text:
Talk:Digital physics

Should 'Physical symmetries are continuous' / 'Physical theory requires the continuum' be removed from the Criticism?
As John Archibald Wheeler puts it in the "Complexity, Entropy and the Physics of Information (Paperback) by Wojciech H. Zurek (Editor), 1990":  "No continuum. No continuum in mathematics and therefore no continuum in physics. A half-century of development in the sphere of mathematical logic has made it clear that there is no evidence supporting the belief of the existing character of the number continuum.".

I would like to add something to this: introductions to quantum mechanics often cite that "things" need to have a finite density of degrees of freedom to keep heat capacity finite. Otherwise thermodynamic equilibrium would never be reached, it would be very cold around us, life wouldn't exist and we wouldn't be here talking. Antropic principle again? Anyway isn't this a way to say that things are intrinsically discrete like in a computer image? In the classical picture stuff is described by continuous functions and it's infinitely divisible. The classical use of continuous functions could be the result of the tremendous success of calculus in the last 200 years more than an intrinsic need for them. Sorry for the intrusion.

—Preceding unsigned comment added by Pepicima (talk • contribs) 00:34, 18 February 2010 (UTC)

Merger
I am thinking of merging Digital philosophy and Computational universe theory into this page. Any reactions? 1Z 22:34, 29 January 2007 (UTC) They should definitely be merged, as they cover the same idea.--Gupst1 02:07, 31 July 2007 (UTC)

 * Should NOT be merged. Digital physics is a branch of physics while Digital philosophy is a philosophy and a cultural phenomena discussing the 'matrix movie' and other crap. (Mitra 22:40, 20 September 2007 (UTC))

 * Digital physics has no chairs, departments, predictive theories or experimental results. It is a philosophical attitude adopted by some physicists. 1Z 14:10, 27 October 2007 (UTC)

 * It is a physical theory. See references in the article or just google it. --63.204.19.188 (talk) 06:12, 12 March 2008 (UTC)

Digital physics is "physics" in the sense of ontics as per the immanence of Stoic physics, I guess? It's "physics", just like how Aristotle wrote a book "physics" even though it wasn't following scientific method

Digital physics could be considered philosophy, just like Stoic and aristotelian "physics" FatalSubjectivities (talk) 16:51, 25 November 2022 (UTC)

continuous alternatives
The last section, "continuous alternatives", makes statements such as "it has been shown" without giving any sources for these contentions.James Haughton 03:02, 18 July 2007 (UTC)
 * More than that, I have no clue how some silly pattern that happens to show up in, what amounts to a screen saver, has anything to do with the topic at hand. That section needs some serious improvement. Gigs 11:48, 26 October 2007 (UTC)

Theory of Ur-Alternatives
Just added: Physicist Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker proposed the theory of ur-alternatives in his book "Einheit der Natur" (1971) and further developed it in his book "Zeit und Wissen" (1992). The theory is an example of digital physics as it axiomatically constructs quantum physics from the distinction between empirically observable, binary alternatives. Weizsäcker used it to derive the 3-dimensionality of space and to estimate the entropy of a proton falling into a black hole. Discrepancy (talk) 20:26, 5 July 2008 (UTC).

C.F. von Weizsǎcker's Ur theory starts from three assumptions: (i) There is no physical theory beyond ordinary quantum mechanics (in Hilbert space), (ii) the simpliest quantum mechanics are the basic elementary particles, and (iii) physics is constructed over them by means of quantum mechanics (i.e. tensor algebra). The most elementary particles are ur and antiur, with eigenvalues plus and minus one (the simple alternative). Mathematically they are described by a complex 2-dimensional Hilbert space, on which the hermitian matrices (the «observables") form a 4-dimensional real vector space. This real vector space carries a Minkowski form, i.e. a symmetric non-degenerate bilinear form of signature +--- in a natural way (this means as a "Killing" form of the Jordan algebra of these observables). So space-time comes in in a natural way, at least that one of special relativity. Space and time then are expressed by observables. But something we didn't understand: The "Killing" form, i.e. the invariant symmetric bilinear form of this Jordan algebra is constructed out of two elements of this Jordan algebra (not only one as for Lie algebras), i.e. there are two Hamiltonians. Hans Tilgner —Preceding unsigned comment added by 194.94.224.254 (talk) 12:56, 21 May 2010 (UTC)

Wasn't Einheit der Natur the first mention, published in '71 before the translation into English? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 91.85.221.168 (talk) 19:56, 4 April 2014 (UTC)

Regarding "Some argue[citation needed] that the models of digital physics violate various postulates..."
A relevant citation is Ulvi Yurtsever, "Quantum Mechanics and Algorithmic Randomness", early arxiv versions, final journal version. It works pretty much as the paragraph describes: if quantum bits are pseudorandom (as predicted by Schmidhuber in particular, I can add), then locality can be violated---i.e. spacelike/superluminal communication can be designed. Perhaps Schmidhuber's prediction can be saved by saying that beta-decay bits are compressible but only with relatively huge running times, but that rules out feasible testability of the prediction anyway. I myself haven't yet followed thru on a promise (to David Chalmers himself mentioned in the article) to raise this with his colleague Marcus Hutter, an associate of Schmidhuber's---though this page makes me expect he would already know of Yurtsever's general argument anyway. Anyway if you-all agree on its relevance you can add the citation. KWRegan (talk) 03:34, 11 September 2008 (UTC)

 * Sure the pseudorandom sequence is one per simulated universe, not per quantum bit. Mitra (talk) 08:36, 28 September 2008 (UTC)

the "Criticism rebutted" section
the "Criticism rebutted" section is crap. it needs to be rewritten from scratch in an encyclopedic way. --Aaronshavit (talk) 23:54, 11 December 2008 (UTC)

Pancomputationalism
This dissertation by Gualtiero Piccinini is purported to be the first academic work where this neologism appeared (page 205). I think this fact merits inclusion in the article. --Omnipaedista (talk) 10:00, 30 October 2009 (UTC)

