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Fu Hao

Fu Hao died c.  1200 BC, posthumous temple name Mu Xin (母辛), was one of the many wives of King Wu Ding of the Shang dynasty and also served as a military general and high priestess. Minimal evidence detailing Fu Hao's life and military achievements survived the Shang dynasty, and the records may have perished over the course of time.

The Tomb of Fu Hao was unearthed intact in 1976 at Yinxu by archaeologist Zheng Zhenxiang, with treasures - known as her 700+ jade objects (Fu Hao was a collector, so some were already antiques), and also her collection of more than 500 bone objects, such as oracle bones (they were from her role as a religious priestess, and were used in her many rituals). Along with the jade and bone objects, Fu Hao was buried with 6 dogs, and 16 human sacrifices. Inside the pit was evidence of a wooden chamber 5 m long, 3.5 m wide and 1.3 m high containing a lacquered wooden coffin that has since completely disintegrated. The tomb of Fu Hao provides the most insight into her life, her relationship with the royal family, and her military role and achievements - as the objects she was buried with provide clues to her activities and interests.

Biography
What is known is that King Wu Ding cultivated the allegiance of neighbouring tribes by marrying one woman from each of them. Fu Hao (who was believed to be one of the king's 64 wives) entered the royal household through such a marriage and took advantage of the semi-matriarchal slave society to rise through the ranks to become one of King Wu Ding's three consorts. She may have come from the border or from the Steppe, as suggested by the assortment of weapons in her tomb.

The other two wives were Fu Jing (婦妌) and Fu Shi (婦嬕). Fu Jing was the primary queen while Fu Hao was the secondary queen. Fu Hao was also the mother of Prince Zu Ji. Oracle bone inscriptions show concern for her well-being at the time of the birth.

The activities of priestess and ritual matters of China only exist in the Shang dynasty, so some evidence is vague. Since each Chinese character like Fu (婦) often has variable meanings, even with the oracle bones of Shang deciphered, it is possible that women like Fu Hao were originally priestesses instead of the king's wives; she just happened to marry the king later. That is to say, the meaning of "wife" in some contexts may actually refer to a position as priestess.

Fu Hao owned her land. According to the oracle bones, she offered the king remarkably valuable tributes many times. Although the Shang king had control over ritual matters, which constituted the most important political activity of the day, oracle bone inscriptions show that Wu Ding repeatedly instructed Fu Hao to conduct the most special rituals and to offer sacrifices to the ancestors. The Shang dynasty had two most important activities: ritual matters and battles; Lady Hao played extraordinary roles in both at that time.

Military role
Fu Hao is known to modern scholars mainly from inscriptions on Shang dynasty oracle bone artifacts unearthed at Yinxu. From these inscriptions and from the presence of weapons in her tomb, it can be determined that Fu Hao was a general in charge of several military campaigns for the Shang dynasty.

In her military role, she was responsible for conquering enemies and neighbours of the Shang dynasty. The Tufang (土方) had fought against the Shang for generations until they were finally defeated by Fu Hao in a single decisive battle. Further campaigns against the neighbouring Yi, Qiang and Ba followed; the latter is particularly remembered for being the earliest recorded large-scale ambush in Chinese history. With up to 13,000 soldiers and important generals Zhi and Hou Gao serving under her, she was the most powerful Shang general of her time.

This highly unusual status is confirmed by the many weapons, including great battle-axes, unearthed in her tomb.

While Fu Hao's achievements were notable and unique, other women in this period were also active in military roles; in a similar manner Fu Jing was also thought to have served in the military based on the presence of many weapons and military equipment in her tomb. Oracle bones also revealed records of at least six hundred women participating in the military during this era.

Tomb
Remarkably, after her death Fu Hao was buried in a tomb on her land across the river from the main royal cemetery, even though usually the royal families were buried together. She died well in advance of King Wu Ding, who constructed her tomb at his capital Yin.

Because of its location, Lady Hao's tomb is the only royal Shang tomb to have been left unnoticed and unlooted, giving unique insights into her life and the burial practices of the time. The King later made many sacrifices there in hopes of receiving her spiritual assistance in defeating the attacking Gong, who threatened to wipe out the Shang completely. This shows his great favor towards Hao and after her death, he had her married to the three greatest kings before him. The tomb was unearthed by archaeologists in 1976 and is now open to the public.

The tomb itself was only a 5.6 by pit that contains a smaller, 5 m, 3.5 m, and 1.3 m wooden structure within. The inside was packed with burial sacrifices and wealth which signified Lady Hao's prodigious position.

She was buried with a large and varied quantity of weapons signifying her important martial status, since only warriors and generals were buried with such objects. Additionally, Fu Hao was entombed with hundreds of bronze, jade, bone, and stone objects such as figurines, vessels, and mirrors, many of which were rare objects from around the kingdom. These objects are some of the best preserved from that time period. The sacrificial bronze vessels and tortoise shells inscribed prepared by Fu Hao discovered in her tomb are further evidence of her status as a high priestess and oracle caster. As was the custom during the Shang dynasty, Fu Hao was buried with 16 human sacrifices and six dogs. The remains of Fu Hao herself were found to have disintegrated.

