text:
Levon Ter-Petrosyan

Levon Hakobi Ter-Petrosyan (Լևոն Հակոբի Տեր-Պետրոսյան; born 9 January 1945), also known by his initials LTP, is an Armenian politician and historian who served as the first president of Armenia from 1991 until his resignation in 1998.

A senior researcher at the Matenadaran, he led the Karabakh movement for the unification of the Armenian-populated Nagorno-Karabakh with Armenia which began in 1988. After Armenia's declaration of independence from the Soviet Union in September 1991, Ter-Petrosyan was elected president in October 1991 with overwhelming public support. He led the country through the First Nagorno-Karabakh War with neighboring Azerbaijan.

He was reelected in the 1996 presidential election, which was marred by accusations of electoral fraud, sparking mass protests led by runner-up Vazgen Manukyan. The mass rallies were suppressed by military force. Due to disagreements with key members of his government over a peace proposal for the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, especially Defence Minister Vazgen Sargsyan and Prime Minister Robert Kocharyan, Ter-Petrosyan resigned on 3 February 1998.

From his resignation up to 2007, Ter-Petrosyan was inactive in the political scene. However, he made a political comeback in September 2007 and ran for president in 2008. He faced one of his former government members, at the time Prime Minister Serzh Sargsyan. According to official results, he earned 21.5% of the total vote. Ter-Petrosyan claimed the elections were rigged and led thousands of his supporters in mass protests against the alleged electoral fraud and called for new elections. After a week of mass protests, the government used police and military force to disperse his supporters, resulting in the deaths of ten people on 1 March 2008.

On 1 August 2008, Ter-Petrosyan founded the Armenian National Congress (ANC) which included more than a dozen of political parties and NGOs. Being the main opposition party in Armenia at the time, the ANC was out of the parliament and was mainly involved in street protests against Serzh Sargsyan's government. They organized mass rallies in 2011, forcing the government to grant several political concessions. In parliamentary elections in 2012, the ANC received 7.1% of the popular vote, gaining 7 seats. Ter-Petrosyan's party lost those seats in the following elections and has not entered parliament since. He led the ANC's electoral list during snap parliamentary elections in June 2021, where the party again failed to enter parliament.

Early life and education
Ter-Petrosyan was born on 9 January 1945 in Aleppo, Syria to an Armenian family descended from a long line of priests living near Musa Dagh in the region of Hatay (now located in the south of Turkey). His family took part in the armed resistance at Musa Dagh during the Armenian genocide before fleeing to Syria. His father, Hakob Ter-Petrosyan, was first a member of the Hunchakian Party and later a founding member of the Syrian Communist Party.

He had three brothers, Telman (1936–1997), Petros (1938–2013), and Kamo (born 1948), as well as a younger sister, Iskuhi (1953–2015). His family emigrated to Soviet Armenia in 1947, when he was still an infant, just before the birth of his only living younger brother, Kamo.

In 1969, he graduated from the Oriental Studies Department of Yerevan State University. In 1972, he completed his postgraduate studies at Leningrad State University. In 1987, he received his doctoral degree from the same university. From 1972 to 1979, Ter-Petrosyan worked as junior researcher at the Manuk Abeghian Literature Institute of the Armenian Academy of Sciences. From 1979 to 1984, he held the post of science secretary at Matenadaran named after Saint Mesrob Mashdots.

Since 1984, he has worked at Matenadaran as a senior researcher.

Academic career
Ter-Petrosyan wrote his doctoral dissertation on the Assyrian language and its ties to Armenian. In addition, he is the author of more than 30 books, about 80 scientific articles in Armenian, French and Russian, as well as thousands of political publications in the multilingual press (speeches, articles, interviews, press conferences, etc.). He is a member of the Writers Union of Armenia, the French Asian Society, the Mekhitarist Academy in Venice and a recipient of honorary doctorates from the University of La Verne, University of Sofia, Paris-Sorbonne University and University of Strasbourg.

Karabakh movement and independence of Armenia
In late 1987 and early 1988, the Karabakh movement emerged in Soviet Armenia and the Armenian-majority Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast with the goal of transferring the autonomous region from Azerbaijan to Armenia. On 19 May 1988, Levon Ter-Petrosyan, Vazgen Manukyan and 9 others founded a new Karabakh Committee, which soon took leadership of the Karabakh movement from the older committee led by Zori Balayan and Igor Muradyan. Levon Ter-Petrosyan was the de facto leader of the committee. Under the leadership of Ter-Petrosyan and Manukyan, the Karabakh movement transformed from being purely concerned with the unification of Nagorno-Karabakh with Armenia into a broader movement for democratization.

From 10 December 1988 to 31 May 1989, Ter-Petrosyan was imprisoned in Moscow's Matrosskaya Tishina prison together with other members of the Karabakh Committee; they returned to Yerevan after their release and continued their activities. In 1989, Ter-Petrosyan and the other members of the Karabakh Committee founded a political party called the Pan-Armenian National Movement (ANM, also known by its Armenian acronym HHSh). Later on, Ter-Petrosyan became the party's chairman. On 27 August 1989, he was elected as a deputy of the Supreme Soviet of the Armenian SSR, and reelected on 20 May 1990. In elections in May 1990, the Pan-Armenian National Movement won a majority of seats in the Supreme Soviet of Armenia, becoming the first non-communist party to take power in a Soviet republic. On 4 August of the same year, Ter-Petrosyan was elected Chairman of the Supreme Council of Armenia, becoming the de facto leader of Armenia.

As clashes between newly formed Armenian militias and Soviet forces intensified in mid-1990, Ter-Petrosyan was pressured by Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev to disarm the militias. Ter-Petrosyan complied, but the militias continued their activities in Nagorno-Karabakh. On 23 August 1990, Armenia formally declared its intention to become an independent state with Nagorno-Karabakh as an integral part. On 12 September 1990, Ter-Petrosyan met with Gorbachev, Azerbaijani leader Ayaz Mutalibov and other Soviet officials, where Gorbachev rejected Ter-Petrosyan's demands to withdraw the Soviet Army from Armenian settlements and create a line of demarcation between Armenians and Azebaijanis in Nagorno-Karabakh. Although Ter-Petrosyan initially expressed his willingness to include Armenia in a new union of sovereign states to replace the USSR, he found Mikhail Gorbachev's proposal for a new union treaty unacceptable. Armenia was one of six Soviet republics not to participate in the referendum on the new union held in March 1991.

As Armenia moved toward independence, further clashes occurred both within Armenia and on the border with Azerbaijan in May 1991, and Soviet troops undertook an operation to deport Armenian villagers from parts of Azerbaijan. Ter-Petrosyan publicly stated on 6 May 1991 that "To all intents and purposes, the Soviet Union has declared war on Armenia." Ter-Petrosyan opposed the coup attempt against Gorbachev in August 1991. He attended unsuccessful negotiations with Ayaz Mutalibov mediated by Boris Yeltsin and Nursultan Nazarbayev in late September. On 20 September 1991, Armenians voted overwhelmingly in favor of independence, and the country officially declared independence three days later.

