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Brookfield Corporation

Brookfield Corporation is a Canadian multinational company that is one of the world's largest alternative investment management companies, with over US$725 billion of assets under management in 2022. It focuses on direct control investments in real estate, renewable power, infrastructure, credit and private equity. The company invests in distressed securities through Oaktree Capital, which it bought in 2019. Brookfield's headquarters are in Toronto.

History
The company was founded in 1899 as the São Paulo Tramway, Light and Power Company by William Mackenzie and Frederick Stark Pearson. It operated in the construction and management of electricity and transport infrastructure in Brazil.

In 1904, the Rio de Janeiro Tramway, Light and Power Company was founded by Mackenzie's group.

In 1912, Brazilian Traction, Light and Power Company was incorporated in Toronto as a public company to develop hydro-electric power operations and other utility services in Brazil, becoming a holding company for São Paulo Tramway Co. and Rio de Janeiro Tramway Co. In 1916, Great Lakes Power Company was incorporated to provide hydro-electric power in Sault Ste. Marie and the Algoma District in Ontario.

In 1959, Edper Investments, founded by brothers Peter and Edward Bronfman, acquired Brazilian Traction, Light and Power Company for $15 million. In 1966, Brazilian Traction, Light and Power Company changed its name to Brazilian Light and Power Company, and again in 1969, changed its name to Brascan Limited. Brascan is a portmanteau of "Brasil" and "Canada".

During the 1970s, the company began to sell its Brazilian interests, and invested more heavily in industries such as real estate, timber and mining.

In 1979, the last of the company's Brazilian assets were transferred to Brazilian ownership (Eletropaulo and Light S.A.), the company meanwhile having diversified to other areas. The company provided electricity and tram services in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro. After restructuring, the company's Brazilian portfolio operated as Light S.A., short for Brazilian Traction, Light and Power Co. Ltd.

In 1992, Brookfield and Johnson Controls was established through a merger in Canada of Brookfield and Johnson Controlsa building systems and facility management company that was founded in the late 19th century by Warren S. Johnson, whose invention of the first electric room thermostat helped launch the building control industry. By 2012, Brookfield and Johnson Controls became an established industry leader with 11,500 locations across Canada. In 2007, Brookfield Asset Management acquired the Multiplex, an Australian international construction contracting company founded in 1962 by John Roberts. which was valued at that time at approximately A$7.3 billion. It was renamed Brookfield Multiplex in 2016. In 2012 Brookfield Asset Management and Johnson Controls Global WorkPlace Solutions (GWS) merged to create Brookfield Johnson Controls.

In 2002, Bruce Flatt was appointed CEO of Brascan. In 2005, after 37 years, Brascan Corp. was renamed to Brookfield Asset Management Inc. Between 2013 and 2018, the company and its subsidiaries invested approximately $10 billion in Brazilian energy, infrastructure and real estate developments, including acquisitions of oil pipelines from energy companies such as Petroleo Brasileiro SA.

In 2015, Brookfield Asset Management became the ultimate parent company of what is now Brookfield Global Integrated Solutions (BGIS), when it acquired control of Brookfield Johnson Controls from its joint venture partner, Milwaukee-based Johnson Controls. At that time, an activist investor had been putting pressure on Johnson Controls to divest of its real estate division. The facilities management business was renamed Brookfield Global Integrated Solutions (BGIS) as part of Brookfield's plan to establish a "leading global facilities management provider". BGIS expanded rapidly following Brookfield's taking control of BGIS in 2015, In 2016, when BGIS acquired the US-based data centre facility management serviceMcKinstry FMSwhich had over "350 engineers, technicians, planners and program managers", BGIS became one of the largest facility management companies serving data centres in North America. By 2017, when Gord Hicks was named as Toronto-based BGIS' CEO, the company had 7,000 staff members and 100 clients in the United States, the United Kingdom, Asia, and Canada, which included contracts with the Canadian federal government. By 2022, according to a Carleton University School of Public Policy and Administration analysis of federal government contracts for real estate management, the Government of Canada spent over $1 billion on contracts with BGIS in 2021–2022, representing the largest vendor contracts at that time. The vendor with the second largest federal government contracts in 2021-2022 was IBM Canada with a contract valued at c. 476 million. In 2019 Brookfield Asset Management sold its BGIS shares to CCMP Capital Advisorsan American private equity investment firmfor over CAD$1.3 billion with Hicks remaining as CEO. and was awarded the 2020 Private Equity Deal of the Year for the BGIS sale.

By 2018, Brookfield's major public subsidiaries included Brookfield Infrastructure Partners, Brookfield Renewable Partners, Brookfield Property Partners, and Brookfield Business Partners. In August 2018, Brookfield purchased Westinghouse Electric Company, a manufacturer of large nuclear reactors, out of bankruptcy for $4.6 billion.

On March 13, 2019, Brookfield Asset Management announced that it had agreed to buy most of Oaktree Capital Management for about $4.7 billion, creating one of the world's largest alternative money managers. On July 31, 2019, the sale of Vodafone New Zealand Limited to a consortium comprising Infratil Limited and Brookfield Asset Management Inc. was settled.

In a deal in October 2019, Brookfield bought The Leela Palaces, Hotels and Resorts, an Indian luxury hotel chain located in New Delhi, Bengaluru, Chennai, Udaipur, in a US$530 million settlement, marking the entry of Brookfield in India's hospitality market.

In 2020, in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, Brookfield's CEO Bruce Flatt assessed that the economic fallout was "much more manageable" than previous meltdowns.

In October 2020, Mark Carney, departing Governor of the Bank of England, became a vice-chair of Brookfield, leading the firm's environmental, social and governance (ESG) and impact fund investment strategy.

On April 25, 2022, it was announced the Brookfield and Simon Property Group were set to offer to buy Kohl's.

In August 2022, Intel signed a $30billion partnership with Brookfield to fund its recent factory expansions. As part of the deal, Intel would have a controlling stake by funding 51% of the cost of building new chip-making facilities in Chandler, Arizona, with Brookfield owning the remaining 49% stake, allowing the companies to split the revenue from those facilities.

On December 9, 2022, the company's name was changed from Brookfield Asset Management Inc. to Brookfield Corporation. Brookfield Corporation then spun-off 25% interest in their asset management business into the new publicly listed Brookfield Asset Management Ltd.

In 2024, Brookfield Asset Management entered into an agreement with Microsoft to develop around 10.5 gigawatts of new renewable energy capacity to build new wind and solar farms.

Reactions and lawsuits
In September 2010, a group called Birch Mountain Shareholders for Justice filed a lawsuit with the Ontario Superior Court of Justice against Brookfield Asset Management, challenging an acquisition and transfer of assets. Birch Mountain had run into financial troubles and accused Brookfield of financial engineering that resulted in Brookfield acquiring the company's $1.6 billion limestone quarry for $50 million. According to Birch Mountain, Brookfield had made use of death spiral financing and insider trading. After five years of litigation the case was dismissed, based on the fact that Birch Mountain had failed to present credible evidence. In May 2015, the plaintiffs filed a notice of appeal, but their case was likewise dismissed two years later.

In 2009, Brookfield sued financial and insurance giant American International Group (AIG) in a Manhattan federal court, alleging that AIG's collapse caused default provisions in interest-rate swaps. The suit stemmed from AIG's acceptance of a $182.3 billion bailout package from the federal government, which Brookfield argued overturned AIG's bankruptcy protection. The insurance firm countersued, claiming that Brookfield was trying to get out of its $1.5 billion debt to AIG. The litigation ended with Brookfield paying $905 million to settle the lawsuit.

In March 2013, the Southern Investigative Reporting Foundation called into question Brookfield's makeup. The analysis written by Roddy Boyd accused the company of using a pyramidal control structure, alleging that a small group of shareholders hold outsized power and may easily use the capital of other investors without risking their own.

In 2013, a Brazilian prosecutor filed charges against the company's local division, alleging the company paid bribes to local officials, which is also a violation of U.S. federal criminal law. The bribes were allegedly used to pave the way for Brookfield to build a shopping center in São Paulo. The U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission also opened a formal investigation into the company about the bribery charges. The company denied the charges. The U.S. Department of Justice also opened a criminal investigation into the company regarding these allegations, and did not end up making any arrests. According to the Stanford Law School Foreign Corrupt Practices Act Clearinghouse, which studied the case, the investigation and filing of charges was initiated by a whistleblower and anonymous tip. Later it was revealed that the whistleblower was the former CFO of a Brookfield subsidiary. She claims she was fired for refusing to participate in Brookfield's bribery scheme. The company disclosed the investigations on several 6-K forms between 2013 and 2015.

In August 2018, Brookfield signed a 99-year lease on the financially troubled 666 Fifth Avenue skyscraper, of Donald Trump's son in law Jared Kushner. The deal raised suspicions that the Qatar Investment Authority, a major investor in Brookfield, was attempting to influence the Trump administration.

In November 2020, it was revealed that Brookfield might be partnering with telecommunications giant Rogers Communications to introduce condominiums to the site of the Rogers Centre, halving the space available for sport. The original multi-purpose stadium and its land cost $570 million, significantly funded by taxpayers, yet was sold 15 years later to Rogers for just $25 million.

In February 2021, Mark Carney, Vice chairman and Head of Impact Investing and ex Governor of the Bank of England, had to retract an earlier claim that the $600 billion Brookfield Asset Management portfolio was carbon neutral. He based his claim on the fact that Brookfield has a large renewable energy portfolio and "all the avoided emissions that come with that". The claim was criticized as an accounting trick, as avoided emissions do not counteract the emissions from investments in coal and other fossil fuels responsible for a carbon footprint of about 5,200 metric tons of carbon dioxide. The company is actually aiming to be net-zero by 2050, which is decades behind leading companies.