Real time?
I have only a passing knowledge of this kind of physics (it goes in, lights up my brain, puts a smile on my face, then slowly leaks away after five minutes), but this line:

 * Digital physics suggests that there exists, at least in principle, a program for a universal computer which computes the evolution of the universe in real time.

sounds odd to me. What is "real time" in this case? Surely it doesn't matter how fast or slow the computer is calculating our universe - we would experience it just the same. Or is it saying that such a computer could exist within our universe? Wouldn't that be impossible, since it would have to be emulating itself, emulating itself, emulating itself... David (talk) 19:50, 26 April 2010 (UTC)

 * The article is full of this kind of odd thinking. 178.38.85.195 (talk) 01:40, 14 April 2015 (UTC)

Simulation Vs Emulation
Just a point which might seem trivial, Simulation is a term that can be used for a variety of Games as well as training tools. There are various Simulators used by Militaries to teach people how to use equipment and kill an opposing force. In regards to gaming this generates the psychology that a "simulated" person is expendable, after all you can just "add more quarters" on death or not worry about realworld consequences.

I would suggest a preference towards the usage of the term "Emulation" and "Emulator" considering that Emulation is usually an independent working model run on a different platform. If a person was emulated they would therefore be as real as you or I and not seen as expendable cannon fodder.

Stryder (talk) 13:06, 12 October 2010 (UTC)

Relevant xkcd
I think this xkcd comic sums up the theory pretty well:

http://xkcd.com/505/

but probably doesn't have a place in the main article. David (talk) 01:02, 30 October 2010 (UTC)

anecdote
An IP placed this anecdote on the mainpage. I removed it and am reproducing it here for review if people are interested or think something should be salvaged:

Dr. Wheeler in 1985 was a visiting lecturer at Columbia University and Dr. Frederick W. Kantor was in attendance as a guest. During the class Dr. Kantor posed a couple of questions related to his published book on "Information Mechanics" and Dr. Wheeler was reticent to discuss the matter during the lecture. After the lecture's end Dr. Kantor approached Dr. Wheeler again but was rebuffed when Dr. Wheeler stated that he was not "smart enough" to understand about what Dr. Kantor was talking. Apparently, however, later on he adopted Dr. Kantor's ideas.

SamuelRiv (talk) 18:15, 9 October 2011 (UTC)

 * Good you removed it. I'm also skeptical about this paragraph

 * The first formal presentation of the idea that information might be the fundamental quantity at the core of physics seems to be due to Frederick W. Kantor (a physicist from Columbia University). Kantor's book Information Mechanics (Wiley-Interscience, 1977) developed this idea in detail, but without mathematical rigor.

 * pretty early on in the life of the page, and, as you can see it lack any citation. Seems like self-promotion. 199.104.151.215 (talk) 05:29, 30 May 2016 (UTC)

 * What do you mean by lack of citation? The book exists: google it. 86.183.238.214 (talk) 17:14, 29 August 2016 (UTC)

Is it worth mentioning resolution of the duality artificial life vs life?
Logically, from the perspective of digital physics, life and artificial life become indistinguishable. I've not yet found any significant reference material highlighting this, but I feel it is a very significant consequence of the theory and perhaps worth a mention. Thoughts?

I feel that until some citable liturature comes about, we should hold off on writing that section. I do agree, however, that it should be included in this article. Astropiloto (talk) 20:57, 10 July 2012 (UTC)

Additional Proponents
I am surprised that this doesn't appear in this article, even though it is given its own section on the Simulation Hypothesis page. It might warrant a reference in the Criticism->Physical symmetries are continuous section, in the paragraph "Proponents of digital physics..."; if not, maybe under Further reading. 132.170.57.103 (talk) 05:19, 13 April 2015 (UTC)

Off key
''A number—in particular a real number, one with an infinite number of digits—was defined by Turing to be computable if a Turing machine will continue to spit out digits endlessly. In other words, there is no "last digit". But this sits uncomfortably with any proposal that the universe is the output of a virtual-reality exercise carried out in real time (or any plausible kind of time).''

This kind of writing just seems to swim around in a kind of soft-focus version of actual scientific thought.

1. A real number = a number with an infinite number of digits.

2. A number is computable if the Turing machine just never stops.

3. Neither the number nor the Turing machine ever comes to a conclusion.

4. This could never be computed in real time.

5. So the universe can't compute numbers if they are real numbers and it is a computer.

6. But the universe sits comfortably.

7. So the universe is not really a computer.

178.38.85.195 (talk) 01:33, 14 April 2015 (UTC)

WP:TNT
"the universe is, at heart, describable by information, and is therefore computable."

This is a definite candidate for WP:TNT if there are any volunteers to rewrite. Rolf H Nelson (talk) 03:18, 2 June 2016 (UTC)

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new results?

 * https://cosmosmagazine.com/physics/physicists-find-we-re-not-living-in-a-computer-simulation
 * http://advances.sciencemag.org/content/3/9/e1701758

"It from bit" listed at Redirects for discussion
A discussion is taking place to address the redirect It from bit. The discussion will occur at Redirects for discussion/Log/2021 March 1 until a consensus is reached, and readers of this page are welcome to contribute to the discussion. –LaundryPizza03 ( d c̄ ) 17:35, 1 March 2021 (UTC)

Prospective Theories section
If one wants to discuss the need to change the Prospective theories section feel free to do it here. A point of debate is whether we should use or replace two of the arXiv citations or not. I would argue since these are the original source of these theories we should include them. If we decide strictly against the use of arXiv we can use the articles from peer-reviewed journals or review articles referencing the same material such as https://www.worldscientific.com/doi/abs/10.1142/9789814374309_0029 — Preceding unsigned comment added by GreatContributor1 (talk • contribs) 23:17, 5 June 2022 (UTC)

