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Treaty of London (1700)

The Treaty of London (1700) (Verdrag van Londen, Traités de Londres) or Second Partition Treaty was the second attempt by Louis XIV of France and William III of England to impose a diplomatic solution to the issues that led to the 1701-1714 War of the Spanish Succession. Both divided the Spanish Empire without prior consultation and since the Spanish viewed an undivided Empire as non-negotiable, historians generally view them as largely unenforceable.

Charles II of Spain became the last ruler of Habsburg Spain at the age of five in 1665. He suffered from ill health most of his life and despite marrying twice, by 1698 it was clear he would die without children, leaving the question of his successor unresolved. Although no longer the leading European power, the Empire remained a strong global presence and as the closest heirs were from the Austrian Habsburg and French Bourbon families, acquisition by either would significantly impact the European balance of power.

Hoping to avoid another costly conflict like the Nine Years' War, in 1698 William and Louis agreed the Treaty of The Hague (1698), or First Partition Treaty, making Joseph Ferdinand heir to the Spanish throne. It became redundant when he died of smallpox in February 1699 and the Treaty of London replaced him with Archduke Charles, younger son of Emperor Leopold I. It ultimately failed to prevent the outbreak of war in July 1701.

Background

In 1665, Charles II of Spain became the last ruler of Habsburg Spain at the age of five. He suffered from ill health most of his life and despite marrying twice, by 1698 it seemed he was likely to die childless. Although Spain's financial and military power had declined during the 17th century, the Spanish Empire remained largely intact, with territories in Italy, the Spanish Netherlands, the Philippines and the Americas. Since the closest heirs were from the Austrian Habsburg and French Bourbon families, the succession was of great significance to the European balance of power and was a matter of debate for many years. For example, in the 1670 Secret Treaty of Dover, Charles II of England agreed to support the claim of Louis XIV of France.

William III of England saw the Partition Treaties as a way of building on the relationship established at the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick with Louis XIV to create a lasting peace. Imposing a solution to such an important issue on Spain and Austria seemed unlikely with the levels of mistrust between both signatories, which had been at war almost continuously since 1670. William negotiated both treaties without notifying either Parliament or his own ministers, a practice still common in France but not in England. Lord Somers, part of the Whig Junto that managed the English government for William, was generally hostile to the provisions of the First Partition Treaty about which he had learned only shortly before its signature.

Few of William's ministers in either England or the Dutch Republic trusted Louis, an impression strengthened when the Marquis d'Harcourt was sent as envoy to Madrid in November 1698 to build Spanish support for a French candidate. The Spanish were unwilling to allow their empire to be partitioned without consultation to suit the needs of foreign powers. On 14 November 1698, Charles published his will, which made the six-year-old Joseph Ferdinand of Bavaria heir to an undivided Spanish Empire and thus ignored the territorial adjustments specified in the First Partition Treaty. When Joseph Ferdinand died of smallpox in February 1699, another solution was required.

Negotiations

The Spanish court was split into pro-Austrian and pro-French factions, the latter being led by Cardinal Portocarrero, Archbishop of Toledo. For much of Charles's reign, his government was controlled by the pro-Austrians, headed by his mother, Mariana of Austria, then following her death in 1696 by his second wife, Maria Anna of Neuburg. Under their influence, Spain joined the anti-French coalition during the Nine Years' War, which proved a disastrous decision. By 1696, France held most of Catalonia, while Spain was forced to declare bankruptcy in 1692; although Maria Anna managed to retain power with the help of spurious rumours of her pregnancy, Charles was forced to banish her German entourage.

For various reasons, the Austrians were unpopular with most of the Spanish nobility, while Charles also resented their arrogance and made it clear to Harcourt that he would not agree to partition the empire. Many Spanish politicians preferred a French candidate since the wars of the last 50 years suggested France was a better ally than opponent, and its location meant it was better equipped to protect Spain than Austria.

After the death of Joseph Ferdinand, Louis's senior foreign policy advisor, the Marquess of Torcy, quickly drew up a draft proposal with revised terms approved in principle by William in June 1699. However, when the suggested treaty was presented to Emperor Leopold, he initially refused the territorial concessions required and as a result the Dutch delayed formal consent. This meant it was not until 12 March 1700 that the treaty was formally signed in London, then in The Hague on 24th.

Provisions
The main change from the First Treaty was to replace Joseph Ferdinand as heir to the Spanish throne with Leopold's younger son Archduke Charles; Spain retained its empire outside Europe and the Spanish Netherlands but France would gain the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily, the Spanish province of Gipuzkoa and exchange the Duchy of Lorraine for the Duchy of Milan. France would then transfer Naples and Sicily to Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia in exchange for the Counties of Nice and Savoy, the transalpine territories of the Savoyard state which finally become part of France after the Second Italian War of Independence in 1859.

Although Leopold accepted the principle of dividing the Spanish Empire in return for making his son king, he objected to France being granted Spanish possessions in Italy, particularly Milan which he considered essential to the security of Austria's southern borders. In addition, Lorraine was an Imperial state occupied by France in 1670 and returned only in 1697, and its recently-restored hereditary Duke of Lorraine was Leopold's nephew. As a result, enforcing its terms was unlikely since neither Leopold nor Victor Amadeus would agree the territorial exchanges required, while Spain would not accept even the principle.

Aftermath

When the Spanish learned of the terms of the Treaty of London in mid-June, Charles amended his will in favour of Archduke Charles and again specified an undivided monarchy. In September, he became ill once more, and by the 28th, he was no longer able to eat. His death seemed imminent, and on 2 October, Portocarrero persuaded him to alter his will in favour of Philip of Anjou, younger son of Louis, Grand Dauphin and grandson of Louis XIV. He died on 1 November 1700, five days before his 39th birthday

When Louis received the formal Spanish offer to Philip on 9 November, one option was to reject it and insist on Archduke Charles accepting the throne as stipulated by the Treaty of London; this meant that if Leopold continued to refuse the territorial concessions, in theory Louis could then call on England and the Dutch Republic to join him in enforcing it. However, it seems unlikely that this was ever seriously considered since as William noted, it made no sense "to go to war...for a treaty I have only made to prevent war". Philip was proclaimed Philip V of Spain on 16 November and the War of the Spanish Succession began in July 1701.

The treaty not only failed to prevent the outbreak of war in 1701 but also demonstrated that monarchs could no longer simply impose their solutions on nation states. When Parliament finally learned of the terms in March 1700, their reaction was one of fury, partly because they were seen as damaging English commercial interests, but also because they had been approved without their knowledge or consent. The Tory majority subsequently attempted to impeach Somers for his role in the negotiations and while unsuccessful, the process embittered relations between the two parties and had a profound impact on British politics over the next two decades.

title: Treaty of London (1700)


text: File:Lollapaloozalogo.png

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: File:Lollapaloozalogo.png


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West Derby Hundred

The West Derby Hundred (also known as West Derbyshire) is one of the six subdivisions of the historic county of Lancashire, in northern England. Its name alludes to its judicial centre being the township of West Derby (the suffix -shire meaning the territory was appropriated to the prefixed settlement).

It covered the southwest of Lancashire, containing the ancient ecclesiastical parishes of Walton, Sefton, Childwall, Huyton, Halsall, Altcar, North Meols, Ormskirk, Aughton, Warrington, Prescot, Wigan, Leigh, Liverpool, and Winwick. It corresponds roughly to areas of Merseyside north of the River Mersey and also covered parts of modern West Lancashire Borough, Wigan borough, Warrington Borough and Halton Borough.

Domesday Book
When the Domesday Book was compiled, this hundred was composed of three separate hundreds of West Derby, Warrington and Newton-in-Makerfield. The hundreds possibly united in the reign of Henry I. The hundred is surrounded on the west by the Irish Sea and in the south west and south by the River Mersey and Glazebrook, to the east is Salford Hundred and to the north east the River Douglas and Leyland Hundred. Apart from the manor which contained West Derby Castle, said to have been built by Roger of Poitou, there were several other manors which were owned by the Lord of the manor for his own use. At the time of the Conquest these manors incorporated six berewicks encompassing the villages of Thingwall, Liverpool, Great Crosby, Aintree, Everton, Garston and Hale. The main landowner at the time is listed as Uhtred (sometimes spelt Uchtred or Uhtræd)

Expansion of the boundaries
By the end of the 12th century the three separate hundreds had united and West Derby Castle was an important administrative centre rivalling Lancaster in the north of the county. Its position was strengthened by its proximity to the Port of Liverpool, which was founded by King John, trade with Cheshire and the passage of ferries from Liverpool to Birkenhead. By 1327 West Derby Castle was reported to be in ruins.

Court and laws on the hundred
A Wapentake court was held every three weeks with the steward of the hundred officiating. There had been a courthouse in West Derby for over 1000 years since the time of the Vikings. The present courthouse situated in West Derby is from a building which was constructed during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I. The court was used for the presentation of minor offences, or breaches of any laws within the hundred. The King, or lord of the manor had his own bailiff, who was the officer to the sheriff, who had the duty to ensure peace within the hundred and collect any taxes or levys from the people. From the reign of Stephen of England to that of Henry IV this office was a hereditary title held by members of the Walton family of Walton-on-the-Hill. By the fifteenth century the master of the forest was held by members of the Molyneux family, who also held the title of steward of the hundred.

Land changes hands
On 18 October 1229, Henry III granted all land from the Ribble to the Mersey, including West Derby, Liverpool, the village of Salford, and the wapentake of Leyland to Ranulf Earl of Chester and Lincoln. When he died in 1232 without any heir the land was inherited by William de Ferrers, through his wife Agnes, sister of the late earl. The land was then passed on to his son William, and then to his son Robert. In 1263, Robert held court against several people who had committed offences against the deer of his forest. In 1266 he rebelled against the rule of the King Henry III and was beaten at the Battle of Chesterfield, following this he was stripped of his title and land, which returned to the hands of the Crown, which was then given to Edmund, the King's second son, who was later created Earl of Lancaster. The title and land followed the line of descent of honour of Lancaster from Edmund until it was merged into the Crown in 1413, and is vested in the reigning monarch.

19th Century
In 1835 and 1895, Liverpool expanded to include West Derby. In 1889, all remaining administrative functions of historic counties were replaced by Administrative counties of England.

