text:
Exclosure

An exclosure, in an area being used extensively for grazing, is a limited area from which unwanted browsing animals, such as domestic cattle or wildlife such as deer, are excluded by fencing or other means.

Environmental protection
Most commonly, exclosures are areas that are set aside for regreening. Wood harvesting and livestock range are not allowed there.

Effects on environment
The establishment of an exclosure has positive effects on:
 * biodiversity
 * water infiltration
 * protection from flooding
 * sediment deposition
 * carbon sequestration

Economic benefits
In developing countries, people commonly have economic benefits from these exclosures through grass harvesting, beekeeping and other non-timber forest products. The local inhabitants also consider it as “land set aside for future generations”.

Carbon credits
Exclosures have as an additional benefit that the surrounding communities may receive carbon credits for the sequestered CO2, as part of a carbon offset programme. In the Tigray Region, in Ethiopia, several exclosures are managed by the EthioTrees project. The revenues are then reinvested in the villages, according to the priorities of the communities; it may be for an additional class in the village school, a water pond, conservation in the exclosures, or a store for incense.

Range management
Exclosures are sometimes constructed by government agencies that manage livestock use on public lands—a practice in which private owners of cattle pay, though often only a nominal sum, for the right to graze their livestock on the public lands.

Experimental sites
One purpose of the exclosure is to determine how the area would develop (in biodiversity, vegetation height, ecological characteristics, etc.) if grazing were not conducted.

Protection of humans
Another purpose is to demarcate an area safe for humans by excluding potentially deadly animals. For example, a beach may have a shark net around it to prevent sharks from attacking human swimmers. Another example is at wild animal preserves which provide fenced in areas for humans to safely watch lions, tigers, or other large predators.

title: Exclosure


text:
Ford Zephyr

The Ford Zephyr is an executive car manufactured by Ford of Britain from 1950 until 1972. The Zephyr and its luxury variants, the Ford Zodiac and Ford Executive, were the largest passenger cars in the British Ford range from 1950 until their replacement by the Consul and Granada models in 1972.

Initially, the four-cylinder version was named Ford Consul, but from 1962, both four- and six-cylinder versions were named Zephyr.

History
The Mark I Ford Consul and Zephyr models were first displayed at the Earls Court Motor Show in 1950. They were the first mass-produced British cars to use the MacPherson strut independent front suspension, which is widely used today. Production began with the Consul on 1 January 1951. The Mark I model ran until 1956. From April 1956, the Mark II Consul, Zephyr, and Zodiac went on sale and were known as the Three Graces. The Mark II range was popular, and finished its run in 1962, when from April that year the Mark III Zephyr 4, Zephyr 6, and Zodiac went on sale. The Consul name was dropped, with the car's place in the Ford UK line-up being filled by the first four-cylinder Ford Zephyr. While the Mark II Zephyr and Zodiacs had shared the same body (the Consul had shorter front guards and bulkhead), the new Zodiac and Zephyrs launched in 1962 shared few body panels. With the Mark III, Ford finally sorted out problems that had beset previous models (Mark I axles and Mark II gearboxes were particular weaknesses) and the Mark III proved to be popular and the most durable of the range. The model sold at a rate equal to or better than the Mark II, both in the UK and overseas, but was in production for a shorter time. During the last months of production, an upmarket Executive version was added to the Mark III range. The Mk III range was discontinued in January 1966, and the completely new Zephyr/Zodiac Mark IV range was released in April 1966. This car's design anticipated the later Consul/Granada range with V-type engines and independent rear suspension, but the development of the model was rushed, which was reflected in its durability. It was one of the first medium-priced cars to feature rear disc brakes.

The Zephyr was the last car to be independently designed by Ford of Britain; closer integration with Ford-Werke of Cologne had already started with both the Transit and Escort, and the replacement Consul/Granada would be a genuine pan-European effort.

Although the Ford Zephyr never saw American production, a very limited number were imported into the U.S., and the name itself has appeared on other American Ford-related cars. The first use of the Zephyr name was in 1936 with the Lincoln Zephyr a smaller companion to the full-sized Lincoln sedan sold at the time, followed in the late 1970s with the Mercury Zephyr, an upscale version of the Ford Fairmont. The Lincoln Zephyr name was resurrected for a new model in 2006, but was changed to Lincoln MKZ the following year.

Zephyr Six (or Zephyr Mark I)

 * Model number EOTTA

The first of the Zephyr range was a lengthened version of the four-cylinder 1508 cc Consul, with a 2262 cc six-cylinder engine producing 68 bhp. Like the Consul, the Zephyr came with a three-speed gearbox, controlled by a column-mounted lever (three-on-the-tree). The front suspension design employed what later came to be known as MacPherson struts while a more conventional configuration for the rear suspension used a live axle with half-elliptical springs. The car could reach just over 80 mi/h and 23 mpg.

The Ford Zephyr Six was available with four-door saloon, estate, and two-door convertible bodies. The convertible version was made by Carbodies and had a power-operated hood; the estate car was by Abbotts of Farnham and was sold as the Farnham.

In addition to the main British Ford factory in Dagenham, the Consul and Zephyr were assembled at Ford New Zealand's Seaview factory in Lower Hutt from knock-down kits. The large Fords competed with the also locally built Vauxhall Wyvern and Velox, and later the Australian Holden. When newly crowned Queen Elizabeth II visited New Zealand as part of a Commonwealth tour in the early 1950s, she was pictured watching Zephyrs being built at the local Ford plant. The Consul and Zephyr were also assembled at the Cork plant in Ireland from 1951 to 1956.

In 1953, a Ford Zephyr Six driven by Maurice Gatsonides won the Monte Carlo rally, pushing a Jaguar Mark VII into second place in the process. Two years later, a Ford Zephyr Six driven by Vic Preston (Snr) and D P Marwaha won the East African Safari Rally.

