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NBA Finals

The NBA Finals is the annual championship series of the National Basketball Association (NBA). The Eastern and Western Conference champions play a best-of-seven series to determine the league champion. The team that wins the series is awarded the Larry O'Brien Championship Trophy, which replaced the original Walter A. Brown Trophy in 1976–77, though under the same name until 1984.

The series was initially known as the BAA Finals prior to the 1949–50 season when the Basketball Association of America (BAA) merged with the National Basketball League (NBL) to form the NBA. The competition oversaw further name changes to NBA World Championship Series from 1950 to 1985, as well as a brief stint as the Showdown, before settling on NBA Finals in 1986. Since 2018, it has been officially known as the NBA Finals presented by YouTube TV for sponsorship reasons.

The NBA Finals was initially structured in a 2–2–1–1–1 format. In 1985, to ease the amount of cross-country travel, it was changed to a 2–3–2 format, in which the first two and last two games of the series were played at the arena of the team who earned home-court advantage by having the better record during the regular season. In 2014, the 2–2–1–1–1 format was restored. The team with the better regular season record hosts the first two games and the other team hosts the next two games. If needed, the remaining three are played at each team's home arena alternately, starting with the arena of the team with the better regular season record.

A total of 21 franchises have won the NBA Finals, with the Boston Celtics winning the most recent title in 2024. Boston holds the record for the most championships, having won the Finals 18 times. Boston also won the most consecutive titles, winning eight in a row from 1959 to 1966. The Los Angeles Lakers have the most NBA Finals appearances, with 32. The Eastern Division/Conference has provided the most champions, with 40 wins from eleven franchises; the Western Division/Conference has 37, from nine franchises.

1946–1956: Beginnings and Lakers dynasty
The beginning era of modern professional basketball was dominated by the Minneapolis Lakers, who won five of the first ten titles. The Philadelphia Warriors also won multiple championships, including the inaugural title in 1947 and another in 1956 to bookend the NBA's first decade. After being founded in 1946, the Basketball Association of America completed its inaugural season in April 1947 with the Philadelphia Warriors defeating the Chicago Stags in the 1947 BAA Finals in five games. The following season the Warriors again reached the Finals, however they fell short to the now defunct Baltimore Bullets. To date the Baltimore Bullets are the only defunct team to win a championship.

In 1948, the Minneapolis Lakers won the championship of the rival National Basketball League before joining the BAA. Led by future Hall of Famer George Mikan, the Lakers won the third and final BAA championship in 1949 over the Red Auerbach-coached Washington Capitals. The BAA then merged with the NBL to form the National Basketball Association before the 1949–50 season. The Lakers won the inaugural NBA championship in 1950 to become the first team to repeat as champions.

In 1951, the Rochester Royals defeated the New York Knicks in the only Finals contested between two teams from the same state (something not possible under the current NBA alignment). This was the first of three consecutive losses in the Finals for the Knicks, Meanwhile, the Lakers won three straight Finals from 1952 to 1954 to become the first team to three-peat while also winning their fifth title in six seasons.

Of the five franchises to win a championship from 1947 to 1956, one (the Bullets) folded and the other four (the Warriors, Lakers, Royals, and Syracuse Nationals) all relocated by 1964.

1957–1969: Celtics Dynasty
The Boston Celtics won 11 of the 12 NBA Finals they reached during 13 seasons (1956–57 to 1968–69), including eight straight NBA championships from 1959 through 1966. During this time the St. Louis Hawks also won their only title before moving to Atlanta and the Philadelphia 76ers won their first title since relocating from Syracuse.

With the establishment of the Celtics dynasty in 1957, spearheaded by center Bill Russell, the team saw great success. Despite encountering some difficulty when up against teams led by Wilt Chamberlain, for most of the late 1950s and 1960s, the Celtics and Russell managed to have an upper hand on Chamberlain's teams.

In 1964, Chamberlain, who had moved to the state of California alongside his team, led the San Francisco Warriors to a Western Division championship, but again failed to conquer the Celtics. The following season, he returned to the Eastern Division to join the Philadelphia 76ers after the former Syracuse Nationals relocated to the city to cover the vacancy created by the Warriors.

The first clash between the two stars in the playoffs was in 1966, with Boston winning the series 4–1. In the following season, Philadelphia coach Alex Hannum instructed Chamberlain to provide an increased focus on playing a team game, to avoid drawing the double-teams that troubled Chamberlain during the Finals. This tactical change brought the team to a new record of 68 wins the following season, as well as defeating the Celtics before winning the 1967 Finals. In 1968, Boston overcame a 3–1 deficit against Philadelphia to once again arrive in the Finals. They went on to defeat the Los Angeles Lakers in the Finals to again become NBA champions.

In 1969, the Celtics faced great difficulty entering the postseason, as they had an aging team and multiple injuries to a number of players. They qualified for the playoffs as the fourth and final seed in the East, while the Lakers, who had added Chamberlain in the off-season to join stars Jerry West and Elgin Baylor, won the West and were prohibitive favorites to become champions for the first time since relocating to Los Angeles. Despite holding a 2–1 advantage going into Game 4, the Lakers led 87–86 and had the ball with 10 seconds to play. But after a turnover, Sam Jones scored to give the Celtics a narrow 88–87 win and tying the series. The series was eventually tied 3–3 going into Game 7 in Los Angeles, with Lakers owner Jack Cooke hanging balloons in the arena in anticipation of a Lakers victory. West also picked up injuries to his thigh and hamstring during the series, but returned to play for the final game. Russell utilized this newly lacking mobility in West to organize fast breaks at every opportunity for the Celtics, which allowed them to gain an early lead. They held off a furious Lakers comeback to win 108–106 and win the series, and win their eleventh championship in 13 years.

As many stars either declined or retired following this win, it is largely recognized as the last NBA Finals conducted by the Celtics dynasty.

1970–1979: Decade of parity
The 1970s saw ten different teams reach the Finals and eight different teams win a championship, the most of any decade in the NBA, with the Boston Celtics and New York Knicks winning twice.

In 1970, a classic final featured the Knicks against the Lakers. In the waning moments of Game 3, with the series tied, Jerry West hit a basket from 60 feet to tie the game, a shot which became one of the most famous ever. However, the Knicks won in overtime and continued their momentum for a 4–3 win. The Milwaukee Bucks also won their first title, defeating the Baltimore Bullets in 1971.

Two seasons after losing in the Finals, the Lakers won 33 straight games, the longest winning streak in NBA history. By season's end, they broke the record for most wins in a season with 69, one more than the 1966–67 Philadelphia 76ers, before taking home the championship for the first time since relocating to Los Angeles, beating the Knicks. The Knicks returned to win the Finals again a season later, followed by the Celtics’ 12th title in 1974.

The late 1970s were characterized by a major breakthrough of the league's western franchises. In 1975, after compiling a 48–34 regular season record, the Golden State Warriors swept the Washington Bullets 4–0 in the 1975 NBA Finals. In 1976, the Phoenix Suns, after only eight years of existence, overcame a losing record early in the season to build a remarkable win streak to finish 42–40. They achieved upset victories over the Seattle SuperSonics and the Warriors, before facing the Celtics in the Finals. The teams split the first four games, before Game 5 went into three overtimes and Boston won 128–126. The Celtics quickly managed to secure their 13th championship, and second in three years. defeating the Suns 87–80 in Game 6.

