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Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited

Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL) is an Indian central public sector undertaking and the largest government-owned power generation equipment manufacturer. It is owned by the Government of India, with administrative control by the Ministry of Heavy Industries. Established in 1956 with the help of Soviet technology, BHEL is based in New Delhi.

History
BHEL was established in 1956 ushering in the heavy electrical equipment industry in India. Heavy Electricals (India) Limited was merged with BHEL in 1974. When it was set up in 1956, BHEL was envisaged as a plain manufacturing PSU, with technological help from the Soviet Union. In 1980's it was cutting edge in thyristor technology. In 1991, BHEL was converted into a public company. Over time, it developed the capability to produce a variety of electrical, electronic, and mechanical equipment for various sectors, including transmission, transportation, oil and gas, and other allied industries. However, the bulk of the company's revenue is still derived from the sale of power generation equipment such as turbines and boilers. As of 2017, equipment supplied by BHEL constituted around 55% of the total installed power generation capacity in India. The company also supplies electric locomotives to the Indian Railways and defence equipment such as the Super Rapid Gun Mount (SRGM) naval guns manufactured in partnership with the Ordnance Factory Board and simulators to the Indian Armed Forces.

It also has been exporting its power and industry segment products and services for over 40 years. BHEL's global references are spread across over 76 countries across all the six continents of the world. The cumulative overseas installed capacity of BHEL manufactured power plants exceeds 9,000 MW across 21 countries including Malaysia, Oman, Iraq, UAE, Bhutan, Egypt, and New Zealand. Their physical exports range from turnkey projects to after sales services.

Operations
BHEL is engaged in the design, engineering, manufacturing, construction, testing, commissioning and servicing of a wide range of products, systems and services for the core sectors of the economy, viz. power, transmission, industry, transportation, renewable energy, oil & gas, and defence.

It has a network of 16 manufacturing units, two repair units, four regional offices, eight service centres, eight overseas offices, 15 regional centres, seven joint ventures, and infrastructure allowing it to execute more than 150 projects at sites across India and abroad. The company has established the capability to deliver 20,000 MW p.a. of power equipment to address the growing demand for power generation equipment.

BHEL has retained its market leadership position during 2015–16 with 74% market share in the Power Sector. An improved focus on project execution enabled BHEL record its highest ever commissioning/synchronization of 15059 MW of power plants in domestic and international markets in 2015–16, marking a 59% increase over 2014–15. With the all-time high commissioning of 15000 MW in a single year FY2015-16, BHEL has exceeded 170 GW installed base of power generating equipments.

BHEL has been catering to the nation's Nuclear Programme since 1976 by way of design, manufacture, testing and supply of critical nuclear components like Reactor Headers, Steam Generators, Steam Turbine Generators, other Heat Exchangers and Pressure Vessels.

It also has been exporting its power and industry segment products and services for over 40 years. BHEL's global references are spread across over 76 countries across all the six continents of the world. The cumulative overseas installed capacity of BHEL manufactured power plants exceeds 9,000 MW across 21 countries including Malaysia, Oman, Iraq, UAE, Bhutan, Egypt, and New Zealand. Their physical exports range from turnkey projects to after sales services.

Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited has a total of 2406 patents globally, out of which 1326 have been granted. Of these 16833 patents, more than 78% patents are active. India is where Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited has filed the maximum number of patents, followed by USA and Europe.Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd (BHEL) on an average applied for more than one patent or copyright every working day in FY-2011.

Initiatives
BHEL's investment in R&D is amongst the largest in the corporate sector in India.

During 2012–2013, the company invested about ₹1,252 Crore on R&D efforts, which corresponds to nearly 2.50% of the turnover of the company, focusing on new product and system developments and improvements in existing products. The IPR (Intellectual Property Rights) capital of BHEL grew by 21.5% in the year, taking the total to 2170.

The corporate R&D division at Hyderabad leads BHEL's research efforts in a number of areas of importance to BHEL's product range. Research & product development (RPD) groups for each product group at the manufacturing divisions play a complementary role. BHEL has established Centres of Excellence for Simulators, Computational Fluid Dynamics, Permanent Magnet Machines, Surface Engineering, Machine Dynamics, Centre for Intelligent Machines and Robotics, Compressors & Pumps, Centre for Nano Technology, Ultra High Voltage Laboratory at Corporate R&D; Centre of Excellence for Hydro Machines at Bhopal; Power Electronics and IGBT & Controller Technology at Electronics Division, Bengaluru, and Advanced Fabrication Technology and Coal Research Centre at Tiruchirappalli.

BHEL has established four specialized institutes, viz., Welding Research Institute (WRI) at Tiruchirappalli, Ceramic Technological Institute (CTI) at Bangalore, Centre for Electric Traction (CET) at Bhopal and Pollution Control Research Institute (PCRI) at Haridwar. Amorphous Silicon Solar Cell plant at Gurgaon pursues R&D in Photo Voltaic applications.

Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL) has achieved the unique milestone of supplying its 100th Space-grade battery to ISRO for its very important and critical mission, Chandrayaan 3.These are manufactured at the Electronic Systems Division (ESD) of BHEL in Bengaluru, These batteries use various types of chemistry, including Nickel-Cadmium, Nickel-Hydrogen and Lithium-Ion.

BHEL-supplied equipment at Kaiga power plant creates world record for continuous operation. BHEL and NPCIL collaborated to develop 220-MW Kaiga 1 nuclear power plant, an indigenously designed pressurized heavy water reactor (PHWR), On 31 Dec 2019 Kaiga 1 became a world record holder for running 962 unbroken days.

BHEL is one of the only four Indian companies and the only Indian public sector enterprise figuring in 'The Global Innovation 1000' of Booz & Co., a list of 1,000 publicly traded companies which are the biggest spenders on R&D in the world.

In 2011, Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd has been ranked 9th most innovative company in the world by US business magazine Forbes.It filed 303 patents and copyrights during the year.Its intellectual capital has gone up to 1,438 patents and copyrights.

List of R&D breakthroughs
Source:
 * 1) Its a industrial technology and equipment provider for world's first commercial thorium reactor called Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor.
 * 2) Its R&D breakthroughs include 100 KW permanent magnet motors for India's submarine programme, which significantly reduce the size of the submarines for greater mobility.
 * 3) The insulated-gate bipolar transistor-based inverter for railway locomotives. This propulsion system, which allows locomotives to use power more efficiently, helped BHEL bag a Rs 400 crore order from the Indian Railways, beating international rivals.
 * 4) its R&D developed the high temperature superconducting (HTSC) transformer, which is more efficient, smaller in size, weight and volume, and can withstand twice the capacity overload without insulation damage or loss of product life.
 * 5) In 2011, World's first 1200 kV Ultra High Voltage Alternating Current (UHVAC) Transformer of 333 MVA rating.The Transformer has been developed, manufactured and successfully tested by BHEL entirely through in-house know-how. India’s PowerGrid beats global peers in high-voltage game with the help of BHEL.
 * 6) World's First DC Electric Train Engine With Regenerative Braking. the concept involving the energy-efficient regeneration system was put into shape by BHEL in a 5,000 HP WAG-7 electric locomotive. The technology is meant to be an upgrade to the existing dynamic braking system used presently in the locomotives.
 * 7) In 2002,  The Bharat Heavy Electricals has successfully developed a first-of-its-kind in the world device for improving power transfer capability and reducing transmission losses in the country's highest rating (400 kV) transmission lines. The device, called Controlled Shunt Reactor
 * 8) BHEL has commissioned the world’s first ±800 kV multi-terminal HVDC project from North-East to Agra.
 * 9) BHEL successfully demonstrates World's first indigenous High Ash Coal Gasification Plant which converts Coal to Methanol.
 * 10) BHEL commissions 250 MW lignite power plant in Gujarat based on eco-friendly Circulating Fluidized Bed Combustion (CFBC) technology, using low grade coal (lignite) as the primary fuel.
 * 11) Bharat Heavy Electricals has developed a high velocity oxy fuel thermal spray process for preventing silt erosion in components of hydro turbines in hydro electric power stations.HVOF coatings were applied to turbine needles at Shanan project and to guide vanes, top cover and lower ring at Bairasiul project.It was found that the coated components showed negligible erosion.
 * 12) BHEL implements innovative boiler cleaning process in coal-fired thermal units.The boiler commissioning cycle will reduce from 100 days to 80 days by successfully completing the main 'Boiler Acid cleaning' without its light-up, by using an Auxiliary Boiler.
 * 13) BHEL with collaboration with IIT Madras developed Solid Waste Combustor, This indigenous Pilot Plant, based on a first-of-its-kind ‘Rotary Furnace’ to efficiently incinerate unsegregated Municipal Solid Waste generated in India.
 * 14) In 2022, Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd. (BHEL) has produced a Bus Potential Transformer Module, first of its kind to be developed by an Indian manufacturer. In the existing design, a separate Potential Transformer(PT) panel was provided, having the same size, weight and cost as a regular feeder panel. Cost-savings of 57% can be achieved by the new development. In addition, panel size and weight are reduced by 80%, compared to conventional PT panels. The new PT Module for 33 kV Gas Insulated Switchgear (GIS) was successfully developed, installed and commissioned at a substation site (HVPNL, Sector – 107 Gurugram, Haryana).

Manufacturing facilities
In 2009, has developed a new state-of-the-art 1,200 kV class Ultra High Voltage (UHV) transformer manufacturing facility at BHEL, Bhopal in Madhya Pradesh.The new UHV transformer block has a dust free and controlled atmosphere, air conditioned bays for winding works, pressurised bay for core building and final assembly, EOT cranes for lifting loads up to 450 tonne, isostatic pressing device for windings, air cushion transport system for movement of equipment & machinery and attached UHV laboratory for testing transformers.

BHEL Jhansi, is a factory and township in Uttar Pradesh, India. It was founded on 9 January 1974 and is one of the 17 manufacturing units including FSIP Jagdishpur. BHEL Jhansi started production of transformers in 1976. BHEL Jhansi has two product groups: transformers and locomotives.