A saloon tested by The Motor in 1951 had a top speed of 79.8 mph and could accelerate from 0–60 mph in 20.2 seconds. A fuel consumption of 23.7 mpgimp was recorded. The test car cost £842 including taxes, but was fitted with optional leather trim, heater, and radio.

Zephyr Zodiac (or Zodiac Mark I)

 * Model number EOTTA

The Zephyr Zodiac (or Zodiac Mark I) was an upmarket version of the Zephyr launched at the London Motor Show in autumn 1953. It had two-tone paintwork, leather trim, a heater, windscreen washers, whitewall tyres, and spot lights. The engine had a higher compression ratio – 7.5:1 instead of 6.8:1 – increasing the maximum power to 71 bhp.

A car tested by The Motor in 1955 had a top speed of 80 mph and could accelerate from 0-60 mph in 20.2 seconds. A fuel consumption of 22.2 mpgimp was recorded. The test car cost £851 including taxes.

No official records exist of Zephyr Zodiac convertibles being produced, but a few estate cars were built.

Zephyr Mark II

 * Model number 206E

In 1956, the Consul, Zephyr, and Zodiac were all restyled. The six-cylinder cars' engines were enlarged to 2553 cc, with power output correspondingly raised to 86 bhp. The wheelbase was increased by 3 in to 107 in and the width increased to 69 in. The weight distribution and turning circle were also improved. Top speed increased to 88 mi/h, and the fuel consumption was also improved at 28 mpgimp.

The Zodiac and Zephyr were also offered in two body styles, the "Highline" and "Lowline", depending on the year of manufacture — the difference being 1.75 in being cut from the height of the roof panel. The "Highline" variant featured a hemispherical instrument cluster, whereas the "Lowline" had a more rectangular panel.

The performance of the Zephyr and the Zodiac series II models likely was restricted by the rudimentary exhaust system, both the manifold assembly and the exhaust itself. The well-known Raymond Mays complete engine conversion boosted the performance figures to a top speed of 101 mph and 0–60 to 10.0s, with a standing quarter mile of 17.6s, as recorded by The Autocar in the issue dated 8 November 1957.

As well as a three-speed manual gearbox, an overdrive was optional, and from 1956 (1959 in Australia), a Borg Warner DG automatic transmission was available. At first, drum brakes were fitted all round (with a larger lining area of 147 sqin), but front discs became optional in 1960 and standard from mid-1961 (in Australia, only four-wheel drum brakes were available; some dealers fitted servo-assistance from 1961).

A two-door convertible version was offered with power-operated hood. Because of the structural weaknesses inherent in the construction of convertibles, few are known to survive.

A convertible with overdrive tested by The Motor in 1961 had a top speed of 88.3 mph and could accelerate from 0-60 mph in 17.0 seconds. A fuel consumption of 24.5 mpgimp was recorded. The test car cost £1193 including taxes.

Australian production
In Australia, the Mark II Consul, Zephyr, and Zodiac were built at Ford Australia's factory in Geelong. Sedan, coupe utility [more commonly abbreviated to "Ute"], and both four-cylinder Consul and six-cylinder Zephyr station wagon versions were produced. No Zodiac version station wagons were offered. The Australian-developed Mark II Station Wagon differed from its British Estate Car counterpart in having a wind-up rear window, and a straight C pillar, rather than a curved one. A handful of Station Wagons were registered in 1958, but sales did not really commence until about halfway through 1959. Also, the Australian-designed and -developed ute version differed significantly in its cab design and rear panels to that of its British counterpart. Mark II manufacture continued until 1962, when production switched to the assembly of Mark IIIs from imported complete knock-down (CKD) kits. It had originally been planned by Ford Australia to facelift the Mark II as its main competitor to the rival Holden, but due to the exorbitant price being asked for by Ford UK for its now redundant  production jigs for the Mark II, Ford Australia chose to instead locally manufacture the  newly released North American Ford Falcon, which was significantly cheaper to manufacturer than the Zephyr, with the Mark III being relegated to special order only.

New Zealand assembly
New Zealand assembly of the Mark II, also from CKD kits, now included the Zodiac. The big Fords from Britain were now offered alongside the Australian-sourced Ford Falcon and also competed with the Vauxhall Victor and Velox, Holden, and Australia's Chrysler Valiant. Supplies were restricted due to strict import licensing rules in place at the time, and demand always exceeded availability; not uncommonly, buyers waited two to three years for their new big Ford.

Zodiac Mark II

 * Model number 206E

The Mark II Zodiac was slightly altered to distinguish it from the lesser variants, having more elaborate tail-end styling and at the front, a different grille. The auxiliary lamps and wing mirrors were deleted from the Zodiac range, but it retained two-tone paint, whitewall tyres, chrome wheel-trim embellishers, and gold-plated badges.

A car tested by the British magazine The Motor in 1956 had a top speed of 87.9 mph and could accelerate from 0-60 mph in 17.1 seconds. A fuel consumption of 21.5 mpgimp was recorded. The test car cost £968 including taxes.

Zephyr 4 Mark III

 * Model 211E

In April 1962, Ford replaced the Consul/Zephyr/ Zodiac range with a dramatically restyled model, although it shared some of its mechanical components, as well as the basic chassis design, with the Mark II models. Rather than continue the Consul name, Ford UK decided to call its replacement Zephyr 4, the 4 indicating that it still used the four-cylinder 1703 cc engine from Consul 375. A four-speed manual gearbox, now with synchromesh on all ratios, was standard, with overdrive or automatic transmission available as options. Front disc brakes were standard. During the production run, the nose styling was changed and the grille lowered. The Zephyr lettering moved from the front edge of the bonnet to below the bonnet opening and the ‘4’ badge below the grille was eliminated.