First term
Ter-Petrosyan was elected the first President of the newly independent Republic of Armenia on 16 October 1991, receiving 83% of the vote. On 18 October 1991, he signed onto Gorbachev's failed attempt to form an economic community out of the collapsing Soviet Union and preserve the economic ties between the republics (only 8 of the 15 republics agreed to sign). Ter-Petrosyan then brought Armenia into the Commonwealth of Independent States which formed after the formal abolition of the Soviet Union in December 1991. Ter-Petrosyan appointed Vazgen Sargsyan the first Defense Minister of independent Armenia in December 1991. On 28 January 1992, the Armenian government passed the historical decree "On the Ministry of Defense of the Republic of Armenia", which formally created the Armed Forces of Armenia. In late 1991 and early 1992, the fighting in Nagorno-Karabakh expanded into a full-scale war. With the rise of hostilities in Nagorno-Karabakh, in March 1992, Sargsyan announced that Armenia needed a 30,000-strong army for maintaining security. Under Ter-Petrosyan's leadership as the commander-in-chief on 9 May 1992, the Armenian forces recorded their first major military success in Nagorno-Karabakh with the capture of Shusha. Another significant victory for the Armenian forces was recorded weeks later with the capture of Lachin, which connects Armenia proper with Nagorno-Karabakh. In the summer of 1992, following the launch of Operation Goranboy, the Armenian forces had major losses. Ter-Petrosyan dismissed Defense Minister Vazgen Sargsyan, as between October 1992 and March 1993 Sargsyan served as the Presidential Adviser on Defence Affairs and the Presidential Envoy to Border Regions of Armenia, Ter-Petrosyan appointed his comrade-turned-rival Vazgen Manukyan to the post. According to Vazgen Manukyan, on several occasions, the more cautious Ter-Petrosyan was, he deliberately not fully informed about the extent of the Armenian military's participation in operations in Nagorno-Karabakh. In early April 1993, the Armenian forces captured Kelbajar, a city outside the originally contested areas, causing international attention to the conflict. Turkey closed its border with Armenia, while the United Nations passed a resolution condemning the act. Vazgen Manukyan was dismissed from his post in August 1993. In the summer of 1993, Armenian forces gained more territories and, by August controlled Fizuli, Jebrail, and Zangelan. It was estimated that during Ter-Petrosian's presidency, the significant amount of military expenditure, played a key role in the outcome of the war and the formation of the army. By early 1994, both countries were devastated by the war. On 5 May, the Bishkek Protocol was signed by the heads of the parliaments of Nagorno-Karabakh, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. The Nagorno-Karabakh Republic, backed by Armenia, established de facto control of these lands. The war ended in an Armenian victory with the signing of a ceasefire agreement in May 1994 by representatives of Armenia, Azerbaijan, and the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic. Despite Ter-Petrosyan's efforts to establish normal relations with Turkey, which included arranging for the transport of wheat to Armenia from the EU through Turkish territory and attending the funeral of Turkish president Turgut Özal in Ankara, the capture of Kalbajar district by Armenian forces in April 1993 significantly worsened relations with Turkey. That month Turkey closed its border with Armenia. As on other occasions, Vazgen Manukyan. deliberately presented only a small part of the Kalbajar operation to Ter-Petrosyan. The Armenian-Turkish border remains closed to this day and the two countries have no diplomatic relations.

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union took place as a result and against the backdrop of general economic stagnation, even regression. As the Gosplan, which had set up production chains to cross SSR lines, broke down, the inter-republic economic connections were also disrupted, leading to an even more serious breakdown of the post-Soviet economies. Armenia suffered severe economic hardship in the first years following independence, It is difficult to overstate the calamity that faced Armenia in 1991-93. The country, land-locked and with few natural resources, was beginning the transition from a centrally-planned to a market economy, with very limited institutional capacity. As a result of the conflict raging with Azerbaijan over Nagorno Karabakh (NK), an ethnic Armenian enclave inside Azerbaijan, refugees from Azerbaijan was streaming into Armenia. At the same time, Azerbaijan imposed a trade embargo, shutting off most supplies of energy and other critical goods (the main natural gas pipelines which supplied Armenia through Azerbaijan were closed) due to the full-scale war. The border with Turkey, which was sympathetic to Azerbaijan, was closed, and the main routes into the country to the north through Georgia were subject to frequent interdiction and the route through Georgia was frequently closed due to civil unrest there. As Armenia was deeply integrated with the Soviet economy and had the highest level of imports of any Soviet republic. Armenia's GDP declined drastically from 1991 to 1993 because of these factors, and fuel shortages were ubiquitous. The worst years of the energy crisis have been dubbed the "dark and cold years" in Armenia, alleviated after the restarting of Metsamor Nuclear Power Plant in October 1995. In 1992, Ter-Petrosyan's prime minister Hrant Bagratyan adopted an economic reform program to rapidly marketize the Armenian economy. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union from 1991 to 1993, Armenia's income decline of 63 percent was greater than that of any Former Soviet Union country except Georgia. The average decline for the Commonwealth Independent States (CIS, excluding the Baltics) was 51 percent. The reform adopted by Hrant Bagratyan also made a good start on developing the basic legal framework necessary for a market economy. The Property Law enacted in October 1991, provided a legal basis for companies and a basic commercial code. All legal restrictions on private entry and competition in wholesale trade were removed. And the Enterprise Privatization Law (July 1992) provided that a privatization program be developed every year to sell remaining state-owned firms, including large firms. He was qualified as Leader of the Armenian economic reforms end of the 20th century, defined by the World Bank as one of the best among former Soviet Union republics and countries of Eastern Europe. Armenia's economic hardships during Ter-Petrosyan's presidency made him deeply unpopular among much of the population, and some 693,999.00 people emigrated, nevertheless, it was estimated that the emigration numbers continued to grow after his resignation. Ter-Petrosyan's first term also saw significant tension between his government and the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF), a nationalist political party which holds enormous influence in the Armenian diaspora and had established itself as Ter-Petrosyan's main opposition. On 29 June 1992, Ter-Petrosyan delivered a televised address where he accused the ARF of collaboration with the KGB and pilfering funds raised from the diaspora intended for Armenia and Nagorno-Karabakh. Two years later, on 28 December 1994, Ter-Petrosyan declared that a plot by the ARF to violently overthrow the government had been uncovered. The party was banned from the Republic of Armenia and its offices were raided by police. Thirty-one ARF members, who would later be known as the "Dro Group", an alleged secret wing of the ARF, were arrested and charged with conspiracy to overthrow the government, committing several assassinations, and drug trafficking; all were found guilty. The ban on the ARF was lifted by Ter-Petrosyan's successor Robert Kocharyan soon after Ter-Petrosyan's resignation.

1996 reelection
Although Ter-Petrosyan was initially expected to win the 1996 presidential election by a large margin due to the opposition being divided, three other candidates dropped out of the race and endorsed Vazgen Manukyan. According to the official results, Ter-Petrosyan received about 52%, just above the 50% required to win without a runoff election. His reelection was marred by allegations of electoral fraud reported by the opposition and supported by many international observers. On 25 September 1996, around 200,000 people in Yerevan came out to protest the election results, then stormed the parliament building and beat the speaker and deputy speaker of parliament following a speech by Vazgen Manukyan. Tanks and troops were brought into Yerevan to end the protests. On the same day, Defence Minister Vazgen Sargsyan stated that "even if they [the opposition] win 100 percent of the votes, neither the Army nor the National Security and Interior Ministry would recognize such political leaders." Later in January 1999, Ter-Petrosyan's interior minister at the time of the election Vano Siradeghyan admitted that the government had resorted to vote-rigging to secure Ter-Petrosyan's victory without a runoff election and stated that after the crackdown, Ter-Petrosyan fell into a three-month depression. According to Siradeghyan, "the whole state apparatus was demoralized, paralyzed and no government was formed during [the ensuing] three months." Ter-Petrosyan's popularity waned further as the opposition started blaming him for the economic quagmire that Armenia's post-Soviet economy was in.

