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Herero and Nama genocide

The Herero and Nama genocide, formerly known also as the 'Herero and Namaqua genocide', was a campaign of ethnic extermination and collective punishment which was waged against the Herero (Ovaherero) and the Nama in German South West Africa (now Namibia) by the German Empire. It was the first genocide to begin in the 20th century, occurring between 1904 and 1908. In January 1904, the Herero people, who were led by Samuel Maharero, and the Nama people, who were led by Captain Hendrik Witbooi, rebelled against German colonial rule. On 12 January 1904, they killed more than 100 German settlers in the area of Okahandja.

In August 1904, German General Lothar von Trotha defeated the Ovaherero in the Battle of Waterberg and drove them into the desert of Omaheke, where most of them died of dehydration. In October, the Nama people also rebelled against the Germans, only to suffer a similar fate. Between 24,000 and 100,000 Hereros and 10,000 Nama were killed in the genocide. The first phase of the genocide was characterized by widespread death from starvation and dehydration, due to the prevention of the Herero from leaving the Namib desert by German forces. Once defeated, thousands of Hereros and Namas were imprisoned in concentration camps, where the majority died of diseases, abuse, and exhaustion.

In 1985, the United Nations' Whitaker Report classified the aftermath as an attempt to exterminate the Herero and Nama peoples of South West Africa, and therefore one of the earliest attempts at genocide in the 20th century. In 2004, the German government recognised the events in what a German minister qualified as an "apology" but ruled out financial compensation for the victims' descendants. In July 2015, the German government and the speaker of the Bundestag officially called the events a "genocide"; however, it refused to consider reparations at that time. Despite this, the last batch of skulls and other remains of slaughtered tribesmen which were taken to Germany to promote racial superiority were taken back to Namibia in 2018, with, a German Protestant bishop, describing the event as "the first genocide of the 20th century".

In May 2021, the German government issued an official statement in which it said that Germany"'apologizes and bows before the descendants of the victims. Today, more than 100 years later, Germany asks for forgiveness for the sins of their forefathers. It is not possible to undo what has been done. But the suffering, inhumanity and pain inflicted on the tens of thousands of innocent men, women and children by Germany during the war in what is today Namibia must not be forgotten. It must serve as a warning against racism and genocide.'"Furthermore, the German government agreed to pay €1.1 billion over 30 years to fund projects in communities that were impacted by the genocide.

Background

The original inhabitants of what is now Namibia were the San and the Khoekhoe.

Herero, who speak a Bantu language, were originally a group of cattle herders who migrated into what is now Namibia during the mid-18th century. The Herero seized vast swathes of the arable upper plateaus which were ideal for cattle grazing. Agricultural duties, which were minimal, were assigned to enslaved Khoisan and Bushmen. Over the rest of the 18th century, the Herero slowly drove the Khoisan into the dry, rugged hills to the south and east.

The Hereros were a pastoral people whose entire way of life centred on their cattle. The Herero language, while limited in its vocabulary for most areas, contains more than a thousand words for the colours and markings of cattle. The Hereros were content to live in peace as long as their cattle were safe and well-pastured, but became formidable warriors when their cattle were threatened.

According to Robert Gaudi, "The newcomers, much taller and more fiercely warlike than the indigenous Khoisan people, were possessed of the fierceness that comes from basing one's way of life on a single source: everything they valued, all wealth and personal happiness, had to do with cattle. Regarding the care and protection of their herds, the Herero showed themselves utterly merciless, and far more 'savage' than the Khoisan had ever been. Because of their dominant ways and elegant bearing, the few Europeans who encountered Herero tribesmen in the early days regarded them as the region's 'natural aristocrats.

By the time of the Scramble for Africa, the area which was occupied by the Herero was known as Damaraland. The Nama were pastorals and traders and lived to the south of the Herero.

In 1883, Adolf Lüderitz, a German merchant, purchased a stretch of coast near Lüderitz Bay (Angra Pequena) from the reigning chief. The terms of the purchase were fraudulent, but the German government nonetheless established a protectorate over it. At that time, it was the only overseas German territory deemed suitable for European settlement.

Chief of the neighbouring Herero, Maharero rose to power by uniting all the Herero. Faced with repeated attacks by the Khowesin, a clan of the Khoekhoe under Hendrik Witbooi, he signed a protection treaty on 21 October 1885 with Imperial Germany's colonial governor Heinrich Ernst Göring (father of Hermann Göring) but did not cede the land of the Herero. This treaty was renounced in 1888 due to lack of German support against Witbooi but it was reinstated in 1890.

The Herero leaders repeatedly complained about violation of this treaty, as Herero women and girls were raped by Germans, a crime that the German judges and prosecuctors were reluctant to punish.

In 1890 Maharero's son, Samuel, signed a great deal of land over to the Germans in return for helping him to ascend to the Ovaherero throne, and to subsequently be established as paramount chief. German involvement in ethnic fighting ended in tenuous peace in 1894. In that year, Theodor Leutwein became governor of the territory, which underwent a period of rapid development, while the German government sent the Schutztruppe (imperial colonial troops) to pacify the region.

German colonial policy
Both German colonial authorities and European settlers envisioned a predominately white "new African Germany," wherein the native populations would be put onto reservations and their land distributed among settlers and companies. Under German colonial rule, colonists were encouraged to seize land and cattle from the native Herero and Nama peoples and to subjugate them as slave laborers.

Resentment brewed among the native populations over their loss of status and property to German ranchers arriving in South West Africa, and the dismantling of traditional political hierarchies. Previously ruling tribes were reduced to the same status as the other tribes they had previously ruled over and enslaved. This resentment contributed to the Herero Wars that began in 1904.

Major Theodor Leutwein, the Governor of German South West Africa, was well aware of the effect of the German colonial rule on Hereros. He later wrote: "The Hereros from early years were a freedom-loving people, courageous and proud beyond measure. On the one hand, there was the progressive extension of German rule over them, and on the other their own sufferings increasing from year to year."

The Dietrich case
In January 1903, a German trader named Dietrich was walking from his homestead to the nearby town of Omaruru to buy a new horse. Halfway to Dietrich's destination, a wagon carrying the son of a Herero chief, his wife, and their son stopped by. In a common courtesy in Hereroland, the chief's son offered Dietrich a ride.

That night, however, Dietrich got very drunk and after everyone was asleep, he attempted to rape the wife of the chief's son. When she resisted, Dietrich shot her dead. When he was tried for murder in Windhoek, Dietrich denied attempting to rape his victim. He alleged that he awoke thinking the camp was under attack and fired blindly into the darkness. The killing of the Herero woman, he claimed, was an unfortunate accident. The court acquitted him, alleging that Dietrich was suffering from "tropical fever" and temporary insanity.

According to Leutwein, the murder "aroused extraordinary interest in Hereroland, especially since the murdered woman had been the wife of the son of a Chief and the daughter of another. Everywhere the question was asked: Have White people the right to shoot native women?"

Governor Leutwein intervened. He had the Public Prosecutor appeal Dietrich's acquittal, a second trial took place (before the colony's supreme court), and this time Dietrich was found guilty of manslaughter and imprisoned. The move prompted violent objections of German settlers who considered Leutwein a "race traitor".

Rising tension
In 1903, some of the Nama clans rose in revolt under the leadership of Hendrik Witbooi. A number of factors led the Herero to join them in January 1904.

One of the major issues was land rights. In 1903 the Herero learned of a plan to divide their territory with a railway line and set up reservations where they would be concentrated. The Herero had already ceded more than a quarter of their 130000 km2 territory to German colonists by 1903, before the Otavi railway line running from the African coast to inland German settlements was completed. Completion of this line would have made the German colonies much more accessible and would have ushered a new wave of Europeans into the area.

Historian Horst Drechsler states that there was discussion of the possibility of establishing and placing the Herero in native reserves and that this was further proof of the German colonists' sense of ownership over the land. Drechsler illustrates the gap between the rights of a European and an African; the Reichskolonialbund (German Colonial League) held that, in regards to legal matters, the testimony of seven Africans was equivalent to that of a colonist. According to Bridgman, there were racial tensions underlying these developments; the average German colonist viewed native Africans as a lowly source of cheap labour, and others welcomed their extermination.

A new policy on debt collection, enforced in November 1903, also played a role in the uprising. For many years, the Herero population had fallen in the habit of borrowing money from colonist moneylenders at extreme interest rates (see usury). For a long time, much of this debt went uncollected and accumulated, as most Herero had no means to pay. To correct this growing problem, Governor Leutwein decreed with good intentions that all debts not paid within the next year would be voided. In the absence of hard cash, traders often seized cattle, or whatever objects of value they could get their hands on, as collateral. This fostered a feeling of resentment towards the Germans on the part of the Herero people, which escalated to hopelessness when they saw that German officials were sympathetic to the moneylenders who were about to lose what they were owed.

Racial tension was also at play. The German settlers often referred to black Africans as "baboons" and treated them with contempt.

One missionary reported: "The real cause of the bitterness among the Hereros toward the Germans is without question the fact that the average German looks down upon the natives as being about on the same level as the higher primates ('baboon' being their favourite term for the natives) and treat them like animals. The settler holds that the native has a right to exist only in so far as he is useful to the white man. This sense of contempt led the settlers to commit violence against the Hereros."

The contempt manifested itself particularly in the concubinage of native women. In a practice referred to in Südwesterdeutsch as Verkafferung, native women were taken by male European traders and ranchers both willingly and by force.

Revolts
In 1903, the Hereros saw an opportunity to revolt. At that time, there was a distant Khoisan tribe in the south called the Bondelzwarts, who resisted German demands to register their guns. The Bondelzwarts engaged in a firefight with the German authorities which led to three Germans killed and a fourth wounded. The situation deteriorated further, and the governor of the Herero colony, Major Theodor Leutwein, went south to take personal command, leaving almost no troops in the north.

The Herero revolted in early 1904, killing between 123 and 150 German settlers, as well as seven Boers and three women, in what Nils Ole Oermann calls a "desperate surprise attack".