Zephyr 6 Mark III

 * Model numbers 213E, 214E (right- and left-hand drive)

The Zephyr Mark III shared some of its mechanical components, as well as the basic chassis design, with the Mark II, but had a stronger overall body construction. The exterior was designed by Canadian Roy Brown, who had also designed the Edsel and the Cortina, though the rear of the body was inspired by a design proposal by Frua. Unlike the Zephyr 4, the Zephyr 6 had a full-width grille including the headlight surrounds; overall body length and width were the same for both Zephyr III versions. With the same 2553 cc displacement as before, the Mark III model had higher compression ratio, resulting in some 20 hp higher output, as well as a broader torque range.

Only saloons and estate cars were made, the estate being a conversion by Abbotts of Farnham.

Zodiac Mark III

 * Model numbers 213E, 214E

The Zodiac was an upmarket version of the Zephyr 6, but differed considerably from that model by the limousine-type rear doors, sharper roofline (with narrower C-pillar) and tail, unique grille (four headlights instead of two), exclusive bumper bars, plusher seating, and up-market upholstery, dashboard, and interior fittings. A choice of individual or bench front seats was available trimmed in leather or cloth. The front doors and bonnet panels were shared with the Zephyr 6. The Executive version had extra luxury fittings again. The 2553 cc, single-carburettor, six-cylinder engine was improved internally to increase the power output to 109 bhp and a new four-speed all synchromesh transmission with column change was fitted. The brakes, servo assisted, use discs at the front and drum at the rear.

A Mk III saloon tested by The Motor in 1962 had a top speed of 100.7 mph and could accelerate from 0-60 mph in 13.4 seconds. A touring fuel consumption of 22.6 mpgimp was recorded. The test car cost £1070 including taxes on the UK market.

Ford New Zealand initially built the Zephyr 4 and 6, as well as the Zodiac, locally from CKD kits, offering only the bench front seat option finished in vinyl. Automatic transmission, introduced late in the life of the Mk II, were again available, but were a rare factory option, as most buyers chose manual. As well as the Zephyr 6, Ford NZ built a six-cylinder Zephyr Special (which replaced the 4) with a lower equipment level and deletion of the central vertical grille bar, boot lid trim strip, and other exterior brightwork, which was sold to fleet operators such as the government. The big Fords were unusual in having four-speed manual gearboxes when rivals, including Ford's own Falcon, had only three-speed ones. Building the top luxury Zodiac model locally also gave Ford a supply advantage over key rivals such as GM's Vauxhall, whose upmarket Cresta was not assembled locally after 1960, and once available only as a fully imported model, was much harder to obtain than the locally assembled Velox.

Zephyr Mark IV
In 1961, Ford began a complete redesign on the Zephyr, under the title of "Project Panda". As the car used the new V-series engines, the then traditional long bonnet concept created a problem until design engineer Harley Copp required that the car was both larger and had more internal space, and came up with the idea of placing the spare wheel ahead of the radiator on an angle. The result was a vehicle of similar dimensions to the North American Ford Fairlane.
 * Models 3008 / 3010E

The Mk IV range was launched, not at an October motor show, but in early 1966 with new V-format engines, the 4 having a 1996 cc V4 and the 2495 cc V6 unit. The independent suspension was aided by servo-assisted disc brakes on all wheels.

Criticism of the handling of early examples in the UK led to the fitting as standard of radial-ply tyres on the larger-engined version in place of the more conventional (in the UK at that time) cross-ply tyres with which all versions were fitted at the 1966 launch, and the retrofitting of radial-ply tyres to early examples addressed the tendency of the rear wheels to slide uncontrollably in wet weather, justifying in the process Ford's investment in a new and relatively sophisticated rear suspension arrangement for the Mark IVs. Even after that, a contemporary nevertheless opined that the ride involved a certain amount of 'float', and reported that the nose-heavy handling called for a 'strong driver', a problem which the more expensive Zodiac and Executive versions mitigated through the fitting as a standard feature of power assisted steering. Cost constraints precluded adding power assisted steering for the Zephyr, but during its production run the steering ratio was lowered which reduced the strength needed to change direction by increasing the number of turns between locks from 5.5 to an even higher 6.4. Another production modification for the 4-cylinder Zephyr involved redesigning the valve gear in order to eliminate the need on the early Mk IVs for frequent tappet adjustments.

The size of the bonnet was emphasized by square-cut styling of the wings. A practical use was found for some of the extra space in front of the driver; the spare wheel was stored, ahead of the engine, under the bonnet, freeing up space at the other end of the car for more luggage.

Although large, the car, at least in its Zephyr form, was not particularly luxurious. Individual front seats were available at extra cost, but the standard front bench seat was described by one commentator who ran the car on a long-term test as being intended for people no taller than 5 ft 8 in (1.72 m) who have the right leg 3 inches (8 cm) shorter than the left.

An estate version of the Zephyr Mark IV was announced just in time for the London Motor Show in October 1966, though deliveries commenced only in January 1967. As with the earlier Zephyrs, volumes did not justify tooling up for estate production at the Dagenham plant, and the cars were instead built by E.D. Abbott Ltd of Farnham, based on part finished saloons received from Ford. The Mark IV Zephyr estates (like their more expensive Zodiac siblings) came with black vinyl-covered roof, a fashionable distinguishing feature of upmarket vehicles at the time: retention unchanged of the saloon's rear light clusters attracted criticism, however, because of the way it narrowed the rear hatch opening at floor level when compared to the arrangements on the cheaper Ford Cortina estates.

Export models
In November 1966, the manufacturers announced a plan to introduce an "export special" version of the Zephyr Mk IV combining the 3.0-L engine of the Zodiac with other specifications largely following those of the existing Zephyr. This 3.0-L Zephyr was not offered by Ford on the domestic (UK) market.

This 3.0-litre model was quickly adopted by Ford New Zealand, which had originally launched the Mk IV Zephyr assembled locally from CKD kits with the 2.5-litre V6 (no Zephyr 4 this time) and received complaints it was underpowered for a country where towing boats and caravans was common. Ford New Zealand also introduced optional floor gear shift and bucket seats as an alternative to the standard column shift and bench front seat, and a large number of Zephyrs were built in this form, with other modifications, for New Zealand's traffic police.