 * No, that's exactly why we shouldn't include any of that material. Wikipedia articles are based on secondary sources, not primary ones. That includes Seth Lloyd's speculations. We need evidence that other people, not the speculators themselves, care. This entire topic is one of — to put it charitably — marginal interest, so that is an uphill argument to make. Regarding this edit summary, the fact that sources were used on another page doesn't mean that they are acceptable here; in fact, they should have been removed from there. XOR'easter (talk) 23:31, 5 June 2022 (UTC)
 * Ok so would you agree rewriting the prospective theories section based on sources like:
 * https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10670-016-9866-y
 * https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Hans-Joachim-Rudolph/project/Currently-working-on-a-special-kind-of-digital-particles-ie-operators-on-digital-particles-in-complex-space-time/attachment/573b4faf08aea7adff2f3ee1/AS:362779644055552@1463504815215/download/SS09+SE+CompHist.pdf?context=ProjectUpdatesLog
 * https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11047-009-9115-2
 * For mentions of Lloyd's, Zizzi's and digital physics theories in general instead of the arXiv articles ? GreatContributor1 (talk) 00:44, 6 June 2022 (UTC)
 * Well, a random PDF on ResearchGate which is so sloppy that it cites Wikipedia as a source definitely shouldn't be a source for a Wikipedia article. If anything, the fact that the 2016 paper in Erkenntnis did a literature review and found no systematic analysis of all digital physics calls into question why we have an article about the subject at all. We really shouldn't be writing such an analysis if one does not exist elsewhere first; that's basic policy. (The authors of that paper only claim to fill the gap partially.) I grow increasingly doubtful that there is a well-defined subject here, rather than a collection of ideas that sound vaguely related and are mentioned together in the marginal venues where they get discussed at all. XOR'easter (talk) 01:57, 6 June 2022 (UTC)

Requested move 3 October 2022

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.

The result of the move request was: Not moved. (non-admin closure) Adumbrativus (talk) 09:26, 11 October 2022 (UTC)

Digital physics → Digital ontology – Is this page on ontology or physics? FatalSubjectivities (talk) 23:08, 3 October 2022 (UTC)
 * Are there reliable sources that use the term "digital ontology"? The article cites sources that use "digital physics" and "digital philosophy". Is there evidence about which term(s) are commonly used in the field?--Srleffler (talk) 04:05, 4 October 2022 (UTC)

Local variables
Regarding my revision 1132443124 that was reverted, I still don't think that the text as currently phrased is correct. My intent was to make clear that digital physics does not require local hidden variables, which is the clear implication of the current text. Naasking (talk) 18:03, 23 January 2023 (UTC)
 * I was the one who reverted you. Your edit comment was "Bell theorem rules out only local hidden variables so the claim is incorrect as simulations using non-local hidden variables are fine and used in quantum chemistry". The paragraph you objected to said "...extant models of digital physics violate ... quantum physics, belonging to the class of theories with local hidden variables", and was supported by a reference. Your edit, as justified by the edit comment, was therefore presumably contradicted by the cited source.

 * Your edit today cites a source, which is good, but it creates a conflict in the article. The article cannot both say that [all] extant models involve local variables and that some do not. We must resolve the conflict in the article. I'll take a look at it later; I don't have time right now. Resolving it may require someone with access to both sources and/or some expertise in the field.

 * It comes down to these questions: Do the sources disagree with one another? Is one just out of date? Are they talking about different things? Are the models that don't involve local variables not "extant"?--Srleffler (talk) 22:59, 28 January 2023 (UTC)
 * Yes there's confusion around this, but it's a fringe topic so no rush. The way I've presented it is maybe confusing, so I'll summarize my main points: 1. digital physics definitely requires hidden variables, but may or may not require *local* hidden variables, 2. even if digital physics requires local hidden variables this is not necessarily inconsistent with existing no-go theorems, and 3. digital physics can also preserve the symmetries we observe.
 * I agree that "extant" models I'm aware of are not explicitly non-local so I'll leave #1 as-is. The citation I provided is evidence of #3 and provides further references of earlier publications, so I'll just jot down the facts I'm aware of for #2 and you can do with that what you will.
 * First, I don't see why digital physics would entail local hidden variables being observable. For instance, Bohmian mechanics has long been used in quantum chemistry (see review arXiv:1801.04781). Since these simulations take place on digital computers, is that not a direct refutation of the claims of incompatibility?
 * The citation [8] proves only that digital physics may require a preferred frame of reference. Covariant Bohmian mechanics also requires this, but this preferred frame is not observable, so again, not really a problem as it doesn't violate relativity even if it's "ugly".
 * I found a copy of "Clockwork Rebooted", and here's a quote from its conclusion, "Although there is little question that, under appropriate conditions, [...] it is logically possible that [portions of the universe] could be simulated given *unlimited* computational resources, the universe itself as a whole is better not identified as a computer". In other words, "the universe as a digital computer" is maybe not so useful a model, but a universal Turing machine, being an unlimited digital computer, can nonetheless simulate the universe.
 * I'll quote Peter Shor, "Because of quantum mechanics and the uncertainty principle, the value of a physical constant can't be defined to more than 60 or 70 digits. And any finite-precision number by definition is computable." If physical constants are by necessity precision-limited, then it follows that any computations that involve them are also precision-limited, and so can be computed on a digital computer.
 * Finally, there's always the superdeterminism loophole. As mentioned, even if the underlying substrate features local hidden variables, as long as the evolution law preserves certain invariants, this can show up as violations of Bell's inequalities. This is sort of what you see in Tim Palmer's Invariant set postulate, for instance.
 * I don't think all of the above should be in the article on this fringe topic, I just want to make the case that the current wording about its incompatibility with observations is a bit misleading, because it leaves the impression that experiments have ruled it out. Naasking (talk) 17:04, 2 February 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Digital physics


text:
Rate-Adaptive Digital Subscriber Line

Rate-adaptive digital subscriber line (RADSL) is a pre-standard asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) solution. RADSL was introduced as proprietary technology by AT&T Paradyne, later GlobeSpan Technologies Inc., in June 1996. In September 1999, RADSL technology was formally described by ANSI in T1.TR.59-1999. RADSL supports downstream data rates of up to approximately 8 Mbit/s, upstream data rates up to approximately 1 Mbit/s, and can coexist with POTS voice on the same line.