Responsibility in 1929 São Paulo Flood
In 1927 São Paulo Tramway, Light and Power Company won a government contract to transfer the surplus flow of the Tietê River to feed the Henry Borden hydroelectric power plant in Cubatão, requiring the inversion of the natural flow of Pinheiros River. As part of the concession contract, the company received the right to expropriate wetlands surrounding the river basin for both its own use and city infrastructure projects, with a clause giving previous owners priority in subsequent real estate auctions. In February 1929 the region was subjected to above-average precipitation which, due to company operations (the opening of the Guarapiranga and Billings Reservoir sluices while closing the Santana de Parnaíba dam, trapping the surplus water in the metropolitan region of São Paulo) resulted in the worst flooding in the city history, the water level rising 3.45 meters above the normal levels and resulting in 38 deaths. When the water level receded, the company identified the affected areas with bronze plaques which marked them for expropriation, totaling 20.779.443 square meters (about 1/3 of the total metropolitan area). To avoid the buy-back clause the company resorted to side agreements with expropriated proprietors, only 10% of the expropriated properties returning to their original owners. Despite ample press coverage at the time, the company was never formally indicted due to political pressure.

The resulting hoarding of real estate assets in the city of São Paulo was instrumental to foster Brookfield operations restructuring in Brazil in the following decades.

Finances
For the fiscal year 2018, Brookfield Asset Management reported earnings of US$3.584 billion, with an annual revenue of $56.771 billion, an increase of 39.2% over the previous fiscal cycle. Brookfield Asset Management's shares traded at over $38 per share, and its market capitalization was valued at over $40.8 billion in November 2018.

Brookfield Asset Management's shares traded at $32.71 per share, and its market capitalization was valued at over $54.23 billion on October 17, 2023

title: Brookfield Corporation


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Ross Geller

Ross Geller (born October 18, 1968), portrayed by David Schwimmer, is one of the six main characters of the NBC sitcom Friends. Ross is considered by many to be the most intelligent member of the group and is noted for his goofy but lovable demeanor. His relationship with Rachel Green was included in TV Guides list of the best TV couples of all time, as well as Entertainment Weeklys "30 Best 'Will They/Won't They?' TV Couples". Kevin Bright, who was one of the executive producers of the show, had worked with Schwimmer before, so the writers were already developing Ross's character in Schwimmer's voice. Hence, Schwimmer was the first person to be cast on the show.

Appearances
Ross is a paleontologist and has a Ph.D. His romantic feelings toward Rachel Green (Jennifer Aniston), which began as a high-school infatuation, are an ongoing theme of his narrative arc. Likewise, their on-again, off-again romantic relationship is a nearly constant theme of Friends.

Raised on Long Island, Ross is the elder brother of Monica Geller (Courteney Cox), and son of Jack (Elliott Gould) and Judy Geller (Christina Pickles). Ross and Monica are Jewish and see themselves as at least cultural Jews, with Ross taking a more active role in wanting to teach his son, Ben, about the faith. Ross gets divorced and is newly single in the first episode because his wife, Carol (Jane Sibbett), has realized she's a lesbian. Later in the series, he dates Rachel, but they split up when he sleeps with another woman the night they decide their relationship is "on a break". After his relationship with Rachel ends, Ross marries Emily Waltham (Helen Baxendale), the niece of Rachel's boss. However, because Ross says "I, Ross, take thee, Rachel" instead of Emily during the nuptials, the marriage doesn't last long. In season 5, Ross and Rachel drunkenly marry in Las Vegas, and ultimately that marriage results in a divorce as well; however, they confess that if they ever got married properly it would be the one that lasted. Throughout the series, Ross gets divorced three times. In the first episode of Joey, the spin-off series, it is hinted that Ross and Rachel may have gotten married again, as Joey Tribbiani (Matt LeBlanc) tells his sister Gina (Drea de Matteo) that all of his friends are married.

A running theme in Ross's narrative is his competition with Monica, manifested through wrestling and paranoia. As children, they took part in a family football game for the "Geller Cup" every Thanksgiving. This tradition ended in its sixth year after Monica "accidentally" broke Ross's nose. The siblings came up with a dance in primary school called "The Routine", which they performed as adults at Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve in a New Year's Eve TV broadcast. When they were children, Monica felt that their parents favored Ross, but as they grew up, she actually liked Ross as a person and loved him more than simply out of a sense of family obligation. As adults, they became close, though the competition between them was still visible, as seen in the season three episode, "The One with the Football".

Ross often comes into conflict with Phoebe Buffay (Lisa Kudrow). His rationality and Phoebe's eccentricity lead to conflict over evolution, gravity, and whether Phoebe's mother was reincarnated as a cat. It is also revealed that Phoebe once mugged Ross (stealing a copy of the comic book Science Boy that Ross had created) when they were teenagers. The two are roommates for a few weeks when a fire forces Phoebe to move out of her apartment. She first moves into Chandler Bing (Matthew Perry) and Monica's apartment but then decides she wants to give the newly engaged couple some privacy, so she moves in with Ross. In a "flashback" episode, they are alone at a bar and start kissing, but the moment quickly passes when Ross keeps bumping his head. Phoebe also helps Ross on numerous occasions, ultimately making him realize that he loves Rachel and they are meant to be together.

Since college, Ross's best friend has been Chandler Bing. In college, they were in a band called Way/No Way, and Ross blamed Chandler when he was caught smoking marijuana. They become brothers-in-law after Chandler married Monica. Though they are best friends, at times Chandler gets annoyed with Ross's geeky behavior.

Ross is friends with Rachel Green, whom he has had a crush on since high school. Rachel viewed Ross as ‘Monica’s geeky older brother’ during high school. During the first episode of the series, when they meet after years apart, he rediscovers his feelings for her. They become close and have an on-and-off romantic relationship through the series. In the final season of the show, Rachel tells him that he means more to her than any other member of their group.

Ross is also close friends with Joey Tribbiani and helps him with auditions. He kisses Joey once in order to help him practice a role as a gay man, only to find out that Joey had already done the audition and didn't get the part. Joey and Ross also briefly try to cut Chandler out of their friend group after Chandler ignores them. They once fall asleep together on the couch after watching Die Hard. Toward the end of the series, however, Ross and Joey become closer friends, often hanging out together after Chandler gets married.

Ross often tries to bring out the best in his friends in difficult situations. For instance, in season 2, he encourages Joey to audition for Another World after being fired from Days of Our Lives despite Joey's refusal to audition for a two-line part of a secondary character. In season 7, he buys Phoebe the bicycle of her dreams but threatens to take it away from her because of her reluctance to learn how to ride it. Also, when he discovers that Joey has a crush on Rachel, he tells him to go for it, even though he finds it difficult to accept the idea of Joey and Rachel being together. Over all, Ross is portrayed as a very sweet, loving, and adorable character who is always looking out for everyone's best interests, and he is often the most mature compared to the rest of the gang (despite his ego, outbursts, and paranoia).

He has two children:
 * Ross's son, Ben [Geller-Willick-Bunch], was conceived while Ross and Carol were still married and born at the end of Season 1. Ross shares joint custody of Ben with his ex-wife Carol and her wife Susan (Jessica Hecht). Ben appeared in a total of 24 episodes (25 including uncut episodes) and was played chronologically as follows: as an infant by Michael Gunderson in Seasons 1 & 2, by brothers Charles Thomas Allen and John Christopher Allen from Seasons 3 to 5, and by Cole Sprouse from Seasons 6 to 8.
 * Ross' daughter with Rachel, Emma Geller-Green, was born at the end of Season 8. Rachel's pregnancy was originally revealed in the season finale of Season 7. The conception of Emma was the result of a one-night stand, which was later revealed in the Season 8 episode, "The One With The Videotape".

Ross claims to have "given up a career in basketball" to become a paleontologist and claims that the ideas for Jurassic Park and Die Hard were stolen from him. He also had a major interest in music, playing the keyboard for hours in the basement of their house in Long Island. Ross also claims credit for the Got Milk? slogan.

Ross had a pet in the first season of the show: a white-headed capuchin monkey named Marcel (although the monkey used in the series was a female called Katie).

Relationships
Over the course of the show, Ross dates a considerable number of women. He is married three times and divorced three times. His proclivity to marry and divorce is a running gag within the series.