Resignation
Ter-Petrosyan was forced to step down in February 1998 after advocating a compromised settlement of the conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh which many Armenians regarded as undermining their security. Ter-Petrosyan's key ministers, namely then-Prime Minister Robert Kocharyan, Defense Minister Vazgen Sargsyan and Interior Minister Serzh Sargsyan, refused to accept a peace plan for Karabakh put forward by international mediators in September 1997. The leadership of the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic were also opposed to the plan. The plan, accepted by Ter-Petrosyan and Azerbaijan's leader Heydar Aliyev, called for a "phased" settlement of the conflict which would postpone an agreement on Karabakh's status, the main stumbling block. The "phased" approach envisioned the return of most of the Armenian-occupied Azerbaijani territories around Nagorno-Karabakh in exchange for the deployment of OSCE peacekeepers in Nagorno-Karabakh and the surrounding districts in the first and second phases, followed by the lifting of the Azerbaijani and Turkish blockades of Armenia in the third stage, and leaving for last the issues of Nagorno-Karabakh's status, the Lachin Corridor, and the return of displaced persons. When Levon Ter-Petrosyan stepped down from the presidency, he compared himself to the late Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin, and stated that he was resigning was to avoid destabilizing the country. Commenting on the circumstances of his resignation in 2021, Ter-Petrosyan insisted that Vazgen Sargsyan and Kocharyan were "ready for civil war" if he did not resign.

Comeback
After his resignation, Ter-Petrosyan rarely appeared in public and avoided contact with the media, although there were speculations that he would run for the office of president of Armenia in the general election in February 2003. He instead devoted his time to scientific research. In 2005 and 2007, he published his two-volume historical work titled The Crusaders and the Armenians.

2008 election
On 21 September 2007, Ter-Petrosyan made his first public speech in nearly ten years at an event in Yerevan marking the 16th anniversary of Armenia's declaration of independence. In this speech he was strongly critical of President Kocharyan. Subsequently, Ter-Petrosyan officially announced his candidacy in the 2008 presidential election in a speech in Yerevan on 26 October 2007. He accused Kocharyan's government of massive corruption, involving the theft of "at least three to four billion dollars" over the previous five years. He was critical of the government's claims of strong economic growth and argued that Kocharyan and his prime minister, Serzh Sargsyan, had come to accept a solution to the problem of Nagorno-Karabakh that was effectively the same solution that he had proposed ten years earlier. A number of opposition parties rallied behind him after his return to the political arena, including the People's Party of Armenia led by Stepan Demirchyan, the Republic Party led by Aram Sargsyan, the Social Democrat Hunchakian Party, "Azadakrum" movement for Jirair Sefilian, the "New Times" Party, and Raffi Hovannisian's Heritage Party.

Protests
Final results from the election, which was held on 19 February 2008, officially showed Ter-Petrosyan in second place with 21.5% of the vote. Then he and his supporters accused the government of rigging the election and claimed victory; beginning on 20 February he led continuous protests involving tens of thousands of his supporters in Yerevan. In the early morning hours of 1 March, reportedly acting on evidence of firearms in the camp, the authorities moved in to inspect the tents set up by demonstrators. Law enforcement agents then violently dispersed hundreds of protestors. Ter-Petrosyan was placed under de facto house arrest, not being allowed to leave his home, though the authorities later denied the allegations. A few hours later, tens of thousands of protestors or more gathered at Myasnikyan Square to protest the government's act. Police, overwhelmed by the sheer size of the crowd, pulled out. A state of emergency was implemented by President Kocharyan at 17:00, allowing the army to be moved into the capital. At night, a few thousand protestors barricaded themselves using commandeered municipal buses. As a result of the clashes, eight protestors and two policemen died. Ter-Petrosyan addressed his supporters by phone at around 2-3 a.m. on March 2, telling them to go home to avoid further casualties. On March 5, Ter-Petrosyan appealed to the Constitutional Court to have the election declared invalid, which was rejected.

Armenian National Congress
In 2011, Ter-Petrosyan again took a leading role in protests that erupted in Armenia as part of a wave of regional unrest. As leader of the Armenian National Congress opposition bloc, formed two years prior to the outbreak of protests, Ter-Petrosyan accused President Serzh Sargsyan, elected in the disputed 2008 election, of being "illegitimate" and called for the release of political prisoners, the resignation of the government, and a full inquiry into the violence that claimed the lives of ten people on 1 March 2008.

2012 parliamentary election
Levon Ter-Petrosyan led the Armenian National Congress (ANC) during the 2012 parliamentary election. The ANC won 7.08% (106,903) of the popular vote.

2013 presidential election
The ANC held its convention on 22 December 2012. Ter-Petrosyan talked about groups promoting pro-Western and pro-Russian divisions within the Armenian society and the political parties calling them "dangerous forces". Ter-Petrosyan did not announce whether he will run for president in February 2013. Few days after the convention on 25 December 2012, Ter-Petrosyan gave Chorrord Inknishkhanutyun an interview eventually declaring his decision not to run for the office. He claimed that "dozens of arguments are being put forward by those advocating and opposing my nomination, but the most important argument has been avoided. Can anyone who has respect for his people vie for a presidential post at the age of 68? Such things usually do not happen in developed democratic countries ... everything is concentrated in the hands of a bunch of criminals who have usurped power."

The official ANC statement on 27 December 2012 said that they are not participating in the upcoming presidential election in any form. The ANC claimed that the participation in the election is "legitimization of the illegal regime". Rumors about Ter-Petrosyan's possible retirement from active politics spread soon after his 25 December announcement. Armenians newspapers argued that Levon Zurabyan, the ANC speaker, could become his successor.

On 7 February 2013, Ter-Petrosyan gave another interview to the Chorrord Inknishkhanutyun daily newspaper. He acknowledged that the ANC cannot continue its activities with the same structure. He admitted that the alliance had "internal fermentations" and called "various political forces and non-partisan individuals of the Congress to merge into one single political party."

The presidential election was held on 18 February 2013. Voting in a polling station in central Yerevan, Ter-Petrosyan said the journalists he voted for the "sake of the Republic of Armenia." According to the official results, incumbent Serzh Sargsyan won with over 58% of the vote. Raffi Hovannisian, the main opposition candidate who earned 37% of the total, claimed victory and started mass protests the next day. On 23 February 2013, Ter-Petrosyan addressed the gathered at the Pan-Armenian National Movement party convention. He claimed Hovannisian won the election and accused incumbent Sargsyan in rigging the election. Talking about Hovannisian's post-election protests, Ter-Petrosyan stated "I see words, I see speeches, but there is no action, no plan of actions."

On 13 April 2013, the Armenian National Congress was officially transformed from an alliance of 18 original parties into a single party, on the base of the Pan-Armenian National Movement. During his speech at the founding convention, Ter-Petrosyan blamed Hovannisian for having no political agenda in his protests. In particular, Ter-Petrosyan said "during the current post-election period we have seen everything but political processes".

2013 Yerevan election
The ANC, now a party rather than an alliance, went to the 2013 Yerevan City Council election alone. Their list was headed by Yerevan's former mayor Vahagn Khachatryan. ANC failed to pass the 6% threshold by gaining only 1.2%.

2021 snap parliamentary election
Ter-Petrosyan led the ANC's electoral list in the June 2021 snap parliamentary elections. Ter-Petrosyan announced that he would not take up his parliamentary mandate if the ANC enters parliament but fails to achieve a majority. The ANC received 19,647 votes in the 2021 election, amounting to 1.54% of the vote, below the 5% threshold required to enter parliament.

