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Declaration of Conscience

The Declaration of Conscience was a Cold War speech made by U.S. Senator from Maine, Margaret Chase Smith on June 1, 1950, less than four months after Senator Joseph McCarthy's "Wheeling Speech", on February 9, 1950. Her speech was endorsed by six other liberal-to-moderate Republicans. In it, she criticized national leadership and called for the country, the United States Senate, and the Republican Party to re-examine the tactics used by the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) and (without naming him) Senator McCarthy. She stated the basic principles of "Americanism" were:

 * The right to criticize;
 * The right to hold unpopular beliefs;
 * The right to protest;
 * The right of independent thought.

Smith voiced concern that those who exercised those beliefs at that time risked unfairly being labeled communist or fascist.

In the Declaration of Conscience, Smith said,

The Democratic administration has greatly lost the confidence of the American people by its complacency to the threat of communism and the leak of vital secrets to Russia through key officials of the Democratic administration. There are enough proved cases to make this point without diluting our criticism with unproved charges.

Surely these are sufficient reasons to make it clear to the American people that it is time for a change and that a Republican victory is necessary to the security of this country. Surely it is clear that this nation will continue to suffer as long as it is governed by the present ineffective Democratic Administration.

Yet to displace it with a Republican regime embracing a philosophy that lacks political integrity or intellectual honesty would prove equally disastrous to this nation. The nation sorely needs a Republican victory. But I don't want to see the Republican Party ride to political victory on the Four Horsemen of Calumny – Fear, Ignorance, Bigotry, and Smear.

I doubt if the Republican Party could – simply because I don't believe the American people will uphold any political party that puts political exploitation above national interest.

The other Senators who signed onto the Declaration were Wayne Morse of Oregon, George Aiken of Vermont, Edward J. Thye of Minnesota, Irving Ives of New York, Charles W. Tobey of New Hampshire, and Robert C. Hendrickson of New Jersey. While the initial reception was chilly, the full-fledged outbreak of the Korean War on June 25, 1950 had made it unlikely that Smith's views would prevail. The only signatory whose outrage remained undimmed was Wayne Morse, who eventually left the party, first becoming an independent, then a Democrat.

Bernard Baruch stated that if a man had given the Declaration speech "he would be the next President."

The speech was listed as #41 in American Rhetoric's Top 100 Speeches of the 20th Century (listed by rank).

Although it would be another four years before McCarthy would be censured, the fact that a woman was the first to speak out in the Senate against such tactics holds significance for feminist historians.

title: Declaration of Conscience


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Variable valve timing

Variable valve timing (VVT) is the process of altering the timing of a valve lift event in an internal combustion engine, and is often used to improve performance, fuel economy or emissions. It is increasingly being used in combination with variable valve lift systems. There are many ways in which this can be achieved, ranging from mechanical devices to electro-hydraulic and camless systems. Increasingly strict emissions regulations are causing many automotive manufacturers to use VVT systems.

Two-stroke engines use a power valve system to get similar results to VVT.

Background theory
The valves within an internal combustion engine are used to control the flow of the intake and exhaust gases into and out of the combustion chamber. The timing, duration and lift of these valve events has a significant impact on engine performance. Without variable valve timing or variable valve lift, the valve timing is the same for all engine speeds and conditions, therefore compromises are necessary. An engine equipped with a variable valve timing actuation system is freed from this constraint, allowing performance to be improved over the engine operating range.

Piston engines normally use valves which are driven by camshafts. The cams open (lift) the valves for a certain amount of time (duration) during each intake and exhaust cycle. The timing of the valve opening and closing, relative to the position of the crankshaft, is important. The camshaft is driven by the crankshaft through timing belts, gears or chains.

An engine requires large amounts of air when operating at high speeds. However, the intake valves may close before enough air has entered each combustion chamber, reducing performance. On the other hand, if the camshaft keeps the valves open for longer periods of time, as with a racing cam, problems start to occur at the lower engine speeds. Opening the intake valve while the exhaust valve is still open may cause unburnt fuel to exit the engine, leading to lower engine performance and increased emissions. According to engineer David Vizard's book "Building Horsepower", when both intake & exhaust are open simultaneously, the much-higher-pressure exhaust pushes the intake-charge back, out from the cylinder, polluting the intake-manifold with exhaust, in worst cases.

Continuous versus discrete
Early variable valve timing systems used discrete (stepped) adjustment. For example, one timing would be used below 3500 rpm and another used above 3500 rpm.

More advanced "continuous variable valve timing" systems offer continuous (infinite) adjustment of the valve timing. Therefore, the timing can be optimized to suit all engine speeds and conditions.

Cam phasing versus variable duration
The simplest form of VVT is cam-phasing, whereby the phase angle of the camshaft is rotated forwards or backwards relative to the crankshaft. Thus the valves open and close earlier or later; however, the camshaft lift and duration cannot be altered solely with a cam-phasing system.

Achieving variable duration on a VVT system requires a complex system, such as multiple cam profiles or oscillating cams.

Typical effect of timing adjustments
Late intake valve closing (LIVC) The first variation of continuous variable valve timing involves holding the intake valve open slightly longer than a traditional engine. This results in the piston actually pushing air out of the cylinder and back into the intake manifold during the compression stroke. The air which is expelled fills the manifold with higher pressure, and on subsequent intake strokes the air which is taken in is at a higher pressure. Late intake valve closing has been shown to reduce pumping losses by 40% during partial load conditions, and to decrease nitric oxide (NOx) emissions by 24%. Peak engine torque showed only a 1% decline, and hydrocarbon emissions were unchanged.

Early intake valve closing (EIVC) Another way to decrease the pumping losses associated with low engine speed, high vacuum conditions is by closing the intake valve earlier than normal. This involves closing the intake valve midway through the intake stroke. Air/fuel demands are so low at low-load conditions and the work required to fill the cylinder is relatively high, so Early intake valve closing greatly reduces pumping losses. Studies have shown early intake valve closing reduces pumping losses by 40%, and increases fuel economy by 7%. It also reduced nitric oxide emissions by 24% at partial load conditions. A possible downside to early intake valve closing is that it significantly lowers the temperature of the combustion chamber, which can increase hydrocarbon emissions.

Early intake valve opening Early intake valve opening is another variation that has significant potential to reduce emissions. In a traditional engine, a process called valve overlap is used to aid in controlling the cylinder temperature. By opening the intake valve early, some of the inert/combusted exhaust gas will back flow out of the cylinder via the intake valve, where it cools momentarily in the intake manifold. This inert gas then fills the cylinder in the subsequent intake stroke, which aids in controlling the temperature of the cylinder and nitric oxide emissions. It also improves volumetric efficiency, because there is less exhaust gas to be expelled on the exhaust stroke.

Early/late exhaust valve closing Early and late exhaust valve closing timing can be manipulated to reduce emissions. Traditionally, the exhaust valve opens, and exhaust gas is pushed out of the cylinder and into the exhaust manifold by the piston as it travels upward. By manipulating the timing of the exhaust valve, engineers can control how much exhaust gas is left in the cylinder. By holding the exhaust valve open slightly longer, the cylinder is emptied more and ready to be filled with a bigger air/fuel charge on the intake stroke. By closing the valve slightly early, more exhaust gas remains in the cylinder which increases fuel efficiency. This allows for more efficient operation under all conditions.

Challenges
The main factor preventing this technology from wide use in production automobiles is the ability to produce a cost-effective means of controlling the valve timing under the conditions internal to an engine. An engine operating at 3000 revolutions per minute will rotate the camshaft 25 times per second, so the valve timing events have to occur at precise times to offer performance benefits. Electromagnetic and pneumatic camless valve actuators offer the greatest control of precise valve timing, but, in 2016, are not cost-effective for production vehicles.

Steam engines
The history of the search for a method of variable valve opening duration goes back to the age of steam engines when the valve opening duration was referred to as "steam cut-off”. The Stephenson valve gear, as used on early steam locomotives, supported variable cutoff, that is, changes to the time at which the admission of steam to the cylinders is cut off during the power stroke.

Early approaches to variable cutoff coupled variations in admission cutoff with variations in exhaust cutoff. Admission and exhaust cutoff were decoupled with the development of the Corliss valve. These were widely used in constant speed variable load stationary engines, with admission cutoff, and therefore torque, mechanically controlled by a centrifugal governor and trip valves.

As poppet valves came into use, a simplified valve gear using a camshaft came into use. With such engines, variable cutoff could be achieved with variable profile cams that were shifted along the camshaft by the governor. The Serpollet steamcars produced very hot high pressure steam, requiring poppet valves, and these used a patented sliding camshaft mechanism, which not only varied the inlet valve cut-off but allowed the engine to be reversed.

Aircraft
An early experimental 200 hp Clerget V-8 from the 1910s used a sliding camshaft to change the valve timing. Some versions of the Bristol Jupiter radial engine of the early 1920s incorporated variable valve timing gear, mainly to vary the inlet valve timing in connection with higher compression ratios. The Lycoming R-7755 engine had a Variable Valve Timing system consisting of two cams that can be selected by the pilot. One for take off, pursuit and escape, the other for economical cruising.

Automotive
The desirability of being able to vary the valve opening duration to match an engine's rotational speed first became apparent in the 1920s when maximum allowable RPM limits were generally starting to rise. Until about this time an engine's idle RPM and its operating RPM were very similar, meaning that there was little need for variable valve duration. The first use of variable valve timing was on the 1903 Cadillac Runabout and Tonneau created by Alanson Partridge Brush Patent 767,794 “INLET VALVE GEAR FOR INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES” filed August 3, 1903, and granted August 16, 1904. Some time prior to 1919 Lawrence Pomeroy, Vauxhall's Chief Designer, had designed a 4.4 L engine for a proposed replacement for the existing 30-98 model to be called the H-Type. In this engine the single overhead camshaft was to move longitudinally to allow different camshaft lobes to be engaged. It was in the 1920s that the first patents for variable duration valve opening started appearing – for example United States patent.

In 1958 Porsche made application for a German Patent, also applied for and published as British Patent GB861369 in 1959. The Porsche patent used an oscillating cam to increase the valve lift and duration. The desmodromic cam driven via a push/pull rod from an eccentric shaft or swashplate. It is unknown if any working prototype was ever made.

Fiat was the first auto manufacturer to patent a functional automotive variable valve timing system which included variable lift. Developed by Giovanni Torazza in the late 1960s, the system used hydraulic pressure to vary the fulcrum of the cam followers (US Patent 3,641,988). The hydraulic pressure changed according to engine speed and intake pressure. The typical opening variation was 37%.

Alfa Romeo was the first manufacturer to use a variable valve timing system in production cars (US Patent 4,231,330). The fuel injected models of the 1980 Alfa Romeo Spider 2000 had a mechanical VVT system. The system was engineered by Ing Giampaolo Garcea in the 1970s. All Alfa Romeo Spider models from 1983 onward used electronic VVT.