 * Julie: An old graduate school colleague, portrayed by Lauren Tom. She first appears in the final scene of the Season 1 finale, returning with Ross from an archeological dig in China. They start dating in Season 2 but break up after Ross discovers Rachel's feelings for him and decides he wants to be with her instead. It is heavily implied that she starts a relationship with Russ, an ex-boyfriend of Rachel's with an uncanny resemblance to Ross.
 * Bonnie: A love interest (played by Christine Taylor) introduced to Ross by Phoebe. Bonnie is formerly a militant bald woman who no longer shaves her head. She enjoyed a sex-filled relationship with Ross until a conniving Rachel broke them up by first encouraging Bonnie to shave her head again, which she knows will bother Ross, and later by revealing she was interested in reuniting with Ross.
 * Mona: A love interest he met at Monica and Chandler's wedding (portrayed by Bonnie Somerville). Ross becomes paranoid after Mona proposes to send out Christmas cards together, and in a panic decides to give her a key to his apartment. It is later revealed that Mona is unable to say "I love you" yet, and delivers what the female friends refer to as "an emotional slap in the face" with "I love spending time with you". The relationship ends when Mona discovers that Rachel is living in Ross's apartment after Ross neglects to tell her this himself. When he hides in her apartment to retrieve his shirt while she is on a date with another man, Mona, under the belief that Ross wants to win her back, admits she still has feelings for him but states that they both need to move on.
 * Chloe: Ross's only connection with Chloe (referred to in a few prior episodes as "the cute girl from the copy place with the belly button ring") was a one-night stand during a break in his relationship with Rachel, which interferes with their attempt to get back together. Although only covered over two episodes in Season 3, Ross' fling with Chloe would be the basis of the "We were on a break!" running joke that would last until the very end of the series.
 * Janice: Ross has a brief fling with Janice, Chandler's ex-girlfriend, in Season 5. Phoebe said they would have very hairy children. Janice ironically dumps Ross because he whines too much. Ross, worried about how his friend would react, tells Chandler, who laughs but chooses to forgive him.
 * Elizabeth Stevens (Alexandra Holden): A pretty 20-year-old student who Ross teaches during his first year as a professor. The two go through a tremendous amount of effort to keep their relationship a secret from the faculty, as Ross would get fired for dating a student. He even tries to get on good terms with Elizabeth's father Paul (Bruce Willis), who in turn threatens to report him to the university. Ross eventually manages to blackmail Paul into pretending to like him by threatening to reveal Paul's embarrassing mirror dance routine to Rachel (who dates him briefly). Despite Paul no longer being a threat, Ross eventually realizes he sees no future in his relationship with Elizabeth and decides to break up with her due to her immaturity.
 * Charlie Wheeler: Ross meets Charlie (Aisha Tyler) in "The One With The Soap Opera Party". She is a paleontologist who has recently joined Ross's department. She initially dates Joey but breaks up with him and gravitates toward Ross, after realizing she has more in common with Ross. She eventually reconciles with her ex-boyfriend and breaks up with Ross.
 * Cheryl (Rebecca Romijn): A very attractive woman that Ross briefly dates. He decides he wants to pursue a relationship with her but is stifled by her incredibly filthy apartment. Despite her own living quarters being littered with garbage and infested with a variety of pests, she can't stand the "weird smell" of Ross' apartment, which is why she doesn't like being there. Ross breaks off the relationship after being covered in trash in an attempt to make out with Cheryl. Monica later visits her and offers to clean her apartment, revealing she "couldn't sleep" after Ross told her about it.
 * Jill Green: Ross very briefly dates Rachel's spoiled younger sister Jill (played by Reese Witherspoon) after her father sends her to New York City to take lessons from Rachel in self-sufficiency. Although Jill actually finds Ross a geek, she dates him out of spite because Rachel is uncomfortable with it and tells her "she's always wanted what she couldn't have". Ross, upon realizing he is being used, breaks it off with Jill because he does not want to end any possibility there could be of him and Rachel getting back together.

Rachel Green
Rachel is Ross's most significant relationship during the series and briefly his wife. His attraction to her is established early on; Ross met Rachel through his sister Monica, who was Rachel's best friend in high school. He developed an unrequited crush on her but never followed through on it. After leaving college, Ross married Carol, whom he had met at college, and had seemingly put his feelings for Rachel aside before he met her again in "The Pilot".

They have an on-again, off-again dynamic throughout most of the show.

In the Season 1 finale, Ross has to go to China for his work so he asks Chandler to give Rachel the birthday present which he had bought for her. Chandler gives the present to Rachel during her birthday celebration while Ross is in China, but he also accidentally reveals Ross's feelings for Rachel. This prompts Rachel to panic and start thinking about Ross in a romantic way. After Ross arrives back from China, Rachel goes to the airport to meet him after realizing that she likes him, but she sees him with Julie and reluctantly backs off.

In the Season 2 episode "The One Where Ross Finds Out", Rachel is on a date with a guy when she drunkenly calls and confesses to Ross that she had feelings for him, but now she is over him. Ross hears this message the next day at Monica's apartment with Rachel begging him not to check his messages. Later, in the same episode, they share a passionate kiss at the doors of Central Perk. Ross breaks up with Julie to be with her, but Rachel decides she does not want to be with him after finding out that he had made a list, at Chandler’s insistence, comparing the good and bad qualities of her and Julie. In the later episode "The One with the Prom Video", it is revealed that Ross, despite being two years senior to Rachel, had decided to take her to her and Monica's prom, as Rachel's date had not arrived, only to be left disappointed as her date finally shows up and they all leave for the prom. Touched by this, Rachel kisses Ross, and the two begin dating.

However, they take a break from their relationship on their one-year anniversary after Rachel's overtime work prevents them from spending time together. That same night, Ross has a one-night stand with Chloe, which causes Rachel to officially end their relationship. They get together again at the end of Season 3 but again break up at the start of Season 4. Some of the later episodes show them to still be in love with each other, such as when Ross cancels his Discovery channel appearance to be with Rachel when she breaks her rib, or when Rachel flies to London to tell Ross before his wedding to Emily that she is still in love with him, only to realize that it would be better not to tell. Ross, however, accidentally says Rachel's name at the altar, and the marriage soon dissolves.

In the Season 5 finale "The One in Vegas", Ross and Rachel marry each other after getting drunk in Las Vegas. This marriage ends in a divorce after a failed application for an annulment; the two sadly admit that they thought if they ever married each other it would last.

In the seventh season premiere "The One with Monica's Thunder", after the news of Monica and Chandler's engagement, a passionate moment between them leads to Ross and Rachel kissing. Monica is hurt by this as she believed that Rachel was trying to “steal her thunder”. The kiss is later revealed to have happened because Rachel is upset that she is “not even close” to being engaged.

At the end of Season 7 at Monica and Chandler's wedding, it is revealed that Rachel is pregnant. The father is revealed to be Ross in the second episode of Season 8, and Rachel tells him in the next episode. They decide to have the baby, but the two do not resume their romantic relationship. In the middle of the season, Joey asks Rachel to move in with Ross so Ross can be more involved with her pregnancy. In the Season 8 finale, Ross and Rachel’s daughter is born and named Emma Geller-Green. Rachel soon moves out of Ross's apartment in the middle of Season 9 when she realizes their platonic situation is not working.

In the final episode of the show, when Rachel is moving to Paris for her job with a new fashion brand, Ross tells her at the airport that he loves her and asks not to leave. Rachel initially does not respond to his feelings, but when the plane is about to take off, she realizes that she loves him too and gets off the plane. They profess their love for each other and decide to be together once and for all.

In the first episode of the spin-off/sequel series Joey, it is hinted at that Ross and Rachel were remarried shortly after the events of Season 10 as Joey tells his sister Gina that all of his friends are married. In the fifteenth episode, Ross is mentioned, though not by name. Joey tells his sister Gina that he confessed his love to Rachel but she was pregnant with Ross's baby and eventually ended up with him; this is the reason why Joey becomes reluctant to confess the same feelings to his girlfriend, Sarah.

Carol Willick
Carol (Anita Barone for the pilot episode, Jane Sibbett thereafter) is Ross's first wife and the mother of his son Ben. In the very first episode, Carol has just moved out of their apartment after coming out of the closet as a lesbian and leaving Ross for a woman named Susan Bunch, whom she later marries.

In the early days, however, Ross and Carol seemed to have had a very passionate relationship. Carol is the only woman he's ever had sex with (and hence lost his virginity to) at the start of the series. It is also revealed they shared a steamy session at Disneyland behind the "Dutch children" in It's a Small World, which got them a lifetime ban from the theme park. In the third-season episode, "The One with the Flashback", it is revealed that Carol met Susan at her gym, and it is implied that they had a short affair before Carol could no longer bring herself to cheat on Ross, who innocently believed they were just friends, and told him the truth.

Ross maintains a fairly healthy relationship with Carol after their divorce, and both decide to raise Ben together through shared parenting; but he doesn't hide his contempt for Susan as she "destroyed their marriage" and initially wanted to keep him out of Ben's life, having once told him that the baby was not his and would not have the surname "Geller". He briefly considers getting back together with Carol and they even share a kiss at a sushi restaurant, but Carol makes it clear that she can't reciprocate his feelings and has chosen to be with Susan. In the second season, Carol and Susan briefly call off their wedding due to Carol's homophobic parents' refusal to bless their relationship. Ross gives Carol away at the wedding and shares a dance with Susan, who develops a newfound respect for him.

In the alternate timeline episode "The One That Could Have Been" (Season 6), Carol and Susan are portrayed in a far more negative light. Exploring what could have happened if Ross and Carol never got divorced, it is revealed that they have been on a sexual dry spell that has lasted for months. During ideas to improve their sex life, Carol suddenly becomes very excited when Ross proposes that they have a threesome with another woman. Picking Susan, whom she met at her gym just like in the real timeline, the two women immediately proceed to have sex without Ross right in front of him, seemingly indifferent to his feelings. Ross later explains to Joey that he felt like a third wheel, trying to be involved while Susan kept kicking him away, and ended up being so bored he made himself a sandwich. Ross realizes his wife is a lesbian when Rachel states outright that Carol "sounds gay."

Emily Waltham
During the fourth season, Ross meets and falls in love with Emily Waltham (Helen Baxendale), a British woman who is set up with Ross by Rachel. Six weeks into their relationship, Ross asks Emily to move in with him. This escalates into a marriage proposal. The two plan a wedding in London, to which Rachel is invited.

During the ceremony, Ross, upon seeing Rachel, has a slip of the tongue and says Rachel's name instead of Emily's during his vows. Emily is furious and leaves the wedding. She later decides to forgive Ross, and reaches the airport in time to leave for their honeymoon, but is upset when she sees Ross and Rachel boarding the plane together. Ross, having given up on meeting Emily at the airport, invited Rachel on their honeymoon as a friend. Emily flees again. She later calls Ross only to tell him that he has to stop calling and harassing her relatives, but Ross makes her reveal her love for him. She says that she will return only if Ross stops being friends with Rachel. Unable to do so, Ross ends his marriage with Emily.

Shortly before Emily gets remarried to another man, she gets cold feet and leaves a message on Ross's answering machine asking whether their divorce was a mistake. Rachel accidentally deletes Emily's message. Despite Monica pleading with her to keep Ross in the dark about it, Rachel tells him that Emily called, as she believes he should be in charge of his own happiness. When he starts to doubt whether or not he should return Emily's call, however, Rachel convinces him not to.

Reception
Ross Geller has become a well-known figure in pop culture, particularly due to his relationship with Rachel Green, his neurotic nature, and his love for dinosaurs.

In 2015, a play titled Ross & Rachel debuted at the Edinburgh Fringe Festival.