RADSL allows rate-adaptation while the connection is in operation — rate-adaptation during connection setup is possible in many other DSL variants, including G.dmt and its successors. Rate-adaptation while the connection is in operation is specified as an option in ADSL2, ADSL2+, and VDSL2, under the name seamless rate adaptation (SRA).

Technology
RADSL specifies two alternative modulation schemes, quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) and carrierless amplitude phase modulation (CAP). RADSL is not interoperable with discrete multi-tone (DMT) modulation variants of ADSL, standardized in ANSI T1.413 Issue 2 and G.dmt (G.992.1). Upstream and downstream are frequency-division duplexed, the upstream and downstream transmit PSD masks are identical to those in ANSI T1.413.

In RADSL, the baud rate, center frequency, and constellation size of the downstream and upstream channels can be adjusted while the connection is in operation. Using this technique the line is more tolerant of errors caused by noise and signal loss. As the parameters are adjusted, the bandwidth may be markedly decreased if there is a large amount of line noise or signal degradation.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Rate-Adaptive Digital Subscriber Line


text:
Robert Kennicott

Robert Kennicott (November 13, 1835 – May 13, 1866) was an American naturalist and herpetologist. Chronic illness kept Kennicott out of school as a child. Instead, Kennicott spent most of his time outdoors, collecting plants and animals. His father schooled him at home and convinced naturalist Jared Potter Kirtland to take him as an understudy. Soon, Kennicott was providing specimens for the Smithsonian Institution via assistant secretary Spencer Fullerton Baird.

Kennicott advocated for the study and protection of native prairie animals in an era when farmers sought to eradicate them. He teamed with Northwestern University to found a natural history museum in 1857, then founded the Chicago Academy of Sciences. While in Chicago he served as a mentor to several young naturalists, including William Healey Dall. He joined the Megatherium Club and studied specimens in Hudson Bay. The Western Union Telegraph Expedition commissioned Kennicott as a scientist for their excursion in the mid-1860s. Kennicott died on the expedition and was memorialized as the namesake of Alaska's Kennicott Glacier. His home, "The Grove" in Glenview, Illinois, is today recognized as a National Historic Landmark by the National Park Service.

Biography
Robert Kennicott was born in New Orleans, Louisiana, on November 13, 1835. His father, John Albert, was interested in botany and maintained a large land holding in Northfield Township, Cook County, Illinois, which came to be known as "The Grove". Robert was a sickly child and attempted to improve his overall health by spending much time outdoors. He did not attend school regularly, but his father ensured that he received an education at home. Under the tutelage of his father, Kennicott learned to patiently observe nature and began a collection of specimens.

Jared Potter Kirtland, a friend of Kennicott's father and one of the leading naturalists in the west, agreed to take Robert as an understudy in late 1852. Kennicott wintered with Kirtland in East Rockport (now Lakewood), Ohio. Kirtland encouraged Kennicott to contact other naturalists, and soon Kennicott had come to the attention of Spencer Fullerton Baird, the assistant secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. For the next thirteen years, Kennicott would correspond with Baird about his findings. As Illinois was still largely undocumented by naturalists, Baird encouraged Kennicott to send him specimens.

In 1855, the Illinois Central Railroad commissioned the Illinois State Agricultural Society to prepare a survey of the state's natural resources. Kennicott's father was the secretary of the society and recommended Robert for the job. After the excursion, Kennicott published a catalog of the animals of Cook County. The first new animal species identified by Kennicott was a Northern Illinois snake, which he sent to Baird. Baird suggested that Kennicott name the animal after Kirtland, Regina kirtlandii (today Clonophis kirtlandii). Kennicott published a three-part paper from 1856 to 1858 entitled "The Quadrupeds of Illinois, Injurious and Beneficial to the Farmer". In it, Kennicott pleaded with farmers to first study the habits of wild animals before attempting to eradicate them. The Board of Trustees of Northwestern University approached Kennicott in early 1857, asking him to help them create a natural history museum. Later that year, Kennicott co-founded the Chicago Academy of Sciences. For the next two winters, Kennicott worked at the Smithsonian in Washington, D.C., helping Baird organize its amphibian and reptile collections. There, he met William Stimpson and became a part of the Megatherium Club. In April 1859 he set off on an expedition to collect natural history specimens in the subarctic boreal forests of northwestern Canada in what is now the Mackenzie and Yukon river valleys and in the Arctic tundra beyond. Kennicott became popular with Hudson's Bay Company fur traders in the area and encouraged them to collect and send natural history specimens and First Nations artifacts to the Smithsonian. He returned to Washington at the end of 1862. Kennicott considered joining the Union Army in the Civil War, but was convinced otherwise, sending a substitute. Robert and his younger brother lived in the Smithsonian Castle during the war along with Edward Drinker Cope and other noted naturalists. He returned to Illinois in 1863 to tend to his ailing father, who died later that year.

While working at the Smithsonian Institution under Assistant Secretary Spencer F. Baird, Robert Kennicott wrote the original descriptions of many new snake taxa brought back by expeditions to the American West. He also collected snake specimens including with his specimen collecting first cousin Helen L. Teunisson. He subsequently named the subspecies Carphophis amoenus helenae in her honor.

In 1864 the Western Union Telegraph Expedition was mounted to find a possible route for a telegraph line between North America and Russia by way of the Bering Sea. Kennicott was selected as the scientist for this expedition, and the party of naturalists sent to assist him included W.H. Dall.

The expedition arrived in San Francisco in April 1865, but disagreements between its leaders meant that little was achieved. The party moved north to Vancouver where Kennicott suffered a period of ill health. After his recovery they moved north again to Alaska in August 1865. Kennicott died in May 1866 while traveling up the Yukon River. His body was returned to his family's home in Illinois, enclosed in a metal canister and shipped via Russia and Japan rather than sent back on undeveloped trails through Canada.

