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CNN International

Cable News Network International or CNN International (CNNi, simply branded on-air as CNN) is an international television channel and website, owned by CNN Worldwide. CNN International carries news-related programming worldwide; it cooperates with sister network CNN's national and international news bureaus. Unlike its sister channel, CNN, a North American-only subscription service, CNN International is carried on a variety of TV platforms across the world, and broadcast from studios inside and outside the United States, in Atlanta, New York City, London, Mumbai, Hong Kong, and Abu Dhabi. In some countries, it is available as a free-to-air network. The service is aimed at the overseas market, similar to BBC News, France 24, CGTN, DW, RT, WION, NHK World, TRT World or Al Jazeera English.

Early years

CNN International began broadcasting on September 1, 1985, at first primarily broadcasting to American business travelers in hotels. The first studio for CNNI was at CNN's original studio building known as Techwood, home at that time to all of Turner Broadcasting System's channels. Today, it is home to the Techwood Studios complex that houses the entertainment channels. Other early studios in Atlanta were tucked away in various corners of the CNN Center, and the newsroom lacked even a digital clock. The vast majority of the network's programming originally consisted of simulcasts of the two domestic CNN channels (CNN/US and Headline News). In the United Kingdom, the channel began broadcasting on September 17, 1987, the office was located at 25/28 Old Burlington Street, London. In 1990, however, the amount of news programming produced by CNNI especially for international viewers increased significantly.

Paul Vessey, an executive of CNN International, said in 1992 that CNN will go international style and get "less and less American".

A new newsroom and studio complex was built in 1994, as CNN decided to compete against BBC World Service Television's news programming. CNNI emerged as an internationally oriented news channel, with staff members of various national backgrounds, even though some accusations of a pro-U.S. editorial bias persist. CNN International was awarded the Liberty Medal on July 4, 1997. Ted Turner, in accepting the medal on behalf of the network, said: "My idea was, we're just going to give people the facts... We didn't have to show liberty and democracy as good and show socialism or totalitarianism as bad. If we just showed them both the way they were ... everybody's going to choose liberty and democracy."

New international era (1995–2005)
In 1995, creative director Morgan Almeida defined a progressive rebranding strategy, to target CNNI's diverse global market, making the on-air look less overtly American and with a cleaner, simpler "international" aesthetic going forward. The word "International" in the channel's logo was replaced with a globe, and the new branding featured numerous international locations filmed in time-lapse, channel idents created in CGI with Velvet Design in Munich, and a news brand designed with The Attik in New York.

The regionalization of CNN International was through the efforts of Chris Cramer, joining CNN in 1996. CNN International was split into three feeds Asia, Europe/Africa/Middle East and Latin America. By 1998, CNN International produced 90% of its content, up from 50% in 1996. The rest of the percentage is for domestic CNN broadcasts from the United States. According to an annual PAX survey, in 1998 and 1999 CNN International was the leading cable and satellite network in Asia in terms of viewership among affluent households and among business decision-makers. CNN International planned to air shows in 1999 including World Beat, its popular weekly international music segment, and the global arts round-up Art Club.

2006–2009 revamp

The network undertook another major rebranding effort in 2006 overseen by Mark Wright and London agency Kemistry. The ticker was replaced by a flipper, on-screen graphics were more unified and from October 2007 until August 2008, new studios were progressively rolled out. However, on January 1, 2009, CNN International adopted the "lower-thirds" that CNN/US had introduced a month earlier which was inspired by the clean modern design of the CNNI rebrand efforts.

In the U.S., CNNI North America was distributed overnight and on weekends over the CNNfn financial channel, until that channel's demise in December 2004. It is now available as a standalone, full-time channel, usually as part of high-tier packages of subscription providers including Time Warner Cable, AT&T U-Verse, Verizon FiOS and Cox Communications.

Going beyond borders (2009–2013)
From January until September 2009, CNN International adopted more programs that became geared towards a primetime European audience with a few titled after CNN International personalities, most notably the interview program Amanpour. On September 21, 2009, the channel launched a new tagline "Go Beyond Borders", along with a new logo, and consolidated its general newscasts (World News, CNN Today, World News Asia, World News Europe and Your World Today) into a single newscast entitled World Report.

The slogan "Go Beyond Borders" emphasizes the international perspective that gives the information in this string and the plurality of the audiences. With this tagline, CNN also refers to the various platforms to disseminate their content. The new image was created by the creativity and marketing department, and agency CNN Tooth & Nail. An important element of the rebrand was a new evening program that added the broadcast of programs Amanpour and World One. The makeover of CNN International has been subject to a lot of criticism on both the new prime-time lineup and the redesigned graphics.

On January 11, 2009, in a bid to compete directly with Al Jazeera English, the network launched a new production center: CNN Abu Dhabi, based in the United Arab Emirates. Then, CNN International adapted half-hour shows in its schedule with a new evening prime program for the Middle East viewers, Prism.

In 2010, CNN International launched new programs for its evening lineup to improve its schedule. In 2011, programs from CNN U.S. were added to the CNN International schedule, including the talk program Piers Morgan Live which was later canceled and replaced with CNN Tonight hosted by Don Lemon.

This is CNN (2013–present)
"This is CNN" represents CNN International's rebrand with new sets and output in full 16:9 high definition. The "This is CNN" slogan is also used on its sister network CNN in the United States. The managing director of CNN International from 2003 to May 2019 was Tony Maddox.

In 2019, CNN International announced it was reducing its programming and staff based in London to reduce costs, with CNNI losing $10 million per year. Later that year, CNNI cancelled its Asia-Pacific Primetime Show, News Stream, anchored by Kristie Lu Stout, effectively ending production output from its Hong Kong Studios.

In 2022, WarnerMedia closed CNN International in Russia due to Russia's invasion of Ukraine.

Regional and online versions
There are five variants of CNN International:
 * CNN International Asia Pacific, based in Hong Kong, China; Taipei, Taiwan and Manila, Philippines
 * CNN International Europe/Middle East/Africa, based in London, United Kingdom
 * CNN International in Latin America, based in Atlanta, Georgia, U.S.
 * CNN International North America, based in Atlanta, Georgia, U.S.
 * CNN International South Asia, based in New Delhi, India

The schedules of the different regional versions no longer differ significantly from each other, but there are still minor variations such as content during the commercial breaks (e.g. weather forecasts and local airtimes shown).

CNN has reported that its broadcast agreement in mainland China includes an arrangement that its signal must pass through a Chinese-controlled satellite. With this method of transmission, Chinese authorities have been able to black out CNNI segments at will. CNN has also said that its broadcasts are not widely available in mainland China, but rather only in certain diplomatic compounds, hotels, and apartment blocks.

In June 2015, CNN International was made available online in the United States for CNN/U.S subscribers on participating television providers through the CNNgo service.

CNNj
CNNj is a Japanese version of CNN International distributed by Japan Cable Television that first launched on March 1, 2003. CNNj is tailored specifically for a Japanese audience, with all programming broadcast from 7:00 a.m. to 12:00 a.m. (Japan Standard Time) being translated into Japanese. The channel used to broadcast a mixture of CNN International and CNN/US, but since 2008, CNNj has been a direct relay of CNN International Asia Pacific.