In 1989, Honda released the VTEC system. While the earlier Nissan NVCS alters the phasing of the camshaft, VTEC switches to a separate cam profile at high engine speeds to improve peak power. The first VTEC engine Honda produced was the B16A which was installed in the Integra, CRX, and Civic hatchback available in Japan and Europe.

In 1992, Porsche first introduced VarioCam, which was the first system to provide continuous adjustment (all previous systems used discrete adjustment). The system was released in the Porsche 968 and operated on the intake valves only.

Motorcycles
Variable valve timing has been applied to motorcycle engines but was considered a non-useful "technological showpiece" as late as 2004 due to the system's weight penalty. Since then, motorcycles including VVT have included the Kawasaki 1400GTR/Concours 14 (2007), the Ducati Multistrada 1200 (2015), the BMW R1250GS (2019) and the Yamaha YZF-R15 V3.0 (2017), the Suzuki GSX-R1000R 2017 L7.

Marine
Variable valve timing has begun to trickle down to marine engines. Volvo Penta's VVT marine engine uses a cam phaser, controlled by the ECM, which continuously varies advancement or retardation of the camshaft timing.

Diesel
In 2007, Caterpillar developed the C13 and C15 Acert engines which used VVT technology to reduce NOx emissions, to avoid the use of EGR after 2002 EPA requirements.

In 2010, Mitsubishi developed and started mass production of its 4N13 1.8 L DOHC I4, the world's first passenger car diesel engine that features a variable valve timing system.

Automotive nomenclature
Manufacturers use many different names to describe their implementation of the various types of variable valve timing systems. These names include:
 * AVCS (Subaru)
 * AVLS (Subaru)
 * CPS (Proton)
 * CVVTCS (Nissan, Infiniti)
 * CVVT (developed by Hyundai and Kia, but it can also be found on Geely, Iran Khodro and Volvo)
 * DCVCP - dual continuous variable cam phasing (General Motors)
 * DVT (Desmodromic variable timing, Ducati)
 * DVVT (Daihatsu, Perodua, Wuling)
 * FSI, TFSI, TSI, SI (Volkswagen Group)
 * MIVEC (Mitsubishi)
 * MultiAir (FCA)
 * VCT (Ford)
 * N-VCT (Nissan)
 * S-VT (Mazda)
 * Ti-VCT (Ford)
 * VANOS (Variable Nockenwellen Steuerung) - 'camshaft timing' without and with added Valvetronic  (BMW)
 * Variatore di fase Alfa Romeo (VCT) (Alfa Romeo)
 * VarioCam (Porsche)
 * VTEC, i-VTEC (Honda, Acura)
 * VTi, (Citroën, Peugeot, Opel and BMW Group)
 * VVC (MG Rover)
 * VVL (Nissan)
 * Valvelift (Audi)
 * VVA (Yamaha)
 * VVEL (Nissan, Infiniti)
 * VVT (Chrysler, General Motors, Proton, Suzuki and Maruti Suzuki, Isuzu, Volkswagen Group, Toyota)
 * VVT-i, VVTL-i (Toyota, Lexus)
 * VTVT (Hyundai)

Cam switching
This method uses two cam profiles, with an actuator to swap between the profiles (usually at a specific engine speed). Cam switching can also provide variable valve lift and variable duration, however the adjustment is discrete rather than continuous.

The first production use of this system was Honda's VTEC system. VTEC changes hydraulic pressure to actuate a pin that locks the high lift, high duration rocker arm to an adjacent low lift, low duration rocker arm(s).

Cam phasing
Many production VVT systems are the cam phasing type, using a device known as a variator which changes the phase (Phase refers to the relative timing between the inlet and exhaust camshafts, expressed as an angular measure.) of the camshaft and valves. This allows continuous adjustment of the cam timing (although many early systems only used discrete adjustment), however the duration and lift cannot be adjusted.

Oscillating cam
These designs use an oscillating or rocking motion in a part cam lobe, which acts on a follower. This follower then opens and closes the valve. Some oscillating cam systems use a conventional cam lobe, while others use an eccentric cam lobe and a connecting rod. The principle is similar to steam engines, where the amount of steam entering the cylinder was regulated by the steam "cut-off" point.

The advantage of this design is that adjustment of lift and duration is continuous. However, in these systems, lift is proportional to duration, so lift and duration cannot be separately adjusted.

The BMW (valvetronic), Nissan (VVEL), and Toyota (valvematic) oscillating cam systems act on the intake valves only.

Eccentric cam drive
Eccentric cam drive systems operates through an eccentric disc mechanism which slows and speeds up the angular speed of the cam lobe during its rotation. Arranging the lobe to slow during its open period is equivalent to lengthening its duration.

The advantage of this system is that duration can be varied independent of lift (however this system does not vary lift). The drawback is two eccentric drives and controllers are needed for each cylinder (one for the intake valves and one for the exhaust valves), which increases complexity and cost.

MG Rover is the only manufacturer that has released engines using this system.

Three-dimensional cam lobe
This system consists of a cam lobe that varies along its length (similar to a cone shape). One end of the cam lobe has a short duration/reduced lift profile, and the other end has a longer duration/greater lift profile. In between, the lobe provides a smooth transition between these two profiles. By shifting area of the cam lobe which is in contact with the follower, the lift and duration can be continuously altered. This is achieved by moving the camshaft axially (sliding it across the engine) so a stationary follower is exposed to a varying lobe profile to produce different amounts of lift and duration. The downside to this arrangement is that the cam and follower profiles must be carefully designed to minimise contact stress (due to the varying profile).

Ferrari is commonly associated with this system, however it is unknown whether any production models to date have used this system.

Two shaft combined cam lobe profile
This system is not known to be used in any production engines.

It consists of two (closely spaced) parallel camshafts, with a pivoting follower that spans both camshafts and is acted on by two lobes simultaneously. Each camshaft has a phasing mechanism which allows its angular position relative to the engine's crankshaft to be adjusted. One lobe controls the opening of a valve and the other controls the closing of the same valve, therefore variable duration is achieved through the spacing of these two events.

The drawbacks to this design include:
 * At long duration settings, one lobe may be starting to reduce its lift as the other is still increasing. This has the effect of lessening the overall lift and possibly causing dynamic problems. One company claims to have solved the uneven rate of opening of the valve problem to some extent thus allowing long duration at full lift.
 * Size of the system, due to the parallel shafts, the larger followers etc.

Coaxial two shaft combined cam lobe profile
This system is not known to be used in any production engines.

The operating principle is that the one follower spans the pair of closely spaced lobes. Up to the angular limit of the nose radius the follower 'sees' the combined surface of the two lobes as a continuous, smooth surface. When the lobes are exactly aligned the duration is at a minimum (and equal to that of each lobe alone) and when at the extreme extent of their misalignment the duration is at a maximum. The basic limitation of the scheme is that only a duration variation equal to that of the lobe nose true radius (in camshaft degrees or double this value in crankshaft degrees) is possible. In practice this type of variable cam has a maximum range of duration variation of about forty crankshaft degrees.

This is the principle behind what seems to be the very first variable cam suggestion appearing in the USPTO patent files in 1925 (1527456). The "Clemson camshaft" is of this type.

Helical camshaft
Also known as "combined two shaft coaxial combined profile with helical movement", this system is not known to be used in any production engines.

It has a similar principle to the previous type, and can use the same base duration lobe profile. However instead of rotation in a single plane, the adjustment is both axial and rotational giving a helical or three-dimensional aspect to its movement. This movement overcomes the restricted duration range in the previous type. The duration range is theoretically unlimited but typically would be of the order of one hundred crankshaft degrees, which is sufficient to cover most situations.

The cam is reportedly difficult and expensive to produce, requiring very accurate helical machining and careful assembly.

Camless engines
Engine designs which do not rely on a camshaft to operate the valves have greater flexibility in achieving variable valve timing and variable valve lift. The only production car that uses the camless design so far is the Koenigsegg Gemera.

Hydraulic system
This system utilizes the engine lube oil to control the closure of inlet valve. The intake valve opening mechanism incorporates a valve tappet and a piston inside a chamber. There is a solenoid valve controlled by the engine control system which gets energized and supplies oil through a non-return valve during the time of cam lift and the oil gets filled in the chamber and the return channel to the sump is blocked by the valve tappet. During the downward movement of the cam, at a particular instant, the return passage opens and the oil pressure gets released to the engine sump.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Variable valve timing


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Talk:James–Younger Gang

Native American
WAS THERE A INDIAN THAT ROAD WITH THE JAMES GANG
 * Perhaps you can provide greater detail and do your own research. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 195.147.175.160 (talk) 11:39, 2 October 2016 (UTC)

Title

 * added copyedit tag, this is mostly just simple grammar mistakes, run-ons etc, that are difficult to catch while you are writing an article. I will come back and edit this soon, or the original author can take a look at it if they want. --Darkfred 15:22, 3 August 2005 (UTC)

Merger
A merger between this article and Jesse James has been proposed. I think that both articles are of good length, and they are sufficiently independent topics that separate articles are warranted. This gang was not exclusively the property of Jesse James. Cheers, -Willmcw 18:04, August 15, 2005 (UTC)

 * agreed, I don't think either page needs a merger. There is a lot of independant information, a merger would either lose half the information, which is really interesting in both articles, or push the length way past the acceptable limit. -- Dark fred Talk to me 14:32, 16 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Perhaps not. There is a good deal of duplicated information in the articles, and they should at least be reworked so that they serve well together as a pair.  The Uninvited Co., Inc. 15:11, 16 August 2005 (UTC)

 * If the two articles are not merged, WP would nontheless likely be better served if some of the duplicative info in this article were moved out of this article and into the Jesse James, Cultural depictions of Jesse James, and Jesse James in music articles. Acwilson9 (talk) 22:00, 5 July 2020 (UTC)

George Todd
What about George Todd? I grew up hearing from my Mother and Grandmother that a man named George Todd used to walk in downtown Lee's Summit and discuss the Younger gang and that he was a former member but was a younger boy at the time. He to is buried in Lee's Summit and, I believe, Todd George road is named after him (with names reversed). But, all this is oral history. Certainly don't yet have any research to back it up and wondering if others have heard this too.--P Todd (talk) 01:36, 10 November 2009 (UTC)

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Name of Pinkerton agent killed
It is listed as 'John Whicher,' however his first name is not mentioned in the source. Furthermore his gravestone in the Pinkerton Employee plot in Chicago says Joseph W. Whicher. Based on this I've changed the name. There does seem to be competing info from other sources. But given that Pinkerton personally paid for and arranged for burials in the plot during his lifetime my instinct is to trust the headstone. https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/8904255/joseph-w-whicher DavidSSabb (talk) 18:25, 16 March 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:James–Younger Gang


text: File:Dillinger Escape Plan 'Miss Machine' album cover.jpg


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Simcoe North (federal electoral district)

Simcoe North (Simcoe-Nord) is a federal electoral district in central Ontario, Canada. It was established as a federal riding in 1867.