In an interesting twist, the scientist became the subject of study. An investigation in 2001–2016 into the cause of his death suggested that Kennicott may have suffered from long QT syndrome, a congenital cardiac condition that can cause an irregular heartbeat, weakness, and fainting spells. This was made worse by strychnine, a drug that Kennicott regularly self-administered to improve his condition, but which only aggravated it. According to a summary of the research in the Washington Post, "the combination of stress, physical exhaustion and toxic 'medicine' was too much for the young scientist's weak heart," and led to his death by cardiac arrest. With permission of his family, his body has been added to the human anatomy collection at the Smithsonian.

Legacy
To commemorate his efforts on behalf of science, Kennicott Glacier, Kennicott Valley, MV Kennicott, and the Kennicott River were named after him. The town of Kennecott, famous for rich copper mines, was named for its proximity to the glacier. However, the name was slightly misspelled. Natural features have retained the original spelling of his name, while the mines and related businesses have continued to use this alternate spelling.

Additionally, two birds retain Kennicott's name: the western screech owl (Megascops kennicottii ) and the Alaskan Arctic Warbler (Phylloscopus borealis kennicottii ).

Some of his papers are maintained at Northwestern University, others at his family home, The Grove, a National Historic Landmark in Glenview, Illinois, where his original grave remains in a family plot. His papers are also available on microfilm at the Glenview Public Library in the Genealogy & Local History Room.

A 3-D reconstruction of his face has been done by the Smithsonian Institution, by scanning his skull and using computers to reconstruct his facial structure. A 3-D copy of the skull was then made, onto which a sculptor molded clay into the facial reconstruction.

Nature writer Donald Culross Peattie (Donald C. Peattie) includes a sketch of Kennicott's life in Peattie's memoir, entitled "The Road of a Naturalist. Peattie spent time at Kennicott's Grove during his childhood.

title: Robert Kennicott


text:
M-40 (Michigan highway)

M-40 is a north–south state trunkline highway in the Lower Peninsula of the US state of Michigan. The highway runs from US Highway 12 (US 12) near the Indiana state line in Porter Township north through Paw Paw and Allegan to end in the outskirts of Holland. The current northern end is near Interstate 196 (I-196) at an intersection with US 31/Business Loop I-196 (BL 196). In between, M-40 runs through mixed agricultural and forest lands and along lakes and rivers through Southwest Michigan.

The trunkline was designated by July 1, 1919, along with the rest of the original state highway system along a route that is different that of that of the 21st century. South of Paw Paw, the original M-40 reached Niles and even the Indiana state line for a time. The northern end was extended in stages to Holland. The southern end was shifted in the 1970s, resulting in the modern routing.

Route description
M-40 starts at an intersection with US 12 in rural Cass County. Running north through farm fields, the highway rounds Bar Lake and into the community of Jones. The area around Jones has a few more lakes in a wooded setting. As the trunkline continues north, it passes back into farm lands. The road curves around to the northwest as it passes between Bogart Lake and Streeters Mill Pond near Dutch Settlement Road. M-40 follows Centre Street into Marcellus. When the highway meets the western end of M-216 in town, M-40 turns west along Main Street and runs out of town. The roadway returns to a northerly course, and later it curves northwesterly again near Cedar Lake near the Van Buren County line.

Continuing north, the trunkline passes through mixed agricultural and wood lands into the community of Lawton. M-40 follows Main Street through town and exits on a northwestern track towards the village of Paw Paw. M-40 crosses over I-94 and turns north into town running along Maple Lake. The highway crosses the narrow isthmus between the larger Maple Lake and the smaller Ackley Lake, passing through some small residential subdivisions as it leaves Paw Paw. Small farms dot the landscape as M-40 crosses M-43 in a rural area of the county on the way to Gobles. It is in this small city that the road crosses the Kal-Haven Trail State Park, a linear park that follows the former Kalamazoo and South Haven Railroad line. The rail line was converted into a rail trail and allows users to bike, hike or snowmobile between Kalamazoo and South Haven.

M-40 crosses into Allegan County near Base Line Lake. The highway follows Jenner Street along some curves near the banks of the Kalamazoo River as the trunkline enters the south side of Allegan. M-40 meets M-89, and the two highways run concurrently into downtown together on Cedar Street. At the intersection with Cutler Street, M-40/M-89 meets the western end of M-222 and M-40/M-89 turns west onto Cutler Street. The street name changes to Western Avenue as M-40/M-89 curves north and northwest, crossing the Kalamazoo River and leaving town. North of Lake Allegan, M-89 separates and runs west toward Fennville, and M-40 extends to Hamilton, crossing the Rabbit River. The highway runs through more farms and approaches the outskirts of Holland. The trunkline crosses over I-196 and follows Lincoln Road through an industrial area on the southeast side of town. At 48th Street, the highway turns west until meeting Lincoln Avenue. There, M-40 turns north for several blocks before ending at the intersection with BL I-196/US 31.

History
When M-40 was created around by July 1, 1919, it originally ran from Niles to Dowagiac and Decatur roughly along the current path of M-51. Then it traveled to the northeast where it entered Paw Paw and continued north to Allegan. M-40 is shown on a commercial 1921 map extending south of Niles to the Indiana state line, the segment used for the routing of US 31 starting in 1926, but not shown extending to Allegan. A section of the highway was realigned in the same time period near Paw Paw; after the change, M-40 followed the contemporary US 12 instead of Paw Paw Road. A rerouting of M-89 in 1927 shifted it to run from Allegan southeast to Plainwell instead of east to Martin; M-40 replaced M-89 on the Allegan–Martin roadway. In 1929, the routing from Allegan to Martin was removed and renumbered M-118, and M-40 was extended to the north out of Allegan along M-89 and its modern routing to a new terminus in Holland ending at US 31. The last segment of unpaved highway was paved in late 1945 or early 1946. This segment was near Dunningville in central Allegan County.