Test facilities
BHEL collaborated with National High Power Test Laboratory Pvt. Ltd. (NHPTL) to test auto transformer at NHPTL facilities.

BHEL to establish the India’s first High Temperature Spin Test Rig for coal based thermal power plants.The efficiency enhancement of coal-based thermal power plants depends on the use of nickel-based superalloy materials as against chrome-based steels widely used now. Advanced Ultra Super Critical (AUSC) consortium selected the nickel-based Alloy 617M.

Upcoming projects
In 2019, BHEL and Libcoin are in talks to form a consortium to initially build a 1GWh lithium-ion battery plant in India.The plant's capacity will be scaled up to 30GWh in due course.

In 2022, BHEL and Titagarh Wagons formed a consortium and participated in a tender by Government of India. The consortium emerged the second lowest bidder and will be supplying 80 Vande Bharat Trains at the rate of 120 crore per train to Indian Railways. BHEL will supply propulsion system i.e. IGBT based traction converter-inverter, auxiliary converter, train control management system, motors, transformers and mechanical bogies.

In 2023, Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) and Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL) have entered into an MoU to jointly pursue business opportunities in the area of nuclear power plants based on Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR) technology. BHEL is the company to be actively associated with all the three stages of the Indian Nuclear Programme (1st Stage PHWR, 2nd Stage FBR and 3rd Stage AHWR).

In May 2023, Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL), stated that the Indian Railways has set very ambitious targets and kept aggressive targets for upgradation.One of the significant goals set by the Indian Railways is the complete overhaul of signaling systems.As technology upgrades, BHEL will also upgrade and participate in the modernization process of the signaling system.

Criticism
BHEL is selected to construct 1340-megawatt Rampal coal power plant in Rampal Upazila, Bangladesh, which is close to the Sundarbans mangrove forest. The power plant is set up by Bangladesh-India Friendship Power Company Pvt. Limited — a joint venture between NTPC Limited and Bangladesh Power Development Board. The project has faced criticism for the environmental impact and the potential harm to the largest mangrove forest in the world. In 2017 Norway's sovereign wealth fund removed BHEL from its investment portfolio over concerns about the Rampal coal plant.

title: Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited


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List of radio stations in New Zealand

The following is a list of radio stations in New Zealand.

New Zealand network stations
Several networks operate across multiple centres or nationwide. Most have resulted from the consolidation of a group of existing stations and many have changed their name over time. The Sound was previously Solid Gold. TAB Trackside, suspended operations 12 April 2020, was previously LiveSport, BSport and Radio Pacific. SENZ launched on 19 July 2021 on the former TAB Trackside frequencies. Mix (formerly Mix 98.2), was a reincarnation of Easy Mix, Viva and Easy Listening, and Radio Sport was replaced by Gold on 1 July 2020. The now-defunct Kiwi FM was previously Channel Z. The Wolf and Today FM (formerly Magic Talk and Radio Live) were closed.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: List of radio stations in New Zealand


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Shallow Grave (1994 film)

Shallow Grave is a 1994 British black comedy crime film directed by Danny Boyle, in his feature directorial debut, and starring Ewan McGregor, Christopher Eccleston, and Kerry Fox. Its plot follows a group of flatmates in Edinburgh who set off a chain of events after dismembering and burying a mysterious new tenant who died and left behind a large sum of money. The film was written by John Hodge, marking his first screenplay.

The production was funded by Channel 4 Television and PolyGram Filmed Entertainment, and the film was distributed by Rank Film Distributors in the UK, while Columbia TriStar Film Distributors International distributed the film in other countries. Shallow Grave received generally favourable reviews from critics and was a commercial success, grossing $19.8 million worldwide.

Plot
Chartered accountant David Stevens shares a flat in Edinburgh with physician Juliet Miller and journalist Alex Law. Needing a new flatmate, the trio interview several applicants in a calculatedly cruel manner, amusing themselves at the applicants' expense before finally offering the room to a mysterious man named Hugo. Shortly after he moves in the trio finds Hugo dead from an apparent drug overdose in his room, as well as a large suitcase full of money. They agree to conceal the death and keep the money for themselves. They decided to remove the identifying features—hands, feet, and teeth—from Hugo's body and bury the remains in the woods. David is given the gruesome task of dismembering the corpse after they draw lots, while Juliet disposes of the leftovers in her hospital's incinerator.

Unknown to them, Hugo is being sought by a pair of violent criminals who are torturing and murdering informants as they follow Hugo's trail. The flat below theirs is broken into, making them anxious. While Juliet and Alex go on a shopping spree with the money to "feel better", David's fears turn into full-blown paranoia. He hides the suitcase of money in the attic and begins living there, drilling holes in the attic floor to watch the living space below. The relationship between the three begins to deteriorate.

The criminals break into the flat, beating Alex and Juliet until Alex reveals where the money is. As the men enter the dark attic, David kills both of them with a hammer and returns to the woods to dispose of the bodies. Alex and Juliet become worried about David's mental state, and David becomes worried that the two are conspiring against him. The police, investigating the prior intrusion, are surprised when the three friends deny that they ever had a fourth flatmate.

The bodies are discovered in the woods, and Alex is sent by his editor to cover the story. With the police now closing in, Juliet seduces David into giving her the money so she can buy plane tickets to Rio de Janeiro and they can run away together, but secretly she plans to go alone and leave the other two to take the fall. Alex returns from work and—realising that Juliet and David are working together and that his life is in danger—tries to phone the police, but is stopped by David and Juliet. The confrontation escalates to violence. David reveals that he knew about Juliet's secret plan to betray both him and Alex, and punches her, prompting Alex to attack him too. Alex collapses after being stabbed in the shoulder by David, but Juliet kills David before he can finish the job.

With David dead, Juliet decides to force the knife deeper into Alex's shoulder, pinning him to the floor, so that the police will find him with David's body and blame him for all four of the deaths. She flees with the suitcase to the airport—but in the car park she breaks down hysterically when she discovers that it is actually filled with hundreds of newspaper clippings about the triple shallow grave, taken from Alex's newspaper. With no possessions other than the plane ticket, and no other way out, she calmly boards the plane to Rio.

The police arrive at the flat to find Alex alive and grinning—he had hidden the cash under the same floorboards where Juliet had skewered him. David finishes the monologue that began the film, the entirety of which is now revealed to be a flashback. A sheet is drawn over his face and his body is slid into a drawer in the morgue.

Cast

 * Kerry Fox as Juliet Miller: A spirited and mysterious doctor who is constantly being courted by different men, many of whom repeatedly call the flat trying to speak to her. Despite this, she also appears to be in a relationship with David as well as openly flirting with Alex.
 * Christopher Eccleston as David Stevens: A shy chartered accountant who keeps a low profile. After drawing the short straw and having to cut up the body, he becomes introverted and paranoid.
 * Ewan McGregor as Alex Law: A cheeky, vain, and self-described "hack" journalist. Alex works for the local paper and is able to find out inside information of the police investigation. His confidence in their plot starts to be undermined by David's deteriorating mental health.
 * Ken Stott as Detective Inspector McCall
 * Keith Allen as Hugo: An enigmatic man who rents the spare room under the pretence of being a writer. He is later found dead after a drug overdose, leaving a suitcase full of money under his bed.
 * Colin McCredie as Cameron: A potential flatmate who is interviewed at the beginning of the film. He is ridiculed and then thrown out by Alex and the housemates. Later, at a party, he punches Alex after being mocked again.
 * Victoria Nairn as Woman Visitor: The "identify this song" potential flatmate.
 * Gary Lewis as Male Visitor: The "not having an affair" potential flatmate.
 * Jean Marie Coffey as Goth: A potential flatmate.
 * Peter Mullan as Andy: A murderous thug searching for Hugo and the money.
 * Leonard O'Malley as Tim: A murderous thug searching for Hugo and the money.

In addition, the film's screenwriter, John Hodge, appears in the role of Detective Constable Mitchell, whose main duty appears to be writing: "Make a note of that, Mitchell. ... Write it down."

Production
Shooting for Shallow Grave lasted for thirty days. The tight budgetary restraints during filming meant many of the props had to be auctioned off for them to afford sufficient film stock.

Boyle claimed that Christopher Eccleston was so afraid of getting locked in a real-life mortuary for a scene, he had to ask a crew member to stand in the shadows and comfort the nervous actor.

Danny Boyle said in his commentary on the 2009 Special Edition DVD and 2012 Blu-ray that Alex is not meant to be dead, so the line of Alex saying hello to the detective was added in post-production to clarify this.

Filming locations
The crew shot predominantly in Glasgow rather than Edinburgh, which is where the story is set, since the Glasgow Film Fund gave them a £150,000 (£ today) grant. Locations in the film include Flat 6 North East Circus Place in New Town, Edinburgh. Hospital scenes were filmed at Royal Alexandra Hospital in Paisley, Renfrewshire. The dance scene was filmed at the Townhouse Hotel, 54 West George Street, near George Square in Glasgow.

Reception
The film was the most commercially successful British film of 1995 with a gross of £5.2 million. The film was a success in Europe but grossed a total of just $2,834,250 in the United States. It led to Boyle's internationally successful production, Trainspotting, two years later. Shallow Grave earned Boyle the Best Newcomer Award from the 1996 London Film Critics Circle and, together with Trainspotting, led to critical commentary that Boyle had revitalised British cinema in the early 1990s.

On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 67 out of 100 based on 20 critic reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".

Caroline Westbrook of Empire magazine gave it 5 out of 5 and wrote: "This, the debut feature from acclaimed TV director Danny Boyle, is the best British thriller for years, a chilling and claustrophobic heart-stopper centring on a moral dilemma destined to fuel many a dinner party conversation." Quentin Curtis of The Independent wrote: "What makes the film fascinating, and exciting, is its marriage of British setting and American, B-movie format."

Derek Elley of Variety magazine called it "a tar-black comedy that zings along on a wave of visual and scripting inventiveness."

Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave it 2 out of 4, and wrote "All of the materials are in place [...] But somehow they never come together." Janet Maslin of The New York Times was critical of the film and said "misanthropy overwhelms his film in ways that prove more sour than droll, despite the presence of skillful actors and a bizarrely enveloping plot."

Awards

 * 1995 Angers European First Film Festival
 * Audience Award – Feature Film
 * Best Screenplay – Feature Film
 * Liberation Advertisement Award
 * 1995 BAFTA – Alexander Korda Award for Best British film (shared with Andrew Macdonald)
 * 1995 Cognac Festival du Film Policier
 * Audience Award
 * Grand Prix
 * 1994 Dinard British Film Festival
 * Golden Hitchcock
 * 1st Empire Awards (1996)
 * Empire Award for Best British Film
 * Empire Award for Best Director
 * Empire Award for Best British Actor
 * 1995 Evening Standard British Film Award
 * Most Promising Newcomer for Danny Boyle
 * 1995 Fantasporto (Portugal)
 * International Fantasy Film Award – Best Film
 * 1994 San Sebastian International Film Festival
 * Silver Seashell – Best Director

Music
Track listing
 * 1) Leftfield – "Shallow Grave" – 4:38
 * 2) Simon Boswell – "Shallow Grave Theme" – 3:30
 * 3) Nina Simone – "My Baby Just Cares for Me" – 3:38
 * 4) Simon Boswell – "Laugh Riot" – 3:02
 * 5) Leftfield – "Release the Dubs" – 5:45
 * 6) John Carmichael Band – "Strip the Willow" – 3:12
 * 7) Simon Boswell – "Loft Conversion" – 5:45
 * 8) Simon Boswell – "A Spade, We Need a Spade" – 2:41
 * 9) Simon Boswell – "Shallow Grave, Deep Depression" – 4:49
 * 10) Simon Boswell – "Hugo's Last Trip" – 5:39
 * 11) Andy Williams – "Happy Heart" – 3:11

title: Shallow Grave (1994 film)


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Italian resistance movement

The Italian Resistance (Resistenza italiana,, or simply La Resistenza) consisted of all the Italian resistance groups who fought the occupying forces of Nazi Germany and the fascist collaborationists of the Italian Social Republic during the Second World War in Italy from 1943 to 1945. As a diverse anti-fascist and anti-nazist movement and organisation, the Resistenza opposed Nazi Germany and its Fascist puppet state regime, the Italian Social Republic, which the Germans created following the Nazi German invasion and military occupation of Italy by the Wehrmacht and the Waffen-SS from 8 September 1943 until 25 April 1945.

General underground Italian opposition to the Fascist Italian government existed even before World War II, but open and armed resistance followed the German invasion of Italy on 8 September 1943: in Nazi-occupied Italy, the Italian Resistance fighters, known as the partigiani (partisans), fought a guerra di liberazione nazionale ('national liberation war') against the invading German forces; in this context, the anti-fascist partigiani of the Italian Resistance also simultaneously participated in the Italian Civil War, fighting against the Italian Fascists of the collaborationist Italian Social Republic.

The Resistance was a diverse coalition of various Italian political parties, independent resistance fighters and soldiers, and partisan brigades and militias. The modern Italian Republic was declared to be founded on the struggle of the Resistance: the Constituent Assembly was mostly composed of representatives of the parties that had given life to the Italian Resistance's National Liberation Committee. These former Italian Resistance fighters wrote the Constitution of Italy at the end of the war based on a compromissory synthesis of their Resistance parties' respective principles of democracy and anti-fascism.

Background

The Italian Resistance has its roots in anti-fascism, which progressively developed in the period from the mid-1920s, when weak forms of opposition to the fascist regime already existed, until the beginning of World War II. Furthermore, in the memory of the partisan fighters, especially those of communist and socialist inspiration, the memory of the Biennio Rosso and of the violent struggles against the fascist squads in the period 1919–1922, considered by some exponents of the left-wing parties (among which Palmiro Togliatti himself) a true "civil war" in defence of the popular classes against the reactionary forces.

In Italy, Mussolini's Fascist regime used the term anti-fascist to describe its opponents. Mussolini's secret police was officially known as the Organization for Vigilance and Repression of Anti-Fascism. During the 1920s in the Kingdom of Italy, anti-fascists, many of them from the labor movement, fought against the violent Blackshirts and against the rise of the fascist leader Benito Mussolini. After the Italian Socialist Party (PSI) signed a pacification pact with Mussolini and his Fasces of Combat on 3 August 1921, and trade unions adopted a legalist and pacified strategy, members of the workers' movement who disagreed with this strategy formed Arditi del Popolo.

The Italian General Confederation of Labour (CGL) and the PSI refused to officially recognize the anti-fascist militia and maintained a non-violent, legalist strategy, while the Communist Party of Italy (PCd'I) ordered its members to quit the organization. The PCd'I organized some militant groups, but their actions were relatively minor. The Italian anarchist Severino Di Giovanni, who exiled himself to Argentina following the 1922 March on Rome, organized several bombings against the Italian fascist community. The Italian liberal anti-fascist Benedetto Croce wrote his Manifesto of the Anti-Fascist Intellectuals, which was published in 1925. Other notable Italian liberal anti-fascists around that time were Piero Gobetti and Carlo Rosselli.

After the murder of the socialist deputy Giacomo Matteotti (1924) and the decisive assumption of responsibility by Mussolini, the process of totalitarianization of the State began in the Kingdom of Italy, which will give rise to ever greater control and severe persecution of opponents, at risk of imprisonment and confinement.

The anti-fascists therefore organized themselves clandestinely in Italy and abroad, creating with great difficulty a rudimentary network of connections, which however did not produce significant practical results, remaining fragmented into small uncoordinated groups, incapable of attacking or threatening the regime, if some attacks carried out in particular by anarchists are excluded. Their activity was limited to the ideological side; the production of writings was copious, particularly among the anti-fascist exile communities, which however did not reach the masses and did not influence public opinion.

Concentrazione Antifascista Italiana (Italian Anti-Fascist Concentration), officially known as Concentrazione d'Azione Antifascista (Anti-Fascist Action Concentration), was an Italian coalition of Anti-Fascist groups which existed from 1927 to 1934. Founded in Nérac, France, by expatriate Italians, the CAI was an alliance of non-communist anti-fascist forces (republican, socialist, nationalist) trying to promote and to coordinate expatriate actions to fight fascism in Italy; they published a propaganda paper entitled La Libertà.

Giustizia e Libertà (Justice and Freedom) was an Italian anti-fascist resistance movement, active from 1929 to 1945. The movement was cofounded by Carlo Rosselli, Ferruccio Parri, who later became Prime Minister of Italy, and Sandro Pertini, who became President of Italy, were among the movement's leaders. The movement's members held various political beliefs but shared a belief in active, effective opposition to fascism, compared to the older Italian anti-fascist parties. Giustizia e Libertà also made the international community aware of the realities of fascism in Italy, thanks to the work of Gaetano Salvemini.

Some historians have also underlined how the Resistance movement may have links with the Spanish Civil War, in particular with those who had served in the International Brigades. Many Italian anti-fascists participated in the Spanish Civil War with the hope of setting an example of armed resistance to Franco's dictatorship against Mussolini's regime; hence their motto: "Today in Spain, tomorrow in Italy".

Rome

Armed resistance to the German occupation following the armistice between Italy and Allied armed forces of 3 September 1943 began with Italian regular forces: the Italian Armed Forces and the Carabinieri military police. The period's best-known battle broke out in Rome the day the armistice was announced. Regio Esercito units such as the Sassari Division, the Granatieri di Sardegna, the Piave Division, the Ariete II Division, the Centauro Division, the Piacenza Division and the "Lupi di Toscana" Division (in addition to Carabinieri, infantry and coastal artillery regiments) were deployed around the city and along surrounding roads.

Outnumbered German Fallschirmjäger and Panzergrenadiere were initially repelled and endured losses, but slowly gained the upper hand, aided by their experience and superior Panzer component. The defenders were hampered by the escape of King Victor Emmanuel III, Marshal Pietro Badoglio and their staff to Brindisi, which left the generals in charge of the city without a coordinated defence plan. This caused Allied support to be cancelled at the last minute since the Fallschirmjäger took the U.S. 82nd Airborne Division drop zones; Brigadier General Maxwell D. Taylor had crossed enemy lines and gone to Rome to personally supervise the operation. The absence of the Italian Centauro II Division, with its German-made tanks, contributed to the defeat of the Italian forces by the Germans. The division was composed primarily of ex-Blackshirts and was not trusted.

By 10 September, the Germans had penetrated downtown Rome and the Granatieri (aided by civilians) made their last stand at Porta San Paolo. At 4 pm, General Giorgio Calvi di Bergolo signed the order of surrender; the Italian divisions were disbanded and their troops taken prisoner. Although some officers participating in the battle later joined the resistance, the clash in Rome was not motivated by anti-German sentiment so much as the desire to control the Italian capital and resist the disarmament of Italian soldiers. Generals Raffaele Cadorna Jr. (commander of Ariete II) and Giuseppe Cordero Lanza di Montezemolo (later executed by the Germans) joined the underground; General Gioacchino Solinas (commander of the Granatieri) instead opted for the pro-German Italian Social Republic.

Piombino

One of the most important episodes of resistance by Italian Armed Forces after the armistice was the Battle of Piombino in Tuscany. On 10 September 1943, during Operation Achse, a small German flotilla, commanded by Kapitänleutnant Karl-Wolf Albrand, tried to enter the harbour of Piombino but was denied access by the port authorities. General and Fascist official Cesare Maria De Vecchi in command of the Italian 215th Coastal Division ordered the port authorities to allow the German flotilla to enter, against the advice of Commander Amedeo Capuano, the Naval commander of the harbour. Once they entered and landed, the German forces showed a hostile behaviour, and it became clear that their intent was to occupy the town; the local population asked for a resolved reaction by the Italian forces, threatening an insurrection, but the senior Italian commander, general Fortunato Perni, instead ordered his tanks to open fire on the civilians – an order the tankers refused. Meanwhile, De Vecchi forbade any action against the Germans. This however did not stop the protests; some junior officers, acting on their own initiative and against the orders (Perni and De Vecchi even tried to dismiss them for this), assumed command and started distributing weapons to the population, and civilian volunteers joined the Italian sailors and soldiers in the defense.

