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Code (cryptography)

In cryptology, a code is a method used to encrypt a message that operates at the level of meaning; that is, words or phrases are converted into something else. A code might transform "change" into "CVGDK" or "cocktail lounge". The U.S. National Security Agency defined a code as "A substitution cryptosystem in which the plaintext elements are primarily words, phrases, or sentences, and the code equivalents (called "code groups") typically consist of letters or digits (or both) in otherwise meaningless combinations of identical length." A codebook is needed to encrypt, and decrypt the phrases or words.

By contrast, ciphers encrypt messages at the level of individual letters, or small groups of letters, or even, in modern ciphers, individual bits. Messages can be transformed first by a code, and then by a cipher. Such multiple encryption, or "superencryption" aims to make cryptanalysis more difficult.

Another comparison between codes and ciphers is that a code typically represents a letter or groups of letters directly without the use of mathematics. As such the numbers are configured to represent these three values: 1001 = A, 1002 = B, 1003 = C, ... . The resulting message, then would be 1001 1002 1003 to communicate ABC. Ciphers, however, utilize a mathematical formula to represent letters or groups of letters. For example, A = 1, B = 2, C = 3, ... . Thus the message ABC results by multiplying each letter's value by 13. The message ABC, then would be 13 26 39.

Codes have a variety of drawbacks, including susceptibility to cryptanalysis and the difficulty of managing the cumbersome codebooks, so ciphers are now the dominant technique in modern cryptography.

In contrast, because codes are representational, they are not susceptible to mathematical analysis of the individual codebook elements. In the example, the message 13 26 39 can be cracked by dividing each number by 13 and then ranking them alphabetically. However, the focus of codebook cryptanalysis is the comparative frequency of the individual code elements matching the same frequency of letters within the plaintext messages using frequency analysis. In the above example, the code group, 1001, 1002, 1003, might occur more than once and that frequency might match the number of times that ABC occurs in plain text messages.

(In the past, or in non-technical contexts, code and cipher are often used to refer to any form of encryption).

One- and two-part codes
Codes are defined by "codebooks" (physical or notional), which are dictionaries of codegroups listed with their corresponding plaintext. Codes originally had the codegroups assigned in 'plaintext order' for convenience of the code designed, or the encoder. For example, in a code using numeric code groups, a plaintext word starting with "a" would have a low-value group, while one starting with "z" would have a high-value group. The same codebook could be used to "encode" a plaintext message into a coded message or "codetext", and "decode" a codetext back into plaintext message.

In order to make life more difficult for codebreakers, codemakers designed codes with no predictable relationship between the codegroups and the ordering of the matching plaintext. In practice, this meant that two codebooks were now required, one to find codegroups for encoding, the other to look up codegroups to find plaintext for decoding. Such "two-part" codes required more effort to develop, and twice as much effort to distribute (and discard safely when replaced), but they were harder to break. The Zimmermann Telegram in January 1917 used the German diplomatic "0075" two-part code system which contained upwards of 10,000 phrases and individual words.

One-time code
A one-time code is a prearranged word, phrase or symbol that is intended to be used only once to convey a simple message, often the signal to execute or abort some plan or confirm that it has succeeded or failed. One-time codes are often designed to be included in what would appear to be an innocent conversation. Done properly they are almost impossible to detect, though a trained analyst monitoring the communications of someone who has already aroused suspicion might be able to recognize a comment like "Aunt Bertha has gone into labor" as having an ominous meaning. Famous example of one time codes include:

 * In the Bible, Jonathan prearranges a code with David, who is going into hiding from Jonathan's father, King Saul. If, during archery practice, Jonathan tells the servant retrieving arrows "the arrows are on this side of you," it's safe for David to return to court, if the command is "the arrows are beyond you," David must flee.
 * "One if by land; two if by sea" in "Paul Revere's Ride" made famous in the poem by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
 * "Climb Mount Niitaka" - the signal to Japanese planes to begin the attack on Pearl Harbor
 * During World War II the British Broadcasting Corporation's overseas service frequently included "personal messages" as part of its regular broadcast schedule. The seemingly nonsensical stream of messages read out by announcers were actually one time codes intended for Special Operations Executive (SOE) agents operating behind enemy lines. An example might be "The princess wears red shoes" or "Mimi's cat is asleep under the table". Each code message was read out twice. By such means, the French Resistance were instructed to start sabotaging rail and other transport links the night before D-day.
 * "Over all of Spain, the sky is clear" was a signal (broadcast on radio) to start the nationalist military revolt in Spain on July 17, 1936.

Sometimes messages are not prearranged and rely on shared knowledge hopefully known only to the recipients. An example is the telegram sent to U.S. President Harry Truman, then at the Potsdam Conference to meet with Soviet premier Joseph Stalin, informing Truman of the first successful test of an atomic bomb.
 * "Operated on this morning. Diagnosis not yet complete but results seem satisfactory and already exceed expectations. Local press release necessary as interest extends great distance. Dr. Groves pleased. He returns tomorrow. I will keep you posted."

See also one-time pad, an unrelated cypher algorithm

Idiot code
An idiot code is a code that is created by the parties using it. This type of communication is akin to the hand signals used by armies in the field.

Example: Any sentence where 'day' and 'night' are used means 'attack'. The location mentioned in the following sentence specifies the location to be attacked.
 * Plaintext: Attack X.
 * Codetext: We walked day and night through the streets but couldn't find it! Tomorrow we'll head into X.

An early use of the term appears to be by George Perrault, a character in the science fiction book Friday by Robert A. Heinlein:

 * The simplest sort [of code] and thereby impossible to break. The first ad told the person or persons concerned to carry out number seven or expect number seven or it said something about something designated as seven. This one says the same with respect to code item number ten. But the meaning of the numbers cannot be deduced through statistical analysis because the code can be changed long before a useful statistical universe can be reached. It's an idiot code... and an idiot code can never be broken if the user has the good sense not to go too often to the well.

Terrorism expert Magnus Ranstorp said that the men who carried out the September 11 attacks on the United States used basic e-mail and what he calls "idiot code" to discuss their plans.

Cryptanalysis of codes
While solving a monoalphabetic substitution cipher is easy, solving even a simple code is difficult. Decrypting a coded message is a little like trying to translate a document written in a foreign language, with the task basically amounting to building up a "dictionary" of the codegroups and the plaintext words they represent.

One fingerhold on a simple code is the fact that some words are more common than others, such as "the" or "a" in English. In telegraphic messages, the codegroup for "STOP" (i.e., end of sentence or paragraph) is usually very common. This helps define the structure of the message in terms of sentences, if not their meaning, and this is cryptanalytically useful.

Further progress can be made against a code by collecting many codetexts encrypted with the same code and then using information from other sources
 * spies
 * newspapers
 * diplomatic cocktail party chat
 * the location from where a message was sent
 * where it was being sent to (i.e., traffic analysis)
 * the time the message was sent,
 * events occurring before and after the message was sent
 * the normal habits of the people sending the coded messages
 * etc.

For example, a particular codegroup found almost exclusively in messages from a particular army and nowhere else might very well indicate the commander of that army. A codegroup that appears in messages preceding an attack on a particular location may very well stand for that location.

Cribs can be an immediate giveaway to the definitions of codegroups. As codegroups are determined, they can gradually build up a critical mass, with more and more codegroups revealed from context and educated guesswork. One-part codes are more vulnerable to such educated guesswork than two-part codes, since if the codenumber "26839" of a one-part code is determined to stand for "bulldozer", then the lower codenumber "17598" will likely stand for a plaintext word that starts with "a" or "b". At least, for simple one part codes.

Various tricks can be used to "plant" or "sow" information into a coded message, for example by executing a raid at a particular time and location against an enemy, and then examining code messages sent after the raid. Coding errors are a particularly useful fingerhold into a code; people reliably make errors, sometimes disastrous ones. Planting data and exploiting errors works against ciphers as well.

 * The most obvious and, in principle at least, simplest way of cracking a code is to steal the codebook through bribery, burglary, or raiding parties — procedures sometimes glorified by the phrase "practical cryptography" — and this is a weakness for both codes and ciphers, though codebooks are generally larger and used longer than cipher keys. While a good code may be harder to break than a cipher, the need to write and distribute codebooks is seriously troublesome.

Constructing a new code is like building a new language and writing a dictionary for it; it was an especially big job before computers. If a code is compromised, the entire task must be done all over again, and that means a lot of work for both cryptographers and the code users. In practice, when codes were in widespread use, they were usually changed on a periodic basis to frustrate codebreakers, and to limit the useful life of stolen or copied codebooks.

Once codes have been created, codebook distribution is logistically clumsy, and increases chances the code will be compromised. There is a saying that "Three people can keep a secret if two of them are dead," (Benjamin Franklin - Wikiquote) and though it may be something of an exaggeration, a secret becomes harder to keep if it is shared among several people. Codes can be thought reasonably secure if they are only used by a few careful people, but if whole armies use the same codebook, security becomes much more difficult.

In contrast, the security of ciphers is generally dependent on protecting the cipher keys. Cipher keys can be stolen and people can betray them, but they are much easier to change and distribute.

Superencipherment
It was common to encipher a message after first encoding it, to increase the difficulty of cryptanalysis. With a numerical code, this was commonly done with an "additive" - simply a long key number which was digit-by-digit added to the code groups, modulo 10. Unlike the codebooks, additives would be changed frequently. The famous Japanese Navy code, JN-25, was of this design.

title: Code (cryptography)


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Special Vehicle Operations

Special Vehicle Operations (SVO) is a term used throughout Ford Motor Company's global operations as a performance group, first used in America as Ford's own "speed shop", with a separate budget from Ford's regular operations. In 1993, the group was renamed Special Vehicle Team (SVT). As of 2015, SVO had been owned by Jaguar Land Rover, creating high performance versions of models such as the Jaguar F-Type and Range Rover Sports.

SVO America
In 1981, Ford formed the SVO group to design and develop performance parts and accessories related to the company's racing programs. SVO was involved motorsports programs, expanding Ford racing, establishing a performance parts business, and producing road cars.

Racing
SVO turned its attention to building Mustangs for the Sports Car Club of America (SCCA) Trans-Am and International Motor Sports Association (IMSA) GT series. With engine builder Jack Roush now involved the factory-backed SVO Mustangs dominated Trans-Am, winning 17 of 34 contests in 1985-86, and by '89, Ford had scored 46 Trans-Am victories, more than all other manufacturers combined. SVO also helped end 9 years of Chevrolet NASCAR dominance, with Ford drivers finishing 1-2-3 in NASCAR's final Winston Cup standings.