Contents of tomb
In total, Fu Hao was buried with:
 * 755 jade objects
 * 564 bone objects, including nearly 500 bone hairpins and over 20 bone arrowheads
 * 468 bronze objects, including 130 weapons, 23 bells, 27 knives, 4 mirrors, and 4 tigers or tiger heads
 * 63 stone objects
 * 5 ivory objects
 * 11 pottery objects
 * 7,000 pieces of cowry shell (Shang dynasty currency)
 * 16 human sacrifices
 * 6 dogs

title: Fu Hao


text:
Garabit viaduct

The Garabit viaduct (viaduc de Garabit) is a railway arch bridge spanning the Truyère, near Ruynes-en-Margeride, Cantal, France, in the mountainous Massif Central region.

The bridge was constructed between 1882 and 1884 by Gustave Eiffel, with structural engineering by Maurice Koechlin, and was opened in 1885. It is 565 m in length and has a principal arch of 165 m span.

Background
By the late 1870s, Eiffel & Cie, the company founded by Eiffel in partnership with Théophile Seyrig, had established a place among the leading French engineering companies. Between 1875 and 1877, the company had built the Maria Pia Bridge over the Douro at Porto, and when the construction of a railway between Marvejols and Neussargues, both in Cantal, was proposed, the work of constructing a viaduct to cross the Truyère was given to Eiffel without the usual process of competitive tendering. That was at the recommendation of the state engineers since the technical problems involved were similar to those of the Maria Pia Bridge. Indeed, it was Eiffel & Cie's success with that project that had led to the proposal for a viaduct at Garabit.

Design and construction
Opening with a single track in November 1885, the Garabit viaduct was 565 m long and weighed 3587 t. Even more impressively, the actual deflection (load displacement) was measured at 8 mm, just what had been calculated by Eiffel. At 124 m above the river, the bridge was the world's highest arch bridge when it was built. The overall project cost was 3,100,000 francs.

Until 11 September 2009, one regular passenger train each way passed daily over the viaduct: a Corail route from Clermont-Ferrand to Béziers. On that date, the viaduct closed after cracks were discovered in one of the foundation piles. After a safety inspection, the Garabit viaduct reopened the following month, with a speed limit of 10 km/h (6 mph) for all traffic.

The design uses a parabolic arch.

In popular culture
In 1976, it was used to represent the condemned "Cassandra Crossing" bridge in the film The Cassandra Crossing. In the film, the bridge is depicted as being unused and derelict for 30 or 40 years and is considered dangerous, to the extent that people living nearby moved away fearing it could collapse.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Garabit viaduct


text:
Garfagnana

The Garfagnana is a historical and geographical region of central Italy, today part of the province of Lucca, in Tuscany. It is the upper valley or basin of the river Serchio, and thus lies between the main ridge of the Northern Apennines to the north-east and the Alpi Apuane to the west. The principal towns are Castelnuovo di Garfagnana and Barga.

History
Garfagnana was historically inhabited by Ligurian (Apuani and Friniati) and Etruscan populations. The area was conquered by the Romans in 180 BC. After the fall of the Carolingian empire in 888 it came under the control of various feudal lords, and was later caught up in the rivalry between the Guelphs and the Ghibellines. In 1248 the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II ceded it to the Republic of Lucca. In the fifteenth century much of the territory came under the control of the d'Este family of Ferrara, and in 1847 the remaining part was absorbed into the Duchy of Modena. With the unification of Italy, the Garfagnana became part of the province of Massa e Carrara, and in 1923 passed to that of Lucca.

Geography
The Garfagnana is almost entirely mountainous. It has heavy rainfall, and much of it is densely wooded, often with sweet chestnut, Castanea sativa. Chestnuts were until recently an important food source; the Farina di Neccio della Garfagnana, a chestnut flour, has DOP status. The farro of the region, Farro della Garfagnana, has Indicazione Geografica Protetta status; the area is also known for its lentils and for its porcini mushrooms. It is the area of origin of the Garfagnina breed of cattle, of the Garfagnina breed of goat, and of the Garfagnina Bianca sheep breed.

The capital of the region is Castelnuovo di Garfagnana.

The Garfagnana and Lunigiana were struck by a powerful earthquake on 7 September 1920. The worst damage and largest number of deaths were at Villa Collemandina; the greatest intensity was recorded there and at Fivizzano.

title: Garfagnana


text:
Coalbrookdale

Coalbrookdale is a village in the Ironbridge Gorge and the Telford and Wrekin borough of Shropshire, England, containing a settlement of great significance in the history of iron ore smelting. It lies within the civil parish called the Gorge.

This is where iron ore was first smelted by Abraham Darby using easily mined "coking coal". The coal was drawn from drift mines in the sides of the valley. As it contained far fewer impurities than normal coal, the iron it produced was of a superior quality. Along with many other industrial developments that were going on in other parts of the country, this discovery was a major factor in the growing industrialisation of Britain, which was to become known as the Industrial Revolution. Today, Coalbrookdale is home to the Ironbridge Institute, a partnership between the University of Birmingham and the Ironbridge Gorge Museum Trust offering postgraduate and professional development courses in heritage.