Demographics

 * According to the 2021 Canadian census

Ethnic groups: 84.0% White, 11.8% Indigenous, 1.0% South Asian

Languages: 89.7% English, 2.6% French

Religions: 54.3% Christian (23.8% Catholic, 7.3% United Church, 6.2% Anglican, 3.0% Presbyterian, 1.8% Baptist, 12.2% Other), 43.4% None.

Median income: $38,800 (2020)

Average income: $48,680 (2020)

Geography
The district includes all of the north and eastern parts of Simcoe County. Municipalities and Indian reserves include Midland, Orillia, Penetanguishene, Tay, Tiny, Christian Island 30, Christian Island 30A, Severn, Ramara, Oro-Medonte (part) and Mnjikaning First Nation. The area is 1,752 km2.

History
The electoral district was created in 1867 by the British North America Act. In 1867, it included the townships of Nottawasaga, Sunnidale, Vespra, Flos, Oro, Medonte, Orillia and Matchedash, Tiny and Tay, Balaklava and Robinson, and the Towns of Barrie and Collingwood. In 1882, it lost Oro, Medonte, Orillia and Matchedash, Tiny and Tay, and Balaklava and Robinson. In 1903, it gained Oro, but lost Barrie. In 1947, it lost Oro and gained Barrie. In 1966, it lost Nottawasaga, Sunnidale and Flos and gained Penetanguishene, Matchedash, Medonte, Orillia, Oro, and Tay. In 1976, it gained the townships of Mara, Rama and Tiny but Lost Barrie and Vespra. In 1987, it gained Flos Township, only to lose it again in the 1996 redistribution. In the 2003 redistribution, its southern boundary was altered slightly to follow the boundary of the new municipality of Springwater in neighbouring Simcoe—Grey with the municipalities of Oro-Medonte, Tiny and Tay in Simcoe North. In 2013, the riding lost all of Oro-Medonte west of 9 Line.

Riding associations
Riding associations are the local branches of the national political parties:

Members of Parliament
Simcoe North has elected the following members of Parliament to represent it in the House of Commons of Canada:

Election results
Note: Results are preliminary as of 18 October 2008.

Note: Conservative vote is compared to the total of the Canadian Alliance vote and Progressive Conservative vote in 2000 election.

Note: Canadian Alliance vote is compared to the Reform vote in 1997 election.

Note: Progressive Conservative vote is compared to "National Government" vote in 1940 election.

Note: "National Government" vote is compared to Conservative vote in 1935 election.

Note: Conservative vote is compared to Government vote in 1917 election.

Note: Government vote is compared to Conservative vote in 1911 election, and Opposition vote is compared to Liberal vote.

Note: popular vote compared to vote in 1896 general election.


text: User talk:64.12.116.133

title: User talk:64.12.116.133


text:
Ford Fairmont

The Ford Fairmont is a model line of compact cars that was manufactured by Ford from the 1978 to 1983 model years. The successor of the Ford Maverick, the Fairmont marked the third generation of compact sedans sold by Ford in North America. Initially slotted between the Pinto and Granada within the Ford line, the Fairmont was later marketed between the Ford Escort and Ford LTD. In contrast to its predecessor (only offered as a two-door or four-door sedan), the model line was offered as a two-door notchback sedan, two-door coupe, four-door sedan, and five-door station wagon. Though never sold as a Lincoln, Mercury sold a divisional counterpart of the Fairmont as the Mercury Zephyr.

The inaugural model lines of the rear-wheel drive Ford Fox platform (which served to replace models based on the Ford Falcon), the Fairmont and Zephyr shared underpinnings with twelve additional model lines for Ford, Mercury, and Lincoln. Though the Fairmont itself was produced for only six model years, the Fox platform would live on for another two decades, underpinning vehicles (in updated form) through the 2004 model year.

Through its production, Ford produced the Fairmont at numerous facilities across North America. On November 15, 1977, a Fairmont (a 1978 Fairmont Futura coupe) became the 100 millionth vehicle assembled by Ford Motor Company. For 1984, the model line was replaced with the front-wheel drive Ford Tempo.

Background and development
In April 1973, the American EPA released its comprehensive list of fuel economy results. In October of the same year, the 1973 oil crisis started. At the time, Ford's North American product line included the subcompact Pinto and Mustang II, and the compact Maverick, but replacements for all of these models would soon be needed. At the same time, Ford of England's Cortina line was in need of refreshing, as was the Taunus model built by Ford of Germany.

Changes were also happening at Ford's executive level, as William O. Bourke, ex-chairman of Ford of Europe and one-time managing director of Ford of Australia, was made executive vice president of North American Operations and Robert Alexander, previously with Ford of Europe as vice president in charge of car development, moved to same position in the States.

Hal Sperlich was vice-president of product planning and research at Ford. A proponent of downsizing, Sperlich conceived of a "world car" that could be sold in both Europe and North America as a solution to the needs of the various divisions.

Some sources suggest that the "Fox" name was borrowed from the Audi 80, sold in the US and Australia as the "Audi Fox" beginning in May 1973, because Ford's executives considered the 80 their class-leading subcompact competitor, and made it the baseline reference for the new platform. Another reports that Ford used the Fox name in an internal report as early as February 1973, making it less likely to have been borrowed from the German model. In December 1973, Ford President Lee Iacocca formally approved development of the Fox platform.

Although the Fairmont would be the first Fox-based car to reach the market, development was guided by an anticipated sport coupe to be based on the new platform.

Development started in early 1973 on both a short wheelbase version, to replace the Pinto/Cortina/Taunus lines, and a long-wheelbase version, that would become the Fairmont. By 1974, the difficulties faced in meeting the conflicting regulatory requirements in different markets and differing production methods used by the various divisions had killed the world car idea. In 1975, North American Automobile Operations took over development of the Fox platform from Sperlich's Product Planning and Research group.

The first running Fox/Fairmont prototype was a modified Cortina with a MacPherson strut and torsion bar front suspension.

A 1980 Fairmont station wagon converted to an electric vehicle by Electric Vehicles Associates Inc. and renamed the EVA Current Fare Wagon was evaluated by the US Department of Energy from March 1980 to November 1981.

Model overview
The Ford Fairmont was launched in August 1977 as a 1978 model. The name was first used by Ford in 1965 for the Australian Fairmont, an upscale trim level model of the Ford Falcon (XP), and had also been used in the South African market in 1969.

Chassis specifications
The Fairmont is based on the rear-wheel drive Ford Fox platform, using steel unibody construction. The independent front suspension comprised lower lateral arms, MacPherson struts, and helical-wound coil springs. In what Ford called a modified or hybrid MacPherson strut system, the coil springs were mounted separately from the struts rather than concentrically, being located between the lower arm and front cross-member. A front anti-roll bar was standard equipment. The rear suspension used a solid axle suspended on coil springs and vertically mounted dampers. The axle was located by four links; two lower trailing arms and two sharply angled upper control arms.

The Fairmont has power-assisted brakes, with 10.0 inch vented front discs and 9.0 x 1.8 inch rear drums. Standard wheels and tires were 14x5.0 and DR78-14 respectively. Steering was by a rack and pinion system with 3.2 turns lock-to-lock.

Powertrain
For its entire production run, the standard engine for the Fairmont was a 140 cuin inline-4 (shared with the Pinto). Initially producing 88 hp, following several revisions, output rose to 90 hp by 1983. The 2.3 L engine was initially paired with a 3-speed manual (replaced by a 4-speed in 1979), with a 3-speed automatic offered as an option. For 1980 only, a 120 hp turbocharged version of the 2.3 L engine (shared with the Mustang Cobra) was available in Fairmont sedans and coupes. Examples with the turbocharged engine were distinguished by a center-mounted hood "power bulge".

As an option, a 200 cuin inline-6 (shared with the Maverick and Granada) was offered from 1978 to 1983 model years. While offering less horsepower than the 2.3 L inline-4, the 3.3 L inline-6 produced significantly more torque. For 1978, the standard transmission was a 3-speed manual (replaced by a 4-speed for 1979); a 3-speed automatic was offered as an option.

For 1978 to 1981 model years, the Fairmont was offered with two different Windsor V8 engines (shared with mid-size and full-size Ford vehicles). For 1978 and 1979, a 139 hp 302 cuin V8 was offered, available with a 4-speed manual transmission for the 1979 model year only. It was replaced by a 115 hp 255 cuin V8 for 1980 and 1981. The 255 engine was paired exclusively with a 3-speed automatic transmission.

Body design
The Fairmont debuted for 1978 with three body configurations; a two-door sedan, a four-door sedan, and a five-door station wagon. Late in the 1978 model year, a two-door coupe was introduced; named Futura, the name revived the sporty trim level used for the 1960s Ford Falcon.

The Fairmont Futura was developed from a Fairmont-based Thunderbird design proposal from March 1976. The Futura was a two-door coupe distinguished by a model-specific roofline that featured a wrapover B-pillar similar to the 1977–1979 Ford Thunderbird but without opera windows. The rear fascia was also given its own wrap-around taillamp design. To further differentiate the Futura from the standard Fairmont, the coupe was fitted with the 4-headlight fascia from the Zephyr, and a cross-hatched grille was used in place of the standard eggcrate grille. For the 1980 model year Ford expanded the Futura nameplate to include a four-door sedan and added a Futura station wagon for 1981.

For 1981, the exterior trim was revised with the addition of a slim molding strip along the side exterior panels; convenience equipment was also increased. For 1982, several model revisions were made. Ford moved the Fairmont station wagon to the Granada model line and the Futura trim became the sole trim, expanding it to the two-door sedan for the first time. Effectively, this standardized the four-headlight front fascia (of the Futura coupe and Mercury Zephyr).

For 1983, Ford introduced an "S" model of the Fairmont Futura as a base trim. Sold only as a sedan and only with the 2.3 L engine, the radio and right-hand mirror of the Futura S became options.

Discontinuation
During the early 1980s, Ford undertook a major revision of its product ranges. Following the 1981 introduction of the Ford Escort, the automaker sought to expand its use of front-wheel drive across the compact and mid-size segment; the rear-wheel drive Fox platform remained in production, used mainly for performance and luxury vehicles (the Mustang, Thunderbird, their Lincoln-Mercury counterparts, but also the Ford LTD/Mercury Marquis).

Released for the 1984 model year, the Ford Tempo and Mercury Topaz replaced the Fairmont/Zephyr. An extended-wheelbase sedan counterpart of the Escort/Lynx, the front-wheel drive Tempo and Topaz followed the Thunderbird in using aerodynamic-influenced exterior styling. As the Fairmont was ending its model cycle in 1983, it would become the sole Ford model in North America to retain "FORD" lettering in place of the Ford Blue Oval emblem; the Thunderbird (which used its own emblem) never used Ford badging on the grille.