Franchises that won their first titles in the 1970s included the Milwaukee Bucks in 1971, the Portland Trail Blazers in 1977, the Washington Bullets who defeated the SuperSonics in 1978. The SuperSonics exacted revenge on the Bullets the following season, as they won their first title in 1979.

1980–1990: Celtics–Lakers rivalry and "Bad Boys" Pistons
The 1980s were mostly known for the rivalry between the Boston Celtics and the Los Angeles Lakers, who combined to win eight titles in the decade. Rookie Magic Johnson led the Showtime Lakers to the 1980 NBA Finals against the Philadelphia 76ers, who were led by Julius Erving. The Lakers took a 3–2 lead, but Kareem Abdul-Jabbar could not play in Game 6 due to injury. Johnson, a natural point guard, was shifted to center, and ended up playing every position on the court during the game, scoring 42 points, while also attaining 15 rebounds and 7 assists to win his first championship and Finals MVP honors, becoming the first and only rookie to win the award.

Boston reached the 1981 NBA Finals led by the "Big Three" of Larry Bird, Kevin McHale, and Robert Parish. They met the Houston Rockets, who carried practically single-handedly by Moses Malone and upset the Lakers and Johnson in the first round. The Rockets were only the second team in NBA history to make the Finals after posting a losing record in the regular season, and the Celtics had an NBA best record of 62–20. The Celtics won the Finals in 6 games.

The Lakers returned to the Finals in 1982, this time led by new coach Pat Riley, in a rematch against the 76ers. The 76ers defeated the Celtics in the Eastern Conference finals in a 7-game series, but were defeated by Lakers in 6 games. The76ers responded by trading for Malone, who was also the league's reigning MVP. With the new duo of Malone and Erving, the 76ers won the 1983 NBA Finals in a sweep over the Lakers.

The Celtics and Lakers met in the Finals in 1984, 1985, and 1987. In 1984, the Celtics toppled the Lakers 4–3. The final game of this series attracted the largest ever TV audience for an NBA game, and the second-largest ever for a basketball game, with only the 1979 NCAA Championship game between Johnson and Bird having a larger audience. The teams faced off again in 1985 and 1987, but the Lakers came up on top both time, winning in 6 games despite each time, despite losing Game 1 in 1985 by 34 points in the Memorial Day Massacre. The 1987 Finals included Johnson hit a hook shot with two seconds left to give the Lakers a 107–106 win and a 3–1 series lead after Game 4.

In the following two seasons, the Celtics failed to reach the Finals, becoming overshadowed by the Detroit Pistons. The Lakers defended their title in the 1988 NBA Finals, winning the series in 7 games against the Pistons. They then became the first team to win back-to-back NBA titles since 1969. Seeking a three-peat in 1989, the Lakers were swept by the Pistons in a rematch of the previous year's Finals. In 1990, the Pistons then went back-to-back after defeating the Clyde Drexler-led Portland Trail Blazers in five games, attaining the nickname "Bad Boys" due to their rough, physical play led by a Hall of Fame back court in Joe Dumars and Isiah Thomas and a rugged front court in Dennis Rodman and Bill Laimbeer.

1991–1998: Bulls dynasty
The majority of the 1990s was marked by the supremacy of the Chicago Bulls. The Bulls, led by head coach Phil Jackson and star players Michael Jordan and Scottie Pippen, won six titles in six Finals appearances from 1991 to 1998. The only other team to win a title during this time was the Houston Rockets who won titles in 1994 and 1995.

The Bulls' first championship came at the expense of the Los Angeles Lakers, which also saw the last appearance in the Finals for Magic Johnson. The series wasa billed as a showdown between the aging Johnson and the upstart Jordan. The Lakers won the first game, however, for the rest of the series, Pippen guarded Johnson allowing Jordan to primarily focus on scoring. The Bulls won the next four games to win the series 4–1. The Bulls returned to the Finals the next year, pitted against Clyde Drexler and the Portland Trail Blazers. Chicago defeated the Trail Blazers in Game 1 by 33 points, a game notable for Jordan breaking the record for the most three-pointers in a first half, with six. The Bulls went on to win the series in six games.

In 1993, The Bulls were matched against the Phoenix Suns, led by Charles Barkley, who was the league's reigning MVP of the Phoenix Suns. After dropping the first two games at home, The Suns won Game 3 in Chicago in triple overtime. The Bulls came back to win Game 4 with Jordan scoring 55 points and tying Rick Barry for the second-most points in an NBA Finals game. Chicago clinched the series in Game 6, 99–98, on John Paxson's three-pointer, as the Bulls became the third team in history to three-peat. After this win, Jordan retired from basketball to pursue a career in baseball.

Following Jordan's departure, the Houston Rockets, led by Hakeem Olajuwon, won the 1994 and 1995 NBA titles. During this time, Olajuwon became the only player in history to win the NBA MVP, NBA Defensive Player of the Year and Finals MVP awards in the same season.

After his short stint with baseball, Jordan returned to basketball late in the 1994–95 season. Although he did not lead the Bulls to the Finals for that season, he returned to pre-retirement form the next season while the team acquired perennial rebounding champion Dennis Rodman. The 1995–96 Bulls finished the regular season 72–10, attaining, at the time, the best regular season record in NBA history. They dominated in the playoffs, going 11–1 in the first three rounds, before facing the Seattle SuperSonics in the NBA Finals. After the Bulls took a 3–0 series lead, Seattle won the next two games after point guard Gary Payton asked his coach George Karl to be switched onto Jordan. Jordan altered his game to deal with Payton, and the Bulls won Game 6 to win their fourth title.

In 1997 and 1998, the Bulls met the Utah Jazz in the Finals twice. Led by Dream Team Olympians John Stockton and Karl Malone, the Jazz were defeated in both Finals by the Bulls in six games. In both series, Chicago won by hitting winning shots in the sixth game, the first by Steve Kerr in 1997 in Chicago, and the second by Jordan in Utah in 1998. This saw Chicago winning their sixth NBA championship, and winning their second three-peat. Jackson retired following this season, which set off a chain reaction that resulted in most of the team, including Jordan and Pippen, leaving the Bulls. With no foundation of youth to build upon, the Bulls became a lottery-bound team for the next six seasons.

1999–2010: Spurs and Lakers dominance
The 2000s were largely dominated by the San Antonio Spurs and Los Angeles Lakers, who appeared in a combined eleven Finals to win nine championships in twelve seasons.

The Spurs won four championships, in 1999, 2003, 2005, and 2007. During the 1999 NBA playoffs, the Spurs finished with a 15–2 mark. With a defensive squad led by David Robinson and Tim Duncan, San Antonio's 84.7 points allowed per game was the fewest average points allowed in the postseason in the last 30 years. In the Finals, the Spurs held the New York Knicks, the first 8-seed team to reach the finals in NBA history, to an average of 79.8 points per game. During the 2003 NBA Finals, the Spurs defeated the New Jersey Nets in six games, which also marked the first championship contested between two former ABA teams. In Game 6, Duncan was two blocks short of recording the first quadruple-double in NBA Finals history, finishing with 21 points, 20 rebounds, 10 assists, and 8 blocks. The Spurs also defeated the Detroit Pistons 4–3 in 2005 and swept the LeBron James-led Cleveland Cavaliers in 2007. Tony Parker won the Finals MVP award in 2007, becoming the first European-born player to do so.