Starting late 2010, the high-definition feed of CNN US was launched in Japan for American viewers under the name "CNN/US HD", the first such feed available outside of the United States.

Simulcasts between CNNI and CNN/US, and between CNNI and CNN Max
Apart from during the earliest days of the network, CNNI, until the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, produced almost all of its programming, and generally only simulcast CNN/US's primetime output. However, since the start of the outbreak, CNNI's programming has been significantly cut back, although international programmes have slowly been reintroduced. However, CNNI still only opts out of CNN US for less than the 24-hour clock period, and CNNI currently draws from the feed of the main CNN channel for all editions of CNN This Morning, Erin Burnett Outfront, Anderson Cooper 360° and CNN Tonight. CNNI also broadcasts most of The Lead with Jake Tapper. At the weekend, CNNI simulcasts much of the entire weekend schedule, apart from the first hour of CNN This Morning and some of CNN Newsroom. Programs seen on the global network include the Sunday edition of Inside Politics,  State of the Union, Fareed Zakaria GPS, Smerconish and some CNN Special Investigations Unit documentaries.

CNNI also simulcasts CNN/US newscasts whenever major events happen in the United States or around the world. Also, certain scheduled broadcasts, such as New Year's Eve Live and Election Night in America, are aired on CNN International. Likewise, CNN/US occasionally turns to CNNI newscasts, primarily when major international news breaks during overnight hours in the U.S.

During simulcasts, the timepiece of CNN/US is replaced by that of CNNI, and CNN/US's red logo on a white field is retained in the on-screen graphic, aligning with CNN/US as the originating source.

As of August 2014, following the unrest in Ferguson, Missouri, a permanent simulcast of CNNI's block of Newsroom with Rosemary Church and Errol Barnett was added to the late-night lineup of CNN/US, serving as a lead-in to Early Start. In late 2015, John Vause and anchor Isha Sesay began to anchor a two-hour block of the simulcast from CNN studios in Los Angeles.

In 2017, CNN International began simulcasting the first hour of the weekday edition of New Day and on September 10, 2018, The Lead with Jake Tapper started to be simulcast on CNNI.

In 2019, CNN International announced it was reducing its programming and staff based in London to reduce costs. Consequently, an additional two hours of simulcasts with CNN/US on weekdays were added – the first hour of Early Start and the second hour of New Day, resulting in CNNI broadcasting CNN/US for seven hours each weekday.

By mid-April 2020, due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on CNN's operations, CNN/US weekday programming accounted for 14 hours within each 24-hour cycle of CNN International broadcasting time, with CNN International's daily worldwide programming in Europe consisting of five hours of the international version of CNN Newsroom, from 5 a.m. – 10 a.m. GMT, and five internationally focused programs: CNN World Sport, First Move with Julia Chatterley and Connect the World with Becky Anderson between the hours of 1 p.m. – 4 p.m. GMT; with Amanpour and Quest Means Business, between 6 p.m. – 8 p.m. GMT. Each of those internationally focused programs air for one hour each, except Connect the World, which airs for two hours and if live news events are slated to happen during Amanpour's timeslot, that show may air at a different time. Weekend simulcasts of CNN/US were increased with CNN/US's live news output shown in full at the time. Apart from between 5 a.m. – 11 a.m. GMT when editions of the international version of CNN Newsroom were aired alongside magazine programs, CNN International only showed its programming – consisting of magazine programs – when CNN/US was broadcasting repeat showings of programs it had aired earlier that day.

Later in 2020, live weekend domestic programming on CNN International was slightly reduced to accommodate newer editions of magazine programs although apart from during the North American overnight period, CNNI still does not produce any of its news coverage at the weekend although on weekdays, CNN World Sport was re-introduced and is broadcast instead of the final 30 minutes of New Day and June 2021 saw the return of other weekday programs with international programming now airing on weekdays between 8 am and 4 pm Eastern Time which means that CNN U.S. daytime rolling daytime news programming is once again not seen on CNN International on weekdays.

Since the beginning of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, CNN International has been augmenting CNN/US programming during hours that usually would be repeats or specials, such as overnights and late in the evening on Saturdays and Sundays. This has effectively given CNN/US rolling live 24-hour coverage throughout most of the conflict.

On September 27, 2023, selected CNNI programmes were simulcast on CNN Max, CNN's streaming-only channel available on the US streaming service Max. The CNN International programmes simulcast there include State of the Race with Kasie Hunt (currently not airing), One World with Zain Asher & Bianna Golodryga, Amanpour, Quest Means Business, and various editions of CNN Newsroom. Since February and March 2024, CNN Max editions of CNN Newsroom presented by Amara Walker, Fredricka Whitfield, and Rahel Solomon, have also aired on CNNI.

January 2024 saw the return of First Move with Julia Chatterley. The program airs just before the start of the Asian trading day, as opposed to just before the start of the American trading day. Consequently, CNNI's weekday simulcast of CNN US programming now begins later but still operates on weeknights between 7 pm and midnight ET and between 5 am and 8 am ET.

News programs
Some of the programmes produced by CNN/US are not broadcast on CNNI in full.

 * Amanpour
 * Alpine Edge with Christina Macfarlane
 * Anderson Cooper 360°; produced by CNN/US
 * CNN NewsNight with Abby Phillip; produced by CNN/US
 * CNN Newsroom; produced by CNN/US
 * CNN Newsroom
 * CNN News Central; produced by CNN/US
 * CNN This Morning with Kasie Hunt; produced by CNN/US
 * CNN This Morning Weekend; produced by CNN/US
 * Connect the World
 * Erin Burnett Outfront; produced by CNN/US
 * Fareed Zakaria GPS; produced by CNN/US
 * First Move with Julia Chatterley
 * Inside Politics; produced by CNN/US
 * Laura Coates Live; produced by CNN/US
 * Quest Means Business
 * Smerconish; produced by CNN/US
 * State of the Race with Kasie Hunt
 * State of the Union; produced by CNN/US
 * The Amanpour Hour
 * The Circuit with Amanda Davies
 * The Lead with Jake Tapper; produced by CNN/US
 * The Source with Kaitlan Collins; produced by CNN/US
 * World Sport

Magazine programs

 * African Voices
 * Best of Quest
 * CNN Business Traveller – presented by Richard Quest
 * CNN Marketplace Africa
 * Living Golf – Presented by Shane O'Donoghue
 * Inside Africa

Former programming

 * The Art of Movement
 * BackStory
 * CNNGo
 * CNN Style
 * CNN Today (2004–2009; 2014–2019)
 * CNN Tonight; produced by CNN/US
 * CNN Talk
 * Cuomo Prime Time (2017–2021); produced by CNN/US
 * Diplomatic License (1994–2006); debates feature for the United Nations
 * Early Start (2012–2024); produced by CNN/US
 * Eco Solutions
 * Hala Gorani Tonight
 * In 24 Hours
 * iReport for CNN
 * International Desk (2009–2019)
 * Inventing Tomorrow: Tech in the Time of the Pandemic – Presented by Kristie Lu Stout
 * King Charles
 * CNN Money – Presented by Maggie Lake
 * Make Create Innovate – Presented by Nick Glass
 * MainSail (2004–2018); presented by Shirley Robertson
 * NewsNight with Aaron Brown (2001–2005); talk show; produced by CNN/US
 * News Stream (2010–2019); presented by Kristie Lu Stout
 * Late Edition (1993–2009); talk show; produced by CNN/US
 * Larry King Live (1985–2010); talk show; produced by CNN/US
 * On China – Presented by Kristie Lu Stout
 * Piers Morgan Live (2011–2014); talk show; produced by CNN/US
 * State of America with Kate Bolduan
 * Tech for Good – Presented by Kristie Lu Stout
 * The Brief with Bianca Nobilo
 * The Screening Room
 * Winning Post – Presented by Aly Vance
 * World Business Today
 * World News (until 2009)
 * World Report
 * Your World Today