2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war and aftermath
During the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war, Ter-Petrosyan met with fellow ex-presidents of Armenia Robert Kocharyan and Serzh Sargsyan as well as ex-presidents of the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic Arkadi Ghukasyan and Bako Sahakyan to discuss the situation. In October 2020, Kocharyan and Ter-Petrosyan requested that Prime Minister Nikol Pashinyan give them permission to go to Moscow as special negotiators. Pashinyan accepted their request to go to Moscow to meet with Russian officials, but not as official negotiators. The visit never occurred as Kocharyan tested positive for COVID-19.

After the defeat of the Armenian side in the war, the signing of the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh ceasefire agreement and the outbreak of protests in Armenia against Prime Minister Nikol Pashinyan, Ter-Petrosyan released a statement where he warned of the risk of a destructive civil war and called for the solution of the political crisis by constitutional means only. He called for the prime minister's voluntary resignation and accused him and the opposition candidate Vazgen Manukyan of leading the country to civil confrontation through their refusal to compromise.

On 25 March 2021 Ter-Petrosyan once again met with ex-presidents Kocharyan and Sargsyan. On 5 May 2021, Ter-Petrosyan declared that the reason for the meeting was for him to propose an electoral alliance between the former presidents (his long-time political opponents) in order to unseat Prime Minister Pashinyan in the 2021 Armenian parliamentary election. Ter-Petrosyan repeated the proposal on May 5, which was rejected by both Kocharyan and Sargsyan.

Personal life
He is married to Lyudmila (née Pleskovskaya); the couple has one son, David, who is an economist and businessman, and four grandchildren (Levon, Hakob, Lusia, Areg).

Ter-Petrosyan is fluent in Armenian and Russian, with working knowledge of 9 other languages.

title: Levon Ter-Petrosyan


text:
Sanbu District

Sanbu District (山武郡) is a district located in Chiba Prefecture, Japan. As of January 2013, the district had a population of 49,488 and a population density of 369 persons per km2. The total area is 134.1 km2.

Towns and villages

 * Kujūkuri
 * Shibayama
 * Yokoshibahikari

Elevation of Ōamishirasato to city status
Ōamishirasato, formerly a town in Sanbu District, was elevated to city status on January 1, 2013, and is no longer part of Sanbu District.

History
During the early Meiji period establishment of the municipality system on April 1, 1889, the districts of Yamabe District (山辺郡) with 3 towns and 14 villages, and Musha District (武射郡) with 1 towns and 14 villages were created in what was formerly the north-eastern portion of Kazusa Province. The two districts were formally merged into the new Sanbu District on April 1, 1897.

Mergers

 * On March 27, 2006, the towns of Sanbu, Naruto, Hasunuma and Matsuo merged to form the new city of Sanmu.
 * On March 27, 2006, the town of Yokoshiba merged with Hikari from Sōsa District to form the new town of Yokoshibahikari in Sanbu District.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Sanbu District


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Joseph DeLuca

Joseph DeLuca, Linda Gronlund, Louis J. Nacke was proposed for deletion. This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was transwiki to Wikimemorial. As of 17:07, 21 Nov 2004 (UTC), the article is still in the queue to be moved. Rossami (talk)

Warehouse manager, compliance manager, and programmer who have failed to do anything of note to warrant inclusion. Transwiki to wikimemorial and delete. --Jiang 03:59, 28 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep all three. Maybe someone should create a new entry for Wiki Troll to describe a person who spends inordinate amounts of time trolling Wikipedia looking for articles to delete. Arevich 15:55, 28 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * This attack was inappropriate, and unnecessary. Please review the history of VfD and how we have dealt with such articles in the past.  Your continuing attempt to retain any and all articles listed on the VfD page is going to make any comments you have to say be ignored.  Oh, and transfer to wikimemorial, as is the appropriate thing to do with such pages.  RickK 21:29, Jul 28, 2004 (UTC)
 * Please ignore this troll. Almost all of his <100 edits have been voting keep and making inflammatory comments on this page. --Jiang 03:31, 29 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Transwiki to memorial and delete. - SimonP 17:07, Jul 28, 2004 (UTC)
 * transwiki as per established practice. Maybe there should be a seperate "Votes for Transwiki" page so that the negative epithet "delete" is not applied to otherwise perfectly good source texts. --Ianb 17:55, 28 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Transwiki and delete. Isn't it firmly established that Wikipedia isn't going to have an individual article for every person who died in the 9/11 attacks? Regarding the comment about Wiki Troll: there is an article called Internet troll, which is defined as "a person who posts messages that create controversy without adding content to the discussion, often intentionally." - Eisnel 20:06, 28 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Transwiki and "remove". -- Cyrius|✎ 03:55, 30 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Transwiki and delete. Elf-friend 17:02, 30 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Wikimemorial all three. Rossami 20:57, 2 Aug 2004 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like other '/delete' pages is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion or on the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text:
Internet security

Internet security is a branch of computer security. It encompasses the Internet, browser security, web site security, and network security as it applies to other applications or operating systems as a whole. Its objective is to establish rules and measures to use against attacks over the Internet. The Internet is an inherently insecure channel for information exchange, with high risk of intrusion or fraud, such as phishing, online viruses, trojans, ransomware and worms.

Many methods are used to combat these threats, including encryption and ground-up engineering.

Malicious software
Malicious software comes in many forms, such as viruses, Trojan horses, spyware, and worms.

 * Malware, a portmanteau of malicious software, is any software used to disrupt computer operation, gather sensitive information, or gain access to private computer systems. Malware is defined by its malicious intent, acting against the requirements of the computer user, and does not include software that unintentionally causes harm due to some deficiency. The term badware applies to both malware and unintentionally harmful software.
 * A botnet is a network of computers that have been taken over by a robot or bot that performs large-scale malicious acts for its creator.
 * Computer viruses are programs that can replicate their structures or effects by infecting other files or structures on a computer. The typical purpose of a virus is to take over a computer to steal data.
 * Computer worms are programs that can replicate themselves throughout a computer network.
 * Ransomware is a type of malware that restricts access to the computer system that it infects, and demands a ransom in order for the restriction to be removed.
 * Scareware is a program of usually limited or no benefit, containing malicious payloads, that is sold via unethical marketing practices. The selling approach uses social engineering to cause shock, anxiety, or the perception of a threat, generally directed at an unsuspecting user.
 * Spyware refers to programs that surreptitiously monitor activity on a computer system and report that information to others without the user's consent.
 * One particular kind of spyware is key logging malware. Often referred to as keylogging or keyboard capturing, is the action of recording (logging) the keys struck on a keyboard.
 * A Trojan horse, commonly known as a Trojan, is a general term for malware that pretends to be harmless, so that a user will be convinced to download it onto the computer.

Denial-of-service attacks
A denial-of-service attack (DoS) or distributed denial-of-service attack (DDoS) is an attempt to make a computer resource unavailable to its intended users. It works by making so many service requests at once that the system is overwhelmed and becomes unable to process any of them. DoS may target cloud computing systems. According to business participants in an international security survey, 25% of respondents experienced a DoS attack in 2007 and another 16.8% in 2010. DoS attacks often use bots (or a botnet) to carry out the attack.

Phishing
Phishing targets online users in an attempt to extract sensitive information such as passwords and financial information. Phishing occurs when the attacker pretends to be a trustworthy entity, either via email or a web page. Victims are directed to web pages that appear to be legitimate, but instead route information to the attackers. Tactics such as email spoofing attempt to make emails appear to be from legitimate senders, or long complex URLs hide the actual website. Insurance group RSA claimed that phishing accounted for worldwide losses of $10.8 billion in 2016.