A battle broke out at 21:15 on 10 September, between the German landing forces (who aimed to occupy the town centre) and the Italian coastal batteries, tanks of the XIX Tank Battalion "M", and civilian population. Italian tanks sank the German torpedo boat TA11; Italian artillery also sank seven Marinefährprahme, the péniches Mainz and Meise (another péniche, Karin, was scuttled at the harbour entrance as a blockship) and six Luftwaffe service boats (Fl.B.429, Fl.B.538, Fl.C.3046, Fl.C.3099, Fl.C.504 e Fl.C.528), and heavily damaged the torpedo boat TA9 and the steamers Carbet and Capitano Sauro (former Italian ships). Sauro and Carbet were scuttled because of the damage they had suffered. The German attack was repelled; by the dawn of 11 September, 120 Germans had been killed and about 200–300 captured, 120 of them wounded. Italian casualties had been 4 killed (two sailors, one Guardia di Finanza brigadier, and one civilian) and a dozen wounded; four Italian submarine chasers (VAS 208, 214, 219 and 220) were also sunk during the fighting. Later in the morning, however, De Vecchi ordered the prisoners to be released and had their weapons returned to them. New popular protests broke out, as the Italian units were disbanded and the senior commanders fled from the city; the divisional command surrendered Piombino to the Germans on 12 September, and the city was occupied. Many of the sailors, soldiers and citizens who had fought in the battle of Piombino retreated to the surrounding woods and formed the first partisan formations in the area. For the deeds of its citizens, the town received a gold medal for Military Valour from the President of the Italian Republic Carlo Azeglio Ciampi.

Outside Italy

In the days following 8 September 1943 most servicemen, left without orders from higher echelons (due to Wehrmacht units ceasing Italian radio communications), were disarmed and shipped to POW camps in the Third Reich (often by smaller German outfits). However, some garrisons stationed in occupied Greece, Albania, Yugoslavia and Italy fought the Germans. Admirals Inigo Campioni and Luigi Mascherpa led an attempt to defend Rhodes, Kos, Leros and other Dodecanese islands from their former allies. With reinforcements from SAS, SBS and British Army troops under the command of Generals Francis Gerrard Russell Brittorous and Robert Tilney, the defenders held on for a month. However, the Wehrmacht took the islands through air and sea landings by infantry and Fallschirmjäger supported by the Luftwaffe. Both Campioni and Mascherpa were captured and executed at Verona for high treason.

On 13 September 1943, the Acqui Division stationed in Cefalonia chose to defend themselves from a German invasion during ongoing negotiations. After a ten-day battle, the Germans executed 5,155 officers and enlisted men in retaliation. Those killed in the massacre of the Acqui Division included division commander General Antonio Gandin. On 1 March 2001, the President of the Italian Republic Carlo Azeglio Ciampi visited Cefalonia, giving a speech underlining how "their conscious choice [of the Acqui Division] was the first act of the Resistenza, of an Italy free from fascism".

Other Italian forces remained trapped in Yugoslavia following the armistice and some decided to fight alongside the local resistance. Elements of the Taurinense Division, the Venezia Division, the Aosta Division and the Emilia Division were assembled in the Italian Garibaldi Partisan Division, part of the Yugoslav People's Liberation Army. When the unit finally returned to Italy at the end of the war, half its members had been killed or were listed as missing in action.

On 9 September 1943, Bastia, in Corsica, was the setting of a naval battle between Italian torpedo boats and an attacking German flotilla. It was one of the few successful Italian reactions to Operation Achse, and one of the first acts of resistance by the Italian armed forces against Nazi Germany after the armistice of Cassibile.

Italian military internees

Italian soldiers captured by the Germans numbered around 650,000–700,000 (some 45,000 others were killed in combat, executed, or died during transport), of whom between 40,000 and 50,000 later died in the camps. Most refused cooperation with the Third Reich despite hardship, chiefly to maintain their oath of fidelity to the King. Their former allies designated them Italienische Militär-Internierte ("Italian military internees") to deny them prisoner of war status and the rights granted by the Geneva Convention. Their actions were eventually recognized as an act of unarmed resistance on a par with the armed confrontation of other Italian servicemen.

After disarmament by the Germans, the Italian soldiers and officers were confronted with the choice to continue fighting as allies of the German army (either in the armed forces of the Italian Social Republic, the German puppet regime in northern Italy led by Mussolini, or in Italian "volunteer" units in the German armed forces) or, otherwise, be sent to detention camps in Germany. Those soldiers and officials who refused to recognize the "republic" led by Mussolini were taken as civilian prisoners too. Only 10 percent agreed to enroll.

The Nazis considered the Italians as traitors and not as prisoners of war. The former Italian soldiers were sent into forced labour in war industries (35.6%), heavy industry (7.1%), mining (28.5%), construction (5.9%) and agriculture (14.3%). The working conditions were very poor. The Italians were inadequately fed or clothed for the German winter. Many became sick and died. The death rate of the military internees at 6-7% was second only to that of Soviet prisoners of war although much lower.

Resistance by Italian partisans

In the first major act of resistance following the German occupation, Italian partisans and local resistance fighters liberated the city of Naples through a chaotic popular rebellion. Naples was the first of the major European cities to rise up against the German occupation, and successfully at that. The people of Naples revolted and held strong against Nazi occupiers in the last days of September 1943. The popular mass uprising and resistance in Naples against the occupying Nazi German forces, known as the Four days of Naples, consisted of four days of continuous open warfare and guerrilla actions by locals against the Nazi Germans. The spontaneous uprising of Neopolitan and Italian Resistance against German occupying forces (despite limited armament, organization, or planning) nevertheless successfully disrupted German plans to deport Neopolitans en masse, destroy the city, and prevent Allied forces from gaining a strategic foothold.

Elsewhere, the nascent movement began as independently operating groups were organized and led by previously outlawed political parties or by former officers of the Royal Italian Army. Many partisan formations were initially founded by soldiers from disbanded units of the Royal Italian Army that had evaded capture in Operation Achse, and were led by junior Army officers who had decided to resist the German occupation; they were subsequently joined and re-organized by Anti-Fascists, and became thus increasingly politicized.

Later the Comitato di Liberazione Nazionale (Committee of National Liberation, or CLN), created by the Italian Communist Party, the Italian Socialist Party, the Partito d'Azione (a republican liberal socialist party), Democrazia Cristiana and other minor parties, largely took control of the movement in accordance with King Victor Emmanuel III's ministers and the Allies. The CLN was set up by partisans behind German lines and had the support of most groups in the region. The main CLN formations included three politically varied groups: the communist Brigate Garibaldi (Garibaldi Brigades), the Giustizia e Libertà (Justice and Freedom) Brigades related to the Partito d'Azione, and the socialist Brigate Matteotti (Matteotti Brigades). Smaller groups included Christian democrats and, outside the CLN, monarchists such as the Brigate Fiamme Verdi (Green Flame Brigades) and Fronte Militare Clandestino (Clandestine Military Front) headed by Colonel Montezemolo. Another sizeable partisan group, particularly strong in Piedmont (where the Fourth Army had disintegrated in September 1943), were the "autonomous" (autonomi) partisans, largely composed of former soldiers with no substantial alignment to any anti-Fascist party; an example was the 1° Gruppo Divisioni Alpine led by Enrico Martini.

Relations among the groups varied. For example, in 1945, the Garibaldi partisans under Yugoslav Partisan command attacked and killed several partisans of the Catholic and azionista Osoppo groups in the province of Udine. Tensions between the Catholics and the Communists in the movement led to the foundation of the Fiamme Verdi as a separate formation.

A further challenge to the 'national unity' embodied in the CLN came from anarchists as well as dissident-communist Resistance formations, such as Turin's Stella Rossa movement and the Movimento Comunista d'Italia (Rome's largest single anti-fascist force under Occupation), which sought a revolutionary outcome to the conflict and were thus unwilling to collaborate with 'bourgeois parties'.

Partisan movement

Rodolfo Graziani estimated the partisan strength at around 70,000–80,000 by May 1944. Some 41% in the Garibaldi Brigades and 29% were Actionists of the Giustizia e Libertà Brigades. One of the strongest units, the 8th Garibaldi Brigade, had 8,050 men (450 without arms) and operated in the Romagna area. The CLN mostly operated in the Alpine area, Apennine area and Po Valley of the RSI, and also in the German OZAK (the area northeast of the north end of the Adriatic Sea) and OZAV (Trentino and South Tyrol) zones. Its losses amounted to 16,000 killed, wounded or captured between September 1943 and May 1944. On 15 June 1944, the General Staff of the Esercito Nazionale Repubblicano estimated that the partisan forces amounted to some 82,000 men, of whom about 25,000 operated in Piedmont, 14,200 in Liguria, 16,000 in the Julian March, 17,000 in Tuscany and Emilia-Romagna, 5,600 in Veneto, and 5,000 in Lombardy. Their ranks were gradually increased by the influx of young men escaping the Italian Social Republic's draft, as well as from deserters from the RSI armed forces. By August 1944, the number of partisans had grown to 100,000, and it escalated to more than 250,000 with the final insurrection in April 1945. The Italian resistance suffered 50,000 fighters killed throughout the conflict.

Partisan unit sizes varied, depending on logistics (such as the ability to arm, clothe and feed members) and the amount of local support. The basic unit was the squadra (squad), with three or more squads (usually five) forming a distaccamento (detachment). Three or more detachments made a brigata (brigade), of which two or more made a divisione (division). In some places, several divisions formed a gruppo divisione (divisional group). These divisional groups were responsible for a zona d'operazione (operational group).