Before Abraham Darby
Before the Dissolution of the Monasteries, Madeley and the adjacent Little Wenlock belonged to Much Wenlock Priory. At the Dissolution there was a bloomsmithy called "Caldebroke Smithy". The manor passed about 1572 to John Brooke, who developed coal mining in his manor on a substantial scale. His son Sir Basil Brooke was a significant industrialist, and invested in ironworks elsewhere. It is probable that he also had ironworks at Coalbrookdale, but evidence is lacking. He also acquired an interest in the patent for the cementation process of making steel in about 1615. Though forced to surrender the patent in 1619, he continued making iron and steel until his estate was sequestrated during the Civil War, but the works continued in use.

In 1651, the manor was leased to Francis Wolfe, the clerk of the ironworks, and he and his son operated them as tenant of (or possibly manager for) Brooke's heirs. The surviving old blast furnace contains a cast-iron lintel bearing a date, which is currently painted as 1638, but an archive photograph has been found showing it as 1658. What ironworks existed at Coalbrookdale and from precisely what dates thus remains obscure. By 1688, the ironworks were operated by Lawrence Wellington, but a few years after the furnace was occupied by Shadrach Fox. He renewed the lease in 1696, letting the Great Forge and Plate Forge to Wellington. Some evidence may suggest that Shadrach Fox smelted iron with mineral coal, though this remains controversial. Fox was evidently an iron founder, as he supplied round shot and grenade shells to the Board of Ordnance during the Nine Years War, but not later than April 1703, the furnace blew up. It remained derelict until the arrival of Abraham Darby the Elder in 1709. However the forges remained in use. A brass works was built sometime before 1712 (possibly as early as 1706), but closed in 1714.

Industrial Revolution

In 1709, the first Abraham Darby rebuilt Coalbrookdale Furnace, and eventually used coke as his fuel. His business was that of an ironfounder, making cast-iron pots and other goods, an activity in which he was particularly successful because of his patented foundry method, which enabled him to produce cheaper pots than his rivals. Coalbrookdale has been claimed as the home of the world's first coke-fired blast furnace; this is not strictly correct, but it was the first in Europe to operate successfully for more than a few years.

Darby renewed his lease of the works in 1714, forming a new partnership with John Chamberlain and Thomas Baylies. They built a second furnace in about 1715, which was intended to be followed up with a furnace in Wales at Dolgûn near Dolgellau and in Cheshire taking over Vale Royal Furnace in 1718. However, Darby died prematurely at Madeley Court in 1717 – the same year as he began the house Dale End which became home to succeeding generations of the family in Coalbrookdale – followed quickly by his widow Mary. The partnership was dissolved before Mary's death, Baylies taking over Vale Royal. After Mary's death, Baylies had difficulty extracting his capital. The works then passed to a company led by his fellow Quaker Thomas Goldney II of Bristol and managed by Richard Ford (also a Quaker). Darby's son Abraham Darby the Younger was brought into the business as an assistant manager when old enough.

The company's main business was producing cast-iron goods. Molten iron for this foundry work was not only produced from the blast furnaces, but also by remelting pig iron in air furnaces, a variant of the reverberatory furnace. The Company also became early suppliers of steam engine cylinders in this period.

From 1720, the Company operated a forge at Coalbrookdale but this was not profitable. In about 1754, renewed experiments took place with the application of coke pig iron to the production of bar iron in charcoal finery forges. This proved to be a success, and led to the partners building new furnaces at Horsehay and Ketley. This was the beginning of a great expansion in coke ironmaking.

In 1767, the Company began to produce the first cast-iron rails for railways. In 1778, Abraham Darby III undertook the building of the world's first cast-iron bridge, the iconic Iron Bridge, opened 1 January 1781. The fame of this bridge leads many people today to associate the iron-making part of the Industrial Revolution with the neighbouring village of Ironbridge, but in fact most of the work was done at Coalbrookdale, as there was no settlement at Ironbridge in the eighteenth century. Expansion of Coalbrookdale's industrial facilities continued, with the development of sophisticated ponds and culverts to provide water power, and even Resolution, a water-returning beam engine to recirculate this water.

In 1795, the first porcelain factory near Coalbrookdale was founded at Coalport, east of the Iron Bridge, by William Reynolds and John Rose, producing Coalport porcelain.

In 1802, the Coalbrookdale Company built a rail locomotive for Richard Trevethick, but little is known about it, including whether or not it actually ran. The death of a company workman in an accident involving the engine is said to have caused the company to not proceed to running it on their existing railway. To date, the only known information about it comes from a drawing preserved at the Science Museum, London, together with a letter written by Trevithick to his friend Davies Giddy. The design incorporated a single horizontal cylinder enclosed in a return-flue boiler. A flywheel drove the wheels on one side through spur gears, and the axles were mounted directly on the boiler, with no frame. The drawing indicates that the locomotive ran on a plateway with a track gauge of. This was two years before Trevethick's first engine to tow a train was run at Penydarren in south Wales.

In the 19th century, Coalbrookdale was noted for its decorative ironwork. It is here (for example) that the gates of London's Hyde Park were built. Other examples include the Coalbrookdale verandah at St John's in Monmouth, Wales, and as far away as the Peacock Fountain in Christchurch, New Zealand. The blast furnaces were closed down, perhaps as early as the 1820s, but the foundries remained in use. The Coalbrookdale Company became part of an alliance of ironfounding companies called Light Castings Limited. This was absorbed by Allied Ironfounders Limited in 1929. This was in turn taken over by Glynwed which has since become Aga Foodservice. The Coalbrookdale foundry closed in November 2017.

