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Matiu / Somes Island

Matiu / Somes Island is the largest of three islands in the northern half of Wellington Harbour, New Zealand. The island is 24.9 hectares (62 acres) in area, and lies 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) south of the suburb of Petone and the mouth of the Hutt River.

Matiu / Somes Island was used as a place of refuge by pre-colonial Māori. Middens and other remnants of habitation have been found on the island. There is also a long and varied European history. The island was used for human quarantine from 1840 until the 1920s. Ships arriving in Wellington Harbour with infectious passengers or crew would disembark them at Matiu / Somes Island for care and treatment before berthing in the city. During both World War I and World War II, "enemy aliens", including long-term residents of New Zealand who originated from enemy countries, were interned on the island. Anti-aircraft gun emplacements were also built on the island during World War II and their remains can be seen today. The island was used for animal quarantine from 1864 until 1995. A maximum security animal quarantine station was built in 1968.

The island's environment had become degraded during its long period of use for quarantine and defence purposes. However, in 1981 work began to restore the forest cover. Following more than 30 years of environmental restoration and the translocation of species, the island is now home to many native birds, invertebrates, reptiles and plants. Since 1995, Matiu / Somes Island has been designated as a scientific and historic reserve. For many years the public was banned from visiting the island due to its role as a human and animal quarantine station, but visitors are now welcome and may stay overnight on the island.

In 2009, ownership of the island was transferred to the Māori collective Taranaki Whānui ki Te Upoko o Te Ika, as part of the settlement of claims against the Crown for breaches of the Treaty of Waitangi. The island is managed by the Department of Conservation.

Toponymy
Legend has it that Matiu and the nearby Mākaro island received their original Māori names from Kupe, the semi-legendary first navigator to reach New Zealand and return home with knowledge of the new land. He named them after his two daughters (or, in some versions of the tale, nieces) when he first entered the harbour around.

After European settlement, the island was known for over a century as Somes Island. In 1839 it fell under the control of the New Zealand Company along with much of the greater Wellington region. The island was renamed after Joseph Somes, the company's deputy-governor and financier at the time. In 1997, after 10 months of investigation and consideration of submissions by the public, the New Zealand Geographic Board assigned the official bilingual name of "Matiu/Somes Island" in recognition of the island's European and Māori histories. Ward Island was renamed as Mākaro/Ward Island at the same time. Since then the board has adopted the formatting convention of placing a space before and after the slash, so the official name is now written as "Matiu / Somes Island".

Geography
The island is 24.9 ha in area, and lies 3 km south of the suburb of Petone and the mouth of the Hutt River. Just off the northern tip of Matiu / Somes Island lies tiny Mokopuna Island, also known as Leper Island. The much smaller Mākaro / Ward Island is about 5 km southeast of Matiu / Somes Island.

A distinct gully runs from the south of the former quarantine station and terminates at the sea on the southern end of the island between two largely forested ridges on either side to the east and west. The gully floor forms a swamp, but an ephemeral watercourse flows through it during periods of heavy rain. A 1942 map shows a small dam across the creek.

Despite being surrounded by sea water, Matiu / Somes Island has access to fresh water from the Waiwhetu artesian aquifer. Water from the Hutt River infiltrates into porous gravels in the vicinity of Taita Gorge, with between 3.8 and 5.7 million litres per hour flowing from the bed of the river into the underlying gravels between Taita Gorge and Melling. South of Melling, a layer of clay forms an impervious cap (or aquiclude) that holds the artesian water underground and causes it to build up pressure as it flows through the gravel layer southwards towards Wellington Harbour. The pressurised water can rise to the surface if the fresh water layer is penetrated with a bore hole. There are also artesian gravels beneath much of Wellington Harbour, in some places hundreds of metres deep, and they extend out to the present harbour entrance. The water level in the harbour was much lower 20,000 years ago, and the ancient Hutt River used to flow down a paleochannel to the east of the Matiu / Somes Island ridge as far as present-day Kilbirnie. The Waiwhetu aquifer flows under the sea bed from the direction of the Hutt River to the harbour mouth via the paleochannel. Matiu / Somes Island gets its fresh water from a bore sunk into the aquifer just offshore at the main wharf. In February 2016, the Department of Conservation temporarily restricted access to the island because a long dry summer had lowered the volume and pressure of water from the aquifer, requiring strict water conservation. The island has three benches or platforms at 30, 45 and 75metres above the current mean sea level. The origin of these benches is uncertain. Similar levels are found on various ridges around the harbour, and the flat top of Makaro / Ward Island corresponds to the 30 metre level. They are likely to be interglacial wave cut benches that have been uplifted. No marine deposits have been found on the benches, but it is possible that they result from a combination of fluvial processes and tectonic uplift. If they were wave cut benches any marine deposits have been eroded away. The 1855 Wairarapa earthquake raised Matiu / Somes Island by about 1.5metres. The perimeters of both Matiu / Somes and Mokopuna Island have shore platforms that were eroded by the sea prior to the 1855 earthquake. There are some remnants of an earlier platform at 2.4 to 3m above the present mean sea level. A rock arch and platform at the northern end of Matiu / Somes Island was formed by the action of the sea, but was raised above sea-level by successive earthquakes, including the 1855 Wairarapa earthquake. The arch now appears as a hole in the rock, above sea level.

Somes Rock is an underwater pinnacle off the southwest point of Matiu / Somes island.

Geology
Matiu / Somes Island and the surrounding landscape of Wellington is dominated by grey sandstone and darker mudstone sequences, together commonly known as greywacke. In the harbour surrounding the island, the greywacke basement is overlain unconformably by solifluction debris and river gravels, then shelly marine silts, and finally artesian gravels that are capped with shelly marine silts.

Matiu / Somes Island is an uplifted block of greywacke, a horst structure thought to be part of a drowned ridge pushed up between faults that run northeast–southwest close to the west and east sides of the island. The faults extend from just offshore of Petone beach to about 1km south of the island. The greywacke at Matiu / Somes Island, and the surrounding Wellington landscape, is Late Triassic in age and assigned to the Rakaia Terrane, one of several terranes that collectively make up the Torlesse Composite Terrane (also known as the Torlesse Supergroup). A tube fossil (Torlessia mackayi ) has been found on the island. Although it has not been formally identified, it has been documented with an age range of 215-205Ma (Late Triassic). Tube fossils have also been found at other nearby locations such as Princess Bay and Sinclair Head, along the shore platform of Wellington's south coast.

Māori history
During the 18th century Ngāti Ira, an East Coast iwi, settled in Petone and around the eastern shores of the harbour. They built two pā on the island but there was no permanent settlement on the island due to limited resources there. Ngāti Mutunga and Ngāti Tama from Taranaki drove Ngāti Ira from their settlements in the 1820s.

In November 1835 Ngāti Mutunga people, affiliated to Te Āti Awa, seized the ship Lord Rodney at Wellington. The crew were tied up and the Lord Rodney 's captain John Harewood was forced or bribed to take a group of hundreds of Māori to the Chatham Islands. To ensure Harewood's compliance, his chief mate was held hostage on Matiu / Somes Island. There was no Māori occupation on Matiu / Somes from about 1840.

Archaeological sites
At the northern end of the island on a site with steep cliffs there was the Te Moana–a–kura pā which contained terraces and middens. Haowhenua pā was built in the middle of the island, where the quarantine station was sited, but the only remaining sign of occupation is a midden. The midden, which was underneath the hospital building, was uncovered and excavated during building work in 1999. Faunal remains included shellfish (species from the mainland), fish and bird bones.

European history
At various times throughout the 19th and 20th centuries the island hosted quarantine facilities for both human immigrants and animals, and enemy alien internees during wartime.

Human quarantine
In 1868 the island was declared a quarantine ground and used to isolate passengers from a ship carrying smallpox. When the immigrant ship England arrived in 1872 carrying several passengers with smallpox, passengers and crew were quartered in makeshift accommodation on the island. On other occasions, new arrivals would spend ten minutes in a smokehouse of chlorine, potassium nitrate and sulphur fumes for de-lousing. During the influenza pandemic of 1918–1920, a few people were quarantined on Matiu / Somes Island, but there was general agreement that the facilities were completely inadequate. The government then built accommodation for hundreds more people. In 1920, some passengers and crew from the ship Mahana were quarantined on Matiu / Somes Island with scarlet fever, but the quarantine station fell out of use after this. In 1935 the Government announced that it would reduce the number of quarantine beds on the island from 600 to about 50, but the Ministry of Health continued to restrict access to the island. In 1946, after World War II had ended, the island was offered back to the Ministry of Health but it declined to retake control.

Forty-five people are known to be buried on the island, mostly immigrants who arrived in the 1870s. In 1971, individual gravestones were removed from the overgrown cemetery and replaced with a large memorial. In January 2000, four of the old headstones were retrieved from storage and placed next to the communal memorial.

Animal quarantine
Use of the island as an animal quarantine facility is recorded as early as 1864, when an advertisement in the Wellington Independent recorded that a man named James Sellars had been permitted to use it as a quarantine ground for his sheep. In 1889 Matiu / Somes Island was declared as the first animal quarantine station in New Zealand. In 1892 the government established a Department of Agriculture to protect New Zealand's farming industry, and in 1893 passed the Stock Act. The Stock Act 1893 gave the Department of Agriculture power to quarantine all live animals arriving in the country, so it built permanent animal quarantine facilities on Matiu / Somes Island (in 1893) and at other locations for this purpose. In 1916, internees on the island built stables for the quarantine station.

In 1968 the government built a maximum security animal quarantine station. It had laboratories, animal pens and other facilities for quarantining up to 35 cattle and 150 sheep, and there were associated new homes for the workers and their families. Other animals quarantined included goats, alpacas, llamas and deer. The quarantine station was officially opened in December 1970. It closed in 1995 after in-vitro fertilisation technology was developed, making importation and quarantining of live breeding stock unnecessary.

World War I internment camp
During World War I the island continued to be used for quarantining animals but was also used for an internment camp which imprisoned about 300 "enemy aliens". Prisoners during this time included many German prisoners of war and suspected Danish imposter Hjelmar von Danneville. Other "enemy aliens" included German residents of New Zealand who were considered dangerous or who were reservists in the German or Austrian armies, sailors who had been at sea when war broke out, and Germans from Samoa.