Man in the middle
A man-in-the-middle (MITM) attack is a type of cyber attack. Cybercriminals can intercept data sent between people to steal, eavesdrop or modify data for certain malicious purposes, such as extorting money and identity theft. Public WiFi is often insecure because monitoring or intercepting Web traffic is unknown.

Application vulnerabilities
Applications used to access Internet resources may contain security vulnerabilities such as memory safety bugs or flawed authentication checks. Such bugs can give network attackers full control over the computer.

Network layer security
TCP/IP protocols may be secured with cryptographic methods and security protocols. These protocols include Secure Sockets Layer (SSL), succeeded by Transport Layer Security (TLS) for web traffic, Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) for email, and IPsec for network layer security.

Internet Protocol Security (IPsec)
IPsec is designed to protect TCP/IP communication in a secure manner. It is a set of security extensions developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). It provides security and authentication at the IP layer by transforming data using encryption. Two main types of transformation form the basis of IPsec: the Authentication Header (AH) and ESP. They provide data integrity, data origin authentication, and anti-replay services. These protocols can be used alone or in combination.

Basic components include:
 * Security protocols for AH and ESP
 * Security association for policy management and traffic processing
 * Manual and automatic key management for the Internet key exchange (IKE)
 * Algorithms for authentication and encryption

The algorithm allows these sets to work independently without affecting other parts of the implementation. The IPsec implementation is operated in a host or security gateway environment giving protection to IP traffic.

Threat modeling
Threat Modeling tools helps you to proactively analyze the cyber security posture of a system or system of systems and in that way prevent security threats.

Multi-factor authentication
Multi-factor authentication (MFA) is an access control method in which a user is granted access only after successfully presenting separate pieces of evidence to an authentication mechanism – two or more from the following categories: knowledge (something they know), possession (something they have), and inference (something they are). Internet resources, such as websites and email, may be secured using this technique.

Security token
Some online sites offer customers the ability to use a six-digit code which randomly changes every 30–60 seconds on a physical security token. The token has built-in computations and manipulates numbers based on the current time. This means that every thirty seconds only a certain array of numbers validate access. The website is made aware of that device's serial number and knows the computation and correct time to verify the number. After 30–60 seconds the device presents a new random six-digit number to log into the website.

Background
Email messages are composed, delivered, and stored in a multiple step process, which starts with the message's composition. When a message is sent, it is transformed into a standard format according to RFC 2822. Using a network connection, the mail client sends the sender's identity, the recipient list and the message content to the server. Once the server receives this information, it forwards the message to the recipients.

Pretty Good Privacy (PGP)
Pretty Good Privacy provides confidentiality by encrypting messages to be transmitted or data files to be stored using an encryption algorithm such as Triple DES or CAST-128. Email messages can be protected by using cryptography in various ways, such as the following:
 * Digitally signing the message to ensure its integrity and confirm the sender's identity.
 * Encrypting the message body of an email message to ensure its confidentiality.
 * Encrypting the communications between mail servers to protect the confidentiality of both message body and message header.

The first two methods, message signing and message body encryption, are often used together; however, encrypting the transmissions between mail servers is typically used only when two organizations want to protect emails regularly sent between them. For example, the organizations could establish a virtual private network (VPN) to encrypt communications between their mail servers. Unlike methods that only encrypt a message body, a VPN can encrypt all communication over the connection, including email header information such as senders, recipients, and subjects. However, a VPN does not provide a message signing mechanism, nor can it provide protection for email messages along the entire route from sender to recipient.

Message Authentication Code
A Message authentication code (MAC) is a cryptography method that uses a secret key to digitally sign a message. This method outputs a MAC value that can be decrypted by the receiver, using the same secret key used by the sender. The Message Authentication Code protects both a message's data integrity as well as its authenticity.

Firewalls
A computer firewall controls access to a single computer. A network firewall controls access to an entire network. A firewall is a security device — computer hardware or software — that filters traffic and blocks outsiders. It generally consists of gateways and filters. Firewalls can also screen network traffic and block traffic deemed unauthorized.

Web security
Firewalls restrict incoming and outgoing network packets. Only authorized traffic is allowed to pass through it. Firewalls create checkpoints between networks and computers. Firewalls can block traffic based on IP source and TCP port number. They can also serve as the platform for IPsec. Using tunnel mode, firewalls can implement VPNs. Firewalls can also limit network exposure by hiding the internal network from the public Internet.

Packet filter
A packet filter processes network traffic on a packet-by-packet basis. Its main job is to filter traffic from a remote IP host, so a router is needed to connect the internal network to the Internet. The router is known as a screening router, which screens packets leaving and entering the network.

Stateful packet inspection
In a stateful firewall the circuit-level gateway is a proxy server that operates at the network level of an Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) model and statically defines what traffic will be allowed. Circuit proxies forward network packets (formatted data) containing a given port number, if the port is permitted by the algorithm. The main advantage of a proxy server is its ability to provide Network Address Translation (NAT), which can hide the user's IP address from the Internet, effectively protecting internal information from the outside.

Application-level gateway
An application-level firewall is a third-generation firewall where a proxy server operates at the very top of the OSI model, the IP suite application level. A network packet is forwarded only if a connection is established using a known protocol. Application-level gateways are notable for analyzing entire messages rather than individual packets.

Browser choice
Web browser market share predicts the share of hacker attacks. For example, Internet Explorer 6, which used to lead the market, was heavily attacked.

Antivirus
Antivirus software can protect a programmable device by detecting and eliminating malware. A variety of techniques are used, such as signature-based, heuristics, rootkit, and real-time.

Password managers
A password manager is a software application that creates, stores and provides passwords to applications. Password managers encrypt passwords. The user only needs to remember a single master password to access the store.

Security suites
Security suites were first offered for sale in 2003 (McAfee) and contain firewalls, anti-virus, anti-spyware and other components. They also offer theft protection, portable storage device safety check, private Internet browsing, cloud anti-spam, a file shredder or make security-related decisions (answering popup windows) and several were free of charge.

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs)
A promising technology with low production and installation costs, unattended network operation, and autonomous longtime operation. According to research, building a secure Internet of Things (IoT) should start with securing WSNs ahead of other components.

History
At the National Association of Mutual Savings Banks (NAMSB) conference in January 1976, Atalla Corporation (founded by Mohamed Atalla) and Bunker Ramo Corporation (founded by George Bunker and Simon Ramo) introduced the earliest products designed for dealing with online security. Atalla later added its Identikey hardware security module, and supported processing online transactions and network security. Designed to process bank transactions online, the Identikey system was extended to shared-facility operations. It was compatible with various switching networks, and was capable of resetting itself electronically to any one of 64,000 irreversible nonlinear algorithms as directed by card data information. In 1979, Atalla introduced the first network security processor (NSP).

title: Internet security


text:
In the Mouth of the Crocodile – Live in Seattle

In The Mouth of the Crocodile - Live in Seattle is a 2004 live album by Camper Van Beethoven, released on Pitch-A-Tent Records. It captures a performance by the group at the Crocodile Cafe, February 16, 2004.

Track listing

 * 1) "When I Win the Lottery (Special False Start Mix)"
 * 2) "Balalaika Gap"
 * 3) "Tania"
 * 4) "Tina"
 * 5) "Waka"
 * 6) "Eye of Fatima Part 1"
 * 7) "Eye of Fatima Part 2"
 * 8) "Flowers"
 * 9) "Bad Birthday Dedications"
 * 10) "Oh Death"
 * 11) "Embarrassing Stage Comments"
 * 12) "Circles"
 * 13) "Unabomber Song"
 * 14) "White Riot"
 * 15) "(I Was So) Wasted"
 * 16) "Shut Us Down"
 * 17) "The History of Utah"
 * 18) "How to Win Friends and Influence People"
 * 19) "All Her Favorite Fruit"
 * 20) "Sweethearts"
 * 21) "When I Win the Lottery"
 * 22) "Oh...Uh Canada?"
 * 23) "Cattle (Reversed)"
 * 24) "Good Guys and Bad Guys"
 * 25) "Take the Skinheads Bowling"
 * 26) "Abundance"
 * 27) "Thank You We'll Be Here All Week"
 * 28) "Sad Lover's Waltz"

The album was a limited edition release.