High definition

CNN International HD is the high-definition simulcast feed of the channel broadcasting at 1920x1080i, which was launched in September 2012. Before June 3, 2013, only programming from CNN/US was available natively in HD, while shows made for CNN International were produced in 4:3 576i. In February 2013, the European SD feed of CNN International began broadcasting in widescreen by downscaling the HD feed, which resulted in all 4:3-native programming being broadcast in pillarbox until the June 3 switchover, and finalized on June 17 of the same year, when the switchover was completed.

Following the March 2003 launch of CNNj, a live relay of CNN/US and CNN International, with simultaneous audio translation into Japanese, starting in late 2010, the high definition feed of CNN/US was launched in Japan under the name CNN HD. CNN/US (both SD and HD) is also available on Greater China-based satellite service DishHD, a subsidiary of Dish Network in the United States.

On June 28, 2016, CNN International HD was launched for Sky customers in the UK (including on Freesat from Sky), on channel 506 or 579, making the next news channel launch in the 600s. The HD version is available free-to-air within the British Isles, and is provided on satellite and IPTV services, and also live-streamed for U.K. users (and geo-blocked outside the U.K.), through CNN International's official U.K. video site. However, viewers with non-proprietary Freesat boxes will need to add the channel manually as Freesat does not market CNN International HD publicly as part of its offerings.

Online
CNN debuted its news website CNN.com (initially an experiment known as CNN Interactive) on August 30, 1995. The site attracted growing interest over its first decade and is now one of the most popular news websites in the world. The widespread growth of blogs, social media and user-generated content have influenced the site, and blogs in particular have focused CNN's previously scattershot online offerings, most noticeably in the development and launch of CNN Pipeline in late 2005. In April 2009, CNN.com ranked third place among online global news sites in unique users in the U.S. according to Nielsen/NetRatings; with an increase of 11% over the previous year.

CNN Pipeline was the name of a paid subscription service, its corresponding website, and a content delivery client that provided streams of live video from up to four sources (or "pipes"), on-demand access to CNN stories and reports, and optional pop-up "news alerts" to computer users. The installable client was available to users of PCs running Microsoft Windows. There was also a browser-based "web client" that did not require installation. In July 2007, the service was discontinued and replaced with a free streaming service.

The now-defunct topical news program Judy Woodruff's Inside Politics was the first CNN program to feature a round-up of blogs in 2005. Blog coverage was expanded when Inside Politics was folded into The Situation Room. In 2006, CNN launched CNN Exchange and CNN iReport, initiatives designed to further introduce and centralize the impact of everything from blogging to citizen journalism within the CNN brand. CNN iReport which features user-submitted photos and video, has achieved considerable traction, with increasingly professional-looking reports filed by amateur journalists, many still in high school or college. The iReport gained more prominence when observers of the Virginia Tech shootings sent in first-hand photos of what was going on during the shootings.

In early 2008, CNN began maintaining a live-streaming broadcast available to those who receive CNN at home. CNN International is broadcast live, as part of the RealNetworks SuperPass subscription outside the U.S. CNN also offers several RSS feeds and podcasts.

On April 18, 2008, CNN.com was targeted by Chinese hackers in retaliation for the channel's coverage of the 2008 Tibetan unrest. CNN reported that they took preventive measures after news broke of the impending attack. The company was honored at the 2008 Technology & Engineering Emmy Awards for development and implementation of an integrated and portable IP-based live, edit and store-and-forward digital newsgathering system.

On October 24, 2009, CNN launched a new version of the CNN.com website, revamping it by adding a new "sign up" option where users may create their user name, a new "CNN Pulse" (beta) feature along a new red color theme. However, most of the news archived on the website has been deleted. CNN also has a channel on the popular video-sharing site YouTube, but its videos can only be viewed in the United States, a source of criticism among YouTube users worldwide.

In April 2010, CNN announced via Twitter its upcoming food blog called "Eatocracy", which will "cover all news related to food – from recalls to health issues to culture." CNN had an internet relay chat (IRC) network at chat.cnn.com. CNN placed a live chat with Benjamin Netanyahu on the network in 1998.

CNN also maintains a wire service known as CNN Wire, a CNN Newsource division.

Bureaus

 *  Note: Boldface indicates that they are CNN's original bureaus, meaning they have been in operation since CNN's founding.

United States

 * Atlanta (World Headquarters)
 * Albuquerque
 * Boston
 * Chicago
 * Cleveland
 * Columbus
 * Dallas
 * Denver
 * Houston
 * Detroit
 * Indianapolis
 * Kansas City
 * Las Vegas
 * Los Angeles
 * Miami
 * Minneapolis
 * Nashville
 * New Orleans
 * New York City
 * Orlando
 * Omaha
 * Oklahoma City
 * Philadelphia
 * Portland Oregon
 * Phoenix
 * Raleigh-Durham
 * Richmond Virginia
 * San Francisco
 * Seattle
 * Salt Lake City
 * St Louis
 * Washington, D.C.

Worldwide

 * Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates (Middle East regional headquarters)
 * Amman, Jordan
 * Baghdad, Iraq
 * Bangkok, Thailand
 * Beijing, China
 * Beirut, Lebanon
 * Belgrade, Serbia; Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina; Zagreb, Croatia (N1 Ex-Yugoslav regional headquarters)
 * Berlin, Germany
 * Bucharest, Romania (Antena 3 CNN)
 * Buenos Aires, Argentina
 * Cairo, Egypt
 * Dubai, United Arab Emirates
 * Frankfurt, Germany
 * Havana, Cuba
 * Hong Kong, China (Asia Pacific regional headquarters)
 * Islamabad, Pakistan
 * Istanbul, Turkey (CNN Türk)
 * Jakarta, Indonesia (CNN Indonesia)
 * Jerusalem
 * Johannesburg, South Africa (African regional headquarters)
 * Kabul, Afghanistan
 * Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
 * Lagos, Nigeria
 * Lisbon, Portugal (CNN Portugal)
 * London, United Kingdom (European regional headquarters)
 * Madrid, Spain
 * Manila, Philippines
 * Mexico City, Mexico (Latin American regional headquarters)
 * Montreal, Quebec, Canada
 * Moscow, Russia
 * Mumbai, India
 * Nairobi, Kenya
 * New Delhi, India (South Asia, regional headquarters)
 * Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
 * Paris, France
 * Prague, Czech Republic (CNN Prima News)
 * Porto, Portugal (CNN Portugal)
 * Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
 * Rome, Italy
 * Santiago, Chile (CNN Chile)
 * São Paulo, Brazil  (CNN Brazil)
 * Seoul, South Korea
 * Shanghai, China
 * Singapore
 * Sydney, Australia
 * Taipei, Taiwan
 * Tirana, Albania (A2 CNN)
 * Tokyo, Japan (CNNj)
 * Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
 * Toronto

In parts of the world without a CNN bureau, reports from a local affiliate station are used to file a story.