In March 1915 two prisoners escaped from the island by swimming to Petone, where they turned themselves in at a police station, seeking to alert the authorities to allegedly poor treatment of internees. In July 1918 four men escaped on a raft made of wood with oil drums for buoyancy, landing at Ngauranga; one of the men died of exposure on the beach and the others were recaptured after seeking help.

An inquiry was held towards the end of the war into numerous accusations of mistreatment of alien internees on the island. Although in general the inquiry report found an absence of evidence to support charges of ill-treatment, it did make some recommendations to improve conditions for internees, and noted the use of "disrespectful language" by the camp overseer.

After the war ended, the internees were transferred to Featherston military camp and from there 260 of them were deported back to Germany. The island reverted to use as a human quarantine station.

World War II internment camp
On 29 August 1939 Matiu / Somes Island was handed over from the Health Department to the Army and again shifted from quarantine station to internment camp, with the first group of internees arriving in late December 1939. Internees included German and Italian residents of New Zealand and men from Pacific Islands plantations. By January 1942 there were also 45 Japanese internees who were New Zealand residents and fishermen from Suva. Tensions developed amongst the various national groups, in particular between German Nazis and German Jews. As in World War I, there were allegations of ill-treatment of the men on the island. Three men escaped in November 1941 in a boat stolen from the island's caretaker and made it to the Akatarawa hills before hunger forced them out to buy food and they were rearrested.

In 1942, the island was fortified with heavy anti-aircraft gun emplacements on the summit, but they were never used. A large area was levelled for this construction, with the result that 17 m was removed from the island's previous overall height. A degaussing station was built to provide protection for ships against magnetic mines. Many of the physical features of these sites are present on the island today. The Swiss Consul protested that with military equipment on the island it had become a potential target, and that keeping prisoners in a potential conflict zone was against the Geneva Convention. The Government moved the internees to a camp at Pahiatua, but in September 1944 this was needed for Polish refugee children so the prisoners were sent back to Matiu / Somes Island (apart from the Italians who had been allowed to return to their families after Italy signed an armistice in March 1944). At the end of the war the remaining internees were released and some were permitted to stay in New Zealand if they wished. In 1995, Club Garibaldi, a Wellington social club for people of Italian origin, erected a monument listing 38 Italians who had been interned on the island during the war.

Quarantine station to scientific reserve
From 1947 to 1995 the island was used as a quarantine station for livestock, with limited access to the public from 1981 onwards. In December 1983, the island was still a maximum security animal quarantine station. However, over the 1983/84 summer period, the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries agreed to allow day visits to the island by members of the public, limited to 120 visitors per open day. The visits were by permit only, and access to the quarantine station was not allowed. The day visits were co-ordinated by the Wellington Regional Council.

Matiu / Somes Island came under the jurisdiction of the newly-formed Lower Hutt City Council in 1989 and came under the full control of the Department of Conservation (DOC) as a scientific and historic reserve in August 1995.

Transfer of ownership
In 2009, ownership of the island was transferred to the Māori collective Taranaki Whānui ki Te Upoko o Te Ika. The transfer of ownership was part of cultural redress for Taranaki Whānui included in the settlement of their claims against the Crown for breaches of the Treaty of Waitangi. Following the passing of the Port Nicholson Block (Taranaki Whānui ki Te Upoko o Te Ika) Claims Settlement Act 2009, the island is owned by the trustees of the Port Nicholson Block Settlement Trust. A kaitiaki (management) plan was prepared in 2012, to guide the administration of the island's scientific and historic reserves in accordance with the Reserves Act 1977. A small team of rangers lives on the island to maintain facilities, manage visitors and volunteers, and monitor bait stations.

A waharoa (carved gateway) named Tane Te Waiora was unveiled next to the wharf at the entrance to the island in 2017.

Revegetation
In 1872, the island had few trees or shrubs. Sheep were grazed and quarantined on the island from 1851 onwards. During its time as a farm and quarantine station, much of Matiu / Somes Island was converted to pasture. The effects of grazing over a period of 125 years meant that by 1976 the island was mostly bare, with the exception of some exotic trees, including macrocarpa that had been planted for shelter. Native wildlife on the island was severely affected by the loss of habitat. In 1977, the Ministry of Works presented a landscaping plan to the Animal Health Division of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. The purpose of the plan was to provide screening and shelter of the accommodation and other buildings on the island, and to screen the oxidation ponds and rubbish dump. The plan proposed planting of a variety of native plants, along with more macrocarpa. A small number of trees were planted in 1977–78.

At about the same time, members of the Lower Hutt branch of the Royal Forest and Bird Protection Society became interested in revegetation of the island. They gained agreement to begin planting native plants on the island in the early 1980s. Access to the island was still strictly controlled at that time, because it was still a high security animal quarantine station. Over the period 1981–2008, the volunteers planted over 100,000 plants.

Species introduced or reintroduced to Matiu / Somes Island include Cook's scurvy grass, northern rata, large-leaved milk tree, taupata, hebes, ngaio, and five finger. A volunteer group known as the Karo Busters spent ten years poisoning karo trees growing on the island, since this species does not occur naturally in the area. Many of these projects have been supported by the community and the local Māori collective, Taranaki Whānui ki te Upoko o te Ika.

Pest eradication
Rats and mice were successfully eradicated between 1988 and 1989. In 1990, it was the largest island that had been cleared of ship rats. There was a suspected intrusion by a mouse in 2012, but no further evidence was found. The Department of Conservation maintains a network of traps and tracking tunnels.

Reintroduction of birds
Red-crowned kākāriki (parakeets) from Kapiti Island were successfully re-introduced in 2003 and 2004, and remain a common sight on the island. North Island robins sourced from Kapiti Island were released in April 2006. They bred for the first time in late September that year and this appeared to indicate that the island ecosystem was a suitable habitat for this species. However, the robins did not thrive, possibly because the regenerating forest does not yet provide sufficient damp leaf litter year-round to sustain an adequate population of invertebrates as food.

Little blue penguins breed on the island, and the population is closely monitored. Their numbers have increased significantly since the revegetation of the island. To help support penguin breeding, over 170 artificial nest boxes have been provided. However, in the 2020/21 season, there was high mortality of penguin chicks, attributed to starvation caused by warmer sea temperatures making it more difficult for adults to find and catch fish. Normal chick mortality is around 11% but the figure for 2020/21 was 35%.

Between 2012 and 2014, 237 fluttering shearwater chicks were translocated from the Marlborough Sounds to Matiu / Somes Island and hand-fed until they fledged. Some of the now-adult birds have since returned to the island and begun to breed. A solar-powered speaker system was installed to transmit fluttering shearwater calls each night, and has attracted wild birds to Matiu / Somes Island. This species is common in Wellington Harbour but there has been no local breeding population since pre-European times. They were once an important food source for local iwi.

The island is also a stronghold for other seabirds including the spotted shag and black shag, and the red-billed gull.

Reintroduction of invertebrates
There are more than 500 species of invertebrates on the island, including three species of wētā. Wellington tree wētā were transferred to Matiu / Somes Island in 1996 and 1997, and 67 Cook Strait giant wētā were successfully transferred from Mana Island in 1996. A species of small ground wētā had survived on Matiu / Somes Island after deforestation.

Reintroduction of reptiles
The island is now home to several species of native reptiles, including the common skink, spotted skink, copper skink and common gecko. Twenty-five forest geckos were transferred to the island in April 2005, and more than 90 Wellington green geckos were released in several transfers between 2006 and 2013. Two of these geckos were fitted with transmitters so that they could be monitored after release. In 2015 the green geckos were confirmed to be breeding on the island. Tuatara are known to have been living on Matiu / Somes island in the 1840s but later died out. In 1998, around 50 Brothers Island tuatara were released on Matiu / Somes Island, and by 2007 some had begun breeding there.

Matiu / Somes Island Charitable Trust
The Matiu / Somes Island Charitable Trust was established in 1999 and launched in March 2000 as a partnership between local iwi and the general community to help protect, nurture and enhance the island by raising funds for projects that increase biodiversity and enhance visitors' enjoyment of the island. Through its active arm, "The Friends of Matiu / Somes", it encourages community participation in work on the island. It also works closely with DOC and community groups such as Forest & Bird.

Maintaining biosecurity
Visitors to the island are required to pass through the whare kiore ('rat house') building at the wharf at the northeast of the island after disembarking, to check their bags for pest animals, plants, seeds and soil.

Transport
Scheduled ferry services from the Wellington CBD to Matiu / Somes Island and Days Bay operate as part of ferries in Wellington, landing at the main wharf at the northeast of the island. An electric ferry was introduced in 2022. Visitors arriving in private boats may only land at the main wharf or nearby beach.

In January 2024, the Kaitiaki Board governing the island announced that public access to the island would be closed for 6–8 months while the wharf was rebuilt.

Tourism
Matiu / Somes Island is an increasingly popular tourist attraction and educational resource for local schools, with about 15,000 visitors per year. Visitors may stay overnight on the island in one of two houses managed by the Department of Conservation (Education House built in the 1970s or the historic caretakers' cottage), or in a tent at one of 12 campsites.

Just to the north lies a much smaller island, Mokopuna Island. To protect endemic wildlife on Mokopuna Island – particularly nesting seabirds – landing by members of the public is prohibited.

Lighthouse

The Matiu / Somes Island lighthouse is a harbour navigation light for Wellington Harbour. It is a sector light, marking a safe approach through the harbour channel. The first lighthouse on the site was established in 1866. It was the first inner harbour lighthouse in New Zealand, and one of only eight lighthouses nationwide at that time. However, by 1895 there were multiple complaints that it was inadequate. A replacement lighthouse with a more powerful light was built on an adjacent site and commissioned on 21 February 1900. The light was automated on 1 April 1924 and converted to electricity after 1945. The lighthouse is owned and operated by the Greater Wellington Regional Council.

In the arts
Award-winning New Zealand novelist Maurice Gee's novel Live Bodies was set in part on Matiu / Somes Island, with the main character spending time interned there during the Second World War.

