text:
Spirou (magazine)

Spirou (Le Journal de Spirou) is a weekly Belgian comics magazine published by the Dupuis company since April 21, 1938. It is an anthology magazine with new features appearing regularly, containing a mix of short humor strips and serialized features, of which the most popular series would be collected as albums by Dupuis afterwards.

Creation
With the success of the weekly magazine Le Journal de Mickey in France, and the popularity of the weekly Adventures of Tintin in Le Petit Vingtième, many new comic magazines or youth magazines with comics appeared in France and Belgium in the second half of the 1930s. In 1936, the experienced publisher Jean Dupuis put his sons Paul and the 19-year-old Charles in charge of a new magazine aimed at the juvenile market.

First appearing 21 April 1938, it was a large format magazine, available only in French and only in Wallonia. It was an eight-page weekly comics magazine composed of a mixture of short stories and gags, serial comics and short articles. It introduced two new comics, the eponymous Spirou drawn by the young Frenchman Rob-Vel, and Les Aventures de Tif (later to become Tif et Tondu) written and drawn by Fernand Dineur, and printed American comics such as Superman, Red Ryder and Brick Bradford. On 27 October 1938 the Flemish edition named Robbedoes appeared as well.

Second World War
Spirou and Robbedoes soon became very popular and the magazine doubled its pages from 8 to 16. After the invasion of the Germans, the magazine gradually had to stop publishing American comics. They were at first continued by local artists and later replaced with new series. When Rob-Vel no longer had the possibility to send his pages from France to Belgium on a regular basis either, his series was continued by Joseph Gillain, a young artist who had previously worked for Petits Belges and used the pen name Jijé. Together with Dineur and Sirius (pen name of Max Mayeu), they filled the magazine with a number of new series and increased the popularity of it even further.

Near the end of the war, due to paper shortages, publication had to be stopped anyway, with only a few irregular almanacs to keep the bond with the readers intact and to provide work for the personnel to prevent them being deported to Germany.

The golden years
The period 1945–1960 has been described by critics as the golden age of Spirou magazine and of Belgian comics in general, partly incited by the 1946 appearance of the successful competitor Tintin magazine. Spirou resumed publication only weeks after Belgium was liberated, but now on a much smaller format. Jijé was the main author, providing pages from multiple series each week. Some American comics reappeared as well. Jijé started out a studio, where he schooled three talented apprentices, Will, André Franquin and Morris; known as the "Bande à quatre", "Gang of four", they began laying the foundation for the Marcinelle school that marked the magazine for decades.

In 1946 and 1947, the team was joined by some of the main contributors to Spirou for the next decades, including Victor Hubinon, Jean-Michel Charlier and Eddy Paape. After a few years, these artists started their now classic series like Buck Danny by Hubinon and Charlier and Lucky Luke by Morris, while Franquin took over Spirou from Jijé. Gradually, the American comics and reprints were replaced by new, European productions, and by the 50s, nearly all the content was made especially for the magazine. Charles Dupuis remained editor-in-chief of the magazine until 1955 when he appointed Yvan Delporte to that position, so he could himself focus on his increasing interest in the publication of the magazine's series' albums.

The golden ages culminated in the 1950s with the introduction of more authors and series like Peyo (Johan and Peewit in 1952, The Smurfs in 1958), René Follet, Marcel Remacle, Jean Roba (with Boule et Bill), Maurice Tillieux (with Gil Jourdan) and Mitacq. In 1954, Jijé created the realistic western comic Jerry Spring, and in 1957 Franquin introduced the anti-hero Gaston Lagaffe. The authors of the magazine, many of them pupils of Jijé, were grouped stylistically in the Marcinelle school, the counterpart of ligne claire exhibited by the artists grouped around Hergé in Tintin magazine (the main competitor for Spirou).

By 1960, the magazine had achieved a fixed structure and had grown to 52 pages, mainly filled with new, European (mainly Belgian) comics, coupled with some text pages (interaction with the readers) and adverts. Most of the comics were long-running series which were regularly published as albums of 44 or 64 pages, generating a constant source of revenue for the artists and the publisher. In the next decades, the sales of albums would become the main focus, reducing the importance of the magazine which became more of a breeding ground for new talent and series.

Rejuvenation in the 1960s and 1970s
In the early 1960s, the main changes were the strong editorial work of Delporte, who kept the magazine vibrant despite the more or less fixed series, with numerous supplements, games, and experimental layouts. The magazine demonstrated the pleasure that had gone in creating it, and maintained a strong reader base despite the growing competition from more adolescent and adult French magazines like Pilote. Some of the main authors (Jijé, Franquin, Will, and Hubinon) temporarily started working for other magazines, with Morris the only major name who definitely left the magazine. Their replacements, like Berck, had trouble filling the void.

Around 1959–1960, the first mini-récits (lit. mini-stories) appeared. This was an experiment in which the middle pages of the magazines could be removed, which the reader (armed with a pair of scissors, a stapler and some patience) could fold into a small comics magazine of its own. Several artists were allowed to hone their skills inside these mini-récits before moving on to larger pages, and until the 1970s, more than 500 mini-récits were produced, series that debuted in this format include The Smurfs by Peyo, Bobo by Rosy and Deliège, Flagada by Degotte among many others.

Only in the early 1970s, did a number of new success series and authors emerge. The main contributor for the next decades was Raoul Cauvin, a lithographer who worked as a cameraman for the Dupuis animation studios and wrote stories for series like Musti. He became the main story writer for Dupuis, with major series like Sammy with Berck, Les Tuniques Bleues with Lambil, and later Cédric with Laudec and Agent 212 with Daniel Kox, among many others. Other important new authors were François Walthery with Natacha and Roger Leloup with Yoko Tsuno, together with Isabelle by Will evidence of the new wave of adventurous female-oriented comics of the decade.

A commercial failure but artistic success came along in 1977, when Delporte created the more adult supplement Le Trombone Illustré, which appeared inside Spirou for thirty weeks, and showcased new artists like Didier Comès, Enki Bilal, Claire Bretécher, F'murr, Grzegorz Rosinski, and Frédéric Jannin, next to more established authors like René Hausman, Peyo, Roba, Gotlib, and Franquin, who started his third major series, Idées Noires.

Since 1980
The early 1980s had Spirou and Robbedoes searching for a new, appealing identity, with new formulas, more adult comics like XIII by William Vance and Jean Van Hamme or Jeremiah by Hermann. Most artists of the first generation were no longer active, and the productivity of many artists of the second generation slowed down as well. New talents were Tome and Janry, the new team for the Spirou et Fantasio comic, Bruno Gazzotti (Soda), François Gilson (Mélusine), Bercovici, Zidrou, André Geerts, Bernard Hislaire, Midam (Kid Paddle), Frank Pé, Marc Hardy and Luc Cromheecke.

Robbedoes had a severe reduction in the number of readers, and was first reduced to 32 pages (with Spirou growing to 68), before it finally disappeared in 2005.

Collections
From the very start, Spirou and Robbedoes published collections of 10 to 13 consecutive magazines in hardcover format - originally quarterly, but more frequently with the increased page number of the magazine. This series still continues for Spirou with 377 volumes as of March 2024.

Spirou and Tintin rivalry
Since the 1940s, Spirou was in constant competition with Tintin magazine. If one artist was published by one of the magazines, he would not be published by the other one. This was a gentleman's agreement between the two publishers, Raymond Leblanc of Le Lombard and Charles Dupuis of Dupuis. One notable exception was André Franquin, who in 1955, after a dispute with its editor, moved from the more popular Spirou to Tintin. The dispute was quickly settled, but Franquin had signed an agreement with Tintin for five years. He created Modeste et Pompon for Tintin while pursuing work for Spirou. He quit Tintin at the end of his contract. Some artists moved from Spirou to Tintin like Eddy Paape and Liliane & Fred Funcken, while some went from Tintin to Spirou like Raymond Macherot and Berck.