Mustang SVO
The group's sole production car, the Ford Mustang SVO, was designed to compete directly with European sports sedans like BMW's 3 Series. To reduce costs, they used the existing 2.3 L turbocharged four-cylinder engine and Borg-Warner T-5 five-speed manual transmission from the Ford Thunderbird Turbo Coupe. The car had a different computer and air meter and added an intercooler, a Hurst shifter, KONI Group shock absorbers, and 16 inch wheels, a novelty at the time. The car produced 175 hp (130 kW) for the 1984 model year (MY) and the first part of the 1985 MY, 205 hp (152 kW) after mid-1985 MY, and 200 hp (149 kW) for the 1986 model year. In total, 9,844 were built.

SVO Australia
SVO (Special Vehicle Operations) name was used in the 1990s by Southside Ford in Brisbane which was the only Ford Motorsport parts importer of the time. They released a limited run of EL Falcons to showcase what could be done with Ford Motorsport Parts. (Special Vehicle Options) Was established in Australia by Australian motor racing driver and engineer Mick Webb in the late 1980s. Dick Johnson had also used the SVO nameplate, originally on a prototype Turbo XF Falcon. Webb and Johnson both claimed ownership of the acronym, however it was Webb whom first registered its usage. Mick Webb’s SVO are still enhancing and modifying Ford products today. He owns and operates a factory in Ringwood, Victoria.

EA Falcon SVO
SVO first road car was based the then new Ford Falcon EA, starting with a "S Pac" or "Fairmont Ghia" trim levels. SVO added customised ROH 16" wheels, Recaro seats, MOMO steering wheels, suspension upgrades including Bilstein shock absorbers, engine modifications, spoilers and two tone grey paint work. SVO had hoped that these cars would lead to a relationship with Ford Australia as a factory backed performance arm, however, at this Ford were not investing in performance or racing. The relationship didn't evolve any further, but selected Ford dealers sold the SVO product.

SVO originally produced 600 Falcon Sedans, 100 Utes, 600 Fairlanes and 280 Capris.

Other Models
Melbourne and Sydney dealership records indicate that 5 SVO Fairlane NL models were produced between 1997 - 1998. Several Falcon (EL) XR8 and Fairmont (EL) Ghia's were also produced by Southside Ford in Brisbane to showcase what imported Ford Motorsport parts branch in the U.S could be used to improve the Falcon. These were reviewed in Motor and Wheels magazines in 1997 and available in either a 195kW or a 215kW. The AU Falcon was also available with SVO enhancements, including a 185 kW 6-cylinder engine.

Motorsport
SVO was successful in building (and racing) Falcons in the AUSCAR category.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Special Vehicle Operations


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Quadratojugal bone

The quadratojugal is a skull bone present in many vertebrates, including some living reptiles and amphibians.

Anatomy and function
In animals with a quadratojugal bone, it is typically found connected to the jugal (cheek) bone from the front and the squamosal bone from above. It is usually positioned at the rear lower corner of the cranium. Many modern tetrapods lack a quadratojugal bone as it has been lost or fused to other bones. Modern examples of tetrapods without a quadratojugal include salamanders, mammals, birds, and squamates (lizards and snakes). In tetrapods with a quadratojugal bone, it often forms a portion of the jaw joint.

Developmentally, the quadratojugal bone is a dermal bone in the temporal series, forming the original braincase. The squamosal and quadratojugal bones together form the cheek region and may provide muscular attachments for facial muscles.

In reptiles and amphibians
In most modern reptiles and amphibians, the quadratojugal is a prominent, straplike bone in the skull and provides structural integrity in the postorbital region of the skull. In many reptiles, the inner face of the quadratojugal also connects to the quadrate bone which forms the cranium's contribution to the jaw joint. Early in their evolution, diapsid reptiles evolved a lower temporal bar which was composed of the quadratojugal and jugal. The lower temporal bar forms the lower border of the infratemporal fenestra, one of two holes in the side of the head and a hallmark of a diapsidan skull. However, many diapsids, including modern squamates (lizards and snakes), have lost the lower temporal bar. Crocodilians and rhynchocephalians (the latter represented solely by the tuatara, Sphenodon) retain a quadratojugal. Turtles also seem to possess a quadratojugal. Among living amphibians, a quadratojugal is known to be present in some frogs and caecilians. However, it is notably absent in salamanders.

In birds
In modern birds, the quadratojugal bone is a thin and rodlike element of the skull. Upon ossification, the jugal and quadratojugal bones fuse to form the jugal bar, which is homologous to the lower temporal bar of other diapsids. The sections of the jugal bar derived from the jugal and quadratojugal articulate with the postorbital and squamosal bones, respectively. This facilitates cranial kinesis, by allowing the quadrate bone to rotate during opening of the upper jaw.

In mammals
Advanced cynodonts, including the mammaliaforms, have lost the quadratojugal, with the diminutive quadrate connecting to the stapes to function as a hearing structure. In modern mammals, the quadrate bone evolves to become the incus, one of the ossicles of the middle ear. This is an apomorphy of the mammalian clade, and is used to identify the fossil transition to mammals.

Origin
The quadratojugal likely originated within the clade Sarcopterygii, which includes tetrapods and lobe-finned fish. Although a tiny bone similar in position to the quadratojugal has been observed in the placoderm Entelognathus and some early actinopterygiians (Mimipiscis, Cheirolepis), it is unclear whether this bone was homologous to the quadratojugal. A quadratojugal is absent in actinians (coelacanths) and onychodonts, but it was clearly present in Porolepiformes, distant relatives of modern dipnoans (lungfish). Many paleontologists argue that the quadratojugal was formed by a division of the preoperculum, although a few believe that it was present before the preoperculum formed. All tetrapodomorph fish had a quadratojugal, retained by their tetrapod descendants. Elpistostegalians such as Panderichthys, Tiktaalik, and other very tetrapod-like fish were the first vertebrates to have contact between the quadratojugal and jugal. Before the elpistostegalians, the jugal was small and isolated from the quadratojugal by the squamosal and maxilla.

Amphibians (in the broad sense) typically had long, roughly rectangular quadratojugals that contacted the maxilla, jugal, squamosal, and quadrate. In several lineages, most of them traditionally considered "Reptiliomorpha", the jugal expands downwards to reduce the amount of contact between the quadratojugal and maxilla. This is exemplified in reptiles, which have completely lost the contact. Most urodelans (salamanders) lack quadratojugals, except the Miocene genus Chelotriton. A quadratojugal is also missing in the caecilian-like Triassic stereospondyl Chinlestegophis as well as the lysorophians, a group of long-bodied Paleozoic microsaurs. Many other microsaurs had heavily reduced quadratojugals.

Synapsids
In synapsids (mammals and their extinct relatives), the quadratojugal undergoes significant transformation during the evolution of the group. Early synapsids such as eothyridids and caseids retained long quadratojugals and in some cases even reacquire quadratojugal-maxilla contact. In most therapsids, including gorgonopsians, therocephalians, and dicynodonts, the quadratojugal is tiny, having lost its contact with the jugal. It usually fuses with the equally small quadrate to form the quadrate-quadratojugal complex. Oddly enough, the cynodont Thrinaxodon retains a separate quadratojugal. In other cynodonts such as Cynognathus, the quadrate-quadratojugal complex remains hidden within the skull, obscured from the side by the large squamosal bone which loosely articulates with it.

Sauropsids
Sauropsids, the group containing reptiles and birds, had completely lost the contact between the quadratojugal and maxilla. In diapsids, the quadratojugal and jugal form the lower temporal bar, which defines the lower border of the infratemporal fenestra, one of two holes in the side of the head. In early diapsids such as Petrolacosaurus and Youngina, the quadratojugal is long as in amphibians, early synapsids, and "anapsid" reptiles. It forms most of the length of the lower temporal bar. However, significant transformation of the temporal region of the skull occurs in many more "advanced" members of Diapsida, with implications for the structure of the quadratojugal. Numerous diapsids have an incomplete lower temporal bar, where the quadratojugal and jugal fail to contact each other. This leaves the infratemporal fenestra with an arch-like structure, open from below. An incomplete (or absent) lower temporal bar is first seen in the Permian genus Claudiosaurus, and is retained by most other Permian and Triassic diapsids. In many cases, the quadratojugal is lost completely. This loss occurs in several Triassic marine reptiles such as tanystropheids, thalattosaurs, pistosaurs, and plesiosaurs. Squamates, the group containing modern lizards and snakes, also lack a quadratojugal, but early squamate relatives such as Marmoretta do retain the bone. Ichthyosaurs, a group without a lower temporal bar, have a quadratojugal that is taller than it is long, stretching above (rather than below) the open infratemporal fenestra to contact the postorbital bone (rather than the jugal). Early turtles such as Proganochelys also have a tall quadratojugal, which contacts the jugal without any trace of the infratemporal fenestra. Several Triassic reptiles reacquire the lower temporal bar, albeit with the jugal forming most of the bar's length. In these reptiles, the quadratojugal is a small L- or T-shaped bone at the rear edge of the skull. Although early rhynchocephalians such as Gephyrosaurus have an incomplete lower temporal bar and a quadratojugal fused to the quadrate, later members of the group such as the modern tuatara (Sphenodon) do have a complete lower temporal bar, albeit with the quadratojugal still fused to the quadrate. All members of the group Archosauriformes, which contains archosaurs such as crocodilians and dinosaurs, have a complete lower temporal bar. This is also the case in placodonts, Trilophosaurus, some rhynchosaurs, and choristoderes.

Modern birds have a quadratojugal which is assimilated into the thin, splint-like jugal. However, a separate quadratojugal is retained by several Mesozoic avialans, such as Archaeopteryx and Pterygornis. Non-avialan dinosaurs also have a separate quadratojugal.

title: Quadratojugal bone


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Articular bone

The articular bone is part of the lower jaw of most vertebrates, including most jawed fish, amphibians, birds and various kinds of reptiles, as well as ancestral mammals.

Anatomy
In most vertebrates, the articular bone is connected to two other lower jaw bones, the suprangular and the angular. Developmentally, it originates from the embryonic mandibular cartilage. The most caudal portion of the mandibular cartilage ossifies to form the articular bone, while the remainder of the mandibular cartilage either remains cartilaginous or disappears.

In snakes
In snakes, the articular, surangular, and prearticular bones have fused to form the compound bone. The mandible is suspended from the quadrate bone and articulates at this compound bone.

In amphibians and reptiles
In most tetrapods, the articular bone forms the lower portion of the jaw joint. The upper jaw articulates at the quadrate bone.

In mammals
In mammals, the articular bone evolves to form the malleus, one of the mammalian ossicles of the middle ear. This is an apomorphy of the mammalian clade, and is used to determine the fossil transition to mammals. It is analogous to, but not homologous to the articular process of the lower jaw.

