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Lacquerware

Lacquerware are objects decoratively covered with lacquer. Lacquerware includes small or large containers, tableware, a variety of small objects carried by people, and larger objects such as furniture and even coffins painted with lacquer. Before lacquering, the surface is sometimes painted with pictures, inlaid with shell and other materials, or carved. The lacquer can be dusted with gold or silver and given further decorative treatments.

East Asian countries have long traditions of lacquer work, going back several thousand years in the cases of China, Japan and Korea. The best known lacquer, an urushiol-based lacquer common in East Asia, is obtained from the dried sap of Toxicodendron vernicifluum. Other types of lacquers are processed from a variety of plants and insects. The traditions of lacquer work in Southeast Asia, South Asia and the Americas are also ancient and originated independently. True lacquer is not made outside Asia, but some imitations, such as Japanning in Europe, or parallel techniques, are often loosely referred to a "lacquer."

East Asia
The oldest lacquer tree found is from the Jōmon period in Japan, 12600 years ago. The oldest lacquerware in the world, burial ornaments which were created in 7th millennium century B.C., were unearthed at the Kakinoshima site in Hakodate, Hokkaido, Japan. Various prehistoric lacquerwares have been unearthed in China dating back to the Neolithic period and objects. The early known lacquerware was thought to be a red wooden bowl, which was unearthed at a Hemudu culture (c. 5th millennium BC) site in Zhejiang, China.

Chinese lacquerware
During the Shang dynasty (ca. 1600–1046 BC) of China, sophisticated lacquer process techniques developed became a highly artistic craft.

During the Eastern Zhou period (771–256 BC), lacquerware began appearing in large quantity. This is the earliest era from which notable quantities of lacquerware have survived, with states, later kingdoms, of Qin and Chu producing the largest number of lacquerware. The state of Chu having the geographical advantage and warmer climates enabled dedicated mass cultivation of lacquer trees and for lacquerware to become a commercial industry. Because of this, Chu-state became famous for its lacquerware exports in the neighbouring states in the Zhou kingdom, with literary references found in books like Zhuangzi and Shangshu, and providing some cultural cross-pollination between the southern culture of Chu and the culture of Zhongyuan.

At the time of the Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD), special administrations were established to organize and divide labor for the expanding lacquer production in China. Elaborate incised decorations were used in lacquerware during the Han dynasty.

In the Tang dynasty (618–907), Chinese lacquerware saw a new style marked by the use of sheets of gold or silver made in various shapes, such as birds, animals, and flowers. The cut-outs were affixed onto the surface of the lacquerware, after which new layers of lacquer were applied, dried, and then ground away, so the surface could be polished to reveal the golden or silvery patterns beneath. This was done by a technique known as pingtuo. Such techniques were time-consuming and costly, but these lacquerware were considered highly refined. It was also the period when the earliest practice of carving lacquerware began.

The art of inlaid gold, silver, and mother-of-pearl continued from the Tang into the Song dynasty (960–1279). Several existing decorative techniques gradually developed further after the 10th century, such as diaoqi (carved lacquer) which involves building up layers comprising thinly-applied coats of lacquer and carving it into a three-dimensional design; qiangjin (engraved gold) in which fine lines are incised, an adhesive of lacquer is applied, and gold foil or powder is pressed into the grooves; and diaotian or tianqi (filled-in) in which the lacquer is inlaid with lacquer of another color. A variation of diaotian or tianqi is known as moxian (polish-reveal) in which a design is built up with lacquer in certain areas, the remaining areas are filled with lacquer of a different color, and the entire surface is polished down. Especially the art of inlaying lacquer with mother-of-pearl was intensively developed during the Song dynasty. However, during the Song, the artistic craft also made use of inlaid gold in a process of which is to engrave intricate patterns in the lacquer surface and to fill the intaglio with gold powder.

The knowledge of the Chinese methods of the lacquer process spread from China during the Han, Tang and Song dynasties, eventually it was introduced to Korea, Japan. In Japan, the art of lacquerware-making came along with Buddhism and other cultural artifacts from China via the Korean Peninsula during the 8th century, and carved lacquerware came to Japan from Ming dynasty China during the 14th century. One of the earliest Japanese techniques for decorating the lacquer surface was, besides painting simple designs, the gold and silver foil inlay of the Nara period (710–784). This technique was transmitted from China during the Tang dynasty.

Coromandel lacquer is a Chinese export type, so called because it was shipped to European markets via the Coromandel coast of India.

Korean lacquerware
The very term 'Najeonchilgi' is a combination of two particular words: 'najeon'– mother-of-pearl and ‘chilgi’ which refers to lacquerware. ‘najeon’ refers to the composite material which forms the inner shiny shell layer. The Three Kingdom period (57 B.C. – 668 A.D.) witnessed the introduction of the first method and the second one was introduced during the Shilla period (668 A.D. – 935 A.D.). The Goryeo dynasty (918–1392), considered the golden period of this craft, was influenced by Buddhism.

Japanese lacquerware
The term for lacquer is urushi (漆), source of the English hybrid word "urushiol". Etymologically, urushi may be related to the words uruwashii ("beautiful") or uruoi ("watered", "profitable", "favored"), due speculatively to their value or shiny appearance, or perhaps the humidifying rooms used in production of lacquered wares. The term "Japanning" in the 17th century is a term for the technique used by Europe to emulate Asian lacquer, derived from the then famous Japanese lacquer.