Main authors and series

 * Aymond: Lady S. (2004–2016)
 * Batem: Marsupilami (1995–1997, 2013–)
 * Bédu: Psy (1992–2019)
 * Benn: Mic Mac Adam (1978–1987)
 * Berck: Sammy (1970–1994)
 * Bercovici: Les Femmes en Blanc (1981–)
 * Blesteau: Toupet (1987–2004), Wofi (1976–1987)
 * Bom: Broussaille (1983–1989, 2000)
 * Raoul Cauvin: Les Tuniques Bleues (1968–2021), Sammy (1970–2009), Cédric (1986–2022), Agent 212 (1975–2022) etc.
 * Jean-Michel Charlier: Buck Danny (1947–1978)
 * Clarke: Mélusine (1992–2018)
 * Stéphane Colman: Billy the Cat (1981–1999)
 * Didier Conrad: Les innomables (1980–1982), Donito (1991–1996)
 * Darasse: Tamara (2001–), Gang Mazda (1987–1996)
 * Lucien De Gieter: Papyrus (1974–2015)
 * Arthur De Pins: Zombillénium (2009–)
 * Charles Degotte: Flagada (1961–1988), Motards (1984–1993)
 * Delaf: The Bellybuttons (2005–2020)
 * Paul Deliège: Bobo (1961–1996), Les Krostons (1968–1983)
 * Yvan Delporte: Isabelle (1969–1994), The Smurfs (1962–1972)
 * Stephen Desberg: Tif et Tondu (1977–1989), Billy the Cat (1982–2004), 421 (1980–1992), Mic Mac Adam (1978–1987)
 * Daniel Desorgher: Jimmy Tousseul (1988–2000)
 * Jacques Devos: Génial Olivier (1963–1988)
 * Fernand Dineur: Tif et Tondu (1938–1951)
 * Alain Dodier: Jérôme K. Jérôme Bloche (1982–)
 * Dubuc: The Bellybuttons (2005–2020)
 * Serge Ernst: Les Zappeurs (1991–2011)
 * Benoît Feroumont: Le Royaume (2008–)
 * René Follet: Various series (1949–2016)
 * Gérald Forton: Kim Devil (1953–1956), Les Belles Histoires de l'oncle Paul (1952–1964)
 * Jean-Claude Fournier: Spirou et Fantasio (1969–1979), Bizu (1967–1994), Crannibales (1995–2005, 2011)
 * Francis: Marc Lebut (1966–1983)
 * Frank: Broussaille (1978–1989, 2000–2002), L'elan (1981–1987)
 * André Franquin: Spirou et Fantasio (1946–1969), Gaston Lagaffe (1957–1991)
 * Bruno Gazzotti: Soda (1990–2005), Seuls (2006–)
 * André Geerts: Jojo (1983–2010)
 * François Gilson: Mélusine (1992–2012), Garage Isidore (1991–2012)
 * Godard: Toupet (1965–1966, 1987–2004)
 * Gos: Scrameustache (1972–2002)
 * René Goscinny: Lucky Luke (1955–1967, 1978)
 * Bianco Guillaume: Ernest et Rebecca (2010–2021), Zizi chauve–souris (2011–2019), L'Atelier Mastodonte (2011–)
 * Marc Hardy: Pierre Tombal (1983–2021)
 * René Hausman: Bestiaire (1959–1967), Laïyna (1985–1987)
 * Bernard Hislaire: Bidouille et Violette (1978–1985, 2011)
 * Victor Hubinon: Buck Danny (1947–1979)
 * Gerrit De Jager: Aristote et ses potes (1985–1994)
 * Frédéric Jannin: Germain et nous... (1977–1992)
 * Janry, Spirou et Fantasio (1981–1998), Le Petit Spirou (1987–), Passe–moi l’ciel (1990–)
 * Jidéhem: Gaston Lagaffe (1957–1969), Sophie (1965–1994), Starter (1957–1978)
 * Jijé: Spirou et Fantasio (1940–1951), Jerry Spring (1954–1977), Jean Valhardi (1941–1965)
 * Joan: Joue avec La Petite Lucie (1994–2020)
 * Octave Joly: Les Belles Histoires de l'oncle Paul (1951–1982)
 * Daniël Kox: Agent 212 (1975–)
 * Lambil: Les Tuniques Bleues (1972–), Pauvre Lampil (1974–2006), Sandy (1959–1974)
 * Denis Lapière: Ludo (1997–2009), Oscar (2000–2008)
 * Laudec: Cédric (1986–)
 * Frank Le Gall: Théodore Poussin (1984–1988, 1997–2004)
 * Libon: Animal Lecteur (2006–2018)
 * Pic Le Lièvre: Pic et Zou (1998–2018)
 * Roger Leloup: Yoko Tsuno (1970–)
 * Raymond Macherot: Sibylline (1965–1990)
 * Malik: Cupidon (1988–2011), Archie Cash (1971–1987)
 * Maltaite: 421 (1980–1992)
 * Mazel: Jungles perdues (1975–1987, 2008), Les mousquetaires (1969–1992)
 * Midam: Kid Paddle (1993–), Game Over, (2003–)
 * Mitacq: La Patrouille des Castors (1954–1993)
 * Morris: Lucky Luke (1946–1967, 1978–1985)
 * Eddy Paape: Marc Dacier (1958–1967), Jean Valhardi (1946–1953)
 * Peyo: Johan and Peewit (1952–1977), The Smurfs (1959–1988), Benoît Brisefer (1960–1978)
 * Arthur Piroton: Jess Long (1969–1995), Michel et Thierry (1962–1968)
 * Marcel Remacle: Vieux Nick (1958–1990)
 * Jean Roba: Boule et Bill (1959–2006)
 * Maurice Rosy: Bobo (1961–1973), Tif et Tondu (1955–1968), Attila (1967–1973)
 * Sergio Salma: Animal Lecteur (2006–2018)
 * Savoia: Marzi (2004–2017)
 * Pierre Seron: Les Petits Hommes (1967–2004)
 * Sirius: Timour (1953–1997), L'épervier bleu (1942–1951, 1973–1977)
 * Sowa: Marzi (2004–2017)
 * Stuf: Passe–moi l’ciel (1990–2015)
 * Fabrice Tarrin: Violine (2001–2005), Maki (2008–2011)
 * Maurice Tillieux: Gil Jourdan (1956–1978), César (1957–1973), Marc Lebut (1966–1982)
 * Tome: Spirou et Fantasio (1981–1998), Le Petit Spirou (1987–2019), Soda (1985–2014)
 * Lewis Trondheim: Ralph Azham (2010–2019), Zizi chauve–souris (2011–2019), L'Atelier Mastodonte (2011–)
 * Jean Van Hamme: Lady S. (2004–2013), XIII (1984–1986)
 * Fabien Vehlmann: Spirou et Fantasio (2006–), Seuls (2006–)
 * François Walthéry: Natacha (1970–2007)
 * Marc Wasterlain: Docteur Poche (1976–1997, 2011), Jeannette Pointu (1982–2005)
 * Weyland: Aria (2002–2015)
 * Will: Tif et Tondu (1949–1990), Isabelle (1969–1994)
 * Yann: Les innomables (1980–1982), Spirou et Fantasio (2006–2016)
 * Yoann: Spirou et Fantasio (2006–)
 * Zidrou: Tamara (2001–), Crannibales (1995–2005)

Format
The target audience is between 9 and 16 years, although the magazine appeals to many adults as well. Over the years, Spirou has undergone a few format changes and gradually became thicker, eventually averaging 68 pages. It was distributed in most French and Dutch speaking countries, and for some years, editions in other languages appeared as well (notably in Spain and Portugal).

A few pages, apart from the comics and the advertising, are always put aside for text contents and interaction with the readers (games, letters, jokes, etc.). Often a general theme is used to give the magazine some unity instead of being just a collection of unrelated comics, and this also gets reflected in the layout.

Along with Tintin magazine (founded in 1946), it was considered the home of the Franco-Belgian comics school until the seventies, when its importance declined. Still in publication, Spirou sells some 100,000 copies every week (as of 2009). Robbedoes was eventually shelved in September 2005, after more than 3500 weekly publications.

Title

 * On 21 April 1938, the magazine was created under the name Le journal de Spirou.
 * On 1 May 1947, it was renamed Spirou.
 * On 5 October 1988, it was renamed Spirou Magaziiiine
 * On 12 January 1994, it was once again named Spirou.
 * On 25 January 2006, it became Spirou HeBDo.
 * On 16 April 2008, it again became Spirou.

title: Spirou (magazine)


text:
User:Bonalaw

Current priorities involve cleaning up and expanding articles related to record charts.
 * 1) List of Number 1 Hits (UK) - I'm working on identifying songs with their own entries and linking them. If anyone wants to help, just dive in!
 * 2) UK Singles Chart - get up to "featured article" standard. Some ideas for expanding it appear on the talk page for the article.

I've now got around to creating Category:Record charts, including... UK Singles Chart Billboard Magazine UK classical chart List of Number 1 Hits (UK) List of Number 1 Hits (USA) One-hit wonders in the UK One-hit wonders in the United States List of best selling singles (USA) List of best selling singles (UK) List of best selling singles by year (UK)

I've recently created Category:Exercise instructors. Some folks who should have articles and go in that category (this is off the top of my head, so isn't anything like exhaustive): Denise Austin Billy Blank Christina Brooke Carolan Brown Rosemary Conley Derrick Evans Martica K. Heaner Diana Moran Callan Pinckney Libby Roberts Kathy Smith Tamilee Webb Bridget Woods

Masquerade in Italian
Sorry about putting this on your user page, but you do not have an email listed -- please feel free to delete this after reading it -- Did you put the information about an Italian edition of Masquerade on the Kit Williams page? If so, where did you get this information and do you have any information about the treasure buried in Italy? Canon 23:15, 8 May 2006 (UTC)

 * You are absolutely right. The Italian version is described in Chapter 10 of Gascoigne's book.  Thanks for remembering this!  Canon 14:15, 9 May 2006 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Bonalaw


text:
MID

MID or Mid may refer to:

Computers and electronics

 * MapInfo Interchange Format; .mid is also sometimes used as the filename extension for some MapInfo files
 * Media Identification Code (MID code), a code indicating the manufacturer of a DVD
 * Mobile Internet device, a category of mobile computer
 * Molded interconnect device, an injection molded thermoplastic part with integrated electronic circuit traces
 * Multiple interface declaration, a construct in some computer programming languages
 * Musical Instrument Digital Interface, .mid is sometimes used as an alternate filename extension for MIDI files

Medicine and biology

 * Multi-infarct dementia, a disease also known as vascular dementia
 * Minimal important difference, the smallest improvement felt to be meaningful by a patient
 * Monocyte, a type of white blood cell in the innate immune system of vertebrates

Military

 * Maritime identification digits, a 3-digit code identifying the country of a ship/coastal station using communication equipment.
 * Mentioned in dispatches, a military award for gallantry or otherwise commendable service
 * Militarized interstate dispute, conflicts between states that do not involve full-scale wars
 * Military Intelligence Division (United States), a former military intelligence branch of the United States Army

Organizations

 * Integration and Development Movement, a political party in Argentina
 * Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Russia), for which MID is a colloquial term
 * Monastic Interreligious Dialogue, the American arm of the DIMMID, an interfaith movement

Other

 * Mérida International Airport (IATA: MID)
 * Middletown station (Pennsylvania) (Amtrak station code: MID)
 * Modesto Irrigation District, a special district in California
 * Mortgage interest deduction, a tax deduction for mortgage interest paid by homeowners
 * Measuring Instruments Directive
 * Mid vowel
 * Midfielder, a position in association football

title: MID


text:
List of administrative divisions of Hebei

The administrative divisions of Hebei, a province of the People's Republic of China, consists of prefecture-level divisions subdivided into county-level divisions then subdivided into township-level divisions.

Administrative divisions
All of these administrative divisions are explained in greater detail at Administrative divisions of the People's Republic of China. This chart lists only prefecture-level and county-level divisions of Hebei.

Drafted and proposed cities
Hebei is planning to re-organise the administrative divisions with an addition of three new prefecture-level cities, all to be located adjacent to Beijing and named in regard to their position with respect to the national capital:

 * Jingbei (京北市, meaning "North of Capital") will be carved from two counties in Zhangjiakou: Huailai and Zhuolu
 * Jingnan (京南市, meaning "South of Capital") will compose of a county-level city in Baoding: Zhuozhou
 * Jingdong (京东市 meaning "East of Capital") will consist of three county-level administrative divisions in today's Langfang: Sanhe, Xianghe, and Dachang (Hui). They currently comprise the exclave situated between Beijing and Tianjin.


text: User talk:195.22.151.244

title: User talk:195.22.151.244


text:
Talk:Albuquerque (disambiguation)

Comment
It seems to me that the primary meaning of the word "albuquerque" and the entry that most visitors would expect after searching for the term is the city in New Mexico and not the the Portugese admiral of 500 years ago. Perhaps Albuquerque should redirect to Albuquerque, New Mexico with a note on the bottom that Albuquerque is also the name of a Portugese admiral? Most articles, if only two entries would exist on a disambig page, link to the primary meaning of the term with a link at the bottom or top to the alternate meaning of the term. --Abqwildcat 09:07, 19 Jul 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Albuquerque (disambiguation)


text:
Liberal conservatism

Liberal conservatism is a political ideology combining conservative policies with liberal stances, especially on economic issues but also on social and ethical matters, representing a brand of political conservatism strongly influenced by liberalism.

The ideology incorporates the classical liberal view of minimal government intervention in the economy, according to which individuals should be free to participate in the market and generate wealth without government interference. However, liberal conservatives also hold that individuals cannot be thoroughly depended on to act responsibly in other spheres of life; therefore, they believe that a strong state is necessary to ensure law and order and that social institutions are needed to nurture a sense of duty and responsibility to the nation. Liberal conservatives also support civil liberties, along with some socially conservative positions. They differ on social issues, with some being socially conservative and others socially liberal, though all liberal conservatives broadly support the rule of law regarding civil rights, social equality and the environment. This is equated with the creation of a cohesive and tolerant society with increased levels of individual responsibility and less inequality.