The timing of their attack was carefully planned. After successfully asking a large Herero clan to surrender their weapons, Governor Leutwein was convinced that they and the rest of the native population were essentially pacified and so withdrew half of the German troops stationed in the colony. Led by Chief Samuel Maharero, the Herero surrounded Okahandja and cut railroad and telegraph links to Windhoek, the colonial capital. Maharero then issued a manifesto in which he forbade his troops to kill any Englishmen, Boers, uninvolved peoples, women and children in general, or German missionaries. The Herero revolts catalysed a separate revolt and attack on Fort Namutoni in the north of the country a few weeks later by the Ondonga.

A Herero warrior interviewed by German authorities in 1895 had described his people's traditional way of dealing with suspected cattle rustlers, a treatment which, during the uprising, was regularly extended to German soldiers and civilians, "We came across a few Khoisan whom of course we killed. I myself helped to kill one of them. First we cut off his ears, saying, 'You will never hear Herero cattle lowing.' Then we cut off his nose, saying, 'Never again shall you smell Herero cattle.' And then we cut off his lips, saying, 'You shall never again taste Herero cattle.' And finally we cut his throat."

According to Robert Gaudi, "Leutwein knew that the wrath of the German Empire was about to fall on them and hoped to soften the blow. He sent desperate messages to Chief Samuel Maherero in hopes of negotiating an end to the war. In this, Leutwein acted on his own, heedless of the prevailing mood in Germany, which called for bloody revenge."

The Hereros, however, were emboldened by their success and had come to believe that, "the Germans were too cowardly to fight in the open," and rejected Leutwein's offers of peace.

One missionary wrote, "The Germans are filled with fearful hate. I must really call it a blood thirst against the Hereros. One hears nothing but talk of 'cleaning up,' 'executing,' 'shooting down to the last man,' 'no pardon,' etc."

According to Robert Gaudi, "The Germans suffered more than defeat in the early months of 1904; they suffered humiliation, their brilliant modern army unable to defeat a rabble of 'half-naked savages.' Cries in the Reichstag, and from the Kaiser himself, for total eradication of the Hereros grew strident. When a leading member of the Social Democratic Party pointed out that the Hereros were as human as any German and possessed immortal souls, he was howled down by the entire conservative side of the legislature."

Leutwein was forced to request reinforcements and an experienced officer from the German government in Berlin. Lieutenant-General Lothar von Trotha was appointed commander-in-chief (Oberbefehlshaber) of South West Africa, arriving with an expeditionary force of 10,000 troops on 11 June.

Meanwhile, Leutwein was subordinate to the civilian Colonial Department of the Prussian Foreign Office, which was supported by Chancellor Bernhard von Bülow, while General Trotha reported to the military German General Staff, which was supported by Emperor Wilhelm II.

Leutwein wanted to defeat the most determined Herero rebels and negotiate a surrender with the remainder to achieve a political settlement. Trotha, however, planned to crush the native resistance through military force. He stated that: "My intimate knowledge of many central African nations (Bantu and others) has everywhere convinced me of the necessity that the Negro does not respect treaties but only brute force."

By late spring of 1904, German troops were pouring into the colony. In August 1904, the main Herero forces were surrounded and crushed at the Battle of Waterberg.

Genocide
In 1900, Kaiser Wilhelm II had been enraged by the killing of Baron Clemens von Ketteler, the Imperial German minister plenipotentiary in Beijing, during the Boxer Rebellion. The Kaiser took it as a personal insult from a people he viewed as racially inferior, all the more because of his obsession with the "Yellow Peril". On 27 July 1900, the Kaiser gave the infamous Hunnenrede (Hun speech) in Bremerhaven to German soldiers being sent to Imperial China, ordering them to show the Boxers no mercy and to behave like Attila's Huns. General von Trotha had served in China, and was chosen in 1904 to command the expedition to German South West Africa precisely because of his record in China. In 1904, the Kaiser was furious by the latest revolt in his colonial empire by a people whom he also viewed as inferior, and took the Herero rebellion as a personal insult, just as he had viewed the Boxers' assassination of Baron von Ketteler. The tactless and bloodthirsty language that Wilhelm II used about the Herero people in 1904 is strikingly similar to the language he had used about the Chinese Boxers in 1900. However, the Kaiser denied, together with Chancellor von Bülow, von Trotha's request to quickly quell the rebellion.

No written order by Wilhelm II ordering or authorising genocide has survived. In February 1945 an Allied bombing raid destroyed the building housing all of the documents of the Prussian Army from the Imperial period. Despite this fact, surviving documents indicate that Trotha used the same tactics in Namibia that he had used in China, only on a much vaster scale. It is also known that throughout the genocide Trotha sent regular reports to both the General Staff and to the Kaiser. Historian Jeremy-Sarkin Hughes believes that regardless of whether or not a written order was given, the Kaiser must have given General von Trotha verbal orders. According to Hughes, the fact that Trotha was decorated and not court-martialed after the genocide became public knowledge lends support to the thesis that he was acting under orders.

General von Trotha commented: "I know the tribes of Africa…. They are all alike. They only respond to force. It was and is my policy to use force with terrorism and even brutality. I shall annihilate the African tribes with streams of blood and streams of gold." General von Trotha stated his proposed solution to end the resistance of the Herero people in a letter, before the Battle of Waterberg:

"I believe that the nation as such should be annihilated, or, if this was not possible by tactical measures, have to be expelled from the country ... This will be possible if the water-holes from Grootfontein to Gobabis are occupied. The constant movement of our troops will enable us to find the small groups of this nation who have moved backwards and destroy them gradually." Trotha's troops defeated 3,000–5,000 Herero combatants at the Battle of Waterberg on 11–12 August 1904 but were unable to encircle and annihilate the retreating survivors.

The pursuing German forces prevented groups of Herero from breaking from the main body of the fleeing force and pushed them further into the desert. As exhausted Herero fell to the ground, unable to go on, German soldiers killed men, women, and children. Jan Cloete, acting as a guide for the Germans, witnessed the atrocities committed by the German troops and deposed the following statement: "I was present when the Herero were defeated in a battle in the vicinity of Waterberg. After the battle all men, women, and children who fell into German hands, wounded or otherwise, were mercilessly put to death. Then the Germans set off in pursuit of the rest, and all those found by the wayside and in the sandveld were shot down and bayoneted to death. The mass of the Herero men were unarmed and thus unable to offer resistance. They were just trying to get away with their cattle."

A portion of the Herero escaped the Germans and went to the Omaheke Desert, hoping to reach British Bechuanaland; fewer than 1,000 Herero managed to reach Bechuanaland, where they were granted asylum by the British authorities. To prevent them from returning, Trotha ordered the desert to be sealed off. German patrols later found skeletons around holes 13 m deep that had been dug in a vain attempt to find water. Some sources also state that the German colonial army systematically poisoned desert water wells. Maherero and 500–1,500 men crossed the Kalahari into Bechuanaland where he was accepted as a vassal of the Batswana chief Sekgoma.

On 2 October, Trotha issued a warning to the Herero: "I, the great general of the German soldiers, send this letter to the Herero. The Herero are German subjects no longer. They have killed, stolen, cut off the ears and other parts of the body of wounded soldiers, and now are too cowardly to want to fight any longer. I announce to the people that whoever hands me one of the chiefs shall receive 1,000 marks, and 5,000 marks for Samuel Maherero. The Herero nation must now leave the country. If it refuses, I shall compel it to do so with the 'long tube' [cannon]. Any Herero found inside the German frontier, with or without a gun or cattle, will be executed. I shall spare neither women nor children. I shall give the order to drive them away and fire on them. Such are my words to the Herero people."

He further gave orders that:

"This proclamation is to be read to the troops at roll-call, with the addition that the unit that catches a captain will also receive the appropriate reward, and that the shooting at women and children is to be understood as shooting above their heads, so as to force them to run [away]. I assume absolutely that this proclamation will result in taking no more male prisoners, but will not degenerate into atrocities against women and children. The latter will run away if one shoots at them a couple of times. The troops will remain conscious of the good reputation of the German soldier."

Trotha gave orders that captured Herero males were to be executed, while women and children were to be driven into the desert where their death from starvation and thirst was to be certain; Trotha argued that there was no need to make exceptions for Herero women and children, since these would "infect German troops with their diseases", the insurrection Trotha explained "is and remains the beginning of a racial struggle". After the war, Trotha argued that his orders were necessary, writing in 1909 that "If I had made the small water holes accessible to the womenfolk, I would run the risk of an African catastrophe comparable to the Battle of Beresonia."

The German general staff was aware of the atrocities that were taking place; its official publication, named Der Kampf, noted that: "This bold enterprise shows up in the most brilliant light the ruthless energy of the German command in pursuing their beaten enemy. No pains, no sacrifices were spared in eliminating the last remnants of enemy resistance. Like a wounded beast the enemy was tracked down from one water-hole to the next, until finally he became the victim of his own environment. The arid Omaheke [desert] was to complete what the German army had begun: the extermination of the Herero nation."

Alfred von Schlieffen (Chief of the Imperial German General Staff) approved of Trotha's intentions in terms of a "racial struggle" and the need to "wipe out the entire nation or to drive them out of the country", but had doubts about his strategy, preferring their surrender.

Governor Leutwein, later relieved of his duties, complained to Chancellor von Bülow about Trotha's actions, seeing the general's orders as intruding upon the civilian colonial jurisdiction and ruining any chance of a political settlement. According to Professor Mahmood Mamdani from Columbia University, opposition to the policy of annihilation was largely the consequence of the fact that colonial officials looked at the Herero people as a potential source of labour, and thus economically important. For instance, Governor Leutwein wrote that: "I do not concur with those fanatics who want to see the Herero destroyed altogether ... I would consider such a move a grave mistake from an economic point of view. We need the Herero as cattle breeders ... and especially as labourers."