The same one-piece lift-up tailgate designed for the Fairmont wagon was also used on the fourth generation Australian XD, XE and XF series Ford Falcon and Fairmont wagons, which were produced until 1988.

Production Figures: * Futura sedans and Futura wagons are included in the Sedan and Wagon figures

Mercury Zephyr
From the 1978 to 1983 model years, the Mercury Zephyr served as the Mercury counterpart of the Ford Fairmont, replacing the Maverick-based Comet. The third vehicle to use the nameplate within Ford Motor Company, the Mercury Zephyr shares its nameplate with the 1936–1940 Lincoln-Zephyr and the 1950–1972 Ford Zephyr (produced by Ford of Britain). Within the Mercury line, the Zephyr was slotted between the Bobcat (replaced for 1981 by the Lynx) and the Monarch (replaced for 1981 by the Cougar).

Sharing the same model range as the Fairmont, the Zephyr was offered as two-door and four-door sedans, a five-door station wagon, and the two-door "Zephyr Z-7" coupe. At its launch, the Zephyr was externally distinguished by the use of four headlights (initially only used by the Fairmont Futura). The exterior was styled with design elements that were adopted by multiple Mercury product lines during the early 1980s (the Lynx, Capri, Cougar, and Marquis), including a waterfall-style grille, horizontally-ribbed taillamps, and (non-functional) front fender vents.

The Zephyr was initially offered in standard, ES (a successor to the ESS trim of the Monarch), and Ghia trims, for 1981, both were replaced by GS trim (the equivalent of Futura on non-coupe Fairmonts). In line with other Mercury station wagons, the model line was offered with a Villager option package, including exterior (simulated) woodgrain trim.

At the beginning of the 1980s, the Zephyr was gradually phased out of the Mercury model line. For 1982, both the 4.2-liter V8 option and the station wagon were moved to the more upscale Cougar model line. As Mercury transitioned its model line to front-wheel drive, the Zephyr was replaced by the Mercury Topaz for the 1984 model year.

Following its use by Mercury, the Zephyr nameplate was briefly reused by Lincoln in 2006. The Lincoln Zephyr mid-size sedan was renamed the Lincoln MKZ for 2007, commencing the Lincoln "MK" model nomenclature.

Ford Durango

The Ford Durango was produced by a joint venture between Ford and National Coach Corporation in 1981. Based heavily on the Fairmont Futura coupe, the Durango was a two-door, two-seat car-based pickup truck that was intended as a possible replacement for the 1977–1979 Ford Ranchero as well as a competitor to the downsized Chevrolet El Camino/GMC Caballero. Approximately 200 are estimated to have been produced.

European Sport Option
The European Sport Option was an appearance and suspension package offered in 1978 through 1980. It is abbreviated "ES Option" or "ESO". Exterior changes included a black grille, black cowl grille, deluxe bumpers, black window frames, black exterior mirrors, black C-pillar ventilation louvers, bright belt moldings and turbine wheel covers. The interior featured black carpeting, a black three-spoke leather-wrapped steering wheel, black instrument panel with gray engine-turned trim and black or chamois-colored seats. The running gear was modified with stiffer springs, re-valved shocks, and a rear anti-roll bar. The ESO mounted DR78-14 radial tires on 5.5 inch wheels, one half inch wider than stock.

Police and Taxicab packages
In 1978 Ford also made available specially prepared Fairmonts suitable for use as police cars and taxicabs. Initially the only engines offered for these applications were the 200 cubic inch inline six or the 302 V8. Ford's product literature lists the following special features for both packages:

 * Automatic transmission with first-gear lockout
 * Externally-mounted transmission oil cooler
 * Power brakes
 * Heavy-duty body construction with extra reinforcements
 * Heavy-duty suspension package (Police or Taxi), including higher-rate springs, hardened spindles, special shocks and struts
 * Cooling package with high fin-density radiator
 * Heavy-duty 14 x 5.5 inch wheels

In later years the naturally-aspirated 2.3 L inline four engine became available as well.

A few turbo four-door automatic sedans were used for testing by the California Highway Patrol.

Mexico
The Ford Fairmont was introduced in Mexico in late 1977 as a 1978 model, replacing the Ford Maverick that was produced there locally. The Mexican Fairmont was available exclusively with the 5.0 L engine (302) with manual and three-speed automatic transmissions. It was offered as a two- or four-door sedan and a wagon. The Futura coupe with its distinctive Thunderbird-style roofline was never offered in Mexico. Instead there was an uplevel two-door sedan called the Fairmont Elite. It was distinguished from other Fairmonts by its higher level of equipment and vinyl roof. It used the four headlight grille from the Fairmont Futura along with the Mercury Zephyr's taillamps and rear quarter window louvers.

For 1981, all versions of the Fairmont got four headlights. The regular Fairmont continued to use the Futura grille while the Fairmont Elite used the Mercury Zephyr grille.

For 1982 the Fairmont Elite was renamed the Ford Elite II, and was offered in both two- and four-door sedans. The Elite II used the entire front end and matching rear bumper from the 1982 North American Ford Granada. The base Fairmont adapted the Mercury Zephyr grille used on the previous Elite.

For 1983, the Fairmont received a new 3.8 L Essex V6 engine which was sold in addition to the existing V8. This was the last year of the Fairmont as it was replaced later by the Ford Topaz which was a hybrid assembly of the Mercury Topaz with a Ford Tempo front end.

Venezuela
A version of the Fairmont was manufactured in Venezuela where it was sold as the Ford Zephyr. The Ford Futura was also sold as an individual model without Fairmont badging.

Reception
Contemporary reviews were generally favorable, with many commenting on the "European" feel of the car and comparing it to the Volvo 200 series.

The 1978 Fairmont has been called the "most efficient Ford family (sedan) ever built from a space-per-weight perspective."

Motorsports
In 1978 Bob Glidden campaigned an NHRA Pro Stock Futura powered by a Cleveland V8. The car won its debut race on 8 July 1978 at the Edgewater Winston Championship Series, where it also set a national record. Additional wins followed at the NHRA Grandnational, U.S. Nationals, Fall Nationals, World Finals and Beech Bend WCS. Glidden won his third national championship title with the car. The Futura was retired at the end of the 1978 season.

title: Ford Fairmont


text:
Talk:IATA airline designator

DE
I may be missing something completely obvious here, so please don't jump all over me. :-)

Anyway, the July-September '04 Star Alliance timetable lists several flights that have a "DE" airline code. For example, there's DE4062 from Frankfurt to Halifax, departing at 1440 and arriving at 1655 local time. There is no DE code listed in this article or in the legend at the beginning of the timetable PDF.

Do you think someone simply messed up and replaced LH with DE, for Deutsche (sp?) Lufthansa? Or is this an evil plot to create a new airline code without IATA (or whoever) approval? I can't stand the suspense! ;-)

Thanks in advance

anonymous Wikipedia newbie

 * I found DE (Prime Air Inc.) on this web site, and added it to our list. There are lots more to be added. -- Heron 08:07, 21 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Prime Air looks to be a small airline with (unscheduled?) flights from Boeing Field/King County International Airport in Seattle to Whistler, BC...not one that would fly from Frankfurt to Halifax. However, there may be another Prime Air out there that didn't show up in the first few pages of Google results.

 * Other flights with DE codes in the timetable include all the listed flights out of Antalya, Turkey, which go to several major cities in Germany (not just Lufthansa's hubs, Frankfurt and Munich). -- Wikipedia newbie, 2 Aug 2004

updated a, b, and 1. still working on the rest. nwt

6U
What is 6U? They are flying among other Vilnius - Kyiv, Ukraine. Jakro64 21:20, 20 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * I discovered the French translation is much more developed and found the answer there myself - Air Ukraine! Jakro64 21:34, 20 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Page Name
Should be in the singular- I am moving it accordingly. Deano 20:45, 5 October 2005 (UTC)

HMM... I'm now questioning the wisdom of my above move... is there a template somewhere that uses a link to the old page name??? Anyway, if anyone disagrees with the move then just move it back. I'm now unsure is the benefits outweigh the costs! Deano 20:51, 5 October 2005 (UTC)

Requested move
Should this article be moved to IATA airline designator (curently a redirect here) or IATA airline designators? I think the second is correct. Vegaswikian 07:31, 12 October 2005 (UTC)
 * It is standard wiki practice to have names in the singular form. Therefore I think it should be singular.  If you meant that A and D should be in lower case... then I'm not really sure.  There could be a fair argument that the name as a whole is a proper noun, and therefore all letters should be capitalised.  Deano 12:31, 12 October 2005 (UTC)
 * But lists are plural like US Airways destinations. And this is a list nav page and not a real article.  Vegaswikian 22:44, 12 October 2005 (UTC)
 * I have added this to requested moves as noted above. The experts can advise and assist.  Vegaswikian 06:40, 26 October 2005 (UTC)

 * If the decision is that "IATA Airline Designator" is a proper noun then it has to have capitalisation for every word and therefore it makes more sense to leave it in the singular form because it is a proper noun.
 * HOWEVER, if it is decided that it is a common noun, then I agree it should become "IATA airline designators" in the decapitalised and plural form.
 * Deano 08:35, 26 October 2005 (UTC)
 * My vote is for "IATA airline designator", because the sister page is "IATA airport code".
 * Urhixidur 19:44, 3 November 2005 (UTC)
 * I also prefer "IATA airline designator". Plural titles should only be used in exceptional circumstances, such as when the singular makes no sense or is nonstandard. —Caesura(t) 19:31, 3 December 2005 (UTC)

When a consensus is made, you will find you can perform the move yourselves, without administrator intervention - I deleted and re-created the redirect. Rob Church Talk 12:32, 4 November 2005 (UTC)

Low-value picture
I think the current picture at the front of the article, Image:HK_IntAirport_-_IATA_codes.jpg, offers very little added-value to the article and suggest it is removed. One can barely read the IATA codes displayed on it. AirOdyssey 03:23, 12 June 2006 (UTC)
 * It's something you can do if you want, WP:BOLD. Vegaswikian 04:20, 12 June 2006 (UTC)

Length of article
I removed the double wikilinks. Example: AA: American Airlines (United States) became: AA - American Airlines (United States) Not only it reduced the article size, but it's more in accordance to the Manual of style in terms of wikilinking. AirOdyssey 00:59, 22 June 2006 (UTC)

9X is Itali Airlines!!!