Liberal conservatism shares the classical liberal tenets of a commitment to individualism, belief in negative freedom, a lightly regulated free market, and a minimal rule of law state. A number of commentators have stated that many conservative currents in the 1980s, such as Thatcherism, were rejuvenated classical liberals in all but name. However, in contrast to classical liberalism there is a stronger social agenda and support for a greater degree of state intervention especially in certain areas of social life which liberal conservatives believe should not be subject to market forces. Particularly in regards to the family, sexuality, health and education, these should either always be periodically regulated or minimally protected by the state.

Overview, definitions and usage
Both conservatism and liberalism have had different meanings over time in different centuries. The term liberal conservatism has been used in quite different ways. It usually contrasts with aristocratic conservatism, which deems the principle of equality as something discordant with human nature and emphasizes instead the idea of natural inequality. As conservatives in democratic countries have embraced typical liberal institutions such as the rule of law, private property, the market economy and constitutional representative government, the liberal element of liberal conservatism became consensual among conservatives. In some countries such as the United Kingdom and the United States, the term liberal conservatism came to be understood simply as conservatism in popular culture, prompting some conservatives who embraced more strongly classical-liberal values to call themselves libertarians instead. However, there are differences between classical liberals and libertarians.

In their embrace of liberal and free market principles, European liberal conservatives are clearly distinguishable from those holding national-conservative, fully socially conservative and/or outright populist views, let alone a right-wing populist posture. Being liberal often involves stressing free market economics and the belief in individual responsibility together with the defense of civil rights and support for a limited welfare state. Compared to other centre-right political traditions such as Christian democracy, liberal conservatives are less socially conservative and more economically liberal, favouring low taxes and minimal state intervention in the economy. Some regional varieties and peculiarities can be observed:
 * In much of Central and Northwestern Europe, especially in Germanic and traditionally Protestant countries as well as the United Kingdom and Belgium, a divide persists between liberal conservatives (including Christian democrats) and liberals (including conservative liberals and social liberals).
 * In most Nordic countries, liberal conservatives, Christian democrats and liberals form distinct political families and each have their own party. The largest liberal parties are the Nordic agrarian parties, which are traditionally agrarian.
 * In most countries where Romance languages are spoken and where Catholicism is or has been dominant as well as in Greece and Poland, liberal conservative movements, often encompassing Christian democrats and liberals, have more recently gained traction and the terms conservative and liberal may be understood as synonymous.

At the European level, Christian democrats and most liberal conservatives are affiliated to the European People's Party (EPP), while liberals (including conservative and social liberals) to the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party (ALDE Party). In this context, some traditionally Christian-democratic parties (such as Christian-Democratic and Flemish in Belgium, the Christian Democratic Appeal in the Netherlands, the Christian Democratic Union in Germany and the People's Party in Austria) have become almost undistinguishable from other liberal-conservative parties. On the other hand, newer liberal-conservative parties (such as New Democracy in Greece, the Social Democratic Party in Portugal, the People's Party in Spain, Forza Italia/The People of Freedom/Forza Italia in Italy, the Union for a Popular Movement/The Republicans in France and most centre-right parties from countries once belonging to the Eastern Bloc and Yugoslavia) have not adopted traditional labels, but their ideologies are also a mixture of conservatism, Christian democracy and liberalism.

In the modern European discourse, liberal conservatism usually encompasses centre-right political outlooks that reject at least to some extent social conservatism. This position is also associated with support for moderate forms of social safety net and environmentalism (see also green conservatism and green liberalism). This variety of liberal conservatism has been espoused by Nordic conservatives (the Moderate Party in Sweden, the Conservative Party in Norway and the National Coalition Party in Finland) which have been fending off competition from right-wing populists to their right and do not include Christian democrats; and at times the British Conservative Party. In an interview shortly after taking office as Prime Minister in 2010, David Cameron introduced himself as a liberal conservative. During his first speech to a party conference in 2006, Cameron had defined this as believing in individual freedom and human rights, but being skeptical of "grand schemes to remake the world".

Relation to American conservatism
In the United States, conservatives often combine the economic individualism of classical liberals with a Burkean form of conservatism that emphasizes the natural inequalities between men, the irrationality of human behavior as the basis for the human drive for order and stability and the rejection of natural rights as the basis for government. From a different perspective, American conservatism (a "hybrid of conservatism and classical liberalism") has exalted three tenets of Burkean conservatism, namely the diffidence toward the power of the state, the preference of liberty over equality and for patriotism while rejecting the three remaining tenets, namely loyalty to traditional institutions and hierarchies, scepticism regarding progress and elitism. Consequently, the term liberal conservatism is not used in the United States. Modern American liberalism happens to be quite different from European liberalism and occupies the centre-left of the political spectrum, in contrast to many European countries where liberalism is often more associated with the centre and centre-right while social democracy makes up a substantial part of the centre-left. The opposite is true in Latin America, where economically liberal conservatism is often labelled under the rubric of neoliberalism both in popular culture and academic discourse.

American libertarian conservatism focuses more on libertarian economic principles and conservative cultural principles, but social stances of European liberal conservatism, on the other hand, are more closely related to relative progressivism than traditional conservatism. American neoconservatism is sometimes described as the same or similar to liberal conservatism in Europe. However, Peter Lawler regarded neoconservatism in the United States as conservative liberalism and distinguished it from liberal conservatism. Fiscal conservatism is also an idea rooted in classical liberalism.

Classical conservatism and economic liberalism

Historically, conservatism in the 18th and 19th centuries comprised a set of principles based on concern for established tradition, respect for authority and religious values. This form of traditionalist or classical conservatism is often considered to be exemplified by the writings of Joseph de Maistre in the post-Enlightenment age. Contemporaneous liberalism, now recalled as classical liberalism, advocated both political freedom for individuals and a free market in the economic sphere. Ideas of this sort were promulgated by John Locke, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Ben Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Thomas Paine, Edward Gibbon, David Hume, Adam Smith, Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, who are respectively remembered as the fathers of liberalism, including economic liberalism, the separation of church and state, social liberalism and utilitarianism.

According to scholar Andrew Vincent, the maxim of liberal conservatism is "economics is prior to politics". Others emphasize the openness of historical change and a suspicion of tyrannical majorities behind the hailing of individual liberties and traditional virtues by authors such as Edmund Burke and Alexis de Tocqueville as the basis of current liberal conservatism which can be seen both in the works of Raymond Aron and Michael Oakeshott. However, there is general agreement that the original liberal conservatives were those who combined conservative social attitudes with an economically liberal outlook, adapting a previous aristocratic understanding of natural inequalities between men to the rule of meritocracy, without directly criticizing privileges of birth as long as individual liberties were guaranteed. Over time, the majority of conservatives in the Western world came to adopt free market economic ideas as the Industrial Revolution progressed and the monarchy, aristocracy and clergy lost their wealth and power, to the extent that such ideas are now generally considered as part of conservatism. Nonetheless, the term liberal is used in most countries to describe those with free-market economic views. This is the case in continental Europe, Australia and Latin America.

Current parties

 * 🇦🇱 Albania: Democratic Party of Albania
 * 🇦🇩 Andorra: Democrats for Andorra
 * 🇦🇷 Argentina: Republican Proposal
 * 🇦🇺 Australia: Country Liberal Party, Liberal Party of Australia, Liberal National Party of Queensland, National Party of Australia
 * 🇦🇹 Austria: Austrian People's Party
 * 🇧🇾 Belarus: United Civic Party of Belarus
 * 🇧🇼 Botswana: Botswana Democratic Party
 * 🇧🇷 Brazil: Brazil Union
 * 🇧🇬 Bulgaria: Union of Democratic Forces
 * 🇨🇦 Canada: Conservative Party of Canada
 * 🇨🇱 Chile: National Renewal
 * 🇨🇿 Czech Republic: Civic Democratic Party, TOP 09
 * 🇭🇷 Croatia: Croatian Democratic Union
 * 🇩🇰 Denmark: Venstre, Conservative People's Party
 * 🇪🇪 Estonia: Estonian Reform Party
 * 🇫🇯 Fiji: People's Alliance, Social Democratic Liberal Party
 * 🇫🇮 Finland: National Coalition Party, Centre Party
 * 🇫🇷 France: The Republicans
 * 🇩🇪 Germany: Christian Democratic Union of Germany, Free Democratic Party, Free Voters
 * 🇬🇷 Greece: New Democracy
 * 🇬🇱 Greenland: Feeling of Community
 * 🇮🇸 Iceland: Independence Party
 * 🇮🇪 Ireland: Fine Gael
 * 🇮🇱 Israel: Likud, New Hope
 * 🇮🇹 Italy: Forza Italia
 * 🇯🇵 Japan: Liberal Democratic Party
 * 🇱🇻 Latvia: Unity
 * 🇱🇹 Lithuania: Homeland Union
 * 🇲🇽 Mexico: National Action Party
 * 🇲🇦 Morocco: Constitutional Union
 * 🇲🇳 Mongolia: Democratic Party
 * 🇲🇲 Myanmar: National League for Democracy
 * 🇳🇱 Netherlands: People's Party for Freedom and Democracy
 * 🇳🇿 New Zealand: National Party
 *  North Macedonia: VMRO-DPMNE
 * 🇳🇴 Norway: Conservative Party
 * 🇵🇱 Poland: Agreement, Civic Platform
 * 🇵🇹 Portugal: Social Democratic Party
 * 🇷🇴 Romania: National Liberal Party
 * 🇷🇺 Russia: United Russia,  Civic Platform, Party of Growth
 * 🇷🇸 Serbia: People's Party, Serbian Progressive Party
 * 🇸🇰 Slovakia: Democrats, NOVA, Civic Conservative Party, For the People
 * 🇸🇮 Slovenia: Slovenian Democratic Party
 * 🇪🇸 Spain: People's Party
 * 🇱🇰 Sri Lanka: United National Party
 * 🇸🇪 Sweden: Moderate Party
 * 🇹🇼 Taiwan: Kuomintang
 *  🇹🇭 Thailand: Pheu Thai Party
 * 🇹🇷 Turkey: Justice and Development Party, Democrat Party (current)
 *  🇺🇦 Ukraine: European Solidarity
 * 🇬🇧 United Kingdom: Conservative Party
 *  🇺🇸 United States: Republican Party
 *  🇺🇾 Uruguay: National Party

Historical parties or factions

 * 🇧🇷 Brazil: Democratic Social Party, Democrats
 * 🇨🇦 Canada: Progressive Conservative Party of Canada
 * 🇨🇿 Czech Republic: Civic Democratic Alliance, Freedom Union – Democratic Union, Realists
 * 🇪🇪 Estonia: Res Publica Party
 * 🇫🇷 France: National Centre of Independents and Peasants, Union for the New Republic, Independent Republicans, Perspectives and Realities Clubs, Union of Democrats for the Republic, Republican Party, Rally for the Republic, Union for French Democracy, Union for a Popular Movement
 * 🇩🇪 Germany: Free Conservative Party
 * 🇮🇳 India: Swatantra Party
 * 🇮🇱 Israel: General Zionists
 * 🇮🇹 Italy: Forza Italia, The People of Freedom, Tyrolean Homeland Party, Italian Liberal Party
 * 🇯🇵 Japan: Japan New Party, New Party Sakigake, Democratic Party of Japan (factions)
 * 🇲🇪 Montenegro: Movement for Changes
 * 🇳🇿 New Zealand: United Future
 * 🇵🇱 Poland: Conservative People's Party,
 * 🇷🇴 Romania: Democratic Convention of Romania, Democratic Liberal Party
 * 🇷🇸 Serbia: G17 Plus
 * 🇸🇰 Slovakia: Slovak Democratic and Christian Union – Democratic Party
 * 🇰🇷 South Korea: Bareunmirae Party
 * 🇪🇸 Spain Liberal-Conservative Party
 * 🇹🇷 Turkey Democrat Party (historical)

Liberal-conservative organisations

 * 🇬🇧 United Kingdom: Bright Blue
 * 🇭🇺 Hungary: Everybody's Hungary Movement

title: Liberal conservatism


text: User talk:149.174.164.76

title: User talk:149.174.164.76


text:
Martí Joan de Galba

Martí Joan de Galba (died 1490) was once considered to be the co-author of the famous Valencian epic Tirant lo Blanch, which he worked on after the death of his friend, Joanot Martorell. But the nature of his contributions have been called into question, based on differences in the manuscript and the first printed edition by Nicolás Spindeler.