In October 2016, Ross Geller was voted "the Best Friends Character" in an international poll held by Comedy Central, during six weeks of "FriendsFest" on the channel.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Ross Geller


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Streatham Common

Streatham Common is a large open space on the southern edge of Streatham in the London Borough of Lambeth. The shallow sloping lower (western) half of the common is mostly mowed grass, and the upper (eastern) half is mostly woodland with some small areas of gorse scrub and acid grassland. The eastern half has been designated a Local Nature Reserve.

History
Streatham Common is one of two former areas of common land in the former parish of Streatham. The other is now known as Tooting Bec Common. After enclosure, the Common was purchased in 1883 for use as a public open space under the powers conferred under the Metropolitan Commons Act 1878. It was at this time that most of the trees lining the edges of the lower common were planted. The Common was conveyed to the Metropolitan Board of Works and was subsequently administered by the London County Council and Greater London Council before maintenance responsibility passed to the London Borough of Lambeth in 1971.

The Common had a long tradition of cricket playing from the 18th century, and the right to play cricket is enshrined in the Supplementary Act that brought the common into public ownership.

Thomas Ripley the famous architect built and lived at 10 Streatham Common South, now known as Ripley House. Henry Tate, founder of the Tate Gallery and the Tate & Lyle sugar company lived at Park Hill by the Common.

The Rookery
Adjacent to the historic common, there is a formal garden, The Rookery, formerly the grounds of a large house that housed visitors to one of Streatham's historic mineral wells.

The Rookery is well known for its old cedar trees in the main garden. There is also a rock garden - with a cascade and lower water garden dominated by giant Gunnera. A series of walled gardens were created in part of the former kitchen gardens, including an Old English Garden and a White Garden - which predates the more famous garden in the same style at Sissinghurst Castle.

The remaining parts of the kitchen gardens, which had been used as a council plant nursery, but had been abandoned for twenty years, are now managed by Streatham Common Community Garden for community food growing, and are open to the public on most Sundays.

The Rookery and the adjacent Hilly Four Acres field was purchased by public subscription in 1911 to save the site from residential development, presented to the London County Council, and opened as a public park in 1913. The south east end of Streatham Common and The Rookery abut Norwood Grove within the London Borough of Croydon. The appeal committee that had bought The Rookery was reformed in 1923 to save Norwood Grove from development, and there is now an almost continuous series of green spaces along the ridge line from Streatham to Crystal Palace.

The gently sloping lawns of The Rookery are used as an open-air theatre in the summer.

Management
A Management Advisory Committee (MAC) was set up in 1996 for the conservation of Streatham Common and The Rookery, resulting in the designation of the nature reserve and subsequent detailed habitat management plans. A separate Friends of Streatham Common group promotes events on the Common and in The Rookery, including an annual kite festival. The MAC's functions have been carried out by the Friends group since 2011.

The Streatham Common Co-operative (SCCoop) was set up by members of the Friends to provide local management of the Common that would provide greater local accountability than the borough-wide parks maintenance contracts. After several years preparation, management of The Rookery transferred to SCCoop in 2015. After Lambeth budget cuts threatened closure of the paddling pool, SCCoop accepted responsibility for managing the pool from Summer 2016 and the associated fund-raising. During 2017, SCCoop has also taken on conservation work in the nature reserve areas of the Common. Following the 2016 "in-sourcing" of Lambeth's parks maintenance from Veolia to a new Lambeth Landscapes DSO, plans for a further transfer of maintenance functions have been deferred. The London Wildlife Trust is currently working with Lambeth Council and the Friends of Streatham Common to improve the site for wildlife, as a part of The Great North Wood Project.

In 2010, Streatham Common was saved from the threat of a "temporary" ice rink being built on it while Tesco redeveloped the former Streatham ice rink by a vigorous local campaign under the umbrella group 'Hands Off Our Common'.

title: Streatham Common


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List of French governors of Algeria

In 1830, in the days before the outbreak of the July Revolution against the Bourbon Restoration in France, the conquest of Algeria was initiated by Charles X as an attempt to increase his popularity amongst the French people. The invasion began on 5 July 1830. Afterwards Algeria would become a territory within the French colonial empire from 1830 to 1962, under a variety of governmental systems.

List
(Dates in italics indicate de facto continuation of office)

French departments of Algeria (1848–1962)
Shortly after the July Monarchy of Louis Philippe I was overthrown in the Revolution of 1848, the new government of the Second Republic ended Algeria's status as a colony and declared it in the 1848 Constitution an integral part of France. Three civil departements — Alger, Oran, and Constantine — were organized under a civilian government.

For continuation after independence, see: List of heads of state of Algeria

title: List of French governors of Algeria


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User talk:Nondescript

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User:David Schaich

I am a Reader in theoretical particle physics at the University of Liverpool. I previously held postdoctoral research positions at the University of Bern, Syracuse University and the University of Colorado Boulder after studying at Amherst College and completing my PhD at Boston University.

I use computing to gain insight into strongly interacting quantum field theories, primarily in the context of high-energy particle physics. I employ lattice field theory, a non-perturbative framework that enables first-principles investigations of strongly coupled systems. Making use of lattice regularization as a broadly applicable tool, I address questions that are important both theoretically and phenomenologically, within and beyond the standard model of particle physics.

My work currently focuses on composite dark matter, composite Higgs models, supersymmetric lattice field theories, and the application of quantum computing to avoid so-called sign problems.

www.davidschaich.net

title: User:David Schaich


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User talk:G3

speak to me people........

Hello and welcome to Wikipedia! Hope you like it here, and stick around.

Here are some tips to help you get started:

 * To sign your posts (on talk pages, for example) use the '~' symbol. To insert just your name, type ~~~ (3 tildes), or, to insert your name and timestamp, use ~~~~ (4 tildes).
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Good luck!

Thanks G3 17:46, 16 Jul 2004 (UTC) :)

Untagged images
Thanks for uploading Image:Academy.jpg. I noticed that it currently doesn't have an image copyright tag. Could you add one to let us know its copyright status? (You can use if you release it under the GFDL, or  if you claim fair use, etc.) Thanks so much, Ricky81682 (talk) 08:57, Dec 15, 2004 (UTC)

Also:
 * Image:ConstXI.bmp RedWolf 00:33, Dec 24, 2004 (UTC)

NewOmoniaSquare.jpg
Thanks for uploading Image:NewOmoniaSquare.jpg. I notice it currently doesn't have an image copyright tag. Could you add one to let us know its copyright status? (You can use if you release it under the GFDL, or  if you claim fair use, etc.) If you don't know what any of this means, just let me know where you got the images and I'll tag them for you. Right now, I'll put it as unverified, but change it to what it's supposed to be when you get a chance. Thanks, Mattingly23 15:46, 18 Dec 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:G3


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Yuzu

Yuzu (Citrus × junos, from Japanese 柚子 or ユズ; ) is a citrus fruit and plant in the family Rutaceae of East Asian origin. Yuzu has been cultivated mainly in East Asia, though it has also recently been grown in New Zealand, Australia, Spain, Italy, and France.

It is believed to have originated in central China as an F1 hybrid of the mangshanyeju subspecies of mandarin orange and the ichang papeda.

Description
This fruit resembles a yellow clementine with uneven skin and can be either yellow or green depending on the degree of ripeness. Yuzu fruits, which are very aromatic, typically range between 5.5 and 7.5 cm in diameter but can be as large as a regular grapefruit (up to 10 cm, or larger).

Yuzu forms an upright shrub or small tree, which commonly has many large thorns. Leaves are notable for a large, leaf-like petiole, resembling those of the related makrut lime and ichang papeda, and are heavily scented.

Yuzu closely resembles sudachi (Citrus sudachi, a Japanese citrus from Tokushima Prefecture, a yuzu–mandarin orange cross) in many regards, though, unlike the sudachi, yuzu eventually ripen to an orange colour and there are subtle differences between the flavors of the fruit.

Cultivation
The yuzu originated and grew wild in central China and Tibet region. It was introduced to Japan and Korea during the Tang dynasty and is still cultivated there. It grows slowly, generally requiring ten years to fruit. To shorten the duration to fruiting, it may be grafted onto karatachi (P. trifoliata). It is unusual among citrus plants in being relatively frost-hardy, due to its cold-hardy Ichang papeda ancestry, and can be grown in regions with winters as low as −7 C where more sensitive citrus would not thrive.

Varieties and similar fruits
In Japan, an ornamental version of yuzu called hana yuzu (花柚子, 花ゆず) "flower yuzu" is also grown for its flowers rather than its fruit. A sweet variety of yuzu known as the yuko, only present in Japan, became severely endangered during the 1970s and 1980s; a major attempt has been made to revive this varietal in southern Japan. Another variety of yuzu in Japan, with knobby skin, is called shishi yuzu (獅子柚子).

Dangyuja, a Korean citrus fruit from Jeju Island, is often considered a type of yuzu due to its similar shape and flavor, but it is genetically a variety of pomelo.

Japan

Yuzu's domestic production is about 27,000 tons (2016). Though rarely eaten as a fruit, yuzu is a common ingredient in Japanese cuisine, where the aromatic zest (outer rind) and the juice are used much in the same way that lemons are used in other cuisines. The yuzu's flavor is tart and fragrant, closely resembling that of the grapefruit, with overtones of mandarin orange.

It is an integral ingredient (along with sudachi, daidai, and other similar citrus fruits) in the citrus-based sauce ponzu, and yuzu vinegar is also produced. Yuzu is often combined with honey to make yuzu hachimitsu (柚子蜂蜜), a kind of syrup that is used to make yuzu tea (柚子茶), or as an ingredient in alcoholic drinks such as the yuzu sour (柚子サワー). Yuzu kosho (also yuzukosho, literally "yuzu and pepper") is a spicy Japanese sauce made from green or yellow yuzu zest, green or red chili peppers, and salt.

It is used to make liquor (such as yuzukomachi, 柚子小町) and wine. Slivered yuzu rind is used to garnish a savory, salty egg-pudding dish called chawanmushi, as well as miso soup. It is often used along with sudachi and kabosu. Yuzu is used to make various sweets, including marmalade and cake. It is used extensively in the flavoring of many snack products, such as Doritos.