While the largest contingents operated in mountainous districts of the Alps and the Apennine Mountains, other large formations fought in the Po River flatland. In the large towns of northern Italy, such as Piacenza, and the surrounding valleys near the Gothic Line. Montechino Castle housed a key partisan headquarters. The Gruppi di Azione Patriottica (GAP; "Patriotic Action Groups") commanded by the Resistance's youngest officer, Giuseppe "Beppe" Ruffino, carried out acts of sabotage and guerrilla warfare, and the Squadre di Azione Patriottica (SAP; "Patriotic Action Squads") arranged strike actions and propaganda campaigns. As in the French Resistance, women were often important members and couriers.

Like their counterparts elsewhere in Europe, Italian partisans seized whatever arms they could find. The first weapons were brought by ex-soldiers fighting German occupiers from the Regio Esercito inventory: Carcano rifles, Beretta M1934 and M1935 pistols, Bodeo M1889 revolvers, SRCM and OTO hand grenades, and Fiat–Revelli Modello 1935, Breda 30 and Breda M37 machine guns. Later, captured K98ks, MG 34s, MG 42s, the iconic potato-masher grenades, Lugers, and Walther P38s were added to partisan kits. Submachine guns (such as the MP 40) were initially scarce, and usually reserved for squad leaders.

Automatic weapons became more common as they were captured in combat and as the Social Republic regime soldiers began defecting, bringing their own guns. Beretta MABs began appearing in larger numbers in October 1943, when they were spirited away en masse from the Beretta factory which was producing them for the Wehrmacht. Additional weapons (chiefly of British origin) were airdropped by the Allies: PIATs, Lee–Enfield rifles, Bren light machine guns and Sten guns. U.S.-made weapons were provided on a smaller scale from the Office of Strategic Services (OSS): Thompson submachine guns (both M1928 and M1), M3 submachine guns, United Defense M42s, and folding-stock M1 carbines. Other supplies included explosives, clothing, boots, food rations, and money (used to buy weapons or to compensate civilians for confiscations).

Countryside
The worst conditions and fighting took place in mountainous regions. Resources were scarce and living conditions were terrible. Due to limited supplies, the resistance adopted guerrilla warfare. This involved groups of 40–50 fighters ambushing and harassing the Nazis and their allies. The size of the brigades was reflective of the resources available to the partisans. Resource limits could not support large groups in one area. Mobility was key to their success. Their terrain knowledge enabled narrow escapes in small groups when nearly surrounded by the Germans. The partisans had no permanent headquarters or bases, making them difficult to destroy.

The resistance fighters themselves relied heavily on the local populace for support and supplies. They would often barter or just ask for food, blankets and medicine. When the partisans took supplies from families, they would often hand out promissory notes that the peasants could convert after the war for money. The partisans slept in abandoned farms and farmhouses. One account from Paolino 'Andrea' Ranieri (a political commissar at the time) described fighters using donkeys to move equipment at night while during the day the peasants used them in the fields. The Nazis tried to split the populace from the resistance by adopting a reprisal policy of killing 10 Italians for every German killed by the Partisans. Those executed would come from the village near where an attack took place and sometimes from captive partisan fighters.

The German punishments backfired and instead strengthened the relationship. Because most resistance fighters were peasants, local populations felt a need to provide for their own. One of the larger engagements was the battle for Monte Battaglia (lit. "Battle Mountain"), a mountaintop that was a part of the Gothic Line. On September 26, 1944, a joint force of 250 Partisans and three companies of U.S. soldiers from the 88th Infantry Division attacked the hill occupied by elements of the German 290th Grenadier Regiment. The Germans were caught completely by surprise. The attackers captured the hill and held it for five days against reinforced German units, securing a path for the Allied advance.

Urban areas
Resistance activities were different in the cities. Some Italians ignored the struggle, while others organized, such as the Patriotic Action Squads and issued propaganda. Groups such as the Patriotic Action Groups carried out military actions. A more expansive support network was devised than in the countryside. Networks of safe houses were established to hide weapons and wounded fighters. Only sympathizers were involved, because compulsion was thought to encourage betrayal. People largely supported the resistance because of economic hardships, especially inflation. Pasta prices tripled and bread prices had quintupled since 1938; hunger unified the underground and general population.

Female partisans
Women played a large role. After the war, about 35,000 Italian women were recognised as female partigiane combattenti (partisan combatants) and 20,000 as patriote (patriots); they broke into these groups based on their activities. The majority were between 20 and 29. They were generally kept separate from male partisans. Few were attached to brigades and were even rarer in mountain brigades. Female countryside volunteers were generally rejected. Women still served in large numbers and had significant influence.

The groups were formed collaboratively by women from diverse political backgrounds. Prominent participants included communists Giovanna Barcellona, Lina Fibbi, Marisa Diena, and Caterina Picolato; socialists Laura Conti and Lina Merlin; actionists Elena Dreher and Ada Gobetti; as well as women associated with the Giustizia e Libertà (Justice and Freedom) movement. Republican and Catholic women, along with those without prior political or ideological commitments, also joined. These groups predominantly operated in the northern midlands of Italy. Scholars attribute this geographic spread to the influence of local women's clothing, which fostered individual initiative and civic awareness.

Initially, the women's groups aimed to support resistance efforts in auxiliary roles. However, they quickly assumed leadership responsibilities in areas such as information dissemination, propaganda, issuing orders, and handling ammunition. Some women even directly engaged in armed resistance as "gappistas". Ada Gobetti was among the first to criticize the use of the term "assistance" in the group's name. In 1944, the organization's objectives were reformulated to prioritize activities that broadly promoted women's emancipation.

1944 uprising

During the summer and early fall of 1944, with Allied forces nearby, partisans attacked behind German lines, led by CLNAI. This rebellion led to provisional partisan governments throughout the mountainous regions. Ossola was the most important of these, receiving recognition from Switzerland and Allied consulates there. An intelligence officer told Field Marshal Albert Kesselring, Germany's commander of occupation forces in Italy, that he estimated German casualties fighting partisans in the summer of 1944 amounted to 30,000 to 35,000, including 5,000 confirmed killed. Kesselring considered the number to be exaggerated, and offered his own figure of 20,000: 5,000 killed, between 7,000 and 8,000 missing / "kidnapped" (including deserters), and a similar number seriously wounded. Both sources agreed that partisan losses were less. By the end of the year, German reinforcements and Mussolini's remaining forces crushed the uprising.

In their attempts to suppress the resistance, German and Italian Fascist forces (especially the SS, Gestapo, and paramilitary militias such as Xª MAS and Black Brigades) committed war crimes, including summary executions and systematic reprisals against the civilian population. Resistance captives and suspects were often tortured and raped. Some of the most notorious mass atrocities included the Ardeatine massacre (335 Jewish civilians and political prisoners executed without a trial in a reprisal operation after a resistance bomb attack in Rome), the Sant'Anna di Stazzema massacre (about 560 random villagers brutally killed in an anti-partisan operation in the central mountains), the Marzabotto massacre (about 770 civilians killed in similar circumstances), the Ossola massacre (24 partisans murdered during their retreat from Croveo to Switzerland) and the Salussola massacre (20 partisans murdered after being tortured, as a reprisal). In all, an estimated 15,000 Italian civilians were deliberately killed, including many women and children.

Civil war
Although other European countries such as Norway, the Netherlands, and France also had partisan movements and collaborationist governments with Nazi Germany, armed confrontation between compatriots was more intense in Italy, making the Italian case unique. In 1965, the definition of "civil war" was used for the first time by fascist politician and historian Giorgio Pisanò in his books, while Claudio Pavone's book ''Una guerra civile. Saggio storico sulla moralità della Resistenza (A Civil War. Historical Essay On the Morality Of the Resistance''), published in 1991, led to the term "Italian Civil War" being used more frequently by Italian and international historiography.

Foreign contribution

Not all resistance members were Italians; many foreigners had escaped POW camps or joined guerrilla bands as so-called "military missions". Among them were Yugoslavs, Czechs (deserters from the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia army, in Italy for guard/patrol duty in 1944), Russians, Ukrainians, Dutch, Spaniards, Greeks, Poles, German defectors and deserters disillusioned with Nazism and Britons and Americans (ex-prisoners or advisors deployed by the SAS, SOE and OSS). Some later became well-known, such as climber and explorer Bill Tilman, reporter and historian Peter Tompkins, former RAF pilot Count Manfred Beckett Czernin, and architect Oliver Churchill. George Dunning recorded his experiences of fighting with the partisans in his book "Where bleed the many".

Aid networks

Another task carried out by the resistance was assisting escaping POWs (an estimated 80,000 were interned in Italy until 8 September 1943), to reach Allied lines or Switzerland on paths previously used by smugglers. Some fugitives and groups of fugitives hid in safe houses, usually arranged by women (less likely to arouse suspicion). After the war, Field Marshal Harold Alexander issued a certificate to those who thereby risked their lives.

Italian Jews were aided by DELASEM, a network extending throughout occupied Italy that included Jews and Gentiles, Roman Catholic clergy, faithful/sympathetic police officers and even some German soldiers. DELASEM operated in Rome until the liberation under the leadership of the Jewish delegates Septimius Sorani, Giuseppe Levi, and the Capuchin Father Maria Benedetto. Since Jews were considered "enemy aliens" by the Social Republic regime, they were left with little or nothing to live on, and many were deported to Nazi concentration and extermination camps where about 7,000 died. DELASEM helped thousands of Jews by offering food, shelter and money. Some of its members would later be designated Righteous Among the Nations.

1945 uprising

On 19 April 1945, the CLN called for an insurrection (the April 25 uprising). In Bologna, the occupying Nazi German forces and their few remaining Italian Fascist allies were openly attacked by Italian partisans on 19 April, and by 21 April, the city of Bologna was liberated by the partisans, the Italian Co-Belligerent Army, and the Polish II Corps under Allied command; Parma and Reggio Emilia were later freed on 24 April by the Italian Resistance and then the advancing Allied forces. Turin and Milan were liberated on 25 April through a popular revolt and Italian Resistance insurrection following a general strike that commenced two days earlier; over 14,000 German and Fascist troops were captured in Genoa on 26–27 April, when General Günther Meinhold surrendered to the CLN. The forces of German occupation in Italy officially capitulated on 2 May. Fascists attempted to continue fighting, but were quickly suppressed by the partisans and the Allied forces.