David H. Rosenthal, one of the two translators of the work into English, notes a consistency in the portions attributed to Galba; especially place-names and his familiarity with John Mandeville's Travels. However, the philologist, Joan Coromines, suggests that Galba's role was limited to copy editing; such as dividing the book into chapters.

Joan Roís de Corella has been cited as a more likely source for any substantive additions to the text.

title: Martí Joan de Galba


text:
Los Ángeles, Chile

Los Ángeles is the capital of the province of Bío Bío, in the commune of the same name, in Bío Bío, in the center-south of Chile. It is located between the Laja and Biobío rivers. The population is 186,671 inhabitants (census 2012). The municipality ("comuna") of Los Ángeles has the highest absolute rural population of any Chilean municipality.

To the north of the city is Salto del Laja (Laja Falls), and roughly 100 kilometers to the east is the 2,979 m high Antuco volcano, in the Andes mountain range. The city is a gateway for tourists visiting the nearby Laguna del Laja National Park, the location of the volcano.

Los Ángeles is served by María Dolores Airport.

History
Founded as Nuestra Señora de Los Ángeles (Our Lady of the Angels) in 1739 by José Antonio Manso de Velasco, it was originally a Spanish fort as an outpost in the War of Arauco. It received the title of villa in 1748. The city underwent numerous rebuildings, due to the Spanish military campaigns against the native Mapuche in their efforts to colonize the area. Its geographic location, just to the north of the Biobío river (the border established by the Spaniards), made it a strategic location.

In 1858, during the process of German immigration in Chile, Colonia Humán was founded, a town colonized by German settlers from Germany and Austro-Hungarian Empire and which was completely conurbated within the current urban limits of the city.

Demographics
According to the 2002 census of the National Statistics Institute, Los Ángeles spans an area of 1748.2 sqkm and has 166,556 inhabitants (81,863 men and 84,693 women). Of these, 123,445 (74.1%) lived in urban areas and 43,111 (25.9%) in rural areas. The population grew by 18.5% (26,021 persons) between the 1992 and 2002 censuses.

Within the communities of historical immigrants of the city of foreign origin, the Spanish, Arabs, Germans, and Swiss stand out, depending on their number and contributions, from the colonized localities by Europeans in the area, especially from Araucanía.

Climate
This region experiences warm (but not hot) and dry summers, with no average monthly temperatures above 71.6 °F. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Los Ángeles has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate, abbreviated "Csb" on climate maps. Most of the annual precipitation of 42 inches (1070 mm) falls during the autumn and winter months of April through September. May is the wettest month, with 10 inches (250 mm) of precipitation on average. Snow is uncommon, and when it falls melts quickly.

Administration
As a commune, Los Ángeles is a third-level administrative division of Chile administered by a municipal council, headed by an alcalde who is directly elected every four years. The 2008-2012 alcalde is Joel Rosales Guzmán (UDI).

Within the electoral divisions of Chile, Los Ángeles is represented in the Chamber of Deputies by Juan Lobos (UDI) and José Pérez (PRSD) as part of the 47th electoral district, together with Tucapel, Antuco, Quilleco, Santa Bárbara, Quilaco, Mulchén, Negrete, Nacimiento, San Rosendo, Laja and Alto Bío Bío. The commune is represented in the Senate by Victor Pérez Varela (UDI) and Mariano Ruiz-Esquide Jara (PDC) as part of the 13th senatorial constituency (Biobío-Coast).

Popular culture
The author Roberto Bolaño spent much of his childhood here.

The 90's Alternative music artist Frank Black wrote a song about a place in "South Patagonia" called Los Angeles, the first track off of his eponymous album; while the Chilean Los Angeles lies just north of the northernmost part of Patagonia (demarcated as south of the Huincul Fault according to geographical definitions), it is probable that Black is referring to the Chilean Los Angeles.

Education
International schools
 * Deutsche Schule Los Angeles

title: Los Ángeles, Chile


text:
Anthriscus

Anthriscus (chervils) is a common plant genus of the family Apiaceae, growing in Europe and temperate parts of Asia. It comprises 15 species. The genus grows in meadows and verges on slightly wet porous soils. One species, Anthriscus cerefolium is cultivated and used in the kitchen to flavor foods.

Anthriscus species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including the mouse moth (recorded on cow parsley).

The hollow stem is erect and branched, ending in compound umbels of small white or greenish flowers. The leaves are bipinnate or tripinnate.

Species of Anthriscus

 * Anthriscus africana Hook. f. (Africa)
 * Anthriscus caucalis M. Bieb. - Bur chervil (native to Africa and Eurasia, introduced elsewhere)
 * Anthriscus cerefolium (L.) Hoffm. - Garden chervil, French parsley (native to Eurasia, introduced elsewhere)
 * Anthriscus fumarioides (Waldst. & Kit.) Spreng. (Albania, Greece, Italy, Yugoslavia)
 * ''Anthriscus glacialis Lipsky (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan)
 * Anthriscus kotschyi Fenzl ex Boiss. (Transcaucasus, Turkey)
 * Anthriscus lamprocarpa Boiss. (Lebanon, Syria, Palestine, Turkey)
 * Anthriscus mollis Boiss. & Reut.
 * Anthriscus nemorosa (M. Bieb.) Spreng (Africa and Eurasia)
 * Anthriscus nitida (Wahlenb.) Garcke (Europe)
 * Anthriscus ruprechtii Boiss. (Transcaucasus, Turkey)
 * Anthriscus schmalhausenii (Albov) Koso-Pol. (Transcaucasus)
 * Anthriscus sylvestris (L.) Hoffm. - Wild chervil (native to Africa and Eurasia, introduced elsewhere)
 * Anthriscus tenerrima Boiss. & Spruner (Greece, Turkey)
 * Anthriscus velutinus Sommier & Levier (Transcaucasus)

Etymology
The name is from the Latin Anthriscus and Greek anthriskos, names for chervil, and may be connected to the Greek athēr, the "beard" of grain.

title: Anthriscus


text:
Laja Falls

Laja Falls (Salto del Laja) is a waterfall located in the Laja River in southcentral Chile. It lies next to the old Pan-American Highway, between the cities of Los Ángeles and Chillán. Below the falls, the river has formed a narrow canyon. The falls consist of four horseshoe-shaped falls, one on each arm of Laja River. The tallest (35 m) is the easternmost fall, while the western falls are 20 m tall.

title: Laja Falls


text:
Guinevere Turner

Guinevere Jane Turner (born May 23, 1968) is an American actress, screenwriter, and film director. She wrote the films American Psycho and The Notorious Bettie Page and played the lead role of the dominatrix Tanya Cheex in Preaching to the Perverted. She was a story editor and played recurring character Gabby Deveaux on Showtime's The L Word.

Early life
Turner was born in Boston, and is the oldest of six children. Her maternal grandmother, Elizabeth Hobbs Turner, was a member of the United States Marine Corps in 1944 during World War II.

Turner spent the first eleven years of her life as part of the Lyman Family, raised in various communes around the U.S. with over 100 members who were devotees of Mel Lyman. In accordance with the customs of the Lyman Family, Turner was not raised by her mother, but she and her younger sister were eventually ejected from the Family after their mother chose to leave. Turner considered rejoining the group when she was 18, but eventually chose to attend college.

Career
Turner co-wrote and co-produced her first film, 1994's Go Fish, with her then-girlfriend, director Rose Troche. Turner also starred in the film, portraying a young woman named Max whose friends help her find a new girlfriend, Ely, portrayed by VS Brodie. Director Kevin Smith was a fan of the movie, particularly a scene in it wherein, in an imagined sequence, some of a character's friends chastise her for "selling out" and sleeping with a man, and used it as an inspiration for his own take on a similar theme in his own film Chasing Amy. Turner has cameos in both Chasing Amy and Smith's later film Dogma. Smith also named Joey Lauren Adams' character in Smith's Mallrats after Turner. Another early film appearance was in Cheryl Dunye's 1996 independent film The Watermelon Woman.

Turner and I Shot Andy Warhol director Mary Harron wrote the screenplay for the film version of Bret Easton Ellis' American Psycho, which Harron directed. Turner has a small role in the film, in which she delivers the in-joke, "I'm not a lesbian!".

A writer and story editor for the first two seasons of The L Word, Turner also made several guest appearances on the show as Alice Pieszecki's screenwriter ex-girlfriend, Gabby.

In 2005, Turner wrote the script for BloodRayne. It was nominated for a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Screenplay in 2006. In the documentary Tales from the Script, she stated in an interview that director Uwe Boll only used about 25% of her screenplay. In 2005, she co-wrote the script for The Notorious Bettie Page with Mary Harron, who directed the film. Turner and Harron collaborated again as screenwriter and director, respectively, on the 2018 film Charlie Says.

Turner's first foray into web television was the 2008 online drama series, FEED, directed by Mel Robertson, launched on AfterEllen.com. In 2014, she appeared alongside Nayo Wallace, Candis Cayne and Cathy DeBuono in Jane Clark's horror comedy film Crazy Bitches.

Turner has directed several short films, such as Hummer and Hung, which have appeared in many international film festivals.

In 2019, The New Yorker published an essay by Turner entitled "My Childhood in a Cult," about growing up in the Lyman Family. Four years later, Turner published a memoir, When the World Didn't End, expanding greatly on the story of her youth, and continuing on to her adolescence in an abusive household. Kirkus Reviews called the book "a moving portrait of a bizarre childhood written with emotional nuance and bittersweet deliverance ... The author’s prose is reflective, vivid, and confessional, a rich combination full of striking imagery."

Personal life
Turner is openly lesbian. She lives in New York and Los Angeles.