Past personalities

 * Natalie Allen (now with Scripps News, formerly Newsy)
 * Cyril Vanier (joined Al Jazeera English)
 * Guillermo Arduino (now with CNN en Español and CNN Latino)
 * Julio Aliaga (now with CCTV America)
 * Terry Baddoo
 * Errol Barnett (now with CBS News)
 * Ralph Begleiter
 * Satinder Bindra
 * Anthony Bourdain (died in 2018)
 * Aaron Brown
 * Andrew Brown
 * Samuel Burke – anchor of iReport, technology correspondent
 * Joie Chen (joined Al Jazeera America)
 * Patricia Chew
 * Jim Clancy
 * Stephen Cole (joined Al Jazeera English)
 * Chris Cuomo (dismissed in 2021)
 * Robyn Curnow
 * Arwa Damon
 * Jason Dasey
 * John Defterios – anchor of Marketplace Middle East
 * Eboni Deon (now with WISH-TV)
 * Daljit Dhaliwal
 * Jill Dougherty (now a CNN analyst)
 * Anna Edwards
 * Adrian Finighan (left CNN in 2009 to set up own company; joined Al Jazeera English)
 * Sara Ganim – Atlanta correspondent
 * Kate Giles (now with Fox Sports)
 * Hala Gorani
 * Stan Grant
 * Poppy Harlow – anchor of CNN This Morning, CNN U.S. anchor
 * Leon Hawthorne
 * George Howell
 * Pedram Javaheri – meteorologist
 * Rhiannon Jones – presenter of Judo World, fill-in anchor of World Sport
 * Jerrold Kessel, Jerusalem correspondent, 1990 to 2003
 * Riz Khan (left CNN in 2005 to join Al Jazeera English)
 * Larry King(†) (retired in 2010)
 * Jeff Koinange (left CNN in 2007 following personal accusations made against him by an alleged former love interest)
 * Alison Kosik – New York Stock Exchange correspondent (now with ABC News)
 * May Lee (now host of STAR World's The May Lee Show)
 * Don Lemon – (dismissed in 2023) anchor of CNN This Morning, CNN U.S. anchor, correspondent
 * Amber Lyon
 * Sheila MacVicar (joined Al Jazeera America)
 * Rima Maktabi
 * Jonathan Mann
 * Lola Martinez
 * Colleen McEdwards
 * Saima Mohsin – Bangkok-based international correspondent
 * Piers Morgan
 * Anand Naidoo (now with CCTV America)
 * Asieh Namdar (now with CCTV America)
 * Bianca Nobilo – London correspondent
 * Robin Oakley
 * Femi Oke (joined Al Jazeera English)
 * Veronica Pedrosa (joined Al Jazeera English)
 * Juanita Phillips
 * Pedro Pinto
 * Ash-har Quraishi
 * Monita Rajpal
 * Aneesh Raman
 * Mari Ramos
 * Anjali Rao
 * Afshin Rattansi (now with RT, formerly Russia Today)
 * Candy Reid
 * Maria Ressa (left CNN to become head of ABS-CBN News and Current Affairs division; currently Rappler CEO)
 * Kate Riley – anchor of World Sport
 * Hugh Riminton (now with Ten News)
 * Dan Rivers (returned to ITV News)
 * Shirley Robertson – presenter of MainSail
 * Sonia Ruseler
 * Brent Sadler
 * Bill Schneider
 * Bernard Shaw (retired in 2001) (†)
 * Nicki Shields – presenter of Supercharged
 * Isha Sesay
 * Linden Soles
 * Martin Soong (returned to CNBC in 2005)
 * Barbara Starr
 * Brian Stelter (left in 2022)
 * Andrew Stevens
 * Stephanie Sy (joined PBS NewsHour Weekend)
 * Alex Thomas (joined Al Jazeera English)
 * Fionnuala Sweeney
 * Aly Vance – presenter of Winning Post
 * Ralitsa Vassileva
 * Ali Velshi
 * Zain Verjee
 * Alessio Vinci
 * Selina Wang (joined ABC News)
 * Harris Whitbeck
 * John Zarrella

Accusations of U.S.-centric viewpoint
Former CNN Beijing and Tokyo bureau chief Rebecca MacKinnon described how the news-gathering priorities of CNN International were skewed to "produce stories and reports that would be of interest to CNN USA." Nevertheless, Jane Arraf, a former correspondent who was with the Council on Foreign Relations and later served as a Middle East-based correspondent for Al Jazeera English, noted that when she spoke on international affairs, CNN International would usually give her more airtime than CNN/US. For its part, former CNN executive Eason Jordan has defended CNN International's "international" perspective, saying "No matter what CNN International does, as long as CNN's headquarters is in the United States people are going to say, well, it's an American service. But the reality is that it's an international service based in the United States, and we don't make any apologies about that."

Accusations of pro-American bias
CNN is one of the world's largest news organizations, and its international channel, CNN International is the leading international news channel in terms of viewer reach. Unlike the BBC and its network of reporters and bureaus, CNN International makes extensive use of affiliated reporters that are local to, and often directly affected by, the events they are reporting. The effect is a more immediate, less detached style of on-the-ground coverage. This has done little to stem criticism, largely from Middle Eastern nations, that CNN International reports news from a pro-American perspective. This is a marked contrast to domestic criticisms that often portray CNN as having a "liberal" or "anti-American" bias.

Accusations of anti-China bias
A Chinese website, anti-cnn.com, had accused CNN and western media in general of biased reporting against China, with the catchphrase "Don't be so CNN" entering the Chinese lexicon as meaning one should not be biased and use exaggerated language in describing an event. Pictures used by CNN were allegedly edited to have completely different meanings from the original ones. In addition, the channel was accused of largely ignoring pro-China voices during the Olympic Torch Relay debacle in San Francisco.

Accusations of propaganda and censorship
In October 2011, Amber Lyon gave her claims to the Syrian government news agency SANA that she had been directed by CNN to report selectively, repetitively, and falsely to sway public opinion in favor of direct American aggression against Iran and Syria, and that this was common practice under CNN. She subsequently repeated this claim, addressing the degraded state of journalistic ethics in an interview during which she also discussed the Bahraini episode, suggesting paid-for content was also taken from Georgia, Kazakhstan, and other states, that the War on Terrorism had also been employed as a pretext to pre-empt substantive investigative journalism within the U.S., and that following the Bahrain reporting, her investigative department had been terminated and "reorganized", and her severance and employee benefits used as a threat to intimidate and attempt to purchase her subsequent silence.

Lyon claimed to have met with Tony Maddox, president of CNN International, twice about this issue in 2011 and had claimed that during the second meeting, she was threatened and intimated to stop speaking on the matter. CNN issued a detailed response to Lyon's claims about its coverage of Bahrain.

Lyon also claimed on the Russian news channel RT that CNN reporters, headed by Maddox, have been instructed to over-cover Iran as a form of propaganda, and that CNN International has been paid by the Bahraini government to produce and air news segments intentionally painting them in a positive light.