After the loss of the quadrate-articular joint, the squamosal and dentary bones form the new jaw joint in mammals.

title: Articular bone


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Splenial

The splenial is a small bone in the lower jaw of reptiles, amphibians and birds, usually located on the lingual side (closest to the tongue) between the angular and surangular.

title: Splenial


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User talk:Joh Shoh

How I found out about "konyanyachiwa"
See: http://www.ccsvscc.com/glossary.html - This is where I found out about "konyanyachiwa". WhisperToMe 22:56, 17 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Also, is "konnana" (goodbye) instead of "konbanwa" genuine Osaka-ben? WhisperToMe 22:59, 17 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * I'm sorry that I don't know who "Kerochan" is. I have never heard "konyanyachiwa" and "konnana", although I was born and grew up in Osaka. It must be wrong.Joh Shoh 11:50, 18 Jul 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Joh Shoh


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Chak Chak, Yazd

Chak Chak ( – "Drip-Drip", also romanized as Chek Chek; also known as Chāhak-e Ardakān and Pir-e Sabz "The Green Pir") is a village in Rabatat Rural District, Kharanaq District, Ardakan County, Iran. At the 2006 census, its existence was noted, but its population was not reported.

The village consists of a pir perched beneath a towering cliff face in the desert of central Iran. It is the most sacred of the mountain shrines of Zoroastrianism. Located near the city of Ardakan, Chak Chak serves as a pilgrimage point for pious Zoroastrians. Each year from June 14–18 many thousands of Zoroastrians from Iran, India and other countries flock to the fire temple at Pir-e Sabz. Tradition has it that pilgrims are to stop riding the moment they catch sight of the temple and complete the last leg of their journey on foot.

In Zoroastrian belief, Chak Chak is where Nikbanou, second daughter of the last pre-Islamic Persian ruler, Yazdegerd III of the Sassanid Empire, was cornered by the invading Arab army in 640 CE. Fearing capture Nikbanou prayed to Ahura Mazda to protect her from her enemies. In response to Nikbanou's pleadings, the mountain miraculously opened up and sheltered her from the invaders.

Notable features of Chak Chak include the ever-dripping spring located at the mountain. Legend has it that these drops are tears of grief that the mountain sheds in remembrance of Nikbanou. Growing beside the holy spring is an immense and ancient tree said to be Nikbanou's cane. Legend also has it that a petrified colorful cloth from Nikbanou was also visible in the rocks, although pilgrims have since removed it.

The actual temple of Chak Chak is a man-made grotto sheltered by two large bronze doors. The shrine enclosure is floored with marble and its walls are darkened by fires kept eternally burning in the sanctuary. In the cliffs below the shrine are several roofed pavilions constructed to accommodate pilgrims.

title: Chak Chak, Yazd


text: Category:Australian poets

title: Category:Australian poets


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Surangular

The surangular or suprangular is a jaw bone found in most land vertebrates, except mammals. Usually in the back of the jaw, on the upper edge, it is connected to all other jaw bones: dentary, angular, splenial and articular. It is often a muscle attachment site.

title: Surangular


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Trans-Mississippi Issue

The Trans-Mississippi Issue is a set of nine commemorative postage stamps issued by the United States to mark the 1898 Trans-Mississippi Exposition held in Omaha, Nebraska. The finely engraved stamps depict various scenes of the West and are presently valued much by collectors. This was only the second commemorative issue offered by the U.S. Post Office and closely followed the pattern of its predecessor, the Columbian Exposition series of 1893: both sets appeared in conjunction with important international world's fairs; both offered a wide range of stamp denominations; both adopted the double-width stamp format to accommodate pictorial tableaux.

An important factor in the creation of this series was that the Director of Publicity for the Exposition—Edward Rosewater, publisher of the Omaha Daily Bee—was something of an expert in stamps. Rosewater, nationally prominent in Republican politics, had been selected by President McKinley to preside over the U.S. delegatation at the 1897 Congress of the Universal Postal Union (the international convention responsible for securing efficiency in the flow of mail from country to country, tasked that year with securing cheaper international postage). On December 13, 1897, Rosewater suggested that the Post Office issue special stamps commemorating the Trans-Mississippi Exposition (as it had for the Columbian Exposition), and 10 days later Postmaster General James A. Gary agreed, promising a series with five denominations ranging from one cent to one dollar. Gary asked Rosewater for his ideas about stamp subjects, and the latter, in response sent handsome wash drawings on tracing paper for the five values: 1¢, bison herd (dusky orange); 2¢, Indian on horseback (deep orange-red); 5¢, ploughman and plough horse (dark yellow); 10¢, train rounding a steep mountain pass (dusky blue); $1, torchbearing goddess (Columbia) perched upon a globe (deep orange yellow). These stamps would have been of the large Columbian size but rotated in orientation, with the short sides at the top and bottom. (Curiously, the U.S. would not issue a "vertical commemorative" of this sort until 1926, when the Erickson Memorial appeared.)

Gary's announcement of the series prompted protests from stamp collectors, who were still unhappy about the high price of the Columbian Issue of 1893 ($16.34, a princely sum at the time), but the Postmaster said he decided on the issue "because I wanted to help the people of the West." Indeed, Gary subsequently made the set even more expensive by adding four more stamps to the series, including a $2 denomination, raising its price to $3.80.

Design concepts solicited from various artists won out over Rosewater's suggestions; indeed, the officials of Bureau of Engraving and Printing deemed it imperative for their institutional reputation to produce a series of unquestioned artistic distinction, given that their only previous stamp release, the definitive issue of 1894, had merely been a utilitarian revamping of the 1890 series designed by the American Banknote Company. The new set would have to compare favorably with—or even better—the preceding, privately produced Columbian commemoratives. The resulting plan—more ambitious than the Columbians in one respect—was to print the Trans-Mississippi stamps with colored frames and black centers, which would have required two separate stages of printing (the Columbians had all been monocolored). During April 1898, however, the Spanish–American War began, and the Bureau of Engraving and Printing—now required to produce large numbers of revenue stamps—chose to save labor and press time by printing the Trans-Mississippi designs in single colors after all. This, however, meant that the dies designed for two-toned production had to be retooled (white space surrounding the vignettes had to be filled in with shading that reached the edge of the frames), a process that delayed the release of the stamps until June 17, more than two weeks after the Exposition opened.

Philatelic protests notwithstanding, they were received favorably by the general public. They were sold until the end of the year, and postmasters were directed to return unsold stock, which was then incinerated. (Although the numbers printed are known, the numbers returned were not recorded, and so the numbers of existing stamps are unknown.)

The stamps, designed by Raymond Ostrander Smith, all have the same shape of frame (a legacy of the bicolor plan); the numerals of value and "UNITED STATES OF AMERICA" at the top; and "POSTAGE" with a spelled-out value at the bottom up through the 50c denomination, the dollar values being in numerals. Ears of wheat and corn appear in odd corners of the frame. Each center design is inscribed with its title:
 * 1¢ dark green – "Marquette on the Mississippi"
 * 2¢ copper red – "Farming in the West"
 * 4¢ orange – "Indian Hunting Buffalo"
 * 5¢ dark blue – "Fremont on Rocky Mountains"
 * 8¢ violet brown – "Troops Guarding Train"
 * 10¢ slate – "Hardships of Emigration"
 * 50¢ olive – "Western Mining Prospector"
 * $1 black – "Western Cattle in Storm"
 * $2 orange brown – "Mississippi River Bridge" (the Eads Bridge)

The designs were adapted from various photographs, drawings, and paintings; both the 8¢ and 50¢ values reproduced drawings by Frederic Remington. While all have been praised for their quality, the $1 value, commonly called the "Black Bull", stands out from the rest. Ironically, it does not reproduce a Western American scene, but was taken from a painting of cattle in the Scottish Highlands by John A. MacWhirter (see also Western Cattle in Storm).

The vignettes of the issue were executed by three engravers: Marcus Baldwin (2¢, 5¢, 10¢, $1), George Smillie (1¢, 4¢, 50¢, $2) and Robert Ponickau (8¢). Baldwin also engraved all the frames except that of the 2¢ stamp, which was the work of Douglas Ronaldson—who in addition engraved all of the numerals and lettering of the Trans-Mississippi series.

The 2¢ stamp violates the convention of the time that no living person could be depicted on a U.S. Postal issue. In the photograph of North Dakota harvesting that served as the basis for the engraved vignette, the three figures in the foreground have been identified as the farm worker Ed Nybakken, the field boss Elihu Barber and the foreman Sam White.

During 1998, to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the issue, the United States Postal Service issued a miniature sheet of the nine, each printed in two colors, and a sheet of nine of the "Black Bull". In most of the images, the original color scheme was preserved, but for the "Black Bull" the hue of the frame was changed from violet-brown to bright red. The designs are reproductions; each has a small "1998" in the lower left corner. In a revival of the original designs, the pictures in the 2¢ and $2 stamps were swapped, and "Farming" was changed back to "Harvesting."

title: Trans-Mississippi Issue


text:
Jugal bone

The jugal is a skull bone found in most reptiles, amphibians and birds. In mammals, the jugal is often called the malar or zygomatic. It is connected to the quadratojugal and maxilla, as well as other bones, which may vary by species.

Anatomy
The jugal bone is located on either side of the skull in the circumorbital region. It is the origin of several masticatory muscles in the skull. The jugal and lacrimal bones are the only two remaining from the ancestral circumorbital series: the prefrontal, postfrontal, postorbital, jugal, and lacrimal bones.

During development, the jugal bone originates from dermal bone.

In dinosaurs
This bone is considered key in the determination of general traits in cases in which the entire skull has not been found intact (for instance, as with dinosaurs in paleontology). In some dinosaur genera the jugal also forms part of the lower margin of either the antorbital fenestra or the infratemporal fenestra, or both. Most commonly, this bone articulates with the quadratojugal, the postorbital, the lacrimal, and the maxilla. In horned dinosaurs, like Pentaceratops, the jugal bone is thick and comes to a point, which has led paleontologists to refer to it as the "jugal horn".

In reptiles
The earliest reptiles primitively had a lower temporal bar (also referred to as a temporal arcade) where the posterior of the jugal bone contacts the quadratojugal. This structure has been repeatedly lost and regained in various groups.

In birds
While the jugal bone is thick and straplike in most other reptiles, the jugal bone is thin and strutlike in birds. This is thought to reduce the weight of the skull and facilitate cranial kinesis.