Korea
In Korean cuisine, yuja is most commonly used to make yuja-cheong (유자청, yuja marmalade) and yuja tea. Yuja-cheong can be made by sugaring peeled, depulped, and thinly sliced yuja, and yuja-cha, yuja tea, can be made by mixing hot water with yuja-cheong. Yuja-hwachae (유자화채, yuja punch), a variety of hwachae (fruit punch), is another common dessert made with yuja. Yuja is also a common ingredient in Korean-style western food, such as salads.

Yuzu baths
Yuzu is also known for its characteristically strong aroma, and the oil from its skin is marketed as a fragrance. In Japan, bathing with yuzu on Tōji, the winter solstice, is a custom that dates to at least the early 18th century. Whole yuzu fruits are floated in the hot water of the bath, sometimes enclosed in a cloth bag, releasing their aroma. The fruit may also be cut in half, allowing the citrus juice to mingle with the bathwater. The yuzu bath, known commonly as yuzu yu (柚子湯), but also as yuzu buro (柚子風呂), is said to guard against colds, treat the roughness of skin, warm the body, and relax the mind.

Use as wood
The body of the taepyeongso, a Korean traditional oboe, close to the Chinese suona or the zurna, is often made from jujube, mulberry, or yuzu wood.

Elsewhere
Beginning in the early 21st century, yuzu has been increasingly used by chefs in the United States and other Western nations, achieving notice in a 2003 article in The New York Times.

In the United States, the Department of Agriculture has a ban on the import of fresh yuzu (alongside most citrus plants) from abroad, including both the fruit and the trees. This is intended to prevent the spread of contagious diseases amongst domestic crops. However, following its introduction to California in 1888, yuzu is cultivated and available for sale in the United States.

title: Yuzu


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Duck and cover

"Duck and cover" is a method of personal protection against the effects of a nuclear explosion. Ducking and covering is useful in offering a degree of protection to personnel located outside the radius of the nuclear fireball but still within sufficient range of the nuclear explosion that standing upright and uncovered is likely to cause serious injury or death. In the most literal interpretation, the focus of the maneuver is primarily on protective actions one can take during the first few crucial seconds-to-minutes after the event, while the film of the same name and a full encompassing of the advice also cater to providing protection up to weeks after the event.

The countermeasure is intended as an alternative to the more effective target/citywide emergency evacuation when these crisis relocation programs would not be possible due to travel and time constraints. Maneuvers similar, but not identical, to Duck and Cover are also taught as the response to other sudden destructive events, such as an earthquake or tornado, in the comparable situation where preventive emergency evacuation is similarly not an option, again, due to time constraints. In these analogously powerful events, Drop, Cover and Hold on likewise prevents injury or death if no other safety measures are taken.

During a surprise nuclear attack
"Dropping immediately and covering exposed skin provide[s] protection against blast and thermal effects ... Immediately drop facedown. A log, a large rock, or any depression in the earth's surface provides some protection. Close eyes. Protect exposed skin from heat by putting hands and arms under or near the body and keeping the helmet on. Remain facedown until the blast wave passes and debris stops falling. Stay calm, check for injury, check weapons and equipment damage, and prepare to continue the mission."

Immediately after one sees the first flash of intense heat and light of the developing nuclear fireball, one should stop, get under some cover and drop/duck to the ground. There, one should assume a prone-like position, lying face-down, and to afford protection against the continuing heat of the explosion further cover exposed skin and the back of one's head with one's clothes; or, if no excess cover or cloth is available, one should cover the back of one's head and neck with one's hands.

Similar instructions, as presented in the Duck and Cover  film, are contained in the British 1964 public information film Civil Defence Information Bulletin No. 5 and in the 1980s Protect and Survive public information series. Children in the Soviet Union likewise received almost identical classes on countermeasures, according to Inside the Kremlin's Cold War authors Zubok and Pleshakov.

In U.S. Army training, soldiers are taught to fall down immediately and cover their face and hands in much the same way as is described above.

In the classroom scene of the film, the rapid employment of school desks, as an improvised shelter following the awareness of the initial light flash, is a countermeasure primarily to offer protection from potential ballistic window glass lacerations when the slower moving blast wave arrived. However, in higher blast pressure zones, where partial-to-total building collapse may occur, it would also serve a similar role to that borne out from experience in urban search and rescue, where voids under the debris of collapsed buildings are common places for survivors to be found. More rigid examples of void-forming-tables to shelter under include the "Morrison indoor shelter", which was widely distributed by the millions in Britain as a protective measure against building collapse, brought about by blast pressures generated during the conventional bombing of cities in World War II.

When warning is given
Under the conditions where some warning is given, one is advised to find the nearest bomb shelter, or if one could not be found, any well-built building to stay and shelter in place. Sheltering is, as depicted in the film, also the final phase of the "duck and cover" countermeasure in the surprise attack scenario.

Cursory analysis
The "duck and cover" countermeasure could save thousands. This is because people, being naturally inquisitive, would instead run to windows to try to locate the source of the immensely bright flash generated at the instant of the explosion. During this time, unbeknownst to them, the slower moving blast wave, would be rapidly advancing toward their position, only to arrive and cause the window glass to implode, shredding onlookers. In the testimony of Dr. Hiroshi Sawachika, although he was sufficiently far away from the Hiroshima bomb himself and was not behind a pane of window glass when the blast wave arrived, those in his company who were had serious blast injury wounds, with broken glass and pieces of wood stuck into them. The Hiroshima and Nagasaki explosions were fission bombs which are much weaker than thermonuclear devices, also known as "H-bombs", by a factor of 1000 or more. Two Japanese cities, Hiroshima and Nagasaki, were hit by bombs in 1945 that had a force equivalent to 16 kilotons (16,000 tons) and 21 kilotons of TNT, respectively. On 1 November 1952, the first hydrogen bomb was exploded by the United States at Enewetak atoll in the Marshall Islands. "Mike", codename for the bomb, released energy equal to around 10 megatons — or 10 million tons of TNT. In 1961, the Tsar bomb was exploded by the Soviet Union, producing an explosion with a mass of 50 megatons— which was about 1,500 times more than the combined force of the atomic bombs fired on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

During earthquakes and tornadoes
Similar advice to "duck and cover" is given in many situations where structural destabilization or flying debris may be expected, such as during an earthquake or tornado. At a sufficient distance from a nuclear explosion, the blast wave produces similar results to these natural phenomena, so similar countermeasures are taken. In areas where earthquakes are common, a countermeasure known as "Drop, Cover, and Hold On!" is practiced. Likewise, in tornado-prone areas of the United States, especially those within Tornado Alley, tornado drills involve teaching children to move closer to the floor and to cover the backs of their heads to prevent injury from flying debris. Some US states also practice annual emergency tornado drills.

History
The dangers of viewing explosions behind window glass were known of before the Atomic Age began, being a common source of injury and death from large chemical explosions. The Halifax Explosion of 1917, an ammunition ship exploding with the energy of roughly 2.9 kilotons of TNT, injured the eyes and faces of hundreds of people who stayed behind and looked out of their windows after seeing a bright flash, with 200 blinded by broken glass when the slower moving blast arrived. Every window in the city of Halifax, Nova Scotia, was shattered in this catastrophe of human error.

In the Record of the "Nagasaki A-bomb War Disaster", those close to the hypocenter (Matsuyama township), were described as all having been killed, with the exception of "a child who was in an air-raid shelter." A little further away, Professor Seiki of Nagasaki Medical School Hospital was building an air-raid dugout 400 m from the hypocenter of the detonation and survived. Chimoto-san, who was atop a distant hill that creates the valley in which Nagasaki is located, performed the similar "hit the deck" maneuver upon seeing the bomb drop, which was notably prior to the detonation. However despite having these few seconds of relatively unique warning, he did not stay on the ground for long enough after the flash subsided, and received some translational injuries due to prematurely standing-up again, at which point the slower moving blast wave swept past him and carried him with it for a few meters.

According to the 1946 book Hiroshima and other books which cover both bombings, in the days between the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, some survivors of the first bombing went to Nagasaki and taught others about ducking after the atomic flash and informed them about the particularly dangerous threat of imploding window glass. As a result of this and other factors, far fewer died in the initial blast at Nagasaki as compared to those who were not taught to duck and cover. The general population however was not warned of the heat or blast danger following an atomic flash, due to the new and unknown nature of the atomic bomb. Many people in Hiroshima and Nagasaki died while searching the skies, curious to locate the source of the brilliant flash.

When people are indoors, running to windows to investigate the source of bright flashes in the sky still remains a common and natural response to experiencing a bright flash. Thus, although the advice to duck and cover is over half a century old, ballistic glass lacerations caused the majority of the 1000 human injuries following the Chelyabinsk meteor air burst of 15 February 2013. This response was also observed among people in the vicinity of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

Background
The United States' monopoly on nuclear weapons was broken by the Soviet Union in 1949 when it tested its first nuclear explosive, the RDS-1. With this, many in the US Government, as well as many citizens, perceived that the United States was more vulnerable than it had ever been before. In 1950, during the first big Civil Defense push of the Cold War—and coinciding with the Alert America! initiative to educate Americans on nuclear preparedness, the adult-orientated Survival Under Atomic Attack was published. It contains "duck and cover" or more accurately, cover and then duck advice without using those specific terms in its Six Survival Secrets For Atomic Attacks section. ''1. Try to Get Shielded 2. Drop Flat on Ground or Floor 3. Bury Your Face in Your Arms ("crook of your elbow")''. The child-oriented film Duck and Cover was produced a year later by the Federal Civil Defense Administration in 1951. "Duck and cover" exercises quickly became a part of Civil Defense drills that every US citizen, from children to the elderly, was encouraged to practice so that they could be ready in the event of nuclear war.