The general characteristic of Japanese lacquerware is the widespread use of various Maki-e techniques compared to other countries. As a result, there are many works in which relatively vivid gold and silver patterns and pictures shine on the black base of lacquerware, and the entire lacquerware is covered with shiny gold and silver grains.

History and regional production
Primitive lacquer was used in Japan as early as 12,600 BC, during the Jōmon period.

Lacquer was used in Japan as early as 7000 BCE, during the Jōmon period. Evidence for the earliest lacquerware was discovered at the Kakinoshima "B" Excavation Site in Hokkaido. These objects were discovered in a pit grave dating from the first half of the Initial Jōmon period (approx. 9,000 years ago) Japanese lacquering technology may have been invented by the Jōmon. They learned to refine urushi (poison oak sap) – the process taking several months. Iron oxide (colcothar) and cinnabar (mercury sulfide) were used for producing red lacquer. Lacquer was used both on pottery, and on different types of wooden items. In some cases, burial clothes for the dead were also lacquered. Many lacquered objects have turned up during the Early Jōmon period; this indicates that this was an established part of Jōmon culture. Experts are divided on whether Jōmon lacquer was derived from Chinese techniques, or invented independently. For example, Mark Hudson believes that “Jomon lacquer technology was developed independently in Japan rather than being introduced from China as once believed”.

During the Asuka and Nara periods, between the 7th and 8th centuries, Chinese lacquer art forms were imported to Japan.

In the Heian period (794-1185), various Maki-e techniques characteristic of Japanese lacquerware were developed. While the method of drawing designs with a brush by dissolving gold powder in lacquer is a common technique in other countries, the method of drawing designs with lacquer and then sprinkling gold, silver, or copper powder of various sizes and shapes on top to polish them was developed in Japan. This made it possible to make the gold and silver of lacquerware brighter than before.

In the Kamakura period (1185–1333), carved lacquer from the Song Dynasty of China was imported to Japan. However, many Japanese lacquer craftsmen did not adopt the Chinese method of depositing lacquer and then carving it; instead, they created Kamakurabori, a method of carving wood and then coating lacquer.

Japanese lacquerware was abundantly exported to China where the Ming and Qing rulers generally described Japanese lacquerwares as " foreign lacquer " ( yangqi ). Yang Ming, and famous lacquer man Zhejiang, made annotations for A Record of Decoration with Lacquer, ... People of the Ming Dynasty once recorded: “The decoration art with lacquer coated with gold originated (maki-e) from Japan". Yang in the reign of Xuande of the Ming dynasty made a trip to Japan to study Japanese techniques, and a Japanese visited a Chinese imperial workshop in Beijing during the Ming dynasty. It is well documented that the Yongzheng Emperor had a formidable interest in Japanese lacquer, yangqi, and this was reflected in many of the works produced in the Imperial workshops during his reign.    In the Azuchi-Momoyama period (1568-1600) also made its way into Colonial Mexico (Manila Galleons) and Europe by Nanban trade. Japanese lacquerware attracted European aristocrats and missionaries from Europe, and western style chests and church furniture were exported in response to their requests.

The Edo period (1603–1868) saw an increase in the focused cultivation of lacquer trees and the development of the techniques used. In the 18th century colored lacquers came into wider use. With the development of economy and culture, the artistic quality of lacquered furniture has improved. Hon'ami Kōetsu and Ogata Kōrin brought the designs of the Rinpa school of painting into lacquerware. From the middle of the Edo period, inro became popular as men's accessories, and wealthy merchants of the chōnin class and samurai class collected inro of high aesthetic value, precisely designed with lacquer. Marie Antoinette and Maria Theresa are known collectors of Japanese lacquerware and their collections are now often exhibited in the Louvre and the Palace of Versailles.

In the Meiji period (1868-1912), Richly-decorated lacquerwares in original designs were popular domestically, and even more so with Western buyers during this period of European and American fascination with Japanese art. Shibata Zeshin's lacquer work was especially popular. In addition, lacquerware called Shibayama, which was created in the Edo period, became popular for its showy style, inlaid with gold, silver, shellfish, ivory, coral, tortoise shell and ceramics, and reached its peak during this period. Lacquerware called Somada, which was created in the Edo period and characterized by regular patterns of finely cut seashells, gold leaf and silver leaf, also became popular during this period. The government took an active interest in the art export market, promoting Japan's lacquers and other decorative arts at a succession of world's fairs. Lacquer from Japanese workshops was recognised as technically superior to what could be produced anywhere else in the world.

Today, the Japanese government has designated excellent lacquer artists as Living National Treasures and is encouraging them to make lacquerware. Lacquerware is produced throughout the Japanese archipelago, with many regional techniques and variations. Besides the very old Kamakura tradition mentioned above (and still alive today), the port town of Wajima provides a good example of regional lacquerware. Wajima-nuri, dating back to the 16th century, is characterized by use of the elm-like Japanese zelkova (keyaki 欅), powdered earth, and delicate features formed from cloth. (See the Japanese article, 輪島塗. A more complete list of regional lacquer traditions is available in the Japanese article.)

Ryukyuan lacquerware
Ryukyuan lacquerware is one of the chief artistic products of the Ryukyu Islands (today Okinawa Prefecture of Japan); it is quite distinct from the lacquerware found among the surrounding cultures. Nevertheless, Chinese and Japanese influences are present.