Having no authority over the military, Chancellor Bülow could only advise Emperor Wilhelm II that Trotha's actions were "contrary to Christian and humanitarian principle, economically devastating and damaging to Germany's international reputation".

Upon the arrival of new orders at the end of 1904, prisoners were herded into labor camps, where they were given to private companies as slave labourers or exploited as human guinea pigs in medical experiments.

Concentration camps

Survivors of the massacre, the majority of whom were women and children, were eventually put in places like Shark Island concentration camp, where the German authorities forced them to work as slave labour for German military and settlers. All prisoners were categorised into groups fit and unfit for work, and pre-printed death certificates indicating "death by exhaustion following privation" were issued. The British government published their well-known account of the German genocide of the Nama and Herero peoples in 1918.

Many Herero and Nama died of disease, exhaustion, starvation and malnutrition. Estimates of the mortality rate at the camps are between 45% and 74%.

Food in the camps was extremely scarce, consisting of rice with no additions. As the prisoners lacked pots and the rice they received was uncooked, it was indigestible; horses and oxen that died in the camp were later distributed to the inmates as food. Dysentery and lung diseases were common. Despite those conditions, the prisoners were taken outside the camp every day for labour under harsh treatment by the German guards, while the sick were left without any medical assistance or nursing care. Many Herero and Nama were worked to death.

Shootings, hangings, beatings, and other harsh treatment of the forced labourers (including use of sjamboks) were common. A 28 September 1905 article in the South African newspaper Cape Argus detailed some of the abuse with the heading: "In German S. W. Africa: Further Startling Allegations: Horrible Cruelty". In an interview with Percival Griffith, "an accountant of profession, who owing to hard times, took up on transport work at Angra Pequena, Lüderitz", related his experiences: "There are hundreds of them, mostly women and children and a few old men ... when they fall they are sjamboked by the soldiers in charge of the gang, with full force, until they get up ... On one occasion I saw a woman carrying a child of under a year old slung at her back, and with a heavy sack of grain on her head ... she fell. The corporal sjamboked her for certainly more than four minutes and sjamboked the baby as well ... the woman struggled slowly to her feet, and went on with her load. She did not utter a sound the whole time, but the baby cried very hard."

During the war, a number of people from the Cape (in modern-day South Africa) sought employment as transport riders for German troops in Namibia. Upon their return to the Cape, some of these people recounted their stories, including those of the imprisonment and genocide of the Herero and Nama people. Fred Cornell, an aspiring British diamond prospector, was in Lüderitz when the Shark Island concentration camp was being used. Cornell wrote of the camp: "Cold – for the nights are often bitterly cold there – hunger, thirst, exposure, disease and madness claimed scores of victims every day, and cartloads of their bodies were every day carted over to the back beach, buried in a few inches of sand at low tide, and as the tide came in the bodies went out, food for the sharks."

Shark Island was the most brutal of the German South West African camps. Lüderitz lies in southern Namibia, flanked by desert and ocean. In the harbour lies Shark Island, which then was connected to the mainland only by a small causeway. The island is now, as it was then, barren and characterised by solid rock carved into surreal formations by the hard ocean winds. The camp was placed on the far end of the relatively small island, where the prisoners would have suffered complete exposure to the strong winds that sweep Lüderitz for most of the year.

German Commander Ludwig von Estorff wrote in a report that approximately 1,700 prisoners (including 1,203 Nama) had died by April 1907. In December 1906, four months after their arrival, 291 Nama died (a rate of more than nine people per day). Missionary reports put the death rate at 12–18 per day; as many as 80% of the prisoners sent to Shark Island eventually died there.

There are accusations of Herero women being coerced into sex slavery as a means of survival. Trotha was opposed to contact between natives and settlers, believing that the insurrection was "the beginning of a racial struggle" and fearing that the colonists would be infected by native diseases.

Benjamin Madley argues that although Shark Island is referred to as a concentration camp, it functioned as an extermination camp or death camp.

Medical experiments and scientific racism
Prisoners were used for medical experiments and their illnesses or their recoveries from them were used for research.

Experiments on live prisoners were performed by Dr. Bofinger, who injected Herero who were suffering from scurvy with various substances including arsenic and opium; afterwards he researched the effects of these substances via autopsy.

Experimentation with the dead body parts of the prisoners was rife. Zoologist (1872–1955) noted taking "body parts from fresh native corpses" which according to him was a "welcome addition", and he also noted that he could use prisoners for that purpose. Zimmerman, Andrew, Anthropology and Antihumanism in Imperial Germany, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, London: 2001, p. 245: "The zoologist Leonard Schultze happened also to be on a collecting trip in Southwest Africa when the war broke out. He found that, although the fighting made the collection and preservation of animals difficult, it presented new opportunities for physical anthropology: 'I could make use of the victims of the war and take parts from fresh native corpses, which made a welcome addition to the study of the living body (imprisoned Hottentots [Nama] were often available to me).

This translates the original German: "Andererseits konnte ich mir die Opfer des Krieges zu nutze machen und frischen Leichen von Eingeborenen Teile entnehmen, die das Studium des lebenden Körpers (gefangene Hottentotten [Nama] standen mir häufig zu Gebote) willkommen ergänzten." Leonhard Schultze, Zoologische und anthropologische Ergebnisse einer Forschungsreise im westlichen und zentralen Südafrika ausgeführt in den Jahren 1903–1905, Gustav Fischer: Jena 1908, S. VIII.

An estimated 300 skulls were sent to Germany for experimentation, in part from concentration camp prisoners. In October 2011, after three years of talks, the first 20 of an estimated 300 skulls stored in the museum of the Charité were returned to Namibia for burial. In 2014, 14 additional skulls were repatriated by the University of Freiburg.

Number of victims
A census conducted in 1905 revealed that 25,000 Herero remained in German South West Africa.

According to the Whitaker Report, the population of 80,000 Herero was reduced to 15,000 "starving refugees" between 1904 and 1907. In Colonial Genocide and Reparations Claims in the 21st Century: The Socio-Legal Context of Claims under International Law by the Herero against Germany for Genocide in Namibia by Jeremy Sarkin-Hughes, a number of 100,000 victims is given. Up to 80% of the indigenous populations were killed.

Newspapers reported 65,000 victims when announcing that Germany recognized the genocide in 2004.

Aftermath

With the closure of concentration camps, all surviving Herero were distributed as labourers for settlers in the German colony. From that time on, all Herero over the age of seven were forced to wear a metal disc with their labour registration number, and banned from owning land or cattle, a necessity for pastoral society.

About 19,000 German troops were engaged in the conflict, of which 3,000 saw combat. The rest were used for upkeep and administration. The German losses were 676 soldiers killed in combat, 76 missing, and 689 dead from disease. The Reiterdenkmal (Equestrian Monument) in Windhoek was erected in 1912 to celebrate the victory and to remember the fallen German soldiers and civilians. Until after Independence, no monument was built to the killed indigenous population. It remains a bone of contention in independent Namibia.

The campaign cost Germany 600 million marks. The normal annual subsidy to the colony was 14.5 million marks. In 1908, diamonds were discovered in the territory, and this did much to boost its prosperity, though it was short-lived.

In 1915, during World War I, the German colony was taken over and occupied by the Union of South Africa, which was victorious in the South West Africa campaign. South Africa received a League of Nations mandate over South West Africa on 17 December 1920.

Link between the Herero genocide and the Holocaust
The Herero genocide has commanded the attention of historians who study complex issues of continuity between the Herero genocide and The Holocaust. It is argued that the Herero genocide set a precedent in Imperial Germany that would later be followed by Nazi Germany's establishment of death camps.

According to Benjamin Madley, the German experience in South West Africa was a crucial precursor to Nazi colonialism and genocide. He argues that personal connections, literature, and public debates served as conduits for communicating colonialist and genocidal ideas and methods from the colony to Germany. Tony Barta, an honorary research associate at La Trobe University, argues that the Herero genocide was an inspiration for Hitler in his war against the Jews, Slavs, Romani, and others who he described as "non-Aryans".

According to Clarence Lusane, Eugen Fischer's medical experiments can be seen as a testing ground for medical procedures which were later followed during the Nazi Holocaust. Fischer later became chancellor of the University of Berlin, where he taught medicine to Nazi physicians. Otmar Freiherr von Verschuer was a student of Fischer, Verschuer himself had a prominent pupil, Josef Mengele. Franz Ritter von Epp, who was later responsible for the liquidation of virtually all Bavarian Jews and Roma as governor of Bavaria, took part in the Herero and Nama genocide as well. Historians Robert Gerwarth and Stephan Malinowski have criticized this claim, asserting that Von Epp exercised no influence in Nazi extermination policies.

Mahmood Mamdani argues that the links between the Herero genocide and the Holocaust are beyond the execution of an annihilation policy and the establishment of concentration camps and there are also ideological similarities in the conduct of both genocides. Focusing on a written statement by General Trotha which is translated as: "I destroy the African tribes with streams of blood ... Only following this cleansing can something new emerge, which will remain."

Mamdani takes note of the similarity between the aims of the General and the Nazis. According to Mamdani, in both cases there was a Social Darwinist notion of "cleansing", after which "something new" would "emerge".

Robert Gerwarth and Stephan Malinowski have questioned the supposed link with the Holocaust, finding it to be lacking in empirical evidence, and argue that Nazi policy represented a distinct turn away from typical European colonial practice. Additionally, they write that studies supporting the link completely ignore the influences of World War I, the German Revolution, and the activities of the Friekorps in the inurement of extreme violence as a method in the German political consciousness.

Patrick Bernhard writes that the Nazis, including Heinrich Himmler, explicitly rejected the colonial experience of the German Empire as an "appallingly outdated" model; when they did draw inspiration from colonialism for Generalplan Ost, it was from the contemporary work of Italian fascists such as Giuseppe Tassinari in Libya, which they viewed as a shining example of fascist modernity.

Recognition
In 1985, the United Nations' Whitaker Report classified the massacres as an attempt to exterminate the Herero and Nama peoples of South West Africa, and therefore one of the earliest cases of genocide in the 20th century.