CNN became the official broadcaster of one of the biggest events of the UAE in 2021 when Dubai was hosting the Expo 2020. The official announcement was made in July 2021. However, months later, human rights organizations began to raise concerns around CNN's participation in the event, pointing out that the CNN was lending its legitimacy to the Emirates' propaganda efforts. Analyzing CNN's coverage of the UAE over 10 months, critics accused the news media of running a PR for the UAE. The rights groups also notified of the UAE's poor human rights and women's rights records They further urged CNN to be transparent about its dealings with the Arab nation.

Other dismissals
On July 7, 2010, Octavia Nasr, senior Middle East editor and a CNN journalist for 20 years, was fired after she expressed admiration on her Twitter account for a militant Muslim cleric and former Hezbollah leader who had recently died.

title: CNN International


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defamation
Delete Insofar as it does include encyclopaedic information, that information either belongs at Uralic languages or in a Magyar nationalism article.Hedgehog 14:33, 17 Dec 2004 (UTC) Magyar nationalism? You mean Antimagyar defamation page?

 * This is a comment by User:Antifinnugor on my contribution to Votes for deletion/Critic of Finno Ugric and Uralic language Groups. Hedgehog 16:39, 21 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Münster Rebellion
Good edits on Münster Rebellion. I started that article with material moved from the Anabaptists article, but didn't follow up on it much. It is interesting that this article (orginally from the 1911 Encyclopedia) probably shows how hard anti-Anabaptists feelings were, even up to that day. Thanks. - Rlvaughn 01:47, 19 May 2005 (UTC)

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User talk:Clem Powell

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title: User talk:Clem Powell


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Talk:Crayola book (computing)

Is there a reason why this isn't just "Crayola book"? I can't think of any other context in which "Crayola book" would be used. Wikipedia has no other page either. --Timc 19:30, 16 Aug 2004 (UTC)

This should be moved to "Rainbow series" or "Rainbow book" --Pmsyyz 20:49, 20 Feb 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Crayola book (computing)


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AvCraft Technical Services

AvCraft Technical Services was a Myrtle Beach, South Carolina U.S., based company that supplied maintenance and technical support services for owners/operators of Bombardier Dash 8, ATR 42, ATR 72 and Fairchild Dornier 328 turboprop and jet aircraft.

Avcraft operated from a 136,000 sq ft complex of hangars, paint facilities and back shops that provide FAA, EASA and Transport Canada-approved heavy maintenance, as well as structural repairs, modifications and refurbishment.

History
The company began its life as AvCraft Support Services, Inc., the North American operating subsidiary of Avcraft Inc. The parent company purchased the production rights for the 328JET from the receivers of Fairchild Dornier GmbH in December 2002 following the European company's demise. The final transfers of the type and production certificates were completed in the third quarter of 2003. The company intended to restart 328Jet production in Germany during 2004 and was bringing the production of its wing, formerly outsourced, in-house.

By August 2004, AvCraft Inc. had re-entered the regional airline market and was entering the corporate aircraft market, placing previously unsold Dornier product with a number of customers. It exhibited at the 2004 Farnborough Airshow and joined major industry associations. However, in March, 2005, the company went into administration citing a lack of cash caused, it claimed, by an airline failing to accept delivery of completed aircraft.

AvCraft Support Services continued to operate while under company administration, initially focusing exclusively on MRO support for the Fairchild Dornier 328 family, operating from a facility at Myrtle Beach, South Carolina.

In September 2009 AvCraft Support Services entered into a joint venture agreement with Indaer International, a commercial aircraft technical services company with offices in Colombia and Canada. The joint venture initially targeted heavy maintenance on ATR regional turboprops and then expanded to include Dash 8 aircraft too.

In September 2010 Indaer International led a group of investors that purchased AvCraft Support Services out of administration, renaming it AvCraft Technical Services.

In the summer of 2015, AvCraft filed for bankruptcy, laying off all remaining employees and closing down.

Capabilities
AvCraft holds US, European, Canadian and Venezuelan approvals to provide MRO services in their 136,000 sq. ft. facility and 500,000 sq. ft. of ramp space. The company is ideally situated in Myrtle Beach, South Carolina, AvCraft can easily provide easy access to North American, South American, Caribbean and European customers.

AvCraft provides the following in-house capabilities:

and certification (Form 1 / 8130)
 * Aircraft Heavy Maintenance, Repair and Overhaul
 * Aircraft Modifications
 * Structural Repair and Modifications
 * Engineering Liaison
 * Flight Control Repair and Overhaul
 * Composite Repair and Painting
 * Avionics and Battery Services
 * Aircraft Exterior painting
 * Aircraft Interior Refurbishment and Painting
 * Airworthiness Certification Assistance and Coordination
 * Aircraft Ground Testing and Flight Test Support
 * Aircraft Parts and Logistics support
 * Aircraft Teardown and Crating Services
 * Aircraft Storage - short term and long term
 * Aircraft Selection and Acquisition Support
 * Honeywell dealer and HAPP (Honeywell Avionics Protection Program) support

Approvals
FAA Certificate Number CMRR055C

EASA Part-145 Approval Certificate EASA.145.5615

Transport Canada Bilateral Approval

Venezuelan INAC Approval Number OMAC-E 576.

Aircraft Supported
ATR 42, ATR 72, Dash 8-100/200/300, Dornier 328-100/300, ERJ135/140/145, Cessna Caravan, Cessna 402, Piaggio Avanti P.180

title: AvCraft Technical Services


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West Coast lady

The West Coast lady (Vanessa annabella) is one of three North American species of brush-footed butterflies known colloquially as the "painted ladies". V. annabella occurs throughout much of the western US and southwestern Canada. The other two species are the cosmopolitan Vanessa cardui (painted lady) and the eastern Vanessa virginiensis (American painted lady). This species has also been considered a subspecies of the South American Vanessa carye and is frequently misspelled as "anabella".

Distinguishing features

Aside from general differences in distribution, V. annabella can be distinguished from the other two painted ladies of North America as follows:

Most conspicuously, it lacks obvious ventral eyespots on the hindwings; there are two large ones on V. virginiensis and four small ones on V. cardui. Like the latter, it also lacks a white dot in the pinkish-orange subapical field of the ventral and dorsal forewings. Its upperwing coloration has the purest orange of the three; the American painted lady is usually quite reddish.

A less reliable indicator is the row of black eyespots on the dorsal submarginal hindwing. These are usually of roughly equal size in V. cardui and lack blue centers, though the summer morph may have a few tiny ones. In the other two, usually two eyespots are larger and have more conspicuous blue centers. In V. virginiensis, these normally are the spot at each end of the row, whereas in the present species it is the two middle ones.

Developmental stages
The developmental stages of Vanessa annabella can be divided into eight different stages: first instar larva, second instar larva, third instar larva, fourth instar larva, fifth instar larva, prepupa, pupa, and adult. In their adult stage, there is subtle sexual dimorphism between males and females, as females have a more rounded hindwing compared to their male counterparts. The color pattern is the same on both males and females: “tawny orange with black markings, white subapical forewing spots, and blue pupilled hindwing ocelli." Their open wing expanse averages generally vary between 40 and 48 mm, with females often being larger than males. The total time it takes for this species to develop is typically between 30 and 36 days.