Film

 * 1994: Go Fish (writer, actress)
 * 1996: The Watermelon Woman (actress)
 * 1997: Chasing Amy (actress)
 * 1997: Latin Boys Go to Hell (actress)
 * 1997: Preaching to the Perverted (actress)
 * 1998: Dante's View (actress)
 * 1999: Dogma (actress)
 * 2000: American Psycho (writer, actress)
 * 2001: The Fluffer (actress)
 * 2001: Spare Me (short film, writer-director)
 * 2002: Pipe Dream (actress)
 * 2002: Stray Dogs (actress)
 * 2004: Hummer (Short film, writer-director-actress)
 * 2005: Dani and Alice (actress)
 * 2005: BloodRayne (writer)
 * 2005: Hung (short film, writer-director-actress)
 * 2005: The Notorious Bettie Page (writer)
 * 2005: Beyond Lovely (short film, actress)
 * 2006: A Lez in Wonderland (Broute-minou à Palm Springs) (short film, actress)
 * 2007: Itty Bitty Titty Committee (actress)
 * 2008: Late (short film, writer-director)
 * 2008: Little Mutinies (short film, actress)
 * 2008: Quiet Please (short film, director)
 * 2008: She Likes Girls 3 (video, director)
 * 2010: The Owls (short film, actress)
 * 2012: Breaking the Girls (writer)
 * 2013: Who's Afraid of Vagina Wolf? (actress)
 * 2014: Crazy Bitches (actress)
 * 2016: Superpowerless (actress)
 * 2017: Post-Apocalyptic Potluck (short film, writer-director)
 * 2018: Charlie Says (writer)
 * 2020: I Am Fear (actress)
 * 2022: Candy Land (actress)
 * TBA: Saint Clare (writer)

Television

 * 2004–2005: The L Word (TV series, writer)
 * 2016: Sugar (web series, director, episode: Chapter 5)

title: Guinevere Turner


text:
Nümbrecht

Nümbrecht is a municipality in the Oberbergischer Kreis, in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is a health resort, known for its good climate.

Geography
Nümbrecht is located about 40 km east of Cologne.

Division of the town
• Auf der Hardt

• Abbenroth

• Ahebruch

• Alsbach

• Bierenbachtal

• Breunfeld

• Benroth

• Berkenroth

• Breitewiese

• Brünglinghausen

• Bruch

• Büschhof

• Buch

• Distelkamp

• Drinsahl

• Elsenroth

• Erlinghausen

• Friedenthal

• Gaderoth

• Grünthal

• Grunewald

• Göpringhausen

• Gerhardsiefen

• Grötzenberg

• Geringhausen

• Geringhauser Mühle

• Guxmühlen

• Hammermühle

• Hardt

• Harscheid

• Hasenberg

• Homburg Bröl

• Heide

• Heisterstock

• Hillenbach

• Hochstraßen

• Höferhof

• Hömel

• Homburger Papiermühle

• Huppichteroth

• Kleinhöhe

• Krahm

• Kurtenbach

• Langenbach

• Linde

• Lindscheid -Lindscheid Mühle

• Loch

• Löhe

• Malzhagen

• Marienberghausen

• Mildsiefen

• Mühlenthal

• Nallingen

• Neuenberg

• Neuroth

• Nümbrecht

• Niederbröl

• Niederbreidenbach

• Niederelben

• Niederstaffelbach

• Nöchel

• Oberbierenbach

• Oberbech

• Oberstaffelbach

• Oberbreidenbach

• Ödinghausen

• Oberelben

• Prombach

• Riechenbach

• Rommelsdorf

• Röttgen

• Rose

• Stockheim

• Schönhausen

• Schönthal

• Spreitgen

• Stranzenbach

• Straße

• Überdorf

• Unter der Hardt

• Vorholz

• Winterborn

• Windhausen

• Wirtenbach

• Wolfscharre

History
The history of Nümbrecht dates back to 1131 when it was first mentioned in a document called the "Papal Possession Confirmation for the Inhabitants of Bonn Saint Cassiusstift" (document first namings of Oberbergischer places by Klaus Pampus). The first written form of the name was "Nuenbret". While evidence suggests that people have inhabited this area since the Stone Age, the recorded history of the community begins in the early Middle Ages.

Between 600 and 700, the first settlements in the Oberberg area started to emerge. It is believed that Nümbrecht already existed as a settlement between 768 and 918, with its name meaning "measured district for a new settlement". The Evangelical Church of Nümbrecht was likely constructed in 955, marking an important milestone in the town's history.

During the period between 900 and 1200, the settlement of Marienberghausen was established. On December 1, 1264, the story of Homburg's dominion began with the acquisition of the county of Sayn by Gottfried I. From 1268 to 1276, Gottfried I built "Castle Homburg" as his residence. In 1359, the Count of Sayn married the daughter of the last Count of Wittgenstein, expanding their name to "Count of Sayn-Wittgenstein".

In 1665, the chapel of Marienberghausen was transformed into a church, which has retained its form to this day. The Homburg dynasty ceased to exist in 1743, and the dominion fell to the House of Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg. In 1792, Christian Heinrich, Count of Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg, gained recognition as a sovereign state.

In 1806, Friedrich Albert, the son of Christian Heinrich, lost his official power as a sovereign due to the establishment of the Rhine Alliance. This marked the end of the Homburgian government after 530 years. In 1808, both Marien Nümbrecht and Marienberghausen were established and incorporated into the Napoleonic Grand Duchy of Berg.

In 1813, French rule came to an end, and the Marien municipalities were renamed as mayor's offices, falling under Prussian supremacy. In 1845, the Rhine local code was released, leading to the first municipal council elections in Nümbrecht and Marienberghausen.

In 1933, the government fell into the hands of members of the NSDAP, and anxiety and arbitrariness dominated Nümbrecht for 12 years. In 1946, democratic order was restored, and a new municipal council was elected. In 1968, the administrations of both Nümbrecht and Marienberghausen were merged.

In 1969, the current large community of Nümbrecht was formed with the implementation of the "Law about the Reorganization of the Oberbergischer Kreis". In 1973, Nümbrecht received national recognition as an air spa from the Minister of Work, Health, and Social Duties. In 1987, it gained national recognition as a well-being climatic spa. Over the years, numerous health and leisure facilities have been developed and expanded.

The Nümbrecht high school was founded in 1992, followed by the establishment of the Sophie Scholl school in 1994. In 1995, the Rhein-Sieg Clinic, specializing in orthopedics and neurology, was opened on Höhenstrasse in Nümbrecht. In 2003, Nümbrecht became the first local authority district in North Rhine-Westphalia to receive the environmental brand "Viabono," which signifies environment-friendly tourism. Additionally, Nümbrecht was classified as a premium-class remedial-climatic health resort.

Coat of arms
The coat of arms was initially granted on January 4, 1936, and subsequently in 1969. It bears a striking resemblance to the coat of arms of the Homburg Estate, which was owned by the Counts of Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg. Additionally, the castle featured in the coat of arms also represents the district. The Homburg is located within the municipality, and above the left tower, the coat of arms displays the emblem of the Counts themselves.

Art Society of Nümbrecht
In 1983, the Nümbrecht Art Association was founded. Various exhibitions take place in the art gallery in Nümbrecht. The sculptures were a gift from the Nümbrecht Art Association to the municipality of Nümbrecht for the embellishment of the health resort.

Sculpture
The sculptures were a gift from the Nümbrecht Art Association to the municipality of Nümbrecht to beautify the health resort.

 * In 1983 "The boy with putting" called "Helmut". This sculpture was created by Prof. Dr. Paschke from Düsseldorf. This sculpture stands on the pond place.
 * In 1996 The sculpture "The transitoriness" has stood since 1996 in the churchyard of the Evangelical church. It was provided by the Mühlheim sculptor Georg Weber.
 * In 2003 "of The cornerstones', altar cross in the Evangelical church. Stone, bronze, gold leaf of Kassiel collier, Berlin [donated from limbs of the Evangelical church municipality]
 * In 2005 "a dream" The piece of art of the sculptor living in field Breun Rose Gilissen-Vanmarcke was initiated on Saturday, June 4, 2005. The sculpture stands on the small place in old Poststrasse.
 * 13 May 2006 sculpture "nature - recollections of a tree' from sculptor Michael Schwarze in Marktstrasse before the historically significant house Mehlau built in 1746 of the chamberlain's Johann Georg milk bag in Nümbrecht.
 * 19 April 2008 "strength II" this sculpture was created by the artist Peter Rübsam, it stands before the new city hall square.
 * 28 September 2009 metal Sculpture of Rose Gilissen. This sculpture is on loan to the Nümbrecht Art Association. The sculpture stands in the health resort park of Nümbrecht, below the column well.

Watchtower
The 30-metre high watchtower at the "Lindchen" in Nümbrecht has 154 steps; the top of the tower is 371 metres above sea level. From the top, one can see the Rhine, the Siebengebirge mountain range and even as far as the Rothaargebirge mountain range.

Amiger tunnel
This iron ore mining tunnel known as the Amiger tunnel is approximately 200 to 300 years old. The Amiger tunnel is situated in a forest area called "In the Goldkaule", below the "Alfred Lang" hut and the watchtower. The tunnel is approximately 20 metres long. However, according to local legends, the tunnel goes as far as the village Ödinghausen. Today, the entry to the tunnel is covered by a grating and only the bats know where the tunnel leads...

Benroth
The "ecovillage" Benroth is about five kilometres from Nümbrecht. The conversion of Benroth into an "ecological village of the future" required a few smaller and larger measures, such as the installation of a moist biotope and drystone-wallings. The one-hour tour "ecomile" through the village shares insight into the projects.

Half timbering

There are a number of well-preserved half-timbered houses in the small village of Bruch, northeast of Nümbrecht. Most of these date back to the 19th century. Some were built on the foundation walls of the previous houses.

Remarkable rocks
Near Nümbrecht, small quartzite monadnocks from the Devonian period (approximately 360 million years ago) were exposed by the erosion of softer sedimentary rock. Crinoids ("sea lily") and brachiopod fossils have been discovered here. They are neither erratic blocks from the ice age nor meteorites, as was formerly believed.

Witches' ponds
Two ponds below the nearby village of Spreitgen are known as Hexenweiher ("witches' ponds"). It is not known whether the name derives from actual witchcraft trials by dunking during the Middle Ages. During these trials, suspected witches were thrown into a pond with their hands cuffed and their feet tied together. If they went under and drowned, they were considered innocent. If they survived, they were "proven" to be witches and often burnt. Castle Homburg is a historic site of witchcraft trials. During a trial on 14 September 1631, for example, six women were accused of practicing witchcraft. Because they confessed, they were given "mercy" and beheaded instead of being burnt alive.

Churches

The 1000-year-old church next to the castle in Nümbrecht is one of the most interesting sacred buildings in the area: the tower was built in Romanesque style, the romanesque part of the interior features massive medieval pillars and reinforcing arches. The ribbed structure of the apses is typical of Gothic style. Flat vaults were added at the end of the 17th century. The top construction of the tower and the altar reflects Baroque architecture.

The church "Bunte Kerke" in Marienberghausen features medieval wall paintings. The building was changed and reconstructed several times and thus lost its original appearance of a typical fortified church. The west tower is all that is left of the original 12th-century building. The late Gothic paintings in the interior are preserved however. The paintings were painted over during the Protestant Reformation period and only resurfaced when the organ was renovated in 1910. Only a couple of gothic wall paintings in the area have been preserved to this day.