In 1998, German President Roman Herzog visited Namibia and met Herero leaders. Chief Munjuku Nguvauva demanded a public apology and compensation. Herzog expressed regret but stopped short of an apology. He pointed out that international law requiring reparation did not exist in 1907, but he undertook to take the Herero petition back to the German government.

On 16 August 2004, at the 100th anniversary of the start of the genocide, a member of the German government, Heidemarie Wieczorek-Zeul, Germany's Federal Minister for Economic Development and Cooperation, officially apologised and expressed grief about the genocide, declaring in a speech that: "We Germans accept our historical and moral responsibility and the guilt incurred by Germans at that time."

She ruled out paying special compensations, but promised continued economic aid for Namibia which in 2004 amounted to $14M a year. This number has been significantly increased since then, with the budget for the years 2016–17 allocating a sum total of €138M in monetary support payments.

The Trotha family travelled to Omaruru in October 2007 by invitation of the royal Herero chiefs and publicly apologised for the actions of their relative. Wolf-Thilo von Trotha said: "We, the von Trotha family, are deeply ashamed of the terrible events that took place 100 years ago. Human rights were grossly abused that time."

Negotiations and agreement
The Herero filed a lawsuit in the United States in 2001 demanding reparations from the German government and Deutsche Bank, which financed the German government and companies in Southern Africa. With a complaint filed with the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York in January 2017, descendants of the Herero and Nama people sued Germany for damages in the United States. The plaintiffs sued under the Alien Tort Statute, a 1789 U.S. law often invoked in human rights cases. Their proposed class-action lawsuit sought unspecified sums for thousands of descendants of the victims, for the "incalculable damages" that were caused. Germany seeks to rely on its state immunity as implemented in US law as the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act, arguing that, as a sovereign nation, it cannot be sued in US courts in relation to its acts outside the United States. In March 2019, the judge dismissed the claims due to the exceptions to sovereign immunity being too narrow for the case.

In September 2020, the Second Circuit stated that the claimants did not prove that money used to buy property in New York could be traced back to wealth resulting from the seized property and therefore the lawsuit could not overcome Germany's immunity. In June 2021, the Supreme Court declined to hear a petition to revive the case.

Germany, while admitting brutality in Namibia, at first refused to call it a "genocide", claiming that the term only became international law in 1945. However, in July 2015, then foreign minister Frank-Walter Steinmeier issued a political guideline stating that the massacre should be referred to as a "war crime and a genocide". Bundestag president Norbert Lammert wrote an article in Die Zeit that same month referring to the events as a genocide. These events paved the way for negotiations with Namibia.

In 2015, the German government began negotiations with Namibia over a possible apology, and by 2016, Germany committed itself to apologizing for the genocide, as well as to refer to the event as a genocide; but the actual declaration was postponed while negotiations stalled over questions of compensation.

On 11 August 2020, following negotiations over a potential compensation agreement between Germany and Namibia, President Hage Geingob of Namibia stated that the German government's offer was "not acceptable", while German envoy Ruprecht Polenz said he was "still optimistic that a solution can be found."

On 28 May 2021, the German government announced that it was formally recognizing the atrocities committed as a genocide, following five years of negotiations. The declaration was made by foreign minister Heiko Maas, who also stated that Germany was asking Namibia and the descendants of the genocide victims for forgiveness. In addition to recognizing the events as a genocide, Germany agreed to give as a "gesture of recognition of the immeasurable suffering" €1.1 billion in aid to the communities impacted by the genocide.

Following the announcement, the agreement needs to be ratified by both countries' parliaments, after which Germany would send its president, Frank-Walter Steinmeier, to officially apologize for the genocide. The nations agreed not to use the term "reparation" to describe the financial aid package.

The agreement was criticized by the chairman of the Namibian Genocide Association, Laidlaw Peringanda, who insisted that Germany should purchase their ancestral lands back from the descendants of the German settlers and return it to the Herero and Nama people. The agreement was also criticized because negotiations were held solely between the German and Namibian governments, and did not include representatives of the Herero and Nama people.

Further criticism of the agreement came in 2024 with the filing of the South Africa v. Israel case at the International Court of Justice. After President Geingob criticized Germany's decision to back Israel in the case, Nandi Mazeingo of the Ovaherero Genocide Foundation called on Namibia to go further, saying "What South Africa did for Palestine is what Namibia must do for us as Hereros and Namas. They must go to that ICJ also, for us."

Repatriation
Peter Katjavivi, a former Namibian ambassador to Germany, demanded in August 2008 that the skulls of Herero and Nama prisoners of the 1904–1908 uprising, which were taken to Germany for scientific research to claim the superiority of white Europeans over Africans, be returned to Namibia. Katjavivi was reacting to a German television documentary which reported that its investigators had found more than 40 of these skulls at two German universities, among them probably the skull of a Nama chief who had died on Shark Island near Lüderitz. In September 2011, the skulls were returned to Namibia. In August 2018, Germany returned all of the remaining skulls and other human remains which were examined in Germany to scientifically promote white supremacy. This was the third such transfer, and shortly before it occurred, German Protestant bishop Petra Bosse-Huber stated "Today, we want to do what should have been done many years ago – to give back to their descendents the remains of people who became victims of the first genocide of the 20th century."

On 17 May 2019, as a part of the repatriation process, the German government announced that it would return a stone symbol which it took from Namibia in the 1900s.

Media

 * A BBC documentary, Namibia – Genocide and the Second Reich (2005), explores the Herero and Nama genocide and the circumstances surrounding it.
 * In the documentary 100 Years of Silence, filmmakers Halfdan Muurholm and Casper Erichsen portray a 23-year-old Herero woman, who is aware of the fact that her great-grandmother was raped by a German soldier. The documentary explores the past and the way Namibia deals with it now.
 * Mama Namibia, a historical novel by Mari Serebrov, provides two perspectives of the 1904 genocide in German South West Africa. The first is that of Jahohora, a 12-year-old Herero girl who survives on her own in the veld for two years after her family is killed by German soldiers. The second story in Mama Namibia is that of Kov, a Jewish doctor who volunteered to serve in the German military to prove his patriotism. As he witnesses the atrocities of the genocide, he rethinks his loyalty to the Fatherland.
 * Thomas Pynchon's novel V. (1963) had a chapter that included recollections of the genocide; there are memories of events that took place in 1904 in various locations, including the Shark Island concentration camp.
 * Jackie Sibblies Drury's play, We Are Proud To Present a Presentation About the Herero of Namibia, Formerly Known as Southwest Africa, From the German Südwestafrika, Between the Years 1884–1915, is about a group of actors developing a play about the Herero and Nama genocide.

Bibliography and documentaries

 * Exterminate all the Brutes, Sven Lindqvist, London, 1996.
 * A Forgotten History-Concentration Camps were used by Germans in South West Africa, Casper W. Erichsen, in the Mail and Guardian, Johannesburg, 17 August 2001.
 * German Federal Archives, Imperial Colonial Office, Vol. 2089, 7 (recto)
 * "The Herero and Nama Genocides, 1904–1908", J.B. Gewald, in Encyclopedia of Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity, New York, Macmillan Reference, 2004.
 * Herero Heroes: A Socio-Political History of the Herero of Namibia 1890–1923, J.B. Gewald, Oxford, Cape Town, Athens, OH, 1999.
 * Let Us Die Fighting: the Struggle of the Herero and Nama against German Imperialism, 1884–1915, Horst Drechsler, London, 1980.
 * Olusoga, David & Erichsen, Casper W. (2010). The Kaiser's Holocaust : Germany's Forgotten Genocide and the Colonial Roots of Nazism. London: Faber and Faber.
 * Gerwarth, Robert, and Stephan Malinowski. “Hannah Arendt’s Ghosts: Reflections on the Disputable Path from Windhoek to Auschwitz.” Central European History 42, no. 2 (2009): 279–300. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40600596.
 * The war and massacre is significantly featured in The Glamour of Prospecting, a contemporary account by Frederick Cornell of his attempts to prospect for diamonds in the region. In the book he describes his first hand accounts of witnessing the concentration camp on Shark Island and other aspects of the genocide.
 * Olusoga, David & Erichsen, Casper W. (2010). The Kaiser's Holocaust : Germany's Forgotten Genocide and the Colonial Roots of Nazism. London: Faber and Faber.
 * Gerwarth, Robert, and Stephan Malinowski. “Hannah Arendt’s Ghosts: Reflections on the Disputable Path from Windhoek to Auschwitz.” Central European History 42, no. 2 (2009): 279–300. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40600596.
 * The war and massacre is significantly featured in The Glamour of Prospecting, a contemporary account by Frederick Cornell of his attempts to prospect for diamonds in the region. In the book he describes his first hand accounts of witnessing the concentration camp on Shark Island and other aspects of the genocide.
 * The war and massacre is significantly featured in The Glamour of Prospecting, a contemporary account by Frederick Cornell of his attempts to prospect for diamonds in the region. In the book he describes his first hand accounts of witnessing the concentration camp on Shark Island and other aspects of the genocide.
 * The war and massacre is significantly featured in The Glamour of Prospecting, a contemporary account by Frederick Cornell of his attempts to prospect for diamonds in the region. In the book he describes his first hand accounts of witnessing the concentration camp on Shark Island and other aspects of the genocide.
 * The war and massacre is significantly featured in The Glamour of Prospecting, a contemporary account by Frederick Cornell of his attempts to prospect for diamonds in the region. In the book he describes his first hand accounts of witnessing the concentration camp on Shark Island and other aspects of the genocide.
 * The war and massacre is significantly featured in The Glamour of Prospecting, a contemporary account by Frederick Cornell of his attempts to prospect for diamonds in the region. In the book he describes his first hand accounts of witnessing the concentration camp on Shark Island and other aspects of the genocide.

title: Herero and Nama genocide


text:
Emmental

The Emmental (Emme Valley)  is a valley in west-central Switzerland, forming part of the canton of Bern. It is a hilly landscape comprising the basins of the rivers Emme and Ilfis. The region is mostly devoted to farming, particularly dairy farming. The principal settlements are the town of Burgdorf and the village of Langnau.