Burmese lacquerware

Yun-de is lacquerware in Burmese, and the art is called Pan yun (ပန်းယွန်း). The lacquer is the sap tapped from the varnish tree or Thitsee (Gluta usitata, syn. Melanorrhoea usitata) that grows wild in the forests of Myanmar (formerly Burma). It is straw-colored but turns black on exposure to air. When brushed in or coated on, it forms a hard glossy smooth surface resistant to a degree from the effects of exposure to moisture or heat.

History
The earliest fragments of lacquerware basketry found in Bagan dates back to the 13th century. Evidence for older lacquerware in Bagan remains inconclusive.

Bayinnaung's conquest and subjugation in 1555–1562 of Manipur, Bhamo, Zinme (Chiang Mai), Linzin (Lan Xang), and up the Taping and Shweli rivers in the direction of Yunnan brought back large numbers of skilled craftsmen into Burma. It is thought that the finer sort of Burmese lacquerware, called Yun, was introduced during this period by imported artisans belonging to the Yun or Northern Thai people of the Chiang Mai region.

Manufacture and design
Lacquer vessels, boxes and trays have a coiled or woven bamboo-strip base often mixed with horsehair. The thitsee may be mixed with ashes or sawdust to form a putty-like substance called thayo which can be sculpted. The object is coated layer upon layer with thitsee and thayo to make a smooth surface, polished and engraved with intricate designs, commonly using red, green and yellow colors on a red or black background. Shwezawa is a distinctive form in its use of gold leaf to fill in the designs on a black background.

Palace scenes, scenes from the Jataka tales, and the signs of the Burmese Zodiac are popular designs and some vessels may be encrusted with glass mosaic or semi-precious stones in gold relief. The objects are all handmade and the designs and engraving done free-hand. It may take three to four months to finish a small vessel but perhaps over a year for a larger piece. The finished product is a result of teamwork and not crafted by a single person.

Forms
The most distinctive vessel is probably a rice bowl on a stem with a spired lid for monks called hsun ok. Lahpet ok is a shallow dish with a lid and has a number of compartments for serving lahpet (pickled tea) with its various accompaniments. Stackable tiffin carriers fastened with a single handle or hsun gyaink are usually plain red or black. Daunglan are low tables for meals and may be simple broad based or have three curved feet in animal or floral designs with a lid. Water carafes or yeidagaung with a cup doubling as a lid, and vases are also among lacquerware still in use in many monasteries.

Various round boxes with lids, small and large, are known as yun-it including ones for paan called kun-it (ကွမ်းအစ်; betel boxes). Yun titta are rectangular boxes for storing various articles including peisa or palm leaf manuscripts when they are called sadaik titta. Pedestal dishes or small trays with a stem with or without a lid are known as kalat for serving delicacies or offering flowers to royalty or the Buddha. Theatrical troupes and musicians have their lacquerware in costumes, masks, head-dresses, and musical instruments, some of them stored and carried in lacquer trunks. Boxes in the shape of a pumpkin or a bird such as the owl, which is believed to bring luck, or the hintha (Brahminy duck) are common too. Screens and small polygonal tables are also made for the tourist trade today.

Industry
Bagan is the major centre for the lacquerware industry where the handicraft has been established for nearly two centuries, and still practiced in the traditional manner. Here a government school of lacquerware was founded in the 1920s. Since plastics, porcelain and metal have superseded lacquer in most everyday utensils, it is today manufactured in large workshops mainly for tourists who come to see the ancient temples of Bagan. At the village of Kyaukka near Monywa in the Chindwin valley, however, sturdy lacquer utensils are still produced for everyday use mainly in plain black.

A decline in the number of visitors combined with the cost of resin, which has seen a 40-fold rise in 15 years, has led to the closure of over two-thirds of more than 200 lacquerware workshops in Bagan.

Vietnamese lacquer painting and lacquerware
Sơn mài is a painting technique in Vietnam. It developed from the painters of the Hanoi EBAI in the 1930s and today is counted a national painting style with many famous painters.

In 1924 the Ecole des Beaux Arts was established in Hanoi. This institution was to be the birthplace of the revitalised art of lacquer painting. In 1934 the school opened its lacquer department and it was from here that well known contributors to the art including; Bui Trang Chuoc, Nguyen Van Binh, Nguyen Khang, Nguyen Duc Nung, Nguyen Tien Chung, and Pham Van Don would emerge.

It was the first generation of Vietnamese students of the Indochina School of Fine Art during the 1930s, who elevated the craft of lacquer painting to a truly fine art. Less interested in decor than their craftsmen predecessors, it was also these men who would begin a series of artistic innovations from which craftsmen producing purely utilitarian or decorative pieces would also benefit.

Creating images with crushed eggshell, painting pigment over gold and tin foil and adding sand to lacquer were all techniques developed by those first students. The metallic color lacquerware for which Vietnamese craftsmen are rightly famous, was first developed by artists experimenting with many innovative techniques.

After the reunification, the art of lacquerware was slowly dying out in Vietnam. But since the 1980s, the government has recognized it as a vital cultural and economic force and has encouraged the business community to invest in the craft. As a result, we see a resurgence of lacquerware and a proliferation of lacquerware products from Vietnam.

South Asia
In India, the insect lac or shellac was used since ancient times. Shellac is the secretion of the lac bug (Tachardia lacca Kerr. or Laccifer lacca). It is used for wood finish, lacquerware, skin cosmetic, ornaments, dye for textiles, production of different grades of shellac for surface coating. The Atharvaveda text 1200 BCE – 1000 BCE devotes a chapter to 'lākshā' and its various uses.