In mammals
In mammals, including humans, the jugal bone is more commonly referred to as the zygoma. It assists in constructing the facial contour, protecting the eye from damage, and providing attachment sites for facial muscles. The zygoma provides important functions as the origin of the masseter muscle and as a point of resistance for masticatory forces. Preliminary studies also indicate that variation in zygomatic structure may be useful in determining ancestral origins of modern human populations.

title: Jugal bone


text:
Iron(II) fumarate

Iron(II) fumarate, also known as ferrous fumarate, is the iron(II) salt of fumaric acid, occurring as a reddish-orange powder, used to supplement iron intake. It has the chemical formula C4H2FeO4. Pure ferrous fumarate has an iron content of 32.87%, therefore one tablet of 300 mg iron fumarate will contain 98.6 mg of iron (548% Daily Value based on 18 mg RDI).

Iron supplement
Ferrous fumarate is often taken orally as an iron supplement to treat or prevent iron deficiency anemia. Mixtures of ferrous fumarate and potassium iodate, "double fortified salt", are used to address both iron and iodine deficiencies.

title: Iron(II) fumarate


text:
Talk:Alternative medicine/Archive 9

1

 * Dan, you are very confused, please follow the link and read the original article. (A) The ADL article is about Israel Shahak and others who engage in anti-Semitic quote mining. Why do you keep denying this? Go back and read the entire article. (B) Why are you using the strawman argument of saying "he has been accused of misinterpreting Jewish law, when he does not interpet Jewish law, he reports other's interpretations". That's childish. How would feel if I rewrote Wikipedia articles on race relations and Nergos with the most vile, bigoted, infantile and stupid speech from a handful of black rappers and self-hating blacks? That's possible, but this kind of racist quote-mining to make an entire ethnic look bad is a violation of intellectual integrity. RK 23:03, Jul 17, 2004 (UTC)

Done & Presenting the New Leaner Alternative Medicine
Perhaps RK in combination with TK have managed to bamboozle themselves, yet again? Click here for my version of alternative medicine with minimal text. -- John Gohde | [[User talk:Mr-Natural-Health| Talk]] 11:27, 13 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * Yes, both RK in combination with TK have managed to bamboozle themselves. For the first time, I actually read the section on contemporary use of alternative medicine section and spotted a  NCCAM survey that I was not aware of.  It is 20 pages of public domain data that is precisely what I need to write an alternative medicine section on a number of conventional medicine articles, various diets, etc., etc. etc.  I now have the facts to that supports my global definition of CAM.  Thanks once again, TK!  I would never have spotted this valuable survey without your help.  The WikiDoc people will come to show wikilove to me thanks to TK! -- John Gohde | [[User talk:Mr-Natural-Health| Talk]] 20:26, 18 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * I have been editing for several days on this motherload of data, thanks to the collective work of both RK & TK and I am still not done, yet! I still have to work on CAM diets, mega-vitamin therapy, vitamin supplements and natural products. Scores of lost articles have been found, perhaps close to 100 in all, thanks to TK.  Thanks for protecting this page, guys!  I would never have found this motherload of data without your help.  Thanks once again, TK. -- John Gohde | [[User talk:Mr-Natural-Health| Talk]] 22:06, 23 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * The group version is better. But this page is overshadowed and degraded by the wonderment of which headbutter's head is harder in the end. It's not the collaborative project that it should be. Anyone who enters the fray does so at great risk. Pollinator 12:22, Jun 13, 2004 (UTC)
 * It's a great shame, but hopefully a forthcoming AC ruling will make this place nicer for everyone.theresa knott 09:17, 14 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * I agree, I feel the group version is much better. I'm tempted to do a revert (as per MNH's policy: "Large deletions of text automatically calls for a revert, IMHO."  (see above)) so that people can work on the page from before, but I won't. Instead, I "Vote" for the version from before MNH's recent edits. Though, on second thoughts, maybe it would be better to wipe the page and start again from scrath, as a collaborative group project. - Xgkkp 17:06, 13 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * Well, if it is all the same to you, if it is going to be a group effort then I might as well wait until the article is unprotected. Currently, I am working on a major addition to my website that will consist of a presentation of alternative medicine as history during 19th century Europe and America. You know stuff that is based on historical fact, rather than hot air. You guys should feel free to continue editing this article in a never ending spiral of circular editing.  Personally, I have better things to do than work on this nonsense. I mean really!  Changing the levels of indention so that support paragraphs wont actually appear to be support?  I find that a rather screwy waste of time. -- John Gohde | [[User talk:Mr-Natural-Health| Talk]] 17:34, 13 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * I'm sorry you feel that way John but never the less I intend to press on. I'm starting a vote, when the vote gets to 80% one way or the other I'll copy the temp page over into the real article. theresa knott 07:37, 14 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * And, one way or the other there will be an admin having her admin actions being reviewed. It is not Wikipedian to keep articles protected.  And,not only will I request that this page be unprotected I will have something new to complain about. RK trashed both althernative medicine and TCM exactly like he did the last time. RK has been in Talk:TCM, but not here to discuss his edit.  Therefore, this page will be unprotected.  That is the only thing that counts in the land of Wikipedia. -- John Gohde | [[User talk:Mr-Natural-Health| Talk]] 09:00, 14 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * Oh I fully expected to be listed on review of admin actions. That's why I'm being so careful here. Careful but not intimidated. As for requesting the page to be unprotected you are free to request whatever you like; however to state "this page will be unprotected" seems a little premature. You have to find an admin willing to do it first. As for RK, like I said before I cannot force him to edit, just as i cannot force you. theresa knott 09:15, 14 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Voting
gotta go to work... when does voting close? Erich 21:16, 14 Jun 2004 (UTC)
 * Oh there is plenty of time. The most popular option so far is neither version! So I'll wait for someone to respond to my request to do a rewrite, before setting a closing date. I don't see it as being set in stone. Just which version we should be working on. theresa knott 22:15, 14 Jun 2004 (UTC)
 * things are quiet on the labour floor... well I was feeling sympathetic towards MNH (he's like that drunk that keeps getting beaten up - its not really his fault he's that abrasive) and was going to try and make the current temp article a bit smoother and more reasonable, but having seen his latest edit which appears to be just back to how he wants it I could no longer be bothered. All versions I've seen are unbalanced but there is fantastic material here to make an article to be really proud of. If anyone wants to seek a 'medical view' I'll be on my talk page but meanwhile i'm taking this debacle off my watch list. good luck to all and may calm NPOV heads prevail. Erich 23:30, 14 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Votes for MNH's version with minimal text

 * John Gohde | [[User talk:Mr-Natural-Health| Talk]]

Votes for the previous version

 * Pollinator

Votes for neither version

 * The lean version is too lean - too many references to not enough text. But the previous version is thoroughly unbalanced between criticism and support. We shouldn't need to split it like that into pro and anti - we should be able to just present the facts as they exist, without the article being a recapitulation of the "I'm right" "No, I'm right" battles that are inevitable on the talk pages. --   ALargeElk | Talk 09:39, 14 Jun 2004 (UTC)
 * I obviously did not edit the references. -- John Gohde | [[User talk:Mr-Natural-Health| Talk]] 23:07, 14 Jun 2004 (UTC)
 * John what do you think about going back to the older version mentioned below and working from there? Clearly any new information added since then would need to go back in, but the layout, the tone etc could remain the same. Do you like the idea? theresa knott 10:52, 15 Jun 2004 (UTC)
 * Would you rewrite the article and put it on the temporary page please? So we can see what you have in mind. Cheers theresa knott 09:44, 14 Jun 2004 (UTC)
 * I will do if I get a chance - I realise that "A plague on both your houses" is not the most helpful response.--   ALargeElk | Talk 09:49, 14 Jun 2004 (UTC)
 * Thanks - it doesn't have to be perfect, just make a rough start and people can edit it. I only started the vote above to see if the general opinion was - should we continue working on the old version or should we start again with MNH's cut down one. theresa knott 10:00, 14 Jun 2004 (UTC)
 * Xgkkp I believe that there is too much controversy over the original, and yet MNH's version doesn't seem that good either. I vote for a re-start of the article. - Xgkkp 14:18, 14 Jun 2004 (UTC)
 * You can guess what I'm about to say can't you? Would you please restart the article from scratch and put it on the temp page. Cheers theresa knott 14:31, 14 Jun 2004 (UTC)
 * Hmmm...I might agree with Xgkkp, but I can see it's risky, so I guess I'd better not. ;o) Pollinator 21:35, Jun 15, 2004 (UTC)

I've been looking over the article as it was in the past. It wasn't always so pro and anti. MykReeve did a major rewrite some months ago to try and present a more balanced view. Several people edited that vesion until it looked like thisbut unfortunately it deteriorated into the current form afterwards. People might want to consider starting again from this version. theresa knott 08:39, 15 Jun 2004 (UTC)
 * That's exactly the sort of thing I was thinking of, and an excellent starting point.--   ALargeElk | Talk 08:59, 15 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Another solution
Another solution would be to use this version of Complementary and alternative medicine. Some of it derives from NCCAM's public domain faq on CAM, which also might be a good starting point for a new version. It still needs work, but it have not suffered from the edit wars that Alternative medicine has, so it might provide a fresh start without starting completely from scratch.

 * I believe the March version of Alternative medicine mentioned above is superior to my link. So scratch that. Rasmus (talk) 08:54, 15 Jun 2004 (UTC)

I also believe it would be better to have the article placed at Complementary and alternative medicine. After all, all versions of the article seems to be discussing complementary medicine as much as alternatice medicine.

Rasmus (talk) 08:46, 15 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * We could redirect AM there and also redirect CM there. theresa knott 10:47, 15 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * I vote against the name change. In Wikipedia the article is called alternative medicine. Besides, complementary and alternative medicine is still out of date as it does not include integrative medicine.

 * So how about Supplementary complementary and alternative medicine? (sorry sorry)Geni

 * The issue to be resolved is text that wont be constantly revised as in edit war promoting. The least said about alternative medicine in the article the better, IMHO. Let us not forget about the existence of category:alternative medicine!  Terms and concepts in alternative medicine also covers a lot of ground.  The alternative medicine article currently is not as important as some might think. -- John Gohde [[User talk:Mr-Natural-Health|| Talk]] 21:11, 15 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * I can't agree with you there john. If we cut down the text to your version people will try to expand the article by adding stuff. An article called alternative medicine should discuss alternative medicine. People doing a web search for alternative medicine will find this article first. They may not go on to other pages in the same category. So this page should give a pretty comprehensive overview ofthe topic.