4G
4G is Gazpromavia, not Shenzhen Airlines (corrected)

 * Shenzhen restored - please read article with reference to controlled duplicates MilborneOne 12:26, 17 October 2006 (UTC)

 * Actually my IATA MITA (not the entire coding directory) book from last year lists shenzhen as ZH, not 4G at all. Same thing for another source of mine. Keep in mind, for this, and all other codes, that IATA's codes are an absolute mess. They change all the time and different departments disagree on codes.

 * airlinecodes show 4G as Shenzhen Airlines (CSZ) with controlled duplicates for Gazpromavia (GZP) and Advance Leasing Company (previously (BC*). Also it appears that Shenzhen Airlines was at ZH for a while.  Vegaswikian 19:12, 17 October 2006 (UTC)

Duplicates
Please do not remove any duplicate entries. Either they are controlled duplicates, issued by IATA, or reassigned codes where both need to be listed for historic accuracy. If the code changes, leave the listing at the old code with a comment about a new one being aigned. Again this is needed for historical accuracy. Vegaswikian 18:09, 17 October 2006 (UTC)

 * And I suggest that, as per IATA standards, the controlled duplicates are asterisked (the duplicates, not the originals). Also, as in the 4G example, listing shenzhen there seemed to be completely incorrect, both currently and historically.

Replacement article
I'm going to be combining IATA airline designator, ICAO airline designator and List of airline call signs into a single article. To avoid losing information during this process, I'm going to delete each section as it is converted. If you need to update a section that has been converted, please do so in the new article, Airline codes. Vegaswikian 20:50, 19 April 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:IATA airline designator


text:
Junagadh

Junagadh is the city and headquarters of Junagadh district in the Indian state of Gujarat. Located at the foot of the Girnar hills, 355 km southwest of Ahmedabad and Gandhinagar (the state capital), it is the seventh largest city in the state.

Literally translated, Junagadh means "Old Fort".

After a brief struggle between India and Pakistan, Junagadh voted to join India in a plebiscite held on 20 February 1948. It was a part of Saurashtra state and later Bombay state. In 1960, in consequence of the Maha Gujarat movement, it became part of the newly formed Gujarat state.

Early history

As per the legend, the founder of the Ror Dynasty Raja Dhaj, Ror Kumar, alias Rai Dyach, ruled over the principality of Jhunagarh in the fifth century BC. An early structure, Uparkot Fort, is located on a plateau in the middle of town. It was originally built in 319 BCE during the Mauryan dynasty by Chandragupta. The fort remained in use until the 6th century, when it was abandoned for about 300 years, then rediscovered by the Chudasama ruler Graharipu in 976 CE. The fort was subsequently besieged 16 times over a 1000-year period. One unsuccessful siege lasted twelve years.

Within 2 km of Uparkot Fort is an inscription with fourteen Edicts of Ashoka on a large boulder. The inscriptions are in Brahmi script in a language similar to Pali and date from 250 BCE. On the same rock there is a later inscription in Sanskrit, which was added around 150 CE by Mahakshatrap Rudradaman I, the Saka (Scythian) ruler of Malwa, and a member of the Western Kshatrapas dynasty, and which has been described as "the earliest known Sanskrit inscription of any extent". Another inscription dates from about 450 CE and refers to Skandagupta, the last Gupta emperor. Old rock-cut Buddhist caves in this area, dating from well before 500 CE, have stone carvings and floral work. There are also the Khapra Kodia Caves north of the fort, and the Bava Pyara Caves south of the fort. The Bava Pyara caves contain artworks of both Buddhism and Jainism.

The Maitraka dynasty ruled Gujarat from 475 to 767 CE. The founder of the dynasty, General Bhatarka, military governor of Saurashtra peninsula under the Gupta empire, established himself as the independent ruler of Gujarat around the last quarter of the 5th century.

Chudasama dynasty
The early history of the Chudasama dynasty – which ruled Saurashtra from Junagadh – is almost lost. The bardic legends differ very much in the names, order, and numbers of early rulers, so they are not considered reliable. According to tradition, the dynasty is said to have been founded in the late 9th century by Chudachandra. Subsequent rulers such as Graharipu, Navaghana, and Khengara, were in conflict with the Chaulukya rulers Mularaja and Jayasimha Siddharaja; and Saurashtra was briefly governed by Chaulukya governors during this period. These events are recorded in contemporary and later Jain chronicles.

In 1350, Junagadh was conquered by Muhammad bin Tughluq with the help and forces of Koli chieftain Jesaji (Jesing) from Ra Khengar.

After the end of the rule of the Chaulukyas and their successors, the Vaghela dynasty, in Gujarat, the Chudasamas ruled independently, or as vassals of successor states, the Delhi Sultanate and the Gujarat Sultanate. Mandalika I was the first Chudasama ruler known from inscriptions, and during his reign, Gujarat was invaded by the Khalji dynasty of Delhi. The last king of the dynasty, Mandalika III, was defeated and forcibly converted to Islam in 1472 by Gujarat Sultan Mahmud Begada, who annexed the state.

The Uparkot Fort of Junagadh was occupied by the Chudasamas during the reign of Graharipu. It is said to have been later rebuilt by Navaghana, who had transferred his capital from Vamanasthali to Junagadh. He is also credited with construction of the stepwells Navghan Kuvo and Adi Kadi Vav in the fort. His descendant Khengara is attributed with building a stepwell, Ra Khengar Vav, on the way to Vanthali from Junagadh.

Gujarat sultanate
Sultan Mahmud Begada changed the name of Junagadh to Mustafabad and built the fortifications around the town and the mosque in Uparkot Fort.

Under the Gujarat Sultanate, Junagadh was governed by an official, styled thanadar (commander), appointed directly by Ahmedabad. This official collected the tribute and revenue of the crown domain. The first thanadar was Tatar Khan, an adopted son of the Sultan and after him Mirza Khalil, the eldest son of the Sultan who afterwards succeeded him under the title of Sultan Muzaffar. Prince Khalil during his tenure of office founded the village called Khalilpur. The Sultan also installed Bhupatsingh, the son of the last Chudasama king, Mandalika III, in Junagadh as a jagirdar (feudal lord). The jagir allotted to Bhupatsingh was the Sil Bagasra Chovisi; and his descendants were known as Raizada. They continued to rule there. Bhupatsingh was succeeded by his son Khengar.

After the accession of Sultan Muzafar, and indeed during the latter part of Sultan Mahmud's reign, the seat of government was moved from Junagadh to Diu owing to the importance of that island as a naval station and to check the ravages of the Portuguese. Tatarkhan Ghori was left at Junagadh by Malik Eiaz who himself resided at Diu. After the disgrace and death of Malik Eiaz, Tatarkhan Ghori became independent at Junagadh; and after the death of Sultan Bahadur, the Ghori family reigned independently at Junagadh, though still owing a nominal allegiance to the successive Sultans at Ahmadabad. This state of affairs continued until the first conquest of Gujarat by the Mughal emperor Akbar, when Aminkhan Ghori had succeeded his father Tatarkhan at Junagadh.

When the Portuguese took over the ports of Diu and Daman in the 16th century, a fifteen-foot cannon, made in Egypt in 1531, was abandoned by a Turkish admiral opposing the Portuguese forces at Diu, which is now at Uparkot Fort.

Under the Mughal Empire
In 1525, Khengar was succeeded by his son Noghan. Tatarkhan Ghori had now become almost independent. In his time Jam Raval conquered Halar and built Navanagar. In 1551, Noghan was succeeded by his son Shrisingh, who lived till 1586. During this time, Tatarkhan Ghori died and was succeeded by his son Aminkhan Ghori. In his time, Akbar conquered Gujarat, although Sorath remained independent under the Ghori rule. The exact date of Tatarkhan Ghori's death is not known; but from the mention of Aminkhan as his successor, it must have been from about 1570 to 1575. On the return of Emperor Akbar to Agra in 1573, after the defeat and death of Muhammad Husain Mirzah and Ikhtiyar ul Mulk, he gave orders that Sorath should be conquered from Aminkhan Ghori. Vazir Khan attempted it but was unequal to the task. Great confusion existed now in Sorath. The Moghal conquest of Gujarat, the collapse of the power of the Gujarat Sultans, the encroachments of the Jam, and the assumption of independence by the Ghori all augmented the confusion afterwards increased by the escape of Sultan Muzaffar in 1583 and subsequent partisan warfare.
 * Ghori rule

During these disturbances Amin Khan Ghori and his son Daulat Khan Ghori espoused the cause of Muzafar, as did the Jam and Loma Khuman of Kherdi. The exact date of Amin Khan Ghori's death is not known but it was about 1589–90. Raizada Khengar also warmly espoused Mnzafar's side. After the siege and capture of Junagadh in 1591–92 by Naurang Khan, Syad Kasim, and Gnjar Khan; Khengar was dismissed to his estate of Sil Bagasra, and the Raizada ceased to rule at Junagadh. Daulat Khan Ghori died of his wounds during the siege, and henceforth Junagadh became the seat of the imperial faujdars (garrison commanders) of Sorath in subordination to the imperial viceroy at Ahmedabad.

The first faujdar of Junagad was Naurang Khan and, next, Syad Kasim. The most famous were (1) Mirzah Isa Tarkhan (2) Kutb ud din Kheshgi, and (3) Sardarkhan. Of these Mirzah Isa Tarkhan ruled Sorath from about 1633–34 to 1642, when he was appointed viceroy of Gujarat. On this occasion he left his son Inayat Ullah as faujdar at Junagadh while he himself conducted the government of Gujarat from its capital, Ahmedabad. In Mirzah Isa Tarkhan's time the fortifications of Junagadh were entirely repaired. Kutb ud din was another faujdar, and his tenure of office lasted from about 1653 to 1666. In about 1664, he conquered Navanagar and annexed it to the imperial domain. Sardarkhan also distinguished himself as faujdar of Sorath, both by the firmness of his rule and by his construction (1681, AH 1092) of the Sardar Baug (palace) and excavation of the Sardar Talav (main gate). He built a mausoleum for himself in the Sardar Baug, but he died at Thatta, in Sindh, and is said to have been buried there and not at Junagadh. He was faujdar from about 1666 to 1686, but in 1670 he went for a short time to Idar and was replaced by Syad Dilerkhan. The last of the faujdar s was Sherkhan Babi, who became independent and assumed the title of Nawab Bahadur Khan.
 * Imperial rule

Junagadh state

In 1730, Mohammad Sher Khan Babi, who owed allegiance to the Mughal governor of Gujarat Subah, founded the state of Junagadh by declaring independence after the invasion by the Maratha Gaekwad dynasty. Babi founded the Babi Dynasty of Junagadh State. His descendants, the Babi Nawabs of Junagadh—who were Babi or Babai pashtuns from Afghanistan—conquered large territories in southern Saurashtra and ruled for the next two centuries, first as tributaries of Marathas, and later under the suzerainty of the British, who granted the honor of a 13-gun salute.