Marienberghausen
In both 1969 and 1991, Marienberghausen won the German federal competition "Unser Dorf soll schöner werden" ("Our village shall become more beautiful"). It is also the birthplace of the opera Hänsel and Gretel, composed here by Engelbert Humperdinck and also first performed here.

Mail coach
The "Oberbergische Postkutsche", a mail coach, runs between Nümbrecht and Wiehl every Friday, Saturday and Sunday from May to the end of October. It is a reproduction of the mail coach of the Imperial Post Office from approximately 1871.

Column well in the health resort park
The column well fountain in the health resort park was created by sculptor Michael Schwarze. It was built for the horticultural show (Landesgartenschau) held in Nürmbrecht in 1974. The figures of the well symbolize the age-old will of humans to free themselves from obligations of life. The female figures are the symbols of beauty and fertility, while the fists express force and assertiveness. The hand is an indication of understanding and work. The male leg stands for progress and conquest.

Berlin place

The Berlin bear is a present of the Senate of Berlin. He was put up shortly before the land garden show in 1974 in the health resort park. Berlin citizens could spend a free vacation in Nümbrecht, as promoted by the county of North Rhine-Westphalia.

Special supplies of the health resort

 * Light festival in the health resort park, always on the 2nd week-end in July
 * Christmas art market, the last week-end before the 1st Advent
 * Health resort concerts in the health resort hall or Rhine Sieg Clinic (Rhein-Sieg-Klinik, named after the two rivers), Sunday 15.00 o'clock

Industry
In the municipality, the three industrial zones are namely in Elsenroth, Gaderoth and Breunfeld. The most different companies reside there.

The biggest employer in municipality is the SARSTEDT Verwaltungs AG with factories in the villages of Rommelsdorf and Winterborn. The company develops, produces and sells machines and consumable materials for medicine and science. It was founded in 1961 and now employs 2,250 people worldwide.

Similarly, the KABE LABORTECHNIK GmbH in Elsenroth is a bigger medical technology company, founded in 1983. It develops, produces and sells machines and consumable materials for medicine.

Clubs and societies

 * Heimatverein Nümbrecht
 * DLRG
 * Senioreninsel
 * Ballonsportclub
 * Karateverein
 * Landfrauenverein
 * BürgerBus - Verein
 * Bürgerzentrum e.V.
 * Partnerschaftsverein
 * Kneipp-Verein
 * Homburger Bienenzuchtverein
 * Aktionsgemeinschaft
 * Sportfischen e. V
 * Handwerkerverein
 * Motorsportclub Nümbrecht e. V. im ADAC
 * SSV Homburg-Nümbrecht
 * Freiwillige Feuerwehr Nümbrecht
 * TC Blau-Gelb Nümbrecht e. V.
 * MGV Nümbrecht
 * Förderkreis Kultur Nümbrecht e. V
 * Partnerschaftsverein Nümbrecht-Gouvieux
 * Partnerschaftsverein Nümbrecht-Megliot
 * Kinderchor - Homburger Spatzen
 * Mennoniten-Brüdergemeinde e. V. (Evangelische Freikirche)

Bicycle lane

3 Subjects-engaged bicycle tours exist in municipality Nümbrecht.

 * Family tour
 * High tour
 * [[Image:Fachwerkroute-nümb.jpg|45px]] Half-timbered tour

Schools in the municipality

 * Gemeinschaftsgrund- und Hauptschulen (elementary schools)
 * Sophie-Scholl-Realschule Nümbrecht (secondary modern)
 * Gymnasium Nümbrecht
 * Educational site - House Nümbrecht

Natives of the municipality

 * Karl Heckmann, regional historian (1866–1943)
 * Otto Kaufmann, regional historian (d. 1985)
 * Carl Koch (1892–1962), film director
 * Thomas Lang (1967–), author
 * Robert Ley (1890–1945), leading Nazi Party member
 * Walter Peitgen (1915–1990), former mayor
 * Heinz-Otto Peitgen (1945–), mathematician
 * Julia Prejmerean-Aston (1952–), painter

Congregations

 * Evangelical Lutheran church municipality Nümbrecht.
 * Evangelical Lutheran church municipality Marienberghausen.
 * Roman Catholic church municipality Nümbrecht, Hl. Spirit.

Memorials

 * Warrior's monument for the dead people of 1. and 2. world war.
 * The memorial in the Jewish cemetery was initiated on 28 May 1995. It originated with the help of an engaged working group in the municipality in collaboration with the sculptor Marianne Roetzel from Harscheid. On old cobblestones there lies a stone tablet, this is complemented with seven columns. They symbolize Menora, the 7-armed candlestick.
 * Stone tablet as a recollection of the former Jewish synagogue on the modern village square.

Social facilities

 * Old care home Engelsstift the Theodor Fliedner foundation.
 * Blind home - Ernst-Christoffel home.
 * Social welfare work - station Nümbrecht of the prot. church municipality Nümbrecht.

Twin towns

 * Gouvieux (France) since 1960
 * Mateh Yehuda in Israel, since 8. November 2008

Literature

 * Marion Geldmacher, The beginnings of Nümbrecht and Homburg, writings to Rheini history Bd. 4, Cologne 1980
 * Karl Heckman, History of the former realm rule Homburg at the Mark, Bonn 1939
 * Heinrich Schild, Chronicle of the municipalities Nümbrecht and Marienberghausen, Nümbrecht 1977

title: Nümbrecht


text:
Modernism (music)

In music, modernism is an aesthetic stance underlying the period of change and development in musical language that occurred around the turn of the 20th century, a period of diverse reactions in challenging and reinterpreting older categories of music, innovations that led to new ways of organizing and approaching harmonic, melodic, sonic, and rhythmic aspects of music, and changes in aesthetic worldviews in close relation to the larger identifiable period of modernism in the arts of the time. The operative word most associated with it is "innovation". Its leading feature is a "linguistic plurality", which is to say that no one music genre ever assumed a dominant position.

"Inherent within musical modernism is the conviction that music is not a static phenomenon defined by timeless truths and classical principles, but rather something which is intrinsically historical and developmental." Examples include the celebration of Arnold Schoenberg's rejection of tonality in chromatic post-tonal and twelve-tone works and Igor Stravinsky's move away from symmetrical rhythm.

Authorities typically regard musical modernism as an historical period or era extending from about 1890 to 1930, and apply the term "postmodernism" to the period or era after 1930. For the musicologist Carl Dahlhaus the purest form was over by 1910. However, there are other historians and critics who argue that modernism was revived after World War II. For example, Paul Griffiths notes that, while Modernism "seemed to be a spent force" by the late 1920s, after World War II, "a new generation of composers—Boulez, Barraqué, Babbitt, Nono, Stockhausen, Xenakis" revived modernism".

Definitions
Carl Dahlhaus describes modernism as: "an obvious point of historical discontinuity ... The 'breakthrough' of Mahler, Strauss, and Debussy implies a profound historical transformation ... If we were to search for a name to convey the breakaway mood of the 1890s (a mood symbolized musically by the opening bars of Strauss's Don Juan) but without imposing a fictitious unity of style on the age, we could do worse than revert to Hermann Bahr's term 'modernism' and speak of a stylistically open-ended 'modernist music' extending (with some latitude) from 1890 to the beginnings of our own twentieth-century modern music in 1910."

Eero Tarasti defines musical modernism directly in terms of "the dissolution of the traditional tonality and transformation of the very foundations of tonal language, searching for new models in atonalism, polytonalism or other forms of altered tonality", which took place around the turn of the century.

Daniel Albright proposes a definition of musical modernism as, "a testing of the limits of aesthetic construction" and presents the following modernist techniques or styles: Expressionism, the New Objectivity, Hyperrealism, Abstractionism, Neoclassicism, Neobarbarism, Futurism, and the Mythic Method.

Conductor and scholar Leon Botstein describes musical modernism as "...a consequence of the fundamental conviction among successive generations of composers since 1900 that the means of musical expression in the 20th century must be adequate to the unique and radical character of the age", which led to a reflection in the arts of the progress of science, technology and industry, mechanization, urbanization, mass culture and nationalism.

Similarly, Eric Pietro defines Modernism in his narrative Listening In: Music, Mind, and the Modernist as, “…a desire to find ‘ever more accurate representations of psychological states and processes’ by virtue of its links with the ‘historical crisis of the nineteenth century.’” From what we can understand with this information, there are two distinguishable concepts emphasizing Modernism: the first being music mirroring narrative depictions of the mind; and the second being music as a vocabulary that faces the possibility of describing psychological behaviors in language.

Other usage
The term "modernism" (and the term "post-modern") has occasionally been applied to some genres of popular music, but not with any very clear definition.

For example, the cultural studies professor Andrew Goodwin writes that "given the confusion of the terms, the identification of postmodern texts has ranged across an extraordinarily divergent, and incoherent profusion of textual instances ... Secondly, there are debates within popular music about pastiche and authenticity. 'Modernism' means something quite different within each of these two fields ... This confusion is obvious in an early formative attempt to understand rock music in postmodern terms". Goodwin argues that instances of modernism in popular music are generally not cited because "it undermines the postmodern thesis of cultural fusion, in its explicit effort to preserve a bourgeois notion of Art in opposition to mainstream, 'commercial' rock and pop".

Author Domenic Priore writes that: "the concept of Modernism was bound up in the very construction of the Greater Los Angeles area, at a time when the city was just beginning to come into its own as an international, cultural center",; it appears that the word is used here as an equivalent of the term "modern". Priore cites "River Deep – Mountain High" by Ike & Tina Turner (1966) and "Good Vibrations" by the Beach Boys (1966). Desiring "a taste of Modern, avant-garde R&B" for the latter's recording, group member and song co-writer Brian Wilson considered the music "advanced rhythm and blues", but received criticism from his bandmates, who derided the track for being "too Modern" during its making.

Early Modernism

In the final decade leading up to the turn of the 20th century, the Romantic era in music had entered into its late period where great changes were occurring. Amongst the biggest changes were with the traditional tonal system, which was now being regularly stretched to its limits by composers such as Gustav Mahler who began incorporating progressive tonality into his pieces. The Impressionists such as Claude Debussy also began experimenting with ambiguous tonality and exotic scales. “The perception of Debussy’s compositional language as decidedly post-romantic/Impressionistic—nuanced, understated, and subtle—is firmly solidified among today’s musicians and well-informed audiences." Although this isn’t the first time composers began pushing the limits of tonality as can be seen in the works of Richard Wagner in Tristan und Isolde and in the works of Franz Liszt in Bagatelle sans tonalité, these practices became far more commonplace within the late romantic period. This break with tonality finally came to a critical point in 1908 when Arnold Schoenberg composed the second string quartet, Op. 10, with soprano. The last movement of this piece contains no key signature, marking a decisive transition point from Romanticism into Modernism.

Within this newly established Modernist era, several new parallel movements were founded as a reaction against late romanticism. The most prominent of these movements included Expressionism with Arnold Schoenberg and the Second Viennese School being its main promoters, Primitivism with Igor Stravinsky being its most influential composer, and Futurism with Luigi Russolo being one of its main proponents.