Education efforts on the effects of nuclear weapons proceeded with stops-and-starts in the US due to competing alternatives. In a once classified, 1950s era, US war game that looked at varying levels of war escalation, warning and pre-emptive attacks in the late 1950s early 1960s, it was estimated that approximately 27 million US citizens would have been saved with civil defense education. At the time however the cost of a full-scale civil defense program was regarded as lesser in effectiveness, in cost-benefit analysis than a ballistic missile defense (Nike Zeus) system, and as the Soviet adversary was believed to be rapidly increasing their nuclear stockpile, the efficacy of both would begin to enter a diminishing returns trend. When more became known about the cost and limitations of the Nike Zeus system, in the early 1960s the head of the department of defense under president John F. Kennedy, Robert McNamara, determined the ineffectiveness of the Nike-Zeus system, especially in its benefit-cost ratio compared to other options. For instance, fallout shelters would save more Americans for far less money.

Efficacy during a nuclear explosion
Within a considerable radius from the surface of the nuclear fireball, 0–3 kilometers—largely depending on the explosion's height, yield and position of personnel—ducking and covering would offer negligible protection against the intense heat, blast and prompt ionizing radiation following a nuclear explosion. Beyond that range, however, many lives would be saved by following the simple advice, especially since at that range the main hazard is not from ionizing radiation but from blast injuries and sustaining thermal flash burns to unprotected skin. Furthermore, following the bright flash of light of the nuclear fireball, the explosion's blast wave would take from first light, 7 to 10 seconds to reach a person standing 3 km from the surface of the nuclear fireball, with the exact time of arrival being dependent on the speed of sound in air in their area. The time delay between the moment of an explosion's flash and the arrival of the slower moving blast wave is analogous to the commonly experienced time delay between the observation of a flash of lightning and the arrival of thunder during a lightning storm, thus at the distances that the advice would be most effective, there would be more than ample amounts of time to take the prompt countermeasure of 'duck and cover' against the blast's direct effects and flying debris. For very large explosions it can take 30 seconds or more, after the silent moment of flash, for a potentially dangerous blast wave over-pressure to arrive at, or hit, one's position.

The graphs of lethal ranges of weapon effects as a function of yield, that are commonly encountered, are the unobstructed "open air", or "free air" ranges that assume among other things, a perfectly level target area, no passive shielding such as attenuating effects from urban terrain masking, e.g. skyscraper shadowing, and so on. Therefore, they are thus considered to present an overestimate of the lethal ranges that would be encountered in an urban setting in the real world, with this being most evident following a ground burst with explosive yield similar to first generation nuclear weapons.

To highlight the effect that being indoors, and especially below ground can make, despite the lethal open air radiation, blast and thermal zone extending well past her position at Hiroshima, Akiko Takakura survived the effects of the 16 kt atomic bomb at a distance of 300 meters from ground zero, sustaining only minor injuries, due in greatest part to her position in the lobby of the Bank of Japan, a reinforced concrete building, at the time of the nuclear explosion, and to highlight the protection conferred to an individual who is below ground during a nuclear air burst, Eizo Nomura survived the same blast at Hiroshima at a distance of 170 meters from ground zero. Nomura, who was in the basement of what is now known as the rest house, also a reinforced concrete building, lived into his early 80s.

In contrast to these cases of survival, the unknown person sitting outside on the steps of the Sumitomo Bank next door to the Bank of Hiroshima on the morning of the bombing—and therefore fully exposed—suffered what would have eventually been lethal third- to fourth-degree burns from the near instant nuclear weapon flash if they had not been killed by the slower moving blast wave when it reached them approximately one second later.

Outdoors
To elucidate the effects on lying flat on the ground in attenuating a weapons blast, Miyoko Matsubara, one of the Hiroshima maidens, when recounting the bombing in an interview in 1999, said that she was outdoors and less than 1 mile from the hypocenter of the Little Boy bomb. Upon observing the nuclear weapons silent flash she quickly lay flat on the ground, while those who were standing directly next to her, and her other fellow students, had simply disappeared from her sight when the blast wave arrived and blew them away.

Position of the body can have a considerable influence in protection from blast effects. Lying prone on the ground will often materially lessen direct blast effects because of the protective defilade effects of irregularities in the ground surface. Ground also tends to deflect some of the blast forces upward. Standing close to a wall, even on the side from which the blast is coming, also lessens some of the effect. Orientation of the body also affects severity of the effect of blast. Anterior exposure of the body may result in lung injury, lateral position may result in more damage to one ear than the other, while minimal effects are to be anticipated with the posterior surface of the body (feet) toward the source of the blast.

The human body is more resistant to sheer overpressure than most buildings, however, the powerful winds produced by this overpressure, as in a hurricane, are capable of throwing human bodies into objects or throwing debris at high velocity, both with lethal results, rendering casualties highly dependent on surroundings. For example, Sumiteru Taniguchi recounts that, while clinging to the tremoring road surface after the Fat Man detonation, he witnessed another child being blown away, the destruction of buildings around him and stones flying through the air. Similarly, Akihiro Takahashi and his classmates were blown by the blast of Little Boy by a distance of about 10 meters, having survived due to not colliding with any walls etc. during his flight through the air. Likewise, Katsuichi Hosoya had a near identical testimony.

Indoors
During the 2013 Chelyabinsk meteor explosion, a fourth-grade teacher in Chelyabinsk, Yulia Karbysheva, saved 44 children from potentially life-threatening ballistic window glass cuts by ordering them to hide under their desks when she saw the flash. Despite not knowing the origin of the intense flash of light, she ordered her students to execute a duck and cover drill. Ms. Karbysheva, who herself did not duck and cover but remained standing, was seriously lacerated when the explosion's blast wave arrived, and window glass blew in, severing a tendon in one of her arms; however, not one of her students, who she ordered to hide under their desks, suffered a cut. A follow-up study of the effects of the meteor airburst determined that the windows most prone to breaking when exposed to a blast overpressure are those of school buildings, which tend to be large in area.

While the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki demonstrated that the urban area of glass breakage is nearly 16 times greater than the area of significant structural/building damage, although improved building codes since then may contribute to better building survival, there would be a higher likelihood of glass breakage and therefore potential injury/death for people near windows because many modern buildings have larger windows.

Flash & burn injuries

The advice to cover one's exposed skin with anything that can cast a shadow, like the picnic blanket and newspaper used by the family in the film, may seem absurd at first when one considers the capabilities of a nuclear weapon. However, even the thinnest of barriers such as cloth or plant leaves would reduce the severity of burns on the skin from the thermal radiation with the flash light, similar in average emission spectrum/color to sunlight. The thermal radiation emits in the ultraviolet, visible light, and infrared range but with a higher light intensity than sunlight, and this combination of light rays is capable of delivering radiant burning energy to exposed skin areas. As the time-to-rise at peak and total duration of the emittance pulse of this burning thermal radiation is both prolonged and increases with larger explosive yield, it is usually at least a few seconds long for all high yield stockpiled weapons, creating the potential for protective countermeasures.

High importance is given to closing eyelids and covering the eyes as temporary or permanent flash blindness is a risk potential without this covering, especially at night.

A photograph taken about 1.3 km from the hypocenter of the Hiroshima bomb explosion showed that the shadowing effect of leaves from a nearby shrub protected a wooden utilities pole from charring discoloration due to the burst of thermal radiation; the rest of the telephone pole, which was not under the protection of the leaves, was charred almost completely black. The difference in required flash-energy necessary to produce essentially immediate, though transitory, non-propagating flaming, and that required to achieve a continued self-sustained propagating flaming are orders of magnitude in difference for most combustible materials. In the case of untreated timber it is largely dependent on the depth of char. While the propagating fires in both Japanese cities were almost exclusively ignited by the blast wave overturning charcoal cooking-braziers and similar secondary events, thermal flash-fires from untreated fabric and timber in the urban environment is considered potentially the widest destructive effect of the higher yield explosive devices. The Nevada test site used for testing nuclear devices had a dry desert environment with low humidity, which repeatedly demonstrated the flash-combustion effect during tests. Many investigative films made on location there, such as The House in the Middle and others, focused on the combustion of fabrics and clothing.

In the only human accounts at these high luminous intensities that are not of the more common Arc flash accidents, a number of the Hiroshima Maidens survived despite their close proximity to the explosion and in a range where the flash-fire of their customary Japanese summer attire, made of thin kimono cloth, was near instantaneous. As their clothing combusted, some of the Maidens performed an incomplete stop, drop and roll in an effort to extinguish the flames.

Initial nuclear radiation
While not designed for those faced with low-yield neutron bombs or for those who are, in general, so close to the nuclear fireball that prompt/initial radiation would be life-threatening in the short-medium term, ducking and covering would nevertheless slightly reduce exposure to the initial gamma rays, specifically the portion emitted after the first flash of visible light. The initial gamma rays are defined as those emitted from the fireball & following mushroom cloud which can reach personnel on the ground for a total of approximately 1 minute, at which point the intensity of the radiation has diminished and the atmosphere itself is thick enough to act as full shielding.

As approximately half of these gamma rays are emitted in the first second and the other half, over the following 59 alongside gamma rays being mostly emitted in a straight line, people lying on the ground will more likely have obstacles serving as radiation protection such as building walls, foundations, car engines, etc. between their bodies and the radiation emitted from both the fireball and the accompanying lower levels of radiation that continue to arrive at the ground for about 1 minute, during the mushroom cloud phase, which is termed "cloudshine". It would also give protection from the even smaller fraction of radiation that changes direction and is randomly reflected and scattered by the air/"skyshine". Approximately "One and one half inches"/37 mm of steel will reduce gamma dose by half. Its half-value thickness.

The effective gamma ray energy of the cloudshine is not especially high, 200 KeV.

Unlike the relatively low-yield, or low explosive energy "A-bombs" dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, which did result in a sizable proportion of injuries from prompt radiation, higher yield "hydrogen bombs" (thermonuclear weapons) are not expected to result in very many such injuries – as the range at which the ionizing radiation from higher yield devices is of primary concern, is already well inside the hyper-lethal blast and flash burn areas.