Natural history
This butterfly is often seen basking in open areas in its habitat. Their habitats are mostly localized to open areas from the Upper Sonoran to the Canadian zones. The West Coast Lady is a multiple brooded species, meaning that there are more than one set of offspring within a single breeding season. Sightings of this butterfly have been captured from May to December in Huntington Beach by Ron Vanderhoff. Most captures of this butterfly are usually made in April and May. They are generally distributed in Orange County in places of lower elevations.

Vanessa annabella feeds on plants in the families of Malvacae and Urtiacae. In Southern California, the common native hostplants include Urtica holosericea (Urticaceae), Sida species, Sphaeralcea ambigua (Malvaceae), and Sidalcea malvaeflora (Malvacae). Their eggs are pale green and are laid singly on the upperside of the hostplant leaves. Additionally, their pupation sites are either on the leaves of the hostplant or on nearby objects such as twigs or branches.

Both the males and females of the species visit flowers. During the afternoon, males are typically found congregating in areas such as hilltops, forest openings, glades, meadows, streamside slopes, and patches of dry earth which are particularly suitable for basking in the sun. At these areas, males spend a large amount of time and energy chasing each other and sometimes engaging in courtship and mating with females. Though females do not congregate in a similar manner to the males, they are likely to be found on hilltops feeding, seeking foodplants, or ovipositing.

title: West Coast lady


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Hives

Hives, also known as urticaria, is a kind of skin rash with red, raised, itchy bumps. Hives may burn or sting. The patches of rash may appear on different body parts, with variable duration from minutes to days, and does not leave any long-lasting skin change. Fewer than 5% of cases last for more than six weeks (a condition known as chronic urticaria). The condition frequently recurs.

Hives frequently occur following an infection or as a result of an allergic reaction such as to medication, insect bites, or food. Psychological stress, cold temperature, or vibration may also be a trigger. In half of cases the cause remains unknown. Risk factors include having conditions such as hay fever or asthma. Diagnosis is typically based on appearance. Patch testing may be useful to determine the allergy.

Prevention is by avoiding whatever it is that causes the condition. Treatment is typically with antihistamines, with the second generation antihistamines such as fexofenadine, loratadine and cetirizine being preferred due to less risk of sedation and cognitive impairment. In refractory cases, corticosteroids or leukotriene inhibitors may also be used. Keeping the environmental temperature cool is also useful. For cases that last more than six weeks long term antihistamine therapy is indicated. Immunosuppressants such as omalizumab or cyclosporin may also be used.

About 20% of people are affected at some point in their lives. Cases of short duration occur equally in males and females while cases of long duration are more common in females. Cases of short duration are more common among children while cases of long duration are more common among those who are middle aged. Hives have been described at least since the time of Hippocrates. The term urticaria is from the Latin urtica meaning "nettle".

Signs and symptoms
Hives, or urticaria, is a form of skin rash with red, raised, itchy bumps. They may also burn or sting. Hives can appear anywhere on the surface of the skin. Whether the trigger is allergic or not, a complex release of inflammatory mediators, including histamine from cutaneous mast cells, results in fluid leakage from superficial blood vessels. Hives may be pinpoint in size or several inches in diameter, they can be individual or confluent, coalescing into larger forms.

About 20% of people are affected. Cases of short duration occur equally in males and females, lasting a few days and without leaving any long-lasting skin changes. Cases of long duration are more common in females. Cases of short duration are more common among children while cases of long duration are more common among those who are middle aged. Fewer than 5% of cases last for more than six weeks. The condition frequently recurs. In half of cases of hives, the cause remains unknown.

Angioedema is a related condition (also from allergic and nonallergic causes), though fluid leakage is from much deeper blood vessels in the subcutaneous or submucosal layers. Individual hives that are painful, last more than 24 hours, or leave a bruise as they heal are more likely to be a more serious condition called urticarial vasculitis. Hives caused by stroking the skin (often linear in appearance) are due to a benign condition called dermatographic urticaria.

Cause
Hives can also be classified by the purported causative agent. Many different substances in the environment may cause hives, including medications, food and physical agents. In perhaps more than 50% of people with chronic hives of unknown cause, it is due to an autoimmune reaction. Risk factors include having conditions such as hay fever or asthma.

Medications
Drugs that have caused allergic reactions evidenced as hives include codeine, sulphate of morphia, dextroamphetamine, aspirin, ibuprofen, penicillin, clotrimazole, trichazole, sulfonamides, anticonvulsants, cefaclor, piracetam, vaccines, and antidiabetic drugs. The antidiabetic sulphonylurea glimepiride, in particular, has been documented to induce allergic reactions manifesting as hives.

Food
The most common food allergies in adults are shellfish and nuts. The most common food allergies in children are shellfish, nuts, eggs, wheat, and soy. One study showed Balsam of Peru, which is in many processed foods, to be the most common cause of immediate contact urticaria. Another food allergy that can cause hives is alpha-gal allergy, which may cause sensitivity to milk and red meat. A less common cause is exposure to certain bacteria, such as Streptococcus species or possibly Helicobacter pylori.

Infection or environmental agent
Hives including chronic spontaneous hives can be a complication and symptom of a parasitic infection, such as blastocystosis and strongyloidiasis among others.

The rash that develops from poison ivy, poison oak, and poison sumac contact is commonly mistaken for urticaria. This rash is caused by contact with urushiol and results in a form of contact dermatitis called urushiol-induced contact dermatitis. Urushiol is spread by contact but can be washed off with a strong grease- or oil-dissolving detergent and cool water and rubbing ointments.

Dermatographic urticaria
Dermatographic urticaria (also known as dermatographism or "skin writing") is marked by the appearance of weals or welts on the skin as a result of scratching or firm stroking of the skin. Seen in 4–5% of the population, it is one of the most common types of urticaria, in which the skin becomes raised and inflamed when stroked, scratched, rubbed, and sometimes even slapped.

The skin reaction usually becomes evident soon after the scratching and disappears within 30 minutes. Dermatographism is the most common form of a subset of chronic hives, acknowledged as "physical hives".

It stands in contrast to the linear reddening that does not itch seen in healthy people who are scratched. In most cases, the cause is unknown, although it may be preceded by a viral infection, antibiotic therapy, or emotional upset. Dermatographism is diagnosed by applying pressure by stroking or scratching the skin. The hives should develop within a few minutes. Unless the skin is highly sensitive and reacts continually, treatment is not needed. Taking antihistamines can reduce the response in cases that are annoying to the person.

Pressure or delayed pressure
This type of hives can occur right away, precisely after a pressure stimulus or as a deferred response to sustained pressure being enforced to the skin. In the deferred form, the hives only appear after about six hours from the initial application of pressure to the skin. Under normal circumstances, these hives are not the same as those witnessed with most urticariae. Instead, the protrusion in the affected areas is typically more spread out. The hives may last from eight hours to three days. The source of the pressure on the skin can happen from tight fitted clothing, belts, clothing with tough straps, walking, leaning against an object, standing, sitting on a hard surface, etc. The areas of the body most commonly affected are the hands, feet, trunk, abdomen, buttocks, legs and face. Although this appears to be very similar to dermatographism, the cardinal difference is that the swelled skin areas do not become visible quickly and tend to last much longer. This form of the skin disease is, however, rare.