Musical expressionism is closely associated with the music of the Second Viennese School during their "free atonal" period from 1908 to 1921. One of the main goals of this movement was to avoid "traditional forms of beauty" to convey powerful feelings in their music. In essence, Expressionist music often features a high level of dissonance, extreme contrasts of dynamics, constant changing of textures, "distorted" melodies and harmonies, and angular melodies with wide leaps.

Primitivism was a movement that aimed to rescue the most archaic folklore of certain regions with a modern or modernist language. Similar to nationalism in its eagerness to rescue the local traditions, primitivism also incorporated irregular metrics and accentuations, a greater use of percussion and other timbres, modal scales, and polytonal harmony. Important works of this style include The Firebird (1910), Petrushka (1911), The Rite of Spring (1913), and The Miraculous Mandarin (1926). Within this movement, the two giants of this movement were the Russian Igor Stravinsky and the Hungarian Béla Bartók, although the work of both far exceeds the name "primitivist".

Italian composers such as Francesco Balilla Pratella and Luigi Russolo aided in developing musical Futurism. This genre attempts to recreate everyday sounds and place them within a "Futurist" context. The "Machine Music" of George Antheil (starting with his Second Sonata, "The Airplane") and Alexander Mosolov (most notoriously his Iron Foundry) developed from this.

The process of extending musical vocabulary by exploring all available tones was pushed further by the use of Microtones. This can be seen in works of composers such as Charles Ives, Julián Carrillo, Alois Hába, John Foulds, Ivan Wyschnegradsky, Harry Partch and Mildred Couper. Microtones are intervals that are smaller than a semitone; human voices and unfretted strings can easily produce them by going in between the "normal" notes, however other musical instruments will have more difficulty in achieving the same result. The piano and organ have no way of producing them at all, aside from retuning or from major reconstruction.

In the United States, Charles Ives began to integrate American and European traditions as well as colloquial and church styles, while using innovative techniques in his harmony, rhythm, and form. His techniques included the use of polyrhythm, polytonality, tone clusters, quarter tones. and aleatoric elements. This new experimental style of composition influenced a number of American composers who came to be collectively known as the American Five.

In the early 1920s, Schoenberg developed the Twelve-tone technique, a method of musical composition which ensures that all 12 notes of the chromatic scale are sounded as often as one another in a composition while preventing the emphasis of any one note through the use of tone rows and the orderings of the 12 pitch classes. This new technique was quickly adopted by members of the Second Viennese School, namely Anton Webern who refined the system and became a massive influence to the development of Serialism.

After the end of World War I, Igor Stravinsky began to return to past Pre-Romantic compositional traditions for inspiration and wrote works that drew elements such as form, harmony, melody, structure from it. This style of music came to be known as Neoclassicism and it came to be the dominent style of composition during the Interwar period. Important works in this style includes; Pulcinella, Classical Symphony, Le Tombeau de Couperin, El retablo de maese Pedro, and Symphony: Mathis der Maler. A prominent group of mostly French composers known as Les Six were especially influenced by this compositional method.

A similar movement also took hold in Post-War Germany as a reaction against the sentimentality of late Romanticism and the emotional agitation of expressionism. Known as New Objectivity, this model of composition typically harkened back to baroque era models and made use of traditional forms as well as stable polyphonic structures, combined together with modern dissonance and jazz-inspired rhythms. Paul Hindemith was the most prominent composer of this style.

The 1930s proved to be a difficult time for the Modernist music scene in Europe after Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party took power in Germany and the Austrofascists took power in Austria. As a result, most Modernist music which featured atonality, dissonance, and “disturbing rhythms” were deemed as degenerate music and banned. The music of Alban Berg, Hans Eisler, Paul Hindemith, Arnold Schoenberg, Anton von Webern, Kurt Weill, and other formerly prominent composers, as well as Jewish composers such as Felix Mendelssohn, Giacomo Meyerbeer, Jacques Offenbach and even George Gershwin and Irving Berlin, were no longer programmed or allowed to be performed. As a result of these new policies, many prominent Modernist composers such as Arnold Schoenberg and Igor Stravinsky were forced to flee to the United States while others such as Anton Webern were forced to compose their works in secret.

High Modernism

World War II was devastating for Europe and a new generation of composers had to pick up the pieces and reestablish the art music scene. Through the rediscovery and promotion of pre-war composers such as Anton Webern and Edgard Varèse, as well as the more recent developments initiated by the French composer Olivier Messiaen, Serialism came to be one of the dominant methods of composition within the art music establishment for the next few decades. Also influenced by other pioneering works of the Second Viennese School, starting in 1946, the Darmstädter Ferienkurse began an annual summer program in Darmstadt, Germany where Modernist forms of classical music were taught and promoted. Among the most important composers to emerge from these courses included Pierre Boulez, Bruno Maderna, Luigi Nono, and Karlheinz Stockhausen. Together, this group collectivley came to be known as the Darmstadt School. Among their primary goals was to reestablish and expand upon the serialist philosophies established by the likes of Arnold Schoenberg and Anton Webern. Igor Stravinsky was also encouraged to explore serial music and the composers of the Second Viennese School, beginning Stravinsky's third and final distinct musical period, which lasted from 1954 until his death in 1971. However, some more traditionally based composers such as Dmitri Shostakovich and Benjamin Britten maintained a tonal style of composition despite the prominent serialist movement.

The United States took a somewhat different direction to Modernism in comparison to their European counterparts in the early post-war era. American composers including John Cage, Morton Feldman, Earle Brown and Christian Wolff formed an informal circle musicians called the New York School. This group was far less concerned in working with serialism but rather focused on experimenting with chance. Their compositions influenced the music and events of the Fluxus group, and drew its name from Abstract Expressionist painters. However, composers such as Milton Babbitt, George Rochberg, and Roger Sessions fashioned their own extensions of the twelve-tone serialism of Schoenberg.

One of the most important and influential developments from the Modernist music scene in America was the concept of indeterminacy in music. Spearheaded by John Cage, this new composition approach left some aspects of a musical work open to chance or to the interpreter's free choice. This can be seen in Cage’s Music of Changes (1951), where the composer selects the duration, tempo, and dynamics by using the I Ching, an ancient Chinese book which prescribes methods for arriving at random numbers. Another example is Morton Feldman's "Intersection No. 2" (1951) for piano solo, written on coordinate paper. Time units are represented by the squares viewed horizontally, while relative pitch levels of high, middle, and low are indicated by three vertical squares in each row. The performer determines what particular pitches and rhythms to play.

In Europe, a similar method of composition developed. Coined as "aleatory music" by Meyer-Eppler and popularized by the French composer Pierre Boulez, this new compositional style did not completely give away its creation and performance to chance but rather the notated events are provided by the composer, but their arrangement is left to the determination of the performer. A prominent example of this style can be seen in Karlheinz Stockhausen's work Klavierstück XI (1956) where the nineteen events presented are composed and notated in a traditional way, but the arrangement of these events is determined by the performer spontaneously during the performance. Another example can be seen in Earle Brown's Available forms II (1962), where the conductor is asked to decide the order of the events at the very moment of the performance.

Major developments were also taking shape in Electronic music shortly after the end of World War II. In the late 1940s, acoustic engineer and radio scientist Pierre Schaeffer created a new style of composition called Musique concrète where recorded sounds are utilized as raw material. These recorded sounds are often modified through the application of audio signal processing and tape music techniques, and may be assembled into a form of sound collage. Schaeffer’s pioneering works attracted and inspired a new generation of composers such as Olivier Messiaen, Karlheinz Stockhausen, Iannis Xenakis, Pierre Boulez, as well as others to try their hands into this new world and develop their own innovations.

Building upon aleatoric elements and electronic components, mathematics and scientific concepts were incorporated to produce Stochastic music. Pioneered by the works of Greek composer Iannis Xenakis, important examples of compositions drawing from concepts in physical science includes; the use of the statistical mechanics of gases in Pithoprakta, minimal constraints in Achorripsis, Markov chains in Analogiques, statistical distribution of points onto a plane in Diamorphoses, the use of normal distribution in ST/10 and Atrées, Brownian motion in N'Shima, game theory in Duel and Stratégie, the group theory in Nomos Alpha (for Siegfried Palm), and set theory in Herma and Eonta. Xenakis also frequently used computers to produce his compositions, such as the ST series including Morsima-Amorsima and Atrées. American composers such as Lejaren Hiller and Leonard Issacson also used generative grammars and Markov chains in their 1957 Illiac Suite.

Starting around 1944, Elliott Carter began to incorporate processes into his compositions such as in his Piano Sonata and First String Quartet. Essentially notes through pitch and time were stretched into a long term change with limited transformations of musical events. This new compositional style came to be known as Process music and would become adopted by serialists during the 1960s. Minimalists would also come to embrase this approach in the coming decade. Other prominent examples of works that incoporate processes includes; Nr. 5, met zuivere tonen (1953), Kreuzspiel (1951), Plus-Minus (1963), Prozession (1967), It's Gonna Rain (1965),  Come Out (1966),  and Reed Phase (1966).

Late Modernism and Postmodernism
In 1977, French composer Pierre Boulez founded the Institut de Recherche et Coordination Acoustique / Musique (IRCAM) whose aims included research into acoustics, instrumental design, and the use of computers in music. Spectralism, which originally arose in France during the early 1970s, had received much of its development and refinement through this institution. The composition of spectral music was often informed by sonographic representations and mathematical analysis of sound spectra, or by mathematically generated spectra. This new style also arose in part as a reaction against and an alternative to the primarily pitch focused aesthetics of the serialist and post-serialist compositions that were commonplace for the time. The two most prominent schools in spectral music were the French Ensemble l'Itinéraire headed by Gérard Grisey and Tristan Murail and the German Feedback group headed by Péter Eötvös and Claude Vivier. Likewise, spectral techniques would soon be adopted by a wider variety of composers such as Magnus Lindberg and Kaija Saariaho.

In the United Kingdom, a lose group of composers began writing scores in an increasingly complex musical notation that was often atonal, highly abstract, and dissonant in sound. Coined as New Complexity, earliest prominent mention being from Richard Toop’s article "Four Facets of the New Complexity", this new style gained traction in continental Europe, particularly through the Darmstädter Ferienkurse in the 1980s and 1990s. The most influential figures of this movement were Brian Ferneyhough and Michael Finnissy.

During the 1960s and 1970s, a backlash began to emerge against the strict serialism promoted by groups such as the Darmstadt School which had essentially taken over the academic musical establishment. In America, a new form of art music called Minimal music had emerged as a reaction against the perceived extreme and unsurpassable complexity of serialism. Instead minimal music focuses on the repetition of slowly changing common chords in steady rhythms, often overlaid with a lyrical melody in long, arching phrases.

Europe also experienced a similar backlash against strict serialism as can be seen in the emergence of the New Simplicity movement spearheaded by composers such as Wolfgang Rihm. In general, these composers strove for an immediacy between the creative impulse and the musical result, which contrasts with the elaborate precompositional planning characteristic of the High Modernists. Some writers argue that Darmstadt School representative Karlheinz Stockhausen, had anticipated this reaction through a radical simplification of his style accomplished between 1966 and 1975, which culminated in his Tierkreis melodies.