The Lakers won five championships in the same period, including a three-peat from 2000 to 2002, led by Shaquille O'Neal and Kobe Bryant. Most notably, during their 2001 postseason run, the Lakers swept their first three series and won the Finals against the Allen Iverson-led Philadelphia 76ers in five games, finishing with an unprecedented 15–1 record, the best postseason record in NBA history at the time. The Lakers also defeated the Indiana Pacers in 2000, the Pacers’ only Finals appearance to date, and swept the New Jersey Nets in 2002.

In the 2003 off-season, veteran stars Gary Payton and Karl Malone signed with the Lakers. Along with Bryant and O'Neal, they formed what many expected to be one of the best teams in NBA history and were heavy favorites to win the championship in 2004. However, the Detroit Pistons, under coach Larry Brown, defeated the Lakers in five games. Now established as one of the powerhouses of the East, the Pistons returned to the NBA Finals the following year, before losing to the Spurs in seven games.

Following bad blood and eventual fallout with former Lakers teammate Kobe Bryant, O'Neal was traded from the Lakers to the Miami Heat in 2004, where he teamed up with rising star Dwyane Wade. Together they led the Heat to a championship in 2006 at the expense of the Dallas Mavericks.

The Lakers returned to the Finals in 2008 against the Boston Celtics, renewing the teams' rivalry marking the 11th Finals matchup between them. The Celtics defeated the Lakers in six games, led by their "Big Three" superstars of Ray Allen, Kevin Garnett, and Paul Pierce. The Lakers bounced back from the loss by winning the 2009 NBA Finals, where they Orlando Magic in five games. The Lakers met the Celtics once again in 2010, trailing 3–2 before winning the last two games at home. Head coach Phil Jackson surpassed Red Auerbach's record for most NBA titles of all time with eleven.

2011–2022: LeBron James dominance and the Warriors dynasty
The 2010s were distinguished by the continued excellence of LeBron James, who appeared in nine NBA Finals in ten seasons, winning four titles, while playing for three different franchises. The decade also saw the ascent of the Golden State Warriors, emerging as a dominant force in the Western Conference with six NBA finals appearances including five straight from 2015 to 2019, along with four titles.

During the 2010 off-season, the Miami Heat re-signed team captain Dwyane Wade and added James and Chris Bosh via free agency to form a new "Big Three." The Heat were subsequently considered heavy title favorites and appeared four straight finals, starting in 2011 against the Dallas Mavericks. Despite being heavy underdogs on paper, the Mavericks won the series in six games. The Heat returned to the Finals in the following year against a young Oklahoma City Thunder team featuring future MVPs Russell Westbrook, James Harden, and Kevin Durant. Miami won the series in five games, with James winning his first championship. The Heat repeated as champions in 2013, this time over the San Antonio Spurs, featuring a Heat comeback in Game 6 that is widely regarded one of the greatest playoff games ever played. Miami sought a three-peat in a 2014 rematch with the Spurs, but this time San Antonio prevailed in five games, winning the fifth and final title of Tim Duncan's career.

In the 2014 off-season, James returned to the Cleveland Cavaliers where he teamed up with Kyrie Irving and Kevin Love to form a new "Big Three". The Cavaliers appeared in the next four Finals, all against the Golden State Warriors. The Cavaliers and Warriors became the first two teams to square off in more than two consecutive Finals. The Warriors drew first blood in the 2015 NBA Finals, coming back from a 2–1 deficit to win the series 4–2. This series was marked by injuries to Love and Irving, while James became the first player to lead both teams in points, rebounds, and assists in a Finals series. James also became the first player in NBA Finals history to lead both teams in points, assists, and rebounds for the entire series. The Warriors inserted Andre Iguodala into the starting lineup after Game 3, leading to the series turning around, and Iguodala won NBA Finals MVP for his efforts in containing James on defense. The following season, the Warriors broke the record for most regular season wins with a record of 73–9. The Warriors opened up a 3–1 series lead in the 2016 NBA Finals, but James and Irving led the Cavaliers to two straight victories to force a deciding Game 7. In a key sequence with two minutes remaining in Game 7, LeBron James made a memorable chase-down block on Iguodala to keep the game tied, while Irving hit a 3-point shot a minute later to take the lead. Cleveland held on to win the title and end the city's championship drought. In the subsequent off-season, the Warriors acquired Kevin Durant through free agency, forming what many considered to be one of the greatest teams ever assembled. In 2017, the Warriors set a playoff record of 15 consecutive wins en route to a five-game victory in the Finals, followed by a dominant sweep in 2018..

In 2018, James left the Cavaliers and signed with the Los Angeles Lakers. Without James, the Cavaliers struggled and did not return to the playoffs until 2023. In 2019, the Warriors made their fifth consecutive Finals appearance. However, after injuries to stars Kevin Durant and Klay Thompson, the Warriors were ousted by the Kawhi Leonard-led Toronto Raptors 4–2, resulting in the first NBA title for a team based outside the United States.

James returned to his tenth Finals with the Los Angeles Lakers against the Miami Heat in the 2020 NBA Finals, marking the first time in NBA history that two teams that missed the playoffs the year before met in the Finals. The Lakers won the series 4–2, claiming their 17th title to tie the Boston Celtics' franchise record; LeBron James was named Finals MVP for the fourth time in his career, becoming the first player to win the award with three different franchises. The 2021 NBA Finals saw the Milwaukee Bucks defeat the Phoenix Suns in the first Finals since 1971 to feature no players who had previously won a championship.

After missing the playoffs two years in a row largely due to injuries, the Warriors returned to the 2022 NBA Finals for their sixth appearance in eight seasons. They defeated the Boston Celtics in six games for their fourth championship in eight seasons,

2023–present
The Denver Nuggets reached their first Finals in franchise history in 2023, defeating the Miami Heat in five games. Nikola Jokić was named Finals MVP, becoming the lowest-drafted player (41st overall) to win the award. The Boston Celtics defeated the Dallas Mavericks in the 2024 NBA Finals, marking the sixth straight year with a different championship team, the longest such streak since the 1970s. Boston won its record 18th NBA title, breaking a tie with their longtime rival Los Angeles Lakers.

Sponsorship
As part of a multiyear partnership that began in 2018, the internet television service YouTube TV became the presenting sponsor of the NBA Finals.

Finals appearances
The statistics below refer to series wins and losses, not individual games won and lost. For individual game statistics, see Individual games records.

Active franchises with no Finals appearances
(*) As a result of the original franchise's relocation to New Orleans, the NBA team in Charlotte suspended operations for the 2002–03 and the 2003–04 seasons, before a new team, named the Bobcats, was established for the 2004–05 season. In 2013, the original Hornets were renamed the Pelicans and obtained the records during their time in New Orleans and Oklahoma City from 2002 to 2013. In 2014, the Bobcats became the second incarnation of the Charlotte Hornets, and retained the history and records of the Hornets organization from 1988 to 2002.