The Zodiac was also again assembled in New Zealand with both bench and bucket front seats and Zodiacs from about 1967 also had the walnut dashboard from the U.K. market Executive. An automatic transmission was optional with both the Zephyr and Zodiac. The local Mark IV line did not include the Zephyr Deluxe version available in the UK, was not as popular as the Mark III, and was outsold by the now much wider, locally built Australian Falcon range. Production ended in 1972, and the Consul and Granada replacements introduced in the UK were never officially imported into New Zealand.

South African Zephyrs and Zodiacs all received the 3.0-litre "Export" engine beginning with the 1968 model year. This also included replacing the earlier Zephyr Super with the new Zephyr de luxe, which received the dummy grille as on European cars.

Zodiac and Executive Mark IV

 * Models 3012E / 3022E

The Zodiac Mark IV and "Executive" had four headlights and an uprated 2994 cc V6 engine. Claimed output was 140 bhp 'net' at 4,750 rpm, with 181.5 lbft of torque at 3,000 rpm. The Zodiac featured an alternator instead of a dynamo on the Zephyr, an adjustable steering column, a spare wheel in the engine compartment, a heater and Aeroflow ventilation, electric window washers, two-speed wipers, a cigar lighter, rev counter (tachometer), clock, ammeter, and reversing lights as standard.

The Zephyr/Zodiac Mark IVs with their complex independent rear suspension design represented a considerable step up when compared to the Mark III big Fords that they replaced. Ford also determined to widen the price gap between the Zephyr and Zodiac versions. In January 1967, less than a year after the car's introduction, Ford announced that production of the Mark IVs was being cut back in response to poor sales. The announcement was accompanied by several pieces of more upbeat news about Cortina sales, and it was stressed that workers taken off Zephyr/Zodiac production would all be redeployed on the Cortina production lines.

An estate version of the Zodiac Mk IV was announced at the same time as the Zephyr equivalent, and built alongside it at Farnham. No "Executive" estate was built.

The "Executive" was an upmarket version, and had the highest specification offered by Ford to UK customers in the 1960s. Automatic transmission (the Zodiac's four-speed manual box with overdrive being also available as a 'no cost' option ) along with power steering and a sunroof were standard equipment. Other standard features included fully reclining front seats, walnut fascia, full instrumentation, carpeting throughout, reversing lights, fog lamps, front inertial-reel safety belts, and a radio. The Executive was distinguishable from other models by exterior trim and name badges on the front and rear.

An automatic transmission-equipped Ford Executive was tested by Britain's Autocar in 1967. It had a top speed of 100 mph and could accelerate from 0-60 mph in 13.1 seconds. An overall fuel consumption of 17.2 mpgimp was recorded. By these performance criteria, the Ford betrayed its weight, but nevertheless usefully bettered the similarly sized 3.3-L-engined Vauxhall Viscount. The Ford's recommended retail price of £1,567 exceeded the £1,483 sticker price on the Viscount.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Ford Zephyr


text:
Gustav Hamel

Gustav Wilhelm Hamel (25 June 1889 – missing 23 May 1914) was a pioneer British aviator. He was prominent in the early history of aviation in Britain, and in particular that of Hendon airfield, where Claude Graham-White was energetically developing and promoting flying.

Early life
Gustav Hamel was the only son of Dr Gustav Hugo Hamel (Royal Physician to King Edward VII) and his wife, Caroline Magdalena Elise. He was actually born in Hamburg, Germany as the oldest child to his parents followed by his sisters Magdalena Augusta Hilda Hamel (21 January 1891) and Dorothea Minna Hamel (February 1893). His youngest sister Anna Elise Bertha Hamel was born in London (6 October 1899). His family moved to England around 1899 to Kingston-upon-Thames and were naturalised as citizens around 1910. He was educated at Westminster School between 1901 and 1907.

1910-11
He learned to fly at the Blériot school at Pau, France in 1910 : after observing his first flight Louis Blériot commented that he had never seen a pilot with such natural ability. He obtained Aéro-Club de France's certificate no. 358 on 3 February 1911 and the Royal Aero Club's Aviator's certificate no. 64 on 14 February. In March he won first prize in a race from Hendon to Brooklands and back, and on 14 April 1911 he flew from Brooklands to Hendon in a record 17 minutes. In May he was one of the pilots who took part in a demonstration of flying to various members of the government, where he demonstrated the usefulness of aircraft for carrying dispatches by flying a message to Aldershot and returning with a reply. The 64 mi round trip took two hours, much of this time due to difficulty in starting his engine for the return journey. In July 1911 he was one of the British representatives in the competition for the Gordon Bennett Trophy but crashed shortly after takeoff, fortunately without injury. Later that month he competed in the Daily Mail Circuit of Britain race, reaching Thornhill, north of Dumfries, before retiring after a forced landing due to engine problems in which he was slightly injured.

An item in the magazine Flight, of 26 August 1911, covered Hamel's unsuccessful attempt to convey newspapers from Hendon to Southend the previous Saturday. It appears that the publisher sponsored this event as a publicity stunt. However, heavy weather forced his aircraft down at Hammersmith in West London.

On Saturday 9 September 1911 Hamel flew a Blériot XI the 19 miles between Hendon and Windsor in 18 minutes to deliver the first official airmail carried in Great Britain. He carried one bag of mail with 300-400 letters, about 800 postcards and a few newspapers weighing 23Ib and arrived safely at Windsor around 5.13pm. Included was a postcard he had written en route. The centenary of the event was marked by the Royal Mail with the issue of a set of commemorative postage stamps on 9 September 2011.