Impressionism

Impressionism was a movement among various composers in Western classical music from about 1890 to 1920, whose music focuses on mood and atmosphere. Just like Impressionism in painting and Impressionism in literature musical impressionism tries to represent impressions of moments. The most prominent feature of impressionist music is the timbre and instrumentation. Layerings of musical levels are typical but also includes: a profound but not intrusive bass, moving middle voices and a significant motif in the upper voices, and is not subject to the laws of the usual classical-romantic processing (diminution, secession, etc.) but is treated rather associatively. The most noteworthy composers of this movement includes Claude Debussy, Erik Satie, and Maurice Ravel.

Expressionism

Expressionism was a movement in music where composers sought a subjective immediacy of expression, drawn as directly as possible from the human soul. To achieve this, a break with tradition in regards to traditional aesthetics and the previous forms was desired. Stylistically, the changed function of dissonances is particularly striking; they appear on an equal footing with consonances and are no longer resolved – what was also called the "emancipation of dissonance". The tonal system is largely dissolved and expanded into atonality. Musical characteristics include: extreme pitches, extreme dynamic contrasts (from whispering to screaming, from pppp to ffff), jagged melody lines with wide leaps; metrically unbound, free rhythm and novel instrumentation. Form: asymmetrical period structure; rapid succession of contrasting moments; often very short "aphoristic" pieces. The main representatives of this movement are the composers of the Second Viennese School: Arnold Schönberg, Anton Webern and Alban Berg.

Second Viennese School
The Second Viennese School were a group of composers consisting of Arnold Schoenberg and his pupils, most notably Alban Berg and Anton Webern, as well as close associates in early 20th-century Vienna. Their music was initially characterized by late-Romantic expanded tonality. However their compositional style would evolve to a totally chromatic expressionism without a firm tonal center, often referred to as atonality. Even later on beginning in the early 1920s, this group would adopt Schoenberg's serial twelve-tone technique. Greatly promoted by critics and musicologists such as Theodor Adorno, the music of the Second Viennese School would take over in intellectual circles and the art music establishment especially after the conclusion of WW2.

Primitivism

Primitivism was a movement that aimed to incorporate the most archaic and often pagan folklore of certain regions in Europe into modernist musical compositions. Similar to nationalism in its eagerness to rescue the local traditions, primitivism also incorporated irregular metrics and accentuations, a greater use of percussion and other timbres, modal scales, and polytonal harmony. Within this movement, the most prominent composers were the Russian Igor Stravinsky and the Hungarian Béla Bartók, although the work of both far exceeds the name "primitivist".

Futurism

Futurism was a movement originating in Italy which rejected tradition and introduced experimental sounds inspired by machinery. Much of this new genre’s origins can be traced to painter and composer Luigi Russolo, who in 1913 published his groundbreaking manifesto, The Art of Noises calling for the incorporation of noises of every kind into music. This inspired fellow Italian composers Francesco Balilla Pratella and Franco Casavola to follow in his footsteps. This new aesthetic also became quickly embraced by the Russian avant-garde creating a parallel movement of Russian Futurists. Among the most prominent Russian composers from this tradition includes Mikhail Matyushin and Nikolai Roslavets.

American Five

The American Five were a group of American experimental composers who often implemented polyrhythm, polytonality, tone clusters, quarter tones. and aleatoric elements within their music. Spearheaded by Charles Ives, they were noted for their unusual and often dissonant pieces which broke away from European compositional techniques to create a uniquely American style. The primary members of this group were Charles Ives, John J. Becker, Wallingford Riegger, Henry Cowell, and Carl Ruggles.

Neoclassicism

Neoclassicism was a movement, especially prevalent during the interwar period, in which composers sought to return to aesthetic precepts associated with the broadly defined concept of "classicism", namely order, balance, clarity, economy, and emotional restraint. As such, neoclassicism was a reaction against the unrestrained emotionalism and perceived formlessness of late Romanticism, as well as a "call to order" after the experimental ferment of the first two decades of the twentieth century. The neoclassical impulse found its expression in such features as the use of pared-down performing forces, an emphasis on rhythm and on contrapuntal texture, an updated or expanded tonal harmony, and a concentration on absolute music as opposed to Romantic program music. The main representatives of this movement are Igor Stravinsky and Sergei Prokofiev.

Les Six

Les Six were a group of six composers, five of them French and one Swiss, who primarily worked in the Montparnasse region of Paris, France. Composing in the neoclassical style of Igor Stravinsky, their music was often seen as a reaction against both the late German Romanticism of Gustav Mahler and the Impressionistic chromaticism of Claude Debussy. They were also heavily inspired by the music of Erik Satie and the poetry of Jean Cocteau. The primary members of this group were Georges Auric, Louis Durey, Arthur Honegger, Darius Milhaud, Francis Poulenc, and Germaine Tailleferre.

Darmstadt School

The Darmstadt School refers to a group of composers who were associated with the Darmstädter Ferienkurse from the 1950s and 1960s centered in Darmstadt, Germany. Greatly influenced by Arnold Schoenberg's twelve-tone technique, they developed it further to implement Integral Serialism as the foundation to their compositions. They also often applied electroacoustic and aleatoric techniques into their works. Other key influences of the School included the works of Anton Webern, Edgard Varèse, and Olivier Messiaen's "Mode de valeurs et d'intensités" (from the Quatre études de rythme). The most prominent composers include Pierre Boulez, Bruno Maderna, Luigi Nono, and Karlheinz Stockhausen.

New York School
The New York School was an informal circle of experimental musicians and composers active in the 1950s and 1960s originating from New York City. They often drew inspiration from the Dada and contemporary avant-garde art movements. Their music often displayed indeterminacy, electroacoustic properties, and non-standard use of musical instruments. They were in particular greatly influenced by the pioneering experimental works of Charles Ives, Henry Cowell, and Edgard Varèse. The most prominent composers of this compositional school include John Cage, Earle Brown, Christian Wolff, Morton Feldman, and David Tudor.

Twelve-tone technique

The twelve-tone technique is a method of musical composition developed by Austrian composer Arnold Schoenberg where all 12 notes of the chromatic scale are sounded as often as one another in a piece of music while preventing the emphasis of any one note through the use of tone rows, orderings of the 12 pitch classes. All 12 notes are thus given more or less equal importance, and the music avoids being in a key. Schoenberg’s technique would first be adopted by other members of the Second Viennese School, most notably Alban Berg and Anton Webern. However its usage would greatly expand after WW2 through its promotion by the Darmstadt School, American composers such as Milton Babbitt, and its adoption by Igor Stravinsky after phasing out of his Neoclassical period in the early 1950s.

Serialism
Serialism is a method of composition in which a fixed series of notes, usually the twelve notes of the chromatic scale, are used to generate the harmonic and melodic basis of a piece and are subject to change only in specific ways. Serialism began primarily with Arnold Schoenberg's twelve-tone technique, though some of his contemporaries were also working to establish serialism as a form of post-tonal thinking. Serialism of the pre-WW2 Second Viennese School was composed in which a recurring series of ordered elements (normally a set—or row—of pitches or pitch classes) is used in order or manipulated in particular ways to give a piece unity. In post-WW2 Europe, Integral serialism which was developed mainly by the Darmstadt School, incorporated use of series for aspects such as duration, dynamics, and register as well as pitch. The most prominent composers of this compositional technique include Arnold Schoenberg, Anton Webern, Alban Berg, Karlheinz Stockhausen, Pierre Boulez, Luigi Nono, Milton Babbitt, Igor Stravinsky, Henri Pousseur, Charles Wuorinen and Jean Barraqué.

Musique concrète

Musique concrète (French; "concrete music"), is a form of electroacoustic music that utilises recorded sounds as a compositional resource. The compositional material is commonly modified through the application of audio signal processing and tape music techniques, and can be assembled into a sound collage structure. The theoretical basis of this compositional practice was developed by French composer Pierre Schaeffer beginning in the early 1940s. Other prominent composers who used or were influenced by this compositional technique include Pierre Henry, Luc Ferrari, Pierre Boulez, Karlheinz Stockhausen, Edgard Varèse, and Iannis Xenakis.

Indeterminacy

Indeterminacy in music is a compositional method in which some or all aspects of a musical work are left either to chance or to the performer’s free choice. Its first significant adoption can be attributed to the works of American composer Charles Ives written in the early 20th century. Ives’s ideas were further developed in the 1930s by Henry Cowell in such works as the Mosaic Quartet (String Quartet No. 3, 1934), which players are allowed to arrange the music fragments in a number of different possible sequences. During the 1950s, development of this technique reached its apex in the works of John Cage and the New York School where chance becomes adopted by a wide range of composers.

Aleatoric music
Aleatoric music is a compositional style in which some element of a composed work is left to indeterminacy, or in other words left to the determination of the performer(s). The term became known to European composers through the lectures of acoustician Werner Meyer-Eppler at the Darmstädter Ferienkurse in the early 1950s. Unlike their American counterparts however, many European composers did not completely leave the performance of their works to chance. Instead, they would compose and notate several separate paths within their music in which the performer is given the freedom to choose the arrangement. The most prominent composers of this style include Pierre Boulez, Karlheinz Stockhausen, and Iannis Xenakis.

Stochastic music

Stochastic music is a compositional style pioneered by Greek composer Iannis Xenakis in which mathematical processes often found within statistics, probability, and physics are used to generate scores. Stochastic processes can also be used in compositions to create a fixed notation in the piece or alternatively being produced in real time during a performance. Computers were also frequently used to produce this type of music. The most prominent composers of this style includes Iannis Xenakis, Gottfried Michael Koenig, Jean-Claude Risset, and Lejaren Hiller.

Process music
Process music is a compositional style in which a score is generated using a process that’s either audible to the audience or deliberately concealed. These processes can involve specific systems of picking and organizing notes through pitch and time, often involving a long term change with a limited amount of musical material, or transformations of musical events that are already relatively complex in an of themselves. Originating in serial compositions, this style also came to be widely adopted later on by the minimalists. Prominent composers of this style includes Karlheinz Stockhausen, Elliott Carter, Karel Goeyvaerts, and Steve Reich.

title: Modernism (music)


text:
David Watkins

David Watkins may refer to:

 * David Watkins (Australian politician) (1865–1935), Member of the Australian House of Representatives 1901–1935
 * David Oliver Watkins (1896–1971), Member of the Australian House of Representatives from 1935 to 1958, son of the above Member
 * David Watkins (rugby) (1942–2023), Welsh dual-code rugby international
 * David Watkins (British politician) (1925–2013), British Labour Politician, MP for Consett until 1983
 * David Ogden Watkins (1862–1938), Acting Governor of New Jersey, 1898–1899
 * David Watkins (designer) (graduated 1963), British designer
 * David Watkins (cricketer) (born 1928), former English cricketer
 * Dave Watkins (baseball) (born 1944), former Major League Baseball player
 * Dave Watkins (cyclist), English cyclist
 * David Watkins (Kentucky politician) (born 1943)
 * David Watkins, a figure in the White House travel office controversy under U.S. President Bill Clinton
 * David Watkins (special effects artist) - An Academy Award-winning British special effects artist

title: David Watkins


text: Talk:David Watkins

title: Talk:David Watkins