Places encompassed by the hundred of West Derby

 * Aintree
 * Ashton-in-Makerfield
 * Astley
 * Atherton
 * Aughton
 * Bootle
 * Childwall
 * Crosby
 * Eccleston
 * Everton
 * Hardshaw within Windle
 * Ince-in-Makerfield
 * Formby
 * Huyton
 * Kirkby
 * Knowsley
 * Leigh
 * Litherland
 * Lunt
 * Lydiate
 * Maghull
 * Newton Le Willows
 * North Meols
 * Ormskirk
 * Pemberton
 * Prescot
 * Rainford
 * Rainhill
 * St Helens
 * Sefton
 * Skelmersdale
 * Southport
 * Tyldesley
 * Toxteth
 * Warrington
 * West Derby
 * Wigan
 * Widnes
 * Windle
 * Woolton

title: West Derby Hundred


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Fleet Marine Force insignia

The Fleet Marine Force Warfare Insignia, also known as the Fleet Marine Force badge or FMF pin, are three military badges of the United States Navy which are issued to those U.S. Navy officers and sailors who are trained and qualified to perform duties in support of the United States Marine Corps. There are currently three classes of the Fleet Marine Force pin, being that of enlisted, officer, and chaplain.

Enlisted
The Fleet Marine Force Enlisted Warfare Specialist Device (FMFEWS) is a qualification insignia of the United States Navy earned by enlisted U.S. Navy sailors assigned to the Fleet Marine Force of the U.S. Marine Corps who have successfully completed the requirements of the Enlisted Fleet Marine Force Warfare Specialist (EFMFWS) Program per OPNAV Instruction 1414.4B. This involves serving one year with a Marine Corps unit (two years for reserves), passing the Marine Physical Fitness Test (PFT), a written test, demonstrating skills used in service with the Marines such as weapon breakdown and familiarization, land navigation, combat communications and an oral examination by senior enlisted sailors who are FMF qualified. The Enlisted Fleet Marine Force Warfare Specialist designation is most commonly awarded to the hospital corpsman (HM) and religious program specialist (RP) ratings, although it is also awarded to other sailors who support Marine Corps commands (e.g. Logistics Specialists assigned to medical logistics companies). It was created in 2000.

An enlisted U.S. Navy sailor who has qualified, may place the designator (FMF) after his or her rate and/or rate; for example, HM3 John Doe, USN, having qualified for his FMF pin, is identified as HM3 (FMF) John Doe, USN. , all U.S. Navy corpsmen assigned to a Marine unit are required to earn the FMF badge within 18 months of their being assigned to said unit.

Enlisted requirements
When qualifying for the Enlisted Fleet Marine Force Warfare specialist pin, a sailor (typically a hospital corpsman, logistics specialist, religious programs specialist, personnel specialist, along with some construction battalion "SeaBee" units [when directly assigned to a U.S. Marine Corps combatant command]) is required to have detailed knowledge on the following subjects:

CORE
 * Safety Fundamentals (Operational Risk Management)
 * Marine Corps History, Rank Structure, and Courtesies (notable dates, personnel, battles, and Naval courtesies as they pertain to the USMC)
 * Marine Corps Mission and Organization
 * Administrative Fundamentals (Naval correspondence, courts martial, and service record information)
 * General Combat Leadership Fundamentals (Combat elements, POW rights and responsibilities, Military Code of Conduct)
 * First Aid and Field Sanitation Fundamentals (Triage, MEDEVAC & CASEVAC classifications, "Self" and "Buddy" aid skill sets for non-medical personnel)
 * Security Fundamentals (Security classifications, terrorism, lethal force, and guard skills training)
 * Field Communication Fundamentals (hands on detailed knowledge of the PRC-119 SINCGARS radio, loading frequencies and communication of the 9-Line CASEVAC message)
 * Weapons Fundamentals (Detailed knowledge of small arms such as the M9, M16A4, M4, M1014, M67 grenade, M203, and M249 SAW) and machine gun platforms (M240G, M2 .50 cal, Mk19)
 * Tactical Fundamental Procedures (platoon hand and arm signals, SALUTE and SMEAC reports, fighting positions, MOPP gear, formation movements in day/night conditions)
 * Marine Corps Operations Fundamentals (In-depth knowledge of all USMC aircraft, US Navy amphibious transports, hospital ships, as well as Urban warfare examples, and Military Operations Other Than War examples)
 * Chemical, Biological Radiological and Nuclear Defense Fundamentals (minefield signage and detailed signs, symptoms, & treatment of chemical agent exposures)
 * Drill and Ceremonies Fundamentals (breakdowns of formations, drill & cadence, color guards, and formal ceremonies)
 * Land Navigation Fundamentals (Map reading and compass handling)

Additionally a second section of the course is detailed toward the element of the United States Marine Corps with which the candidate is assigned. For example: a line corpsman with an infantry battalion will learn the Ground Combat Element (GCE).

GCE
 * Infantry Fundamentals (Mission & structure of the Marine Division, Regiment, Battalion, Infantry & Weapons Companies, Platoon, Squad, and Fire teams)
 * Marine Artillery Regiment (Mission, structure, equipment of the Arty battalion; such as the M198 or M777 Howitzer)
 * Tank Battalion Fundamentals (Mission, structure, and equipment of the Tank Battalion; such as the M1A1, TOW Missile, M88A1E1 Hercules, and M60A1 Bridge Vehicle)
 * Assault Amphibious Battalion Fundamentals (Mission, structure, and vehicles of the AAB; such as the AAVP7A1, AAVC7A1 and AAVR7A1)
 * Combat Engineer Battalion Fundamentals (Mission, structure, mobility/counter mobility/survivability tasks of the CEB, Engineer Support Company, and Combat Engineer Company)
 * Light Armored Reconnaissance Battalion (Mission, structure, and vehicles of the LAV Battalion; such as the LAV-25, LAV-M, LAV-AT, LAV-C2, LAV-R, and LAV-L)
 * Amphibious Reconnaissance Battalion Fundamentals (Mission, tasks, and training of Force Recon and Division Recon)

Furthermore, to finally qualify, a candidate is expected to perform a disassembly and reassembly of many of the taught weapon systems, operate a SINCGARS radio, plot various points on a map, perform various carries and life saving medical techniques, and in many cases perform (and pass) a Marine Corps Physical Fitness Test (PFT) and Combat Fitness Test (CFT).

Although this qualification is for enlisted personnel serving in the United States Navy, it is unique in that only Commanding Generals or Commanding Officers of qualifying U.S. Marine Corps commands, Division, Group, or Wing; can approve awarding of the designation. As such, to some corpsmen it is the most coveted warfare insignia within the hospital corpsman community.

The eagle, globe, and anchor (EGA) makes a clear statement that the wearer is a member of the Navy/Marine Corps team. The crossed rifles symbolize the rifleman ethic of the Marine Corps; every Marine is a rifleman, just as every Sailor is a firefighter and damage controlman aboard ship and submarine. The surf and sand represent the "littoral zone," the coastal regions where sailors have served alongside Marines as they earned their reputation and world's respect -- "the shores of Tripoli" and the "sands of Iwo Jima." The scroll at the bottom stating "Fleet Marine Force" shows the exclusive community they belong to.

Officer

The Fleet Marine Force Warfare Officer (FMFWO) Insignia is earned by Navy officers assigned to the Fleet Marine Force of the U.S. Marine Corps who have completed the requirements including serving for one year in a Marine Corps command, completing a written test, passing the Marine PFT, and an oral board conducted by FMF qualified officers. The FMF Qualified Officer Insignia is most commonly earned by staff officers in the medical fields and chaplains, although it is also awarded to other officer communities, such as Civil Engineer Corps and naval gunfire officers. Florida Governor Ron DeSantis became FMF qualified while serving as a JAG officer.

The FMFWO insignia is a gold, highly polished, metal device depicting the eagle, globe and anchor (EGA) atop two crossed rifles on a background of ocean swells breaking on a sandy beach atop a scroll with the words "Fleet Marine Force."

The EGA makes a clear statement that the wearer is a member of the Navy/Marine Corps team. The crossed rifles symbolize the rifleman ethic of the Marine Corps; every marine is a rifleman, just as every sailor is a firefighter and damagecontrolman aboard ship and submarine. The surf and sand represent the "littoral zone," the coastal regions where sailors have served alongside Marines as they earned their reputation and world's respect -- "the shores of Tripoli" and the "sands of Iwo Jima." The eagle, continents, and rifles are highlighted with a highly polished silver finish. The qualification was created in July 2005; SECNAVINST 1412.10 outlines the requirements for qualification.

Chaplain
Chaplains do not bear arms; therefore, they are designated as Fleet Marine Force Qualified Officers vice Fleet Marine Force Warfare Officers, and are waived from completing certain [weapons related] portions of the Personnel Qualification Standards (PQS). The Chaplain version of this badge does not include the crossed rifles and has a gold anodized finish.

Navy Fleet Marine Force Ribbon
As a result of the Fleet Marine Force Qualified Officer and Enlisted Fleet Marine Force Warfare Specialist programs, the Navy Fleet Marine Force Ribbon was replaced effective October 1, 2006.

Those individuals who previously qualified for the Navy Fleet Marine Force Ribbon will retain the FMF designator; however, they are not entitled to wear the EFMFWS insignia until completing another FMF assignment and meeting all requirements outlined in OPNAVINST 1414.4B.

title: Fleet Marine Force insignia


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Sean kubin

This person doesn't seem to have done anything of note. Deb 18:30, 22 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * "Sean looked towards restraunt management, and then to real estate. Sean represents the technically skilled professionals that emerged after the explosion of the computer job market.". Nope. Downsize, and delete. Ianb 19:52, 22 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Vanity page. Delete. - Kenwarren 21:32, Jul 22, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete Yes, even Allan the liberal libertarian and defender of diversity has trouble finding anything of note here! Not only is the article devoid of ideas but for a writer who calls himself a leet (elite), he can neither spell nor string together a coherent sentence. Arevich 21:34, 22 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. "The digital age functionally halted the academic progress until the internet became affordable in 1994."  What the hell does that even mean?  And how is "Mark Cuban" a famous "Kubin"? Postdlf 13:34, 23 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * I'm almost tempted to leave so that if he ever applies for a job his prospective employer might find this on the web. But no, delete. DJ Clayworth 17:13, 26 Jul 2004 (UTC)


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Talk:Freikorps

Just a question
Whats the vehicle next to the soldiers in the first picture? R34p3r2006 (talk) 09:56, 30 July 2020 (UTC)

 * The annotation of the bottom says "Panzerwagon". To me it looks like a "do it yourself" armored vehicle. 2600:6C63:647F:673D:A3F2:499D:D93E:A233 (talk) 01:25, 7 March 2023 (UTC)

Untitled
I am wondering should this article be melded into Weimar paramilitary groups and have [Freikorps] as a redirect page? It is good that someone sees alltogether all the paramilitary groups and shows the disintegration of German society during the Weimar period.WHEELER 18:31, 22 Jul 2004 (UTC)

I believe the Friekorps actually existed before Weimar was formally estabished. They were really at their strongest in the period of the provisional government between the fall of the monarchy and the adoption of the Weimar constitution.