Barniz de Pasto technique
Barniz de Pasto (es) is a lacquer-like varnish technique originating in the Pre-Columbian era that is a specialty of Pasto, Colombia. It is made by chewing the resin of the Andean mopa-mopa shrub (Elaeagia pastoensis) into thin layers, and then painting it and applying it to a wood, metal, clay or glass surface using heated stones. Historically, the technique was applied to wooden keros, drinking vessels.

Mexican lacquerware
Known in Mexican Spanish as laca or maque (from Japanese maki-e ), Mexican lacquer has independent origins from Asian lacquer. In the pre-Hispanic period, a substance from the larvae of aje scale insects and/or oil from the chia seed were mixed with powdered minerals to create protective coatings and decorative designs. During this period, the process was almost always applied to dried gourds, especially to make the cups that Mesoamerican nobility drank chocolate from.

After the Conquest, the Spanish had indigenous craftsmen apply the technique to European style furniture and other items, changing the decorative motifs and color schemes, but the process and materials remained mostly the same. Asian lacquerware and artisans brought by the Nao de China also had an influence on the style and motifs of colonial Mexican lacquerware. Today, workshops creating lacquerware are limited to Olinalá, Temalacatzingo and Acapetlahuaya in the state of Guerrero, Uruapan and Pátzcuaro in Michoacán and Chiapa de Corzo in Chiapas. The most popular modern lacquerware are small boxes, sometimes known as cajitas de Olinalá.

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Category:Sieges

This category serves as the root for all categories containing articles about sieges, both historical and fictional; it should contain only general articles and sub-categories. Specific sieges should not be placed directly into this category, but into one or more of its sub-categories instead; please see the category guidelines for more information.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Category:Sieges


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Titan (Fighting Fantasy book)

Titan: The Fighting Fantasy World is a book in the Fighting Fantasy series of children's role-playing gamebooks, first published by Puffin Books in 1986. Although credited to Steve Jackson and Ian Livingstone, it was actually written by Marc Gascoigne (credited as editor), although mostly based on locations, characters and events already described in other books in the series (including Jackson's and Livingstone's). It is written in the manner of an encyclopedia about the fantasy world of Titan, in which the majority of Fighting Fantasy gamebooks are set.

Summary
The book was first published in size 21 by 30 centimetres, with colour illustrations inside the covers. A smaller edition (with more pages) was published in 1989 without the colour illustrations. There was a new edition as an e-book by Arion Games in 2011.

The cover was by Chris Achilleos, and is still available to buy as a poster. The black-and-white internal illustrations and maps are by John Blanche (who also contributed one of the internal colour illustrations), Paul Bonner, Leo Hartas, Bob Harvey, Bill Houston, Alan Langford, Steve Luxton, Iain McCaig, Russ Nicholson, Wil Rees, John Sibbick, and Gary Ward.

After a foreword by Jackson and Livingstone, the rest of the book deals with the following topics:
 * The three continents of the fictional world of Titan
 * Astronomy (the stars visible from Titan)
 * History and legend
 * Gods, demons and hell
 * The various humanoid species who live there (such as elves, dwarves, snake people, lizard men)
 * Notable individuals (good, evil and neutral)
 * Underwater kingdoms
 * Titan's calendars
 * Money and trade
 * A description of life on Titan

Geography
The fictional world of Titan is the setting for the majority of the Fighting Fantasy titles. There are three main continents: Allansia, Khul and The Old World, and other remote locations such as the Isles of the Dawn and Arrowhead Islands.

Allansia is apparently the largest continent and the setting for many of the earliest Fighting Fantasy titles. The first Fighting Fantasy gamebook, The Warlock of Firetop Mountain, was set in the titular mountain in Allansia. In the far north of the continent are the desolate Icefinger Mountains (the location for the book Caverns of the Snow Witch) South of these mountains is the city-state of Fang, (location for the book Deathtrap Dungeon). Further south are the Pagan Plains, which stretch from the lawless city-state of Port Blacksand  in the west ( location of City of Thieves) to the monster-haunted Darkwood Forest, to the prosperous city of Salamonis. To the east lie the desolate plains of the Flatlands. In the northeast of the continent is Sardath, a city built on stilts over a lake. Further east is Frostholm, a kingdom inhabited by Dwarfs. South of Port Blacksand lies the Desert of Skulls, home to the lost city of Vatos. Further south lies the region of Arantis. The capital of Arantis is the city of Kaynlesh-Ma, a centre of learning which sits on the River Eltus. Arantis is bordered by two regions that are home to human-hating powers. These are the Snakelands, ruled by a snake-like race, the Caarth; and the Swamplands of Silur Cha, home of the Lizard Men. The Lizard Men in this region are constantly besieging the human city of Vymorna, northwest of Silur Cha. Nearby is the Plain of Bones, home to numerous dinosaurs, and the almost impassable Mountains of Grief. Southwards is Kallamehr, a city of wealthy merchants. The majority of the Fighting Fantasy books are set in Allansia.