The April insurrection brought to the fore issues between the resistance and the Allies. Given the revolutionary dimension of the insurrection in the industrial centres of Turin, Milan, and Genoa, where concerted factory occupations by armed workers had occurred, the Allied commanders sought to impose control as soon as they took the place of the retreating Germans. While the Kingdom of Italy was the de facto ruler of the south, the National Liberation Committee, still embedded in German territory, existed as a populist organization which posed a threat to the monarchy and property owners in post-war Italy. However the PCI, under directives from Moscow, enabled the Allies to carry out their program of disarming the partisans and discouraged any revolutionary attempt at changing the social system. Instead, the PCI emphasized national unity and "progressive democracy" in order to stake their claim in the post-war political situation. Despite the pressing need to resolve social issues which persisted after the fall of fascism, the resistance movement was subordinated to the interests of Allied leaders in order to maintain the status quo.

Revenge killings

A score-settling campaign (resa dei conti) ensued against pro-German collaborators, thousands of whom were rounded up by the vengeful partisans. Controversially, many of those detainees were speedily court martialed, condemned and shot, or killed without trial. Minister of Interior Mario Scelba later put the number of the victims of such executions at 732, but other estimates were much higher. Partisan leader Ferruccio Parri, who briefly served as Prime Minister after the war in 1945, said thousands were killed. Some partisans, such as perpetrators of the Schio massacre, were tried by an Allied Military Court.

During the waning hours of the war, Mussolini, accompanied by Marshal Graziani, headed to Milan to meet with Cardinal Alfredo Ildefonso Schuster. Mussolini was hoping to negotiate a deal but was given only the option of unconditional surrender. His negotiations were an act of betrayal against the Germans. When confronted about this by Achille Marazza, Mussolini said, "They [the Nazis] have always treated us as slaves. I will now resume my freedom of action." With the city already held by resistance fighters, Mussolini used his connections one last time to secure passage with an escaping German convoy on its way to the Brenner Pass with his mistress Claretta Petacci.

On the morning of 27 April 1945, Umberto Lazzaro (nom de guerre 'Partisan Bill'), a partisan with the 52nd Garibaldi Brigade, was checking a column of lorries carrying retreating SS troops at Dongo, Lombardy, near the Swiss border. Lazzaro recognized and arrested Mussolini. The task of executing Mussolini was, according to the official version, given to a 'Colonel Valerio' (identified as Walter Audisio) and the bodies of Mussolini and Petacci were later brought to Milan and hung upside down in the Piazzale Loreto square. Eighteen executed prominent Fascists (including Mussolini, Fernando Mezzasoma, Luigi Gatti, Alessandro Pavolini and Achille Starace) were displayed in the square; this place was significant because the bodies of 15 executed enemies of Mussolini's regime had been displayed in this square the previous year.

The total number of victims of the anti-fascist movement remains unclear; it is estimated that between 12,000 and 26,000 people were killed, usually in extrajudicial executions. The outburst was particularly violent in the northern provinces; according to statistics provided by the Ministry of Interior, some 9,000 people were killed there during April and May 1945 only. Proportionally, the scale of vengeance killings was much greater than in Belgium and significantly above that recorded in France.

Some historians who have dealt with the civil war in Italy have also taken into consideration the phenomenon of post-war violence, placing the end of the civil war beyond the official end of the Second World War in Europe. Therefore, for them, it is not easy to identify a real end date of the phenomenon, which slowly faded away. Some have proposed the Togliatti amnesty of 22 June 1946 as the end of the civil war.

Casualties
According to a book published in 1955 by an Italian ministerial committee on the tenth anniversary of the Liberation, casualties in Italy among the Resistance movement amounted to 35,828 partisans killed in action or executed, and 21,168 partisans mutilated or left disabled by their wounds. Another 32,000 Italian partisans had been killed abroad (in the Balkans and, to a lesser extent, in France). 9,980 Italian civilians had been killed in reprisals by the German and Fascist forces. In 2010, the Ufficio dell'Albo d'Oro of the Italian Ministry of Defence recorded 15,197 partisans killed; however, the Ufficio dell'Albo d'Oro only considered as partisans the members of the Resistance who were civilians before joining the partisans, whereas partisans who were formerly members of the Italian Armed Forces (more than half those killed) were considered as members of their armed force of origin.

Liberation Day

Since 1946, 25 April has been officially celebrated as Liberation Day, also known as the Anniversary of the Resistance. It is a national holiday that commemorates the victory of the Italian resistance movement against Nazi Germany and the Italian Social Republic, puppet state of the Nazis and rump state of the fascists, during the liberation of Italy and the Italian Civil War during World War II. The date was chosen by convention, as it was the day of the year 1945 when the National Liberation Committee of Upper Italy (CLNAI) – whose command was based in Milan and was chaired by Alfredo Pizzoni, Luigi Longo, Emilio Sereni, Sandro Pertini, and Leo Valiani (present among others the designated president Rodolfo Morandi, Giustino Arpesani, and Achille Marazza) – proclaimed a general insurrection in all the territories still occupied by the Nazi-fascists, indicating to all the partisan forces active in Northern Italy that were part of the Volunteer Corps of Freedom to attack the fascist and German garrisons by imposing the surrender, days before the arrival of the Allied troops. "Surrender or die!" was the rallying call of the partisans that day and those immediately following.

Since then, public events in memory of the event, like marches and parades, have been organized annually in all Italian cities – especially in those decorated with military valour for the war of liberation. Among the events of the festival program, there is the solemn homage, by the President of Italy and other important officers of the State, to the chapel of the Italian Unknown Soldier (Milite Ignoto), buried in the Altare della Patria in Rome, with the deposition of a laurel wreath in memory of the fallen and missing Italians in wars. Speaking at the 2014 anniversary, President Giorgio Napolitano said: "The values and merits of the Resistance, from the Partisan movement and the soldiers who sided with the fight for liberation to the Italian armed forces, are indelible and beyond any rhetoric of mythicization or any biased denigration. The Resistance, the commitment to reconquer Italy's liberty and independence, was a great civil engine of ideals, but above all, it was a people in arms, a courageous mobilization of young and very young citizens who rebelled against foreign power."

Aftermath

Today's Italian constitution is the result of the work of the Constituent Assembly, which was formed by the representatives of all the anti-nazist and anti-fascist forces that contributed to the defeat of Nazi and Fascist forces during the Italian resistance and the Liberation of Italy.

Associazione Nazionale Partigiani d'Italia (ANPI; "National Association of Italian Partisans") is an association founded by participants of the Italian resistance against the Nazi occupation and the fascist and collaborationist Italian Social Republic during the latter phase of World War II. ANPI was founded in Rome in 1944 while the war continued in northern Italy. It was constituted as a charitable foundation on 5 April 1945. It persists due to the activity of its antifascist members. ANPI's objectives are the maintenance of the historical role of the partisan war by means of research and the collection of personal stories. Its goals are a continued defence against historical revisionism and the ideal and ethical support of the high values of freedom and democracy expressed in the 1948 constitution, in which the ideals of the Italian resistance were collected. Since 2008, every two years ANPI organizes its national festival. During the event, meetings, debates, and musical concerts that focus on antifascism, peace, and democracy are organized.

Bella ciao ("Goodbye beautiful") is an Italian folk song modified and adopted as an anthem of the Italian resistance movement by the partisans who opposed nazism and fascism, and fought against the invading and occupying forces of Nazi Germany, who were allied with the fascist and collaborationist Italian Social Republic between 1943 and 1945 during the Liberation of Italy from German occupation and during the civil war. Versions of this song continue to be sung worldwide as a hymn of freedom and resistance. As an internationally known hymn of freedom, it was intoned at many historic and revolutionary events. The song originally aligned itself with Italian partisans fighting against Nazi German occupation troops, but has since become to merely stand for the inherent rights of all people to be liberated from tyranny.

In works of popular culture

 * The Abandoned
 * Achtung! Banditi!
 * Bebo's Girl
 * Beneath a Scarlet Sky
 * Blood of the Losers
 * Captain Corelli's Mandolin
 * Cloak and Dagger
 * Cloak & Dagger
 * A Day for Lionhearts
 * A Day in Life
 * The Dirty Dozen: The Deadly Mission
 * Escape by Night
 * Everybody Go Home
 * The Fall of Italy
 * 1900
 * The Fallen
 * The Fascist
 * The Four Days of Naples
 * From the Clouds to the Resistance
 * Gangsters
 * General della Rovere
 * Harmony in Ultraviolet
 * His Day of Glory
 * Hornets' Nest
 * La buona battaglia – Don Pietro Pappagallo
 * The Hunchback of Rome
 * Johnny the Partisan
 * Last Days of Mussolini
 * Little Teachers
 * Long Night in 1943
 * The Man Who Will Come
 * Massacre in Rome
 * The Mattei Affair
 * Miracle at St. Anna
 * Paisan
 * The Path to the Nest of Spiders
 * Porzûs
 * Rome, Open City
 * Tea with Mussolini
 * The Seven Cervi Brothers
 * The Sun Still Rises
 * Ten Italians for One German
 * Two Anonymous Letters
 * Wild Blood

title: Italian resistance movement


text:
Lacy Ryan

Lacy Ryan (c. 1694–1760), English actor, appeared at the Haymarket Theatre about 1709.

Life
By 1718 he had joined the company at Lincoln's Inn Fields, where he shared the lead with his friend James Quin. He took leading roles in Richard III and Hamlet with Anna Maria Seymour. In 1719 he appeared in the comedy Kensington Gardens by John Leigh.

In 1732 he followed the company to Covent Garden, and there, he remained until his death. Iago, Cassius, Edgar (in King Lear) and Macduff were among his best parts. Another signature part was the title role in Nathaniel Lee's tragedy Theodosius.