Player records

 * Career
 * Most years in Finals (12) – Bill Russell
 * Most games played in Finals (70) – Bill Russell
 * Most career points in Finals (1,679) – Jerry West
 * Most career assists in Finals (584) – Magic Johnson
 * Most career rebounds in Finals (1,718) – Bill Russell
 * Most career blocks in Finals (116) – Kareem Abdul-Jabbar
 * Most career steals in Finals (102) – Magic Johnson
 * Most career turnovers in Finals (196) – LeBron James
 * Most career three-point field goals in Finals (152) – Stephen Curry
 * Most career free throws made in Finals (453) – Jerry West

 * Series
 * Most points, one series (284) – Elgin Baylor (1962)
 * Most assists, one series (95) – Magic Johnson (1984)
 * Most rebounds, one series (189) – Bill Russell (1962)
 * Most blocks, one series (32) – Tim Duncan (2003)
 * Most steals, one series (20) – Isiah Thomas (1988)
 * Most turnovers, one series (31) – Magic Johnson (1984) and LeBron James (2016)
 * Most three-point field goals, one series (32) – Stephen Curry (2016)
 * Most free throws made, one series (82) – Elgin Baylor (1962)
 * Game
 * Most points, one game (61) – Elgin Baylor (1962)
 * Most assists, one game (21) – Magic Johnson (1984)
 * Most rebounds, one game (40) – 2x Bill Russell (1960) and (1962)
 * Most blocks, one game (9) – Dwight Howard (2009)
 * Most steals, one game (7) – Robert Horry (1995)
 * Most turnovers, one game (10) – Magic Johnson (1980)
 * Most three-point field goals, one game (9) – Stephen Curry (2018)
 * Most free throws made, one game (21) – Dwyane Wade (2006)

 * Total points (finals)
 * 1) Jerry West – 1,679
 * 2) LeBron James – 1,562
 * 3) Kareem Abdul-Jabbar – 1,317
 * 4) Michael Jordan – 1,176
 * 5) Elgin Baylor – 1,161
 * 6) Bill Russell – 1,151
 * 7) Sam Jones – 1,143
 * 8) Tom Heinsohn – 1,037
 * 9) John Havlicek – 1,020
 * 10) Magic Johnson – 971

 * PPG average (min 10 games) (finals)
 * 1) Rick Barry – 36.3
 * 2) Michael Jordan – 33.6
 * 3) Jerry West – 30.5

title: NBA Finals


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Little Me (novel)

Little Me: The Intimate Memoirs of that Great Star of Stage, Screen and Television, or simply Little Me, was the parody "confessional" self-indulgent autobiography of "Belle Poitrine" (French for "Pretty Bosom"). It was written by Patrick Dennis, who had achieved a great success with Auntie Mame. A bestseller when introduced in book form, the work was also later staged on Broadway as a musical.

The heavily illustrated work featured numerous photographs by Cris Alexander, who combined retouched stock photographs with original photographs taken to create Belle Poitrine's life. Published in 1961, it was considered pretty risqué at the time. (Several of Alexander's photographs were rejected by censors.) The book also featured family and friends of Dennis and Alexander, including Dennis' wife, Louise, as "Pixie Portnoy", and ballet dancer Shaun O'Brien (Alexander's domestic partner) as Mr. Musgrove. Actress Dodie Goodman and comedian Alice Pearce were prominently featured. Actress Jeri Archer portrayed the often overexposed, self-centered and clueless Poitrine, and Kurt Bieber was her beefcake co-star and paramour, "Letch Feely". Little Me was reissued in 2002 with a new preface by Charles Busch and foreword by Alexander.

The plot of Little Me tells the rags-to-riches-to-rags-to-riches, etc. story of Maybelle Schlumpfert, an overdeveloped and self-deluded young girl who rises to become Belle Poitrine. Throughout the book, Poitrine's character trumpets her successes (which are few) while glossing over her failures (which are many). The book was a sharp parody of the cult of celebrity and self-importance that emerged from the numerous "personality overcoming obstacles" biographies of the late 1940s and early 1950s.

Little Me, the musical
Little Me was made into a musical, with book by Neil Simon, music by Cy Coleman, and lyrics by Carolyn Leigh, which opened at the Lunt-Fontanne Theatre on November 17, 1962 and ran for 257 performances.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Little Me (novel)


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Ned Williamson

Edward Nagle Williamson (October 24, 1857 – March 3, 1894) was an American professional baseball infielder in Major League Baseball. He played for three teams: the Indianapolis Blues of the National League (NL) for one season, the Chicago White Stockings (NL) for 11 seasons, and the Chicago Pirates of the Players' League for one season.

From 1883 and 1887, Williamson held the single-season record for both doubles and home runs. Although his record for doubles was surpassed in 1887, he held the home run record until 1919, when it was topped by Babe Ruth of the Boston Red Sox. Statistically, he was one of the best fielders of his era. During the first eight years of his career, he led the league at his position in both fielding percentage and double plays five times, and he also led his position in assists six times. Later, when he moved to shortstop, he again led the league in both assists and double plays.

His career was shortened by a knee injury that he suffered in Paris during a world-tour organized by Albert Spalding. After he left organized baseball, his health declined rapidly. He contracted tuberculosis and ultimately died at the age of 36 of dropsy.

Career
Born in Philadelphia, Williamson began his major league career on May 1, 1878 for the Indianapolis Blues of the National League. That season he played in all 63 of the team's games as the starting third baseman, leading the league in that category. He umpired his only game on August 12, calling a game between the Chicago White Stockings and the Providence Grays. His season-ending statistics included a .232 batting average, one home run, and 31 runs scored.

The Blues were only a major league team for the 1878 season, resulting in Williamson joining the Chicago White Stockings for the 1879 season. He was their regular third baseman, leading the league in multiple fielding categories for his position, including fielding percentage, assists, putouts, and double plays. As a hitter, his numbers improved. He finished second in the league with 13 triples, and eighth in doubles with 20, while also raising his batting average to .294. During the next three seasons, his batting statistics fluctuated from year to year. His batting average rose from .251 in 1880 to .282 in 1882; likewise, his 20 doubles in 1880 were good for seventh in the league, but dropped to 12 in 1881. He followed that season with 27 in 1882, which was fourth in the league. During this time period, when his level of hitting had dropped, his play in the field did not. He led the league in fielding percentage from 1880 to 1882, and in assists in 1881 and 1882.

In 1883, Williamson set the major league record for doubles in a single season by hitting 49, surpassing King Kelly's 37 set the previous year. Williamson's record for doubles stood until Tip O'Neill of the St. Louis Browns hit 52 in 1887. Williamson's doubles achievement was attributed to the short dimensions of Chicago's Lakeshore Park; the distances were 186 ft in left field, 300 ft in center field, and 190 ft in right field. Balls that were hit over the fence were counted as doubles until 1884, when they became home runs. On September 6, Chicago scored a record 18 runs in one inning during a 26–6 victory over the Detroit Wolverines. Williamson contributed three hits, and scored three runs in that inning, setting individual records in both categories. Other than runs scored, the other team records set that day included the most hits and total bases in one inning.