Oscar Kightley is a Samoan-born New Zealand actor, television presenter, writer, journalist, director, and comedian. In 1998, he co-wrote and performed in a play, Eulogy, that was based on the story of Samoan and German prisoners interned on the island during the Second World War.

New Zealand author of children's fiction Melanie Drewery's picture book for children, Papa's Island, tells the story of a family caught up in the internment of "enemy aliens" on Matiu / Somes Island.

New Zealand author of fiction and non-fiction David McGill's spy novel The Death Ray Debacle is based on a true story about Victor Penny, an Auckland bus garage attendant and amateur radio enthusiast who in 1935 managed to convince government authorities that he could produce a 'death ray' that was capable of stopping an army, immobilising trucks, and bringing down enemy aeroplanes in flight. Penny was placed under the protection of defence authorities initially on Matiu / Somes Island and later at Fort Dorset, a military coastal defence battery in Seatoun.

In 2013 Wellington theatre company Bard Productions staged an adaptation of Shakespeare's The Tempest on Matiu / Somes Island, with the boat journey across to the island forming part of the play. Scenes took place at the former animal quarantine station and in the open air.

title: Matiu / Somes Island


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Celebrity (1998 film)

Celebrity is a 1998 American comedy-drama film written and directed by Woody Allen, and features an ensemble cast. The screenplay describes the divergent paths a couple takes following their divorce.

The film received lukewarm reviews from critics and was a commercial disappointment.

Plot
Lee Simon is an unsuccessful novelist turned travel writer who immerses himself in celebrity journalism following a midlife crisis and subsequent divorce from his insecure wife, Robin, a former English teacher, after sixteen years of marriage.

As he stumbles his way through both professional encounters and sexual escapades with performers, models, and other players in the world of entertainment, Lee increasingly questions his purpose in life. He ruins numerous opportunities due to his fame-seeking, insecurities and neuroses.

Meanwhile, Robin trades her many neuroses for a makeover and a job with television producer Tony Gardella that leads to her own celebrity interview program. She takes advantage of numerous opportunities and ends up happy and successful.

Production
The film was shot in black-and-white on location in New York City by cinematographer Sven Nykvist. Celebrity was the last of four films shot by Nykvist for Allen. It also marks the end of Allen's long collaboration with editor Susan E. Morse, who had edited the previous twenty of Allen's films beginning with Manhattan (1979).

Release
The film premiered at the Venice Film Festival and was shown at the New York Film Festival before going into general release in the US on November 20, 1998. It opened on 493 screens, grossing $1,588,013 and ranking #10 on its opening weekend. It eventually earned $5,078,660 in the US.

Critical reception
Review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes currently scores Celebrity with a 42% 'Rotten' rating from 43 reviews; consensus adding "Entertaining, but too scattered." The film also holds a 41 on Metacritic.

Janet Maslin of The New York Times observed, "Lee Simon is one of the filmmaker's wearier creations, in ways that deny Celebrity the bracing audacity of recent, better Allen films like Deconstructing Harry and Everyone Says I Love You. And even with Branagh as his younger alter ego, Allen finds no way to revitalize the character's predictable worries about advancing his career and chasing beautiful women ... Though Celebrity is filled with beautiful and famous faces, it has plenty of opportunity to bog down between star turns, and some of the episodes about the Simons are astonishingly flat."

Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times said the film "plays oddly like the loose ends and unused inspirations of other Woody Allen movies; it's sort of a revue format in which a lot of famous people appear onscreen, perform in the sketch Woody devises for them and disappear. Some of the moments are very funny. More are only smile material, and a few don't work at all. Like all of Allen's films, it's smart and quirky enough that we're not bored, but we're not much delighted, either ... Branagh has all the Allen vocal mannerisms and the body language of comic uncertainty. He does Allen so carefully, indeed, that you wonder why Allen didn't just play the character himself."

Peter Travers of Rolling Stone felt the film "suffers from lulls and lapses and one lulu of a casting gaffe, but this keenly observant spoof of the fame game is hardly the work of a burnout. At sixty-two, the Woodman can still mine caustic laughter from the darkest corners of his psyche. In Celebrity, he cracks his ringmaster's whip on a circus of rude, cathartic fun ... Branagh, whether by his choice or his director's, plays Lee like a Woody impressionist, down to the nervous gestures and the stuttering whine ... Lee should emerge as flawed but real in a world of gorgeous poseurs. Instead, Branagh's party-trick performance keeps audiences at a distance. What saves the day is the steady march of scintillating cameos from actors who bring out the best in Allen's barbed dialogue."

Edward Guthmann of the San Francisco Chronicle stated, "Branagh stammers, bobs his head and runs the gamut of other established Woody tics and mannerisms - delivering nervous shtick where a performance would have sufficed. His novelty act belongs in the same bin with his hammy histrionics in Mary Shelley's Frankenstein ... The irony of Celebrity is that so much of it is admirably acted, written and directed. Despite his one-note obsessions, Allen is a fine director whose stories clip along, whose dialogue sparkles and whose actors look grateful for the luxury of his words."

Todd McCarthy of Variety called the film "a once-over-lightly rehash of mostly stale Allen themes and motifs" and added, "The spectacle of Kenneth Branagh and Judy Davis doing over-the-top Woody Allen impersonations creates a neurotic energy meltdown ... Branagh is simply embarrassing as he flails, stammers and gesticulates in a manner that suggests a direct imitation of Allen himself ... For her part, Davis was brilliant in Husbands and Wives and has appeared effectively in other Allen films, but she not only overdoes the neurotic posturing this time but is essentially miscast ... Annoyingly mannered in performance as well as tiresomely familiar in the way it trots out its angst-ridden urban characters' problems, [the picture] has a hastily conceived, patchwork feel that is occasionally leavened by some lively supporting turns and the presence of so many attractive people onscreen."

Neil Norman of the London Evening Standard noted that "many scenes, and indeed personalities, lack the credence of similar shots in Annie Hall, Manhattan or even Stardust Memories. Judy Davis's doorstepping television interviews in the Jean-Georges restaurant where she encounters several well-heeled New Yorkers, including Donald Trump (who is planning to buy St Patrick's Cathedral and knock it down) are frankly risible; a rehearsal scene in the Ziegfeld Theatre where [Winona Ryder]is being coached in the art of seducing a woman (gasp!) smacks of old-fashioned prurience. Fashion designer Isaac Mizrahi's turn as a lionised New York artist complaining at his opening at the Serge Sorokko Gallery in SoHo that fame will ruin him, is simply banal. Even the opening shot, of a film crew on the streets attempting to catch a reaction shot of Melanie Griffith' walking from a limo, is peopled with a veteran film-maker's notion of what young hip film-makers are like (shavenheaded, natch) rather than an identifiable reality."

The film drew comparisons to Federico Fellini's film La Dolce Vita. Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly graded the film B− and called it a "big, muddled, contemporary variation on La Dolce Vita. She added, "[I]n every minute of DiCaprio's participation ... he juices Celebrity with a power surge that subsides as soon as he exits."

Soundtrack

 * You Oughta Be in Pictures (1934) - Music by Dana Suesse - Lyrics by Edward Heyman - Performed by Jack Little (songwriter)
 * Symphony No.5 in C Minor, Op.67 (1809) - Written by Ludwig van Beethoven - Performed by The Royal Philharmonic Orchestra
 * Tangerine (1942) - Music by Victor Schertzinger - Lyrics by Johnny Mercer - Performed by the Dave Brubeck Quartet
 * Kumbayah - Performed by Janet Marlow
 * Chanel No. 5 (1998) - Written by Michael Anthony Franano from the Michael Moon (band)
 * Did I Remember (To Tell You I Adore You)(1936) - Music by Walter Donaldson - Lyrics by Harold Adamson - Performed by Billie Holiday
 * Fascination (1932) - Music by Fermo Dante Marchetti - Lyrics by Maurice de Féraudy - Performed by Liberace
 * Truckin' (1970) - Music by Bob Weir, Jerry Garcia and Phil Lesh - Lyrics by Robert Hunter (lyricist)
 * The Impossible Dream (The Quest) (1965) - Music by Mitch Leigh - Lyrics by Joe Darion
 * American Pie (1972) - Written by Don McLean - Performed by The High School Reunion Band
 * All Hail to You, Glenwood High - Written by Eddy Davis - Performed by the High School Reunion Band
 * I Got Rhythm (1930) - Music by George Gershwin - Lyrics by Ira Gershwin - Performed by Teddy Wilson
 * That Old Feeling (1937) - Music by Sammy Fain - Lyrics by Lew Brown - Performed by Stan Getz and Gerry Mulligan
 * Will You Still Be Mine (1941) - Music by Matt Dennis- Lyrics by Tom Adair - Performed by Erroll Garner
 * Lullaby of Birdland (1952) - Music by George Shearing - Lyrics by George David Weiss - Performed by Erroll Garner
 * On a Slow Boat to China (1948) - Written by Frank Loesser - Performed by Jackie Gleason
 * Cocktails for Two (1934) - Music by Arthur Johnston (composer) - Lyrics by Sam Coslow - Performed by Carmen Cavallaro
 * Soon (1930) - Music by George Gershwin - Lyrics by Ira Gershwin - Performed by Ray Cohen
 * Bridal Chorus (1850) - Written by Richard Wagner - Performed by Ray Cohen
 * For All We Know (1934) - Music by J. Fred Coots - Lyrics by Sam Lewis - Performed by Ray Cohen

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Celebrity (1998 film)


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Corydon M. Wassell

Corydon McAlmont Wassell (July 4, 1884 – May 12, 1958) was a medical doctor best known for his work as a United States Navy physician. He was born in Little Rock, Arkansas.

Wassell graduated with an M.D. from the University of Arkansas in 1909 and began his practice in Tillar, Arkansas. In 1913, he left his practice to serve as a medical missionary in Wuchang, China.

Wassell resumed regular duties with the United States Navy Reserve in 1936. In 1942, during World War II, he was a lieutenant commander, U.S.N.R., and acted as liaison officer for about forty wounded American servicemen from the USS Marblehead in a Dutch hospital in Java. He was awarded the Navy Cross for saving twelve of the most severely wounded from certain capture by the Japanese on Java, and accompanying them to Fremantle and safety.