Cholinergic or stress
Cholinergic urticaria (CU) is one of the physical urticaria which is provoked during sweating events such as exercise, bathing, staying in a heated environment, or emotional stress. The hives produced are typically smaller than classic hives and are generally shorter-lasting.

Multiple subtypes have been elucidated, each of which require distinct treatment.

Cold-induced
The cold type of urticaria is caused by exposure of the skin to extreme cold, damp and windy conditions; it occurs in two forms. The rare form is hereditary and becomes evident as hives all over the body 9 to 18 hours after cold exposure. The common form of cold urticaria demonstrates itself with the rapid onset of hives on the face, neck, or hands after exposure to cold. Cold urticaria is common and lasts for an average of five to six years. The population most affected is young adults, between 18 and 25 years old. Many people with the condition also have dermographism and cholinergic hives.

Severe reactions can be seen with exposure to cold water; swimming in cold water is the most common cause of a severe reaction. This can cause a massive discharge of histamine, resulting in low blood pressure, fainting, shock and even loss of life. Cold urticaria is diagnosed by dabbing an ice cube against the skin of the forearm for 1 to 5 minutes. A distinct hive should develop if a person has cold urticaria. This is different from the normal redness that can be seen in people without cold urticaria. People with cold urticaria need to learn to protect themselves from a hasty drop in body temperature. Regular antihistamines are not generally efficacious. One particular antihistamine, cyproheptadine (Periactin), has been found to be useful. The tricyclic antidepressant doxepin has been found to be effective blocking agents of histamine. Finally, a medication named ketotifen, which keeps mast cells from discharging histamine, has also been employed with widespread success.

Solar urticaria
This form of the disease occurs on areas of the skin exposed to the sun; the condition becomes evident within minutes of exposure.

Water-induced
This type of urticaria is also termed rare and occurs upon contact with water. The response is not temperature-dependent and the skin appears similar to the cholinergic form of the disease. The appearance of hives is within one to 15 minutes of contact with the water and can last from 10 minutes to two hours. This kind of hives does not seem to be stimulated by histamine discharge like the other physical hives. Most researchers believe this condition is actually skin sensitivity to additives in the water, such as chlorine. Water urticaria is diagnosed by dabbing tap water and distilled water to the skin and observing the gradual response. Aquagenic urticaria is treated with capsaicin (Zostrix) administered to the chafed skin. This is the same treatment used for shingles. Antihistamines are of questionable benefit in this instance since histamine is not the causative factor.

Exercise
The condition was first distinguished in 1980. People with exercise urticaria (EU) experience hives, itchiness, shortness of breath and low blood pressure five to 30 minutes after beginning exercise. These symptoms can progress to shock and even sudden death. Jogging is the most common exercise to cause EU, but it is not induced by a hot shower, fever, or with fretfulness. This differentiates EU from cholinergic urticaria.

EU sometimes occurs only when someone exercises within 30 minutes of eating particular foods, such as wheat or shellfish. For these individuals, exercising alone or eating the injuring food without exercising produces no symptoms. EU can be diagnosed by having the person exercise and then observing the symptoms. This method must be used with caution and only with the appropriate resuscitative measures at hand. EU can be differentiated from cholinergic urticaria by the hot water immersion test. In this test, the person is immersed in water at 43 °C (109.4 °F). Someone with EU will not develop hives, while a person with cholinergic urticaria will develop the characteristic small hives, especially on the neck and chest.

The immediate symptoms of this type are treated with antihistamines, epinephrine and airway support. Taking antihistamines prior to exercise may be effective. Ketotifen is acknowledged to stabilise mast cells and prevent histamine release, and has been effective in treating this hives disorder. Avoiding exercise or foods that cause the mentioned symptoms is very important. In particular circumstances, tolerance can be brought on by regular exercise, but this must be under medical supervision.

Pathophysiology
The skin lesions of urticarial disease are caused by an inflammatory reaction in the skin, causing leakage of capillaries in the dermis, and resulting in an edema which persists until the interstitial fluid is absorbed into the surrounding cells.

Hives are caused by the release of histamine and other mediators of inflammation (cytokines) from cells in the skin. This process can be the result of an allergic or nonallergic reaction, differing in the eliciting mechanism of histamine release.

Allergic hives
Histamine and other proinflammatory substances are released from mast cells in the skin and tissues in response to the binding of allergen-bound IgE antibodies to high-affinity cell surface receptors. Basophils and other inflammatory cells are also seen to release histamine and other mediators, and are thought to play an important role, especially in chronic urticarial diseases.

Autoimmune hives
Over half of all cases of chronic idiopathic hives are the result of an autoimmune trigger. Roughly 50% of people with chronic urticaria spontaneously develop autoantibodies directed at the receptor FcεRI located on skin mast cells. Chronic stimulation of this receptor leads to chronic hives. People with hives often have other autoimmune conditions, such as autoimmune thyroiditis, celiac disease, type 1 diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, Sjögren's syndrome or systemic lupus erythematosus.

Infections
Hive-like rashes commonly accompany viral illnesses, such as the common cold. They usually appear three to five days after the cold has started, and may even appear a few days after the cold has resolved.

Nonallergic hives
Mechanisms other than allergen-antibody interactions are known to cause histamine release from mast cells. Many drugs, for example morphine, can induce direct histamine release not involving any immunoglobulin molecule. Also, a diverse group of signaling substances called neuropeptides, have been found to be involved in emotionally induced hives. Dominantly inherited cutaneous and neurocutaneous porphyrias (porphyria cutanea tarda, hereditary coproporphyria, variegate porphyria and erythropoietic protoporphyria) have been associated with solar urticaria. The occurrence of drug-induced solar urticaria may be associated with porphyrias. This may be caused by IgG binding, not IgE.

Dietary histamine poisoning
This is termed scombroid food poisoning. Ingestion of free histamine released by bacterial decay in fish flesh may result in a rapid-onset, allergic-type symptom complex which includes hives. However, the hives produced by scombroid is reported not to include wheals.

Stress and chronic idiopathic hives
Chronic idiopathic hives has been anecdotally linked to stress since the 1940s. A large body of evidence demonstrates an association between this condition and both poor emotional well-being and reduced health-related quality of life. A link between stress and this condition has also been shown. Some cases have been thought to be due to stress, including an association between post-traumatic stress and chronic idiopathic hives. In most cases of chronic idiopathic urticaria, no cause is identified.

Diagnosis
Diagnosis is typically based on the appearance. The cause of chronic hives can rarely be determined. Patch testing may be useful to determine the allergy. In some cases regular extensive allergy testing over a long period of time is requested in hopes of getting new insight. No evidence shows regular allergy testing results in identification of a problem or relief for people with chronic hives. Regular allergy testing for people with chronic hives is not recommended.