During this time period, the establishment of the ground rules of each park rested with the home team. In 1884, team captain and on-field manager Cap Anson decided that balls hit over the fence were to be home runs. Williamson used these short dimensions and new ground rules to set the single-season home run record by hitting 27 in a 112-game season, surpassing the record of 14 set by Harry Stovey the previous year. Of the 27 home runs he hit that year, 25 of them were hit at home. This record stood for 35 years until it was broken in 1919 by Babe Ruth, who hit 29 for the Boston Red Sox in a 140-game schedule. The first three of Williamson's 27 home runs came on May 30, in the second game of a doubleheader against the Detroit Wolverines. Williamson became the first major league baseball player to hit three home runs in one game. During these two record-breaking seasons, his fielding prowess did not recede. He did not lead the league in fielding percentage in either 1883 or 1884, but did lead in assists, capping off a streak of five consecutive years in which he did so, while also leading the league in double plays for the second and third consecutive years.

After the 1884 season, the White Stockings moved to West Side Park, and Williamson's power numbers dropped. Without the short fences, his home run total dropped to three, his doubles went down to 16, and his batting average dropped to .238, his lowest average since he became a White Stocking. Despite his low hitting numbers, he did lead the league in games played with 116, bases on balls with 75, and yet again, led his position in assists, double plays, and for the fifth and last time, fielding percentage. Chicago won the National League championship that season, and agreed to play the American Association champions, the St. Louis Browns in a seven-game "World Series". Before game one began, the players of both teams held a field day which included contests of skill, and Williamson won the long throw with a toss that traveled 400 feet, four inches. The 1885 series ended in a tie when each team won three games, and one game ended in a tie. Williamson collected two base hits in 23 at bats, for a .087 batting average, and scored one run.

Beginning in 1886, Williamson switched his fielding position to shortstop, while the Chicago White Stockings again won the National League championship, their fifth in seven years. The team's success did not coincide with Williamson's slide in seasonal numbers. His batting average dropped to his career low of .216, and his strikeouts jumped up to a career high of 71, in 430 at bats, although he did finish third in bases on balls. The White Stockings met the St. Louis Browns following the season and agreed to play a best of seven "World Series" for the second consecutive year. The Browns won the series, four games to two, and Williamson's statistics for the series did not improve. In fact, they were worse than in 1885. He gathered one base hit in 18 at bats, for a .056 batting average, and scored two runs.

1887 was Williamson's second season at shortstop, his last full season in the majors, and his numbers began to climb back to what they were during the early part of his career. His batting average jumped back up to .267, hit 20 doubles, 14 triples, 73 base on balls, and nine home runs. In 1888, his batting average dipped again, this time to .250, but he did finish fourth in the league in both RBIs with 73, and base on balls with 65. In the field, he led the league in assists and double plays.

Spalding's world tour
At the completion of the 1888 baseball season, Albert Spalding organized an around-the-world tour to promote the game of baseball. The two teams Spalding selected were the White Stockings and a collection of players from other National League teams. The tour departed on October 20, 1888 to play exhibition games throughout the western United States for a month, before departing to Hawaii. The tour visited several foreign countries, such as Australia, Egypt, Ceylon (Sri Lanka), France, Italy, and England. It was during a game played on at the Parc Aristotique in Paris, France on March 8, 1889, when Williamson suffered a torn knee cap which forced him to be bedridden in England on doctor's orders, missing the tour through Britain. Though players in the 19th century were responsible for their own medical care, Williamson asked Spalding to help him financially with the mounting medical costs. Spalding refused, citing that he was not obligated to assist, and Williamson never forgave him for this. Williamson, among his baseball contemporaries, wrote the most colorful articles to newspapers as the tour was unfolding. Williamson, an 1880s teammate of Anson in Chicago, had a knack for roasting—poking fun at—his teammates while always coming across as good-natured. A testament to the letters' significance is that they are a dominant source of one recent book's World Tour presentation. Williamson is portrayed by Charlie Crabtree in the 2015 movie "Deadball" which depicts his life and journaling of the world tour.

Late career and death
The injury to Williamson's knee caused his career to suffer, as he played in 47 games during the 1889 season. He batted .237, and of his 41 hits that season, only five of them were extra base hits. He joined the Chicago Pirates of the Players' League for the 1890 season, his final major league season, and played in 73 games, hitting .195.

In the spring of 1894, Williamson traveled to Hot Springs, Arkansas, in hopes that he could recover from a liver ailment and lose some weight as well, but the treatments did not work. Williamson died on March 3 of that year, at the age of 36 in Willow Springs, Arkansas, of dropsy (edema) complicated by consumption (tuberculosis). He was interred in an unmarked grave at Rosehill Cemetery in Chicago, until November 6, 2021, when the grave received a dedication thanks to the efforts of the Society for American Baseball Research (SABR); the grave notes his single-season record of home runs set in 1884.

title: Ned Williamson


text:
Talk:List of nicknames used by George W. Bush

"May have come from..."
Since when is Wikipedia using speculative statements as fact? I was just here to look for something and that made me laugh, so I took out the sentence. Keith Olbermann's speculation that it came from being Skull and Bones is laughable itself, but on Wikipedia? I use nicknames and so does a friend of mine, and neither of us went to Yale, much less be members of Skull and Bones. Most of us give people nicknames affectionately. I know this article is old and I see it has been contentious, but as a natural skeptic and an active critic of inappropriate bias everywhere, there's no way I can let that slide. 99.107.159.25 (talk) 03:53, 16 July 2016 (UTC)

Doonsbury
I don't think it's notable that Doonsbury makes fun of Bush. Gary Trudeau's a partisan Democrat. If that comes to that, I don't really think that Bush uses nicknames is particularly significant either.--Mokru 04:40, 11 November 2007 (UTC)

NYT article
Did people not get the joke? The names given here are all jokes. That's a humor piece. Why are they included in the article? Beginning 03:49, Aug 11, 2004 (UTC)

 * I have now removed the names from the NYT article that were clearly jokes and not names he actually uses. Beginning 06:44, Aug 18, 2004 (UTC)

Regular usage?
Does he use these names on a regular basis? One-off names should not be included. Pcb21| Pete 15:01, 15 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * The names are used frequently enough to have warranted mentions in press stories. (Please see the references in the article to see this.) Beginning 08:33, Aug 20, 2004 (UTC)

Merge
I am going to merge this page with Nicknames bestowed by George W Bush. But first I'll find references in for nicknames in the latter, or delete where references are not found.