So the answer to your question is no.216.209.78.47 20:07, 23 Jul 2004 (UTC)

I agree with the first poster, this page needs a merge. RomanK79 (talk) 08:11, 8 September 2014 (UTC)

 * No, this page should not be merged. The Freikorps had a distinct identity that marked them out. More importantly, and this is something this page does not explain at all, the Freikorps were created by the German state. The other paramilitary groups were loyal to political parties. Nowhere would you know that from reading this page that the Freikorps were founded in December 1918 by General Wilhelm Groner and his right-hand man, General Kurt von Schleicher. The statement about the Freikorps being right-wing is a little inaccurate. In December 1918, much of Berlin was under the control of elements of the radical left, and there was believed to be a shortage of reliable soldiers to defend the new republic from the threat of a Communist putsch. The Freikorps were supposed to be volunteers who could be depended upon to defend the new republic. The Freikorps were not supposed to be a political force; it just happened that sort of men who tended to volunteer for the Freikorps were usually on the extreme right. What this article should say is that the Freikorps were created by the state and became a sort of Frankenstein's monster that ultimately turned against its creators, in a certain way. --A.S. Brown (talk) 20:22, 17 May 2015 (UTC)

Innacurate early history
Historically, a "Friekorps" -- usualy used in English as "Free Regiment" was NOT a militia but a mercenary unit. They were "free" to change their allegience if their employer, whether a duke, a margrave or a prince ("furstin") or even an urban republic, decided that it could no longer afford to pay them.

German military law recognized them as legal soldiers, even when traveling from one country to a new job in another, and I read a book of military law, carried in the late 1800's, that required a Friekorps be allowed to pass unhindered through neutral countries.

Look up the history of the Thirty Years War.68.5.64.178 20:04, 15 January 2007 (UTC)

I would think a merger would work better as well. This article only talks about a very specific group. 2001:4C28:4000:721:185:26:182:30 (talk) 08:09, 8 September 2014 (UTC)

Freikorps members -- outsiders during the Third Reich?
Source for this? It doesn't sound very credible that nationalistic, anti-communist ex-soldiers would be uninterested in Nazi aims (or of no use to Nazis).

If I'm not mistaken, part [probably individual members rather than a specific formation] of the Garde-Kalvarie later ended up in the SA. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Bill Vick (talk • contribs) 16:47, 8 September 2014 (UTC)

Merger proposal
I have proposed that Weimar paramilitary groups be merged into this article.
 * no - look to the top of the page. Freikorps were at least 100 years older than the ill-fated republic. --89.49.142.139 (talk) 09:45, 6 January 2008 (UTC)
 * This discussion is clearly moribund, so I have removed the merger template. --- RepublicanJacobite  The'FortyFive'  03:32, 12 February 2008 (UTC)

most ended up as ss genrals — Preceding unsigned comment added by 90.210.198.140 (talk) 15:29, 12 September 2012 (UTC)

Perhaps a comparison would be interesting
As I noted above, the Freikorps were founded in December 1918 to defend the new republic from being overthrown by Communists. The Freikorps were volunteers whose only job was to defend the government; in no way were the Freikorps intended to be a political force. But a very particular sort of men tended to volunteer for the Freikorps, namely the World War I veterans who could not adjust to civilian life and still craved for the carnage and mayhem of war. The sort of men who loved killing people during the war, and still longed to go on killing understandably had a lot of trouble adjusting to civilian life. That sort of veteran who could not fit into civilian life almost always were on the extreme right. It should noted that not all German veterans of World War I were like this; the pacifistic League of the War Wounded had three times the total membership of the Freikorps. The sort of veteran who loved war and could not get enough of it were the ones who joined the Freikorps; the ones who had enough of war did not. Furthermore, this was not unique to Germany. There are striking resemblances between the sort of German veteran who joined the Freikorps and the sort of British veteran who joined the Black and Tans. The sort of British veteran who wanted to go on killing and could not fit into post-war British society usually ended up in the Blacks and Tans; much of the brutality of that force seems to be due to the sort of men who volunteered as opposed to some sort of innate anti-Irish racism within British society. This is something that historians have often commented upon, and perhaps this article should mention that. A.S. Brown (talk) 20:59, 17 May 2015 (UTC)

Communist uprisings
This is unclear - which communist uprisings?

This reference seems incongruous with what's stated in the lead: "Freikorps were raised to fight against the newly formed Weimar Republic, as well as their left-wing counterparts, through the early 1920s. These paramilitary organizations 'roamed the countryside, killing with impunity.' 'They engaged in bloody confrontations with republican loyalists and engineered some of the more notorious assassinations' of the Weimar period, and are widely seen as a 'precursor to Nazism'."

I added the clarification tag for now:

"Others, angry at their sudden, apparently inexplicable defeat, joined up in an effort to put down communist uprisings or exact some form of revenge."

Not sure if this article is monitored or not. If yes, please provide clarification. If not, I'd like to remove "communist uprisings" or add to read "so-called communist uprisings." --K.e.coffman (talk) 22:11, 27 November 2015 (UTC)

 * You need to read around the subject before proposing to delete material you're unsure of. In the wake of the First World War, revolution broke out in Germany inspired by the success of the Bolsheviks in Russia. The German Communist Party was founded in Dec 1918 and immediately launched the Spartacist uprising of 1919 in Berlin. They were put down by the Freikorps. Similarly the Munich Soviet Republic was overthrown by Freikorps troops in 1919. Just two examples. Bermicourt (talk) 09:10, 28 November 2015 (UTC)

Freikorps after the First World War
I've moved the text in the lede about the role and actions of the Freikorps after the First World War to this page for discussion. Some of it had already been tagged "dubious" and the 2 references were to newspaper articles that tend to simplify and hype stories. The articles don't quite reflect the text either. I'm sure there are elements of truth about it, but it may need to be balanced. I'll take a look at the German Wiki article which appears more comprehensive and may help.

--Bermicourt (talk) 16:15, 9 April 2017 (UTC)

 * The post-World War I history of the Freikorps is notorious and well-established--and there is a large section in this article that deals with it. I would say if there is any real problem with this article is its overemphasis on the comparatively unimportant and only tangentially relevant pre-WWI manifestations. But removing the post-WWI history entirely from the lead smacks of the newspeakish. Edit and source what's there further, fine. But don't just cut it out. I put it back and I think discussion can lead from there. Leaving it out for any length of time can actively mislead a reader in a much worse way then can less-then-ideal sourcing. Doprendek (talk) 02:34, 18 April 2017 (UTC)

 * I removed the section in good faith and placed it here for proper discussion. The references are poor, the text smacks of journalistic hype and another editor has already tagged it as "dubious". By putting it back in, you're not following good Wiki practice but appear to be pushing your own WP:POV. If this piece of history is so "well established" you would surely be able to find authoritative sources to back it up. Since you've broken normal procedure and put the words back, the onus is on you to source it properly and quickly. --Bermicourt (talk) 08:08, 18 April 2017 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 12:06, 9 January 2020 (UTC)
 * Pochod Freikorpsu v Hazlové u Aše 1938.jpg

Split proposal
I have added a "split" template to this page. My rationale is that the article currently deals with several topics which are only tenuously linked, namely: As far as I can see, the only basis for connecting (2) and (3) is the appropriation of the recognised term by the latter but this is pretty tenous and could easily be explained in prose. I can seen no basis for including (4) in the same article as (2) and (3) at all. My suggestion is that the current article be cut into articles addressing each of these four issues. —Brigade Piron (talk) 10:49, 16 November 2020 (UTC)
 * 1) The concept of a "free corps" in military doctrine;
 * 2) The Freikorps of the German states during the Napoleonic era;
 * 3) The Freikorps active in Germany and German-occupied parts of Eastern Europe in the aftermath of the First World War;
 * 4) French Corps francs active between 1940 and 1943.
 * Perhaps so. I came here by way of the assassination of Darlan in World War 2, and the lead might give a casual reader the impression that the assassin supported the Germans, which would be completely wrong Elinruby (talk) 20:50, 22 February 2021 (UTC)
 * I agree, though I think the change only would require the section on the Corps franc to be cut out. I think moving this article to a new name (i.e "Free corps") and restructuring it around a more general view of the concept of a free corps, while still including the historical context in Germany would be good. From there, more info about other specific countries could be added to further generalize things. Of course, this is precluding that someone would even want to rewrite the leading section AND write an entire new section dedicated to the concept of a free corps in general military doctrine, and also that there is a reliable set of criteria the page can stick to regarding whether or not something is a "free corps." I think later the Corps franc can also be re-evaluated as to whether or not it qualifies since the criteria are so unclear right now. — ComradeCheekiBreeki (talk) 19:59, 30 April 2021 (UTC)
 * I agree with ComradeCheekiBreeki's suggestion on structuring the article around a more general "free corps" topic considering there are other, non-German units of the same name. Perhaps an article rename is also justified? Owen250708 (talk) 11:38, 15 March 2022 (UTC)

Sturmabteilung
Shouldn't the term Sturmabteilung (Brownshirts) be mentioned at least briefly in this article? 173.88.246.138 (talk) 15:54, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

Ukraine
I think it should be mentioned that there is also an Ukrainian paramilitary group that calls itself "Freikorps" and fights in the current conflict with Russia. --MrBurns (talk) 22:14, 14 February 2022 (UTC)

Re-added split proposal
I am dusting off the previous split proposal, which I see was removed some time back in an apparent act of vandalism. I've developed something of an idea for how these two new articles, Free corps and Freikorps respectively, should be formatted. As for the names, Free corps already exists but is a redirect to a list. Freikorps might need a qualifier on it (i.e Freikorps (Weimar Republic) or something of the sort), as other units of the name existed.