Delayed nuclear radiation, "fallout"
Apart from the intrinsic "prompt effects" of nuclear detonations, that of thermal flash, blast and initial radiation releases, if any part of the fireball of the nuclear detonation contacts the ground, in what is known as a surface burst, another, comparatively slowly increasing, radiation hazard will also begin to form in the immediate area.

Putting aside the possibility of the detonation occurring during an already established heavy rain-storm, the formation of this life-threatening "delayed nuclear radiation" manifests only when the altitude, or "height of burst" of the explosion, is such that both the fireball and the buoyant updrafts it creates, sufficiently heats and lifts the soil that was below it into the core of the mushroom cloud. Once there, the very hot radioactive isotope products of the nuclear reactions that produced the explosion, begin to coalesce with the cooler and denser soil. Upon cooling, this mixture begins to locally fall-out or precipitate-out of the mushroom cloud, falling back to the surface of the earth, near to the point of detonation, over the next few minutes and hours.

While the duck and cover countermeasure, in its most basic form, offers a small to negligible protection against fallout, the technique assumes that after the effects of the blast and initial radiation subside, with the latter of which being no longer a threat after about "twenty seconds" to 1 minute post detonation, a person who ducks and covers will realize when it is wise to cease ducking and covering (after the blast and initial radiation danger has passed) and to then seek out a more sheltered area, like an established or improvised fallout shelter to protect themselves from the ensuing potential local fallout danger, as depicted in the film.

After all, "Duck and Cover" is a first response countermeasure only, in much the same way that "Drop, Cover and Hold On" is during an earthquake, with the advice having served its purpose once the earthquake has passed, and possibly other dangers—like a tsunami or fallout—may be looming, which then require movement to high ground and radiation protection, respectively.

However, if such a shelter is unavailable, the person should then be advised to follow the Shelter in Place protocol, or if given, emergency evacuation advice. Evacuation orders would entail exiting the area completely by following a path perpendicular to the wind direction and therefore perpendicular to the path of the fallout plume. Taking upper atmospheric winds into account, surface winds alone are not to be depended upon as indicative of the direction of fallout movement. "Sheltering in place" is staying indoors, in a preferably sealed tight basement, or internal room, for a number of hours, with the oxygen supply available in such a scenario being more than sufficient for 3+ hours in even the smallest average room, under the assumption that the improvised seal is perfect, until carbon dioxide levels begin to reach unsafe values and necessitate room unsealing for a number of minutes to create a room air change.

In the era the advice was originally given, the most common nuclear weapons were weapons comparable to the US Fat Man and Soviet Joe-1 in yield. The most far-reaching dangers that initially come from the nuclear explosion of this, and higher, yield weapons as airbursts, are the initial flash/heat and blast effects and not from fallout. This is due to the fact that when nuclear weapons are detonated to maximize the range of building destruction, that is, maximize the range of surface blast damage, an airburst is the preferred nuclear fuzing height, as it exploits the mach stem phenomenon. This phenomenon of a blast wave occurs when the blast reaches the ground and is reflected. Below a certain reflection angle the reflected wave and the incident wave merge and form a reinforced horizontal wave; this is known as the 'Mach stem' (named after Ernst Mach) and is a form of constructive interference and consequently extends the range of high pressure. Air-burst fuzing also increases the range that people's skin will have a line-of-sight with the nuclear fireball. However, as a result of the high altitude of the explosion, most of the radioactive bomb debris is dispersed into the stratosphere, with a great column of air therefore placed between the vast majority of the bomb debris/fission reaction products and people on the ground for a number of crucial days before it falls out of the atmosphere in a comparatively dilute fashion. This "delayed fallout" is henceforth not an immediate concern to those near the blast. On the other hand, the only time that fallout is rapidly concentrated in a potentially lethal fashion in the local/regional area around the explosion is when the nuclear fireball makes contact with the ground surface, with an explosion that does so, being aptly termed a surface burst. For example, in the Operation Crossroads tests of 1946 on Bikini Atoll, using two explosive devices of the same design and yield, the first, Test Able (an air burst) had little local fallout, but the infamous Test Baker (a near surface shallow underwater burst) left the local test targets badly contaminated with radioactive fallout.

Widespread radioactive fallout itself was not recognized as a threat among the public at large before 1954, until the widely publicized story of the 15-megaton surface burst of the experimental test shot Castle Bravo on the Marshall Islands. The explosive yield of the Castle Bravo device the Shrimp was unexpectedly high and therefore correspondingly higher amounts of local fallout were produced. When this arrived at their location carried by the wind, this caused the 23 crew members on a Japanese fishing boat known as the Lucky Dragon to come down with acute radiation sickness with varying degrees of seriousness and due to complications in the treatment of the ship's radio operator months after the exposure, resulted in his death.

It is, however, unlikely that a well-funded belligerent with nuclear weapons would waste their weapons with fuzing to explode below or on the surface, as both test shot Baker and Castle Bravo were respectively. Instead, to maximize the range of city blast destruction and immediate death, an air burst is preferred, as the ≈500 meter explosion heights of the only nuclear weapons used on cities, Little Boy and Fat Man also attest to. Moreover, with air bursts the total amount of radiation contained in the fallout, in units of activity/becquerel, is somewhat less than the total that would be released from a surface or subsurface burst, as in comparison, depending on the height of burst, little to no neutron activation or neutron induced gamma activity of soil occurs from air bursts. Therefore, the initial danger from concentrated local/'early' fallout (which takes on the color of the soil around the fireball, commonly with a dusty pumice or ash-like appearance, as experienced by the crew of the Lucky Dragon) remains low in a global nuclear war scenario. Instead the fallout most likely to be encountered by most survivors in this scenario is expected to be the less dangerous but widely spread global/'late' fallout. An air burst at optimum height will produce a negligible amount of early fallout.

A notable comparison to underline this is found when one compares the 50 megaton air-burst Tsar Bomba, which produced no concentrated local/early fallout and thus no known deaths from radiation, with the surface burst of the 15 megaton Castle Bravo, which in comparison, due to the local fallout produced, was implicated in the death of 1 of 23 crew on the Lucky Dragon and made the entire Bikini Atoll unfit for further nuclear testing until enough time elapsed and the intensity of the radiation field had decayed to acceptable levels.

Furthermore, regardless of if a nuclear attack on a city is of the surface or air-burst variety or a mixture of both, the advice to shelter in place, in the interior of well-built homes, or if available, fallout shelters, as suggested in the film Duck and Cover, will drastically reduce one's chance of absorbing a hazardous dose of radiation. A real-world example of this occurred after the Castle Bravo test where, in contrast to the crew of the Lucky Dragon, the firing crew that triggered the explosion safely sheltered in their firing station until after a number of hours had passed and the radiation levels outside fell to dose rate levels safe enough for an evacuation to be considered. The comparative safety experienced by the Castle Bravo firing crew served as a proof of concept to civil defense personnel that shelter in place (or "buttoning up" as it was known then) is an effective strategy in mitigating the potentially serious health effects of local fallout.

The minimum typical protection factor of the fallout shelters in US cities is 40 or more. In many cases these shelters are nothing more than the interior of pre-existing well-built buildings that have been inspected, and following their protection factors being calculated, re-purposed as fallout shelters.

A protection factor of at least 40 means that the radiation shielding provided by the shelter reduces the radiation dose experienced by at least 40 times that which would be experienced outside the shelter with no shielding. "Protection factor" is equivalent to the modern term "dose reduction factor".

During the first hour after a nuclear explosion, radioactivity levels drop precipitously. Radioactivity levels are further reduced by about 90% after another 7 hours and by about 99% after 2 days. An accurate rule of thumb, applicable in the time-period of days to a few weeks post-detonation which approximates the radioactive dose rate generated by the decay of the myriad of isotopes present in nuclear fallout, is the "7/10 rule". The rule states that for each 7-fold increase in time the dose rate drops by a factor of 10. For example, assuming the fallout process has ended 24 hours post detonation and the dose rate would be lethal if a few hours of exposure occurred, 50 roentgens per hour, then 7 days after detonation the dose rate will be 5 R/hr and 49 days after detonation (7×7 days) the dose rate will be 0.5 R/hr at which point no special precautions would need to be taken and venturing outside into that dose rate for an hour or two would pose a close to negligible health hazard, thus permitting an evacuation to be done with acceptable safety to a known contamination free zone. Following a surface-burst nuclear detonation, approximately 80 percent of the fallout would be deposited on the ground during the first 24 hours.

Some agencies that promoted "evacuate immediately" guidance as a response to potentially lethal fallout arriving, advice which may have been influenced by these agencies assuming simplistic single wind-driven cigar/Gaussian shaped fallout contours would be representative of reality, have since retracted this advice. This can actually result in higher radiation exposures as it would put people outdoors and in harm's way when the radiation levels would be highest. The Modeling and Analysis Coordination Working Group (MACWG) – which was set up to resolve conflicting advice given by various agencies, has reaffirmed that the best blanket advice that would reduce the number of casualties by the greatest amount is: "Early, adequate sheltering followed by informed, delayed evacuation."

Expert advice published in the 2010 document Planning Guidance for Response to a Nuclear Detonation is to shelter in place, in an area away from building fires, for at least 1 to 2 hours following a nuclear detonation and fallout arriving, and the greatest benefit, assuming personnel are in a building with a high protection factor, is sheltering for no less than 12 to 24 hours before evacuation. Therefore, sheltering for the first few hours can save lives. Indeed, death and injury from local fallout is regarded by experts as the most preventable of all the effects of a nuclear detonation, being simply dependent on if personnel know how to identify an adequate shelter when they see one and enter one quickly, with the number of potential people saved being cited as in the hundreds of thousands. Or even higher if the remaining occupants of the city are made aware of the contaminated areas, by emergency systems, within hours of the event's aftermath. In 2009 to 2013 a further iteration on sheltering-in-place was made to determine the optimal improvised fallout-shelter-residence-times following a nuclear detonation, with computer analysis, and including a summary of prior studies and guidance. It was found that individuals should quickly get into the best intact building at least under 5 minutes distant in travel time following the detonation and they should stay there for at least 30 minutes before venturing out to find a shelter with a higher protection factor but that is a greater travel time away than 10 minutes. However, although this would be effective in cases where the initial building protection factor is less than about 10, it requires a high degree of individual situational awareness that may be optimistic to assume following the shock of a nuclear detonation. If a building with a PF of 20 or more is nearby, such as the fallout shelters depicted in the film, in the vast majority of fallout circumstances, it would not be advisable to leave it until 3+ hours have elapsed following the initial arrival of the local fallout.