Pud 11:50, 19 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * Thanks for the merge, and also for looking for references. It's very much appreciated. This is a great subject to have a list for, but there are too many nicknames that are mistakenly believed to be his creations (or that are used by his detractors only, in some cases) that can get worked in accidentally. References are great. Beginning 08:31, Aug 20, 2004 (UTC)

Bushie
Just a question - is it possible that "Bushie" was just another really really really bad joke like so many others that the Bush daughters told last night at the RNC Convention? I do realize that there's no better source than a member of the Bush family, but I think we might want to present the "nickname" in context as a possible joke. Just as a small amount of support for wanting context: though Salon is clearly partisan and the story has an agenda, this article does contain some odd and not necessarily true statements made by the daughters last night. http://www.salon.com/politics/war_room/archive.html?blog=/politics/war_room/2004/09/01/twins/index.html --ABQCat 02:09, 2 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * I say it should remain with no disclaimer. That part of the speech in particular hasn't been contradicted by anyone, so I don't think we should say "some critics think it's made up" since they'd have no way of backing it up even if it were. Yes, their speech was full of nothing but terrible jokes, but unless someone from the Bush family says the "Bushie" part in particular is garbage, I say it's fine the way it is. Beginning 11:12, Sep 2, 2004 (UTC)

 * Sounds good to me. I just wanted to put it out there and see what someone else thought. I don't know what to believe about it, but like you said, unless someone else says its not true, there's no reason to even disclaimer it. --ABQCat 16:35, 2 Sep 2004 (UTC)

What links here?
I'm wondering if there are some articles currently on Wikipedia that should link here. George W. Bush or George W. Bush presidential campaign, 2004 for example. Additionally, shouldn't each person listed as having a nickname at least have a link on the article page to this one? Ideas, thoughts, comments? --ABQCat 02:13, 2 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * I think many people, like myself, found it the day it was featured on the main page. Karl Rove and nickname are the only two full articles linking to it, so I think it should be added to the articles of the others named, absolutely. Beginning 11:12, Sep 2, 2004 (UTC)

Slappy
I was unable to find a reference for this and will remove the nickname unless someone else can offer a reference. Duk 23:54, 24 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * Removed. Beginning 03:07, Sep 26, 2004 (UTC)

Fredo?
I'm sure I've heard somewhere he calls Alberto Gonzales 'Fredo Borisblue 19:31, 24 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Clymer
The Clymer reference does not appear to be a nickname, but rather a spur of the moment name-calling. If you called a friend of yours a "jerk" in the heat of the moment, would you add that to your list of nicknames you use for that person. I think not.

Also, I think we could find a bunch of names he has called Osama and Saddam over the years, but I doubt they would be considered nicknames.  NoSeptember  13:52, 8 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Agreed. I've removed the Clymer listing. Rillian 02:21, 20 August 2005 (UTC)

L.A. Times Op-Ed
This is another humor piece, as far as I can tell, so I've reverted the addtions based on it.--Pharos 05:56, 16 August 2005 (UTC)

"former"
Rillian, perhaps you should add an explanation in the intro to the article about not using "former". Otherwise, there will continually be well-meaning edits that disrupt the article.

"slim"
I know I have heard hi refer to Arkansas Governor Huckabee as "slim" since the Gov. has lost an incredible amount of weight.

Major League Asshole
Think it would be biased to add Bush's "major-league asshole" to the list, in regard to Adam Clymer? http://www.snopes.com/politics/bush/bushcuss.asp

Yo, Blair
Sould 'Yo, Blair" be added here as Bush's private reference to Tony Blair? —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 213.197.129.54 (talk • contribs).
 * Reliable sources and evidence of notability, please. Can we demonstrate that he consistently uses this nickname? Luna Santin 10:59, 21 July 2006 (UTC)
 * "Yo, Blair" is not a nickname. It is an informal greeting followed by Blair's actual name. -Silence 12:05, 21 July 2006 (UTC)

 * This is the stupidest conversation I have ever seen in my entire life. That's a sentence using slang. I can't believe someone would think of that as a nickname. Heh. --165.123.227.7 (talk) 02:26, 15 September 2008 (UTC)

Man of Steel
Didn't George Bush once call Australian Prime Minister John Howard a "Man of Steel"? 124.181.247.231 15:55, 9 January 2007 (UTC)

 * He may have, once, but that's a metaphor, not a nickname. --naught101 (talk) 11:05, 6 October 2008 (UTC)

ugh
this really takes the fun out of giving people nicknames. Kingturtle (talk) 22:56, 1 April 2008 (UTC)

comment
Somebody excised an entry. That entry was sourced. I was going to restore it, on the grounds that there should be a source offered on the talk page, justifying the entries removal. Then I saw the remover had offered a source, of sorts, in their edit summary. We can't click through entries like that one in an edit summary. Here is a link to a mirror of a National Review article that casts doubt on the entry. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1282/is_14_56/ai_n13803112/pg_2?tag=artBody;col1

Geo Swan (talk) 19:43, 18 September 2008 (UTC)

Are 'Condi' and 'Steve' really nicknames?
They hardly sound unique to Bush; anyone could call Stephen Harper "Steve," and "Condi" is a widely reported nickname for Sec. Rice. --SchutteGod 70.181.162.179 (talk) 16:59, 6 November 2011 (UTC)
 * Is not that Steve isn't a common nickname for Stephen (it is), but rather that it surprised Stephen Harper to be called that by Bush. As mentioned in the citation, ""It surprised me a bit," Harper laughed during an interview on CHQR Radio. "I'm normally called Stephen … but a few people, close friends of my mine, do call me Steve." Rillian (talk) 20:11, 7 November 2011 (UTC)

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User talk:Samuelajanaku@yahoo.co.uk

Hello and welcome to Wikipedia! Hope you like it here, and stick around.

Here are some tips to help you get started:

 * To sign your posts (on talk pages, for example) use the '~' symbol. To insert just your name, type ~~~ (3 tildes), or, to insert your name and timestamp, use ~~~~ (4 tildes).
 * Try the Tutorial, and feel free to experiment in the test area.
 * If you need help, post a question at the Help Desk
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 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and, most importantly, have fun!

Good luck!

Please stop creating articles on the House committees unless they actually have useful, encyclopedic content. Letters to President Bush can be sent to president@whitehouse.gov

[[User:Meelar|Meelar (talk)]] 18:55, 2004 Aug 10 (UTC)

Vandalism
Welcome to Wikipedia! You seem to be confused about Wikipedia's policy. Wikipedia is not a place to express your sentiments for George W. Bush. It is an encyclopedia. Please use the links posted above to get started, and please stop vandalizing pages. supadawg 18:56, 10 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * If you don't stop, you'll be blocked from editing. [[User:Meelar|Meelar (talk)]] 18:58, 2004 Aug 10 (UTC)

title: User talk:Samuelajanaku@yahoo.co.uk


text:
Watauga River

The Watauga River is a large stream of western North Carolina and East Tennessee. It is 78.5 mi long with its headwaters in Linville Gap to the South Fork Holston River at Boone Lake.

Course
The Watauga River rises from a spring located south to the base of Peak Mountain at Linville Gap in Avery County, North Carolina. The spring emanates from the western side of the Tennessee Valley Divide, which is, at this location, congruent with the Eastern Continental Divide. On the other side of the divide at Linville Gap are the headwaters of the Linville River in the Upper Catawba watershed. Waters of the Linville River eventually reach the Atlantic Ocean, whereas waters of the Watauga River reach the Gulf of Mexico; hence the Eastern Continental Divide. The river then flows across Watauga County, North Carolina, crossing the Tennessee state line (River Mile (RM) 55.1) at Johnson County, then into Carter County, Tennessee and ends at its confluence with the Holston River's South Fork (RM 0) on the Washington/Sullivan County border.