Several of Coalbrookdale's industrial heritage sites are to be found on the local trail: including: Coalbrookdale railway station, the Quaker Burial Ground, the Darby Houses, Tea Kettle Row and the Great Western Railway Viaduct.

Museum
In the century after the Old Blast Furnace closed, it became buried. There was a proposal for the site to be cleared and the furnace dismantled, but instead, it was decided to excavate and preserve it. It and a small museum were opened to celebrate 250 years of the Company in 1959. This became part of a larger project, the Ironbridge Gorge Museums. Its Museum of Iron is based in the Great Warehouse constructed in 1838 and Ironbridge Institute is based in the Long Warehouse, these two form the sides of an open space. On another side of which is the Old Blast Furnace, now under a building (erected in 1981) to protect it from the weather. The fourth side is a viaduct carrying the railway that delivers coal to the Ironbridge Power Station. One of the two tracks is due to be taken over by Telford Steam Railway as part of its southern extension from Horsehay. The Museum's archaeology unit continues to investigate the earlier history of Coalbrookdale, and has recently excavated the remains of the 17th century cementation furnaces, near the site of the Upper (formerly Middle) Forge.

Old Furnace
The Old Furnace began life as a typical blast furnace, but went over to coke in 1709. Abraham Darby I used it to cast pots, kettles and other goods. His grandson Abraham Darby III smelted the iron here for the first Ironbridge, the world's first iron bridge.

The lintels of the furnace bear dated inscriptions. The uppermost reads "Abraham Darby 1777", probably recording its enlargement for casting the Iron Bridge. It is unclear whether the date on one of the lower ones should be 1638 (as it is now painted) or 1658 (as shown on an old photo). The interior profile of the furnace is typical of its period, bulging around the middle, below which the boshes taper in again so that the charge descends into a narrower and hotter hearth, where the iron was molten. When Abraham Darby III enlarged the furnace, he only made the boshes wider on the front and left sides, but not on the right where doing so would have entailed moving the water wheel. The mouth of the furnace is thus off-centre.

Iron was now being made in large quantities for many customers. In the 1720s and 1730s, its main products were cast-iron cooking pots, kettles and other domestic articles. It also cast the cylinders for steam engines, and pig iron for use by other foundries. In the late 18th century, it sometimes produced structural ironwork, including for Buildwas Bridge. This was built in 1795, 2 miles up the river from the original Ironbridge. Due to advances in technology, it used only half as much cast iron despite being 30 feet (9 m) wider than the Ironbridge. The year after that, in 1796, Thomas Telford began a new project, Longdon-on-Tern Aqueduct. It carried the Shrewsbury Canal over the River Tern and was supported by cast-iron columns. Charles Bage designed and built the world's first multi-storey cast-iron-framed mill. It used only brick and iron, with no wood, to improve its fire-resistance. In the 19th century ornamental ironwork became a speciality.

Notable residents

 * Abraham Darby II (1711–1763), ironmaster, and his wife Abiah Darby (1716–1794), Quaker evangelist.
 * Abraham Darby III (1750–1794), ironmaster.
 * Arthur Charles Fox-Davies (1871–1928), writer and heraldic expert.

title: Coalbrookdale


text:
Junkers Jumo 204

The Jumo 204 was an opposed-piston, inline, liquid-cooled 6-cylinder aircraft Diesel engine produced by the German manufacturer Junkers. It entered service in 1932. Later engines in the series, the Jumo 205, Jumo 206, Jumo 207 and Jumo 208, differed in stroke, bore, and supercharging arrangements.

Design and development
Development of the Junkers diesel engines started in the 1920s with the Junkers Fo3 and Junkers Fo4/Junkers SL1. The Fo4 was re-designated Junkers 4, which in turn was re-designated Junkers Jumo 204 by the Reichsluftfahrtministerium (RLM), where the first number indicates the manufacturer; 2 – Junkers Motoren.

These engines used a two-stroke cycle with six cylinders and twelve pistons, in an opposed piston configuration with two crankshafts, one at the bottom of the cylinder block and the other at the top, geared together. The pistons moved towards each other during the operating cycle. There were two cam-operated injection pumps per cylinder, each feeding two nozzles, totaling four nozzles per cylinder.

As is typical of two-stroke designs, the Jumos used fixed intake and exhaust ports instead of valves, which were uncovered when the pistons reached a certain point in their stroke. Normally such designs have poor volumetric efficiency because both ports open and close at the same time and are generally located across from each other in the cylinder. This leads to poor scavenging of the burnt charge, which is why valve-less two-strokes generally run smoky and are inefficient.

The Jumo 204 solved this problem to a very large degree through a better arrangement of the ports. The intake port was located under the "lower" piston, while the exhaust port was under the "upper". The lower crankshaft ran eleven degrees behind the upper, meaning that the exhaust ports opened first, allowing proper scavenging. This system made the two-stroke Jumos run as cleanly as four-stroke engines using valves, but with considerably less complexity.