My reasoning for the split is thus: A "free corps" is a general type of military unit, whose naming was popularized by German states during the Age of Sail. Freikorps is the title of many of these German units, however not all free corps were German, and not all of them were called Freikorps. This current article is obsessed over the Weimar-era Freikorps paramilitaries, and in general is focused too much on German-speaking countries' implementations of this idea. While the second one is more understandable, the first one seems to be a confusion over the naming of this article, leading both people who want to talk about a "free corps" in general and people who want to talk specifically about the Weimar Freikorps to make edits in the same place. As such, to prevent confusion, the Weimar Freikorps needs its own home, and the page for discussion of what a "free corps" is in general needs to be separate as well.

The criteria I've developed for what can be considered a "free corps," just from skimming the writing, is that:
 * 1) The individuals in a free corps must be irregular or paramilitary. This does not mean they need to be unorganized or untrained (though many were), but merely that they are not "regular" fighters.
 * 2) A free corps needs to be under the nominal control of an established standing military force, while still being afforded a greater degree of autonomy than most members of said military.
 * 3) Unlike a band of mercenaries, a free corps as a whole is not formed for the purpose of, and does not fight exclusively for, money.

The second and third ones are most important, as they separate free corps from most other kinds of similar units. I think these criteria are enough for now, but if anyone has any suggestions I'm ready to hear them.

I've already started working on the leading section of the new "free corps" page (which in my opinion should remain with most of the current content on this page), and I will try to get it in a sandbox ASAP. In the meantime, I think that this article should be cleaned up and some consideration should be given as to what content goes where. ComradeCheekiBreeki (talk) 05:25, 24 October 2022 (UTC)

 * What other countries used "Free corps" aside Germany? The current article only lists France. Got any sources for others? //Lollipoplollipoplollipop::talk 21:49, 2 April 2023 (UTC)
 * The key here is to follow the sources. I don't have access to my military library right now, but it's interesting that Freikorps is much more common in English than 'free corps' (see Ngram Viewer) and that, if you type "free corps" into Google Books, you overwhelmingly get books on the German instantiation of this concept. Also the German Wiki article on this subject covers German units almost exclusively, from the 18th C to the early 20th C. So my sense at this early stage is that this article should focus on the German Freikorps, since that is the primary topic, but that there could be an overview section or separate article about other 'free corps' using whatever is most common in the literatur. Otherwise 'free corps' should be a dab article and the current List of Free Corps should be split, with German units moved here and units of other countries listed at the dab/separate article. Bermicourt (talk) 15:49, 16 May 2023 (UTC)

Hitler quote used to describe Freikorps
Under the Freikorps identity and ideals section, a quote from Adolf Hitler addressing the Hitler Youth is used to describe the Freikorps, "In our eyes, the German boy of the future must be slim and slender, as fast as a greyhound, tough as leather and hard as Krupp steel". An excerpt of this is used in the article saying 'They were to be as "swift as greyhounds, tough as leather, [and] hard as Krupp steel" so as to defend what remained of German conservatism in times of social chaos, confusion, and revolution that came to define the immediate interwar era.' It would be inaccurate to say this was a description used for the Freikorps when it was really intended for the Hitler Youth. Though many of these attributes may have been similar it's a misuse of this quote. AntonVonWerner (talk) 10:15, 9 September 2023 (UTC)
 * The quote is quite infamous. I see it as illustrative, rather than factual, but I tend to agree it's not a good quote to use in this context. Kleuske (talk) 10:20, 9 September 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Freikorps


text:
Mike Williams

Mike Williams or Mikey Williams may refer to:

American football

 * Mike Williams (cornerback) (born 1953), American cornerback
 * Mike Williams (American football coach) (born 1954), American football coach at Jacksonville State University
 * Mike Williams (American football, born 1957) (1957–2013), American tight end and fullback who played for the Kansas City Chiefs
 * Mike Williams (tight end) (born 1959), American tight end who played for the Washington Redskins
 * Mike Williams (wide receiver, born 1966), American wide receiver who played for the Detroit Lions and Miami Dolphins
 * Mike Williams (offensive lineman) (born 1980), American offensive lineman
 * Mike Williams (wide receiver, born 1984), American wide receiver who played collegiately for USC
 * Mike Williams (wide receiver, born 1987) (1987–2023), American wide receiver who played collegiately for Syracuse
 * Mike Williams (wide receiver, born 1994), American wide receiver for the New York Jets

Association football

 * Mike Williams (footballer, born 1956), Welsh football player for Wrexham and Bangor City
 * Mike Williams (footballer, born 1965), Welsh football player for Chester City and Wrexham
 * Mike Williams (footballer, born 1969), English football player
 * Mike Williams (footballer, born 1986), Welsh football player for Wrexham and Altrincham

Basketball

 * Mike Williams (basketball) (born 1963), American basketball player
 * Mikey Williams (basketball, born 1991), Filipino-American basketball player
 * Mikey Williams (basketball, born 2004), American basketball player

Other sports

 * Mike Williams (baseball) (born 1968), American baseball player
 * Mike Williams (boxer) (born 1962), American boxer
 * Mike Williams (rugby union) (born 1991), Zimbabwean rugby player

Musicians

 * Mike Will Made It (born 1989), hip-hop producer
 * Mike Williams (singer) (born 1968), singer for Eyehategod
 * Mike Williams (trumpeter), lead trumpet for the Count Basie Orchestra
 * Mike Williams (DJ) (born 1996), electronic music producer
 * Mike Williams, vocalist for The Agony Scene
 * Mike Williams, former bassist for Project 86

Others

 * Jerry Michael Williams, sometimes known as Mike, a Florida man who was murdered in 2000
 * Mike Williams (New Zealand politician) (born 1949), former President of the New Zealand Labour Party
 * Mike Williams (journalist) (born 1979), British music journalist and current editor of NME
 * Mike Williams, deputy of "Wild Bill" Hickok who was accidentally shot and killed by Wild Bill
 * Mike Williams, former President and CEO of Fannie Mae
 * Mike Williams, lawyer and assistant to Daniel Fried
 * Mike Williams, of Plastiq Musiq, American retailer of electronic pop music
 * Mike Williams, American experimental particle physicist

title: Mike Williams


text:
Atazanavir

Atazanavir, sold under the brand name Reyataz among others, is an antiretroviral medication used to treat HIV/AIDS. It is generally recommended for use with other antiretrovirals. It may be used for prevention after a needlestick injury or other potential exposure (postexposure prophylaxis (PEP)). It is taken by mouth.

Common side effects include headache, nausea, yellowish skin, abdominal pain, trouble sleeping, and fever. Severe side effects include rashes such as erythema multiforme and high blood sugar. Atazanavir appears to be safe to use during pregnancy. It is of the protease inhibitor (PI) class and works by blocking HIV protease.

Atazanavir was approved for medical use in the United States in 2003. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. As of 2017 there is a generic version available in the United States manufactured by Teva Pharmaceuticals

Medical uses

Atazanavir is used in the treatment of HIV. The efficacy of atazanavir has been assessed in a number of well-designed trials in ART-naive and ART-experienced adults.

Atazanavir is distinguished from other protease inhibitors in that it has lesser effects on lipid profile and appears to be less likely to cause lipodystrophy. There may be some cross-resistant with other protease inhibitors. When boosted with ritonavir it is equivalent in potency to lopinavir for use in salvage therapy in people with a degree of drug resistance, although boosting with ritonavir reduces the metabolic advantages of atazanavir.

Pregnancy
No evidence of harm has been found among pregnant women taking atazanavir. It is one of the preferred HIV medications to use in pregnant women who have not taken an HIV medication before. It was not associated with any birth defects among over 2,500 live births observed. Atazanavir resulted in a better cholesterol profile and confirmed that it is a safe option during pregnancy.

Contraindications
Atazanavir is contraindicated in those with previous hypersensitivity (e.g., Stevens-Johnson syndrome, erythema multiforme, or toxic skin eruptions). Additionally, atazanavir should not be given with alfuzosin, rifampin, irinotecan, lurasidone, pimozide, triazolam, orally administered midazolam, ergot derivatives, cisapride, St. John's wort, lovastatin, simvastatin, sildenafil, indinavir, or nevirapine.

Atazanavir inhibits the enzyme UDP glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) 1A1, thereby impacting the hepatic glucuronidation and elimination of bilirubin. As such atazanavir may not be prescribed to patients with UGT1A1 deficiencies (e.g. those who suffer from Gilbert's syndrome or Crigler–Najjar syndrome) in order to avoid the possibility of jaundice.

Adverse effects
Common side effects include: nausea, jaundice, rash, headache, abdominal pain, vomiting, insomnia, peripheral neurologic symptoms, dizziness, muscle pain, diarrhea, depression and fever. Bilirubin levels in the blood are normally asymptomatically raised with atazanavir, but can sometimes lead to jaundice.

Mechanism of action
Atazanavir binds to the active site HIV protease and prevents it from cleaving the pro-form of viral proteins into the working machinery of the virus. If the HIV protease enzyme does not work, the virus is not infectious, and no mature virions are made. The azapeptide drug was designed as an analog of the peptide chain substrate that HIV protease would cleave normally into active viral proteins. More specifically, atazanavir is a structural analog of the transition state during which the bond between a phenylalanine and proline is broken. Humans do not have any enzymes that break bonds between phenylalanine and proline, so this drug will not target human enzymes.

title: Atazanavir


text:
Gas lighting

Gas lighting is the production of artificial light from combustion of a fuel gas such as methane, propane, butane, acetylene, ethylene, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, coal gas (town gas) or natural gas. The light is produced either directly by the flame, generally by using special mixes (typically propane or butane) of illuminating gas to increase brightness, or indirectly with other components such as the gas mantle or the limelight, with the gas primarily functioning as a heat source for the incandescence of the gas mantle or lime.

Before electricity became sufficiently widespread and economical to allow for general public use, gas was the most prevalent method of outdoor and indoor lighting in cities and suburbs, areas where the infrastructure for distribution of the gaseous fuel was practical. When gas lighting was prevalent, the most common fuels for gas lighting were wood gas, coal gas and, in limited cases, water gas. Early gas lights were ignited manually by lamplighters, although many later designs are self-igniting.