Following a single IND (improvised nuclear device) detonation in the US, the National Atmospheric Release Advisory Center (NARAC) would, within minutes to at most hours, after the detonation have a reliable prediction of the fallout plume size and direction. When armed with this prediction they would then begin attempting to corroborate this with readings from radiation survey meter equipment that would fly over close to the ground in the affected area by means of helicopter or drone (UAV) aircraft on material intelligence gathering missions, which would also follow within tens of minutes to at most hours after the detonation.

Once a general outline and direction of the fallout is determined, disseminating this information to citizens sheltering-in-place would soon follow, by means of loudspeaker, radio, cell phone etc., with a "Fallout App" containing maps for smart phones being regarded as an area of interest so that survivors do not inadvertently evacuate downwind further into harm's way. A number of questions the affected public are likely to have after a nuclear detonation have been compiled and pre-answered to help communications in the immediate aftermath.

Nuclear electromagnetic pulse, non-lethal
In respect to the other non-lethal weapon effects from an IND detonated on or near the surface, the detonation's blast wave would likely produce a momentary electric grid blackout due to the loss of a large portion of a city's electrical equipment drawing power/electrical load, while the electromagnetic pulse (EMP) from a surface/ground-burst explosion would cause little damage outside the blast area, so cell phone towers that survive the blast should be capable of carrying communications. But if communications during the 9/11 attacks or after a major hurricane are anything to go by and the cell phone network towers survive, the service would be overloaded (a mass call event) and thereby made useless soon after; however, if prior arrangements between the cell network and emergency responders are made to give them priority and bar access to all other individuals, then it may be an effective service.

The Civil Defense (CD) shelters, as depicted in the film, were stocked for such an eventuality. They contained among other things, at least one ruggedized CDV-715 radiation survey meter and one CD emergency radio receiver which would respectively be used to facilitate a safe delayed evacuation, regardless of outside help though if communications continued, the radio receiver was to inform them of the outside situation as it developed.

Long-term survival
The dubious assumption that "only the cockroaches" would survive the post-war fallout environment was frequently used in an attempt to criticize Duck and Cover during the height of the Cold War, contextually at a time when discussion of a total war involved the much greater US-Soviet arsenal of nuclear weapons that were then in existence. However even at that time, this assumption was shown to be misled, as scientifically detailed in areas including the 1988 book Would the Insects Inherit the Earth and Other Subjects of Concern to Those Who Worry About Nuclear War.

In material terms, the primary life-threatening risk survivors and downwinders could face in the long-term after a nuclear explosion or war, is the "nuclear famine" issue, the potential continuation of hostilities by conventional warfare and radioactive contamination of the food and water supplies, disrupting the normal distribution and consumption, of these vital goods.

Cold War continuity of government planners and civil defense organizations in general have always had this disruption, or "nuclear famine" issue in mind, as widespread infrastructure destruction producing starvation conditions was also seen during and after WWII. Papers such as On Reorganizing After Nuclear Attack, and Survival of the relocated population of the U.S. after a nuclear attack by Nobel Prize winner, Eugene Wigner, detail the thought and attention that went into long-term survival, relocation and reconstruction.

Numerous human and agricultural decontamination countermeasures exist for the two most persistent and biologically significant isotopes, cesium-137, strontium-90 and long-lived fallout contamination in general, with the most visible and immediate act that will prevent a potentially large dose to the public, taking the form of using shielded bulldozers to skim off the layer of topsoil that the fallout had settled on, a restorative   practice that was fielded upon the creation of Lake Chagan. The creation of human decontamination tents at the entrances of buildings and when lower levels of risk exist, the use of clean room air showers as a form of contamination control to prevent the spread of radionuclides that adhere to dust, into building interiors, would also be advisable to reduce the elevated risk of radiation induced cancer that would otherwise occur. Air showers may be paired with electrostatic precipitators to attract the dust to collection plates, forestalling a re-suspension that may otherwise be inhaled. Moreover use of the open access radioecology research on decontamination and conventional agriculture in the Chernobyl-Polesie State Radioecological Reserve and around the Fukushima accident, would both be implemented in the event of any widespread fallout contamination, with particular emphasis on bioremediation of radionuclides from soil and aquifers. Although less of a hazard than external exposure, internal decontamination, that may be required after assessment in a whole-body counting session, in the long term may, as is now, be conducted with binding-and-excretion promoting chelation therapy, with ammonium-ferric-hexacyano-ferrate (AFCF)/"Giese salt", Radiogardase and DPTA all proven effective.

Comparable binding/chelation treatment systems, developed and deployed due to the Fukushima reactor-water decontamination mandate, includes the mobile reverse osmosis Landysh water treatment ship, the zeolite-rock based "Actiflo", the "SARRY" ion exchange cesium removal system, based on silicotitanate "IONSIV" crystalline rock,    and most recently the 62 multi-nuclide removal system (NURES), frequently referred to as the Advanced Liquid Processing System (ALPS). In 2016 tritiated water also began to be filtered.

Researchers at the American Chemical Society have further suggested that aquaponics would be an ideal socially-acceptable solution in the post-contamination environment, as it does not use soil to grow fish and vegetables, thus completely alleviating the radiophobia surrounding food that always follows long-lived contamination incidents. Others who have approached the food problem from a far more extreme view, assuming far worse events such as comet impacts (as discussed in the book Feeding Everyone No Matter What) have suggested: natural-gas-digesting bacteria, the most well known being methylococcus capsulatus, which is presently used as a feed in fish farming; bark bread, a long-standing famine food using the edible inner bark of trees (once a part of Scandinavian history during the Little Ice Age); and the expansion of leaf protein concentrate and larger scale wood digesting fungiculture for fungal protein, with the most common of which being shiitake mushrooms and honey fungi, as they do not need sunlight or soil to grow. More advanced techniques mentioned, which are not presently economical, also include variations of wood or cellulosic biofuel production (which typically already creates edible sugars/xylitol from inedible cellulose) as an intermediate product before the final step of alcohol generation.

Historical and psychological assessment
Some historians and documentaries, including science historian Melissa Smith in a 2010 article for The British Journal for the History of Science and the film 1982 The Atomic Cafe, have described "duck and cover" advice as propaganda.

In U.S. Army training, soldiers are taught to immediately fall down, covering face and hands in much the same way as is described by the advice to duck and cover.

The exercises of Cold War civil defense were described by historian Guy Oakes in 1994 as having less practical use than psychological use: to keep the danger of nuclear war high on the public mind, while also attempting to assure the American people that something could be done to defend against nuclear attack.

Tornadoes
Ducking and covering does have certain applications in other, more natural disasters. In states prone to tornadoes, school children are urged to "duck and cover" against a solid inner wall of a school, if time does not permit seeking better shelter—such as a storm cellar—during a tornado warning. The tactic is also widely practiced in schools in states along the West Coast of the United States, where earthquakes are commonplace. Ducking and covering in either scenario would theoretically afford significant protection from falling or flying debris.

Earthquakes
In an earthquake, which are generally of a natural tectonic plate origin (although they can be artificially generated by the detonation of a nuclear explosive device in which sufficient energy is transmitted into the ground, with an extreme case to serve as an example of this phenomenon being the Operation Grommet Cannikin test of the 5 megaton W71 warhead exploded deep underground on Amchitka Island in 1971, which produced a seismic shock quake of 7.0 on the Richter magnitude scale) people are encouraged, regardless of the cause of the quake, to "drop, cover and hold on": to get underneath a piece of furniture, cover their heads and hold on to the furniture. This advice also encourages people not to run out of a shaking building, because a large majority of earthquake injuries are due to broken bones from people falling and tripping during shaking. While it is unlikely that "drop, cover and hold on" will protect against a building collapse, in earthquake-prone areas in the United States building codes require that buildings withstand quakes up to an expected magnitude enough to allow evacuation after shaking stops. and thus a building collapse of these structures (even during an earthquake) is rare. "Drop, cover and hold on" may not be appropriate for all locations or building types, but the Red Cross advises it is the appropriate emergency response to an earthquake in the United States.

title: Duck and cover


text: Template:WWIIAmericanAFVs

title: Template:WWIIAmericanAFVs


text:
Quick Professor of Biology

The Quick Professorship of Biology is one of the senior professorships in biology at the University of Cambridge.

Frederick James Quick (1836–1902), a prosperous coffee merchant and senior partner in the London coffee-firm Quick, Reek and James at the time of his death, bequeathed the majority of his wealth to the University of Cambridge (where he had been a student at Trinity Hall, graduating in 1859) to be used in the 'study of vegetable and animal biology'. After much debate, it was decided that a new professorship should be established which would primarily cover the field of protozoology, and in 1906 George Nuttall became the first holder of the chair.

From 1907 to 1921 there was a laboratory associated with the chair, known as the Quick Laboratory: it was a single room, divided into cubicles, on the ground floor of the Cambridge Medical School building. In 1919, after an appeal for funds by the Quick Professor, the Molteno Institute of Parasitology was established. In 1920 the scope of the chair was broadened to the study of parasitology. In 1931 the chair was offered to David Keilin for study of cell biology.

Quick Professors

 * George Nuttall (1906)
 * David Keilin (1932)
 * Vincent Brian Wigglesworth (1952)
 * Robin Coombs (1966)
 * Christopher Craig Wylie (1988)
 * Stephen Philip Jackson (1995)

title: Quick Professor of Biology


text: Talk:Battlestar Galactica

title: Talk:Battlestar Galactica