In late 1960 or early 1961, when the I-94 freeway was completed in Van Buren County, M-40 moved to the new freeway for four miles (6.4 km), between present day exits 56 and 60, and the former route along old US 12 was returned to local control. In late 1971, all of M-40 south of I-94 was reassigned the designation M-51 while M-40 was shifted to the east to take over the routing of the contemporary M-119 between Paw Paw and its intersection with US 12 in Porter Township near Mottville; the change was made in order to give M-40 "north-south continuity" and to remove M-40 markers from I-94. In 1994, the northern terminus was scaled back from the US 31 business loop to its present terminus at US 31 on the southeast side of Holland.

Local officials in Allegan have proposed creation of a truck route around the town. Concerned about the traffic and noise, residents have formed the Citizens for a Safer Community. They cite reports that show that the accident rates in town are higher than the statewide average. The group and local officials are proposing using 24th Street, 118th Avenue and Babylon Road for truck traffic. MDOT would require permits to erect the signs needed for the truck route. The department has indicated that the bypass would not be a state highway. MDOT will not take ownership of the roads needed for the truck route, but overall the department is supportive of the city's efforts to make the downtown area more pedestrian friendly.

title: M-40 (Michigan highway)


text:
Sargans

Sargans is a municipality in the Wahlkreis (constituency) of Sarganserland in the canton of St. Gallen in Switzerland.

Sargans is known for its castle, which dates from before the founding of the Swiss Confederation in 1291. Sargans was also a County of the Holy Roman Empire; see County of Sargans.

History
There are traces of Neolithic settlement in the area. A significant Roman-era estate was destroyed by an Alamannic incursion in c. 270. Sargans remained part of Lower Raetia in the early medieval period, with gradual displacement of Rumantsch by Alemannic speakers during the high medieval period. A church dedicated to Saint Cassian is mentioned in the 9th century. Sargans was part of the territory of the county of Werdenberg from the 12th century, with a separate line of Werdenberg-Sargans established in the later 13th century. The castle was presumably first built in the 12th century and is first mentioned in 1282. The town of Sargans grew around the castle in the 13th century.

Sargans is mentioned as Senegaunis in the 11th century. An earlier mention as de Senegaune, ostensibly dated to 765, survives in a 16th-century copy. In 1248 it was mentioned as Sanegans, in 1264 as Sangans and in 1332 as Santgans. The modern spelling dates to the 16th century. The etymology of the name is unknown; San- seems to have changed to Sar- under the influence of the hydronym Saar. A popular etymology connecting the name Sargans to "goose" (German Gans) may date to as early as the 15th century.

From 1406, a combined fortification of the town and the castle was built. In 1445, the town, but not the castle, was captured and burned by the Swiss Confederacy. The town was given limited rights of self-government in 1456 when the count agreed to select a Schultheiss out of a list of three candidates to be submitted by the burghers. In 1483, count Jürg of Werdenberg-Sargans was forced to sell the county to the Swiss Confederacy for 15,000 Rhenish guilder. From this time until 1798, the castle was the seat of the Swiss reeves. The town burned down again in 1490. In 1501, the Swiss Confederacy confirmed the city rights of Sargans and granted the right for a weekly market.

The municipal coat of arms goes back to the 15th century. It is canting, showing a goose based on the folk etymology for the name Sargans. The historical coat of arms of the county of Sargans was azure three mullets or.

In 1798, Sargans became part of the Mels district of the Canton of Linth in the Helvetic Republic. It was incorporated into the Canton of St. Gallen in 1803. Most of the town was destroyed by fire in 1811.

Sargans is at the juncture of the railway lines connecting Chur with Zürich and with Lake Constance, built in 1859. The line to Vienna was added in 1884. The Saar was first canalised in 1858 for the construction of the railway station and again in 1978 for the construction of the A3-A13 motorway junction. Sargans remained mostly unaffected by industrialisation; the Gonzen iron ore mine was closed down in 1966.

Geography
Sargans has an area,, of 9.5 km2. Of this area, 38.4% is used for agricultural purposes, while 35.2% is forested. Of the rest of the land, 20.2% is settled (buildings or roads) and the remainder (6.2%) is non-productive (rivers or lakes).

The municipality is the capital of the Sarganserland Wahlkreis. It is located at the foot of the Mt Gonzen. The eastern border of the municipality is the Rhine river and Liechtenstein. As it is located at the intersection of the Rhine and Seez valleys, Sargans has long been important in both a strategic and commercial sense. It consists of the village of Sargans and the hamlets of Vild, Ratell, Prod, Splee, Riet, Farb, Töbeli and Schwefelbad.

Transport
The municipality is located on the A3 motorway. Sargans is an important regional transportation node. Trains heading north toward St. Gallen, east toward Chur and Ticino, and toward Austria, all pass through Sargans. Buses heading toward Liechtenstein also leave Sargans.

Demographics
Sargans has a population (as of ) of. , about 22.0% of the population was made up of foreign nationals. Of the foreign population,, 34 are from Germany, 126 are from Italy, 432 are from former Yugoslavia, 38 are from Austria, 50 are from Turkey, and 228 are from other countries. Over the last 10 years the population has grown at a rate of 7.3%. Most of the population speaks German (87.0%), with Serbo-Croatian being second most common ( 3.2%) and Italian being third ( 2.1%). Of the Swiss national languages, 4,146 speak German, 18 people speak French, 102 people speak Italian, and 22 people speak Romansh.