 * Can you live with the starting again from the old version mentioned above? theresa knott 08:22, 16 Jun 2004 (UTC)

==Simplified Vote - should we go back to Older version of Alternative Medicine and start again? (Vote Ends Friday 9am UTC unless a consensus is not reached)== Since this version is liked by at least a few people let's do a quick poll to see if it's a good idea to start again from there. I've initally put a couple of days down for voting as I want to move quickly. If we don't get 80% consensus I'll extend the voting period and go with a simple majority unless someone can come up with a better idea. (I've taken the liberty of adding votes for people based on the discussion above - I've only done it where I'm sure, but if I've got it wrong feel free to chastize me theresa knott 08:38, 16 Jun 2004 (UTC))

Agree
 * Theresa Knott
 * ALargeElk
 * Rasmus

Disagree
 * geni Many errors in that version. The way is worded is just begging to start an edit war.
 * I'd put that more down to edit warriors than the text. I don't like any of the versions that much. - David Gerard 13:25, 16 Jun 2004 (UTC)
 * John Gohde [[User talk:Mr-Natural-Health|| Talk]] 17:24, 16 Jun 2004 (UTC) I wrote a lot of that version, including the definition. I still see a lot of things that need to be changed. For one, it is weak on the definitions of CAM and integrative medicine. How will this version reduce the constant editing?  It is only a matter of time before a certain ISP will re-introduce that stupid JREP prize.  The problem with this version is that there is no way to respond to these stupid criticisms.
 * But the point people are making is that a "support section" and a "critism" section make for a bad article.theresa knott 19:28, 16 Jun 2004 (UTC)
 * Hmm ... I'd actually disagree with that - it works on so many other articles. But I think one of the problems with this article is that the most ardent editors aren't writing for the POV they don't believe in properly - David Gerard 19:56, 16 Jun 2004 (UTC)
 * I agree with you there theresa knott 00:53, 17 Jun 2004 (UTC)
 * I link to the criticism section in terms and concepts in alternative medicine. How do you reference the criticisms without a section header? -- John Gohde [[User talk:Mr-Natural-Health|| Talk]] 19:59, 16 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Comment
 * Huh. Perhaps revert to a version from the end of last November. - David Gerard 13:25, 16 Jun 2004 (UTC)
 * Link please David theresa knott 14:22, 16 Jun 2004 (UTC)
 * I promise not to shoot my mouth off like that on a contentious talk page. The versions from then are pretty awful too. I have no vote on this matter. There's been a lot of good and potentially good material added to this article this year; whichever version we restarted from, it'd go through much the same process. Hence it being more about the editors than the starting text - David Gerard 15:08, 16 Jun 2004 (UTC)
 * I agree, which is why I'm not voting. I had no quarrel with the most recent versions, apart from the discussion I was having (which disappeared to the archive despite not having finished - near the end progress was being made), and I'll probably be editing that paragraph in whatever version end up as the main page. - Xgkkp 16:50, 16 Jun 2004 (UTC)
 * Sorry about archiving an ongoing discussion :-( theresa knott 19:28, 16 Jun 2004 (UTC)

A better idea
I would suggest that we start out by voting on the required content of theAlternative medicine article.

I will start out with: -- John Gohde [[User talk:Mr-Natural-Health|| Talk]] 20:29, 16 Jun 2004 (UTC)
 * 1) Definitions of alternative, complementary, CAM, and integrative medicine.
 * 2) Contemporary use of alternative medicine.

I can go along with this we'd also need:
 * 1) history   (History of alternative medicine already exists!)
 * 2) legal issue
 * 3) branches  (Branches of alternative medicine already exists!)
 * 4) Geographical or culteral differences

(They above are not meant to be section headers, just topics that should be addressed somewhere in the article) Every section should be written neutrally. All the facts and important opinions should be stated, (both for and against) and the reader should be left to decide. theresa knott

(The reader is not left to decide in iridology. So, why here? -- John Gohde [[User talk:Mr-Natural-Health|| Talk]] 02:09, 17 Jun 2004 (UTC))
 * You just can't help yourself can you? I'm not going to respond to flamebait theresa knott 07:38, 17 Jun 2004 (UTC)
 * Seems like a perfectly reasonable question to me. How can you claim that the reader should be left to decide on alternative medicine while on iridology the reader is spoon feed what they are supposed to believe? I would like an an answer to that question.  Now you want the alternative medicine article to look like precisely like an older version that was changed long ago for some kind of a hidden agenda. How about just unprotecting alternative medicine so that a collective of editors can edit it? This game of yours is starting to wear pretty thin. -- John Gohde | [[User talk:Mr-Natural-Health| Talk]] 01:00, 18 Jun 2004 (UTC)
 * You wanna talk about iridology? Use the iridology talk page. And no I will not unprotect AM so that more edit wars can start. Editors can edit the temp page. I will copy the temp page over to the real article once there is a reasonably ammount of support. theresa knott 07:58, 18 Jun 2004 (UTC)
 * Looks like every damned sentence will need to be referenced. (And I don't mean with newspaper anecdotes.) - David Gerard 21:02, 16 Jun 2004 (UTC)
 * No that would make the article impossible to read. theresa knott 01:02, 17 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Results of the polls

 * keep old version 1
 * use MNH's slimline version 1
 * revert to older version 3
 * do not revert to older version 2

So no consensus to do anything :-(

There has been a lot of cristism frim a lot of people saying the aricle is biased. Perhaps a complete rewrite is the only solution? Or does anyone else have any other ideas? theresa knott 08:09, 18 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * A survey released in May 2004 by the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine, part of the National Institutes of Health in the United States, found that in 2002, 43 percent of Americans pray for their own health, 24% pray for others health, and 10% participate in a prayer group for their own health.  Let us all pray for theresa knott, so that we may all once again edit alternative medicine in a peace that passeth all understanding. -- John Gohde | [[User talk:Mr-Natural-Health| Talk]] 09:20, 18 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * LOL I'm happy for people to pray for me, though since I am an atheist myself I am doomed to go to hell. in the meantime MNH you can still edit the temp page. theresa knott 09:42, 18 Jun 2004 (UTC)

New Call for a New Vote on a brand new minimal version
I have just completed a major re-write of Alternative medicine/temp (i.e, ) to follow a new cleaner and leaner version of alternative medicine. And, I would like to get a new vote on it. Otherwise, kindly unprotect alternative medicine Theresa knott, as nobody else is offerring any other suggestions. -- John Gohde | [[User talk:Mr-Natural-Health| Talk]] 18:35, 20 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Votes For new minimal version
Click here to view new minimal version.
 * 1) John Gohde | [[User talk:Mr-Natural-Health| Talk]] 18:37, 20 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Votes Against the new minimal version

 * 1) It's too minimal.  I don't understand what the objection is to having a "pro" and "con" section.  You can't sensibly write an article on this subject that doesn't even mention the placebo effect.  Obviously, though, you can't mention the placebo effect (a major issue raised by those hostile to CAM) yet omit major issues raised by proponents of CAM.  Therefore, as a practical matter, the article has to report both sides of the dispute, even if that does produce something of a "yes it is" - "no it isn't" tone.  JamesMLane 03:06, 25 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Votes For Another Version
Pre RK version. If he want to put those changes in he can discuss them like everyone else. MNH's version relies too much on one report that covers one small part of the globe.Geni

 * Yeah, my version relies on the facts rather than just the hot air of the malcontents! -- John Gohde | [[User talk:Mr-Natural-Health| Talk]] 00:13, 21 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * and includes very little useful informationGeni

Collection of links
Hi, James.

_of_Wikipedia_content_%28low_degree_of_compli ance%29#eBook_2u_.28http:.2F.2Fwww.ebook2u.co m.29 diff].
 * 1) There's no particular reason for a dmoz link to be included in this or most other articles. It doesn't (necessarily) add much more value to an article than linking to a Google search on the article's title and calling it "Search Google for ... ".
 * 2) A significant number of the dmoz links in current articles are despammed ebook2u links. They weren't added to Wikipedia in good faith [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Copies
 * 1) That link survived for almost 5 months as ebook2u spam and no-one seemed to misunderstand its link text: "Alternative Medicine Information". Why is "Alternative Medicine Directory" so much more confusing?
 * 2) Not everyone knows what dmoz is but most people seem to know what a directory is, given that the most popular site on the web is a directory.
 * 3) All web pages are "collections of links". If you believe that such words as "directory" or "dmoz" overestimate the cluefulness of Wikipedia readers, it strikes me that "collection of links" errs in the opposite direction.
 * 4) There are at least 30 other Wikipedia pages that assume the user either knows or doesn't care that "dmoz", "directory" and "Open Directory Project" refer to "collections of links". Do you plan to fix those pages as well?
 * 5) Should we also change all those IMDb links variously annotated as "IMDB page for ... ", "IMDb entry for... ", "IMDb filmography" to "collection of film links"? After all, not everyone knows what IMDb is.

chocolateboy 19:15, 29 Jun 2004 (UTC)

My response: I'll defer reverting in case you want to continue the discussion. After all the turmoil over this page, we certainly don't want to get in an edit war over something like this! JamesMLane 20:49, 29 Jun 2004 (UTC)
 * 1) I agree with you about not putting a dmoz link on everything in sight.  With this particular article, however, the dmoz link is valuable because "alternative medicine" covers so many different treatments.  A Google search for that phrase won't produce a set of references nicely organized by subtopic, which is provided by the dmoz page.
 * 2) The origin of the link doesn't matter.  There's a lot of valuable stuff in Wikipedia that wasn't added in good faith, but to promote someone's agenda.
 * 3) I didn't add the parenthetical because of the change from "information" to "directory."  My reason was rather the belief that it's a service to the readers to give them an idea of what they'll find at an external link.  They'll normally assume they'll find some additional substantive content they can read; they should be notified if it's just links, or isn't in English, etc.
 * 4) In this context, a "directory" could well be a list of alternative medicine practitioners by state.
 * 5) You're right that most web sites do include links.  The difference is that they also have some text, which a reader pursuing a link from this article might want to read.  The point about noting this site as a collection of links is that it has essentially no other information.
 * No, I have no such plan. I added two parentheses and three words to this article because I was working on this article.  The issue is whether the change is an improvement here, not whether there are numerous other improvements someone could make to numerous other articles.  Wikipedia will never be completed.
 * 1) An IMDb link doesn't need explanation under the philosophy I detailed above.  Clicking on a link to IMDb does get you more information about the subject, which is what the reader would generally expect from an external link.  An IMDb entry isn't just a collection of links.  (It's also better known than dmoz, especially to someone who's at an article about a film.)

Thanks for your reply, and thanks for giving me enough time to work out that you're right :-)

I've added a new version which I hope is acceptable.

In the spirit of this article's illustrious martial history, I've listed a bunch of forthright objections to your points above, even though I agree with you and hope we've reached a consensus :-) They're really objections to the "collection of links" wording rather than to your underlying point.