Gas lighting now is frequently used for camping, for which the high energy density of the hydrocarbon fuel, combined with the modular nature of canisters on which camping lights are built, allows for bright and long lasting light to be produced without complex equipment. In addition, some urban historical districts retain gas street lighting, and gas lighting is used indoors or outdoors to create or preserve a nostalgic effect.

Background

Prior to use of gaseous fuels for lighting, the early lighting fuels consisted of olive oil, beeswax, fish oil, whale oil, sesame oil, nut oil, or other similar substances, which were all liquid fuels. These were the most commonly used fuels until the late 18th century. Whale oil was especially widely used for lighting in European cities such as London through the early 19th century.

Chinese records dating back 1,700 years indicate the use of natural gas in homes for lighting and heating. The natural gas was transported by means of bamboo pipes to homes. The ancient Chinese of the Spring and Autumn period made the first practical use of natural gas for lighting purposes around 500 B.C. in which they used bamboo pipelines to transport both brine and natural gas for many miles, such as the ones in Zigong salt mines.

Public illumination preceded by centuries the development and widespread adoption of gas lighting. In 1417, Sir Henry Barton, Lord Mayor of London, ordained "Lanthornes with lights to bee hanged out on the Winter evening betwixt Hallowtide and Candlemassee." Paris was first illuminated by an order issued in 1524, and, in the beginning of the 16th century, the inhabitants were ordered to keep lights burning in the windows of all houses that faced streets. In 1668, when some regulations were made for improving the streets of London, the residents were reminded to hang out their lanterns at the usual time, and, in 1690, an order was issued to hang out a light, or lamp, every night at nightfall, from Michaelmas to Christmas. By an Act of the Common Council in 1716, all housekeepers, whose houses faced any street, lane, or passage, were required to hang out, every dark night, one or more lights, to burn from six to eleven o'clock, under the penalty of one shilling as a fine for failing to do so.

Accumulating and escaping gases were known originally among coal miners for their adverse effects rather than their useful characteristics. Coal miners described two types of gases, one called the choke damp and the other fire damp. In 1667, a paper detailing the effects of these gases was entitled, "A Description of a Well and Earth in Lancashire taking Fire, by a Candle approaching to it. Imparted by Thomas Shirley, Esq an eye-witness."

British clergyman and scientist Stephen Hales experimented with the actual distillation of coal, thereby obtaining a flammable liquid. He reported his results in the first volume of his Vegetable Statics, published in 1726. From the distillation of "one hundred and fifty-eight grains [10.2 g] of Newcastle coal, he stated that he obtained 180 cubic inches [2.9 L] of gas, which weighed 51 grains [3.3 g], being nearly one third of the whole." Hales's results garnered attention decades later as the unique chemical properties of various gases became understood through the work of Joseph Black, Henry Cavendish, Alessandro Volta, and others.

A 1733 publication by Sir James Lowther in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society detailed some properties of coal gas, including its flammability. Lowther demonstrated the principal properties of coal gas to different members of the Royal Society. He showed that the gas retained its flammability after storage for some time. The demonstration did not result in identification of utility.

Minister and experimentalist John Clayton referred to coal gas as the "spirit" of coal. He discovered its flammability by an accident. The "spirit" he isolated from coal caught fire by coming in contact with a candle as it escaped from a fracture in one of his distillation vessels. He stored the coal gas in bladders, and at times he entertained his friends by demonstrating the flammability of the gas. Clayton published his findings in Philosophical Transactions.

Early technology

It took nearly 200 years for gas to become accessible for commercial use. A Flemish alchemist, Jan Baptista van Helmont, was the first person to formally recognize gas as a state of matter. He would go on to identify several types of gases, including carbon dioxide. Over one hundred years later in 1733, Sir James Lowther had some of his miners working on a water pit for his mine. While digging the pit they hit a pocket of gas. Lowther took a sample of the gas and took it home to do some experiments. He noted, "The said air being put into a bladder … and tied close, may be carried away, and kept some days, and being afterwards pressed gently through a small pipe into the flame of a candle, will take fire, and burn at the end of the pipe as long as the bladder is gently pressed to feed the flame, and when taken from the candle after it is so lighted, it will continue burning till there is no more air left in the bladder to supply the flame." Lowther had basically discovered the principle behind gas lighting.

Later in the 18th century William Murdoch (sometimes spelled "Murdock") stated: "the gas obtained by distillation from coal, peat, wood and other inflammable substances burnt with great brilliancy upon being set fire to … by conducting it through tubes, it might be employed as an economical substitute for lamps and candles." Murdoch's first invention was a lantern with a gas-filled bladder attached to a jet. He would use this to walk home at night. After seeing how well this worked he decided to light his home with gas. In 1797, Murdoch installed gas lighting in his new home as well as the workshop in which he worked. “This work was of a large scale, and he next experimented to find better ways of producing, purifying, and burning the gas.” The foundation had been laid for companies to start producing gas and other inventors to start playing with ways of using the new technology.

Murdoch was the first to exploit the flammability of gas for the practical application of lighting. He worked for Matthew Boulton and James Watt at their Soho Foundry steam engine works in Birmingham, England. In the early 1790s, while overseeing the use of his company's steam engines in tin mining in Cornwall, Murdoch began experimenting with various types of gas, finally settling on coal gas as the most effective. He first lit his own house in Redruth, Cornwall in 1792. In 1798, he used gas to light the main building of the Soho Foundry and in 1802 lit the outside in a public display of gas lighting, the lights astonishing the local population. One of the employees at the Soho Foundry, Samuel Clegg, saw the potential of this new form of lighting. Clegg left his job to set up his own gas lighting business, the Gas Light and Coke Company.

A "thermolampe" using gas distilled from wood was patented in 1799, while German inventor Friedrich Winzer (Frederick Albert Winsor) was the first person to patent coal-gas lighting in 1804.

In 1801, Phillipe Lebon of Paris had also used gas lights to illuminate his house and gardens, and was considering how to light all of Paris. In 1820, Paris adopted gas street lighting.

In 1804, Dr Henry delivered a course of lectures on chemistry, at Manchester, in which he showed the mode of producing gas from coal, and the facility and advantage of its use. Dr Henry analysed the composition and investigated the properties of carburetted hydrogen gas (i.e. methane). His experiments were numerous and accurate and made upon a variety of substances; having obtained the gas from wood, peat, different kinds of coal, oil, wax, etc., he quantified the intensity of the light from each source.

In 1806 The Philips and Lee factory and a portion of Chapel Street in Salford, Lancashire were lit by gas, thought to be the first use of gas street lighting in the world.

Josiah Pemberton, an inventor, had for some time been experimenting on the nature of gas. A resident of Birmingham, his attention may have been roused by the exhibition at Soho. About 1806, he exhibited gas lights in a variety of forms and with great brilliance at the front of his factory in Birmingham. In 1808 he constructed an apparatus, applicable for several uses, for Benjamin Cooke, a manufacturer of brass tubes, gilt toys, and other articles.

In 1808, Murdoch presented to the Royal Society a paper entitled "Account of the Application of Gas from Coal to Economical Purposes" in which he described his successful application of coal gas to light the extensive establishment of Messrs. Phillips and Lea. For this paper he was awarded Count Rumford's gold medal. Murdoch's statements threw great light on the comparative advantage of gas and candles, and contained much useful information on the expenses of production and management.

Although the history is uncertain, David Melville has been credited   with the first house and street lighting in the United States, in either 1805 or 1806 in Newport, Rhode Island.

In 1809, accordingly, the first application was made to Parliament to incorporate a company in order to accelerate the process, but the bill failed to pass. In 1810, however, the application was renewed by the same parties, and though some opposition was encountered and considerable expense incurred, the bill passed, but not without great alterations; and the London and Westminster Gas Light and Coke Company was established. Less than two years later, on 31 December 1813, Westminster Bridge was lit by gas.

By 1816, Samuel Clegg obtained the patent for his horizontal rotative retort, his apparatus for purifying coal gas with cream of lime, and for his rotative gas meter and self-acting governor.

Widespread use

Among the economic impacts of gas lighting was much longer work hours in factories. This was particularly important in Great Britain during the winter months when nights are significantly longer. Factories could even work continuously over 24 hours, resulting in increased production. Following successful commercialization, gas lighting spread to other countries.

In England, the first place outside London to have gas lighting was Preston, Lancashire, in 1816; this was due to the Preston Gaslight Company run by revolutionary Joseph Dunn, who found the most improved way of brighter gas lighting. The parish church there was the first religious building to be lit by gas lighting.

In Bristol, a Gas Light Company was founded on 15 December 1815. Under the supervision of the engineer, John Brelliat, extensive works were conducted in 1816-17 to build a gasholder, mains and street lights. Many of the principal streets in the centre of the city, as well as nearby houses, had switched to gas lighting by the end of 1817.

In America, Seth Bemis lit his factory with gas illumination from 1812 to 1813. The use of gas lights in Rembrandt Peale's Museum in Baltimore in 1816 was a great success. Baltimore was the first American city with gas street lights; Peale's Gas Light Company of Baltimore on 7 February 1817 lit its first street lamp at Market and Lemon Streets (currently Baltimore and Holliday Streets). The first private residence in the US illuminated by gas has been variously identified as that of David Melville (c. 1806), as described above, or of William Henry, a coppersmith, at 200 Lombard Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in 1816.

In 1817, at the three stations of the Chartered Gas Company in London, 25 chaldrons (24 m3) of coal were carbonized daily, producing 300,000 cubic feet (8,500 m3) of gas. This supplied gas lamps equal to 75,000 Argand lamps each yielding the light of six candles. At the City Gas Works, in Dorset Street, Blackfriars, three chaldrons of coal were carbonized each day, providing the gas equivalent of 9,000 Argand lamps. So 28 chaldrons of coal were carbonized daily, and 84,000 lights supplied by those two companies only.

At this period the principal difficulty in gas manufacture was purification. Mr. D. Wilson, of Dublin, patented a method for purifying coal gas by means of the chemical action of ammoniacal gas. Another plan was devised by Reuben Phillips, of Exeter, who patented the purification of coal gas by the use of dry lime. G. Holworthy, in 1818, patented a method of purifying it by passing the gas, in a highly condensed state, through iron retorts heated to a dark red.