 * (A medley, not included on the release, of "I Ride My Bike" and "Interstellar Overdrive" was performed as an encore.)


text:
Extreme points of Africa

The extreme points of Africa are the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location on the continent.

Latitude and longitude
Geographic coordinates expressed in WGS 84.

Africa

 * Africa

 * Northernmost point — Iles des Chiens, Tunisia (37°32'N)
 * Southernmost point — Cape Agulhas, South Africa (34°51'15"S). If the Prince Edward Islands are included in Africa, then Marion Island is the southernmost point at 46°54'S.
 * Westernmost point — Santo Antão, Cape Verde Islands (25°25'W)
 * Easternmost point — Rodrigues, Mauritius (63°30'E)

 * Africa (mainland)

 * Northernmost point — Ras ben Sakka, Tunisia
 * Southernmost point — Cape Agulhas, South Africa
 * Westernmost point — Pointe des Almadies, Cap Vert Peninsula, Ngor, Dakar, Senegal (17°33'22"W)
 * Easternmost point — Ras Hafun (Raas Xaafuun), Somalia (51°27'52"E)

 * Africa (centre)

 * The African geographical centre is close to Epena, Republic of the Congo 2.07035°N, 17.05291°W
 * The African pole of inaccessibility is close to the borders of Central African Republic, South Sudan, and Democratic Republic of the Congo, near the town of Obo, Central African Republic.

Elevation
The highest point in Africa is Mount Kilimanjaro, 5891.8 m in Tanzania. The lowest point is Lake Asal, 153 m below sea level, in Djibouti.

title: Extreme points of Africa


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Treaty of Taipei

Convert this into an article within a week or delete; transwiki to wikisource. --Jiang 03:59, 28 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Copied verbatim to Treaty of Taipei. Still needs cleanup, though.  Delete.   --Ardonik 06:52, Jul 29, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete if not made an article. -- Cyrius|✎ 03:58, 30 Jul 2004 (UTC)


text:
Mutsuzawa

Mutsuzawa (睦沢町) is a town located in Chiba Prefecture, Japan. , the town had an estimated population of 6,928 in 2796 households and a population density of 190 persons per km². The total area of the town is 35.59 km2.

Geography
Located in the mountainous area that divides the center of Bōsō Peninsula, Mutsuzawa has little flat terrain. The town consists primarily of rolling, sometimes steep, hills. The town is located in the southeastern part of Chiba prefecture, about 30 kilometers from the prefectural capital at Chiba, and within 60 to 70 kilometers from the center of Tokyo. The terrain is included in the Kanto Plain, with a gentle slope from the west toward the east with an elevation of 2 to 168 meters. The Habu, Mizusawa, and Chorakuji rivers flow through the central part of the town, and join the Ichinomiya river in the northeast.

Neighboring municipalities
Chiba Prefecture
 * Mobara
 * Isumi
 * Ichinomiya
 * Chōsei
 * Chōnan
 * Ōtaki

Climate
Mutsuzawa has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa) characterized by warm summers and cool winters with light to no snowfall. The average annual temperature in Mutsuzawa is 15.3 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1745 mm with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 25.9 °C, and lowest in January, at around 5.7 °C.

Demographics
Per Japanese census data, the population of Mutsuzawa has remained relatively steady over the past 50 years.

History
Mutsuzawa is part of ancient Kazusa Province and has been settled since ancient times, and has several burial mounds from the Kofun period. Myōraku-ji, a temple founded in the Heian period, houses a wooden statue of the seated Dainichi Nyorai which has been designated one of the Important Cultural Properties of Japan. In the Edo period, Mutsuzawa was part of Ōtaki Domain. The villages of Tsuchimutsu, and Mizusawa were established with the creation of the modern municipalities system on April 1, 1889. The two villages merged on February 11, 1955 with a portion of the town of Chōnan to form the village of Mutsuzawa. It was elevated to town status on April 1, 1983.

Government
Mutsuzawa has a mayor-council form of government with a directly elected mayor and a unicameral town council of 15 members. Together with the other municipalities in Chōsei District, Mutsuzawa contributes one member to the Chiba Prefectural Assembly. In terms of national politics, the town is part of Chiba 11th district of the lower house of the Diet of Japan.

Economy
Mutsuzawa's agricultural areas produce rice and milk. The town is also located within the Minami Kantō gas field, and extraction of natural gas contributes to the local economy.

Education
Mutsuzawa has one public elementary school and one public middle school operated by the town government. The town does not have a public high school.

Railway
Mutsuzawa does not have any passenger rail service.

Highway
The town is not on any national highway.
 * Chiba Prefectural Road 148
 * Chiba Prefectural Road 150
 * Chiba Prefectural Road 151

title: Mutsuzawa


text:
Dravinja

The Dravinja (Drann, ) is the largest tributary of the Drava River in Slovenia. It is 73 km long. Its source is on the Pohorje Massif southwest of Mount Rogla about 1,150 m above sea level. The river passes Zreče, the town of Slovenske Konjice, the ruins of the fort at Zbelovo, Poljčane, Makole, Štatenberg Castle, Majšperk, and Videm pri Ptuju, where it merges with the Drava. Its main tributary is the Polskava River.

The Dravinja is the best-preserved lowland river in Slovenia and has been protected as part of the European Natura 2000 network. In addition, the river is distinguished by the Pečnik Mill, which has been proclaimed an ethnological monument.

title: Dravinja


text:
Chōsei

Chōsei (長生村) is a village located in Chiba Prefecture, Japan. , the village had an estimated population of 14,028 in 6096 households and a population density of 500 persons per km². The total area of the village is 28.32 km2. It is the only remaining municipality classed as a village in Chiba Prefecture.

Geography
Chōsei is located in the eastern part of Chiba prefecture, about 30 kilometers from the prefectural capital at Chiba and within 60 to 70 kilometers from the center of Tokyo. The village faces the Pacific Ocean and is located in the southern part of the Kujūkuri Plain (Kujūkuri Beach). The terrain is gentle and has few undulations. The village area is dotted with ponds for agricultural water. The Ichinomiya River empties into the Pacific Ocean at Kujukuri Beach in Chōsei.

Neighboring municipalities
Chiba Prefecture
 * Mobara
 * Ichinomiya
 * Mutsuzawa
 * Shirako

Climate
Chōsei has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa) characterized by warm summers and cool winters with light to no snowfall. The average annual temperature in Chōsei is 15.3 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1683 mm with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 26.0 °C, and lowest in January, at around 5.7 °C.

Demographics
Per Japanese census data, the population of Chōsei has recently plateaued after several decades of growth.

History
Chōsei is located in former Kazusa Province. The villages of Takanehongo, Yatsumi, Ichimatsu were established with the creation of the modern municipalities' system on April 1, 1889.Chōsei Village was created on November 3, 1953 from the merger of these hamlets. Some minor territorial adjustments were made with neighboring Ichinomiya in 1954 and 1955.

Government
Chōsei has a mayor-council form of government with a directly elected mayor and a unicameral village council of 15 members. Together with the other municipalities in Chōsei District, Chōsei contributes one member to the Chiba Prefectural Assembly. In terms of national politics, the village is part of Chiba 11th district of the lower house of the Diet of Japan.