Comprising Burgdorf, Trachselwald, and Signau districts in the canton of Bern, the Emmental became part of the Emmental-Oberaargau administrative region on 1 January 2010. The district of Fraubrunnen is divided between Emmental and Bern-Mittelland.

Geography
The region comprises relatively low mountains on the right bank of the Aare. It includes the basins of the Emme and the Ilfis between Burgdorf and the boundary with the canton of Solothurn. Its principal elevation is the Napf, a mountain massif dominating the northwestern part of the Emmental Alps.

The landscape is dominated by meadows and pastureland, with forest interspersed.

Economy
The original Emmental cheese is produced there, and the dairy industry still dominates the local economy. Pottery from the region is also prized, and the ceramics of the region have endured practically unchanged since the 17th century.

Tourism has had less impact on the region than on other parts of Switzerland.

Culture

The novelist Jeremias Gotthelf (1797–1854) was a pastor in the Emmental and wrote about the region.

The Emmental also played a dominant role in the history of the Mennonites.

Architecture
The typical Emmental farmhouse has a steep roof with a large overhang that almost reaches the ground.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Emmental


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Upsidaisium

On 26 July 2004, Upsidaisium was proposed for deletion. This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was REDIRECT. After a review of the current state of both The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show and Fictional chemical substance, I decided that it would fit better as a redirect to Fictional chemical substance. Rossami 22:17, 6 Aug 2004 (UTC)

From Rocky and Bullwinkle. Not notable enough to merit own article. [[User:Poccil|Peter O. (Talk)]] 04:22, Jul 26, 2004 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like other '/delete' pages is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion or on the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.
 * Agree. Delete.  SWAdair | Talk  05:13, 26 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Irrelevantium is a material commonly found in the outlying reaches of Wikipedias. Merge, bury rest in deep mine shaft and delete. Ianb 06:00, 26 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Hey, I remember the Upsidaisium epsisode! (Or was there more than one?)  Fun stuff.  In any case, merge with Rocky and Bullwinkle if possible, and delete. Spectatrix 06:42, 2004 Jul 26 (UTC)
 * "Duuuh... Hey Rocky! Watch me pull a merge out of my hat!" "Again?!? don't forget to redirect when you are done!" - UtherSRG 11:36, 26 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Merge with The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, and also with Fictional chemical substance, then delete. -FZ 14:35, 26 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Mr. Peabody says merge & delete. Geogre 17:26, 26 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * I just can't resist: Nothing up my sleeve...presto!  Merge and delete!  Ooh, gotta get me another hat.  Now, here's something we hope you'll really like! - Lucky 6.9 18:34, 26 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * I agree with Finn-Zoltan. Merge w/ The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show and Fictional chemical substance. --Rossumcapek 17:56, 1 Aug 2004 (UTC)


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Antonio Rafael Barceló

Antonio Rafael Barceló y Martínez (April 15, 1868 – December 15, 1938) was a Puerto Rican lawyer, businessman and the patriarch of what was to become one of Puerto Rico's most prominent political families. Barceló, who in 1917 became the first President of the Senate of Puerto Rico, played an instrumental role in the introduction and passage of legislation which permitted the realization of the School of Tropical Medicine and the construction of a Capitol building in Puerto Rico.

Early years
Barceló was born in the City of Fajardo, Puerto Rico, to Jaime José Barceló Miralles (son of Antonio and Catalina) and Josefa Martínez de León (b. 1842). His father Jaime had emigrated from Palma, Majorca, Balearic Islands, Spain to Puerto Rico where he married Josefa (b. Naguabo, Puerto Rico) in Fajardo. He became an orphan by the age of three; his father had died in 1870 and his mother in 1871. He went to live with his aunt, Carmela de Leon, and his grandmother Belen de Leon, both of whom raised him. As a youngster, Barceló took an active interest in politics.

He studied in the "Concillier Seminary" of San Juan. In 1928 he earned a Juris Doctor from Columbia Law School. He joined the "Autonomist Party" (founded by José de Diego and Román Baldorioty de Castro in 1887) and soon became the party's secretary. In 1897, he was appointed as a municipal judge of Fajardo. The United States allowed him to retain the position after its invasion during the Spanish–American War. On February 4, 1899, Barceló married Maria Georgina "Josefina" Bird Arias, a daughter of the sugar baron Jorge Bird León.

Union Party of Puerto Rico
Barceló left the Autonomist Party and together with Luis Muñoz Rivera, Rosendo Matienzo Cintrón, Eduardo Georgetti, Juan Vias Ochoteco, José de Diego, and others, founded the "Union party". The party, which believed in Puerto Rican independence, was led by Muñoz Rivera as president, with Barceló as the secretary general. The party won the election in 1904 and Muñoz Rivera was selected as a member of the House of Delegates, while Barceló was elected to the Chamber of Delegates in 1905.

In 1910, Barceló founded the Association of Puerto Rico, with the idea of protecting the main industries of the island, which at that time were coffee, tobacco and sugar, against imported brands. The legislature of Puerto Rico passed law number 52 in 1913, which officially established the Association of Puerto Rico and renamed it the Association of Products made in Puerto Rico. The law also incorporated and protected the official logo of the association, which contains the phrase Hecho en Puerto Rico (Made in Puerto Rico).

In 1914, Barceló, Muñoz Rivera and de Diego were members of an executive council that tried to form an alliance between the Union and Republican Parties. In 1917, after Luis Muñoz Rivera died, Barceló became the leading force behind the liberal ideas of the island. He looked after Luis Muñoz Marín, Muñoz Rivera's son, and continued the publication of La Democracia, the political newspaper founded by Muñoz Rivera.

From 1917 to 1932, he was elected to the Senate of Puerto Rico, and was named president of the Puerto Rican Senate. Barceló opposed the Jones-Shafroth Act, which granted United States citizenship to residents of Puerto Rico, because he thought it might interfere with gaining independence. Also, the judicial and executive branches would still be controlled by the United States. The Jones-Shafroth Act was approved by the United States and signed into law by President Woodrow Wilson on March 2, 1917. The Union Party under Barceló's leadership resolved to adopt a different stance and to seek more autonomy, which he believed would finally lead to independence. This shift prompted de Diego, who was a strong independence advocate, to depart from the party.

In 1921, President Warren G. Harding appointed Emmet Montgomery Reily, who was a strong supporter of "Americanism", as Governor of Puerto Rico. During his inauguration address, he insisted that the United States flag ("Old Glory") should be the only flag used over the island and denounced those who believed in Puerto Rican independence as anti-American and traitors. Additionally, he placed several mainland politicians in prominent positions in the Puerto Rican government. Reily was an extremely unpopular governor, he was the subject of corruption allegations and an investigation by Puerto Rican local officials. Under pressure, Reily resigned as governor in 1923.

As Reily had convinced the American public that the independence advocates were enemies of the U.S., Barceló and his party opted for the creation of El Estado Libre Asociado (a Free Associated State), asking for more autonomy in Puerto Rico instead of independence. He received the support of U.S. Representative Phillip Campbell, who introduced a bill to the United States Congress to such respect. It also included provisions for Puerto Ricans to elect their own governor. The Campbell Bill did not pass Congress, however. This led to the departure of José Coll y Cuchí from the party and his founding of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party.

As president of the Senate, Barceló supported legislation to give Governor Horace Towner and his cabinet, the economic resources to create the School of Tropical Medicine, the Capitol building, the state penitentiary and healthy quarters for workers (said quarters became known as "Barrio Obrero"). He played an instrumental role in what resulted in the construction of buildings for the University of Puerto Rico and the development of an excellent native faculty.

In 1922, presiding Chief Justice of the United States, William Howard Taft made the following statement in regard to the :"Balzac v. Porto Rico" case: "Puerto Rico belongs to the United States, but is not part of the United States. Puerto Rico is an unincorporated territory and even though Puerto Ricans have American citizenship, they do not have the same rights as the common American citizen".

Both Barceló and Jose Tous Soto, the president of the pro-statehood Republican Party of Puerto Rico, understood by Taft's statement that neither independence nor statehood would be considered for the time being. In 1924, they formed an "Alliance" between their political parties to concentrate on improving Puerto Rico's economic situation. The party was called Alianza Puertorriqueña (or Puerto Rican Alliance). All this led to some differences in ideals between Eduardo Georgetti and Barceló. Georgetti believed in the original ideal of the Union Party and that the "Alliance" coalition would not work because of their ideological differences. Barceló and a group of party delegates traveled to Washington to seek changes in the Jones Act of 1917, by presenting their views that the economic situation in Puerto Rico was a good one and that Puerto Ricans were capable of electing their own governor. Georgetti traveled to Washington, D.C., in representation of various Puerto Rican organizations, among them the Agriculturist Association and the Association of Sugar Producers. The group which he represented became known by the press as the Fuerzas Vivas (Live Forces). Georgetti and the "Fuerzas Vivas" presented the Secretary of War a "Memorandum" which presented the economic situation of the island in the brink of ruins. His actions were viewed by Barceló and the "Alliance" as an attempt by Georgetti and the "Fuerzas Vivas" to discredit him and weaken the "Alliance". Georgetti denied it and quit the alliance. Barceló was also a victim of an assassination attempt, but this did not keep him from believing and pursuing his liberal ideas.

Liberal Party of Puerto Rico
Differences became apparent between Barceló and Tous Soto and Félix Córdova Dávila, the Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico in Washington, as to the goals of the alliance. Barceló requested that Herbert Hoover, the newly elected President of the United States, retain Horace Towner temporarily as governor of the island. Hoover, however, consulted Córdova Dávila, instead of Barceló, in regard to his intentions of naming Theodore Roosevelt Jr. to the position. Córdova Dávila in turn notified Tous Soto, instead of Barceló, as to Hoover's decision.