West of Allansia lies the "Old World" continent. The Old World is a largely civilized land mass which escaped the cataclysmic wars that devastated the other continents of Titan. It is divided into several kingdoms. The eastern land of Kakhabad is the setting for the Sorcery! series. South of Kakhabad is Analand, a kingdom protected by a Great Wall. Analand's economy is based on mining and forestry; Lake Libra in Analand is regarded as sacred and attracts pilgrims from all over the Old World. North of Kakhabad is the religious nation of Ruddlestone. West of Ruddlestone is the nation of Brice, a autocratic nation regularly at war with its neighbours. South of Brice is Mauristatia, a wild region haunted by vampires and werewolves. In the west of the Old World are the nation-states Femphrey and Gallantaria. Gallantaria is a nation mainly populated by peasants and merchants; its capital, Royal Lendle, is noted as a centre of learning. Gallantaria is bordered by the Northlands, a remote region often at war with Gallantaria. Femphrey is a wealthy kingdom known for agriculture and crystal mining. Femphrey is bordered on the south by the poverty-stricken kingdom of Lendleland.

Khul is a continent to the south of the other two. It is named "the Dark Continent", both due to its remoteness from the other continents and the dark blackish colour of its earth and rocks. Central Khul is dominated by the Wastes of Chaos, a huge internal desert. Founts of raw Chaos magic in the Wastes cause most of the creatures there to mutate horribly. Western Khul is ruled by the Ximoran Protectorate, an alliance of several city-states centered on the city of Ximoran. At the edge of the Protectorate is the "peaceful and prosperous" town of Neuburg, bordering the Cloudhigh Mountains. Southern Khul is dominated by the barren Scythera Desert and the Inland Sea, the latter region being home to numerous pirates. The Inland Sea is bordered by the almost uncrossable Shios’ii Mountains. Over these mountains is the kingdom of Hachiman, ruled by the Shogun. Hachiman is the setting for the gamebook Sword of the Samurai, and is modelled on Feudal Japan.

Characters
Titan is not a novel, but it describes various characters and their biographies. Many of them are characters who had already appeared in gamebooks (usually the main opponent who has to be defeated at the end of each book), but some were taken from Warlock magazine or were invented by Gascoigne for this book.

Characters encountered in gamebooks who appear in Titan include:
 * Zagor (from The Warlock of Firetop Mountain)
 * Balthus Dire (from The Citadel of Chaos)
 * Yaztromo (from The Forest of Doom)
 * Baron Sukumvit (from Deathtrap Dungeon)
 * Shareella (from Caverns of the Snow Witch)
 * Malbordus (from Temple of Terror)
 * The Archmage (from The Crown of Kings)
 * Zharradan Marr (from Creature of Havoc)

Reviews
Reviewing Titan in White Dwarf #84, Graeme Davis said that "the contents are impressive", and stated that the book had a "wealth of rich background information". He also said "the whole thing is beautifully produced and lavishly illustrated", and concluded his review by saying Titan was "probably the best value around in fantasy RPG source books".

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Alexander the Good

Alexander I, commonly known as Alexander the Good (Alexandru cel Bun; c. 1375 – 1 January 1432) was Voivode of Moldavia between 1400 and 1432. He was the son of Roman I and succeeded Iuga to the throne. As ruler he initiated a series of reforms while consolidating the status of the Principality of Moldavia.

Internal politics
Alexander expanded the bureaucratic system by creating the "Council of the Voivode", the Chancellory and by adding (in 1403) the institution of Logofăt – Chancellor of the official Chancellery.

During his reign, he introduced new fiscal laws by adding commercial privileges to the traders of Lviv (1408) and Kraków (1409), improved the situation of trading routes (especially the one linking the port of Cetatea Albă to Poland), strengthened the forts by guarding them and expanded the Moldavian ports of Cetatea Albă and Chilia.

He also had a role in ending the conflict of the Moldavian Orthodox Church with the Patriarch of Constantinople. He built Bistrița Monastery where he is buried and continued the building of Neamț Monastery, which was started in the previous century.

Alexander made the first documented confirmation of gypsy slavery in Moldavia, giving Bistrița Monastery 31 gypsy families along with some cattle.

Foreign affairs
The main concern of Alexander the Good was to defend the country in wars against superior armies. In order to do that, he forged a system of alliances with Wallachia and Poland, generally against Hungary (although he had been backed to the throne by Sigismund of Hungary). In 1402, he was sworn vassal of Jogaila, the King of Poland. The treaty was renewed in 1404, 1407, 1411, and 1415.

Alexander participated in two battles against the Teutonic Knights: the Battle of Grunwald and the Siege of Marienburg. In 1420, he also with the help of Poland defended Moldavia against the first incursion by Ottomans at Cetatea Albă. He also got involved in the power struggles of Wallachia by helping Radu II Prasnaglava in 1418 and 1419 and Alexandru I Aldea in 1429, mostly in order to prevent the capture of Chilia.

Due to a territorial claim of Poland and the previous failure of the Polish king to fulfill his part of the vassalic treaty during an Ottoman attack in 1420, Alexander launched an attack on Poland during the Lithuanian Civil War. The attack ended with the Treaty of Suceava on 18 November 1431.

Personal life
Alexander had a number of wives: Margareta Loszonc, Ana Neacşa, Rimgailė (daughter of Kęstutis and sister of Vytautas the Great; divorced in 1421). He had several children, among whom were Iliaș, Petru III, Stephen II, Peter Aaron, and Bogdan II.