 * 1730–1758 – Mohammad Bahadur Khanji or Mohammad Sher khan Babi
 * 1758–1774 – Mohammad Mahabat Khanji I
 * 1774–1811 – Mohammad Hamid Khanji I
 * 1811–1840 – Mohammad Bahadur Khanji II
 * 1840–1851 – Mohammad Hamid Khanji II
 * 1851–1882 – Mohammad Mahabat Khanji II
 * 1882–1892 – Mohammad Bahadur Khanji III
 * 1892–1911 – Mohammad Rasul Khanji
 * 1911–1948 – Mohammad Mahabat Khanji III

British period

In 1807, Junagadh State became a British protectorate. The East India Company took control of the state by 1818, but the Saurashtra area was never directly administered by the British, who instead divided the territory into more than one hundred princely states, which remained in existence until 1947. The present old-town, developed during the 19th and 20th centuries, constituted one of those princely states.

The Shri Swaminarayan Mandir temple in Junagadh was constructed on land presented by Jinabhai (Hemantsingh) Darbar of Panchala, and dedicated on 1 May 1828. Swaminarayan appointed Gunatitanand Swami as the first mahant (religious and administrative head of a temple), who served in this role and preached there for over 40 years.

Accession by India
During the period just before the independence and partition of India and Pakistan in 1947, the 562 princely states that had existed outside British India, but under British suzerainty, were given the choice of acceding to either India or Pakistan, or to remaining apart. Although the states were theoretically free to choose, Earl Mountbatten stated that "geographic compulsions" meant that most of them would choose India. Mountbatten took the position that only states that shared a common border with Pakistan should choose to accede to it, but he had no power to impose this point of view on the states.

On 15 September 1947, Nawab Mohammad Mahabat Khanji III of Junagadh – which, although located at the south-western end of Gujarat, had no common border with Pakistan – chose to accede to Pakistan, ignoring Mountbatten's views and arguing that Junagadh could access Pakistan by sea. The rulers of two states that were subject to the suzerainty of Junagadh — Mangrol and Babariawad — reacted by declaring their independence from Junagadh and acceding to India. In response, the nawab's forces militarily occupied the two states. Rulers of other neighbouring states reacted angrily, sent troops to the Junagadh frontier, and appealed to the government of India for assistance. A group of Junagadhis, led by Samaldas Gandhi, formed a government-in-exile, the Aarzi Hukumat ("temporary government").

India asserted that Junagadh was not contiguous to Pakistan and, believing that if Junagadh was permitted to accede to Pakistan communal tension already simmering in Gujarat would worsen, refused to accept the nawab's accession to Pakistan. The Indian government pointed out that the state was 96% Hindu, and called for a plebiscite to decide the question of accession. India cut off supplies of fuel and coal to Junagadh, severed air and postal links, sent troops to the frontier, and occupied the principalities of Mangrol and Babariawad, which had acceded to India.

Pakistan agreed to discuss a plebiscite, subject to the withdrawal of Indian troops, a condition India rejected. On 26 October, the nawab and his family fled to Pakistan following clashes between Junagadhi and Indian troops.

On 7 November, Junagadh's court, facing collapse, invited the government of India to take over the state's administration. The Dewan of Junagadh, Sir Shah Nawaz Bhutto, the father of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, decided to invite the Government of India to intervene and wrote a letter to Mr. Buch, the regional commissioner of Saurashtra in the government of India to this effect.

The government of India rejected the protests of Pakistan and accepted the invitation of the dewan to intervene. A plebiscite was conducted in February 1948, but it was not internationally monitored. Pakistan's claims were based on the logic of the Kashmir annexation, and not on the plebiscite, which went almost unanimously in favour of accession to India. Junagadh became a part of the Indian state of Saurashtra until 1 November 1956, when Saurashtra became part of Bombay state. In 1960, Bombay state was split into the linguistic states of Maharashtra and Gujarat, in which Junagadh was located.

In 2020, Pakistan's government has maintained and revived its territorial claim on Junagadh, along with Manavadar and Sir Creek in Gujarat, on its official political map.

Accession to India

 * 15 Aug 1947 Accedes to Pakistan.
 * 15 Sep 1947 Accession to Pakistan accepted.
 * 9 Nov 1947 Occupied by India.
 * 10 Nov 1947 Rescinds accession to Pakistan, accedes to India.
 * 24 Feb 1948 Referendum approves accession to India.
 * 25 Feb 1948 Accession to India in effect.

Geography

Junagadh city is located at 21.52°N, 70.47°W at the foot of Mount Girnar, with the Arabian sea to the southwest, Porbandar to the north, and Amreli to the east. It has an average elevation of 107 m.

Junagadh city has two rivers, the Sonrakh and the Kalwo, which is polluted from city sewers. The city has several lakes: Narsinh Mehta Sarovar, Damodarji, Sudarshan Lake, etc. Willingdon Dam, Hasnapur Dam, and Anandpur Weir are the main water sources for the city. Groundwater supply is widely available in the city, with wells throughout.

Junagadh's soil is similar to that of the rest of Junagadh district. It is deep- to medium-black coastal alluvium, due to its proximity to the sea, long shoreline, and nearby mountain ridge. Because of many fault lines in the vicinity, Junagadh is in a seismically active zone. Junagadh lies in a Seismic Zone III region, which means earthquakes up to magnitude 6.5 on the Richter-scale may be expected.

Climate
Junagadh has a tropical wet and dry climate (Aw) bordering on a hot semi-arid climate (BSh), with two distinct seasons: a dry season from October to May, and a wet season from June to September. The close proximity of the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Cambay affect the climate. In the summer months, temperatures range from 28 to 38 C. In the winter, they range from 10 to 25 C. From June to September the city is drained by the southwest monsoon. Rainfall averages 800 to 1200 mm annually. The greatest rainfall in a calendar year—2800 mm—was recorded in 1983.

Demographics
2011 census, Junagadh municipality had a population of 319,462. The municipality had a sex ratio of 955 females per 1,000 males and 9% of the population were under six years old. The effective literacy rate was 88%; male literacy was 92.46% and female literacy was 83.38%.

Junagadh has relatively low to medium housing and land costs in comparison to cities like Rajkot. The city is rapidly expanding, and available land inside the city limits is now limited. Total area under slums is 19.5 km2 (14.5% of the total municipal area) and the total slum population accounts for around 25% of the total population.

The religions represented in Junagadh includes Hindus, Muslims, Jains, Christians, and Buddhists. Among these Hindus are the majority and Muslims are the largest minority group. Jains and Christians are present in considerable numbers. Sikhs and Parsis are very few in number. There are Tibetan migrants who practice Buddhism. The main language group is Gujarati. Others are Hindi and Sindhi. A small community of African origin, known as "Siddis", resides in and around the Gir Sanctuary, but some of them have moved to the city. There are around 8816 Siddi in the state and 65% of them reside in Junagadh. Swaminarayan Hinduism is also widely followed in the city. There are two Swaminarayan temples in the city: the old temple is managed by the Vadtal diocese and the new temple is managed by Bochasanwasi Shri Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha.

Administration
The city is divided into the main city, which is centered on Mahatma Gandhi (M.G.) Road and Kalwa Chowk; Gandhigram; Zanzarda Road; Talaw Darwaza; the bus stand; Sakkar Baug; Timbawadi; Joshipara; and Girnar Taleti. The city is administered by the Junagadh Municipal Corporation.

The politics of Junagadh city has always been closely contested between the Indian National Congress (INC) and the Bharatiya Janta Party (BJP). Other national parties are the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP), the Communist Party of India, and the Nationalist Congress Party. Regional parties active in Junagadh are the Mahagujarat Janta Party, the Samata Party, and the Republic Party of India. Junagadh has 194,196 registered voters, of which 100,050 are male and 94,146 female.

Junagadh has one state-assembly constituency. The BJP won this seat in the 2007 election, with 52.36% of the 118,888 votes cast, with the next largest vote being 26.32% for the INC candidate. Election for the state assembly is held every 5 years.

The Junagadh Municipal Corporation has 17 wards and total of 51 seats. In the 2009 municipal elections the INC won 26 seats, BJP 21 seats, BSP 3 seats and 1 went to an independent. While the majority of the seats went to the INC, the BJP candidates received more votes: 134,739, or 45.62% of the total, the INC receiving 120,533, 40.81%. The Mayor, Deputy Mayor has terms of 2 and a half years.

Utilities
Junagadh's population of 452000 requires 30 e6l of water per day, which is supplied through 25,000 tap connections to three major surface water sources, namely Aanandpur Weir, Hasanapur Dam, and Wellingdon Dam, as well as to 32 wells. Junagadh has more than 1000 hand pumps and 200 stand posts situated throughout the city drawing from groundwater sources.

In January 2004, Junagadh city increased its area from 13.47 km2 to 57 km2 by annexing eight grampanchayats and one municipality. The newly acquired area has its own groundwater supply system of bore wells.

The city generates approximately 150 t of solid waste daily, which is within the recommended limit, of 400 g per capita, per day, for domestic waste. The waste is collected by deploying 400 wheel barrows (six containers) as per supreme court guidelines and Municipal Solid Wastes (MSW) rule 2000. The municipal council has set up 800 community bins for solid waste collection. It covers 90% of city area. Junagadh's drainage system is 62 km long but it serves only 67% of the total area and 60% of the population.

The Paschim Gujarat Vij Company Ltd. (P.G.V.C.L.), a state-run electricity company, provides electric power. Telecom service is provided mainly by Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited (B.S.N.L.); other service providers include Reliance and Tata. Cell-phone coverage is extensive and the main service providers are Vodafone, B.S.N.L., Airtel, Idea, and Tata Docomo. B.S.N.L. also provides broadband service.

The city has a good network of street lights. There is a total of 12,545 tube lights and 1523 central sodium street lights. A Solar power project has been approved for Narsinh Mehta Sarovar.

Transport
Junagadh is connected to Rajkot, Ahmedabad, and Veraval by National Highway 8D (NH8D). The city is connected to Mount Girnar by road, as well as to Bilkha and the Sasan Gir Lion Sanctuary in the south. Junagadh City Bypass on NH8D obviates the need for through-traffic to enter the city. Ferguson Bridge connects the parts of the city on either side of the Kalwo River. Another bridge spans the Sonrakh River in the northern outskirts of the city. Rickshaws are the generally preferred mode of transportation. The Girnar ropeway is a aerial tramway located in Bhavnath locality of Junagadh city.

Economy
Due to its mountainous geography and forest reserves, Junagadh lacks major industries or plants. The main economic sectors are the mineral-based cement industry, agriculture-based industries, and the power sector. The presence of large reserves of limestone makes the cement industry a thriving industrial sector. Major crops produced in the district are wheat, oil seeds, cotton, mangoes, bananas, onions, and brinjal (eggplant). The total production of oilseeds in Junagadh in 2006–07 was 464,400 metric tons, which was the highest in the state. Junagadh is the largest producer of groundnut and garlic in the state, contributing 26% and 34%, respectively, of total production. Junagadh has Asia's largest ground-nut research laboratory. Mangoes and onions are grown in large quantities in the district.