Selected roles

 * Valentine in The Wife's Relief by Charles Johnson (1711)
 * Young Gentleman in The City Ramble by Elkanah Settle (1711)
 * Marcus in Cato by Joseph Addison (1713)
 * Astrolabe in The Wife of Bath by John Gay (1713)
 * Arcas in The Victim by Charles Johnson (1714)
 * Earl of Sussex in Lady Jane Grey by Nicholas Rowe (1715)
 * Learchus in The Cruel Gift by Susanna Centlivre (1716)
 * Sir Charles Briton in The Cobbler of Preston by Charles Johnson (1716)
 * Osmyn in The Sultaness by Charles Johnson (1717)
 * Vortimer in Lucius by Delarivier Manley (1717)
 * Bellamy in The Coquet by Charles Molloy (1718)
 * Sciarrah in The Traitor by Christopher Bullock (1718)
 * Colonel Lovely in Kensington Gardens by John Leigh (1719)
 * Charles in 'Tis Well if it Takes by William Taverner (1719)
 * Howard in Sir Walter Raleigh by George Sewell (1719)
 * Prince of Conde in Henry IV of France by Charles Beckingham (1719)
 * Bellayr in The Half-Pay Officers by Charles Molloy (1720)
 * Reynard in Whig and Tory by Benjamin Griffin (1720)
 * Thrasimond in The Imperial Captives by John Mottley (1720)
 * Antiochus in Antiochus by John Mottley (1721)
 * Alphonso in The Fair Captive by Eliza Haywood (1721)
 * O'Neill in Hibernia Freed by William Phillips (1722)
 * Flaminius in Mariamne by Elijah Fenton (1723)
 * Polynices in The Fatal Legacy by Jane Robe (1723)
 * Leolin in Edwin by George Jeffreys (1724)
 * Justinian in Belisarius by William Phillips (1724)
 * Sprightly in The Bath Unmasked by Gabriel Odingsells (1725)
 * Galliard in The Capricious Lovers by Gabriel Odingsells (1725)
 * Colonel Severne in The Dissembled Wanton by Leonard Welsted (1726)
 * Mourville in Money the Mistress by Thomas Southerne (1726)
 * Ringwood in The Female Fortune Teller by Charles Johnson (1726)
 * Fabius in The Fall of Saguntum by Philip Frowde (1727)
 * Demetrius in Philip of Macedon by David Lewis (1727)
 * Sesostris in Sesostris by John Sturmy (1728)
 * Pallantus in The Virgin Queen by Richard Barford (1728)
 * Aristides in Themistocles by Samuel Madden (1729)
 * Duke of Wirtemberg in Frederick, Duke of Brunswick-Lunenburgh by Eliza Haywood (1729)
 * Procles in Periander by John Tracy (1731)
 * Philotas in Philotas by Philip Frowde (1731)
 * Orestes in Orestes by Lewis Theobald (1731)
 * Egistus in Merope by George Jeffreys (1731)
 * Sir Harry Sprightly in The Married Philosopher by John Kelly (1732)
 * Ferdinand in The Fatal Secret by Lewis Theobald (1733)
 * Sir Harry Lovejoy in The Lady's Revenge by William Popple (1734)
 * Freelove in The Rival Widows by Elizabeth Cooper (1735)
 * Bellair in The Double Deceit by William Popple (1735)
 * Gomez in The Happy Constancy by Hildebrand Jacob (1738)
 * Belair in The Trial of Conjugal Love by Hildebrand Jacob (1738)
 * Frankly in The Suspicious Husband by Benjamin Hoadly (1747)

title: Lacy Ryan


text:
Pierre De Geyter

Pierre Chrétien Degeyter (, ; 8 October 1848 – 26 September 1932) was a Belgian-French socialist and a composer, known for writing the music of The Internationale.

Early life
Degeyter was born in Ghent, Belgium, where his parents, originally from the French Flanders, had moved to work in the textile factories. When he was seven, the family, who already counted five children, returned to France and settled in Lille. Pierre worked there as a thread maker and learned how to read and write at workers' evening classes. At age sixteen, he enrolled at the Lille Academy where he first took drawing classes, which allowed him to find a job as a woodcarver. He later took music classes, and joined the workers' choir "La Lyre des Travailleurs", founded by the socialist leader of Lille, Gustave Delory.

The Internationale
On 15 July 1888, Delory contacted Degeyter to compose music for several "Chants révolutionnaires" that were often sung at popular events with Lille socialists. Among these was a song that was to become the International Workingmen's Association anthem, The Internationale. The lyrics had been written by Eugène Edine Pottier during the semaine sanglante (the "bloody week", May 22–28, 1871) marking the end and the severe repression of the Paris Commune of 1871. Until then, the song had usually been sung to the tune of the Marseillaise.

It took Pierre one Sunday morning to compose his music on a harmonium. According to one source, he then asked his brother Adolphe to play it on the bugle, and subsequently made some minor changes to the music. The new composition was first played by the Lyre des Travailleurs at the yearly fête of the Lille trade union of newspaper sellers in July 1888. Six thousand leaflets were printed at Pierre's favorite printing firm, Boldoduc, and sold to raise money for the socialist party in Lille. To protect his job, only «De Geyter" was named as the composer but Pierre was dismissed regardless and was subsequently blacklisted by Lille employers. He was soon reduced to performing odd jobs, such as making coffins. In 1902, he left Lille with his wife and daughter and moved to Saint-Denis, near Paris.

In fact, Pierre Degeyter had neglected to secure copyright. As the song became ever more popular, his brother Adolphe Degeyter claimed copyright in 1901 and began to collect royalties on it. Pierre had become estranged from the socialist establishment of Lille by siding with the left-wing opponents of the Bloc National government of 1902, and with the Marxist war opponents influenced by Bolshevism, who would later form the communist party. In 1904, Pierre started court proceedings against Adolphe, but Gustave Delory (mayor of Lille by then) supported Adolphe's claim (though in an 1888 meeting with the Ghent socialist leader Edward Anseele he had identified Pierre Degeyter as the author) and, as  a result, Pierre was unable to prove his authorship. He lost the case in 1914. At the beginning of 1916, however, during the First World War, Adolphe Degeyter hanged himself, leaving a note for his brother in which he acknowledged his fraud and asserted that he had been pressured by others to make the claim. Pierre, who was in unoccupied France at the time, received the letter only after the war. In 1922, the copyright verdict was reversed.

Later life
In 1927, leaders of the Soviet Union discovered that the real author of The Internationale, which was then the Soviet Union's national anthem, was still alive. Pierre was invited to Moscow for the celebration of the 10th anniversary of the October Revolution and was in the stands of the honorary guests, with the German sculptor Käthe Kollwitz at his side. Joseph Stalin awarded him a Soviet Union state pension (according to some sources as a compensation for his copyright). As this was Pierre's only income, apart from modest fees collected on music for the other Pottier poems (particularly L'Insurgé and En avant la Classe Ouvrière) and on popular tunes he had also composed, and although the left-wing town administration of Saint-Denis granted him a free apartment, Pierre Degeyter spent the last years of his life in precarity. After his death at Saint-Denis in 1932, more than fifty thousand people attended his funeral.

In popular culture
After his death, even in France, his name mainly came up during copyright litigation cases. French courts ruled his compositions, including The Internationale, copyrighted until October 2017.

There is a Pierre Degeyter street in Ghent and there are Pierre Degeyter squares both in Lille (in Fives, the suburb where he used to live) and in Saint-Denis. Lille also named a procession giant after him. In Sofia (Bulgaria) there is a street Пиер Дегейтър. A bronze monument to Pierre Degeyter has adorned the Ghent MIAT (Museum of Industry, Labour and Textiles) since 1998.

A documentary film on Pierre Degeyter and the story of The Internationale was produced in 1978.

title: Pierre De Geyter


text:
The Angry Red Planet

The Angry Red Planet (also called Invasion of Mars and Journey to Planet Four) is a 1959 American science fiction film directed by Ib Melchior and starring Gerald Mohr.

Melchior reportedly had an initial production budget of only $200,000 and was given just nine days to film it. Such financial and time constraints necessitated the use of "CineMagic", a film-processing technique that combined hand-drawn animations with live-action footage. The relatively inexpensive process was used for all scenes depicting the surface of Mars. While CineMagic proved unsatisfactory for creating visually believable special effects for The Angry Red Planet, producer Norman Maurer did reuse the process in 1962, although to a lesser extent, in the comedy film The Three Stooges in Orbit.

Plot
Mission control personnel on Earth monitor the rocketship MR-1 ("Mars Rocket 1") as it approaches Earth orbit following the first crewed expedition to Mars. Personnel are surprised to see the ship on their monitors, for they believed that the vehicle had become lost or destroyed in space. Ground technicians are unable, though, to make contact with anyone on MR-1, so they guide the rocket by remote control to a safe Nevada landing. Only two survivors of the original four-person crew are found in the ship: Dr. Iris Ryan and Col. Tom O'Bannion, whose entire right arm is covered with a strange green alien growth. The MR-1's mission to Mars is then recounted by Dr. Ryan as she also helps to find a cure for Col. O'Bannion's badly infected arm. In her debriefing, she reports in detail the crew's experiences while traveling to the Red Planet and exploring its surface. She describes their expedition in retrospect, as if it were currently happening.

After MR-1 reaches Mars and its crew explores the planet's surface, Dr. Ryan is attacked by a carnivorous plant, which Chief Warrant Officer Jacobs kills with his freeze-ray, which he calls "Cleo". The crew then encounters an immense bat-rat-spider-crab creature, at first mistaking its legs for trees. That creature is also blinded and repelled by Jacobs who, again, uses his ray gun. When the crew returns to their ship, they realize that their radio signals are being blocked and the MR-1 is unable to leave Mars due to a mysterious force field.

O'Bannion next leads the crew to a Martian lake, where a city with high, impressive structures is visible on the other side, far in the distance. Crossing the water in an inflatable raft, they are stopped by a giant amoeba-like creature with a single spinning eye. They hurriedly retreat, the creature pursuing them. As they are entering their ship, the creature catches Jacobs and draws him inside the gelatinous body, soon absorbing him; it has also infected O'Bannion's arm. The creature envelops the ship and is expected to eventually develop acids to eat through it.