He died on 1 January 1432 and was buried in Bistriţa Monastery.

title: Alexander the Good


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Talk:Green River (Kentucky)

Map
I worked as a deckhand on towboats for almost 11 years from Cape Sandy, Indiana to Cave in Rock Illinois on the Ohio river, and to mile 79 up the Green river. The map shown here is incorrect as to the location of the mouth of the Green river emptying into the Ohio river by a considerable amount. The Green river empties into the Ohio river nearly between Evansville, Indiana, and Henderson, Kentucky. Highway 41 connects these cities and has twin bridges crossing the Ohio river between the two. When crossing these bridges, the mouth of the Green river can be seen about three quarters to one mile (+/-) upstream on the Ohio river.
 * You are correct. The diagram looks to me like it has been fixed. Given the resolution, it appears to be roughly correct, within half a mile.Sbalfour (talk) 04:30, 24 May 2023 (UTC)

I don't think that any portion of the Green River (Kentucky) drainage basin is in Tennessee, or anywhere near it. All of north-central Tennessee is in the Cumberland River basin. I'd like to be show where this is not the case before I edit the article

Rlquall 13:55 5 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * You are correct that this Green River does not rise in or flow through any portion of Tennessee. Near as I can tell, it rises in Lincoln County, in south-central KY. However, there are tributaries of the Barren River (itself a tributary of the Green) which drain a tiny portion of north-central Tennessee in Macon and Sumner counties. older ≠ wiser 14:02, 5 Aug 2004 (UTC)

You are exactly correct -- Little Trammel Creek in Sumner County, and Puncheon Creek in Macon County are both involved. So, now I guess that my question would be if this is enough to make the Green fit into the "Rivers of Tennessee" category, since none of the stream itself is in Tennessee although its basin is.

Rlquall 23:20 6 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * I would say no. The category is not Watersheds of Tennessee, in which case it might qualify. But as a river, it does not flow through any part of Tennessee. older ≠ wiser 01:20, 7 Aug 2004 (UTC)

The last paragraph stating that the locks and dams are closed is not true. Lock and Dam #2 at Calhoun, Kentucky (for one) is definitely open and being used by barges pushing coal downriver.

Green River Lock and Dam #1 at Spottsville, Kentucky is well maintained and in operation as well. I 'think' that both locks #1 and #2 were almost completely rebuilt in the 1950's. I have a poster advertising to "Eat on and ride on "The Sternwheeler" at the dedication of the new Green River locks, Calhoun, KY, Saturday, July 14th, 1956."

green color
The statement that Green River is green because of its depth is absurd. http://www.dartmouth.edu/~etrnsfer/water.htm States that water is blue so why would the depth of the water make it green? There must be something in the water that makes it green.

Also http://eco.confex.com/eco/2010/techprogram/P24980.HTM states that is the algae in the water that makes it appear green.

— Preceding unsigned comment added by 98.19.220.4 (talk) 12:49, 1 November 2011 (UTC)

Headwaters
Most sources say Kings Mountain, Kentucky Fish and Game says Miracle. They're both unincorporated areas. Miracle can't even be found on google maps... it may be an unpopulated or depopulated place. Actually, following the hydrological maps, it appears the headwaters are about midway between Kings Mountain and Stanford to the north, and a bit east of a line connecting them. It places them 6-7 miles north of Kings Mountain and a couple miles south of Miracle (though there's uncertainty exactly what and where Miracle is). They're in the middle of nowhere, as headwaters often are. The river originates in northwesterly flowing streams out of the Pottsville escarpment on the edge of the Cumberland Plateau. That explains quite nicely why the headwaters are where they are. Sbalfour (talk) 04:52, 24 May 2023 (UTC)

SEARCHING
where is the shallowest part of Green River in Kentucky? Lastblacksmith (talk) 05:04, 2 January 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Green River (Kentucky)


text:
User talk:Aecis

Please don't remove
Hi. This is with regards to this deletionI think that the List of 118 titles should stay since the Guinness Book has recently cited this record. Others may be vying for this category as well and referencing it is appropriate. Thank you. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 222.127.216.68 (talk) 06:39, 17 February 2009 (UTC)

Whoops
Sorry about that. Although there are usually plenty of people who keep that area tidy anyway. At least it wasn't in a more prominent position... -- Candlewicke STundefined 22:16, 24 February 2009 (UTC)

THY Flight 1951
And neither do we need to say "rescuers arrived very -quickly- on the scene" either, as this is not true. My uncle was on the plane and was lightly injured, he made it out of the plane himself like many passengers. More than 50 of them were out before any rescue team made it from 2000m afar. He says something like 30minutes, as do the newspapers. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 85.99.6.50 (talk) 19:49, 25 February 2009 (UTC)

-Yes he did (slightly scratched, but quite ok, also helped some other passengers while there), and I am sorry if I am still nervous after that, emotions are strong in our house now. Thanks for toning the article anyway, oh and for the hangar thing, I think it will appear on the press as of tomorrow, as many passengers complained to the journalists about.