 * 1) Fair enough.
 * 2) They weren't added to promote an agenda, which I agree is no (intrinsically) bad thing; they were added to drive traffic to a commercial site. There's a difference between POV and spam.
 * 3) I agree with your reasoning, which is precisely why I think the description should be technically correct. "Collection of links" (or "just links") could refer to Robot Wisdom, a discussion thread, or a porn link farm. In addition, it doesn't do justice to the carefully (manually) classified, hierarchically organized Web directory concept at all. It's as likely to discourage a surfer who might benefit from the link as it is to protect one whose time (or bandwidth) would otherwise be squandered.
 * 4) Given that that's precisely what the third link on the page points to I doubt there'd be much confusion. The word "directory" wasn't chosen randomly.
 * 5) That makes it sound like it's links all the way down, link-farm stylee. Of course, that's not the case. Click on any of the top-level links and you'll find the text you crave.
 * 6) We could all implement experimental micro-policies (which is what I consider that annotation to be - a kind of subtitle for the surfing-impaired, a disability we don't usually, as far as I know, impute to our gentle readers), but without consensus I don't see how one could expect them to avoid being reverted back to the prevailing norm. I suppose I asked because I imagine that if you undertook such a task, you might meet some resistance in other quarters, perhaps from people able to express the "if it ain't broke, don't fix it" philosophy better than me. Then again, you might be garlanded with laurels and greeted with rapturous rounds of applause :-) Just to be clear: I don't have any problem with the idea of a link being annotated in cases where the target is, as you say, written in a foreign language, or a PDF, or where the title alone doesn't reveal much, or where the site is virulently POV or not worksafe or whatever. I just don't think this link falls into the special treatment category any more than the other dmoz links.
 * 7) Fair enough. But Yahoo is better known than any other site in the solar system and displays these words prominently on its front page: "Web Site Directory - Sites organized by subject". It doesn't say: "Web Site Directory (collection of links) - Sites organized by subject". If it did, I think it would arouse no small degree of inadvertent mirth. In the context of the web, people know what a directory is.

chocolateboy 02:15, 30 Jun 2004 (UTC)

I can live with your version. As for your other comments, I've had much experience in volunteer organizations before ever discovering Wikipedia. The most important rule for a volunteer to remember is: "Never expect gratitude." If I somehow find myself being "garlanded with laurels and greeted with rapturous rounds of applause," fine, but I ain't holdin' my breath. :) JamesMLane 03:13, 30 Jun 2004 (UTC)

chocolateboy 04:16, 30 Jun 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Alternative medicine/Archive 9


text: Category:Barcodes

title: Category:Barcodes


text:
LGA 775

LGA 775 (land grid array 775), also known as Socket T, is an Intel desktop CPU socket. Unlike PGA CPU sockets, such as its predecessor Socket 478, LGA 775 has no socket holes; instead, it has 775 protruding pins which touch contact points on the underside of the processor (CPU).

Intel started selling LGA 775 (Socket T) CPUs with the 64-bit version of their 90 nm "Prescott"-based Pentium 4 HT.

The socket had an unusually long life span, lasting 7 years until the last processors supporting it ceased production in 2011. The socket was superseded by the LGA 1156 (Socket H) and LGA 1366 (Socket B) sockets.

LGA 775 processors
(Note: Some of the processors listed here might not work on newer Intel based chipsets; see "LGA 775 compatibility" below.)

 * Pentium 4
 * Pentium 4 Extreme Edition
 * Pentium D
 * Celeron/Celeron D
 * Pentium Dual-Core
 * Pentium Extreme Edition
 * Core 2 Duo/Core 2 Quad
 * Core 2 Extreme

Heatsink design
For LGA 775, the distance between the screw-holes for the heatsink is 72 mm. Such heat-sinks are not interchangeable with heatsinks for sockets that have a distance of 75 mm, such as LGA 1156, LGA 1155, LGA 1150, LGA 1151 and LGA 1200.

Chipsets
LGA 775 was the last Intel socket for desktops for which third-party companies manufactured chipsets. Nvidia was the last third-party manufacturer of LGA 775 chipsets (its final product was MCP7A family, marketed as GeForce 9300/9400, launched in October 2008), as other third-parties discontinued their products earlier. All chipsets for superseding sockets were exclusively designed and manufactured by Intel, a practice later also adopted by AMD when they first launched APUs in 2011 (Socket AM3+ processors, also launched in 2011, were usually paired with motherboard with AMD chipsets, but some motherboards using third-party chipsets were also manufactured, usually with Nvidia chipsets, as the Socket AM3+ design was directly extended from the earlier Socket AM3 design).

Core 2 Chipsets
945PLS3
 * Lakeport: 945PL / 945P / 945G / 945GC / 945GZ / 955X / 946PL / 946GZ P
 * Broadwater: i955X / i946 / 946GZ / PL / 965 / i975 / Q965 / P965 / G965 / Q963 / i975X
 * Bearlake: X35 / P35 / Q35 / G35 / P33 / G33 / Q33 / P31 / G31 / X38 / X48
 * Eaglelake: P45 / P43 / G45 / G43 / G41 / B43 / Q43 / Q45

SiS

 * SiS 649
 * 649FX
 * 655
 * 656
 * 656FX
 * 662
 * 671
 * 671FX
 * 671DX
 * 672

VIA

 * PT800
 * PM800
 * PT880
 * PM880
 * P4M800
 * P4M800 Pro
 * PT880 Pro
 * PT880 Ultra
 * PT894
 * PT894 Pro
 * P4M890
 * PT890
 * P4M900

PT880 Pro also supports AGP and PCI-Express at the same time, but only one port can be used at a time.

ATI

 * ATI Radeon Xpress 200
 * ATI Radeon Xpress 1250
 * ATI CrossFire Xpress 3200

Nvidia

 * nForce4 Ultra
 * nForce4 SLI XE
 * nForce4 SLI;
 * nForce4 SLI X16
 * nForce 570 SLI
 * nForce 590 SLI
 * nForce 610i
 * nForce 620i
 * nForce 630i
 * nForce 650i Ultra
 * nForce 650i SLI
 * nForce 680i LT SLI
 * nForce 680i SLI
 * nForce 730i
 * nForce 740i SLI
 * nForce 750i SLI
 * nForce 760i SLI
 * nForce 780i SLI
 * nForce 790i SLI
 * GeForce 9300
 * GeForce 9400

Improvements in heat dissipation
The force from the load plate ensures that the processor is completely level, giving the CPU's upper surface optimal contact with the heat sink or cold-water block fixed onto the top of the CPU to carry away the heat generated by the CPU. This socket also introduces a new method of connecting the heat dissipation interface to the chip surface and motherboard. With LGA 775, the heat dissipation interface is connected directly to the motherboard on four points, compared with the two connections of Socket 370 and the "clamshell" four-point connection of Socket 478. This was done to avoid the reputed danger of the heat sinks/fans of pre-built computers falling off in transit. LGA 775 was announced to have better heat dissipation properties than the Socket 478 it was designed to replace, but the Prescott core CPUs (in their early incarnations) ran much hotter than the previous Northwood-core Pentium 4 CPUs, and this initially neutralized the benefits of better heat transfer. However, the later Core 2 processors run at much lower temperatures than the Prescott CPUs they replaced.

Processors with lower TDP and clock speeds only used Thermal Interface Compound in between the die and the integrated heat spreader (IHS), while processors with higher TDP and clock speeds have the die soldered directly to the IHS, allowing for better heat transfer between the CPU and the integrated heat spreader.

LGA 775 mechanical load limits
All LGA 775 processors have the following mechanical maximum load limits which should not be exceeded during heat sink assembly, shipping conditions, or standard use. Load above those limits could crack the processor die and make it unusable. The limits are included in the table below. The transition to the LGA packaging has lowered those load limits, which are smaller than the load limits of Socket 478 processors but they are bigger than Socket 370, Socket 423 and Socket A processors, which were fragile. They are large enough to ensure that processors will not crack.

LGA 775 compatibility
Compatibility is quite variable, as earlier chipsets (Intel 915 and below) tend to support only single core NetBurst Pentium 4 and Celeron CPUs at an FSB of 533/800 MT/s.

Intermediate chipsets (e.g. Intel 945) commonly support both single core Pentium 4-based CPUs as well as dual core Pentium D processors. Some motherboards using the 945 chipset could be given a BIOS upgrade to support 65nm Core-based processors. Other chipsets have varying levels of CPU support, generally following the release of contemporary CPUs, as LGA 775 CPU support is a complicated mixture of chipset capability, voltage regulator limitations and BIOS support. For example, the newer Q45 chipset does not support NetBurst-based CPUs such as the Pentium 4, Pentium D, Pentium Extreme Edition, and Celeron D.

Virtualization capabilities
Some Core 2 and other LGA 775 processors are capable of hardware-accelerated virtualization. However, more recent hypervisors might not be compatible with these CPUs because they lack support for Extended Page Tables.

title: LGA 775


text:
Black Bull

Black Bull may refer to
 * The British 11th Armoured Division
 * Western Cattle in Storm, a $1 postage stamp in the Trans-Mississippi Issue set
 * Black Bull, an comics imprint of Wizard Entertainment
 * The Black Bull of Clarence, one of the ten heraldic Queen's Beasts
 * Blackbull, Queensland, a locality in Australia
 * Black Bull of Norroway, a Scottish fairy tale
 * Black Bull (Scotch whisky)
 * Black Bull railway station
 * The Black Bull (film), a 1959 Mexican film
 * "Black Bull" (song), a 2019 song by Foals

title: Black Bull


text:
Talk:History of Azerbaijan/Torkaman-Chay Treaty

Torkaman-Chay Treaty, the treaty that was signed on February 1828 by the governments of Iran and Russia in the Torkaman-Chay village [in Iran's East Azarbaijan], after a series of violent wars in Caucausia and Azarbaijan between the Iranian and Russian forces. The treaty consists of two parts. (1) The political treaty, that replaced the Golestan Treaty and, according to it, the Iranian government turned over Nakhjavan [Naxçivan] and Irvan [Yerevan] to Russia and accepted to pay five million current tomans or twenty million silver manats to Russians as damages. According to the seventh chapter of the treaty, the Russian emperor confirmed the right of Abbas Mirza and his descendants to reign Iran. (2) The trade treaty, [...]

''The above article is based on the 1966 Persian Encyclopedia and may be a copyright violation. Please don't use for anything but reference.''


text:
Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District

Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District or Lady MacBeth of Mtensk may refer to:
 * Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District (novel), by Nikolai Leskov
 * Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District (opera), by Dimitri Shostakovich
 * Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District (film), film directed by Roman Balayan
 * Siberian Lady Macbeth, film directed by Andrzej Wajda

title: Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District


text:
Yakovlev Yak-3

The Yakovlev Yak-3 (Russian: Яковлев Як-3) was a single-engine, single-seat World War II Soviet fighter. Robust and easy to maintain, it was much liked by both pilots and ground crew. One of the smallest and lightest combat fighters fielded by any combatant during the war, its high power-to-weight ratio gave it excellent performance and it proved to be a formidable dogfighter.