Wassell's Navy Cross citations reads: For especially meritorious conduct, devotion to duty, and utter disregard of personal safety, while in imminent contact with enemy forces and under attack from enemy aircraft, in caring for and evacuating the wounded of the United States Navy under his charge in Java, Netherlands East Indies, about March 1, 1942.

A radio speech by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt inspired Cecil B. DeMille to make a movie about Wassell, starring Gary Cooper. Titled The Story of Dr. Wassell, it was based on a biographical novel written by James Hilton. Wassell served as an uncredited technical adviser to the movie. According to his great-grandson, all of the proceeds that Wassell received from the movie were donated to a hospital for the deaf and blind in Little Rock.

Wassell died on May 12, 1958, in Little Rock and is buried in Arlington National Cemetery. His Little Rock home is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

title: Corydon M. Wassell


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Ballard Terminal Railroad

The Ballard Terminal Railroad Company LLC operates two Class III short line terminal railroads in western Washington, United States. Founded in 1997 to operate a three-mile spur through Seattle's Ballard neighborhood, the Ballard Terminal Railroad has expanded to operate two additional lines in the Puget Sound area, including Eastside Freight Railroad from Snohomish to Woodinville, Washington, and Meeker Southern Railroad, a 5 mi segment from East Puyallup ("Meeker") to McMillin, Washington. Eastside Freight Railroad has ceased operation as of mid 2020.

Foundation
Burlington Northern Santa Fe Railway stopped offering service on a three-mile spur through Seattle's Ballard neighborhood in January 1997 because only three companies were buying rail shipments, a traffic volume too low to sustain the line according to BNSF. To ensure continued rail service, the three previous customers served by the spur and a fourth company joined with other investors to form the Ballard Terminal Railroad Company, LLC in 1997. The Ballard Terminal Railroad refurbished two locomotives and approached the state of Washington seeking approximately $300,000 in financing to refurbish the track. The railroad began operation in early 1998 with a 1940s-era locomotive formerly belonging to the Milwaukee Road.

Locomotives
Ballard Terminal Railroad operates one locomotive, an EMD SW1 locomotive numbered 98 formerly owned by Milwaukee Road. The locomotive's black, red and silver livery and nickname, "Li'l Beaver", pay tribute to the colors and mascot of nearby Ballard High School.

Eastside Freight Railroad once operated an EMD SW1200 locomotive now numbered MSN 109 built in 1963 for the Missouri Pacific. Eastside Freight purchased the locomotive from Tacoma Rail in 2009, which had it listed as surplus property.

Meeker Southern Railroad operates an EMD SW9 locomotive numbered 103.

Routes
The Ballard Terminal Railroad operates three rail lines in the greater Seattle area.

Ballard Terminal
The Ballard Terminal Railroad spur begins at its connection to the BNSF mainline at the Shilshole yard just north of NW 68th Street. The line follows a route along Seaview Avenue NW toward Shilshole Ave NW which the line parallels until NW 45th Street. The line follows NW 45th Street until Leary Way NW, which the line then parallels, passing the Bright Street Yard, then reaching its terminus at NW 40th Street and 6th Avenue NW near the border between the Ballard and Fremont neighborhoods. This route runs parallel to and has multiple crossings with the Burke–Gilman Trail. The Ballard Terminal Railroad owns its tracks outright, but has a 30-year lease on the land underneath, which belongs to the city of Seattle. Most of the railroad was originally part of the Great Northern Railway's main line, moved to the west when the Lake Washington Ship Canal was built. In October 2023, a short stretch of the tracks was paved over, just east of the Ballard Bridge at the intersection of Shilshole Avenue NW and NW 45th Street, thereby cutting the spur in two. Operations continue west of the bridge.

Meeker Southern
Meeker Southern Railroad's segment runs 5 mi from East Puyallup ("Meeker") to McMillin, Washington.

Eastside Freight
Eastside Freight Railroad, which started operation in 2009 on the former BNSF Railway's Woodinville Subdivision, is a segment from Snohomish to Woodinville. Eastside Freight Railroad has ceased operation as of mid 2020.

Eastside Rail Corridor
On April 1, 2013, Ballard Terminal Railroad filed a federal lawsuit aimed at preventing the City of Kirkland from converting the section of the Eastside Rail Corridor which passes through the city into a trail. On May 3, 2013, Federal District Court Judge Marsha Pechman granted the City of Kirkland's motion to dismiss the case filed by Ballard Terminal Railroad Company seeking to prevent rail salvage on the Cross Kirkland Corridor. In her oral ruling, Judge Pechman stated the Federal District Court did not have jurisdiction to consider Ballard's temporary restraining order (TRO) and that the Surface Transportation Board was the proper forum for adjudicating Ballard's claims. On August 1, 2013, the Surface Transportation Board denied the request by Ballard Terminal Railroad Company to block rail removal along the Cross Kirkland Corridor.

Operations
As of 2008, the Ballard Terminal Railroad serves only one customer on the Ballard Spur, Salmon Bay Sand and Gravel. BNSF delivers cars containing cement, fly ash, stucco and mortar to the Shilshole Yard; the Ballard Terminal Railroad then delivers these cars to Salmon Bay Sand and Gravel two to three times per week, typically at night.

Awards
In 2007 the Ballard Terminal Railroad received the Jake Award With Distinction, a safety award given by the American Short Line and Regional Railroad Association to railroads with no reportable injuries.

title: Ballard Terminal Railroad


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Kohala (mountain)

Kohala is the oldest of five volcanoes that make up the island of Hawaii. Kohala is an estimated one million years old—so old that it experienced, and recorded, the reversal of Earth's magnetic field 780,000 years ago. It is believed to have breached sea level more than 500,000 years ago and to have last erupted 120,000 years ago. Kohala is 606 km2 in area and 14000 km3 in volume, and thus constitutes just under 6% of the island of Hawaii.

Kohala is a shield volcano cut by multiple deep gorges, which are the product of thousands of years of erosion. Unlike the typical symmetry of other Hawaiian volcanoes, Kohala is shaped like a foot. Toward the end of its shield-building stage 250,000 to 300,000 years ago, a landslide destroyed the northeast flank of the volcano, reducing its height by over 1000 m and traveling 130 km across the sea floor. This huge landslide may be partially responsible for the volcano's foot-like shape. Marine fossils have been found on the flank of the volcano, far too high to have been deposited by standard ocean waves. Analysis indicated that the fossils had been deposited by a massive tsunami approximately 120,000 years ago.

Because it is so far from the nearest major landmass, the ecosystem of Kohala has experienced geographic isolation, resulting in a unique ecosystem. There are several initiatives to preserve this ecosystem against invasive species. Crops, especially sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), have been cultivated on the Leeward side of the volcano for centuries. The northern part of the island is named after the mountain, with two districts named North and South Kohala. King Kamehameha I, the first King of the Kingdom of Hawaii, was born in North Kohala, near Hawi.

History
Studies of the volcano's lava accumulation rate have put the volcano's age at somewhere near one million years. It is believed to have breached sea level more than 500,000 years ago. Beginning 300,000 years ago, the rate of eruption slowly decreased over a long period of time to a point where erosion wore the volcano down faster than Kohala rebuilt itself through volcanic activity. Decreasing eruptions combined with increasing erosion caused Kohala to slowly weather away and subside into the ocean. The oldest lava flows that are still exposed at the surface are just under 780,000 years old. It is difficult to determine the original size and shape of the volcano, as the southeast flank has been buried by volcanic lava flows from nearby Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa. However, based on a sharp increase of incline on the submarine slope of the volcano at a depth of 1000 m, scientists estimate that in its prime the portion of Kohala that was above the water was more than 50 km wide. Geologists estimate that the volcano was once about twice its current size.

The volcano is so old that it experienced, and recorded, a reversal of magnetic polarity (a change in the orientation of Earth's magnetic field so that the positions of the North and South poles interchange) that happened 780,000 years ago. Fifty flow units in the top 140 m of exposed strata in the Pololu section are of normal polarity, indicating that they were deposited within the last 780,000 years. Radiometric dating ranged mostly from 450,000 to 320,000 years ago, although several pieces strayed lower; this indicated a period of eruptive history at the time.

Kohala was devastated by a massive landslide between 250,000 and 300,000 years before present. Debris from the slide was found on the ocean floor up to 130 km away from the volcano. Twenty kilometers wide at the shoreline, the landslide cut back to the summit of the volcano, and is partially, if not largely, responsible for the volcano losing 1000 m in height since then. The famous sea cliffs of the windward Kohala shoreline stand as evidence of the massive geologic disaster, and mark the topmost part of the debris from this ancient landslide. There are also several other unique features found on the volcano, all marks made by the decimating collapse.

Kohala is thought to have last erupted 120,000 years ago. However, several samples of a more recent date have been obtained. Two samples collected about 120 m apart, obtained from Waipio Valley on the volcano's east flank in 1977, were dated reliably to 60,000 years. Another double set of samples, collected from the western part in 1996, was measured to be 80,000 years in age. The samples have been treated with skepticism by the scientific community, and their ages have been directly challenged. The rocks collected from the west site have not been tested by subsequent experiments. The lava samples collected from the eastern site were allegedly found under a Mauna Loa lava flow, which had been previously dated to 187,000 years. The Kohala lava flows could be as young as 120,000 years although they may be even younger.

In 2004, unidentified marine fossils were found at the base of the volcano 6 km inshore. A research team led by University of Hawaii's Gary McMurtry and Dave Tappin of the British Geological Survey found that the fossils had been deposited by a massive tsunami, 61 m above the current sea level. The team dated the fossils and nearby volcanic rock at about 120,000 years old. Based on the rate of Kohala's subsidence over the past 475,000 years, it was estimated that the fossils were deposited at a height of about 500 m, well out of reach of storms and far above the normal sea level at the time. The timing corresponds with the last great landslide of nearby Mauna Loa. Researchers hypothesize that the underwater landslide from the nearby volcano triggered a gigantic tsunami, which swept up coral and other small marine organisms, depositing them on the western face of Kohala. Mauna Loa, an active volcano, has since repaired its flank. Marine geologist Tappin believes that a "future collapse on this volcano, with the potential for mega-tsunami generation, is almost certain."

