles Joye, Esq; Deputy-Governor of the South-Sea" (1720)
 * "From the Country, to Mr. Rowe in Town" (1720)
 * "A Pastoral to the Honoured Memory of Mr. Rowe" (1720)
 * "To the Duchess of Bolton, Upon seeing her Picture drawn unlike her" (1720)
 * "To the Earl of Warwick, on his Birthday" (1720)
 * "Letter on the Receipt of a Present of Cyder" (1721)

title: Susanna Centlivre


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Delfo Cabrera

Delfo Cabrera Gómez (April 2, 1919 – August 2, 1981) was an Argentine athlete, winner of the marathon race at the 1948 Summer Olympics in one of the most dramatic finishes in athletics history.

Biography
Born in Armstrong, Santa Fe Province, Delfo played football as a youth, but decided to turn to athletics after Juan Carlos Zabala's triumph at the 1932 Summer Olympics.

He moved to Buenos Aires in 1938 and began training in San Lorenzo de Almagro under Francisco Mura. In the same year, he won his first national championships title (in 5000 m). Over the years he would win 9 more titles, but none of them in marathon.

Delfo served in the army during the World War II where he met Juan Perón. After the war, being a friend of Perón, he was active member of the Justicialist Party.

The London Olympic Games was Cabrera's first major international competition. Etienne Gailly from Belgium dominated the marathon race most of the way and until almost the very last moments. He was the first to enter the stadium, but with 400 m to go, Gailly fell down, exhausted, got up and fell again. It was like Dorando Pietri's dramatic finish 40 years before. Cabrera and Tom Richards of Great Britain managed to pass the staggering Gailly, Delfo winning 16.0 seconds ahead of Richards.

For 64 years, the victory remained the last Argentinian gold medal in an individual competition, until the victory of Sebastián Crismanich in taekwondo in the 2012 games.

Cabrera also participated in the 1952 Summer Olympics and was the flag bearer for Argentina at the opening ceremony; he finished in sixth place in the marathon, which was won by Emil Zátopek. Cabrera ended his athletics career after finishing sixth at the 1954 Boston Marathon. After that he taught physical education in several schools.

Delfo died in a car accident near the town of Alberti, Buenos Aires province, when driving back to Buenos Aires from a reception in his honour at Lincoln.

title: Delfo Cabrera


text:
List of captains-major of Cacheu

List of colonial heads of Cacheu
The territory is located in Guinea-Bissau.

title: List of captains-major of Cacheu