Impoundment
After crossing into Johnson County, the Watauga River is first impounded by the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) Watauga Dam, creating the 6430 acre Watauga Lake. This impoundment receives two important tributaries: the Elk River and Roan Creek. Watauga Lake is bridged by Tennessee State Route 67 over Butler Memorial Bridge just as the watercourse enters Carter County. The Appalachian Trail crosses the river on Watauga Dam.

Nearly 3 miles below Watauga Dam, on the Horseshoe section of the Watauga River, is the TVA Wilbur Dam, which forms a much smaller but very deep reservoir known as Wilbur Lake. TVA releases approximately 130 cuft/s of discharged water back into the Watauga River during the summer months. Below Wilbur Dam the river flows generally north and then west into Carter County where it forms the northern limits of Elizabethton, where the Watauga then receives the Doe River. Farther downstream on the Watauga River at the boundary between Carter County and Washington County is the old TVA Watauga Steam Plant.

A portion of the boundary line between Washington County and Sullivan County is formed by the Watauga River. Boone Dam is located below the slack water confluence of both South Fork Holston River and the downstream end (mouth) of the Watauga River. The distance afloat between the TVA Watauga Reservoir and Boone Lake is approximately 20.6 mi.

History
The true origin of the name of the Watauga River is probably lost to antiquity. Most documents agree that the name is of Native American origin, though which nation, tribe or language it descends from, and its meaning, are in question. Early Tennessee historian John Haywood states in his "The Civil and Political History of the State of Tennessee" published in 1823 that the "Watauga signifies the River of Islands, or the Island River. The Holston River was known to the Cherokees by the name of Watauga.". Pre-Civil War maps of Tennessee show that the river designated as the Holston River extended west of Knoxville, meeting with the Clinch River near Kingston and well past the present-day beginning of the Tennessee River (east of Knoxville) at the confluence of both the Holston River and the French Broad River.

A North Carolina State University web page (the Watauga Medal) says the word "Watauga" is a Native-American word meaning "the land beyond". Local references say the name means "beautiful river" or "beautiful water". There were at least two Native American villages so named, including one at present-day Elizabethton, which became known as "Watauga Old Fields", referring to former Native American residents. It was first explored by Daniel Boone and James Robertson in 1759. A historic Cherokee town known as Watauga was located along the Little Tennessee River near present-day Franklin, North Carolina, in their homelands.

The original settlers of Nashville, Tennessee, set out west from the Watauga River area, called the Watauga Association, during the American Revolution. They realized that the British Proclamation of 1763, forbidding colonial settlement west of the Blue Ridge Mountains in order to protect Native American territories, was essentially unenforceable.

Wilbur Dam is the site of first hydroelectric dam constructed in Tennessee (beginning in 1909), going online with power production and distribution in 1912. Wilbur Dam was constructed on the Watauga River by the former Tennessee Electric Power Company, a privately owned utility purchased by the TVA in the late 1930s. Elizabethton acquired the moniker "City of Power" because of its early access to hydro-generated electricity from Wilbur Dam.

The Watauga river is home to the endangered green floater mussel (Lasmigona subviridis). The river is also a breeding site for eastern hellbenders (Cryptobranchus alleganiensis alleganiensis).

Recreation
Whitewater rafting, kayaking, canoeing, fly fishing, and  angling with fishing reels are all popular recreation activities pursued on the Watauga River. Rainbow trout, brown trout, and striped bass are all caught in the Watauga River.

Whitewater
The Watauga River downstream of the TVA dams draws commercial rafting outfitters from both northeast Tennessee and western North Carolina during the summer months and commercial fishing guides throughout the year. The picturesque Class II+ Bee Cliff Rapids on the Watauga River (also referred to the "Anaconda Rapids" by some North Carolina-based rafting companies) are found downstream between Wilbur Dam and the Siam Bridge, southeast of Elizabethton.

For commercial whitewater rafting and kayaking on the Watauga River, the most popular Carter County "put-in" is immediately downstream of the TVA Wilbur Dam, and the most popular "take-out" is 2 to 2½ hours downstream (depending upon the volume of the reservoir release and other factors) at the Blackbottom riverside portion of the city linear trail park in Elizabethton. The distance afloat for paddlers from the put-in at Wilbur Dam to the Blackbottom take-out is approximately seven miles, with landmarks along the Watauga River providing a good estimate of time and distance traveled.

 * Wilbur Dam to Bee Cliff Rapids
 * align=right| ~15 minutes
 * Wilbur Dam to Siam Bridge
 * align=right| ~30 minutes
 * Wilbur Dam to Hunter Bridge (TWRA put-in/take out)
 * align=right| ~60 minutes
 * Wilbur Dam to Gilbert Peters Bridge at US 19-E in Elizabethton
 * align=right| ~90 minutes
 * Wilbur Dam to Bristol Bridge in Elizabethton
 * align=right| ~120 minutes
 * }
 * align=right| ~90 minutes
 * Wilbur Dam to Bristol Bridge in Elizabethton
 * align=right| ~120 minutes
 * }
 * }

The Watauga River also has a section of Class IV-V whitewater popular with expert kayakers, upstream of Watauga Lake in North Carolina. This section requires significant rainfall to bring it up to runnable levels. It features continuous steep boulder bed rapids dropping up to 150 ft/mi, and several falls and ledges only runnable by expert paddlers.

TVA recreation areas
The Tennessee Valley Authority maintains a self-service public campground below Watauga Dam. Amenities and recreational opportunities at the TVA Watauga Dam Tailwater Campground include 29 camp sites with electric hookups, rest rooms with heated showers and flush toilets, dump station, public phone, picnic tables and grills, canoe access, boat ramps above and below dam, lake and river fishing, hiking trail, walking trail, wildlife viewing area, and birdwatching.

Influence of weather
The TVA regulates flow of the Watauga River by scheduling the release of deep, impounded reservoir waters from behind both the Watauga Dam and Wilbur Dam. As a result, the summer temperature of the Watauga River is approximately 52–53°F (11–12 °C) downstream of the dams. The Watauga River is generally comfortable for kayaking, canoeing, and rafting during the summer months, but care must be taken to prevent hypothermia by prolonged exposure to the cold river water.

As TVA also guarantees a minimum release schedule during the summer season for riverine recreation below Wilbur Dam, the Watauga River will draw commercial whitewater rafting companies from distant rivers—such as the Nolichucky River running through Erwin, Tennessee in Unicoi County —when lack of adequate summer rain fall will not allow for rafting trips on these naturally flowing rivers during seasonal droughts.

title: Watauga River


text:
Food Additives Amendment of 1958

The Food Additives Amendment of 1958 is a 1958 amendment to the United States' Food, Drugs, and Cosmetic Act of 1938. It was a response to concerns about the safety of new food additives. The amendment established an exemption from the "food additive" definition and requirements for substances "generally recognized as safe" by scientific experts in the field, based on long history of use before 1958 or based on scientific studies. New food additives would be subject to testing including by the "Delaney clause". The Delaney clause was a provision in the amendment which said that if a substance were found to cause cancer in man or animal, then it could not be used as a food additive.