In 1820, Swedish inventor Johan Patrik Ljungström had developed a gas lighting with copper apparatuses and chandeliers of ink, brass and crystal, reportedly one of the first such public installations of gas lighting in the region, enhanced as a triumphal arch for the city gate for a royal visit of Charles XIV John of Sweden in 1820.

By 1823, numerous towns and cities throughout Britain were lit by gas. Gas light cost up to 75% less than oil lamps or candles, which helped to accelerate its development and deployment. By 1859, gas lighting was to be found all over Britain and about a thousand gas works had sprung up to meet the demand for the new fuel. The brighter lighting which gas provided allowed people to read more easily and for longer. This helped to stimulate literacy and learning, speeding up the second Industrial Revolution.

In 1824 the English Association for Gas Lighting on the Continent, a sizeable business producing gas for several cities in mainland, Europe, including Berlin, was established, with Sir William Congreve, 2nd Baronet as general manager.

The 1839 invention, the Bude-Light, provided a brighter and more economical lamp.

Oil-gas appeared in the field as a rival of coal gas. In 1815, John Taylor patented an apparatus for the decomposition of "oil" and other animal substances. Public attention was attracted to "oil-gas" by the display of the patent apparatus at Apothecary's Hall, by Taylor & Martineau.

In 1891 the gas mantle was invented by the Austrian chemist Carl Auer von Welsbach. This eliminated the need for special illuminating gas (a synthetic mixture of hydrogen and hydrocarbon gases produced by destructive distillation of bituminous coal or peat) to get bright shining flames. Acetylene was also used from about 1898 for gas lighting on a smaller scale.

Illuminating gas was used for gas lighting, as it produces a much brighter light than natural gas or water gas. Illuminating gas was much less toxic than other forms of coal gas, but less could be produced from a given quantity of coal. The experiments with distilling coal were described by John Clayton in 1684. George Dixon's pilot plant exploded in 1760, setting back the production of illuminating gas a few years. The first commercial application was in a Manchester cotton mill in 1806. In 1901, studies of the defoliant effect of leaking gas pipes led to the discovery that ethylene is a plant hormone.

Throughout the 19th century and into the first decades of the 20th, the gas was manufactured by the gasification of coal. Later in the 19th century, natural gas began to replace coal gas, first in the US, and then in other parts of the world. In the United Kingdom, coal gas was used until the early 1970s.

Russia
The history of the Russian gas industry began with retired Lieutenant Pyotr Sobolevsky (1782–1841), who improved Philippe le Bon's design for a "thermolamp" and presented it to Emperor Alexander I in 1811; in January 1812, Sobolevsky was instructed to draw up a plan for gas street-lighting for St. Petersburg. The French invasion of Russia delayed implementation, but St. Petersburg's Governor General Mikhail Miloradovich, who had seen the gas lighting of Vienna, Paris and other European cities, initiated experimental work on gas lighting for the capital, using British apparatus for obtaining gas from pit coal, and by the autumn of 1819, Russia's first gas street light was lit on one of the streets on Aptekarsky Island.

In February 1835, the Company for Gas Lighting St. Petersburg was founded; towards the end of that year, a factory for the production of lighting gas was constructed near the Obvodny Canal, using pit coal brought in by ship from Cardiff; and 204 gas lamps were ceremonially lit in St. Petersburg on 27 September 1839.

Over the next 10 years, their numbers almost quadrupled, to reach 800. By the middle of the 19th century, the central streets and buildings of the capital were illuminated: the Palace Square, Bolshaya and Malaya Morskaya streets, Nevsky and Tsarskoselsky Avenues, Passage Arcade, Noblemen's Assembly, the Technical Institute and Peter and Paul Fortress.

Theatrical use

It took many years of development and testing before gas lighting for the stage was commercially available. Gas technology was then installed in just about every major theatre in the world. But gas lighting was short-lived because the electric light bulb soon followed.

In the 19th century, gas stage lighting went from a crude experiment to the most popular way of lighting theatrical stages. In 1804, Frederick Albert Winsor first demonstrated the way to use gas to light the stage in London at the Lyceum Theatre. Although the demonstration and all the lead research were being done in London, "in 1816 at the Chestnut Street Theatre in Philadelphia was the earliest gas lit theatre in world". In 1817 the Lyceum, Drury Lane, and Covent Garden theatres were all lit by gas. Gas was brought into the building by "miles of rubber tubing from outlets in the floor called 'water joints'" which "carried the gas to border-lights and wing lights". But before it was distributed, the gas came through a central distribution point called a "gas table", which varied the brightness by regulating the gas supply, and the gas table, which allowed control of separate parts of the stage. Thus it became the first stage 'switchboard'.

By the 1850s, gas lighting in theatres had spread practically all over the United States and Europe. Some of the largest installations of gas lighting were in large auditoriums, like the Théâtre du Chatelet, built in 1862. In 1875, the new Paris Opera was constructed. "Its lighting system contained more than twenty-eight miles [28 mi] of gas piping, and its gas table had no fewer than eighty-eight stopcocks, which controlled nine hundred and sixty gas jets." The theatre that used the most gas lighting was Astley's Equestrian Amphitheatre in London. According to the Illustrated London News, "Everywhere white and gold meets the eye, and about 200,000 gas jets add to the glittering effect of the auditorium … such a blaze of light and splendour has scarcely ever been witnessed, even in dreams."

Theatres switched to gas lighting because it was more economical than using candles and also required less labour to operate. With gas lighting, theatres would no longer need to have people tending to candles during a performance, or having to light each candle individually. "It was easier to light a row of gas jets than a greater quantity of candles high in the air." Theatres also no longer needed to worry about wax dripping on the actors during a show.

Gas lighting also had an effect on the actors. As the stage was brighter, they could now use less make-up and their motions did not have to be as exaggerated. Half-lit stages had become fully lit stages. Production companies were so impressed with the new technology that one said, "This light is perfect for the stage. One can obtain gradation of brightness that is really magical."

The best result was the improved respect from the audience. There was no more shouting or riots. The light pushed the actors more up stage behind the proscenium, helping the audience concentrate more on the action that was taking place on stage rather than what was going on in the house. Management had more authority on what went on during the show because they could see. Gaslight was the leading cause of behaviour change in theatres. They were no longer places for mingling and orange selling, but places of respected entertainment.

Types of lighting instruments
There were six types of burners, but four burners were really experimented with:
 * The first burner used was the single-jet burner, which produced a small flame. The tip of the burner was made out of lead, which absorbed heat, causing the flame to be smaller in size. It was discovered that the flame would burn brighter if the metal was mixed with other components, such as porcelain.
 * Flat burners were invented mainly to distribute gas and light evenly to the systems.
 * The fishtail burner was similar to the flat burner, but it produced a brighter flame and conducted less heat.
 * The last burner that was experimented with was the Welsbach burner. Around this time the Bunsen burner was in use along with some forms of electricity. The Welsbach was based on the idea of the Bunsen burner, still using gas. A cotton mesh with cerium and thorium was imbedded into the Welsbach. This source of light was named the gas mantle; it produced three times more light than the naked flame.

Several different instruments were used for stage lighting in the 19th century fell; these included footlights, border lights, groundrows, lengths, bunch lights, conical reflector floods, and limelight spots. These mechanisms sat directly on the stage, blinding the eyes of the audience.

 * Footlights caused the actors' costumes to catch fire if they got too close. These lights also caused bothersome heat that affected both audience members and actors. Again, the actors had to adapt to these changes. They started fireproofing their costumes and placing wire mesh in front of the footlights.
 * Border lights, also known as striplights, were a row of lights that hung horizontally in the flies. Color was added later by dying cotton, wool, and silk cloth.
 * Lengths were constructed the same way as border lights, but mounted vertically in the rear where the wings were.
 * Bunch lights were a cluster of burners that sat on a vertical base that was fuelled directly from the gas line.
 * The conical reflector can be related to the Fresnel lens used today. This adjustable box of light reflected a beam whose size could be altered by a barndoor.
 * Limelight spots are similar to today's current spotlighting system. This instrument was used in scene shops, as well as the stage.

Gas lighting did have some disadvantages. "Several hundred theatres are said to have burned down in America and Europe between 1800 and the introduction of electricity in the late 1800s. The increased heat was objectionable, and the border lights and wing lights had to be lighted by a long stick with a flaming wad of cotton at the end. For many years, an attendant or gas boy moved along the long row of jets, lighting them individually while gas was escaping from the whole row. Both actors and audiences complained of the escaping gas, and explosions sometimes resulted from its accumulation."

These problems with gas lighting led to the rapid adoption of electric lighting. By 1881, the Savoy Theatre in London was using incandescent lighting. While electric lighting was introduced to theatre stages, the gas mantle was developed in 1885 for gas-lit theatres. "This was a beehive-shaped mesh of knitted thread impregnated with lime that, in miniature, converted the naked gas flame into in effect, a lime-light." Electric lighting slowly took over in theatres. In the 20th century, it enabled better and safer theatre productions, with no smell, relatively very little heat, and more freedom for designers.

Decline

In the early 20th century, most cities in North America and Europe had gaslit streets, and most railway station platforms had gas lights too. However, around 1880 gas lighting for streets and train stations began giving way to high voltage (3,000–6,000 volt) direct current and alternating current arc lighting systems. This time period also saw the development of the first electric power utility designed for indoor use. The new system by inventor Thomas Edison was designed to function similar to gas lighting. For reasons of safety and simplicity it used direct current (DC) at a relatively low 110 volts to light incandescent light bulbs. Voltage in wires steadily declines as distance increases, and at this low voltage power plants needed to be within about 1 mi of the lamps. This voltage drop problem made DC distribution relatively expensive and gas lighting retained widespread usage with new buildings sometimes constructed with dual systems of gas piping and electrical wiring connected to each room, to diversify the power sources for lighting.

The development of new alternating current power transmission systems in the 1880s and 90s by companies such as Ganz and AEG in Europe and Westinghouse Electric and Thomson-Houston in the US solved the voltage and distance problem by using high transmission line voltages, and transformers to drop the voltage for distribution for indoor lighting. Alternating current technology overcame many of the limitations of direct current, enabling the rapid growth of reliable, low-cost electrical power networks which finally spelled the end of widespread usage of gas lighting.