Barceló felt offended that he was not consulted and convinced his followers, in the Unionist sector of the alliance, to disaffiliate themselves from the "Alliance." Because of legal reasons Barceló was unable to use the name "Union Party." In 1932, he founded the "Puerto Rican Liberal Party." The Liberal Party's political agenda was the same as that of the original Union Party, urging independence as a final political solution for Puerto Rico. Among those who joined him in the "new" party were Felisa Rincón de Gautier and Ernesto Ramos Antonini. By 1932, Barceló had invited Luis Muñoz Marín, son of Luis Muñoz Rivera, to join the Liberal Party. During the elections of 1932, the Liberal Party faced the Alliance, by then a coalition of the Republican Party of Puerto Rico and Santiago Iglesias Pantin's Socialist Party.

Barceló and Muñoz Marín were both elected senators of Puerto Rico. Even though the Liberal Party received more votes than the Republican Party and the Socialist Party did individually, it received fewer votes than their candidates as a coalition. Eventually, Muñoz Marín, who had different points of view as to how Puerto Rico should go about obtaining its independence, would collide with Barceló. Barceló believed that independence should be a gradual process, preceded by autonomous insular government.

Following the Río Piedras massacre in 1935, US Senator Millard Tydings in 1936 introduced a bill in Congress for Puerto Rican independence. The Puerto Rican parties supported the bill, but Muñoz Marín opposed it, saying it had unfavorable economic aspects. Tydings did not gain passage of the bill.

In 1936, a Liberal Party assembly was held in San Juan. Muñoz Marín said he was not interested in being considered for the position of Resident Commissioner and recommended Barceló. This move would leave the presidency of the party open for Muñoz Marín. Barceló refused to be named commissioner and to relinquish his presidency. Muñoz Marín and his followers founded a group within the party called "Accion Social Puertorriqueño" (Puerto Rican Social Action), who believed in gaining the immediate independence of Puerto Rico.

After the Liberal Party was defeated in 1936 elections, its leaders held an assembly in Naranjales on May 31, 1937. Muñoz Marín presented his ideas as to how the party should be run. The majority of the party members objected and blamed him for their defeat, as well as criticizing his opposition of the bill for independence. Muñoz Marín considered this action the same as having been expelled from the party.

Muñoz Marín and his followers, held an assembly in the town of Arecibo and founded the Partido Liberal, Neto, Auténtico y Completo ("Clear, Authentic and Complete Liberal Party"), claiming to be the true Liberal Party. The Partido Liberal, Neto, Auténtico y Completo, an independence political party, later became the Popular Democratic Party (PPD). It promoted the political status of an Estado Libre Associado (Free Associated State) status which Barceló, as president of the Union Party, had asked for in 1923. Muñoz Marín had formerly opposed this.

Later years
Antonio R. Barceló died in San Juan, Puerto Rico, on October 15, 1938. With his passing, his daughter Maria Antonia Josefina, was elected president of the Liberal Party, thus becoming the first woman to preside a political party in Puerto Rico. The party ceased to exist in 1948. Ironically, his grandson Carlos Romero Barceló (Maria Antonia Josefina's son) on January 2, 1977, was sworn in as Governor of Puerto Rico with a pro-statehood agenda, a political status which Antonio R. Barceló had opposed, as member of the Partido Nuevo Progresista de Puerto Rico (New Progressive Party of Puerto Rico).

Legacy

Barceló was responsible for the approval of many laws which led to reforms and that would greatly benefit the social justice, labor and the Puerto Rican economy. Barceló helped to establish the minimum wage rate, workers' compensation and limited working hours. Barceló, also played a principal role in the establishment of "The School of Tropical Medicine", "The Federal Penitentiary", "The Antituberculosis Sanctuary" and numerous other centers. He introduced the proper legislation which permitted the construction of the Puerto Rico State Capitol. During his tenure as president of the Puerto Rico Senate. In 1928, Columbia University of New York, honored Barceló by bestowing upon him an Honorary Doctorate of Law.

His memory has been honored by Puerto Rico by naming public buildings and schools after him, including the Antonio R. Barceló Legislative Building which previously housed the School of Tropical Medicine and the Department of Natural Resources. His philosophy remains relevant nearly a century later, as evidenced by references to it in contemporary political and journalistic commentary.

title: Antonio Rafael Barceló


text:
User talk:Wild Bill

Welcome to Wikipedia! - MattTM 05:03, 26 Jul 2004 (UTC)

parrot
Sorry, deletion of Hawk-headed Parrot was unintentional, but it is on the list under its other name of Red-fan Parrot. If an article gets written, one of these will need to redirect to the other. jimfbleak 05:24, 31 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * The other thing I should have said is that lists for animals and plants are usually based on relationships, rather than alphabetically, which is why I initially deleted the alphabetical list and restored the taxonomic list. However, I realised that for a few very large groups, such as parrots, hummingbirds and doves, it actually makes life easier to have access to the alternative listing, so I restored it as a linked page (not on the main article to avoid another deletion of the taxolist). jimfbleak 05:43, 31 Jul 2004 (UTC)

moved image
hey. I know this is really late, but I saw your message on Merovingian's talk page regarding, and I noticed it was never moved. I've done it for you. In the future, you can just re-upload the file under a different name and tag the old one as a speedy deletion candidate. See ya around! -Frazzydee|✍ 22:04, 21 Jan 2005 (UTC)

IMGrammarBot
FYI, an article about your bot is up for deletion. Thought you might be interested in the discussion: Articles for deletion/IMGrammarBot. Regards,  howch e  ng   {chat} 18:49, 22 December 2005 (UTC)

MTNBox template
Thanks for sorting out the template, I don't deal with template editing a great deal so I was having a little difficulty tracking down the template and by the time I'd got there you'd already sorted it.--Sully 18:22, 9 February 2006 (UTC)

Image:Submersed Band.jpg
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Orphaned non-free image File:Lo-Pro - Lo-Pro (album).jpg
 Thanks for uploading File:Lo-Pro - Lo-Pro (album).jpg. The image description page currently specifies that the image is non-free and may only be used on Wikipedia under a claim of fair use. However, the image is currently orphaned, meaning that it is not used in any articles on Wikipedia. If the image was previously in an article, please go to the article and see why it was removed. You may add it back if you think that that will be useful. However, please note that images for which a replacement could be created are not acceptable for use on Wikipedia (see our policy for non-free media).

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Speedy deletion nomination of Submersed

A tag has been placed on Submersed requesting that it be speedily deleted from Wikipedia. This has been done under section A7 of the criteria for speedy deletion, because the article appears to be about a person, organization (band, club, company, etc.), web content or organised event, but it does not indicate how or why the subject is important or significant: that is, why an article about that subject should be included in an encyclopedia. Under the criteria for speedy deletion, such articles may be deleted at any time. Please read more about what is generally accepted as notable.

If you think this page should not be deleted for this reason, you may contest the nomination by visiting the page and clicking the button labelled "Click here to contest this speedy deletion". This will give you the opportunity to explain why you believe the page should not be deleted. However, be aware that once a page is tagged for speedy deletion, it may be removed without delay. Please do not remove the speedy deletion tag from the page yourself, but do not hesitate to add information in line with Wikipedia's policies and guidelines. If the page is deleted, and you wish to retrieve the deleted material for future reference or improvement, you can place a request here. -- TRPoD aka The Red Pen of Doom  21:23, 25 April 2014 (UTC)

JavaScript RegExp problem
I noticed you have experience in JavaScript. I'm hoping you can help me with a problem I've run into writing a userscript.

Please see my post at Wikipedia talk:WikiProject JavaScript.

Thank you. The Transhumanist 12:28, 5 May 2017 (UTC)

title: User talk:Wild Bill


text:
Princess Ai

Princess Ai (プリンセス·アイ物語) is a manga series created and co-written by American musician and singer Courtney Love and Stuart Levy, with illustration by Ai Yazawa and Misaho Kujiradou. Based in part on Love's own life, the manga follows an amnesiac alien character, Ai, who is transported to Tokyo from her war-torn homeland, where she attempts to piece her life together.

Co-written by Love and Levy, the manga was initially featured in Japan in Shinshokan's Wings magazine, and later published in English by Tokyopop in three volumes between 2004 and 2006. A sequel, Princess Ai: The Prism of Midnight Dawn, was later published in two volumes in 2008 and 2010, respectively, and was written by Christine Boylan and Levy. Tokyopop re-released the original Princess Ai series in one volume, Princess Ai: The Ultimate Edition on October 9, 2007.

Additionally, comic strips, art books, coloring books, fan books, and action figures based on the series and its characters have been released.

Premise
A young, amnesiac alien girl known only as Princess Ai is mysteriously transported to Tokyo, Japan from her war-torn home, Ai-Land, which is in the midst of a revolution. With only a heart-shaped box to clue her in on her past, Ai makes her living as a rock star at Club Cupid. She falls in love with a sensitive musician, Kent, much to the distaste of Kent's gay, possessive roommate, Hikaru. But Hikaru is the least of Ai's worries when gun-toting talent agents and demons seeking to take control of Ai's homeland, Ai-Land, are hot on her trail.

Main characters

 * Ai - Princess Ai is the main character of the story. She is the product of a relationship between her human father, King Sei, and a Dougen (Angel) female. Because of the war that rages between the Humans and the Dougen in Ai-Land, Ai's true parentage was kept a secret, even from Ai herself. Due to her mixed heritage, Ai sprouted wings on her back, tinged with red, and has the ability to control people's emotions with her singing. Also, Ai loves Nora and Kent, and she is torn between the two.
 * She is fiercely independent. She first learns she had wings in chapter 5.
 * She likes to wear torn clothes; if not, she cuts them. She eventually stops doing it once she got into H.T.A.
 * Her heart-shaped box she always kept with her is made of pure tenketsu, the blood of angels, the primary source of energy throughout Ai-Land. If humans touch it, it leads inevitably to death. If Dougen touch it, they eventually get a narcotic reaction.
 * She remembers in chapter 12 that Queen Lilith isn't her real mother but she still has the royal birthmark of a red rose on her right thigh.
 * Her real powers came out in chapter 15, a power even greater than tenketsu — the power to create light.
 * Kent - Kent is a young man who works at the Shinjuku University library part-time. Kent was one of the first people to discover Ai after she appeared in Tokyo, and offered her a place to stay, an action which caused a lot of friction with his roommate Hikaru. Like Ai, he is of a mixed heritage, being half-Japanese and half-American, and uses this fact to help Ai come to grips with her dual heritage (chapter 11).
 * If it wasn't for Ai's pendant inside her heart-shaped box, Kent would have died protecting Ai from one of Meggi's tenketsu arrows.