Origins
The origins of the Yak-3 went back to 1941 when the I-30 prototype was offered along with the I-26 (Yak-1) as an alternative design. The I-30, powered by a Klimov M-105P engine, was of all-metal construction, using a wing with dihedral on the outer panels. Like the early Yak-1, it had a 20 mm ShVAK cannon firing through the hollow-driveshaft nose spinner as a motornaya pushka (моторная пушка - Literally: 'Motor Cannon'), twin 7.62 mm synchronized ShKAS machine guns in cowling mounts and a ShVAK cannon in each wing.

During the Battle of Stalingrad, Luftwaffe fighters exhibited significant speed, climb rate, and armament advantages over those of the VVS. The Yak-1 then in service was understood to be in urgent need of a modernization were it to fight on equal footing against the latest models of German fighters, as well as better energy retention and higher firepower.

Then, in 1943, a group of designers headed by Alexander Sergeyevich Yakovlev designed the Yak-3, a further development of the proven Yak-1 aimed at improving survivability, flight characteristics and firepower, which required a lower weight, a higher-power engine and therefore, faster speed.

Design and development
The first of two prototypes had a slatted wing to improve handling and short-field performance while the second prototype had a wooden wing without slats in order to simplify production and save aluminium. The second prototype crashed during flight tests and was written off. Although there were plans to put the Yak-3 into production, the scarcity of aviation aluminium and the pressure of the Nazi invasion led to work on the first Yak-3 being abandoned in late 1941.

In between 1942 and 1943, Yakovlev built the Yak-1M, a prototype that would ultimately lead to the Yak-3, coupled with the VK-105PF2, the latest iteration of the VK-105 engine family, where "P" indicated support for a motornaya pushka - an autocannon that fires between the engine banks, through the hollow propeller shaft - mounting. It incorporated a wing of similar design but with smaller surface area (17.15 to 14.85 m2), and had further aerodynamic refinements, like the new placement of the oil radiator, from the chin to the wing roots (one of the visual differences with the Yak-1, -7, -9). A second Yak-1M (originally meant as a "backup") prototype was constructed later that year, differing from the first aircraft in that it had plywood instead of fabric covering of the rear fuselage, mastless radio antenna, reflector gunsight and improved armour and engine cooling.

After the VK-105PF2 engine received a boost from a manifold pressure of 1050 mmHg to 1100 mmHg, additional tests were needed to determine how it impacted the flight characteristics of the Yak-3. State trials revealed that this boost reduced the time needed to reach 5000 m by 0.1 seconds, the takeoff run by 15 m, altitude gain in a combat loop by 50 m, and speed below 2400 m by 5 - 6 km/h.

The chief test pilot for the project Petr Mikhailovich Stefanovskiy was so impressed with the new aircraft that he recommended that it should completely replace the Yak-1 and Yak-7 with only the Yak-9 retained in production for further work with the Klimov VK-107 engine. The new fighter, designated the Yak-3, entered service in 1944, later than the Yak-9 despite the lower designation number, and by mid-1946 4,848 had been built.

The designation Yak-3 was also used for other Yakovlev projects – a proposed but never built, heavy twin-engine fighter and the Yakovlev Yak-7A.

The first 197 Yak-3 were lightly armed with a single motornaya pushka-mount 20 mm ShVAK cannon and one 12.7 mm UBS synchronized machine gun, with subsequent aircraft receiving a second UBS for a weight of fire of 2.72 kg per second using high-explosive ammunition. All armament was installed close to the axis of the aircraft with a cannon mounted in the engine "vee" firing through the propeller boss, synchronised machine guns in the fuselage, helping accuracy and leaving wings unloaded.

Operational history
Lighter and smaller than the Yak-9 but powered by the same engine, the Yak-3 was a forgiving, easy-to-handle aircraft loved by both novice and experienced pilots. It was robust, easy to maintain and a highly successful dog-fighter. It was used mostly as a tactical fighter, flying low over battlefields and engaging in dogfights below 4000 m.

The new aircraft began to reach frontline units during summer 1944. Yak-3 service tests were conducted by 91st IAP of the 2nd Air Army, commanded by Lt Colonel Kovalyov, in June–July 1944. The regiment had the task of gaining air superiority. During 431 sorties, 20 Luftwaffe fighters and three Junkers Ju 87s were shot down while Soviet losses amounted to two Yak-3s shot down. A large dogfight developed on 16 June 1944, when 18 Yak-3s clashed with 24 German aircraft. Soviet Yak-3 fighters shot down 15 German aircraft for the loss of one Yak destroyed and one damaged. The following day, Luftwaffe activity over that section of the front had virtually ceased. On 17 July 1944, eight Yaks attacked a formation of 60 German aircraft, including escorting fighters. In the ensuing dogfight, the Luftwaffe lost three Ju 87s and four Bf 109Gs, for no loss. The Luftwaffe issued an order to "avoid combat below five thousand metres with Yakovlev fighters lacking an oil cooler intake beneath the nose!" Luftwaffe fighters in combat with the Yak-3 tried to use surprise tactics, attacking from above.

Unresolved wartime problems with the Yak-3 included plywood surfaces delaminating when the aircraft pulled out of a high-speed dive, short-range and poor engine reliability. The pneumatic system for actuating landing gear, flaps and brakes, typical for all Yakovlev fighters of the time, was troublesome. Though less reliable than hydraulic or electrical alternatives, the pneumatic system was preferred owing to the weight saving.

In 1944, the Normandie-Niemen Group re-equipped with the Yak-3, scoring the last 99 of their 273 air victories against the Luftwaffe.

Total Yak-3 losses in combat were 210, 60 in 1944 and 150 in 1945.

Variants

 * Yak-3: main production version
 * Yak-3 (VK-107A): Klimov VK-107A engine with 1230 kW and 2 × 20 mm Berezin B-20 cannons with 120 rpg. After several mixed-construction prototypes, 48 all-metal production aircraft were built in 1945–1946 during and after WW2. Despite excellent performance (720 km/h at 5750 m), it saw only limited squadron service with the 897th IAP. Though the problems with the VK-107 overheating were eventually mitigated, it was decided to leave the engine for the better-suited Yak-9.
 * Yak-3 (VK-108): Yak-3 (VK-107A) modified with VK-108 engine with 1380 kW, and armed a single 23 mm Nudelman-Suranov NS-23 cannon with 60 rounds of ammunition. The aircraft reached 745 km/h at 6290 m in testing but suffered from significant engine overheating. Another Yak-3 with 2 × 20 mm Berezin B-20 cannons was also fitted with the engine with similar results.
 * Yak-3K: Armed with a 45 mm Nudelman-Suranov NS-45 cannon, only a few built because Yak-9K was a better match for the weapon
 * Yak-3P: Production started after war armed with 3 × 20 mm Berezin B-20 cannon with 120 rounds for the middle cannon and 130 rpg for the side weapons. A total of 596 being built, none of them took part in combat. The three-cannon armament with full ammunition load was actually 11 kg lighter than that of a standard Yak-3, and the one-second burst mass of 3.52 kg was greater than that of most contemporary fighters.
 * Yak-3PD: high-altitude interceptor with Klimov VK-105PD engine and a single 23 mm Nudelman-Suranov NS-23 cannon with 60 rounds of ammunition, reached 13300 m in testing but did not enter production due to unreliability of the engine.
 * Yak-3RD (Yak-3D): experimental aircraft with an auxiliary Glushko RD-1 liquid-fuel rocket engine with 2.9 kN of thrust in the modified tail, armed with a single 23 mm Nudelman-Suranov NS-23 cannon with 60 rounds of ammunition. On 11 May 1945, the aircraft reached 782 km/h at 7800 m. During the 16 August test flight, the aircraft crashed for unknown reasons, killing the test pilot V.L. Rastorguev. Like all mixed powerplant aircraft of the time, the project was abandoned in favor of turbojet engines.
 * Yak-3T: tank destroyer version armed with 1 × 37 mm Nudelman N-37 cannon with 25 rounds and 2 × 20 mm Berezin B-20S cannons with 100 rpg. Cockpit was moved 0.4 m back to compensate for the heavier nose. Engine modifications required to accept the weapons resulted in serious overheating problems which were never fixed and the aircraft did not advance beyond the prototype stage.
 * Yak-3T-57: single Yak-3T with a 57 mm OKB-16-57 cannon
 * Yak-3TK: powered by a VK-107A engine, and fitted with an exhaust turbocharger.
 * Yak-3U: Yak-3 fitted with Shvetsov ASh-82FN radial engine with 1380 kW in an attempt to increase performance while avoiding the overheating problems of VK-107 and VK-108. Wingspan increased by 20 cm, wings moved 22 cm forward, cockpit raised by 8 cm. Armament of 2 × 20 mm Berezin B-20 cannons with 120 rpg. The prototype reached 682 km/h at 6000 m and while successful did not enter production because it was completed after the war.
 * Yak-3UTI: two-seat conversion trainer based on Yak-3U powered by Shvetsov ASh-21 radial piston engine. The aircraft became the prototype for the Yak-11.

Operators

 * 🇫🇷: Normandie-Niemen squadron
 * 🇵🇱: Air Force of the Polish Army
 * Soviet Air Force
 * SFR Yugoslav Air Force
 * 111th Fighter Aviation Regiment (1944–48)
 * 113th Fighter Aviation Regiment (1945–48)
 * 112th Fighter Aviation Regiment (1945–48)
 * 254th Fighter Aviation Regiment (1944–48)
 * 83rd Fighter Aviation Regiment (1948–52)
 * 116th Fighter Aviation Regiment (1948–52)
 * 185th Mixed Aviation Regiment (1949–52)
 * 198th Fighter Aviation Regiment (1949–52)
 * 204th Fighter Aviation Regiment (1949–50)

Modern production Yak fighters
From 1991 to 2002 there were 21 Yakovlev Yak-3, Yak-7 and Yak-9 aircraft produced in the former Soviet Union using the original plans and dies. These aircraft are powered by the American Allison V-1710 or the Pratt & Whitney R-1830 Twin Wasp engine in place of the Klimov V-12s used during the war. Several of these aircraft are airworthy, mostly based in the United States with others in Germany, Australia and New Zealand. Others have been converted to "Yak-3U" status from original Yak-11 trainers for private owners and museums.