The age distribution,, in Sargans is; 522 children or 11.0% of the population are between 0 and 9 years old and 592 teenagers or 12.4% are between 10 and 19. Of the adult population, 594 people or 12.5% of the population are between 20 and 29 years old. 749 people or 15.7% are between 30 and 39, 738 people or 15.5% are between 40 and 49, and 610 people or 12.8% are between 50 and 59. The senior population distribution is 456 people or 9.6% of the population are between 60 and 69 years old, 339 people or 7.1% are between 70 and 79, there are 139 people or 2.9% who are between 80 and 89, and there are 26 people or 0.5% who are between 90 and 99.

there were 654 persons (or 13.7% of the population) who were living alone in a private dwelling. There were 1,108 (or 23.3%) persons who were part of a couple (married or otherwise committed) without children, and 2,555 (or 53.6%) who were part of a couple with children. There were 267 (or 5.6%) people who lived in single parent home, while there are 27 persons who were adult children living with one or both parents, 25 persons who lived in a household made up of relatives, 19 who lived household made up of unrelated persons, and 110 who are either institutionalized or live in another type of collective housing.

In the 2007 federal election the most popular party was the SVP which received 35.2% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the CVP (21.7%), the SP (19.4%) and the FDP (13.5%).

In Sargans about 68.8% of the population (between age 25–64) have completed either non-mandatory upper secondary education or additional higher education (either university or a Fachhochschule). Out of the total population in Sargans,, the highest education level completed by 1,079 people (22.6% of the population) was Primary, while 1,870 (39.2%) have completed their secondary education, 477 (10.0%) have attended a Tertiary school, and 236 (5.0%) are not in school. The remainder did not answer this question.

The historical population is given in the following table:

Religion
From the, 3,001 or 63.0% are Roman Catholic, while 843 or 17.7% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there are 4 individuals (or about 0.08% of the population) who belong to the Christian Catholic faith, there are 132 individuals (or about 2.77% of the population) who belong to the Orthodox Church, and there are 53 individuals (or about 1.11% of the population) who belong to another Christian church. There are 4 individuals (or about 0.08% of the population) who are Jewish, and 265 (or about 5.56% of the population) who are Islamic. There are 75 individuals (or about 1.57% of the population) who belong to another church (not listed on the census), 218 (or about 4.58% of the population) belong to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 170 individuals (or about 3.57% of the population) did not answer the question.

Economy
, Sargans had an unemployment rate of 1.75%. , there were 79 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 29 businesses involved in this sector. 1,171 people are employed in the secondary sector and there are 58 businesses in this sector. 1,791 people are employed in the tertiary sector, with 218 businesses in this sector.

the average unemployment rate was 3.9%. There were 310 businesses in the municipality of which 57 were involved in the secondary sector of the economy while 227 were involved in the third.

there were 994 residents who worked in the municipality, while 1,493 residents worked outside Sargans and 1,893 people commuted into the municipality for work.

Heritage sites of national significance
Both the local mining operation and Schloss Sargans are listed as Swiss heritage sites of national significance.

Notable people

 * Josef Anton Henne (1798 in Sargans – 1870) a Swiss historian and politician active during the formation of the modern Swiss state.
 * Alexander Hug (born 1975) a Swiss ski mountaineer, lives in Sargans

Weather
Sargans has an average of 142.2 days of rain or snow per year and on average receives 1325 mm of precipitation. The wettest month is August during which time Sargans receives an average of 153 mm of rain or snow. During this month there is precipitation for an average of 14.3 days. The month with the most days of precipitation is June, with an average of 14.5, but with only 136 mm of rain or snow. The driest month of the year is October with an average of 82 mm of precipitation over 14.3 days.

title: Sargans


text:
Christian reconstructionism

Christian reconstructionism is a fundamentalist Calvinist theonomic movement. It developed primarily under the direction of R. J. Rushdoony, Greg Bahnsen and Gary North and has had an important influence on the Christian right in the United States. Its central theme is that society should be reconstructed under the lordship of Jesus in all aspects of life. In keeping with the biblical cultural mandate, reconstructionists advocate for theonomy and the restoration of certain biblical laws said to have continued applicability. These include the death penalty not only for murder, but also for idolatry, homosexuality, adultery, witchcraft and blasphemy.

Most Calvinists reject Christian reconstructionism and hold to classical covenant theology, which is the traditional Calvinist view of the relationship between the Old Covenant and Christianity.

Christian reconstructionism is closely linked with postmillennial eschatology and the presuppositional apologetics of Cornelius Van Til.

Theonomy
Christian reconstructionists advocate a theonomic government and libertarian economic principles. They maintain a distinction of spheres of authority between self, family, church, and state. For example, the enforcement of moral sanctions under theonomy is carried out by the family and church government, and sanctions for moral offenses are outside the authority of civil government (which is limited to criminal matters, courts and national defense). However, some believe these distinctions become blurred, as the application of theonomy implies an increase in the authority of the civil government. Reconstructionists also say that the theonomic government is not an oligarchy or monarchy of man communicating with God, but rather, a national recognition of existing laws. Some of the prominent advocates of Christian reconstructionism have written that according to their understanding, God's law approves of the death penalty not only for murder, but also for propagators of all forms of idolatry, open homosexuality, adulterers, practitioners of witchcraft, blasphemers, and perhaps even recalcitrant youths (see the List of capital crimes in the Bible).

Christian reconstructionism's founder, Rousas Rushdoony, wrote in The Institutes of Biblical Law (the founding document of reconstructionism) that Old Testament law should be applied to modern society, and he advocates the reinstatement of the Mosaic law's penal sanctions such as stoning. Under such a system, the list of civil crimes which carried a death sentence would include murder, homosexuality, adultery, incest, lying about one's virginity, bestiality, witchcraft, idolatry or apostasy, public blasphemy, false prophesying, kidnapping, rape, and bearing false witness in a capital case. However, Greg Bahnsen points out that such a system would only be possible if the culture at large were a Christian culture, and that the force of government could not be used to impose Christianity on a culture that did not want it.

Kayser points out that the Bible advocates justice, and that biblical punishments prescribed for crimes are the maximum allowable to maintain justice and not the only available option, because lesser punishments are authorized as well.