Human characters

 * Fa'an - He is a street musician with strangely compelling lyrics who helps Ai discover her flair for singing. He has a knack for appearing and disappearing at just the right time. He watches out for Ai, and is associated with the fallen (Princess Ai : Prism of Midnight Dawn). He is a mysterious person who knows of Ai's past. He even gave the key which unlocks Ai's heart-shaped box.
 * It was revealed in chapter 14 that Fa'an is a watcher, kind of like a guardian angel. He has the power to turn into a vulture.
 * Daisuke - He is Kent's coworker at the Shinjuku University library. Each time Ai came to the library, he tried asking her out, which always ended up being interrupted by Kent.
 * Hikaru - He is Kent's gay roommate. Hikaru has a huge crush on Kent and a hatred for Ai, fueled by jealousy. Later on in the series, he makes peace with Ai and becomes one of her biggest supporters (volume 3, chapter 11).
 * Takeshi - Tough, tattooed, and tawdry, he is a VIP at the nightclub Club Cupid who just happens to work for H.T.A., the hottest talent agency (fictional) in Japan. He was ordered by Hayabusa to eliminate Ai during her worldwide stadium tour but his emotions got in the way (chapter 14).
 * Hayabusa - Takeshi's boss, the powerful president of H.T.A. (Hayabusa Talent Agency), who is allegedly connected with the Yakuza (the Japanese mob). He has major plans for Ai's debut - evil plans. After the destructive event in chapter 10, Hayabusa told Takeshi to have Ai record more songs, go on a stadium tour, and eliminate her on worldwide television. Then she will become a legend. All her unreleased content, music videos, remixes, will be under H.T.A. control and the money will be rolling in for a very long time. He was arrested in chapter 15 for what was about to happen to Ai and various other crimes.
 * Yoshi - Ai's personal assistant seen in volume 2. He is sometimes mistaken for a very tall woman.
 * Hiro - Ai's manager at H.T.A. He is ordered by Hayabusa to keep Ai under control. He tries to kill Ai during a blackout in chapter 15 but her true powers came to light. He got arrested for shooting the gun at Ai.
 * Lissa - She is Ai's tutor back in Ai-Land. She was Ai's best friend but Ai kept her wings a secret from her. From a flashback in chapter 12, Lissa told Ai that Queen Lilith wasn't her real mother.
 * Club Cupid
 * Shinji - The manager of Club Cupid. He lets Ai sing at Club Cupid.
 * Mika - A rude woman at Club Cupid, who calls Ai trashy. She wants Takeshi to notice her own talent and get into H.T.A. instead of Ai's.
 * Jen - The one singer at Club Cupid who takes the time to befriend Ai. Later on in the story, Jen dies getting Ai's heart-shaped box back from a robber.

The Dougen
The Dougen are non-human creatures which live in Ai-Land. The most royal of them are angels.
 * Angels
 * Nora - A leader of the revolutionaries in Ai-Land, this Angel wants equality—not superiority—over humans, but not everyone shares his views. He got really close to Ai and sent her to Earth for her safety. He didn't know that Ai was one of them but knew that Ai is someone who will change the world.
 * Kaz - Nora's radical cousin who believes that the human royal family must be conquered at all costs. Much to Nora's dismay, Kaz dispatched Tess to capture Ai. But later on, he discovers the truth about Ai and understands Nora's point (chapter 15).
 * Kemo - He is only seen in Princess Ai: The Prism of Midnight Dawn. He is one of the angels who helped with the second revolution, and is in league with Kaz. However, he now harbours a personal revenge against Ai, and is on the brink of insanity.
 * Furies
 * Tess - One of the 3 Furies of Ai-Land, she was sent to search out and drag Ai back to her planet. After a radical change of heart, she becomes Ai's protector (chapter 10). She understands that Ai is the key for peace in Ai-Land and Nora's plan is the right one. She has a dragon on each of her red wings which spews out fire. They are weak to liquid.
 * Meggi - The second Furie sister to be sent out to fetch Ai in chapter 11. She is Tess's younger sister. She is devoted to Kaz and is weak to flowers. She uses jealousy and vengeance to manipulate her enemies. She has snakes on each of her wings.
 * Alexa - She is third Furie Sisters to be sent out in chapter 13. She is Tess's and Meggi's sister, and Kaz's last hope to return Ai to Ai-Land. She has the power to freeze time. It is suspected that she has a crush on Takeshi.

Background
Princess Ai is a loose adaptation of Courtney Love's life story, with Ai functioning as Love's fantasy alter ego. In a 2003 interview concerning the series, Love stated: "I have always loved the Japanese culture and people. Princess Ai is a great character, because she feels like my alter ego, but in a fantasy setting." The word "Ai" means "love" in Japanese. It is also generally believed that Kent, the sensitive, blonde guitar player who becomes Ai's love interest, is based on Courtney Love's late husband, Kurt Cobain.

Co-created and co-written by Love and D.J. Milky, the initial run of Princess Ai was written and illustrated by Misaho Kujiradou and featured character designs by Ai Yazawa. According to Nielsen BookScan sales reports, Princess Ai topped the Adult Fiction Overall Trade Paper Graphic Novels list for the week ending July 25, 2004. Princess Ai was published in three volumes from July 6, 2004, to February 7, 2006.Madman Entertainment released Princess Ai in New Zealand and Australia. The series is also licensed in Germany by Tokyopop Germany, in France by Soleil Manga, in Italy by J-Pop, in Finland by Punainen jättiläinen, and in Russia by Comix-ART.

The sequel, Princess Ai: The Prism of Midnight Dawn, was published by Tokyopop in two volumes in December 2008 and December 2009. It is also licensed in Germany by Tokyopop Germany, in France by Soleil Manga, and in Italy by J-Pop.

Volume 3 of Princess Ai: The Prism of Midnight Dawn was planned to be released on March 1, 2011, but, as of 2019, remains unreleased.

Other media
Multiple books based on Princess Ai have been published by Tokyopop. A 72-page art book, Princess Ai: Roses & Tattoos, which included poetry by D.J. Milky, was published on February 13, 2007. On March 12, 2008, Princess Ai: Rumors From The Other Side, a fan book which contained twelve short stories, was published.

Additionally, a colored comic strip collection, Princess Ai of Ai-Land: The Comic Strip Collection, was published on July 8, 2008. On September 1, 2008, Princess Ai: Encounters was released; it featured Princess Ai meeting characters from other Tokyopop manga. Running Press also published a 128-page coloring book, Color Me Manga: Princess Ai, on November 12, 2007.

Merchandise
In 2005, the Los Angeles-based company Bleeding Edge released a series of action figures based on Princess Ai. These included 7 in and 12 in figures of Princess Ai in various states and attires based on scenes in the manga, including: "Angelic", "Borrowed Threads", "Club Cupid", "Evening", "Fell to Earth", and "Rock 'n' Roll" Ai.

At the 2005 San Diego Comic-Con, a Princess Ai cosplay contest was held, with Bleeding Edge providing the action figures as prizes.

title: Princess Ai


text: Category:Stevens County, Minnesota

title: Category:Stevens County, Minnesota


text:
User:JazzNZ

WIP..

title: User:JazzNZ


text:
User:172/Resources

Online research, journals, academic periodicals, and sourcebooks
''Some of the links below are helpful for finding references online. I'm also listing some journals found in JSTOR in particular that come with the benefit of free access.''

Research
 * JSTOR online archives "Established in August 1995, JSTOR is an independent not-for-profit organization created with the assistance of The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation to help the scholarly community take advantage of advances in information technology. In pursuing this mission, JSTOR has adopted a system-wide perspective, taking into account the sometimes conflicting needs of scholars, libraries and publishers." 1
 * Lexis-Nexis
 * Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research (free access for general social survey and national election survey)
 * Paul Hensel's International Relations Data Site
 * United Nations Human Development Report Office
 * World Values Survey ("The World Values Survey is a worldwide investigation of sociocultural and political change. It has carried out representative national surveys of the basic values and beliefs of publics in more than 65 societies on all six inhabited continents, containing almost 80 percent of the world's population." 1)
 * Eldis Country profiles (focus on information related to development)
 * Eurostat (Statistics on European Union countries)
 * OECD (Economic, social, and infrastructure data on industrialized countries)
 * UNICEF
 * World Bank (World Development Indicators database)
 * International Monetary Fund (IMF research and links to World Economic Outlook)
 * UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) FAOSTAT International data on food production, land use, nutrition.
 * UN World Health Organization Statistical Information System (WHOSIS) "The WHO Statistical Information System is the guide to health and health-related epidemiological and statistical information available from the World Health Organization." 2
 * UNDP World Income Inequality Database
 * UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division (World population data and trends)
 * The Association for History and Computing "an organisation dedicated to the use of computers in historical research 3
 * EuroDocs: Primary Historical Documents From Western Europe
 * THE INTERNATIONAL POLITICAL ECONOMY World Wide Web site
 * History of Economics Internet References
 * NON-WESTERN SOURCES ON CONTEMPORARY POLITICAL ISSUES from the Political Science Department and the Bartle Library Collaboratory at Binghamton University "The purpose of this continuously developing web page is to allow Americans to see how people who live in non -Western, or less industrialized societies view a variety of contemporary political issues. It was constructed to meet the teaching and research needs of political science. We believe that it will also be useful for students and teachers in other disciplines." 4
 * Library of Congress Handbook of Latin American Studies