The Jumo 204 (originally designated Jumo 4) was test flown in early 1929 installed in a Junkers G 24.

The Jumo Fo3 and 204 were licensed to Napier & Son, who built a small number as the Napier Culverin just prior to the war. Late in the war, they mounted three Culverins in a triangle layout to produce the Napier Deltic, which was for some time one of the most powerful and compact diesel engines in the world.

Variants
Data from Junkers Aircraft & Engines 1913–1945.
 * Mo3:A research diesel engine for test bed use only, the Mo3 was a four-cylinder, (eight piston), opposed-piston engine designed to run horizontally. Tested from 1913, the problems found in testing the Mo3 were progressively solved after World War I with the Fo3 and later opposed piston diesels.
 * Fo3:From 1924, Junkers experimented with the Fo3, A vertical 5-cyl. opposed-piston diesel, which ran on a test bed in the summer of 1926, developing 830 hp at 1,200 rpm. Mostly successful, the Fo3 did highlight the need for accurate dynamic balancing of the rotating components.
 * Fo4: (a.k.a. SL1) The Fo4, benefiting from the experience gained with the Fo3, was a six-cylinder opposed-piston diesel engine, tested from 1928 and flown in the nose of a Junkers G.24 from 30 August 1929.
 * Jumo 4: After the successful bench runs and flight tests, the Fo4 was refined into the certificated Jumo 4, enjoying limited success powering re-engined Junkers F24kay airliners of Deutsche Luft Hansa, remaining in service until 1939.
 * Jumo 204:Later production of refined Jumo 4s: Jumo 204A, 204B, and 204C, differing in airscrew drive arrangements.
 * Napier Culverin:The Jumo 204 and 205 were licensed to Napier, who built a small number of Jumo 204 developments as the Napier Culverin just prior to the war. After the war, they mounted three Culverins in a triangle layout to produce the Napier Deltic, which was for some time one of the most powerful and compact diesel engines in the world. Work on this engine started in 1947 and engines were running by 1950.

Applications

 * Junkers F.24kay
 * Junkers Ju 52/1mdo D-1974 (D-UZYP from 1937)
 * Junkers Ju 86
 * Junkers G.38 and Japanese licensed Mitsubishi Ki-20
 * Blohm & Voss BV 138

title: Junkers Jumo 204


text:
User talk:Jnestorius

2004

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2006

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 * 15) MfD nomination of User:Jnestorius/Ireland national football team (IFA) proposal 1

2013

 * 1) Disambiguation pages
 * 2) Enclave and exclave
 * 3) Seleka
 * 4) Coney Island
 * 5) New scheme for Irish bishops
 * 6) Irish referendum articles
 * 7) few points
 * 8) Nomination of List of national football teams by penalty shootout record for deletion
 * 9) Discussion at Category_talk:Women_and_death
 * 10) MfD nomination of User:Jnestorius/List of Bands whose names form complete sentences
 * 11) Muckanaghederdauhaulia
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 * 13) Next matchday scenarios

2014

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 * 5) Your Irish County 'trasfers'(sic) page.
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2015

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 * 5) A beer for you!
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 * 9) Military commission
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 * 11) Sinn Féin Funds case
 * 12) Coat of arms is not the standard of the President of Ireland
 * 13) DYK for Sinn Féin Funds case
 * 14) JSTOR cleanup drive

2016

 * 1) Districts of Northern Ireland, 2015-present
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 * 5) Dáil Éireann edit revert
 * 6) Proposed deletion of Ricardo Campos (actor)
 * 7) Proposal to change WP:MOSLINK opened at Wikipedia talk:Manual of Style
 * 8) Reference errors on 19 September
 * 9) Category edit on Priory of Sion - apologies
 * 10) Orphaned non-free image File:Guaranteed Irish logo.png
 * 11) Thanks for the cannabis update
 * 12) Chief Justice (England & Wales) & Republic of Ireland equivalent
 * 13) Nice job
 * 14) Category:Independent Ireland in World War II has been nominated for discussion
 * 15) Erasmus Smith
 * 16) Proposed deletion of Heliconia (disambiguation)
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2017

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2018

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 * 6) Nomination of Mantrap (access control) for deletion
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2019

 * 1) Duplicate page created (by me)
 * 2) subperverse acquittals?
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 * 4) FA Cup rounds proper
 * 5) Need help editing Boston Marathon
 * 6) Category:Minor planets by source of name has been nominated for discussion
 * 7) Elena Cornaro
 * 8) HRRA
 * 9) KTTL move, thanks
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 * 11) Speedy deletion nomination of Barnaby Fitzpatrick (disambiguation)

2020

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 * 6) Speedy deletion nomination of Immanent (disambiguation)
 * 7) Nonresident voting
 * 8) Completion of panels
 * 9) Category:Gender verification in sports has been nominated for renaming
 * 10) Saoirse McHugh
 * 11) Nomination of Imminence for deletion
 * 12) Category:Sleeping heroes has been nominated for merging
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Craigavom
Hi. Can you please give a full explanation and justification for your page moves in relation to Craigavon at its article please? Such moves should have been discussed first as it is problematic. Mabuska (talk) 10:39, 23 January 2021 (UTC)