"Generally recognized as safe"
Generally recognized as safe (GRAS) is a Food and Drug Administration (FDA) designation that a chemical or substance added to food is considered safe by experts, and so is exempted from the usual Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA) food additive tolerance requirements. The concept of food additives being "generally recognized as safe" was first described in the Food Additives Amendment of 1958, and all additives introduced after this time had to be evaluated by new standards.

Delaney Clause
The Delaney Clause is a provision in the amendment named after Congressman James Delaney of New York. It said:

"the Secretary of the Food and Drug Administration shall not approve for use in food any chemical additive found to induce cancer in man, or, after tests, found to induce cancer in animals."

The Delaney Clause applied to pesticides in processed foods, but only when the concentration of a residue of a cancer-causing pesticide increased during processing; for example when more of a pesticide was present in ketchup than in the raw tomatoes used to make it. (It never applied to pesticides in raw foods.) When the law was passed, "neither advocates nor opponents of the policy, including FDA officials, believed it would have broad application, for only a handful of chemicals had then been shown to be animal carcinogens."

The Delaney Clause was invoked in 1959 when Arthur Sherwood Flemming, the Secretary of the Department of Health, Education and Welfare issued a statement advising the public about the possible contamination of substantial quantities of cranberries in Oregon and Washington with the herbicide aminotriazole, which the FDA had recently determined was a carcinogen (see Cranberry scare of 1959). Taking place the week of Thanksgiving, the announcement was referred to by many in the cranberry industry as "Black Monday" − sales plummeted, even though many government officials attempted to defuse the scare by declaring their intention to eat cranberries anyway. This episode is regarded as one of the first modern food scares based on a chemical additive.

As analytical chemistry became more powerful and able to detect smaller quantities of chemicals, and as chemicals became more widely used, regulatory agencies had an increasingly difficult time administering the Delaney Clause as it "recognizes no distinctions based on carcinogenic potency and, at least in theory, it applies equally to additives used in large amounts and to those present at barely detectable levels. It thus takes no account of the actual risk a carcinogenic additive might pose."

The FDA was the first agency to have to confront this problem, with respect to the use of diethylstilbestrol to promote the growth of livestock used in meat production, which remained present in the meat. It addressed the issue by using quantitative risk assessment, declaring that if a carcinogenic food additive creates an excess lifetime cancer risk of less than 1 additional cancer case in every 1,000,000 exposed individuals, the risk is negligible. This standard became known as the "de minimis" exception to the Delaney Rule and was used throughout the FDA and other agencies.

In 1988 the United States Environmental Protection Agency eased restrictions on several pesticides which posed a "de minimis" risk to humans. This change was challenged by the Natural Resources Defense Council, and overturned in 1992 by the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals.

Pesticide use was removed from the Delaney Clause in 1996 by an amendment to Title IV of the Food Quality Protection Act of 1996 (P.L. 104-170, Sec. 404).

The Delaney prohibition appears in three separate parts of the FFDCA: Section 409 on food additives; Section 512, relating to animal drugs in meat and poultry; and Section 721 on color additives. The Section 409 prohibition applied to many pesticide residues until enactment of the Food Quality Protection Act of 1996. This legislation removed pesticide residue tolerances from Delaney Clause constraints.

Many foods contain natural substances which are carcinogenic, for example safrole, which occurs in sassafras and sweet basil. Even these substances are covered by the Delaney clause, so that, for example, safrole may not be added to root beer in the United States.

title: Food Additives Amendment of 1958


text:
Charlie Muffin

Charlie Muffin is a 1979 made-for-TV film based on the 1977 novel of the same name by Brian Freemantle. In the U.S.A., the picture was later re-released under the title A Deadly Game.

A Euston Films production, the movie features David Hemmings, Ralph Richardson, Sam Wanamaker, Pinkas Braun, Ian Richardson, Shane Rimmer and Jennie Linden and was directed by Jack Gold.

Plot
This Cold War espionage thriller follows the story of British anti-hero spy Charlie Muffin, who has fallen on hard times since the forced retirement of Sir Archibald Willoughby, his previous boss at the U.K. secret service. His new boss, Sir Henry Cuthbertson, a former military man who epitomises the haughty upper-class British imperialist, barely attempts to conceal his disdain for the under-educated agent who, although more and highly experienced, quite obviously does not stem from the "right class". At the start of the film, it is established that Charlie has been deemed expendable and accordingly is set up to be captured or killed during a mission to East Germany — despite having been responsible for the mission's success. However, Charlie religiously follows his former chief's first rule: "Always secure an escape route", and another man is killed in his place. Cuthbertson's lap-dog agents Snare and Harrison — both totally lacking in experience and as arrogant as their boss — are shocked and embarrassed to see Muffin returning alive and well.

Back in the UK, Muffin's humiliation does not end, as Cuthbertson attempts to demote him over Charlie's supposed failure in interrogating a captured Russian agent. Because of Cutherbertson's not following established British Intelligence guidelines and Charlie's proving that his interrogation was actually a success, Charlie escapes demotion and goes on leave, which he spends with his wife Edith, while at the same time maintaining an affair with Cuthbertson's secretary-receptionist.

Next, the story unfolds around British and American attempts to facilitate a safe defection of high-ranking Soviet General Valery Kalenin, KGB Director of Operations for more than twenty years. CIA Director Garson Ruttgers proves equally ambitious but not much smarter and ultimately equally as officious and presumptuous as his British counterpart. After Harrison and Snare's spectacular downfalls (one is killed in Leipzig trying to escape capture by KGB agents and the other is actually captured in Moscow) as the result of CIA interference and because the Americans are using diplomatic pressure on the British to make Kalenin's defection a joint Anglo-American operation, Cuthbertson has no choice but to call in Charlie to handle the affair. Charlie meets with Kalenin in Moscow without the CIA finding out, and Ruttgers' aide Braley, a good-hearted but docile sideshow official, is assigned to accompany Muffin first to casinos in various cities in order to "launder" the $500,000 Kalenin is demanding as the price of his defection and later to Prague to liaise with Kalenin on the final details. Meanwhile, Cuthbertson, who is still wary of Charlie (who keeps insisting that Kalenin's defection is false and a trap), arranges with his secretary-receptionist that she spy on Charlie during their liaisons together.

After the arrangements have been made, Charlie, Braley, Cuthbertson and Ruttgers meet in a safehouse in Vienna. Charlie and Braley meet Kalenin at an obscure border-crossing post and escort him to the safehouse. Charlie leaves to hide the car, while Cuthbertson and Ruttgers jubilantly welcome Kalenin. However, their joy is short-lived when Kalenin reveals that his "defection" was merely the bait in an elaborate trap to capture the heads of both MI5 and the CIA in order to exchange them for an important Russian agent currently imprisoned in England, and that his men are now in complete control of the safehouse. Cuthbertson and Ruttgers realize too late that Kalenin's plan couldn't have succeeded without inside help...from Charlie, who has escaped with the money intended for Kalenin.

The Russian agent is released and flies home to Moscow, while Cuthbertson and Ruttgers are presumably disgraced and dismissed from their positions, and Charlie and Edith, now in hiding in Brighton, celebrate their freedom with the money.

title: Charlie Muffin


text:
User:Duckamuck~enwiki/editme

Articles to Edit

 * steffi graf
 * kimiko date

title: User:Duckamuck~enwiki/editme