Some of the large-scale industry present in Junagadh are Mother Dairy Fruit & Vegetable Pvt Ltd (popularly known as Junagadh Dairy in the region), Agro Marine Exports, Creative Castings Ltd., and Austin Engineering. With an investment of INR 4,000 crore (US$975.6million), JSW Power Co. had proposed to set up a coal-based power plant at Simar Village, in Junagadh, but due to difficulties in establishing a port there, it has been shifted to the port of Dahej. Under the new government policy of encouraging biotechnology, Junagadh has been identified as an agriculture biotechnology zone. This will boost the establishment of agro-biotech industries in the district.

Junagadh boasts of some of the best tourist destinations in the state, so tourism is considered to be a progressing sector. The state government has sanctioned the development of a Circuit Tourism project at Junagadh.

Education
Junagadh is an education hub where people from nearby towns and villages come to study.

Schools in Junagadh are either municipal schools run by the municipal council or private schools run by trusts or individuals, which in some cases receive financial aid from the government. The schools are affiliated either with the Gujarat Secondary and Higher Secondary Education Board, the Central Board of Secondary Education, or the International General Certificate of Secondary Education. English and Gujarati are the predominant languages of instruction.

The city is home to Junagadh Agricultural University.

Culture
Established in 1863, Junagadh's Sakkarbaug Zoological Garden, also known as the Sakkarbaug Zoo, is around 210 acre (84 hectares) in size. The zoo provides purebred Asiatic lions for the Indian and international critically endangered species captive breeding programs. Currently, it is the only zoo in the country to house African cheetahs. The zoo also has museum of natural history.

Junagadh's many ruling dynasties—such as Babi Nawabs, Vilabhis, Kshatraps, Mauryas, Chudasamas, Gujarat Sultans—and its religious groups have influenced the architectural syles of Junagadh.

The Junagadh Buddhist Cave Groups, with their intricately carved gateways, Chaitya halls, sculptured pillars, and sanctums are classic examples of rock-cut architecture. The Chudama Rajputs left specimens of their architectural style in Nabghan Kuvo and Adi Kadi Vav. Religious monuments such as the Jami Masjid remind us of Muslim architectural patterns. The Ashokan edicts is a classic example of old rock engraving styles. The Maqbaras and numerous age-old palaces in Junagadh tell the story of its rich historical and architectural past.

About 2 km east of Junagadh and 3 km west of the foot of Girnar Hill is an edict of Emperor Ashoka, inscribed on an uneven rock and dating from the 3rd century BC. The Ashokan edicts impart moral instructions on dharma, harmony, tolerance, and peace. The rock has a circumference of 7 m, a height of 10 m, and bears inscriptions in Brāhmī script etched with an iron pen.

The people of Junagadh celebrate both Western and Indian festivals. Diwali, Maha Shivaratri, Holi, Janmastami, Muharram, Navratri, Christmas, Good Friday, Dussera, Muharram, and Ganesh Chaturthi are some of the popular festivals in the city.

The Shivaratri Mela is organized at the foot of Mount Girnar (Talati) in the month of Maha (9th day of the month of Maagha). The mela lasts for the next five days. About 500,000 people visit Junagadh on this occasion. The Girnar Parikrama is also organized annually. It starts in the month of Kartik and draws 1 to 1.5 million people. People walk the periphery of the Girnar Hills on foot (about 32 km). Muharram is celebrated by Muslims. The sej, which belonged to the peers or gurus of the nawabs, has been taken out; and a fair has been organized. Apart from these religious and national festivals, Junagadh annually celebrates its accession to India on 9 November 1947 as the independence day of the city. 1 May is Gujarat day, to celebrate the formation of Gujarat state on 1 May 1960.

Notable

 * Bapu Velnath Thakor, Koli saint of the 17th century from Junagadh.
 * Narsinh Mehta - A Gujarati Poet
 * Parvin Babi - Indian film actress
 * Shamaldas Gandhi - Inidan Freedom fighter who fight for Junagadh

title: Junagadh


text:
Minister of Western Economic Diversification

The Minister responsible for Prairies Economic Development Canada (Ministre responsable de Développement économique des Prairies Canada du Canada) is the Minister of the Crown in the Canadian Cabinet who served as the chief executive of Western Economic Diversification Canada (WD). The post was traditionally held by an MP from Western Canada, although occasionally the responsibilities were accorded to a more senior cabinet minister, such as the Industry minister.

As of November 4, 2015, WD, along with Canada's other regional development agencies, is operated as part of the Innovation, Science and Economic Development (ISED) portfolio, led by Minister Navdeep Bains.

Related regional development posts include Minister for the Atlantic Canada Opportunities Agency and Minister of the Economic Development Agency of Canada for the Regions of Quebec, positions which have also been folded into ISED under Minister Bains.

On August 5, 2021, the Government of Canada announced that Western Economic Diversification would be divided into two new agencies—PacifiCan for BC; and PrairiesCan for Alberta, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan.

Ministers
Key:

{{legend||Liberal Party of Canada|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}} {{legend||Progressive Conservative Party of Canada|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}} {{legend||Conservative Party of Canada|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}


text:
Knuckle curve

In Major League history, the term knuckle curve or knuckle curveball has been used to describe three entirely different pitches. All are unrelated to the similar sounding knuckleball.

The first, more modern and commonly used pitch called the knuckle curve is really a standard curveball, thrown with one or more of the index or middle fingers bent. According to practitioners, this gives them a better grip on the ball and allows for tighter spin and greater movement. In all other respects, this knuckle curve is identical to the standard curveball. This version of the knuckle curve is currently used by Major League pitchers Phil Hughes and Brad Peacock. Mike Mussina was well known for his incorporation of the pitch into his repertoire. Justin Verlander formerly threw a knuckle curve but was forced to abandon the pitch due to problems with blisters. This knuckle curve is usually called the spike curve by MLB players and coaches because the pitch is nothing like a knuckleball.

The second type of knuckle curve is a breaking ball that is thrown with a grip similar to the knuckleball. Unlike a knuckleball, which spins very little, a knuckle curve spins like a normal curveball because the pitcher's index and middle fingers push the top of the ball into a downward curve at the moment of release. Since only two fingers produce the spin, however, a knuckle curve does not spin as fast as a curveball, meaning the break is less sharp and less predictable. Because this knuckle curve can be thrown with the same general motion as a fastball, it is more deceptive than a normal curveball. This kind of knuckle curve is rare. It is easier to control than a standard knuckleball, but still difficult to master. The most famous practitioners of this type of knuckle curve are Burt Hooton, who pitched for the Chicago Cubs and the Los Angeles Dodgers from the mid-1970s to mid-1980s, and former reliever Jason Isringhausen.

The third type of knuckle curve was thrown by Dave Stenhouse in the 1960s. Stenhouse's knuckle curve was thrown like a fastball but with a knuckleball grip. Stenhouse discovered that this pitch had excellent movement, and when he came to the majors, he utilized it as a breaking pitch. This pitch may have been the same as the knuckleball thrown by Jesse Haines and Freddie Fitzsimmons. The pitch would be perfected by Chicago White Sox legend Hoyt Wilhelm during the later stages of his career, after flirting with it for most of his time in the majors.

Notable knuckle curve pitchers

 * Cody Allen
 * Matt Anderson
 * Matt Barnes
 * Dellin Betances
 * Shane Bieber
 * Archie Bradley
 * Mike Bolsinger
 * Walker Buehler
 * A. J. Burnett
 * Alex Cobb
 * Gerrit Cole
 * Wade Davis
 * Tyler Duffey
 * Dillon Gee
 * Zack Godley
 * Dan Haren
 * Burt Hooton
 * J. P. Howell
 * Phil Hughes
 * Jason Isringhausen
 * Joe Kelly
 * Craig Kimbrel
 * German Marquez
 * Vin Mazzaro
 * Lance McCullers Jr.
 * James McDonald
 * Mark Melancon
 * Mike Minor
 * Mike Mussina
 * Aaron Nola
 * Bobby Parnell
 * James Paxton
 * Brad Peacock
 * Nick Pivetta
 * Drew Pomeranz
 * David Robertson
 * Jonathan Sánchez
 * Dave Stenhouse
 * Ross Stripling
 * Chris Tillman
 * Hoyt Wilhelm
 * Brandon Workman

title: Knuckle curve


text:
Category:Baseball pitches

In baseball, a pitch is thrown by a pitcher, toward home plate to start a play. Pitchers throw a variety of pitches, each one of which has a slightly different velocity, trajectory, movement and/or arm angle. These variations are introduced to confuse the batter in various ways, and ultimately aid the defensive team in getting the batter or baserunners out.

title: Category:Baseball pitches


text:
Tunnel magnetoresistance

Tunnel magnetoresistance (TMR) is a magnetoresistive effect that occurs in a magnetic tunnel junction (MTJ), which is a component consisting of two ferromagnets separated by a thin insulator. If the insulating layer is thin enough (typically a few nanometres), electrons can tunnel from one ferromagnet into the other. Since this process is forbidden in classical physics, the tunnel magnetoresistance is a strictly quantum mechanical phenomenon, and lies in the study of spintronics.

Magnetic tunnel junctions are manufactured in thin film technology. On an industrial scale the film deposition is done by magnetron sputter deposition; on a laboratory scale molecular beam epitaxy, pulsed laser deposition and electron beam physical vapor deposition are also utilized. The junctions are prepared by photolithography.

Phenomenological description
The direction of the two magnetizations of the ferromagnetic films can be switched individually by an external magnetic field. If the magnetizations are in a parallel orientation it is more likely that electrons will tunnel through the insulating film than if they are in the oppositional (antiparallel) orientation. Consequently, such a junction can be switched between two states of electrical resistance, one with low and one with very high resistance.

History
The effect was originally discovered in 1975 by Michel Jullière (University of Rennes, France) in Fe/Ge-O/Co-junctions at 4.2 K. The relative change of resistance was around 14%, and did not attract much attention. In 1991 Terunobu Miyazaki (Tohoku University, Japan) found a change of 2.7% at room temperature. Later, in 1994, Miyazaki found 18% in junctions of iron separated by an amorphous aluminum oxide insulator and Jagadeesh Moodera found 11.8% in junctions with electrodes of CoFe and Co. The highest effects observed at this time with aluminum oxide insulators was around 70% at room temperature.