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Saad al-Alami
Hello, wondering what your rationale was for including this content in the article Saad al-Alami. Specifically referring to the content about his son. Thanks. --PerpetuityGrat (talk) 17:19, 28 October 2021 (UTC)

 * Response at Talk:Saad al-Alami jnestorius(talk) 17:35, 28 October 2021 (UTC)

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Irish House of Lords - Reference
DearJnestorius. Thank you very much for adding the reference to the Journals of the House of Lords (under External Links). This is a very precious source for many articles. I have used it for Donough MacCarthy, 1st Earl of Clancarty. Unluckily the link is now broken and I have not found another place. Do you? With many thnaks and best regards, Johannes Schade (talk) 09:20, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

 * I have fixed the links. The Oireachtas website is annoyingly prone to linkrot. jnestorius(talk) 11:30, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

 * Wonderful! Amazing! I thought it was gone and lost for ever. What is the right action to take to make sure it does not disappear again? Should the pages be saved to the Wayback Machine? Could one submit the PDFs to Internet Archive to add them to their web library? Probably not as it has a "Houses of the Oireachtas" watermark on it. I lack experience with such things. With many thanks and best regards, Johannes Schade (talk) 13:35, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

 * LINKROT has general advice. If a URL begins with "opac" it is generally a reference to an OPAC catalogue so the base URL — https://opac.oireachtas.ie/ — is a start point for searching. jnestorius(talk) 15:42, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

 * Dear Jnestorius. Thank you so much for your quick and efficient help. With best regards, Johannes Schade (talk) 16:14, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

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Constitution of 1782
Hi, Jnestorius. The first paragraph of Constitution of 1782 was changed by from a poor paragraph to a bad one. Rather than simply reverting, I am taking the liberty of copying the first paragraph of User:Jnestorius/Constitution of 1782, which you linked to in an earlier discussion on the talk page, and which I think introduces the topic far better. I will, of course, give full attribution. Scolaire (talk) 11:03, 19 April 2022 (UTC)

Dingle Foot
Hi, re this edit - it was Dingle, not Isaac, who married Dorothy. DuncanHill (talk) 14:21, 1 May 2022 (UTC)

 * OK. [ambiguous and unclear] → my edit → [clear but wrong] → your edit → [clear and correct]. The system works. jnestorius(talk) 10:54, 2 May 2022 (UTC)

GA status
I am changed assessment of The Langley Schools Music Project to B. I am going to put a GA review template and see if it makes the grade. 184.65.203.138 (talk) 20:56, 21 August 2022 (UTC)

Cresslough: Name.
Can I just say that the 'Name' section that you created in the Cresslough article is outstanding. Excellently written and researched, with proper references. An excellent piece of work. Well done. Truly, a great contribution to that article at this tragic time for that wee village. Laggan Boy (talk) 09:33, 9 October 2022 (UTC)

 * Thanks, all compliments are welcome! jnestorius(talk) 12:30, 9 October 2022 (UTC)

Governors of the Isles of Scilly category
Hi there, I noticed you recategorised category:Governors of the Isles of Scilly and put it under category:Viceroys of the British monarch, which I would say is a inaccurate categorisation, as the Governor of Scilly has always been whoever leased the islands from the Duchy of Cornwall, so calling the Governor of Scilly a representative of the monarch (viceroy) seems misleading, as they would not of been appointed by the monarch, instead appointed by the Duke of Cornwall (although my knowledge is limited in this area, also, most of what I have read about Scilly is rather vague about the exact situation of the title). I've undone the change, but feel free to discuss this further here or on the category's talk page if you disagree. Have a great day! HenryTemplo 21:17, 15 October 2022 (UTC)

 * Thanks, the List of governors of Scilly article was not very clear. I've done some research and updated it accordingly and restored Category:Castle and garrison governors in England (my replacement for Category:Governors in the British Islands). jnestorius(talk) 14:22, 16 October 2022 (UTC)

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Electoral Commission
Hi Joesty. I've split some of the text on Electoral Commission (Ireland) into a separate page on the Electoral Reform Act 2022. Conscious of your own substantial work on this, I wanted to be sure nothing was missing and that it all was in order. Iveagh Gardens (talk) 18:27, 5 February 2023 (UTC)

FitzGerald Park
Hello. Are you able to help fix the incoming links to FitzGerald Park? I've fixed the templates and some articles which were obvious, mostly to FitzGerald Park, Kilmallock. However, some are unclear, especially those concerning Munster which also contains Fitzgerald's Park and Fitzgerald Stadium (sometimes called Park). Thanks, Certes (talk) 18:58, 15 February 2023 (UTC)

 * Ah, I got sidetracked by an error in the move. I have fixed the Limerick-specific ones. jnestorius(talk) 20:09, 15 February 2023 (UTC)
 * Thanks! Please could you check over the ones I tried to disambiguate here?  I didn't know about all the Parks at the time, so may have jumped to a wrong conclusion. Certes (talk) 21:08, 15 February 2023 (UTC)

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A barnstar for you!
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 * has renamed this cat to Category:Stolen and missing Moon rocks; the old name should either be a Category redirect or else doesn't need to wait seven days to delete. jnestorius(talk) 07:32, 12 May 2023 (UTC)

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title: User talk:Jnestorius


text:
List of colonial residents of Burundi

This article lists the colonial residents of Burundi, during the time when modern-day Burundi was part of German East Africa and Ruanda-Urundi.