Economy
The primary industry of Chōsei is small-scale horticulture, and the growing of fruits, notably melons and tomatoes. The village is also located within the Minami Kanto gas field, and extraction of natural gas and production of iodine is also a major industry.

Education
Chōsei has three public elementary schools and one public middle school operated by the village government. The village does not have a high school.

Railway
JR East – Sotobō Line
 * Yatsumi

Highway

 * Kujukuri Toll Road

title: Chōsei


text:
Shirako

Shirako (白子町) is a town located in Chiba Prefecture, Japan. , the town had an estimated population of 11,040 in 4942 households and a population density of 400 persons per km². The total area of the town is 27.46 km2.

Geography
Shirako is located in eastern Chiba Prefecture, about 30 kilometers from the prefectural capital at Chiba and within 60 to 70 kilometers from the center of Tokyo. Facing the Pacific Ocean, it is included in the Kujūkuri Plain and has a gentle terrain. It has a portion the Kujūkuri Beach, and the Nabaki River runs through the center of the town.

Neighboring municipalities
Chiba Prefecture
 * Mobara
 * Chōsei
 * Ōamishirasato

Climate
Shirako has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa) characterized by warm summers and cool winters with light to no snowfall. The average annual temperature in Shirako is 15.3 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1633 mm with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 26.0 °C, and lowest in January, at around 5.6 °C.

Demographics
Per Japanese census data, the population of Shirako has remained relatively steady over the past 100 years.

History
The area of present-day Shirako is part of ancient Kazusa Province had numerous fishing hamlets during the Edo period. It was incorporated into Chōsei District after the Meiji period cadastral reforms and the town of Shirakata was created on April 1, 1889 with the establishment of the modern municipalities system. It was raised to town status on February 11, 1940. On February 11, 1955 Shirakata merged with the neighboring villages of Seki and Nabaki and was proclaimed the town of Shirako. This name was adopted from a local Shinto shrine, Shirako Jinja, which claims to have been founded in the Heian period.

Government
Shirako has a mayor-council form of government with a directly elected mayor and a unicameral town council of 15 members. Together with the city of Sakura, Shirako, collectively with the other municipalities of Chōsei District, contributes one member to the Chiba Prefectural Assembly. In terms of national politics, the town is part of Chiba 11th district of the lower house of the Diet of Japan.

Economy
The primary industry of Shirako has traditionally been commercial fishing, however, the tourist and resort industry now dominates the local economy.

Education
Shirako has three public elementary schools and one public middle school operated by the town government. The town does not have a public high school.

Railway
Shirako does not have any passenger train service.

Highway
The town is not located on any national highway.
 * Kujukuri Toll Road

Local attractions

 * Shirako Jinja
 * Shirako Onsen

title: Shirako


text:
Talk:Hawkish

I hold the proposal of a merge of this article with that on Militarism for unlucky. /Tuomas 12:36, 28 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * First of all, Hawkishness is a stance specifically of Foreign politics/Security politics, and only figuratively useable outside of that sphere
 * Militarism is, or can be, a way to organize a society.
 * And militarist Doves are not at all unthinkable.

On the assumption that "unlucky" is a malapropism for, say "ill-favored" or "ill-starred" i echo that, for reasons given on Duplicate articles. The current text is terrible, and makes the merge sound more reasonable than it is. Mostly what is need here is a serious rewrite. --Jerzy(t) 04:53, 2004 Aug 14 (UTC)

I made some changes to remove what I felt was the worst aspects of this text. I hope someone else would fancy to continue. --Ruhrjung 19:41, 2004 Aug 25 (UTC)

Origins
I have just finished reading the article on the 1812 war. This makes several mentions of "War Hawks" so I would suggest that the term originates from way before Vietnam.

Merger?
The article on Warhawks concerns a specific political faction in the U.S. in 1812. This article concerns the more general use of the term. The two articles should cross-link but I think there's enough difference in the concepts that there should be two separate articles. JamesMLane 12:40, 21 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * I think this article (Hawkish) is a definition of a term — and we all know that Wikipedia is not a dictionary, and so it falls in the category of Things to be moved to Wiktionary. The article Warhawks, which should properly be remaned War Hawks, should have a couple sentences about the modern usage of the term. So put me down for a move, a merge, and a rename. --Kevin Myers 15:23, Mar 21, 2005 (UTC)

 * The article goes beyond dictionary definition. It explains a concept, and is apparently thought useful for that purpose, judging from the number of links to it.  Most of those links would make no sense if redirected to Warhawks (or War Hawks). JamesMLane 15:35, 21 Mar 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Hawkish


text:
Nagara, Chiba

Nagara (長柄町) is a town located in Chiba Prefecture, Japan. , the town had an estimated population of 6,754 in 2976 households and a population density of 140 persons per km². The total area of the town is 19.02 km2.

Geography
Located in the mountainous area that divides the center of Bōsō Peninsula, Nagara has little flat terrain. The town consists primarily of rolling, sometimes steep, hills. While the town has no major rivers, several dams, including the Nagara Dam, have been constructed to support the water sources of the Bōsō Peninsula. Nagara is located about 25 kilometers from the prefectural capital at Chiba and within 50 to 60 kilometers from the center of Tokyo.

Neighboring municipalities
Chiba Prefecture
 * Ichihara
 * Mobara
 * Chōnan

Climate
Nagara has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa) characterized by warm summers and cool winters with light to no snowfall. The average annual temperature in Nagara is 14.8 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1639 mm with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 25.7 °C, and lowest in January, at around 4.8 °C.

Demographics
Per Japanese census data, the population of Nagara has declined in recent decades.

History
Nagara is part of ancient Kazusa Province. The village of Nagara was established with the creation of the modern municipalities system on April 1, 1889. Nagara was raised to town status in 1955 by merging with the neighboring village of Hiyoshi, and part of the village of Mizukami.

Economy
The primary economic activities are agriculture and golf courses.

Government
Nagara has a mayor-council form of government with a directly elected mayor and a unicameral town council of 12 members. Together with the other municipalities of Chōsei District, Nagara contributes one member to the Chiba Prefectural Assembly. In terms of national politics, the town is part of Chiba 11th district of the lower house of the Diet of Japan.

Education
Nagara has two public elementary schools and one public middle school operated by the town government. The town does not have a high school.

Railways
Nagara is not served by any passenger train lines. The closest train station to Nagara is the Sotobō Line at Mobara Station.

Bus service
Kominato Bus, a service of the Kominato Railway Company.

Highways
Nagara is not located on any national highway.
 * Prefectural Route 13, Ichihara-Mobara
 * Prefectural Route 14, Chiba-Mobara

Local attractions

 * Gensō-ji
 * Nagara cave tombs, National Historic Site
 * Nagara Dam
 * Japan Aerobics Center

Notable people from Nagara

 * Minoru Ōta, admiral of the Imperial Japanese Navy
 * Shibata Ainosuke, action-film actor

title: Nagara, Chiba


text:
Mount Seir

Mount Seir (הַר-שֵׂעִיר) is the ancient and biblical name for a mountainous region stretching between the Dead Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba in the northwestern region of Edom and southeast of the Kingdom of Judah. It may also have marked the older historical limit of Ancient Egypt in Canaan. A place called "Seir, in the land of Shasu" (tꜣ-šꜣsw sʿr – ta-Shasu seʿer), thought to be near Petra, Jordan, is listed in the temple of Amenhotep III at Soleb (ca. 1380 BC).