Outdoors
In some cities, gas lighting is preserved or restored as a vintage nostalgic feature to support the historic atmosphere of their historic centres.

In the 20th century, most cities with gas streetlights replaced them with new electric streetlights. For example, Baltimore, the first US city to install gas streetlights, removed nearly all of them. A sole, token gas lamp is located at N. Holliday Street and E. Baltimore Street as a monument to the first gas lamp in America, erected at that location.

However, gas lighting of streets has not disappeared completely from some cities, and the few municipalities that retained gas lighting now find that it provides a pleasing nostalgic effect. Gas lighting is also seeing a resurgence in the luxury home market for those in search of historical authenticity.

The largest gas lighting network in the world is that of Berlin. With about 23,000 lamps (2022), it holds more than half of all working gas street lamps in the world, followed by Düsseldorf with 14,000 lamps (2020), of which at least 10,000 are to be retained

In London there were about 1,500 working gas street lamps although there were plans to replace 299 of those in Westminster (the first city in the world lit by gas) with LED lighting by 2023, which sparked public opposition.

In the United States, more than 2800 gas lights in Boston operate in the historic districts of Beacon Hill, Back Bay, Bay Village, Charlestown, and parts of other neighbourhoods. In Cincinnati, Ohio, more than 1100 gas lights operate in areas that have been named historic districts. Gas lights also operate in parts of the famed French Quarter and outside historic homes throughout the city in New Orleans.

South Orange, New Jersey, has adopted the gaslight as the symbol of the town, and uses them on nearly all streets. Dozens of other towns in New Jersey also retain gas lighting: Glen Ridge, Palmyra, Riverton, and some parts of Orange, Cape May and Cherry Hill, among others. The city of Lake Forest, Illinois maintains over 450 gas street lights and the village of Riverside, Illinois, still uses its original gas street lights that are an original feature of the Frederick Law Olmsted planned community. Manhattan Beach, California, has a gas lamp section in which all the pavements are lit by public gas lamps. Disneyland has authentic 19th century gas lamps from Baltimore along the "Main Street, U.S.A." section of the theme park.

Prague, where gas lighting was introduced on 15 September 1847, had about 10,000 gas streetlamps in the 1940s. The last historic gas candelabras become electrified in 1985. However, in 2002–2014, streetlamps along the Royal Route and some other streets in the centre were rebuilt to use gas (using replicas of the historic poles and lanterns), several historic candelabras (Hradčanské náměstí, Loretánská street, Dražického náměstí etc.) were also converted back to gas lamps, and five new gas lamps were installed in the Michle Gasworks as a promotion. In 2018, there were 417 points (about 650 lanterns) of street gas lighting in Prague. During Advent and Christmas, lanterns on the Charles Bridge are managed manually by a lamplighter in historic uniform. The plan to reintroduce gas lights in Old Prague was proposed in 2002, and adopted by the Municipality of Prague in January 2004.

Indoors

The use of natural gas (methane) for indoor lighting is nearly extinct. Besides producing a lot of heat, the combustion of methane tends to release significant amounts of carbon monoxide, a colourless and odourless gas that is more readily absorbed by the blood than oxygen, and can be deadly. Historically, the use of lamps of all types was of shorter duration than we are accustomed to with electric lights, and in the far more draughty buildings, it was of less concern and danger. There are suppliers of new mantle gas lamps set up for use with natural gas; and, some old homes still have fixtures installed, and some period restorations have salvaged fixtures installed, more for decoration than use.

New fixtures are still made and available for propane (sometimes called "bottle(d) gas"), a product of oil refining, which under most circumstances burns more completely to carbon dioxide and water vapour. In some locations where public utility electricity or kerosene are not readily accessible or desirable, propane gas mantle lamps are still used, although the increased availability of alternative energy sources, such as solar panels and small scale wind turbines, combined with increasing efficiency of lighting products, such as compact fluorescent lamps and LEDs are also in use.

Other uses
Perforated tubes bent into the shape of letters were used to form gas lit advertising signs, prior to the introduction of neon lights, as early as 1857 in Grand Rapids, Michigan. Gas lighting is still in common use for camping lights. Small portable gas lamps, connected to a portable gas cylinder, are a common item on camping trips. Mantle lamps powered by vaporized petrol, such as the Coleman lantern, are also available.

title: Gas lighting


text:
Gregory Charles Rivers

Gregory Charles Rivers (April 1965 –2 February 2024), also known by his Chinese name Ho Kwok-wing, was an Australian-Hong Kong actor. He was known for his roles in various TVB series, and was dubbed "TVB's token gweilo" (white person) for his frequent appearances as stereotypical Caucasian characters.

Early life and education
Rivers was born in Gympie, Queensland, in April 1965. He attended medical school at the University of New South Wales, where he became friends with students from Hong Kong who introduced him to Cantopop. He began teaching himself Cantonese by listening to Cantopop cassette tapes while reading the printed lyrics and looking up Chinese words in a dictionary.

Rivers chauffeured Cantopop singers Leslie Cheung and Alan Tam when they held concerts in Sydney during the 1980s. After dropping out from school in 1987, he moved to Hong Kong. Two weeks after he landed, he ran into some of Tam's band members and was invited to sing with him.

Career
As a debutant with a modicum of Cantonese, Rivers auditioned and was chosen for a Caucasian role at Television Broadcasts Limited (TVB). Rivers adopted the Chinese name Ho Kwok-wing, the surname Ho meaning "river" and the given name Kwok-wing after his idol Leslie Cheung. He went on to become "TVB's token gweilo" (white person) for two decades.

In 2005, Rivers appeared on stage in an opera production playing the role of Teresa Teng's boyfriend.

In October 2007, Rivers was one of four non-Chinese TV actors featured in an in-depth interview and feature story titled "Hello Neighbour" in Muse, discussing his sense of cultural identity and how he viewed his work.

Rivers quipped that he was "TVB's token Caucasian for 20 years straight", having played many stereotyped roles in more than 300 dramas for TVB. Rivers' contract with TVB ended in 2007.

Rivers also worked as an English dialogue coach for Hong Kong and Chinese actors, notably Chow Yun-fat in Dragonball Evolution (2009).

In January 2016, Rivers was awarded "Best Hong Kong male singer" at the satirical "TVMost 1st Guy Ten Big Ging Cook Gum Cook Awards Distribution" (毛記電視第一屆十大勁曲金曲分獎典禮), a parody of TVB's Jade Solid Gold Best Ten Music Awards Presentation. The award was given for his song "Forever ATV" (亞視永恒), which made fun of the apparent government support for Asia Television despite its expiring broadcasting licence. In addition to "Forever ATV", Rivers also performed a parody of "Hong Kong Place" (香港地) at the ceremony, a Cantonese rap song about his love for the city.

Personal life and death
Rivers married actress Bonnie Cheung in March 1989.

In 2017, Gregory was diagnosed with skin cancer after finding a swelling on the right side of his ear. He underwent surgery and remained cancer-free thereafter. In 2018, he was diagnosed with arrhythmia. His heart condition was so serious that he had to undergo two rounds of surgery, accumulating a debt of HK$800000.

Rivers was found dead in his home in Tai Au Mun village on 2 February 2024 at the age of 58, in an apparent charcoal-burning suicide. His wife had died of illness a few months prior.

title: Gregory Charles Rivers


text:
User:Prisonblues/Colleges/Newnham College, Cambridge

Newnham College, Cambridge


text:
West Derbyshire

West Derbyshire may refer to:

 * West Derby Hundred, one of the six subdivisions of Lancashire, England, in the 11th century
 * West Derbyshire (UK Parliament constituency), in the west of Derbyshire, England, unrelated to the above
 * The former name of the Derbyshire Dales district, covering roughly the same area as the constituency

title: West Derbyshire


text:
1870 in art

Events from the year 1870 in art.

Events

 * June 28 – Claude Monet marries his mistress and model Camille Doncieux in Paris; Gustave Courbet is a witness.
 * July – Franco-Prussian War breaks out: Monet, Pissarro, Daubigny and the dealer Paul Durand-Ruel flee to London; Cézanne and his mistress, Marie-Hortense Fiquet, leave Paris for L'Estaque (on the French Riviera) where he predominantly paints landscapes. In August, Frédéric Bazille joins a Zouave regiment. In September the Dutch painter Lourens Alma Tadema moves permanently to London where he adopts the name Lawrence Alma-Tadema.
 * Édouard Manet and Louis Edmond Duranty fight a duel at Café Guerbois, Paris.
 * Russian industrialist and patron of the arts Savva Mamontov acquires the Abramtsevo Colony and hosts a group of traditionalist artists there.
 * Dante Gabriel Rossetti's Poems are published, exhumed from Elizabeth Siddal's grave.
 * Daoud Corm goes to Rome to study under Roberto Bompiani at the Accademia di San Luca.