Acute versus chronic

 * urticaria is defined as the presence of evanescent wheals which completely resolve within six weeks. Acute urticaria becomes evident a few minutes after the person has been exposed to an allergen. The outbreak may last several weeks, but usually the hives are gone in six weeks. Typically, the hives are a reaction to food, but in about half the cases, the trigger is unknown. Common foods may be the cause, as well as bee or wasp stings, or skin contact with certain fragrances. Acute viral infection is another common cause of acute urticaria (viral exanthem). Less common causes of hives include friction, pressure, temperature extremes, exercise, and sunlight.
 * urticaria is defined as the presence of hives which persist for greater than six weeks. Some of the more severe chronic cases have lasted more than 20 years. A survey indicated chronic urticaria lasted a year or more in more than 50% of those affected and 20 years or more in 20% of them. Provocative skin challenge testing may be done in those with chronic urticaria, in which the skin is exposed to pressure (dermatographisim), cold temperatures, warm temperatures, or light in an attempt to provoke symptoms and aid in the diagnosis. The history of physical examination guide the diagnosis of chronic urticaria, with extensive lab testing not recommended.

Acute and chronic hives are visually indistinguishable on visual inspection alone.

Angioedema
Angioedema is similar to hives, but in angioedema, the swelling occurs in a lower layer of the dermis than in hives, as well as in the subcutis. This swelling can occur around the mouth, eyes, in the throat, in the abdomen, or in other locations. Hives and angioedema sometimes occur together in response to an allergen, and is a concern in severe cases, as angioedema of the throat can be fatal.

Vibratory angioedema
This very rare form of angioedema develops in response to contact with vibration. In vibratory angioedema, symptoms develop within two to five minutes after contact with a vibrating object and abate after about an hour. People with this disorder do not experience dermographism or pressure urticaria. Vibratory angioedema is diagnosed by holding a vibrating device such as a laboratory vortex machine against the forearm for four minutes. Speedy swelling of the whole forearm extending into the upper arm is also noted later. The principal treatment is avoidance of vibratory stimulants. Antihistamines have also been proven helpful.

Management
The mainstay of therapy for both acute and chronic hives is education, avoiding triggers and using antihistamines.

Chronic hives can be difficult to treat and lead to significant disability. Unlike the acute form, 50–80% of people with chronic hives have no identifiable triggers. But 50% of people with chronic hives will experience remission within 1 year. Overall, treatment is geared towards symptomatic management. Individuals with chronic hives may need other medications in addition to antihistamines to control symptoms. People who experience hives with angioedema require emergency treatment as this is a life-threatening condition.

Treatment guidelines for the management of chronic hives have been published. According to the 2014 American practice parameters, treatment involves a stepwise approach. Step 1 consists of second generation, H1 receptor blocking antihistamines. Systemic glucocorticoids can also be used for episodes of severe disease but should not be used for long term due to their long list of side effects. Step 2 consists of increasing the dose of the current antihistamine, adding other antihistamines, or adding a leukotriene receptor antagonist such as montelukast. Step 3 consists of adding or replacing the current treatment with hydroxyzine or doxepin. If the individual doesn't respond to steps 1–3 then they are considered to have refractory symptoms. At this point, anti-inflammatory medications (dapsone, sulfasalazine), immunosuppressants (cyclosporin, sirolimus) or other medications like omalizumab can be used. These options are explained in more detail below.

First generation antihistamines, such as diphenhydramine or hydroxyzine, are not recommended as a first line therapy as they block both brain and peripheral H1 receptors, causing sedation. Second-generation antihistamines, such as loratadine, cetirizine, fexofenadine or desloratadine, selectively antagonize peripheral H1 receptors, and are less sedating, less anticholinergic, and generally preferred over the first-generation antihistamines. Fexofenadine, a new-generation antihistamine that blocks histamine H1 receptors, may be less sedating than some second-generation antihistamines.

People who do not respond to the maximum dose of H1 antihistamines may benefit from increasing the dose further, then to switching to another non-sedating antihistamine, then to adding a leukotriene antagonist, then to using an older antihistamine, then to using systemic steroids and finally to using ciclosporin or omalizumab. Steroids are often associated with rebound hives once discontinued.

H2-receptor antagonists are sometimes used in addition to H1-antagonists to treat urticaria, but there is limited evidence for their efficacy.

Systemic steroids
Oral glucocorticoids are effective in controlling symptoms of chronic hives. However, they have an extensive list of adverse effects, such as adrenal suppression, weight gain, osteoporosis, hyperglycemia, etc. Therefore, their use should be limited to a couple of weeks. In addition, one study found that systemic glucocorticoids combined with antihistamines did not hasten the time to symptom control compared with antihistamines alone.

Leukotriene-receptor antagonists
Leukotrienes are released from mast cells along with histamine. The medications, montelukast and zafirlukast block leukotriene receptors and can be used as add on treatment or in isolation for people with CU. It is important to note that these medications may be more beneficial for people with NSAID induced CU.

Other
Other options for refractory symptoms of chronic hives include anti-inflammatory medications, omalizumab, and immunosuppressants. Potential anti-inflammatory agents include dapsone, sulfasalazine, and hydroxychloroquine. Dapsone is a sulfone antimicrobial agent and is thought to suppress prostaglandin and leukotriene activity. It is helpful in therapy-refractory cases and is contraindicated in people with G6PD deficiency. Sulfasalazine, a 5-ASA derivative, is thought to alter adenosine release and inhibit IgE mediated mast cell degranulation, Sulfasalazine is a good option for people with anemia who cannot take dapsone. Hydroxychloroquine is an antimalarial agent that suppresses T lymphocytes. It has a low cost however it takes longer than dapsone or sulfasalazine to work.

Omalizumab was approved by the FDA in 2014 for people with hives 12 years old and above with chronic hives. It is a monoclonal antibody directed against IgE. Significant improvement in pruritus and quality of life was observed in a phase III, multicenter, randomized control trial. Immunosuppressants used for CU include cyclosporine, tacrolimus, sirolimus, and mycophenolate. Calcineurin inhibitors, such as cyclosporine and tacrolimus, inhibit cell responsiveness to mast cell products and inhibit T cell activity. They are preferred by some experts to treat severe symptoms. Sirolimus and mycophenolate have less evidence for their use in the treatment of chronic hives but reports have shown them to be efficacious. Immunosuppressants are generally reserved as the last line of therapy for severe cases due to their potential for serious adverse effects.

Prognosis
In those with chronic urticaria, defined as either continuous or intermittent symptoms lasting longer than 6 weeks, 35% of people are symptom free 1 year after treatment, while 29% have a reduction in their symptoms. Those with a longer disease duration typically have a worse prognosis, with greater symptom severity. Chronic urticaria is often accompanied by an intense pruritus, and other symptoms associated with a reduced quality of life and a high burden of co-morbid psychiatric conditions such as anxiety and depression.

Epidemiology
Chronic urticaria is usually seen in those older than 40 years, it is more common in women. The prevalence of chronic urticaria is 0.23% in the United States.

Research
Afamelanotide is being studied as a hives treatment.

Opioid antagonists such as naltrexone have tentative evidence to support their use.

History
The term urticaria was first used by the Scottish physician William Cullen in 1769. It originates from the Latin word urtica, meaning stinging hair or nettle, as the classical presentation follows the contact with a perennial flowering plant Urtica dioica. The history of urticaria dates back to 1000–2000 BC with its reference as a wind-type concealed rash in the book The Yellow Emperor's Inner Classic from Huangdi Neijing. Hippocrates in the 4th century first described urticaria as "knidosis" after the Greek word knido for nettle. The discovery of mast cells by Paul Ehrlich in 1879 brought urticaria and similar conditions under a comprehensive idea of allergic conditions.

title: Hives