German rule
The Germans established the office of Resident of Urundi in 1906. They moved the seat of the residency to Gitega in 1912.

Belgian rule
After Urundi fell under Belgian control and became part of the League of Nations mandate of Ruanda-Urundi, the Belgians placed it under the oversight of a Residency based in Gitega. The office included a resident, assistant resident, and other staff for specialised purposes. This system of administration continued when Ruanda-Urundi became a United Nations trust territory. A significant amount of Belgian colonial policy was carried out by the residency. The office of the Vice Governor-General, based in Usumbura (now Bujumbura), was responsible for overseeing the whole of Ruanda-Urundi.

List
(Dates in italics indicate de facto continuation of office)

title: List of colonial residents of Burundi


text:
Bed size

Standard bed sizes are based on standard mattress sizes, which vary from country to country. Bed sizes also vary according to the size and degree of ornamentation of the bed frame. Dimensions and names vary considerably around the world, with most countries having their own standards and terminology. In addition, two mattresses with the same nominal size may have slightly different dimensions, due to manufacturing tolerances, amount of padding, and support type. Mattress sizes may differ from bedding sizes.

Nomenclature
Naming standards on different bed sizes and their corresponding actual measurements can vary across national standards. Examples of such nomenclature are names like "Single", "Double", "Queen" or "King" size. Sometimes the naming standards are further divided by adding adjectives such as "Narrow", "Wide", "Extra Wide", "Long", "Extra Long" and so on, which also can vary across national standards.

For example, a King size bed may measure (in width by length):
 * 60 x in the UK.
 * 165 x in New Zealand.
 * 180 x in Portugal, but is also available in 195 and 200 cm lengths.
 * 180 x in Indonesia.
 * 183 x in Singapore and Malaysia.
 * 183 x in Australia.
 * 183 x in India.
 * 193 x in the US.

Because of the growth of international trade and the above potential cause of confusion, bed sizes are becoming more standardized. In most countries, using the International System of Units, bed dimensions most often appear in centimeters, and often only by width and length. In the United States, Canada and other regions influenced by the former British Empire, dimensions are often in inches.

Europe

Europe may traditionally have had more variations in national bed size standards than any other part of the world, but in the recent years a few sizes have become more common than others. Bed sizes are defined in centimeters in all European countries, although supplementary Imperial equivalents are sometimes shown in the United Kingdom.

Today, the most common widths sold by pan European retailers are:

 * 90, for single beds.
 * 160, for double beds.

Other sizes are also available in some European countries (e.g., 80 or), but the widths listed above are the most common when looking at the European market as a whole, while 135 cm and 150 cm (nominal) are more typical in the UK and Ireland.

Today, the 200 cm length is the most common bed length sold by pan-European retailers. Lengths of 210 or are often also available by special order. The longer beds are intended for taller people, and as a rule of thumb 210 cm beds may be recommended for people 190 cm or taller, while 220 cm beds are recommended for people over 200 cm tall.

France
In France, single size beds are usually 90 x.

The most common sizes for double beds are:
 * Valet size 140 x
 * Queen size 160 x
 * King size 180 x

Italy
In Italy, beds are classified by name and use the term piazza as in "place". Standard sizes are:
 * una piazza (literally "one place") or singolo ("single"): 80 x and 90 x
 * una piazza e mezza (literally "$1 1/2$ places") or Letto da prete (literally "priest's bed"): 120 x
 * piazza e mezza francese (literally "French $1 1/2$ places"): 140 x
 * due piazze (double, literally "two places") or letto matrimoniale (literally "matrimonial bed"): 160 x and 180 x

Northern Europe
These sizes are for Austria, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Germany, Poland, Belgium, Luxembourg, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Iceland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. There are some variations between different countries, but these are the most common sizes. Until the 1980s the most common mattress length was 190 cm.
 * Single:
 * 70 x, mainly for double beds with two separate mattresses.
 * 80 x, mainly for young peoples beds/ bunk beds and double beds with two separate mattresses.
 * 90 x, common single bed. Extended variants are typically 210 cm.
 * 100 x, new common single bed size.
 * 120 x, uncommon, often as futon beds that are sold with mattress, slats and frame.
 * 140 x, common, especially among young people.
 * Double:
 * 140 x
 * 160 x, common, often with two separate mattresses.
 * 180 x, most common double bed, often with two separate mattresses.
 * 200 x, a common extra-wide bed, often with two separate mattresses.
 * 210 x, a common extra-wide bed, often with two separate mattresses.

Netherlands
Sizes listed refer to mattress sizes.

 * Single:
 * 80 x, small single bed.
 * 90 x, average single bed.
 * 90 x, average single bed.
 * 90 x, average single bed.
 * 100 x, large single bed.
 * 100 x, large single bed.
 * 100 x, large single bed.
 * Double:
 * 120 x, small double bed ("twijfelaar").
 * 140 x, average double bed.
 * 160 x, average double bed.
 * 160 x, long double bed.
 * 160 x, extra long double bed.
 * 180 x, large double bed ("Lits Jumeaux").
 * 180 x, large double bed.
 * 180 x, large double bed.
 * 200 x, extra large double bed.
 * 200 x, extra large double bed.
 * 200 x, extra large double bed.