Flying a modified modern production Yak-3UPW powered by a Pratt & Whitney R-2000 engine, William Whiteside set an official international speed record for piston-engined aircraft in the under-3000 kg category on 10 October 2011, reaching 655 km/h over a 3 km course at the Bonneville Salt Flats in Utah in the United States, greatly exceeding the previous record of 491 km/h set in 2002 by Jim Wright. The following day, Whiteside used the same aircraft to set an unofficial speed record for aircraft in the category of 670 km/h over the same 3-km (1.863-mile) course.

title: Yakovlev Yak-3


text:
Socket 423

Socket 423 is a 423-pin CPU socket used by Intel's first generation of Pentium 4 processors based on the Willamette core.

This socket was short-lived, as it became apparent that its electrical design proved inadequate for raising clock speeds beyond 2.0 GHz. Intel produced chips using this socket for less than a year, from November 2000 to August 2001.

Socket 423 was replaced by Socket 478 in 2001. Socket 478, being microPGA, was cheaper to manufacture than Socket 423.

Technical specifications
Socket 423 was designed to house any processor in the Socket 423 package.

All processors using this socket have a locked multiplier, meaning that they are not overclockable unless the front side bus frequency is increased. Doing this, however could push other buses out of spec, causing erratic behaviors such as system instability and premature failure.

The "PowerLeap PL-P4/N" is a device developed in the form of a socket adapter that allows the use of Socket 478 processors in Socket 423 motherboards.

title: Socket 423


text:
Evagoras I

Evagoras or Euagoras (Εὐαγόρας) was the king of Salamis (411–374 BC) in Cyprus, known especially from the work of Isocrates, who presents him as a model ruler.

History
He claimed descent from Teucer, the son of Telamon and half-brother of Ajax, and his family had long been rulers of Salamis, although during his childhood, Salamis came under Phoenician control, which resulted in his exile. While in Cilicia, Evagoras gathered the support of 50 followers and returned secretly in 410 BC, to gain possession of the throne. Expecting an eventual Persian response to recapture Cyprus, he cultivated the friendship of the Athenians, and after Conon's defeat at the Battle of Aegospotami he provided him with a refuge. For a time, he also maintained friendly relations with the Achaemenid Empire, and secured the aid of Artaxerxes II for Athens against Lacedaemon. He took part in the Battle of Cnidus of 394 BC which he provided most of the resources for and in which the Lacedaemonian fleet was defeated thanks to his efforts, and for this service his statue was placed by the Athenians side by side with that of Conon in the Ceramicus. However, relations between Evagoras and the Persians became strained. From 391 BC, they were virtually at war. Aided by the Athenians and the Egyptian king Hakor (Achoris), Evagoras extended his rule over the greater part of Cyprus, crossed over to Asia Minor, took several cities in Phoenicia (including Tyre), and persuaded the Cilicians to revolt.

One result of the Peace of Antalcidas (387 BC), to which Evagoras refused to agree, was that the Athenians withdrew their support, since by its terms they recognized the lordship of Persia over Cyprus. The following years Evagoras carried on hostilities single-handed, except for occasional aid from Egypt, which was likewise threatened by the Persians. While Evagoras was in Egypt asking for help, his younger son Pnytagoras was in charge of Salamis. The Persian generals Tiribazus and Orontes at last invaded Cyprus in 385 BC, with an army far larger than what Evagoras could command. However, Evagoras managed to cut off this force from being resupplied, and the starving troops rebelled. The war then turned in the Persian favor when Evagoras' fleet was destroyed at the Battle of Citium, and he was compelled to flee to Salamis. Here, although closely blockaded, Evagoras managed to hold his ground, and took advantage of a quarrel between the two Persian generals to conclude peace (376 BC). Evagoras was allowed to remain nominally king of Salamis, but in reality a vassal of Persia, to which he was to pay a yearly tribute. The chronology of the last part of his reign is uncertain. In 374 BC, he was assassinated by a eunuch from motives of private revenge. He was succeeded by his son, Nicocles.

According to Isocrates's Panegyricus, Evagoras was a model ruler, whose aim was to promote the welfare of his state and of his subjects by the cultivation of Greek refinement and civilization. Isocrates also states that many people migrated from Greece to Cyprus because of the noble rule of Evagoras. Other sources of this period—Diodorus Siculus 14.115, 15.2-9; Xenophon, Hellenica 4.8—are not as unrestrainedly complimentary. Lysias in his Against Andocides 6.28 addresses him as the king of Cyprus.

Although Cypriots were Greeks and their language a dialect of Greek, the Arcadocypriot, they used to write in an older and more difficult system, called the Cypriot syllabary. Evagoras has been called a pioneer of the adoption of the Greek alphabet in Cyprus in place of the older Cypriot syllabary.

title: Evagoras I


text:
Phronesis

 (φρόνησις) is a type of wisdom or intelligence concerned with practical action. It implies both good judgment and excellence of character and habits, and was a common topic of discussion in ancient Greek philosophy. Classical works about this topic are still influential today. In Aristotelian ethics, the concept was distinguished from other words for wisdom and intellectual virtues—such as and —because of its practical character. The traditional Latin translation is prudentia, which is the source of the English word "prudence".

Aristotle and Plato
In some of Plato's dialogues, Socrates proposes that is a necessary condition for all virtue. Being good is to be an intelligent or reasonable person with intelligent and reasonable thoughts. Having allows a person to have moral or ethical strength.

In Plato's Meno, Socrates explains how, a quality synonymous with moral understanding, is the most important attribute to learn, although it cannot be taught and is instead gained through the development of the understanding of one's own self.

Aristotle
In the sixth book of his Nicomachean Ethics, Plato's student Aristotle distinguished between two intellectual virtues: (wisdom) and, and described the relationship between them and other intellectual virtues. is a combination of, the ability to discern reality, and , which is concerned with things which "could not be otherwise... e.g., the necessary truths of mathematics" and is logically built up and teachable. This involves reasoning concerning universal truths. involves not only the ability to decide how to achieve a certain end, but also the ability to reflect upon and determine good ends consistent with the aim of living well overall.

Aristotle points out that although is higher and more serious than, the highest pursuit of wisdom and happiness requires both, because  facilitates. He also associates with political ability.

According to Aristotle's theory of rhetoric, is one of the three types of appeal to character. The other two are respectively appeals to (virtue) and  (goodwill).

Gaining requires experience, according to Aristotle who wrote that:"...although the young may be experts in geometry and mathematics and similar branches of knowledge [sophoi], we do not consider that a young man can have Prudence [phronimos]. The reason is that Prudence [phronesis] includes a knowledge of particular facts, and this is derived from experience, which a young man does not possess; for experience is the fruit of years."

is concerned with particulars, because it is concerned with how to act in particular situations. One can learn the principles of action, but applying them in the real world, in situations one could not have foreseen, requires experience of the world. For example, if one knows that one should be honest, in certain situations one might act in ways that cause pain and offense; knowing how to apply honesty in balance with other considerations and in specific contexts requires experience.

Aristotle holds that having is both necessary and sufficient for being virtuous: because  is practical, it is impossible to be both  and ; i.e., prudent persons cannot act against their "better judgement".

Heidegger
In light of his fundamental ontology, Martin Heidegger interprets Aristotle in such a way that phronesis (and practical philosophy as such) is the original form of knowledge and thus prior to sophia (and theoretical philosophy).

Heidegger interprets the Nicomachean Ethics as an ontology of human existence. The practical philosophy of Aristotle is a guiding thread in his Being and Time according to which "facticity" names our unique mode of being-in-the-world. Through his "existential analytic", Heidegger says "Aristotelian phenomenology" suggests three fundamental —,, and —and that these have three corresponding dispositions: , , and. Heidegger considers these as modalities of Being inherent in the structure of Dasein as being-in-the-world that is situated within the context of concern and care. According to Heidegger in Aristotle's work discloses the right and proper way to Dasein. Heidegger sees as a mode of comportment in and toward the world, a way of orienting oneself and thus of caring-seeing-knowing and enabling a particular way of being concerned.

While is a way of being concerned with things and principles of production, and  a way of being concerned with eternal principles,  is a way of being concerned with one's life (qua action) and with the lives of others and all particular circumstances as. is a disposition or habit, which while deliberation is the mode of bringing about the disclosive appropriation of that action. In other words, deliberation is the way in which the phronetic nature of is made manifest.

is a form of circumspection, connected to conscience and resoluteness of human existence (Dasein) as. As such it discloses the concrete possibilities of being in a situation, as the starting point of meaningful action, processed with resolution, while facing the contingencies of life.

Heidegger's ontologisation has been criticised as that.

Other uses in psychology
According to Kristjansson, Fowers, Darnell and Pollard, Phronesis is about making decisions in regards to moral events or circumstances. There is recent work to bring back the virtue of practical judgement to overcome disagreements and conflicts in the form of Aristotle’s phronesis.

In Aristotle’s work, is the intellectual virtue that helps turn one’s moral instincts into practical action by inculcating the practical know-how to translate virtue in thought into concrete successful action and this will produce  by being able to weigh up the most integral parts of various virtues and competing goals in moral situations. Moral virtues help any person to achieve the end,, is what it takes to figure out the right means to gain that end. Without moral virtues, degenerates into an inability to make practical actions in regards to ends that are genuine goods for man and without  we may be lost in regards to exercising decisive judgment on any moral matter. The concept of includes the  that is the "well-being for all in society."

The common wisdom model was developed by Grossmann, Weststrate, Ardelt, et al. as explaining the foundation for making moral functioning to occur and by strategy for fitting it to the context of the situation at hand, using major scholars research on the idea that wisdom is best described as morally-grounded excellence in social-cognitive processing, by empirical wisdom scientists. Moral grounding is what the researchers found that the following is the moral basis: "balance of self-interests and other interests, pursuit of truth (as opposed to dishonesty), and orientation toward shared humanity". Secondly this means excellence in social cognitive processing: "context adaptability (e.g. practical or pragmatic reasoning, optimization of behavior towards achieving certain outcomes), perspectivism (e.g. considering diverse perspectives, foresight and long-term thinking), dialectical and reflective thinking (e.g. balancing and integrating points of view, entertaining opposites), and epistemic modesty (e.g. unbiased/accurate thinking, looking through illusions, understanding your own limitations)."

In the social sciences
In After Virtue, Alasdair MacIntyre called for a phronetic social science. He points out that for every prediction made by a social scientific theory there are usually counter-examples. Hence the unpredictability of human beings and human life requires a focus on practical experiences.

In his book Cognitive Capitalism, The psychologist Heiner Rindermann uses the term to describe a rational approach of thinking and acting: "a circumspect and thoughtful way of life in a rational manner". Intelligence supports such a "burgher" lifestyle.

title: Phronesis