On 12 October 1911 Hamel made his first cross-channel flight when he ferried a new Bleriot monoplane from Boulogne to Wembley. This was the first of 21 cross channel flight that he was to make.

1912
Hamel made the first cross-channel flight with a woman as passenger on 2 April 1912, when he flew Eleanor Trehawke Davies from Hendon to Paris, with intermediate stops at Ambleteuse and Hardelot. Later in the month he assisted Harriet Quimby to become the first woman pilot to cross the channel by testing her newly delivered Blériot monoplane before her flight.

Hamel made the first flight from Hedon airfield near Hull on Friday 2 August 1912. Hamel took part in the first Aerial Derby race, carrying Eleanor Trehawke Davies as a passenger. At first he was credited with the fastest time, since Thomas Sopwith was disqualified for missing one of the control points, but after Sopwith successfully appealed Hamel was relegated to second place.

1913
In April 1913 Hamel made the first cross-channel return flight carrying a passenger, the Evening Standard journalist Frank Dupree. and later that month flew with Dupree as passenger from Dover to Cologne, the first time that a flight had been made from England to Germany. The flight, sponsored by the Evening Standard, was intended to draw attention to Britain's need for military aircraft.

In August 1913 a seventy five mile air race around the Midlands was arranged between Bentfield Hucks and Hamel. The take-off point for the contest was the Tally-Ho grounds, adjacent to Cannon Hill Park. Both aviators then flew anti-clockwise around the circuit, landing at Redditch recreation ground, Coventry, Nuneaton, Tamworth and Walsall  and  finishing at Edgbaston. Hamel won the race by a margin of just twenty seconds.

Following his disappointment the previous year Hamel entered the 1913 Aerial Derby, flying a Morane-Saulnier monoplane. This time he won the competition, completing the course in 1h 15m 49s at a speed of 76 mph despite a fuel leak which resulted in him having to fly part of the course plugging the leak with his finger.

Hamel was quite active in Worcestershire, visiting Pershore racecourse in October 1913 where he gave exhibitions of flying. He also visited Upton-on-Severn, Worcester Racecourse and Kidderminster cricket ground in October 1913.

1914
Late in 1913, looping the loop was perfected and became a popular event during public flying displays. On 2 January 1914, Hamel took Eleanor Trehawke Davies aloft to experience a loop, and she thus became the first woman in the world to do so. On 2 February he gave an exhibition of looping to the royal family at Windsor, making 14 loops before landing on the East Lawn of Windsor Castle. After lunch with the Royal family he gave a second exhibition before returning to Hendon. In March 1914 Hamel flew to Cardiff to give a public flying display. While there he met Charles Horace Watkins, who was an engineer perfecting his own aircraft called the Robin Gôch, or Red Robin. Contemporary newspaper reports indicate that a few minutes after they met, Hamel flew them both to Watkins' hangar, where they inspected the Robin Gôch.

In May Hamel announced that he intended to attempt to win the £10,000 prize awarded by the Daily Mail for a flight across the Atlantic ocean, flying a specially built Martin-Handasyde monoplane.

Disappearance
Hamel died before reaching the age of 25. He disappeared over the English Channel on 23 May 1914 while returning from Villacoublay on a new 80 hp Gnome Monosoupape engined Morane-Saulnier monoplane he had just collected, and was to compete with in the Aerial Derby the same day.

On 6 July 1914 the crew of a fishing vessel found a body in the Channel off Boulogne. Although they did not retrieve the body, their description of items of clothing and of finding a road map of southern England on the corpse provided strong circumstantial evidence that the body was Hamel's.

At this time of high international tension, there was speculation that he might have been the victim of sabotage, but no trace of the aircraft was ever found and the story faded with his memory. His contribution to flying, however did not end entirely with his death: posthumously published was a seminal co-authored book, Flying; some practical experiences.

Additional links

 * Daily Mail Circuit of Britain Air Race Film of Hamel and other contestants at Brooklands, 22 July 1911 BritishPathe version, link
 * Britania Military Bleriot Film of Hamel and Frank Dupree of the London Standard before the first flight from England to Germany, Dover to Cologne, 17 April 1913
 * New York Times, 21 May 1914 Article on Hamel's Atlantic flight with H. L. Forster
 * The Fateful Year. England 1914 by Mark Bostridge (2014)
 * (in Romanian)

title: Gustav Hamel


text:
Talk:Nümbrecht

Uh, this belongs in the German Wikipedia. --Ardonik 09:31, Jul 19, 2004 (UTC)

no, it doesn't -.- Cologne and Berlin are in the English Wikipedia, too.

title: Talk:Nümbrecht


text:
A Void

A Void, translated from the original French La Disparition ( "The Disappearance"), is a 300-page French lipogrammatic novel, written in 1969 by Georges Perec, entirely without using the letter e, following Oulipo constraints. Perec would go on to write with the inverse constraint in Les Revenentes, with only the vowel “e” present in the work. Ian Monk would later translate Les Revenentes into English under the title The Exeter Text.

Translations
It was translated into English by Gilbert Adair, with the title A Void, for which he won the Scott Moncrieff Prize in 1995. The Adair translation of the book also won the 1996 Firecracker Alternative Book Award for Fiction.

Three other English translations are titled A Vanishing by Ian Monk, Vanish'd! by John Lee, and Omissions by Julian West.

All translators have imposed upon themselves a similar lipogrammatic constraint to the original, avoiding the most commonly used letter of the alphabet. This precludes the use of words normally considered essential such as je ("I"), et ("and"), and le (masculine "the") in French, as well as "me", "be", and "the" in English. The Spanish version contains no a, which is the second most commonly used letter in the Spanish language (first being e), while the Russian version contains no о. The Japanese version does not use syllables containing the sound "i" (い, き, し, etc.) at all.