Paintings

 * Wilhelm Amberg – Reading from Goethe's Werther (Vorlesung aus Goethes Werther)
 * Frédéric Bazille
 * Countryside near Lex
 * Studio in the rue Condamine
 * La Toilette
 * Cathy Madox Brown – Ford Madox Brown at his Easel
 * Ford Madox Brown – Romeo and Juliet
 * Edward Burne-Jones – Phyllis and Demophoon
 * Paul Cézanne – Paul Alexis reading a manuscript to Émile Zola (1869–70; São Paulo Museum of Art)
 * Edgar Degas
 * The Dancing Class (c.)
 * The Orchestra at the Opera (c.)
 * Jean-Jules-Antoine Lecomte du Nouÿ – Demosthenes Practicing Oratory (Démosthène s'exerçant à la parole)
 * Henri Fantin-Latour – A Studio in the Batignolles (Musée d'Orsay, Paris)
 * Anselm Feuerbach – The Judgement of Paris (c. 1869–70)
 * Mariano Fortuny – The Spanish Wedding (Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya)
 * Jean-Léon Gérôme – Moorish Bath
 * Arthur Hughes – You Cannot Barre Love Oute
 * Christian Inger - Smith Rescued by Pocahontas
 * Jean-Paul Laurens – Pope Formosus and Stephen VI (Le Pape Formose et Étienne VII)
 * Édouard Manet
 * La Brioche (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York)
 * Effect of Snow on Petit-Montrouge (National Museum Cardiff)
 * John Everett Millais – The Boyhood of Raleigh (Tate Britain, London)
 * Pierre-Auguste Renoir
 * Madame Clémentine Valensi Stora (L'Algérienne)
 * La Promenade
 * Dante Gabriel Rossetti
 * Beata Beatrix (approximate completion date)
 * Sibylla Palmifera
 * Dmitri Sinodi-Popov – An Old Greek
 * James Tissot
 * Captain Frederick Gustavus Burnaby
 * La Partie carrée
 * Raja Ravi Varma – Shakuntala

Sculpture

 * Statue of Abraham Lincoln (New York City)

Awards

 * Grand Prix de Rome, painting:
 * Grand Prix de Rome, sculpture:
 * Grand Prix de Rome, architecture: Albert-Félix-Théophile Thomas.
 * Grand Prix de Rome, music: Charles Edouard Lefebvre & Henri Maréchal

Births

 * January 1 – Louis Vauxcelles, French Jewish art critic (died 1943)
 * January 11 – Alexander Stirling Calder, American sculptor (died 1945)
 * February 5 – C. E. Brock, English painter and illustrator (died 1938)
 * March 13 – William Glackens, American painter (died 1938)
 * June 22 – Antonio Dattilo Rubbo, Italian-born painter and art teacher (died 1955)
 * July 21 – Emil Orlík, Czech-born painter and lithographer (died 1932)
 * July 25 – Maxfield Parrish, American painter and illustrator (died 1966)
 * November 18 – Franz Metzner, German sculptor (died 1919)
 * November 25 – Maurice Denis, French painter and decorative artist (died 1943)
 * December 23 – John Marin, American painter (died 1953)
 * date unknown – Arthur Diehl, English-born landscape painter (died 1929)

Deaths

 * January 17 – Alexander Anderson, American illustrator (born 1775)
 * January 27 – Johannes Flintoe, Danish-Norwegian painter of Norwegian landscapes (born 1787)
 * February 21 – Robert Jefferson Bingham, English-born photographer (born 1824 or 1825)
 * March 19 – William Egley, English miniature painter (born 1798)
 * April 25 – Daniel Maclise, Irish-born painter (born 1806)
 * May 17 – David Octavius Hill, Scottish painter and pioneer photographer (born 1802)
 * July 13 – Christian Albrecht Jensen, Danish painter (born 1792)
 * August 25 – Richard Seymour-Conway, 4th Marquess of Hertford, English francophile art collector (born 1800)
 * November 7 – Cornelia Aletta van Hulst, Dutch painter (born 1797)
 * November 28 – Frédéric Bazille, French Impressionist painter (born 1841) (killed in action)
 * December 9
 * Max Emanuel Ainmiller, German glass painter (born 1807)
 * Patrick MacDowell, Irish sculptor from Belfast (born 1799)
 * December 12 – Martin Cregan, Irish portrait painter (born 1788)
 * Undated – Achille Leonardi, Italian genre painter (born 1800)

title: 1870 in art


text:
Talk:Blizzard Entertainment

FTC complaint on Microsoft's Acquisition of Blizzard
Also, a few months ago, there has been a legal disputes regarding Microsoft's acquisition of Activision Blizzard, specifically, with FTC, the European Commission, and Britain's Competition and Markets Authority trying to block the deal, with FTC filing a complaint back in December. Should this topic be added to the Blizzard's section on legal disputes? On one hand, this deal directly affects the company, but on the other, the media focus is mostly on Microsoft, so again, I wanted to hear more perspectives on this. J.Pan79 (talk) 06:11, 20 March 2023 (UTC)

Blizzard's most recent projects
I've updated the paragraph explaining Blizzard's most recent projects to include the most recent updates for each of its game franchises since most of the projects listed as recent were outdated by some years. I've updated Blizzard's most recent projects to be accurate up to 2023. Please feel free to update and discuss any changes that need to be made. VN4066 (talk) 20:38, 3 April 2023 (UTC)

Offices versus Studios
Do you have any proof or sourcing that all of the various offices that Blizzard maintains in various cities are actually discrete subsidiaries? The subsidiary field is for literal corporate subsidiaries, not just the fact that Blizzard maintains a presence in multiple cities. -- ferret (talk) 15:40, 14 October 2023 (UTC)

 * @Boyohboy231 Communication IS required on Wikipedia. Can you provide sources that these are subsidiaries or should I go ahead and revert? -- ferret (talk) 14:08, 15 October 2023 (UTC)
 * do what you want Boyohboy231 (talk) 06:40, 16 October 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Blizzard Entertainment


text:
Home Rule League

The Home Rule League (1873–1882), sometimes called the Home Rule Party, was an Irish political party which campaigned for home rule for Ireland within the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, until it was replaced by the Irish Parliamentary Party. The Home Rule Confederation of Great Britain was a sister organisation in Great Britain.

Origins
The Home Rule League grew out of the Home Government Association, a pressure group formed in 1870 and led by Isaac Butt, a Dublin based barrister who had once been a leading Irish Tory before becoming a convert to Irish nationalism. On 18–21 November 1873, the loose association re-constituted itself as a full political party, the Home Rule League, and in the 1874 general election, many of whom were from an Irish aristocratic or gentry Church of Ireland background, some newly dedicated former Irish Liberal Party members, such as Sir John Gray MP, and other more radical members who gathered around Cavan MP Joseph Biggar and Meath MP Charles Stewart Parnell. This radical wing of the party launched parliamentary filibusters to obstruct the passage of Parliamentary business, to the embarrassment of Butt and frustration of successive British governments.

Changes under Parnell
On 28 August 1877 Parnell was elected leader of the Home Rule Confederation of Great Britain in place of Butt. In January 1878, Butt retained control of the Home Rule League in Ireland, which had a more middle-class and less Fenian membership and structure. The division affected the disciple of the parliamentary party at Westminster.

Following Butt's death in 1879, William Shaw served as chairman (leader) for one parliamentary session. In 1880, Parnell was elected chairman of the party, and in the 1880 general election, the party increased its number of seats. In 1882, as part of a wholesale move from being an informal alliance to a cohesive unified, political movement Parnell renamed it the Irish Parliamentary Party to pursue Irish Home Rule. The party under Parnell, himself a Protestant, became more radical, middle class, and Catholic. It largely, though not completely, squeezed out other political rivals, notably the Irish Liberal Party and the Irish Conservative Party.

Chairmen (leaders) of the Party, 1873–1882

 * Isaac Butt 1873–1879.
 * William Shaw 1879–1880.
 * Charles Stewart Parnell 1880–1882.

title: Home Rule League


text:
User talk:Watchmanofephraim

Your religious rants are not acceptable for an encyclopedia. They have been deleted before, and will be deleted again. If you persist in creating non-encyclopedic aritcles, you will be blocked from editing. RickK 18:44, Jul 22, 2004 (UTC)

Mind your buissness, do you understand, you dont know what your saying, because you dont even know what the these writings are about. Now mind your buissness, if there is no freedom in this thing then i'll go else where. But i'm warning you, dont presume that you know people and try and catasgorise me in the religous mania box, if you read the writings properly you will notice they are against Orginised religion. These writings are more important thatn you will ever even begin to understand, You are a type of person who pigeon holes people and get it wrong all of the time, now leave well enough alone. theres a good man.

Yes, I think it would be better if you go elsewhere. RickK 20:48, Jul 22, 2004 (UTC)

So much for freedom of speech, you sabotage it every time, you really do kill the Prophets, and have dome since the beggining, I have an article coming up soon, its called no freedom of speech. Any way good knowing you and here are a couple of songs to help you relax [link title] http://damiendavis.alternativeprogression.com/bandsite/pageSelect.do;jsessionid=CE840A5C32FB7DB29B1B510C224AD1B3?page=music

and go to this scripture link ezekiel 33/30

You realize that this is an encyclopedia, right? Please point to one single thing you have added which is encyclopedic. Everything you post is your personal viewpoint, which is not acceptable in any encyclopedia. RickK 19:44, Jul 23, 2004 (UTC)

Look lads, i reaqlly am not the argumetitive type, if you feel that the piece is hurting you then do as you will, it wont hurt me if you take it off. I thought the idea was to put anything on this board, I did not know that it had to be so prim and proper, and considering i am so against prim and proper as this state of mind ussually hurts someone here on earth, feel free to do as you will, i wont be offended if you take the article off the board. If everyone hates it so much, as everyone is saying DELETE DELETE, then go and delete, remember to judge your self before you do and ask your selves were these feelings are relly coming from, i think you might be suprized by what you find. What I have written, while I am no expert on web desighn or any of that sort of thing, I done the peice to the best of my ability. If you see something that needs saying and you think it is important enought to say it, then you should by all means say it and not be terrified by peoples reactions, such as the ones that I have just recieved. Now, the reaonsno one understands what I am saying is because what I am saying is too heavy. I am saying that the GOD that nobody believes in is judgeing a certain or certain orginisations, I know that this is heavy, but all you have to do to verify that God does take people down by a wasting illness, then just check it out in the scrptures. They are not my words, if they were then they would hold no water. again i dont want o be argumentitive, just trying to get a point across in a hurry. I dont know if you have noticed but time does not seem to be on humanitys side

By the way with regards the MP3 that I put on the board, I dont know what a copyvio is or what ever that was that you said, but Ill take that off too, of you like, but if you keep taking everything you dont like off the board then you will have nothing but what you like on it, now were is the freedom of thought in that ? Believe me what I am saying will be paret of an encyclapedia, when they occur...... Glad someone liked the song. This is all that I will say damien davis

 * You still don't understand, do you? This is not a "board".  This is an Encyclopedia.  RickK 21:55, Jul 24, 2004 (UTC)

 * Damien, please see our policy on original research, and what Wikipedia is not. You might also want to read about our neutral point of view policy. -- The Anome 21:32, 17 July 2006 (UTC)

 * Damien, I have deleted Watchmanofephraim, as per your comment above, which said, among other things: "Look lads, i reaqlly am not the argumetitive type, if you feel that the piece is hurting you then do as you will, it wont hurt me if you take it off." -- The Anome 21:41, 17 July 2006 (UTC)

Ah well it must be Gods will what do you think. But you only have to google watchmanofephraim and see that it has done quite a bit of work, it is noted on many web pages, whcih must account for something,

God Bless Anome Damien

title: User talk:Watchmanofephraim