---85.99.6.50 (talk) 20:08, 25 February 2009 (UTC)

--Yes, an empty stable indeed, the TV press covered it in the news tonight in Turkey. But why do you think, of all things, a stable??? --85.99.6.50 (talk) 23:41, 25 February 2009 (UTC)

That seems plausible, and is I think the best explanation until now, should we put it in the article? Anyways, look, there's someone that removed again my sourced information + my sources with "help came very quickly according to eyewitnesses" and gave two sources, one that does not cite at all any "quick" help, and another that does not take into account any "eyewitness". Now what should I do? Get angry?? :( --85.99.6.50 (talk) 23:49, 25 February 2009 (UTC)

Aecis, do you agree with my thesis/antithesis proposal at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Turkish_Airlines_Flight_1951#Response_time_emergency_services ? If yes, please let me know so I can put it to that new format. --85.99.6.50 (talk) 00:41, 26 February 2009 (UTC)

 * Here in Turkey, there's that rumor that more people could have been possibly saved with an on-time intervention. Also, the first thing about which my uncle and other survivors (that aired on the TV here) all complained was the time of arrival of the rescue teams. So I do not think it is "not of importance". Unless you think it could tarnish the image of the Dutch 112, but that is another matter. --85.99.6.50 (talk) 00:58, 26 February 2009 (UTC)

 * Sorry, you are right on this one. It's better to wait for things to decantate a little with time.-85.99.6.50 (talk) 01:22, 26 February 2009 (UTC)

 * First of all my english is not very good maybe i wrote something misunderstandable then you say this.

According to my which word you say that?--Zulkarneyn (talk) 03:14, 26 February 2009 (UTC)

e-mail
I've just sent you one. Best wishes, —  Aitias  // discussion 07:24, 26 February 2009 (UTC)

Sarah Chang
Nice catch with this edit to Sarah Chang. According the San Jose library catalog, Chang's Debut CD was "Recorded Mar. 16, 19-20 and Apr. 16, 1991," i.e., when she was 10 years old , and only 16-17 months prior to its August 18 1992 release. TJRC (talk) 01:44, 27 February 2009 (UTC)

Ireland
Please read Republic_of_Ireland. Thanks —Preceding unsigned comment added by 194.125.117.215 (talk) 00:47, 1 March 2009 (UTC)

WikiProject Alternative Music Newsletter for February 2009
SoxBot II (talk) 03:08, 1 March 2009 (UTC)

Wikipedia Signpost — 2 March 2009
This week, the Wikipedia Signpost published volume 5, issue 9, which includes these articles:

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Proposed new policy
As a recent contributor to Deaths in 2009, you may be able to help decide on a proposed new policy. It is proposed that:
 * A month should be deleted from the "Deaths in [CURRENT YEAR]" page ONE WEEK after the month ends.
 * A month should be deleted from the "Deaths in [CURRENT YEAR]" page ONE WEEK after the month ends.

Please opine at Talk:Deaths_in_2009. Don't just say or Also state your reasons and participate in the discussion. Michael Hardy (talk) 16:40, 2 March 2009 (UTC)
 * Support.
 * Oppose.

ISI presidents
Recently you cancelled the two names (Malinvaud and Bodin) I added to the list of ISI presidents. To my knowledge, but not only mine, these two gentlemen had been president of ISI. So could you explain me why you crossed them out? GC (talk) 15:48, 3 March 2009 (UTC)

WPF1 Newsletter (February)
–  Cs-wolves (talk)  10:12, 5 March 2009 (UTC)

Apologies
Apologies, completely my fault, I'm afraid I'm still getting used to using Huggle, and possible going a bit fast. Thanks for letting my know about my error, I'll try and make sure it doesn't happen again - Kingpin13 (talk) 11:48, 7 March 2009 (UTC)

Coordinator Elections
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WPF1 Newsletter (March)
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April Newsletter
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RFC: socionics
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Articles_for_deletion/Socionics Tcaudilllg (talk) 19:29, 29 June 2009 (UTC)

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The Military history WikiProject Newsletter : XLVI (December 2009)
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Unreferenced BLPs
Hello Aecis! Thank you for your contributions. I am a bot alerting you that 3 of the articles that you created  are tagged as Unreferenced Biographies of Living Persons. The biographies of living persons policy requires that all personal or potentially controversial information be sourced. In addition, to ensure verifiability, all biographies should be based on reliable sources. If you were to bring these articles up to standards, it would greatly help us with the current Category:All_unreferenced_BLPs article backlog. Once the articles are adequately referenced, please remove the unreferencedBLP tag. Here is the list:

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Archive
Please archive your talk page, it's becoming hard for me and bots to load.  Cbrown1023   talk   18:36, 6 July 2010 (UTC)
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The Milhist election has started!
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With many thanks in advance for your participation from the coordinator team,  Roger Davies  talk 20:59, 16 September 2010 (UTC)

The Milhist election has started!
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With many thanks in advance for your participation from the coordinator team,  Roger Davies  talk 21:14, 16 September 2010 (UTC)

The Milhist election has started!
The Military history WikiProject coordinator election has started. You are cordially invited to help pick fourteen new coordinators from a pool of twenty candidates. This time round, the term has increased from six to twelve months so it is doubly important that you have your say! Please cast your vote here no later than 23:59 (UTC) on Tuesday, 28 September 2010.