The Nabataean equivalent is šrʾ, and the modern Arabic equivalent is thought to be al-Sharat (جبال الشراة) in Jordan.

Hebrew Bible

The Hebrew Bible mentions two distinct geographical areas named Seir: a 'land of Seir' and 'Mount Seir' in the South, bordered by the Arabah to the west; and another 'Mount Seir' further north, on the north boundary of Judah, mentioned in the Book of Joshua.

Southern land of Seir, Mount Seir
Mount Seir was named for Seir the Horite, whose offspring, the Horites, had previously inhabited the area. The children of Esau, the Edomites, battled against the Horites and destroyed them (Deuteronomy ). Mount Seir is specifically noted as the place where Esau made his home (Genesis ; Joshua ).

In the Book of Numbers, the prophet Balaam, predicting Israelite victories over the Trans-Jordanian nations at the end of their Exodus from Egypt, stated "Edom shall be a possession; Seir also, his enemies, shall be a possession".

In the antique Song of Deborah in the Book of Judges, God is described as emerging from Seir to lead the Israelites in battle.

Mount Seir is also given as the location where the remnants "of the Amalekites that had escaped" were annihilated by five hundred Simeonites (1 Chronicles ). In, the "inhabitants of Mt. Seir", i.e. the Edomites, came along with the Ammonites and Moabites against Jehoshaphat of Judah, however "the LORD set ambushments" against them, causing their forces to annihilate one another. Mount Seir is also referenced in the prophetic books as a term for Edom, as in Isaiah and Ezekiel  and.

Northern Mount Seir
There is also another Seir mountain near Hebron which, according to, was allotted to the tribe of Judah, near the modern town of Sa'ir in the West Bank of the Palestinian territories.

Egyptian sources
Before the emergence of the Israelite kingdoms and of Edom, with Mount Seir standing on the Edomite side of the border, this range marked the southeastern border of Egyptian Canaan (Late Bronze Age). This is suggested by the description of the military campaign undertaken in Canaan by Ramses III (r. 1186–1155 BCE), and possibly also by the Amarna letter EA 288, if "the land of Šeru" is to be understood to mean Seir.

title: Mount Seir


text:
Chōnan

Chōnan (長南町) is a town located in Chiba Prefecture, Japan. , the town had an estimated population of 7,743 in 3240 households and a population density of 120 persons per km². The total area of the town is 65.38 km2.

Geography
Located in the mountainous terrains that divides the Bōsō Peninsula, Chōnan has relatively little flat land. Like other municipalities in the region, the town maintains agricultural reservoirs. Several golf courses dot the landscape. Chōnan is located in the southeastern part of Chiba prefecture, about 25 kilometers from the prefectural capital at Chiba, and 50 to 60 kilometers from the center of Tokyo.

Neighboring municipalities
Chiba Prefecture
 * Ichihara
 * Mobara
 * Nagara
 * Mutsuzawa
 * Ōtaki

Climate
Chōnan has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa) characterized by warm summers and cool winters with light to no snowfall. The average annual temperature in Chōnan is 15.1 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1684 mm with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 25.9 °C, and lowest in January, at around 5.3 °C.

Demographics
Per Japanese census data, the population of Chōnan has declined over the past 70 years.

History
Chōnan is rich in archeological sites from the Jōmon period, Yayoi period, and Kofun period periods. Under the ritsuryō reforms of the Nara period the area of present-day Chōnan became part of Kazusa Province. Two Tendai Buddhist temples were established in this period, Kasamori-ji and Chōfuku-ji. At the end of the Heian period the area came under the control of the military leader Taira no Tadatsune, and his descendants continued their control of the area in the Kamakura period. In the 1456 the Takeda clan built Chōnan Castle as an extension of the larger Mariyatsu Castle. After the establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate Chōnan became a major distribution center of goods, most notably salt, passing through the Bōsō Peninsula. The modern town of Chōnan was created on February 11, 1955 from the merger of the former town of Chōnan with neighboring villages of Nishimura, Higashimura and Toyosaka.

Government
Chōnan has a mayor-council form of government with a directly elected mayor and a unicameral town council of 13 members. Together with the other municipalities in Chōsei District, Chōnan contributes one member to the Chiba Prefectural Assembly. In terms of national politics, the town is part of Chiba 11th district of the lower house of the Diet of Japan.

Economy
The principal agricultural output of Chōnan is rice, and shiitake mushrooms and lotus root are cultivated in the town. There are also some small-scale dairy farms.

Education
Chōnan has one public elementary school and one public middle school operated by the town government. The town does not have a public high school.

Railway
Chōnan does not have any passenger railway service.

Visitor attractions

 * Kasamori-ji
 * Kasamori Temple Forest Nature Area
 * Hōon-ji
 * Shōen-ji
 * Shōtoku-ji
 * Chōfukuju-ji

title: Chōnan


text:
Chōsei District

Chōsei District (長生郡) is a district located in Chiba Prefecture, Japan. As of September 2010, the district has an estimated population of 63,382 and a density of 279 persons per km2. The total area was 226.97 km2. The district formerly included all of the city of Mobara and a small portion of the city of Isumi.

Towns and villages

 * Chōnan
 * Ichinomiya
 * Mutsuzawa
 * Nagara
 * Shirako
 * Chōsei

Neighboring municipalities

 * Mobara
 * Ichihara
 * Isumi
 * Ōtaki
 * Ōamishirasato

Geography
Chōsei District occupies an area of central Chiba Prefecture to the east of the Bōsō Peninsula. The west of the district ranges from the Bōsō Hill Range to the Kujūkuri Plain; the east of the district runs along the broad coast of the Kujūkuri Beach on the Pacific Ocean. The Ichinomiya River (37.3 km) emerges from the Bōsō Hill Range in Chōnan and empties into the Pacific Ocean at Kujukuri Beach in Chōsei.

Early period
During the Edo period, almost all of the area present-day Chōsei District was tenryō territory under direct control of the central government and administered by various hatamoto, with the exception of Ichinomiya, most of which was under the rule of Ichinomiya Domain, a minor feudal domain of the Tokugawa shogunate ruled by the Kano clan.

Modern period
Chōsei District was created on April 1, 1889 out of the merger of the short-lived early Meiji period districts of Nagara (3 towns, 17 villages) and Kamihabu (1 town, five villages). The administrative seat of the district was located in Mobara.

Chōsei District, since its creation, has seen extensive administrative reorganization. Shirakata Village was elevated to town status on February 11, 1940. Mobara was elevated to city status on April 1, 1952, and ceased to be part of Chōsei District. Taitō merged with Furusawa in Isumi District, and ceased to be part of Chōsei District. Nagara was raised to town status on April 29, 1955, and Honnō merged into the city of Mobara on May 1, 1972. Mutsuzawa was raised to town status on April 1, 1983. The district now consists of five towns and one village.

A plan to merge the municipalities of Chōsei District into the city of Mobara, and thus dissolve the district, was discussed beginning in 2002. The planning committee of 2002 failed to reach a consensus, as did the planning committee of 2004. A new planning committee, the Chōsei District Merger Committee (長生郡市合併協議会) was formed in 2007, but was dissolved after one year.

Economy
The coastal areas of Chōsei District once depended on the fishing industry, but fishing in the district has been in long decline. The district has extensive greenhouse fruit and vegetable production. The mountainous areas of Nagara, Chonan, and Mutsuzawa were once major agricultural centers, but the district's proximity to the Keiyō Industrial Zone has transformed agricultural areas into centers of small-scale industry and housing complexes. Tourism in the coastal areas has increased due to the district's proximity and rail links to the greater Tokyo Metropolitan Area.

title: Chōsei District