Structure
Kohala had two active rift zones, a characteristic common to Hawaiian volcanoes. The double ridge, shaped axially, was active in both the shield and postshield stages. The southeast rift zone passes under the nearby Mauna Kea and reappears further southeast in the Hilo Ridge, as indicated by the relationship between collected lava samples. In addition, the two features align to one another more closely than does the ridge to Mauna Kea, of which it was once thought to constitute a part. The bulk of the ridge is built of volcanic rock with reverse magnetic polarity, evidence that the volcano is at least 780,000 years old. Older lava dated from the toe of the ridge was estimated to be roughly between 1.1 and 1.2 million years old.

Geologists have classified the volcano's lava flows into two units. The Hawi Volcanic layers were deposited in the postshield stage of the volcano's life, and the younger Pololu Volcanics were deposited in the volcano's shield-building stage. The rock in the younger Hawi section, which overlies the older Pololu flows, is mostly 260,000 to 140,000 years old, and composed mainly of hawaiite and trachyte. The separation between the two layers is not clear; the lowest layers may actually be in the Pololu section, based on their depositional patterns and low phosphorus content. The time intervals separating the two periods of volcanic evolution were extremely brief, something first noted in 1988.

The forest-covered summit of the volcano consists of many cones which generated lava from its two rift zones between 240,000 and 120,000 years ago. Kohala completed its shield-building stage 245,000 years ago and has been in decline ever since. Potassium-argon dating indicates that the volcano last erupted about 120,000 years ago in the late Pleistocene. Kohala is currently in transition between the postshield and erosional Hawaiian volcanic stages in the life cycle of Hawaiian volcanoes.

The United States Geological Survey has assessed the extinct Kohala as a low-risk area. The volcano is in zone 9 (bottom risk), while the border of the volcano with Mauna Kea is zone 8 (second lowest), as Mauna Kea has not produced lava flows for 4,500 years.

Kohala, like other shield volcanoes, has a shallow surface slope due to the low viscosity of the lava flows that formed it; however, the northwest shoreline boasts some of the highest seacliffs on Earth. Events during and after its eruptions give the volcano several unique geomorphic features, some possibly resulting from the ancient collapse and landslide. The volcano is shaped like a foot; the northeast coast is prominently indented across 20 km of shoreline.

There is a small string of faults on and near the main summit caldera, arranged parallel to the northern coast. The faults were originally regarded to be a direct result of the collapse; however scientists note the fault lines do not go all the way to the coast but are arranged tightly clustered around the caldera. This indicates that the fault lines may have been caused indirectly, possibly due to the sudden release of stress during the event.

Hydrology
Mauna Kea causes the trade winds to divert around it, increasing wind to super-enhanced flow over the Kohala ridge and orographic lift brings most of the rainfall to the northeastern slope of Kohala. The windward side of Kohala mountain is dissected by multiple, deeply eroded stream valleys in a southwest–northeast alignment, cutting into the flanks of the volcano. North of Kohala's summit the volcano's northwest–southeast trending rift zone separates rainfall into two streams, going southeast, into Waipio Valley, or northwest, into Honokane Nui Valley. When the volcano was still active, vertical sheets of magma, arranged in what is known as dikes, forced their way out of the magma reservoir and intruded into the rift zone, which was weakened by the collapse. As the dikes forced their way up, they formed fractures and faults parallel to the rift zone. The exertion caused by the dikes produced a series of faults along its length, forming horsts and grabens (fault blocks). Northeast of the Kohala summit, where the most rainfall occurs, the faulted structure prevents summit rainwater from naturally flowing northeast down the mountain slope. Instead, the rainwater flows down laterally and empties into the back of what have thus become the largest valleys (Waipio and Honokane Nui).

The leeward northwestern slope of Kohala has few stream valleys cut into it, the result of the rain shadow effect, as the dominant trade winds bring most of the rainfall to the northeastern slope of the volcano. The seven windward valleys of Kohala are, from southeast to northwest, Waipio, Waimanu, Honopue, Honokea, Honokane Iki, Honokane Nui, and Pololu. The size of the valleys reflects the amount of drainage they have been able to capture; Waipio, the largest, at some point drained Waimanu Valley as well, and the former headwaters of Waimanu are now one of its branches. Waimanu valley, cut off from its headwaters to the summit and left with Wai'ilikahi as its main tributary, still had managed to form a substantial floodplain, although less than half the size of Waipio. Honokane Nui, the third largest valley, has its drainage almost exclusively from the north side of the summit, and as a result is a deep, long, narrow bottomed valley with little habitable floodplain.

The remaining valleys derive all their water from the lower northeastern slopes of the volcano, and as a result are smaller. In addition, there are innumerable gulches of various depths which have not yet reached sea level and began to form flood plains, becoming valleys. Still, some of these are more than 300 m in depth. The depth of the actual valley walls at the seashore range from 300 m at the Waipio Valley Lookout at the southeastern corner of Kohala mountain, to a high of over 500 m in Honopue, then diminishing to less than 150 m at Pololu Lookout at the northern end of the valleys. In the back, deeper in the mountain, all of the valleys have sheer walls well in excess of 1000 m. Numerous spectacular waterfalls cascade or fall over these cliffs. Some, such as Hi'ilawe Falls in Waipi'o valley, have single drops exceeding 300 m.

The volcano stayed active well into the formation of these mountainside valleys, as illustrated by later Pololu lava flows, which covered the north and northwestern end of Kohala volcano and often flowed into Pololu Valley. Recent seafloor mapping seems to show that the valley extends a short way beyond the seashore, then terminates at what may be the headwall of the great landslide found off the northeast coast of Kohala.

In addition to being a primary factor in the development of the largest valleys, the dike complex plays another important role —that of creating and maintaining the water table. Hawaiian lava is extremely permeable and porous. Rainwater easily seeps into the lava, creating a large lens of fresh water below the island surface. In most places, the top of the water table is just a few feet from sea level, as the fresh water lens is floating on salt water. Unlike porous lava flows, however, dikes cool underground into dense rock with few cracks and vesicles. The dikes act as impermeable vertical walls through which groundwater cannot flow. Deep layers of ash compact into impermeable layers between lava flows, preventing percolation of the rainwater. Rainwater that would ordinarily seep right through the ground gets trapped in the dike "reservoirs," located well above sea level. The groundwater is confined to a flow along the dike until it finds a means to escape.

In Kohala, the numerous dikes near the summit inhibit groundwater from seeping downslope to the northeast, where it naturally wants to go. Rather, the Kohala dike complex guides it northwest or southeast, down the axis of the rift zones, just like the surface water. On the other hand, the three smaller valleys between the large ones - Honopue, Honokea, and Honokane Iki - as well as the many smaller gulches which are not yet valleys, are deprived of groundwater by the orientation of the rift zone and its dikes. Without the large amount of water that is received by the bigger valleys, these valleys grow far more slowly. Due to its topography as essentially a flat crater floor surrounded by cones and fault scarps, the main caldera is affected relatively little by erosion from water.

Most of Kohala's summit groundwater ends up in either Waipi'o or Honokane Nui; the enormous amount of water routed through these valleys results in a large amount of water erosion, which causes the valley walls to frequently collapse, accelerating valley development. This abundance of surface water inspired the first of Kohala's three massive irrigation diversion "ditches", the Upper Hamakua Ditch, although the water was initially used for transporting ("fluming") sugarcane to the mills rather than irrigation. Surface water supplies, however, were not stable enough for the large scale plantation economy developing in Hamakua and North Kohala, so later ditches tapped the spring fed base flows of the valleys and larger gulches. Only Waimanu Valley escaped with none of its tributaries tapped, along with the 16 smaller streams between Waikoloa Stream and the Wailoa river in Waipi'o Valley.

Ecology

The natural habitats in the Kohala district range across a wide rainfall gradient in a very short distance—from less than 5 in a year on the coast near Kawaihae, to more than 150 in a year near the summit of Kohala Mountain, a distance of just 11 mi. At the coast are remnants of dry forests, and near the summit lies a cloud forest, a type of rainforest that obtains much of its moisture from "cloud drip" in addition to precipitation. These large cloud forests dominate its slopes. This biome is rare, and contains a disproportionate percentage of the world's rare and endemic species. The soil at Kohala is nitrogen-rich, facilitating root growth.

The forest lies perpendicular to the prevailing trade winds, a characteristic that leads to frequent cloud formation and abundant rainfall. Thus the rain forests carpeting Kohala are vital to the supply of groundwater on the island. The role of Kohala's ecosystem in supporting water flow has long been recognized. As early as 1902, US Forester E. M. Griffith wrote "Forest protection means not only increasing the rainfall, but more important still, conserving the water supply. The future welfare and agricultural prosperity of the Hawaiian Islands depends upon the preservation of the forest."

Before humans arrived, the wildlife population at Kohala and on the rest of the island was isolated from other species, as it was separated from the nearest major landmass by over 2000 mi of open water. The early colonizers of Kohala came by wind, storm or floating on the ocean. Successful colonizations occur on the magnitude of once every 35,000 years. The 2,000 successful ancestors that arrived at Kohala evolved into about 8,500 to 12,500 unique species, resulting in a very high ratio of the species present being found nowhere else on Earth. Only about 2.5% of the world's rainforest is cloud rainforest, making it a unique habitat as well.

The mountain supports approximately 155 native species of vertebrates, crustaceans, mollusks, and plants. A diverse complexion of fungi, liverwort, and mosses further add to the variety. In fact, up to a quarter of the plants in the forest are mosses and ferns. These work to capture the water from clouds, in turn providing microhabitats for invertebrates and amphibians, and their predators. Estimates on the water capacity of the forest range from 3000 to 15000 L/ha.

The mountain is also home to several bogs, which exist as breaks in the cloud forests. It is believed that bogs form in low-lying areas where clay in the soil prevents proper water drainage, resulting in an accumulation of water that impedes the root systems of woody plants. Kohala's bogs are characterized by sedges, mosses of the genus Sphagnum, and oha wai, native members of the bellflower family. Other habitats include rain forest and mesophytic (wet) forests.