Sourcebooks, encyclopedias, and archives
 * Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress under the Country Studies/Area Handbook Program sponsored by the U.S. Department of Army (public domain text)

 * The CIA Factbook
 * The Jürgen Habermas Web Resource
 * The Heritage Foundation/Wall Street Journal Index of Economic Freedom
 * Glossary of Selected Social Science Computing Terms and Social Science Data Terms
 * A Glossary of Political Economy Terms Dr. Paul M. Johnson
 * FACTS SUBJECT INDEX
 * Marx/Engels Internet Archive

Academic journals and periodicals
 * Foreign Policy (a leading quarterly of international affairs)
 * Foreign Affairs (published by the Council on Foreign Relations)
 * Journal of Democracy (free access)
 * Web page of The Economist
 * Social Forces "Social Forces is a journal of social research highlighting sociological inquiry but also exploring realms shared with social psychology, anthropology, political science, history, and economics. The journal's intended academic readers include sociologists, social psychologists, criminologists, economists, political scientists, anthropologists, and students of urban studies, race/ethnic relations, and religious studies." 2
 * Comparative Studies in Society and History "Comparative Studies in Society and History" is an international forum for new research and interpretation concerning problems of recurrent patterning and change in human societies through time and the contemporary world." 3
 * FERNAND BRAUDEL CENTER for the Study of Economies, Historical Systems, and Civilizations
 * Review, A Journal of the Fernand Braudel Center
 * World-Systems Archive
 * Journal of World-Systems Research (free access)
 * New Left Review (see "A BRIEF HISTORY OF NEW LEFT REVIEW")
 * Monthly Review (free access)
 * American Sociological Association Marxist Section
 * The Socialist Register
 * Review ofRadical Political Economics "The Review of Radical Political Economics (RRPE) publishes articles onradical political economic theory and applied analysis from a wide variety of theoreticaltraditions: Marxist, institutionalist, post Keynesian, and feminist. RRPE is published by Sage Publications." 4

Policy think-tanks, advocacy, other
 * The Cato Institute
 * Brookings Institution
 * American Enterprise Institute
 * Hoover Institution
 * The Jamestown Foundation "The Jamestown Foundation's mission is to contribute to U.S. understanding of its strategic adversaries that pose a threat to democracy and freedom" 4
 * Johnson's Russia List "Johnson's Russia List is a daily e-mail newsletter with information and analysis about contemporary Russia from a wide range of sources." 5
 * The Overseas Young Chinese Forum ("OYCF")
 * Amnesty International (human rights)
 * Human Rights Watch (human rights)
 * One World (sustainable development and human rights)
 * Kennan Institute for Advanced Russian Studies, Woodrow Wilson Center

News agencies

 * Reuters
 * BBC
 * Associated Press (AP)
 * Scripps Howard News Service
 * People's Daily
 * Cox News Service
 * Xinhua
 * CNN
 * Fox News
 * Haaretz
 * Asia Times Online
 * Guardian UK
 * Aljazeera
 * New York Times
 * Teharan Times

title: User:172/Resources


text:
Senait Ashenafi

Senait Ashenafi (born March 10, 1966, in Addis Ababa) is an Ethiopian-born actress in the United States who played Keesha Ward in General Hospital from 1994 to 1998.

Senait was nominated for a NAACP Image Award for "Outstanding Actress In A Daytime Drama Series" at the 29th NAAC Image Awards in 1998.

Senait was featured in the bestselling book "Success Strategies for African-Americans - A Guide to Creating Personal and Professional Achievements" by Beatrice Nivens.

Senait has worked as a dancer, singer, and model. She is the daughter of the Ethiopian composer and ethnomusicologist Ashenafi Kebede and the sister of Nina Ashenafi Richardson, a judge in Florida.

Senait attended Florida State University in Tallahassee, where her father was a professor. She went on to be a guest star on shows such as A Different World, The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air, Mad About You, Amen, The Sinbad Show, Out All Night, Baghdad Cafe and The Ben Stiller Show.

Senait has starred in national and international commercials and print-ads for top companies such as Hilton, J. C. Penney, AT&T, Nexxus Shampoo, Toyota, Citibank, Merle Norman Cosmetics, Milky Way, Pringles, World of Curls, Joico Shampoo and Conditioner, Sprite, Chevy, Montgomery Ward, Miller Lite and Taco Bell.

Upon leaving the role of Keesha Ward on General Hospital in 1998, Senait went on to star in the movie, Honeybee, in 2001, where she portrayed a woman who dropped out of college to pursue a career in female boxing.

title: Senait Ashenafi


text:
Ricardo Elizondo Elizondo

Ricardo Elizondo Elizondo (January 26, 1950, Monterrey – August 24, 2013, Monterrey) was a writer, playwright, historian and archivist,  whose work concentrated on preserving and promoting the culture of northeastern Mexico. Several of his books won awards and other recognitions in Mexico and abroad.

Life
Elizondo was the fourth of six children of Aurora Elizondo of Huinalá and Guadalupe Elizondo of Monterrey proper. Elizondo's father was a worker and union leader at the Fundidora de Fierro y Acero de Monterrey. His mother had served as an arbiter in water disputes in her town.

Elizondo's interest in words and stories both fiction and non-fiction began when he was a child. His great grandparents on his mother's side told him many stories of the area, including battles against the indigenous of the area that were still ongoing at the end of the 19th century. This experience formed the basis of his literary development. He began writing stories in his free time since the sixth grade, when he decided he wanted to be a writer. He also began a project of the vocabulary and speech of his region's Spanish, which would eventually become the book Lexicon del Noreste. Another major influence on his writing was the death of his sister, who was run over by a car when she was seven. The loss shook the family, especially Elizondo, making him more sensible to death, according to his brother Carlos.

Although he knew he wanted to be a writer, his family was practical. He attended the Colegio Civil and then went on to study public accounting at the Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Studies, graduating in 1975. He did study humanities for a time at UNAM, but he did not finish this degree. Later in life, he would earn a masters in humanities from Universidad de Monterrey and a doctorate in history from the Iberoamericana University.

Elizondo retired from his administrative career, but wrote until his death of cancer, which he battled unsuccessfully for two years.

Career
Elizondo wrote novels, short stories, plays, works on history and biographies. He first started published short stories about Huinalá and other communities in newspapers when he was seventeen. In the mid-1970s, he was working as an accountant with the Bank of Mexico, when he met writer Juan José Arreola at a café in Mexico City. He presented some of his short stories to the writer, who had a reputation for supporting young talent, who pronounced Elizondo's work “pure silver.” Elizondo wrote for the El Norte and El Porvenir newspapers, wrote biographies of José Vasconcelos and Martín Luis Guzmán along with histories of businesses and institutions.

Elizondo also had an administrative and academic career which spanned over three decades. In 1975, he became the director of the General Archives of the State of Nuevo León, continuing until 1979. In 1980 he became the director of Monterrey Tech's special collections, called the Cervantine Library. His career with the institution as head librarian and professor spanned 32 years. He retired from this position two years before his death because of his health.

Elizondo was a member of the Academia Mexicana de la Lengua, as well as a member of the Mexican committee of the Memory of the World Programme (UNESCO).

Writing style
Elizondo's style was costumbrista, chronicling life and change in the towns and cities of his border region. He was one of five authors in the 1980s particularly noted for writing about desert life in northern Mexico, which was named “narrativo del desierto” (desert narrative), along with Daniel Sada of Baja California, Gerardo Cornejo of Sonora, Jesus Gardea of Chihuahua and Serverino Salazar of Zacatecas. His first book was a collection of short stories, Relatos de Mar, Desierto y Muerte (Stories of the Sea, Desert and Death), published in 1980.

Several of his works won prizes and other recognitions. Ocurrencias de Don Quijote (1992) received five international awards. Relatos de mar, desierto y muerte received the Premio Nacional de Cuento in 1980. Setenta veces siete won the Premio Colima from the Instituto Nacional de Bellas Artes in 1987. Books such as Narcedalia Piedrotas (1993) and Setenta veces siete (1987) can be found on college syllabi.

He had a passion for photography, which he inherited from his father. In addition to taking photographs, he had a large collection of them from the 19th century. His photographic work made its way into books such as Monterrey, una vision fotográfica, Regiomontanos 1900 and Polvo de aquellos lodos. In 1999, he wrote a commemorative edition on the Palace of Lecumberri on its 100th anniversary (Lecumberri, ángel y escorpión: galería fotográfica del ultimo día) which documented the conversion of the building from prison to the General Archives of the Nation.

Work

 * Setenta veces siete (Seventy times seven)
 * Narcedalia Piedrotas
 * Lexicón del noreste de México (Lexicón of northeastern Mexico)
 * Polvo de aquellos lodos (Dust of the sludge)

Mentions and national and international recognition

 * 1988 Britannica Book of the Year. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Chicago, Auckland, Geneve, London, Manila, Paris, Rome, Seoul, Sydney, Tokyo, Toronto. 1989.
 * New Writing from Mexico. Edited by Reginald Gibbons. Triquarterly Books. Northwestern University. 1992
 * Dictionary of Spanish Literature. Directed by Ricardo Gullón. Alianza Editorial. Madrid, Spain. 1992.
 * Dictionary of Mexican writers of the twentieth century. National Autonomous University of Mexico. Mexico DF 1992.
 * Anthology of twentieth century Mexican narrative. Christopher Michel Dominguez. Economic Culture Fund. Mexico DF 1991.
 * The new historical novel in Latin America, 1979-1992. Seymour Menton. Economic Culture Fund. Mexico DF 1993.
 * The word game: New Mexican story. Lauro Zavala. University of the State of Mexico. 1993.
 * This Mexican narrative. Vincent F. Torres. UAM. Mexico DF 1991.

title: Ricardo Elizondo Elizondo