Plot summary
A Void plot follows a group of individuals looking for a missing companion, Anton Vowl. It is in part a parody of noir and horror fiction, with many stylistic tricks, gags, plot twists, and a grim conclusion. On many occasions it implicitly talks about its own lipogrammatic limitation, highlighting its unusual syntax. A Void protagonists finally work out which symbol is missing, but find it a hazardous topic to discuss, as any who try to bypass this story's constraint risk fatal injury. Philip Howard, writing a lipogrammatic appraisal of A Void in his column Lost Words, said "This is a story chock-full of plots and sub-plots, of loops within loops, of trails in pursuit of trails, all of which allow its author an opportunity to display his customary virtuosity as an avant-gardist magician, acrobat and clown."

Major themes
Both of Georges Perec's parents perished in World War II: his father as a soldier and his mother in the Holocaust. He was brought up by his aunt and uncle after surviving the war. Warren Motte interprets the absence of the letter e in the book as a metaphor for Perec's own sense of loss and incompleteness:

The absence of a sign is always the sign of an absence, and the absence of the E in A Void announces a broader, cannily coded discourse on loss, catastrophe, and mourning. Perec cannot say the words père ["father"], mère ["mother"], parents ["parents"], famille ["family"] in his novel, nor can he write the name Georges Perec. In short, each "void" in the novel is abundantly furnished with meaning, and each points toward the existential void that Perec grappled with throughout his youth and early adulthood. A strange and compelling parable of survival becomes apparent in the novel, too, if one is willing to reflect on the struggles of a Holocaust orphan trying to make sense out of absence, and those of a young writer who has chosen to do without the letter that is the beginning and end of écriture ["writing"].

title: A Void


text:
Lapin Kulta

Lapin Kulta (in English, Lapland Gold) is a Finnish beer brand. Lapin Kulta was also the name of the brewery in the Lapland town of Tornio, where the beer was originally brewed. The brewery was founded in 1873 under the name Torneå Bryggeri Aktiebolag (i.e., Tornio Brewery Limited Company). The brand is now owned by Hartwall, which is in turn owned by Royal Unibrew.

The brand name Lapin Kulta is used for a variety of lagers of varying strengths. In 2009 the Lapland brewery was closed and since then Lapin Kulta has been brewed in the southern Finnish town of Lahti.

History
The brewery was founded in 1873, but the name Lapin Kulta was not adopted until 1963. The brewery had to acquire a gold mining company with an identical name in order to rightfully use the name. The company's articles of association still state the line of business to be "prospecting for gold and the manufacture and sales of beer".

Lapin Kulta's focus is on high-quality ingredients (malt barley, clear water, and the company's own yeast strain). This, coupled with successful marketing, made it the most popular beer brand in Finland for a long period. In the 21st C., the competitors Karhu and Olvi have overtaken it, leaving Lapin Kulta in 4th place.

After a merger with the Hartwall beverage company in 1980, the brand name entered the export market and eventually became available in most European countries.

In October 2009 Hartwall announced the closure of the Lapin Kulta brewery in Tornio, and moved production to its Lahti brewery.

title: Lapin Kulta


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Piano nobile

Piano nobile (Italian for "noble floor" or "noble level", also sometimes referred to by the corresponding French term, bel étage) is the architectural term for the principal floor of a palazzo. This floor contains the main reception and bedrooms of the house.

The German term is Beletage (meaning "beautiful storey", from the French bel étage). Both date to the 17th century.

Characteristics
The piano nobile is usually the first floor (in European terminology; second floor in American terms) or sometimes the second storey and contains major rooms, located above the rusticated ground floor containing the minor rooms and service rooms. The reasons were so that the rooms above the ground floor would have finer views and to avoid the dampness and odours of the street level. That is especially true in Venice, where the piano nobile of the many palazzi is especially obvious from the exterior by virtue of its larger windows and balconies and open loggias. Examples are Ca' Foscari, Ca' d'Oro, Ca' Vendramin Calergi and Palazzo Barbarigo.

Larger windows than those on other floors are usually the most obvious feature of the piano nobile. In England and Italy, the piano nobile is often reached by an ornate outer staircase, which avoided for the floor's inhabitants of the need to enter the house by the servant's floor below. Kedleston Hall is an example of this in England, as is Villa Capra "La Rotonda" in Italy.

Most houses contained a secondary floor above the piano nobile, which contained more intimate withdrawing and bedrooms for private use by the family of the house when no honoured guests were present. Above that floor would often be an attic floor containing staff bedrooms.

In Italy, especially in Venetian palazzi, the floor above the piano nobile is sometimes referred to as the "secondo piano nobile" (second principal floor), especially if the loggias and balconies reflect those below on a slightly smaller scale. In those instances and occasionally in museums, the principal piano nobile is described as the primo piano nobile to differentiate it.

The arrangement of floors continued throughout Europe as large houses continued to be built in the classical style. The arrangement was designed at Buckingham Palace as recently as the mid-19th century. Holkham Hall, Osterley Park and Chiswick House are among the innumerable 18th-century English houses that employed the design.

title: Piano nobile


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Reality Checkpoint

Reality Checkpoint is a large cast-iron lamppost in the middle of Parker's Piece, Cambridge, England, at the intersection of the park's diagonal paths.

Origin of the name
There are three main theories as to the meaning of the name.
 * It may mark the boundary between the central university area of Cambridge (referred to as the "reality bubble") and the "real world" of townspeople living beyond. One is warned to check one's notions of reality before passing.
 * The name arose because the lamppost forms a useful landmark for people crossing the park at night – perhaps intoxicated or in the fog – since it is the only light for over a hundred metres.
 * When drunk, students and the general public are reminded to check they are able to walk like a sober person before passing the police station at the edge of Parker's Piece, hence a "reality check".