The same isolation that produced Kohala's unique ecosystem also makes it very vulnerable to invasive species. Alien plants and feral animals are among the greatest threats to the local ecology. Plants like the kahili ginger (Hedychium gardnerianum) and the strawberry guava (Psidium cattleinum) displace native species. Prior to human settlement, many major organisms such as conifers and rodents never made it onto the island, so the ecosystem never developed defenses against them, leaving Hawaii vulnerable to damage by hoofed animals, rodents, and predation.

Kohala's native Hawaiian rain forest has a thick layer of ferns and mosses carpeting the floor, which act as sponges, absorbing water from rain and passing much of it through to the groundwater in aquifers below; when feral animals like pigs trample the covering, the forest loses its ability to hold in water effectively, and instead of recharging the aquifer, it results in a severe loss of topsoil, much of which ends up being dumped by streams into the ocean.

Human history
There is evidence of pre-modern agriculture on the leeward slopes of Kohala. From 1400 to 1800, the principal crop grown at Kohala was sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), although there is also evidence of yams (Dioscorea sp.), taro (Colocasia esculenta), bananas (Musa hybrids), sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum), and gourds of the family Cucurbitaceae. The optimal rainfall level for the sweet potato lies between 30 and(-) per year. A combination of factors makes the rainfall at Kohala variable both from location to location and from year to year. In addition, Kohala is buffeted by strong winds, which are directly correlated to soil erosion; ancient farmers utilized a series of earthen embarkments and stone walls to protect their crops. This technique has been shown to reduce wind by at least 20–30 percent.

In addition to walls, there are a series of stone paths that divided the farmed area into plots of variable size. These structures are unique because although many people used such systems at the time, Kohala has some of the few to survive. The leeward slopes of Kohala were used for sugarcane plantations in the late 19th century. The trip from the fields to the mills and then boats was mechanized by steam locomotive in 1883. Several plantations on the mountain were consolidated into the Kohala Sugar Company by 1937. At the peak of its production, the company had 600 employees, 13000 acre of land, and a capacity of 45000 t of raw sugar per year. In 1975 the company finally closed down.

Kohala supports a very complex hydrological cycle. In the early part of the 20th century, this was exploited by building surface irrigational channels designed to capture water at the higher elevations and distribute it to the then-extensive sugarcane industry. In 1905, after 18 months and the loss of 17 lives, the Kohala Ditch, a vast network of flumes and ditches, measuring 22 mi in length, was completed. It has since come into use by ranches, farms, and homes. A portion of the ditch became a tourist attraction until it was damaged by the 2006 Kiholo Bay earthquake, centered just southwest of the mountain. The Hawaii County Department of Water Supply relies on streams from Kohala to supply water to the population of the island. With increasing demand, the original surface channels have been supplemented by deep wells designed to channel groundwater for domestic use. In 2003 the Kohala Watershed Partnership was formed, a voluntary group of private land owners and state managers, designed to help manage the Kohala watershed and to protect it from threats, most especially invasive species.

Another project to raise awareness of Kohala's ecosystem is The Kohala Center, an independent, not-for-profit, community-based organization for research and education. It was established as a response to requests by island residents to create an educational and employment opportunity related to Hawaii's natural and cultural significance. The center's mission is "to respectfully engage the Island of Hawaii as an extraordinary and vibrant research and learning laboratory for humanity." The land around Kohala is administered as two districts, North Kohala and South Kohala, of the County of Hawaii. The beaches, parks, golf courses, and resorts in South Kohala are called "the Kohala Coast."

King Kamehameha I, the first King of the unified Hawaiian Islands, was born near Upolu Point, the northern tip of Kohala. The site is within Kohala Historical Sites State Monument. The original Kamehameha Statue stands in front of the community center in Kapaau, and replicas of the statue are found at Aliiōlani Hale in Honolulu, and in Emancipation Hall at the United States Capitol Visitor Center in Washington, D.C.

title: Kohala (mountain)


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Der Zigeunerprimas

Der Zigeunerprimas (The Gypsy Band Leader, known as Sari and The Gypsy Virtuoso in English speaking countries) is a three-act operetta, which was composed by Emmerich Kálmán. The libretto was written by and Fritz Grünbaum. It premiered at the Johann Strauß Theatre in Vienna on 11 October 1912.

In 1929 it was adapted into a German silent film The Gypsy Chief directed by Carl Wilhelm.

Synopsis
Pali Rácz, a thrice-widowed gypsy violinist, is adored by women and hailed widely as a virtuoso. His daughter Sari cares for their large family. His young son Laczi is also a violinist, but has chosen to forsake his father's playing style and study classical violin at the Academy of Music. Pali wants to marry his niece, Juliska, as a companion in his old age, but she prefers his son, Laczi, and Laczi, in turn, loves her. Pali criticizes Laczi's musical talent so much, and Laczi yearns so for Juliska, that he leaves home. Reunited in Paris, father and son reconcile after Countess Irini, an old admirer, convinces Pali not to interfere with the course of Laczi and Juliska's relationship. Irini's grandson marries Sari.

Recordings

 * Josef Metternich, Julius Katona, Annemarie Jürgens, Liselotte Losch, Daue, Willy Hofmann (tenor) – Westdeutscher Rundfunk – Franz Marszalek – 1949
 * Thompson, Meacham, Lengfelder – Ohio Light Opera – McMahon – 2001 (0098).
 * Gabriele Rossmanith, Edith Lienbacher, Roberto Saccà, Wolfgang Bankl; Claus Peter Flor – Classic Produktion Osnabrück 058-2-2003

Radio adaptation
Sari was presented on The Railroad Hour on 17 March 1952. Baritone Gordon MacRae and soprano Margaret Truman starred in the episode, which also featured Carmen Dragon's orchestra and Norman Luboff's chorus.

title: Der Zigeunerprimas


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/ChavScum

It's a funny website.. but it's just some website, hardly encyclopedic. Alexa rating is 60,920. —Stormie 04:11, Aug 11, 2004 (UTC)

 * Delete. Securiger 06:07, 11 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * slightly amusing, but once you take away the detailed forum rules there's not much left. Delete as per usual procedure for website entries. --Ianb 06:51, 11 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: Wikipedia is not a web guide. A casual user hits the non-forum stuff, where things are sold. Loved the movie "Snatch," but not so much this.  Geogre 12:41, 11 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Same reasons as above. -- Stevietheman 14:48, 11 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * It may have had a big article on it in the Daily Telegraph, but still delete. Wikipedia isn't a web guide. Average Earthman 16:05, 11 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Non-encyclopedic. Skyler 18:35, Aug 11, 2004 (UTC)


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Overprinting

[[Image:knockout trapping overprinting.svg|thumb|320px| Comparison of a [[Knock-out (printing)|knock-out]] with and without trapping, and overprinting for perfect and imperfect registration.

Rows are as follows: ]]

Overprinting refers to the process of printing one colour on top of another in reprographics. This is closely linked to the reprographic technique of 'trapping'. Another use of overprinting is to create a rich black (often regarded as a colour that is "blacker than black") by printing black over another dark colour.

It is also the term used in the production of envelopes customised to order by printing images (such as logos) and texts (such as slogans) on mass-produced machine-made envelopes; the alternative way of producing such envelopes is to print "on the flat" and then cut out the individual shapes and fold them to form the envelopes. However the latter method is generally only economically viable for large print runs offering returns to scale.

Overprinting also refers to the printing of additional information onto self-adhesive labels and product packaging. "Best Before", "Use By" dates and batch codes are printed in situ onto product packaging as the items are packed. Generally thermal printers, ink jet printers or laser printers are used.

title: Overprinting


text: Template:Infobox

title: Template:Infobox


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Tenochtitlán, Veracruz

Tenochtitlán is a municipality in the Mexican state of Veracruz, and the name of the main township which serves as the seat of the municipal government. It is located in the foothills of the Sierra Madre, with the township lying at an altitude of approximately 900 m (2953 ft) above mean sea level.

In the year 2000 census, the municipality reported a total population of slightly over 5600 people. The same census also revealed that the municipality had no hotels, no restaurants, no cafeterias, no bars, and no discothèques or night-clubs.

The town and the municipality are both named after Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztec Empire prior to the Spanish conquest.

title: Tenochtitlán, Veracruz


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Andrew Watson Myles

Andrew Watson Myles (February 18, 1884 – May 9, 1970) was a politician in Manitoba, Canada. He served in the Legislative Assembly of Manitoba from 1915 to 1920 as a Liberal, and made an unsuccessful bid for the leadership of the Manitoba Liberal Party in 1927.

Myles was born in Rathwell, Manitoba, and was educated at Manitoba College and Northwestern University in Chicago. He received a D.D.S. degree, and worked as a dentist after 1908. In religion, Myles was a Presbyterian.

On December 13, 1913, Myles ran for the Liberal Party of Canada in a federal by-election in the riding of Macdonald. He lost to Conservative candidate Alex Morrison, 3855 votes to 2939.

Myles became one of several Liberal candidates elected to the provincial legislature in the provincial election of 1915, as premier Tobias Norris led the Liberal Party to a landslide victory of 40 seats out of 47. Myles defeated Conservative incumbent George Steel in Cypress, 851 votes to 789. He did not seek re-election in 1920.

He ran for the leadership of the Manitoba Liberal Party in 1927, but was defeated by Hugh Robson, a respected judge with no prior political experience. He also ran in the provincial election of 1927 in Assiniboia, but finished a distant fourth out of five candidates.

title: Andrew Watson Myles


text:
Postage stamps and postal history of German East Africa

This is a survey of the postage stamps and postal history of German East Africa.

German East Africa was a German colony in East Africa, including what is now Burundi, Rwanda and Tanganyika (the mainland part of present Tanzania). It came into existence during the 1880s and ended during World War I, when the area was taken over by the British and Belgians, and later as League of Nations mandate territories.

German postal agency
A German postal agency was established on 27 February 1885 in Lamu using German stamps for mail. Following the Heligoland–Zanzibar Treaty in 1890 Germany created the colony of German East Africa. Initially German stamps were used. The first postage stamps for German East Africa were German stamps surcharged in pesa values in 1893, followed by stamps overprinted "Deutsch-Ostafrika" in 1896. In 1900, Germany issued the "Yachts," a common design used for all of Germany's colonies, featuring the Kaiser's yacht Hohenzollern. In German East Africa they were denominated in pesas and rupees (64 pesas to a rupee), and inscribed "DEUTSCH-OSTAFRIKA". In 1905 new stamps were denominated in "hellers," 100 hellers to a rupee. Germany continued to print stamps during the war, issuing a 1-rupee watermarked Yacht in 1916 (genuine uses of this stamp are extremely rare, worth US$20,000 or more).