Since the year 2000, tunnel barriers of crystalline magnesium oxide (MgO) have been under development. In 2001 Butler and Mathon independently made the theoretical prediction that using iron as the ferromagnet and MgO as the insulator, the tunnel magnetoresistance can reach several thousand percent. The same year, Bowen et al. were the first to report experiments showing a significant TMR in a MgO based magnetic tunnel junction [Fe/MgO/FeCo(001)]. In 2004, Parkin and Yuasa were able to make Fe/MgO/Fe junctions that reach over 200% TMR at room temperature. In 2008, effects of up to 604% at room temperature and more than 1100% at 4.2 K were observed in junctions of CoFeB/MgO/CoFeB by S. Ikeda, H. Ohno group of Tohoku University in Japan.

Applications
The read-heads of modern hard disk drives work on the basis of magnetic tunnel junctions. TMR, or more specifically the magnetic tunnel junction, is also the basis of MRAM, a new type of non-volatile memory. The 1st generation technologies relied on creating cross-point magnetic fields on each bit to write the data on it, although this approach has a scaling limit at around 90–130 nm. There are two 2nd generation techniques currently being developed: Thermal Assisted Switching (TAS) and Spin-transfer torque.

Magnetic tunnel junctions are also used for sensing applications. Today they are commonly used for position sensors and current sensors in various automotive, industrial and consumer applications. These higher performance sensors are replacing Hall sensors in many applications due to their improved performance.

Physical explanation

The relative resistance change—or effect amplitude—is defined as

 * $$\mathrm{TMR} := \frac{R_{\mathrm{ap}}-R_{\mathrm{p}}}{R_{\mathrm{p}}}$$

where $$R_\mathrm{ap}$$ is the electrical resistance in the anti-parallel state, whereas $$R_\mathrm{p}$$ is the resistance in the parallel state.

The TMR effect was explained by Jullière with the spin polarizations of the ferromagnetic electrodes. The spin polarization P is calculated from the spin dependent density of states (DOS) $$\mathcal{D}$$ at the Fermi energy:

$$P = \frac{\mathcal{D}_\uparrow(E_\mathrm{F}) - \mathcal{D}_\downarrow(E_\mathrm{F})}{\mathcal{D}_\uparrow(E_\mathrm{F}) + \mathcal{D}_\downarrow(E_\mathrm{F})}$$

The spin-up electrons are those with spin orientation parallel to the external magnetic field, whereas the spin-down electrons have anti-parallel alignment with the external field. The relative resistance change is now given by the spin polarizations of the two ferromagnets, P1 and P2:

$$\mathrm{TMR} = \frac{2 P_1 P_2}{1 - P_1 P_2}$$

If no voltage is applied to the junction, electrons tunnel in both directions with equal rates. With a bias voltage U, electrons tunnel preferentially to the positive electrode. With the assumption that spin is conserved during tunneling, the current can be described in a two-current model. The total current is split in two partial currents, one for the spin-up electrons and another for the spin-down electrons. These vary depending on the magnetic state of the junctions.

There are two possibilities to obtain a defined anti-parallel state. First, one can use ferromagnets with different coercivities (by using different materials or different film thicknesses). And second, one of the ferromagnets can be coupled with an antiferromagnet (exchange bias). In this case the magnetization of the uncoupled electrode remains "free".

The TMR becomes infinite if P1 and P2 equal 1, i.e. if both electrodes have 100% spin polarization. In this case the magnetic tunnel junction becomes a switch, that switches magnetically between low resistance and infinite resistance. Materials that come into consideration for this are called ferromagnetic half-metals. Their conduction electrons are fully spin-polarized. This property is theoretically predicted for a number of materials (e.g. CrO2, various Heusler alloys) but its experimental confirmation has been the subject of subtle debate. Nevertheless, if one considers only those electrons that enter into transport, measurements by Bowen et al. of up to 99.6% spin polarization at the interface between La0.7Sr0.3MnO3 and SrTiO3 pragmatically amount to experimental proof of this property.

The TMR decreases with both increasing temperature and increasing bias voltage. Both can be understood in principle by magnon excitations and interactions with magnons, as well as due to tunnelling with respect to localized states induced by oxygen vacancies (see Symmetry Filtering section hereafter).

Symmetry-filtering in tunnel barriers
Prior to the introduction of epitaxial magnesium oxide (MgO), amorphous aluminum oxide was used as the tunnel barrier of the MTJ, and typical room temperature TMR was in the range of tens of percent. MgO barriers increased TMR to hundreds of percent. This large increase reflects a synergetic combination of electrode and barrier electronic structures, which in turn reflects the achievement of structurally ordered junctions. Indeed, MgO filters the tunneling transmission of electrons with a particular symmetry that are fully spin-polarized within the current flowing across body-centered cubic Fe-based electrodes. Thus, in the MTJ's parallel (P) state of electrode magnetization, electrons of this symmetry dominate the junction current. In contrast, in the MTJ's antiparallel (AP) state, this channel is blocked, such that electrons with the next most favorable symmetry to transmit dominate the junction current. Since those electrons tunnel with respect to a larger barrier height, this results in the sizeable TMR.

Beyond these large values of TMR across MgO-based MTJs, this impact of the barrier's electronic structure on tunnelling spintronics has been indirectly confirmed by engineering the junction's potential landscape for electrons of a given symmetry. This was first achieved by examining how the electrons of a lanthanum strontium manganite half-metallic electrode with both full spin (P=+1 ) and symmetry polarization tunnel across an electrically biased SrTiO3 tunnel barrier. The conceptually simpler experiment of inserting an appropriate metal spacer at the junction interface during sample growth was also later demonstrated .

While theory, first formulated in 2001, predicts large TMR values associated with a 4eV barrier height in the MTJ's P state and 12eV in the MTJ's AP state, experiments reveal barrier heights as low as 0.4eV. This contradiction is lifted if one takes into account the localized states of oxygen vacancies in the MgO tunnel barrier. Extensive solid-state tunnelling spectroscopy experiments across MgO MTJs revealed in 2014 that the electronic retention on the ground and excited states of an oxygen vacancy, which is temperature-dependent, determines the tunnelling barrier height for electrons of a given symmetry, and thus crafts the effective TMR ratio and its temperature dependence. This low barrier height in turn enables the high current densities required for spin-transfer torque, discussed hereafter.

Spin-transfer torque in magnetic tunnel junctions (MTJs)
The effect of spin-transfer torque has been studied and applied widely in MTJs, where there is a tunnelling barrier sandwiched between a set of two ferromagnetic electrodes such that there is (free) magnetization of the right electrode, while assuming that the left electrode (with fixed magnetization) acts as spin-polarizer. This may then be pinned to some selecting transistor in a magnetoresistive random-access memory device, or connected to a preamplifier in a hard disk drive application.

The spin-transfer torque vector, driven by the linear response voltage, can be computed from the expectation value of the torque operator:

$$ \mathbf{T} = \mathrm{Tr}[\hat{\mathbf{T}} \hat{\rho}_\mathrm{neq}] $$

where $$ \hat{\rho}_\mathrm{neq} $$ is the gauge-invariant nonequilibrium density matrix for the steady-state transport, in the zero-temperature limit, in the linear-response regime, and the torque operator $$ \hat{\mathbf{T}} $$ is obtained from the time derivative of the spin operator:

$$ \hat{\mathbf{T}} = \frac{d\hat{\mathbf{S}}}{dt}= -\frac{i}{\hbar}\left[\frac{\hbar}{2}\boldsymbol{\sigma},\hat{H}\right] $$

Using the general form of a 1D tight-binding Hamiltonian:

$$ \hat{H}=\hat{H}_0 - \Delta (\boldsymbol{\sigma} \cdot \mathbf{m})/2 $$

where total magnetization (as macrospin) is along the unit vector $$ \mathbf{m}$$ and the Pauli matrices properties involving arbitrary classical vectors $$ \mathbf{p},\mathbf{q} $$, given by

$$ (\boldsymbol{\sigma} \cdot \mathbf{p})(\boldsymbol{\sigma} \cdot \mathbf{q}) = \mathbf{p} \cdot \mathbf{q} + i(\mathbf{p}\times\mathbf{q})\cdot \boldsymbol{\sigma} $$

$$ (\boldsymbol{\sigma} \cdot \mathbf{p}) \boldsymbol{\sigma} = \mathbf{p} + i \boldsymbol{\sigma} \times \mathbf{p} $$

$$ \boldsymbol{\sigma}  (\boldsymbol{\sigma} \cdot \mathbf{q}) = \mathbf{q} + i \mathbf{q} \times  \boldsymbol{\sigma} $$

it is then possible to first obtain an analytical expression for $$ \hat{\mathbf{T}} $$ (which can be expressed in compact form using $$ \Delta, \mathbf{m} $$, and the vector of Pauli spin matrices $$ \boldsymbol{\sigma}=(\sigma_x,\sigma_y,\sigma_z) $$).

The spin-transfer torque vector in general MTJs has two components: a parallel and perpendicular component:

A parallel component: $$ T_{\parallel}=\sqrt{T_x^2+T_z^2} $$

And a perpendicular component: $$ T_{\perp}=T_y $$

In symmetric MTJs (made of electrodes with the same geometry and exchange splitting), the spin-transfer torque vector has only one active component, as the perpendicular component disappears:

$$ T_{\perp} \equiv 0 $$.

Therefore, only $$ T_{\parallel} $$ vs. $$ \theta $$ needs to be plotted at the site of the right electrode to characterise tunnelling in symmetric MTJs, making them appealing for production and characterisation at an industrial scale.

Note: In these calculations the active region (for which it is necessary to calculate the retarded Green's function) should consist of the tunnel barrier + the right ferromagnetic layer of finite thickness (as in realistic devices). The active region is attached to the left ferromagnetic electrode (modeled as semi-infinite tight-binding chain with non-zero Zeeman splitting) and the right N electrode (semi-infinite tight-binding chain without any Zeeman splitting), as encoded by the corresponding self-energy terms.

Discrepancy between theory and experiment
Theoretical tunnelling magneto-resistance ratios of 10000% have been predicted. However, the largest that have been observed are only 604%. One suggestion is that grain boundaries could be affecting the insulating properties of the MgO barrier; however, the structure of films in buried stack structures is difficult to determine. The grain boundaries may act as short circuit conduction paths through the material, reducing the resistance of the device. Recently, using new scanning transmission electron microscopy techniques, the grain boundaries within FeCoB/MgO/FeCoB MTJs have been atomically resolved. This has allowed first principles density functional theory calculations to be performed on structural units that are present in real films. Such calculations have shown that the band gap can be reduced by as much as 45%.

In addition to grain boundaries, point defects such as boron interstitial and oxygen vacancies could be significantly altering the tunnelling magneto-resistance. Recent theoretical calculations have revealed that boron interstitials introduce defect states in the band gap potentially reducing the TMR further These theoretical calculations have also been backed up by experimental evidence showing the nature of boron within the MgO layer between two different systems and how the TMR is different.

title: Tunnel magnetoresistance