History
A lamp at the centre of Parker's Piece was first proposed in 1890 and work commenced in January 1894 when a pipe was laid from Parkside, running parallel with the path opposite Melbourne Place. Once the connections were completed, the pillar was erected. This attracted a great deal of interest and was described as a "very handsome ornament to the Piece". It is made of cast iron by the Sun Foundry of George Smith and Company in Glasgow. It stands on a square-section plinth with waterleaf decoration on the top edges. The base of the shaft of circular section is encircled with four intertwined heraldic dolphins. The shaft carries four lamp holders by means of scrolled wrought iron stays. It is said to be the oldest electrical lamppost in Cambridge.

A photograph from around 1903 shows the lamppost with a single lamp.

The post above the dolphins was torn down by American soldiers celebrating Victory over Japan Day, the end of the war with Japan. In September 1946 the lamppost was repaired by a local metalworks firm, George Lister & Sons, Cambridge. The work was done by foreman Sam Mason, assisted by a young apprentice, Tony Challis, who did the scrollwork at the top of the lamppost. Challis still lives in Cambridgeshire and is also responsible for the ornate railings found at Grantchester Meadows. The current design with four pendant lamps dates from the 1946 repair.

In 1996 the lamppost was designated as a Grade II listed building.

In 2016–17 Cambridge City Council restored the lamppost, reinstating its earlier colours of moss green, red, white and gold, and casting any new parts as required.

In 2018, anonymous local art installers, Dinky Doors, installed a reality checker "door" on the checkpoint, which was refurbished in 2019.

Inscription
One report claims that the name was first painted on the lamppost in the early 1970s by students from Cambridgeshire College of Arts and Technology (now Anglia Ruskin University) under the guidance of one of their teachers. Another claims that it was originated in 1970 by the Emmanuel Liberation Front (ELF), one of whose members first scratched the name onto the lamppost. The ELF was a group of radical students at Emmanuel College between 1969 and 1971 influenced by the Situationists with their slogan "Do not adjust your mind. There is a fault in reality." Emmanuel adjoins the northwest side of Parker's Piece.

Until the early 1970s, the lamppost was painted a dishwater grey or discoloured cream. In 2017 two brothers, David and Sandy Cairncross, revealed that they had been responsible for repainting it in bright colours in October 1973, a task undertaken with the written permission of Geoffrey Cresswell, the Cambridge City Engineer. At the time, David was a student at King's College, Cambridge and Sandy, a postgraduate research student (now a distinguished epidemiologist). The repainting did not involve anyone from Cambridgeshire College of Arts and Technology.

The Cairncrosses confirmed that the name "Reality Checkpoint" had previously been inscribed in marker pen on the pillar "a year or two earlier" and that their painting of the name was initially a placeholder for more sophisticated lettering. On how the lamppost got its name, David acknowledged the influence of Checkpoint Charlie during the Cold War, and the popularity of Carlos Castaneda’s 1971 memoir A Separate Reality.

The Cairncrosses' repainting remained throughout the 1970s and into the 1980s. By 1980 however, the lamppost was looking shabby, as was clear in a photograph of the poet Tom Raworth taken next to it in 1980. Eventually Cambridge City Council painted over the decoration with a dull faux verdigris.

Since then, the name has been informally inscribed or scratched into the paintwork many times, despite its repeated removal by Cambridge City Council or obliteration by graffiti. At one point in the mid-1990s, according to Graham Chainey writing in The London Magazine, "Reality Checkpoint" was scratched on one side of the plinth, while on the opposite side was scrawled "The Comfortably Numb" - a reference to a song on the album The Wall by the Cambridge band Pink Floyd.

For the first half of 1998 the lamppost carried an unofficial plaque bearing its name, until removed by the council.

Comedian Ben Miller featured the lamppost in his BBC Two physics documentary "What Is One Degree?" for the science series Horizon. At that time, the lamppost had the words "Reality Checkpoint" scratched into its paintwork in at least two places. The lamppost also features briefly in an episode of crime drama Professor T., in which Miller plays the eponymous role.

The inscription was restored in June 2017 by artist Emma Smith, with the approval of the Cambridge City Council, as part of the art project 'Hunch' commissioned by the University Arms Hotel.

title: Reality Checkpoint


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Talk:Pyramidal tracts

Purpose?
What is the evolutionary advantage of the pyramidal decussation? Anyone? -- FirstPrinciples

 * Why not put the question on the Reference desk, where everyone can see it? :-)  --Ardonik 10:02, Jul 19, 2004 (UTC)

Evolutionary advantage of the pyramidal decussation
(Archived from the Reference Desk) What is the evolutionary advantage of the pyramidal decussation - indeed, neuronal decussations in general (e.g. the optic chiasm)? What pressures would cause such a system to evolve? (To me, the entire 'split-brain' system seems to be prima facie inefficient.) Can anyone enlighten me? -- FirstPrinciples 15:28, Aug 15, 2004 (UTC)

 * Your question suggests that you believe efficiency is a hallmark of evolution, which of course it is not! Systems evolve by a variety of fortuitous outcomes, false starts, and contingent events, and in response to changing environments: efficiency would imply design, not evolution. - Nunh-huh 05:42, 16 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * Very simple answer. The split brain allows specialization of the hemispheres rather than simple duplication. The advantage of a "spare brain" (like a spare kidney) is less than the advantage of "2 brains" that to some extent do different things. (And yes, a complete split would be bad, and yes some symmetrical motor functions are retained). Alteripse 16:03, 15 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * However, it is possible for a person to function with damage to the corpus callosum (with various effects). There is normally considerable intercommunication between hemispheres due to their high degrees of specialization. A split brain allows complex analysis according to opposite (but synergistic) paradigms simultaneously without interference (parallel processing). In this way, a complex result incorporating both paradigms is obtained without loss of efficiency for either. --Eequor 16:41, 15 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * The decussation may be a survival trait. Crossover of motor function may ensure that a damaged part of the body is less likely to be associated with similar damage to the region of the brain controlling it, as they are on opposite sides. --Eequor 16:41, 15 Aug 2004 (UTC)