Occupation
After the colony was occupied by Belgian and British troops, each issued its own provisional stamps. In 1916, the Belgians overprinted stamps of Belgian Congo in several ways, first with "RUANDA" and "URUNDI," although these were never actually used. A second series was overprinted with the dual-language "EST AFRICAIN ALLEMAND / OCCUPATION BELGE / DUITSCH OOST AFRIKA / BELGISCHE BEZETTING." In 1922 these stamps received surcharges ranging from 5c to 50c.

In 1916, at the request of Brigadier General Edward Northey, to the Governor of Nyasaland, Nyasaland stamps were overprinted "N.F.". The overprint was intended to be "N.F.F.", for "Nyasaland Field Force", but the telegraph operator omitted one “F.” when sending the request to the Governor. The stamps could only be used by troops of the Nyasaland Rhodesian Field Force. Although they were primarily intended for use in German East Africa, they were also used from field post offices in Nyasaland and Mozambique. They were not issued to any civilian post office nor could they be used by any civilians.

The civilian population were able to send mail through the Indian Army postal service field post offices using Indian Expeditionary Forces stamps (Indian stamps overprinted "I.E.F."). When civilian post offices were opened in 1917, stamps of East Africa and Uganda Protectorates were issued overprinted with "G.E.A.". The same overprint on stamps of East Africa and Uganda Protectorates issued in 1921 after the establishment of Tanganyika are considered part of Tanganyika's postal history.

Mafia Island
On January 12, 1915, Mafia was taken by British troops as a base for the air and sea assault on the light cruiser Königsberg. Stamps were issued by the British occupation forces on the island of Mafia in 1915 and 1916.


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Charles Vane, 3rd Marquess of Londonderry

Charles William Vane, 3rd Marquess of Londonderry, (born Charles William Stewart; 1778–1854) was an Anglo-Irish nobleman, a British soldier and a politician. He served in the French Revolutionary Wars, in the suppression of the Irish Rebellion of 1798, and in the Napoleonic wars. He excelled as a cavalry commander in the Peninsular War (1807–1814) under John Moore and Arthur Wellesley (became Wellington in 1809).

On resigning from his post under Wellington in 1812, his half-brother Lord Castlereagh helped him to launch a diplomatic career. He was posted to Berlin in 1813, and then as ambassador to Austria, where his half-brother was the British plenipotentiary at the Congress of Vienna.

He married Lady Catherine Bligh in 1804 and then, in 1819, Lady Frances Anne Vane, a rich heiress, changing his surname to hers, thus becoming Charles Vane instead of Charles Stewart. In 1822 he succeeded his half-brother as 3rd Marquess of Londonderry, inheriting estates in the north of Ireland where, as an unyielding landlord, his reputation suffered in the Great Famine. It was a reputation he matched as a coal operator on his wife's land in County Durham. In opposition to the Mines and Collieries Act of 1842, he insisted on his right to use child labour.

Birth and origins
Charles was born on 18 May 1778 in Dublin as the second son of Robert Stewart and the first son by his second wife Frances Pratt. His father's family was Ulster-Scots and Presbyterian. His father was then a wealthy member of the Irish landed gentry but would later be created a Marquess.

Charles's mother was English, a daughter of Charles Pratt, 1st Earl Camden, a leading English jurist. His parents had married on 7 June 1775. Charles was brought up as an Anglican, a member of the Church of Ireland.

Charles had a half-brother from his father's first marriage who played an important role in his life:
 * Robert (1769–1822), known as "Lord Castlereagh", who achieved prominence as Foreign Secretary

In addition Charles had 11 full siblings, who are listed in his father's article.

Early life and parliamentary career
In 1789, when he was 11, his father, Robert Stewart, was created Baron Londonderry.

On 3 April 1791, at the age of 12, Charles Stewart entered the British Army as an ensign in the 108th Regiment. He was commissioned a lieutenant on 8 January 1793 in this same unit. He saw service in 1794 in the Flanders Campaign of the French Revolutionary Wars, and on the Rhine and Danube in 1795.

He was lieutenant-colonel of the 5th Royal Irish Dragoons by the time he helped put down the Irish Rebellion of 1798. In 1803, Stewart was appointed aide-de-camp to King George III.

In 1795 his father was created Viscount Castlereagh and in 1796 Marquess of Londonderry in the Irish peerage.

In 1800, Charles Stewart was elected in the Tory interest to the Irish House of Commons as member of parliament for Thomastown borough, County Kilkenny, in place of George Dunbar, and after only two months exchanged this seat for that of County Londonderry, being replaced at Thomastown by John Cradock. After the abolition of the Irish Parliament with the Act of Union in 1801, In July and August 1802 Stewart was re-elected for the country in the first general election of the United Kingdom and sat until the parliament's dissolution in 1806. He was reelected again in 1806, in 1807, after which he became Under-Secretary of State for War and the Colonies, and again in 1812. In July 1814 he was summoned to the House of Lords and replaced as MP for Londonderry by his uncle Alexander Stewart of Ards.

First marriage and son
On 8 August 1804 at the church of St George's, Hanover Square, London, Charles Stewart married Lady Catherine Bligh. She was the 4th and youngest daughter of the 3rd Earl of Darnley. She was three years older than he. On 7 July 1805 the couple had a son, named Frederick, who was to become the 4th Marquess of Londonderry. She died during the night of 10–11 February 1812, of fever following a minor operation, while her husband was on his way home from Spain.

Son by Catherine Bligh:
 * 1) Frederick William Robert Stewart, 4th Marquess of Londonderry (1805–1872)

Peninsular War
The remainder of his military career developed during the Napoleonic Wars, more exactly in the Peninsular War.

Corunna
The war started with the Corunna Campaign (1808–1809), in which the British troops were commanded by Sir John Moore. In this campaign Charles Stewart commanded a brigade of cavalry, and played, together with Lord Paget, a prominent role in the cavalry clash of Benavente where the French General Lefebvre-Desnouettes was taken prisoner. He suffered from ophthalmia during the latter stages of the retreat. Moore sent him back to London carrying dispatches for Castlereagh and other leading figures and he missed the climactic battle where British forces successfully managed to evacuate in the face of Marshal Soult's army at which Moore was killed in action.

Wellesley's Spanish campaign
When British troops returned to the Iberian Peninsula after the Corunna Campaign, they were commanded by Sir Arthur Wellesley (later the Duke of Wellington). Charles Stewart was appointed, in April 1809, Adjutant General to Wellesley. This was an administrative job and not much to his liking, especially as Wellesley never discussed his decisions with subordinates. Nevertheless, he sometimes managed to see action and distinguished himself, particularly at the battle of Talavera (July 1809) for which he received the thanks of the Parliament on 2 February 1810 when he returned to England due to illness. He also excelled at Bussaco in September 1810 and at Fuentes de Oñoro (May 1811) where he took a French Colonel prisoner in single combat.

He resigned his position as Adjutant General in February 1812. Some say due to bad health, but others say that Wellington fired him. Wellington apparently appreciated him as a soldier but judged him a "sad brouillon and mischief-maker" among his staff.

On 30 January 1813 he became a Knight Companion of the Bath, which made him Sir Charles Stewart. On 20 November 1813, he was made Colonel of the 25th Light Dragoons, an honorary position.

Diplomatic career
His half-brother Robert had made a brilliant diplomatic and political career. Charles and his half-brother remained lifelong friends and wrote each other many letters. Robert helped Charles to start a diplomatic career.

Berlin
From May 1813 until the end of the war, Sir Charles was Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to Berlin, and was also Military Commissioner with the allied armies, being wounded at the Battle of Kulm in August 1813.

Vienna
In 1814 he was also appointed Ambassador to Austria, a post he held for nine years (1814–1823). On 18 June 1814, to make him more acceptable in Vienna, Stewart was ennobled as Baron Stewart, of Stewart's Court and Ballylawn in County Donegal, by the Prince Regent. In the same year, he received honorary degrees from Oxford and Cambridge, was admitted to the Privy Council, and was appointed a Lord of the Bedchamber to the king.

Lord Stewart, as he now was, attended the Congress of Vienna with his half-brother Lord Castlereagh as one of the British plenipotentiaries. He was not well regarded as he made a spectacle of himself with his loutish behaviour, was apparently rather often inebriated, and frequented prostitutes quite openly. He earned himself the sobriquet of Lord Pumpernickel after a loutish character in a play in fashion.

In the following years he also served as British observer at the congresses of Troppau, Laibach and Verona. As the great powers were taking an increasingly reactionary approach, the British government sent Lord Stewart to observe, but not participate in the decisions.

Second marriage and children

Before the end of his diplomatic career Lord Stewart had, on 3 April 1819, married his second wife, Lady Frances Anne Vane-Tempest, daughter and heiress of Sir Henry Vane-Tempest, at her mother's house in Bruton Street, Mayfair, and took her surname of Vane, by Royal licence, as had been stipulated in her father's will. He was henceforth known as Charles William Vane, whereas his son out of his first marriage stayed Frederick Stewart.

Children by Frances Anne Emily Vane-Tempest:
 * 1) George Henry Robert Charles William Vane-Tempest, 5th Marquess of Londonderry (1821–1884)
 * 2) Lady Frances Anne Emily Vane (1822–1899); married John Spencer-Churchill, 7th Duke of Marlborough.
 * 3) Lady Alexandrina Octavia Maria Vane (1823–1874), godchild of Alexander I of Russia; married Henry Dawson-Damer, 3rd Earl of Portarlington.
 * 4) Lord Adolphus Frederick Charles William Vane-Tempest (1825–1864), politician; became insane, and had to be medically restrained.
 * 5) Lady Adelaide Emelina Caroline Vane (c. 1830–1882); disgraced the family by eloping with her brother's tutor, Rev. Frederick Henry Law.
 * 6) Lord Ernest McDonnell Vane-Tempest (1836–1885), fell in with a press-gang and had to be bought a commission in the army, from which he was subsequently cashiered.