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Suspension of admin privileges due to inactivity
Following a community discussion in June 2011, consensus was reached to provisionally suspend the administrative privileges of users who have been inactive for one year, meaning administrators who have made neither any edits nor any logged actions in over one year. As a result of this discussion, your administrative privileges have been removed pending your return. If you wish to have these privileges reinstated, please post to the Bureaucrats' noticeboard and the userright will be restored per the re-sysopping process (i.e., as long as the attending bureaucrats are reasonably satisfied that your account has not been compromised and that your inactivity did not have the effect of evading scrutiny of any actions which might have led to sanctions). This removal of access is procedural only, and not intended to reflect negatively upon you in any way. We wish you the best in future endeavors, and thank you for your past administrative efforts. RL0919 (talk) 19:54, 8 July 2011 (UTC)

The Bugle: Issue LXVI, August 2011
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The Bugle: Issue LXIX, November 2011
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Military Historian of the Year
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The Bugle: Issue LXXI, February 2012
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Military history coordinator election
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Notice of change
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NETCO AfD
This is just to inform you that I have put a new AfD on NETCO. TheAMmollusc (talk) 07:12, 23 January 2013 (UTC)

gidonb (talk) 01:30, 6 July 2014 (UTC)

WikiProject Military history coordinator election
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Category:Dutch popes
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WikiProject Military history coordinator election
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Hello
Can you help by editing Romanian Football ? Seasons of Liga II. Thanks !--Alexiulian25 (talk) 07:03, 27 October 2015 (UTC)

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ArbCom elections are now open!
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Recent history of Alicante listed at Redirects for discussion
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RC Patrol-related Proposals in the 2016 Community Wishlist Survey
Greetings Recent Changes Patrollers!

This is a one-time-only message to inform you about technical proposals related to Recent Changes Patrol in the 2016 Community Wishlist Survey that I think you may be interested in reviewing and perhaps even voting for:

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The Spanish Society listed at Redirects for discussion
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Proposed deletion of Rowin van Zaanen

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2006–07 Hoofdklasse moved to draftspace
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2007–08 Hoofdklasse moved to draftspace
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Nomination for deletion of Template:Jupiler League
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User group for Military Historians
Greetings,

"Military history" is one of the most important subjects when speak of sum of all human knowledge. To support contributors interested in the area over various language Wikipedias, we intend to form a user group. It also provides a platform to share the best practices between military historians, and various military related projects on Wikipedias. An initial discussion was has been done between the coordinators and members of WikiProject Military History on English Wikipedia. Now this discussion has been taken to Meta-Wiki. Contributors intrested in the area of military history are requested to share their feedback and give suggestions at Talk:Discussion to incubate a user group for Wikipedia Military Historians.

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Nomination for merging of Template:Eerste Divisie seasons
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April 2021 WikiProject Military History Reviewing Drive
Hey y'all, the April 2021 WikiProject Military History Reviewing Drive begins at 00:01 UTC on April 1, 2021 and runs through 23:59 UTC on April 31, 2021. Points can be earned through reviewing articles on the AutoCheck report, reviewing articles listed at WP:MILHIST/ASSESS, reviewing MILHIST-tagged articles at WP:GAN or WP:FAC, and reviewing articles submitted at WP:MILHIST/ACR. Service awards and barnstars are given for set points thresholds, and the top three finishers will receive further awards. To participate, sign up at WikiProject_Military_History/April 2021 Reviewing Drive and create a worklist at WikiProject Military history/April 2021 Reviewing Drive/Worklists (examples are given). Further details can be found at the drive page. Questions can be asked at the drive talk page. MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 17:27, 31 March 2021 (UTC)

"John McAdam," listed at Redirects for discussion
A discussion is taking place to address the redirect John McAdam,. The discussion will occur at Redirects for discussion/Log/2021 April 23 until a consensus is reached, and anyone, including you, is welcome to contribute to the discussion. 𝟙𝟤𝟯𝟺𝐪𝑤𝒆𝓇𝟷𝟮𝟥𝟜𝓺𝔴𝕖𝖗𝟰 (𝗍𝗮𝘭𝙠) 08:22, 23 April 2021 (UTC)

Category:Centenarians has been nominated for deletion
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Proposed deletion of Nieuw Schokland

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Nomination of List of band name etymologies for deletion
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"The Party Party (Netherlands)" listed at Redirects for discussion
The redirect [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Party_Party_(Netherlands)&redirect=no The Party Party (Netherlands)] has been listed at redirects for discussion to determine whether its use and function meets the redirect guidelines. Anyone, including you, is welcome to comment on this redirect at  until a consensus is reached. CycloneYoris talk! 23:49, 19 August 2023 (UTC)

title: User talk:Aecis


text:
Eclectic

Eclectic  may refer to:

Music

 * Eclectic (Eric Johnson and Mike Stern album), 2014
 * Eclectic (Big Country album), 1996
 * Eclectic Method, name of an audio-visual remix act
 * Eclecticism in music, the conscious use of styles alien to the composer's own nature
 * Eclectic Guitar, a compilation recording by American guitarist Chet Atkins
 * Morning Becomes Eclectic, a radio program in Santa Monica, California
 * Sounds Eclectic, a radio program
 * Eclectic Discs, a record label renamed to Esoteric Recordings
 * Eclectic Reel, a collection of music by Italian composer Stefano Lentini

Organizations

 * Eclectic Society (Christian), an English missionary and anti-slavery society
 * Eclectic Society (fraternity), an American fraternity, Phi Nu Theta

Other

 * Eclectic, Alabama, a village
 * Eclecticism, a philosophical movement
 * Eclecticism in architecture, a nineteenth and twentieth-century architectural style
 * Eclecticism in art, mixed styles
 * Eclectic approach, an approach to education
 * Eclectic paradigm, an economic theory, published by John H. Dunning in 1980
 * Eclectic medicine, a 19th century combination of herbalism, physical therapies, and other substances
 * Eclectic paganism, paganism mixed with other religious paths or philosophies
 * Eclectic psychotherapy, in which the clinician uses more than one approach
 * Eclectic shorthand, or cross shorthand, a system of shorthand

title: Eclectic