While we're on the subject, does the Corticospinal tract article describe only the human nervous system, or all mammalian ones, or some other class? It would be nice if there were a statement in that article describing its scope. -- Heron 17:29, 15 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * I'm pretty sure the Corticospinal tract article refers only to the human nervous system. In other animals, even other primates, the basic layout of the brain can be significantly different. (Side note: in my experience there are several articles out there about general anatomy that are implicitly about human anatomy. The penis wiki comes to mind, which deals with the human penis as if it is "the" exemplar of all penises in all species. We should be careful to avoid the trap of anthropocentrism.) -- FirstPrinciples 01:53, 16 Aug 2004 (UTC) -- not to mention phallocentrism! -- Alteripse 01:57, 16 Aug 2004 (UTC)

It (probably) does refer to the human spinal cord in particular. In monkeys and cats, for example, messages for fine distal muscle movements are carried by the rubrospinal tract - rather than the phylogenetically younger corticospinal tract. Chris.

CN omission?
Is it intentiional to omit cranial nerves IX and X (glossopharyngeal and vagus) from the Lower Motor Neurone section? It seems strange since each of these nerves carry both sensory and motor neurones. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Miniyazz (talk • contribs) 02:08, 3 December 2007 (UTC)

Mistake!!!
The pyramidal tract is a big collection of tracts and the corticospinal tract is a part of the pyramidal tract, with the corticobulbar (corticonuclear) tract and corticomesencephalic tract. This is a major mistake and needs to be corrected! Its a general misundertsanding since the major part of the pyramidal tract is the corticospinal tract (therefore often used as a general term).
 * I agree. The page should be moved to "pyramidal tract" and "corticospinal tract" and "corticobulbar tract" should link to here. We are taught in medical school that pyramidal and corticospinal are NOT synonymous as indicated in this article, as you note here. Looks like this might take a bit of time to correct...maybe we should for now flag the article for inaccuracy until this can be remedied properly?--Xris0 (talk) 19:41, 10 January 2012 (UTC)
 * I started cleaning up the header, but we could use an expert or someone with more anatomical experience...I also flagged the article for cleanup. Also, "pyramidal system" might be the most appropriate root page for these concepts. Anyone have input on this?--Xris0 (talk) 19:53, 10 January 2012 (UTC)

I do not feel that I can correct this entire article since Im only a medical student in process of learning about the body and its neural system.

Requested move

 * The following discussion is an archived discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: moved to Pyramidal tracts. Consensus clear from previous section. Favonian (talk) 19:06, 27 June 2012 (UTC)

Corticospinal tract → Pyramidal tracts – As per discussion in previous section, this article is about the pyramidal tracts, which includes both the corticospinal tract and the corticobulbar tract. Mikael Häggström (talk) 18:14, 20 June 2012 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

"Symptoms generally occur alongside other sensory problems." As a clinician, i wouldn't say that's correct (and not a helpful statement). Apart from (calssically) purely motor degeneration such as ALS, there are also lacunar strokes or inflammatory or other lesions that may not cause any sensory changes.

2nd image
2nd image doesn't help much. Try subtitute it with this image http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Spinal_cord_tracts_-_English.svg — Preceding unsigned comment added by 203.82.87.119 (talk) 02:54, 6 May 2012 (UTC)
 * ✅ Mikael Häggström (talk) 18:33, 20 June 2012 (UTC)

Should we have a disambiguation page?
I heard somewhere that this is the name of a housing development outside Cairo — Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.111.5.228 (talk) 23:59, 23 August 2012 (UTC)

Popular Culture
Would it be possible to mention that the Pyramidal tracts have a "popular culture" reference in the 1985 Movie, National Lampoon's European Vacation? Its one of the questions in the game show in the opening scene? 72.74.176.144 (talk) 15:35, 12 July 2013 (UTC)Christopher Carbone 72.74.176.144 (talk) 15:35, 12 July 2013 (UTC)

History
The history of this subject is documented in this source: There is very likely to be a more recent source, but this may act as a useful adjunct to research. --LT910001 (talk) 00:10, 8 June 2014 (UTC)
 * .

Image for article
I suggest the use of Gray764.png as the cover image for this article. Inputs requested.  D ip ta ns hu Talk 15:46, 7 July 2014 (UTC)

title: Talk:Pyramidal tracts


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User:Pjacobi/Constructed Languages (minor)

=Ceqli=

Ceqli is an artificial language originally inspired by Loglan. Its name is pronounced "cheng-lee", a blend of the names "Chinese" and "English", expressing that the grammar of Ceqli is mostly based on those two languages. Ceqli is an isolating language; words are not inflected, but simply put in combinations with other morphemes.

Ceqli began as an attempt to improve the morphology of Loglan. The morphology of Ceqli is designed to make it easy to tell where each word begins. Every word begins with a consonant or series of consonants, and the rest of the word is a series of vowels and/or "weaks", which are defined to be l, m, n, r, q, w, and y.

Given the special morpheme-shape, Ceqli "finds" vocabulary by searching through languages, the ones with most speakers first, for words that fit Ceqli's rules. For example, "biq" (pronounced "bing") is the word for "ice", borrowed directly from Mandarin. "Blu" (blue) is borrowed from English, "dolor" (sorrow) from Spanish, "dyelo" (matter, business, affair) from Russian, "gin" (computer) from Hindi, "hana" (nose) from Japanese, etc.

Since it was originally intended as a replacement for Loglan, Ceqli began as a logical language. However, the goals of the language have changed since then. It has abandoned being completely unambiguous; instead it seeks to provide the option of being unambiguous in most cases, while allowing very concise ambiguous forms. Seeing how concise these forms can get has been a focus of the language lately, leading to the criticism that it is a "language of newspaper headlines". Its grammar has also changed from the predicate-based structure of Loglan, where any predicate can be a noun, verb, or modifier, based on its position in the sentence, to one more based on natural languages, which distinguishes nouns and verbs.