O'Bannion leads them in rewiring the ship to electrify the outer hull, which drives the creature away after destroying parts of it, then they rewire the ship for lift-off. The three survivors manage to lift MR-1 off from the planet since the force field has somehow been deactivated, but Professor Gettell, the MR-1's designer, dies of an apparent heart attack caused by the extreme stresses of the ascent.

Once the MR-1 returns to Earth, O'Bannion's infected arm is cured by medical staff using electric shocks. Mission control technicians also examine the MR-1's data recorders from the expedition and find a recording of an alien voice, which announces that the ship's crew were allowed to leave Mars so that they could deliver a message to their home planet. The voice then states that "we of Mars" have been observing human development on Earth for many thousands of years and have determined that humanity's technology has far outpaced progress in cultural advancement. The alien then accuses humankind of invading Mars, warning that if future expeditions ever return to the Red Planet, the Earth would be destroyed in retaliation.

Cast

 * Gerald Mohr as Colonel Thomas O'Bannion
 * Naura Hayden as Dr. Iris "Irish" Ryan
 * Les Tremayne as Professor Theodore Gettell
 * Jack Kruschen as Chief Warrant Officer Sam Jacobs
 * Paul Hahn as Major General George Treegar
 * J. Edward McKinley as Professor Paul Weiner
 * Tom Daly as Dr. Frank Gordon
 * Don Lamond as TV Newscaster/Martian Voice
 * Edward Innes as Brigadier General Alan Prescott
 * Gordon Barnes as Major Lyman Ross
 * Jack Haddock a Lt. Colonel Davis
 * Brandy Bryan as Nurse Hayes
 * Joan Fitzpatrick as Nurse Dixon
 * Arline Hunter as Joan (not in 83 minute version)
 * Alean Hamilton as Joan's Friend (not in 83 minute version)

Production
The Angry Red Planet began as The Planet Mars, a treatment written by Sidney Pink about a space voyage to Earth's mysterious neighbor. Pink said in an interview a few years before his 2002 death: "It was written on my kitchen table. My kids were my critics, they'd tell me what was good and what just fell flat". Pink gave his treatment to Melchior after meeting him at a party. Melchior believed the project had potential, so he offered to help write the screenplay if Pink allowed him to direct the film. While Melchior worked on establishing a working script, Pink met Maurer, who was developing CineMagic, a "revolutionary" filming process for creating special effects by combining hand-drawn images with live action. However, it soon became apparent the process would not be able to deliver what had been promised with respect to the quality of its effects. Pink recalled that "the damn Cinemagic didn't work like it should. It was supposed to be sort of a 3-D effect. What we came up with was great anyway".

The production budget for The Angry Red Planet may have actually been significantly higher than the $200,000 cited by most film and press references. In its online catalog, the American Film Institute refers to a contemporary report in The Hollywood Reporter that announced an increase in allotted funding for the project more than double the frequently given figure. AFI states: "As noted in a HR news item, just prior to the start of production, the film's budget was raised from $250,000 to $500,000".

Comments made by Pink on the eve of filming provide some evidence regarding how little money was spent to design and build sets for the production. In an interview for a September 7, 1959 news item by Associated Press reporter and writer James Bacon, Pink is quoted about the extreme cost-cutting effectiveness of using the new CineMagic process: "Our set for the planet Mars cost us a couple of hundred dollars instead of the thousands we had estimated". Pink also estimates in that interview that the movie "will be made at half the original cost", confirming that Invasion of Mars (the film's working title before its release) was a low-budget project. The "meager" $200,000 production budget cited for The Angry Red Planet may therefore be a credible ballpark figure.

Filming for The Angry Red Planet began on September 9, 1959 at Hal Roach Studios in Culver City, California, only a month after Melchior and Pink completed their final draft of the screenplay.

CineMagic
The CineMagic process was used to cast a red glow over scenes depicting the surface of Mars. The low-cost process made the actors look similar to cartoon drawings so they would fit in with low-budget, less realistic sets and props.

To achieve this effect, a black-and-white film negative was first processed with solarisation (a process which partially reverses the negative making some areas of the image appear positive). The resulting film was then tinted red. Making a film positive was not necessary. At the time The Angry Red Planet was produced, black and white film cost less than color film and processing. The combination of using black-and-white film for all scenes depicting Mars and not needing to produce a film positive lowered production costs for the film.

Release
American International Pictures released the film in September 1960 with its original running time varying between 83 and 87 minutes. AIP also distributed the film initially as part of double feature billings. At theaters in some regions it was presented with Circus of Horrors, and in other regions it was presented with Beyond the Time Barrier.

According to Pink, he had trouble working with AIP, more specifically with the "notorious" Samuel Z. Arkoff. In a 2005 interview about the release of The Angry Red Planet, Pink said that "neither of us trusted the other, which worked out well because I wouldn't touch him with a 10-foot pole. Jimmy Nicholson was the brains of that operation. With Arkoff, you never got a straight count".

Reception
The Angry Red Planet received mixed reviews upon its release. The New York Times film critic Eugene Archer gave the production a negative review, criticizing its depiction of the planet Mars, likening it to "a cardboard illustration from Flash Gordon". However, not all reviewers in 1959 and early 1960 were critical of the film in general or, in particular, CineMagic's deficiencies in simulating the terrain, fictitious plant life, and monstrous creatures on Mars.

Motion Picture Daily reviewer Samuel D. Berns was enthusiastic at the time about the production, calling it "a stimulating experience in suspense and intrigue". He describes CineMagic in his review as "a well-conceived optical effect for dramatic impact", an element of the film that he predicts will draw "big gross business" to the box office. Berns also compliments both forms of filming presented in The Angry Red Planet, as well as its music:"Everything seen or experienced outside the space ship on Mars is depicted in the Cinemagic process to symbolize a concept of nature on another planet. The rest of the film's action and background is printed in the normal fashion. ...Stanley Cortez delivered an expert job of camerawork, in marking the debut of the new Eastman 5250 Color, bringing into sharp focus the soft, effective color tones of the film. Paul Dunlap's music contributed its share of mounting interest and suspense in the subject matter for the producers Sid Pink and Norman Maurer."

In his 2001 reassessment of The Angry Red Planet, Glenn Erickson of DVD Talk criticizes the film's flat direction, dull script and overuse of stock footage. Erickson does faintly compliment the film for at least coloring scenes of Mars' surface with a red tinge, which in his opinion gives the sequences "a credibly alien look". In his 2014 movie guide, Leonard Maltin judges the film to be only average, awarding it 2 out of 4 stars. However, reviewer Bruce Eder of AllMovie is more positive in his appraisal of the film, commending in particular its overall style of direction:"Danish-born director/screenwriter Ib Melchior brings a surprisingly light, deft touch to the proceedings, allowing the actors a chance to have fun with their roles—especially Gerald Mohr, still looking and sounding a bit like Humphrey Bogart, as the stalwart mission commander, and Jack Kruschen as the good-humored technician in the crew—without losing sight of the adventure and the story line, and meshing it all seamlessly with the special effects-driven sequences."

Legacy
The cover artwork for the 1982 album Walk Among Us by the American punk rock band Misfits features the rat-bat-spider creature from The Angry Red Planet. The creature was also featured briefly in the Iron Maiden music video for "The Number of the Beast".

Home media
The Angry Red Planet was first released on VHS by Thorn EMI/HBO Video. It was later released on VHS and DVD by MGM Home Entertainment in 2001, as part of their "Midnite Movies" line of home media releases. A decade later, MGM re-issued the film on DVD as part of the multi-feature "Midnite Movies" single-disc collection, which also includes the 1951 film The Man from Planet X, the 1985 film Morons from Outer Space, and the 1988 film Alien from L.A.. The Angry Red Planet was released yet again in 2013 by Gaiam International on Sci-Fi Classics, another four-movie compilation on a single disc, alongside The Man from Planet X, Beyond the Time Barrier (1960), and The Time Travelers (1964).

title: The Angry Red Planet


text:
File:Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets.jpg

Jacket art of the Bloomsbury edition of Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets.

Scanned by me, Mark Ryan. Downloaded from Amazon.co.uk (archived by Internet Archive)

Cover art by Cliff Wright © 1997. Harry Potter, names, characters and related indica are copyright and trademark Warner Bros.

Fair use for "Harry Potter"
This image is not used in Harry Potter. Brian Jason Drake 13:35, 18 July 2006 (UTC)

This image, Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets.jpg, is being linked here; though the picture is subject to copyright I (TonyJoe) feel it is covered by the U.S. fair use laws because the use of a single cover "to illustrate an article discussing the book in question" is allowed. Absent of an official "series cover," it logically follows that this single cover used in conjunction with its fellows to illustrate an article on the series to which they all belong is allowable.


text:
File:Angry Red Planet.jpg

A film poster for The Angry Red Planet

Fair use in The Angry Red Planet
Though this image is subject to copyright, its use is covered by the U.S. fair use laws because:
 * 1) It's a low resolution copy of a Film Poster / VHS or DVD Cover.
 * 2) It doesn't limit the copyright owner's rights to sell the film in any way, in fact, it may encourage sales.
 * 3) Because of the low resolution, copies could not be used to make illegal copies of the artwork/image.
 * 4) The image is itself a subject of discussion in the article or used in the infobox thereof.
 * 5) The image  is significant because it was used to promoted a notable film.

title: File:Angry Red Planet.jpg


text:
File:South Pacific Television logo.jpg

Summary
sourced from a friends website I helped out on. URL is http://austvhistorynz.tripod.com/tv2videos.htm

title: File:South Pacific Television logo.jpg


text:
File:Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban.jpg

Fair use for Harry Potter
This image, Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban.jpg, is being linked here; though the picture is subject to copyright I (TonyJoe) feel it is covered by the U.S. fair use laws because the use of a single cover "to illustrate an article discussing the book in question" is allowed. Absent of an official "series cover," it logically follows that this single cover used in conjunction with its fellows to illustrate an article on the series to which they all belong is allowable.