Portugal
In Portugal, the most common widths for beds are:

 * solteiro (single): 80 cm or 90 cm
 * casal (double): 140 cm
 * Queen size: 160 cm
 * King size: 180 cm
 * Super king size: 200 cm

Beds are typically 190 cm or 195 cm long, but 200 cm have become more common.

Spain
In Spain, standardized lengths are 180 ,, with 190 cm being the most common. Standardized widths are 80 ,. The most common bed sizes are:

 * individual (single): 90 cm
 * matrimonio (Spanish) or matrimoni (Catalan) (double, literally "matrimonial"): 135 or

UK and Ireland
In the United Kingdom and Ireland, beds are measured according to the size of mattress they hold, not the dimensions of the bed frame itself; bed frame sizes are not standardized and may differ between manufacturers. Listed below are the typical bed sizes from the National Bed Federation, which is the trade association for the majority of British and Irish bed manufacturers and their suppliers. Most NBF manufacturers use designs dimensioned in feet and inches with the metric indicators not being exact equivalents. There can legally be a tolerance of up to ±2 cm between the quoted measurements and the size of the mattress itself.

 * Also known as a "three-quarter" or "four-foot" bed.

Some UK retailers may have a "queen" size which refers to one of the above standard sizes, but there is inconsistency around which size specifically, with both the small double and super king being prevalent.

Adjustable beds or electric adjustable bed sizes differ from the standard bed size. The length of these beds differ from a standard size due to the nature of the bed needing to bend. So they are 200 cm in length rather than 191 cm. King size and super king size are normally two 75 cm or two 90 cm adjacent beds.

As well as customary UK sizes, some common European sizes can be found in the UK from imports and IKEA. The typical length of an IKEA and other European mattresses is 200 cm, whereas UK lengths vary depending on the width of the mattress, being usually either 75 or. In 2015, IKEA started offering beds and mattresses in customary UK sizes alongside their standard European sizes.

Turkey
In Turkey, single size beds are usually 90 x; long single size 90 x; large single size 100 x.

There is also an intermediate size used for one and a half people in Turkey: 120 x.

The most common sizes for double beds are: small double size 140 x; young size 140 x; double size 150 x; double size 160 x; double large size 180 x; double XL size 200 x.

North America
The sizes of mattresses use non-numeric labels such as a "king" or "full", but are defined in inches. Historically most beds were "twins" or "doubles" but in the mid-1940s larger mattresses were introduced by manufacturers. These were later standardized as "queen" and "king", and first made a significant impact on the market in the 1950s and 60s. Standard mattress depth ranges from the "standard" size of 9 in to "high contour" of up to 13 in. Below are the standard ISPA widths and heights in the United States and Canada.

While the dimensions are specified to the half-inch below, the actual dimension used by manufacturers or various websites may be half an inch larger or smaller.

Less common sizes include:

There are also a number of specialty sizes for specific use cases:

Bedding in the United States must state the type of bed it is intended for, in addition to the dimensions in both inches and centimeters.

Australia
The following bed sizes are available in Australia.

New Zealand
The following bed sizes are available in New Zealand.

South Africa
In South Africa, bed sizes have standard lengths of either 188 or, with the latter being called "XL" variants. XL mattresses have the same widths as their non-XL counterparts. The 200 cm XL length is recommended for persons over 183 cm tall.

 * Single: 92 cm wide
 * Three-quarter: 107 cm wide
 * Double: 137 cm wide
 * Queen: 152 cm wide
 * King: 183 cm wide. Equal to the width of two single mattresses.
 * Super king: 200 cm wide. Available in XL length only.

China
In China, the following sizes are standard:

 * Lengths: 190 ,
 * Single bed widths: 80 ,
 * Double bed widths: 135 ,

In practice, bed sizes are usually categorized by the width. The length is typically 200 cm, but this may vary. The most common sizes are: Other bed sizes are available, which are less common however.
 * 120 x
 * 150 x
 * 180 x

Indonesia
In Indonesia, the standard length is always 200 cm. The following market-standard sizes are commonly available in Indonesia:

 * Single: 90 x
 * Double or twin: 120 x
 * Queen: 160 x
 * King: 180 x
 * Super king: 200 x

Japan
Standard Japanese bedding sizes are described in the standard JIS S 1102:2017 Beds for domestic use by the Japanese Standards Association.

Malaysia
Standard bed sizes in Malaysia

Pakistan
Standard bed sizes in Pakistan.
 * Single: 39 x
 * Single XL: 39 x
 * Double: 60 x
 * Double XL: 60 x
 * Queen: 66 x
 * King: 66 x
 * Super King: 72 x

Singapore
Standard bed sizes in Singapore

Taiwan
There are five common bed sizes in Taiwan, locally known as 3 footer, 3.5 footer, 5 footer, 6 footer and 7 footer. They are also known as Taiwanese small single, twin, full, queen and king respectively.

However, American beds are also popular in Taiwan. Bedroom furniture and bedding of U.S. standard sizes can be purchased in major cities there.

title: Bed size