Through his daughter Lady Frances, Lord Londonderry is the maternal grandfather of Lord Randolph Churchill, and consequently a great-grandfather of Winston Churchill.

Castlereagh's suicide
On 12 August 1822, his half-brother committed suicide. He succeeded his half-brother as 3rd Marquess of Londonderry in 1822. The following year Lord Londonderry was also created Earl Vane and Viscount Seaham, of Seaham in the County Palatine of Durham, with remainder to the heirs male of the body of his second wife.

His half-brother's death also meant the end of his diplomatic career. He quit the diplomatic service in 1823. Queen Victoria had a low esteem of Londonderry's abilities as a civil servant. She said that he should, in her opinion, not be given any post of importance.

Residences

Lord Londonderry used his new bride's immense wealth to acquire the Seaham Hall estate in County Durham, developing the coalfields there. He also built the harbour at Seaham, to rival nearby Sunderland. He commissioned Benjamin Wyatt to build a mansion at Wynyard Park. It was completed by Philip Wyatt in 1841 and cost £130,000 (equivalent to £10,772,000 in 2016) to build and furnish. Unfortunately, just as the mansion was being completed, a fire broke out and gutted the house; it was later restored and remodelled by Ignatius Bonomi.

The family also used their newfound wealth to redecorate their country seat in Ireland, Mount Stewart, and bought Holdernesse House on London's Park Lane, which they renamed Londonderry House.

Declines Orange invitation
In 1836 the Orange Order was accused of plotting to place Ernest Augustus, Duke of Cumberland and Imperial Grand Master of the Orange Order, on the throne in place of Victoria when his brother King William IV died. Once the plot was revealed, the House of Commons called upon the King to disband the Order. Under pressure from Joseph Hume, William Molesworth and Lord John Russell, the King indicated measures would have to be taken and the Duke of Cumberland was forced to dissolve the Orange lodges.

Hume laid evidence before the House of Commons that the plotters had approached Londonderry. In July 1832, the Marquess had received a letter from Lieutenant-Colonel W. B. Fairman, the Deputy Grand Secretary of the Orange Institution of Great Britain, advising him that following "a death of importance" (the passing of the King) the Orangemen would abandon their policy of "non-resistance" to the present "Popish Cabinet, and democratical Ministry" (the parliamentary reform ministry of Earl Grey) and that "it might be political" for the Marquess to join them. Noting that there were already Orange lodges in Newcastle, South Shields, and Darlington, Fairman also suggested to Londonderry that to assume the role in Durham of County Grand Master might be advantageous to him "in a personal sense": his "pitmen" (the miners employed in his collieries) might be induced to organise lodges among themselves which would "prove a partial check against their entering into cabals [i.e. trade unions] hereafter".

While he conceded that he wished the government should do more to check "the baneful influence of the Liberal and Radical associations", including trade unions, Londonderry went to some length in the House of Lords to deny any possible connection between himself and "the alleged project for altering the succession to the throne". To Fairman he had replied: "the present state of liberal Whig feeling in this very Whig county, and the very refractory and insubordinate state of the pitmen, entirely preclude the possibility of successful efforts at this juncture". He had also spoken with Lord Kenyon (his then house guest, who had led opposition to Catholic Emancipation) and had "no doubt" he would "convince his Royal Highness" (the Duke of Cumberland), as well as Fairman, "that the present moment is not the time when the object can be forwarded."

Mines and Collieries Act
Londonderry led the opposition to the Mines and Collieries Act of 1842 in the House of Lords. He is reported to have raged furiously against any attempt to deny the collieries the use of child labour. Speaking on behalf of the Yorkshire Coal-Owners Association, Londonderry said "With respect to the age at which males should be admitted into mines, the members of this association have unanimously agreed to fix it at eight years... In the thin coal mines it is more especially requisite that boys, varying in age from eight to fourteen, should be employed; as the underground roads could not be made of sufficient height for taller persons without incurring an outlay so great as to render the working of such mines unprofitable".

Irish famine
By the time of the outbreak of the Great Irish Famine in 1845, Londonderry was one of the ten richest men in the United Kingdom. While many landlords made efforts to mitigate the worst effects of the famine on their tenants, Londonderry was criticised for meanness: he and his wife gave only £30 to the local relief committee but spent £15,000 renovating Mount Stewart, their Irish home, and on grounds of "personal inconvenience" rejected rent reductions (for which he was excoriated by James MacKnight in the Presbyterian weekly, the Banner of Ulster).

During the tenant right campaign of the early 1850s, Londonderry insisted on his full rights and this alienated many of his tenants. He was in disagreement over this question with his eldest son and heir Frederick, who was more liberally inclined.

Napoleon and Abd-el-Kader
Back in England, Londonderry befriended Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte (later Napoleon III) while the latter was exiled in London between 1836 and 1840. After Bonaparte had been elected president of France in 1851, Londonderry asked him to free Abd-el-Kader.

Late honours
Governor of County Londonderry from 1823, Londonderry was appointed Lord Lieutenant of Durham in 1842 and the following year became Colonel of the 2nd Regiment of Life Guards. When Wellington, whom he admired greatly, died in 1852, his place as Knight of the Garter was given to Londonderry, who was officially invested on 19 June 1853.

Death, memorials, and succession

He died on 6 March 1854 at Londonderry House and was buried in Longnewton, County Durham. His widow honoured him by the Londonderry Equestrian Statue in Durham.

Frederick built Scrabo Tower near Newtownards as a monument to the memory of his father. Of the 730 subscribers to the cost, just 450 were connected to the Stewart estate on which there were 1,200 tenants farmers and many associated employees (in 1850, organised in the all-Ireland Tenant Right League, 700 of these tenants had signed an address demanding tenant right and lower rents). Two-thirds of the cost of the tower was met by 98 subscribers (in a list headed by Emperor Napoleon III) most of whom were fellow gentry.*

He was succeeded as Marquess of Londonderry by his eldest son, Frederick Stewart, the only child from his first marriage, and as Earl Vane by George Vane, the eldest son from his second marriage. At Charles's death Frederick, therefore, became the 4th Marquess of Londonderry, whereas George became the 2nd Earl Vane. George was later to become the 5th Marquess after his half-brother had died childless.

Styles
Charles was styled:
 * 1) The Honourable Charles Stewart from 1789 until 1813 (because his father was created Baron Londonderry in 1789),
 * 2) The Honourable Sir Charles Stewart from 1813 to 1814 (because he was made a Knight of the Bath),
 * 3) The Right Honourable The Lord Stewart from 1814 to 1822 (because he was made a baron in his own right)
 * 4) The Most Honourable The Marquess of Londonderry.

Works
The 3rd Marquess was a prolific writer and editor. He wrote books about his own military and diplomatic career and published many of his half-brother's papers.

War memoirs
The following two books describe the Napoleonic War as he saw them happen. The first describes his experience of the Peninsular War. The second the War of the Sixth Coalition, which forced Napoleon to abdicate:
 * Narrative of the Peninsular War (London: Henry Colburn, 1828) online at Internet Archive
 * Narrative of the War in Germany and France: In 1813 and 1814 (London: Henry Colburn and Richard Bentley, 1830) online at Internet Archive

Castlereagh papers
The 3rd Marquess also compiled, edited, and published many of the papers left by his half-brother and published them in the following twelve volumes, divided in three series.

The first series, consisting of four volumes, numbered 1 – 4, appeared in 1848 and 1849 under the title Memoirs and Correspondence. The volumes are not marked "first series on the title pages. They are:
 * Memoirs and Correspondence of Viscount Castlereagh, Second Marquess of Londonderry, Volume 1 (London: Henry Colburn, 1848) online at Internet Archive - The Irish Rebellion
 * Memoirs and Correspondence of Viscount Castlereagh, Second Marquess of Londonderry, Volume 2 (London: Henry Colburn, 1848) online at Internet Archive - Arrangements for a Union
 * Memoirs and Correspondence of Viscount Castlereagh, Second Marquess of Londonderry, Volume 3 (London: Henry Colburn, 1849) online at Internet Archive - Completion of the Legislative Union
 * Memoirs and Correspondence of Viscount Castlereagh, Second Marquess of Londonderry, Volume 4 (London, Henry Colburn, 1849) online at Internet Archive - Concessions to Catholics and Dissenters: Emmett's Insurrection

The second series, consisting of four volumes, appeared in 1851 under the title Correspondence, Despatches and Other Papers. The volume numbers continue, despite being marked "2nd series" and are therefore 4 to 8. They are:
 * Correspondence Despatches and Other Papers of Viscount Castlereagh, Second Marquess of Londonderry, Series 2, Volume 5 (London: William Shoberl, 1851) online at Internet Archive - Military and Miscellaneous
 * Correspondence Despatches and Other Papers of Viscount Castlereagh, Second Marquess of Londonderry, Series 2, Volume 6 (London: William Shoberl, 1851) online at Internet Archive - Military and Miscellaneous
 * Correspondence Despatches and Other Papers of Viscount Castlereagh, Second Marquess of Londonderry, Series 2, Volume 7 (London: William Shoberl, 1851) online at Internet Archive - Military and Miscellaneous
 * Correspondence Despatches and Other Papers of Viscount Castlereagh, Second Marquess of Londonderry, Series 2, Volume 8 (London: William Shoberl, 1851) online at Internet Archive - Military and Miscellaneous

The third series appeared in 1853. The four volumes have the same title as the second series. The volume numbering is irregular. They are:
 * Correspondence Despatches and Other Papers of Viscount Castlereagh, Second Marquess of Londonderry, Volume 9 (London: John Murray, 1853) online at Internet Archive - Military and Diplomatic
 * Correspondence Despatches and Other Papers of Viscount Castlereagh, Second Marquess of Londonderry, Volume 11 (London: John Murray, 1853) online at Hathi Trust
 * Correspondence Despatches and Other Papers of Viscount Castlereagh, Second Marquess of Londonderry, Series 3, Volume 3 (London: John Murray, 1853) online at Internet Archive - Military and Diplomatic
 * Correspondence Despatches and Other Papers of Viscount Castlereagh, Second Marquess of Londonderry, Volume 12 (London: John Murray, 1853) online at Internet Archive