Views on pluralism
Rousas Rushdoony wrote in The Institutes of Biblical Law: "The heresy of democracy has since [the days of colonial New England] worked havoc in church and state" and: "Christianity and democracy are inevitably enemies", and he said elsewhere that "Christianity is completely and radically anti-democratic; it is committed to spiritual aristocracy," and characterized democracy as "the great love of the failures and cowards of life". He nevertheless repeatedly expressed his opposition to any sort of violent revolution and advocated instead the gradual reformation (often termed "regeneration" in his writings) of society from the bottom up, beginning with the individual and the family and from there gradually reforming other spheres of authority, including the church and the state.

Rushdoony believed that a republic is a better form of civil government than a democracy. According to Rushdoony, a republic avoided mob rule and the rule of the "51%" of society; in other words "might does not make right" in a republic. Rushdoony wrote that America's separation of powers between 3 branches of government is a far more neutral and better method of civil government than a direct democracy, stating "[t]he [American] Constitution was designed to perpetuate a Christian order". Rushdoony argues that the Constitution's purpose was to protect religion from the federal government and to preserve "states' rights."

Douglas W. Kennard, a Professor of Theology and Philosophy at the Houston Graduate School of Theology, wrote with regard to Christian reconstructionism, that Christians of non-Calvinist traditions, such as some "Baptist, Methodist, Catholic, [and] Orthodox", would be "under threat of capital punishment as fostered by the extreme Theonomist." On the other hand, Ligon Duncan has stated that "Roman Catholics to Episcopalians to Presbyterians to Pentecostals", as well as "Arminian and Calvinist, charismatic and non-charismatic, high Church and low Church traditions are all represented in the broader umbrella of Reconstructionism (often in the form of the "Christian America" movement)."

Influence on the Christian right in general
Although it has a relatively small number of self-described adherents, Christian reconstructionism has played a role in promoting the trend toward explicitly Christian politics in the larger American Christian right. This is the wider trend to which some critics refer, generally, as dominionism. Also, they allegedly have an amount of influence which is disproportionate to their numbers among advocates of the growth of the Christian homeschooling movement and other Christian education movements that seek independence from the direct oversight or support of the civil government. Because their numbers are so small compared to their influence, they are sometimes accused of being secretive and conspiratorial.

In Matthew 28:18, Jesus says, "All power is given unto me in heaven and in earth." This verse is seen as an announcement by Jesus that he has assumed authority over all earthly authority. In that light, some theologians interpret the Great Commission as a command to exercise that authority in his name, bringing all things (including societies and cultures) into subjection under his commands. Rousas Rushdoony, for example, interpreted the Great Commission as a republication of the "creation mandate", referring to Genesis 1:28 "Be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth, and subdue it: and have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over every living thing…"

For Rushdoony, the idea of dominion implied a form of Christian theocracy or, more accurately, a theonomy. For example, he wrote that: "The purpose of Christ's coming was in terms of the creation mandate… The redeemed are called to the original purpose of man, to exercise dominion under God, to be covenant-keepers, and to fulfil "the righteousness of the law" (Rom. 8:4)… Man is summoned to create the society God requires."

Elsewhere he wrote: "The man who is being progressively sanctified will inescapably sanctify his home, school, politics, economics, science, and all things else by understanding and interpreting all things in terms of the word of God."

Many evangelical Christians of all types have embraced Christian Reconstructionism in part or in whole. Evangelical leaders who endorsed it explicitly or implicitly include Jerry Falwell Sr., Bill Gothard, Jay Grimstead, D. James Kennedy, Tim LaHaye, Doug Phillips, Howard Phillips, Pat Robertson, Francis Schaeffer, and Wayne Whitehead. Gothard and the two Phillipses, for example, used Christian Reconstructionism to build the evangelical homeschooling community of the 1970s and 1980s. Robertson and Kennedy hosted Rushdoony on their television programs, and Robertson also used dominionist language in his book, The Secret Kingdom, and in his 1988 presidential campaign.

Grimstead, of the Coalition on Revival, summarized the position of many evangelical leaders: "'I don't call myself [a Reconstructionist],' but 'A lot of us are coming to realize that the Bible is God's standard of morality ... in all points of history ... and for all societies, Christian and non-Christian alike... It so happens that Rushdoony, Bahnsen, and North understood that sooner.' He added, 'There are a lot of us floating around in Christian leadership—James Kennedy is one of them—who don't go all the way with the theonomy thing, but who want to rebuild America based on the Bible.'"

Christian critics
Michael Horton of Westminster Seminary California has warned against the seductiveness of power-religion. The Christian rhetoric of the movement is weak, he argues, against the logic of its authoritarian and legalistic program, which will always drive reconstructionism toward sub-Christian ideas about sin, and the perfectibility of human nature (such as to imagine that, if Christians are in power, they will not be inclined to do evil). On the contrary, Horton and others maintain, God's law can, often has been, and will be put to evil uses by Christians and others, in the state, in churches, in the marketplace, and in families; and these crimes are aggravated, because to oppose a wrong committed through abuse of God's law, a critic must bear being labeled an enemy of God's law.

J. Ligon Duncan of the Department of Systematic Theology of Reformed Theological Seminary in Jackson, Mississippi, warns that "Theonomy, in gross violation of biblical patterns and common sense, ignores the context of the giving of the law to the redemptive community of the Old Testament. This constitutes an approach to the nature of the civil law very different from Calvin and the rest of the Reformed tradition, which sees the civil law as God's application of his eternal standards to the particular exigencies of his people." Duncan rejects the reconstructionists' insistence that "the Old Testament civil case law is normative for the civil magistrate and government in the New Covenant era". He views their denial of the threefold distinction between moral, civil, and ceremonial law as representing one of the severe flaws in the reconstructionist hermeneutic.

The late Professor Meredith Kline, whose own theology has influenced the method of several reconstructionist theologians, adamantly maintained that reconstructionism made the mistake of failing to understand the special prophetic role of biblical Israel, including the laws and sanctions, calling it "a delusive and grotesque perversion of the teachings of scripture." Kline's student, Lee Irons, furthers the critique:

"According to the Reformed theocrats apparently… the only satisfactory goal is that America become a Christian nation.

Ironically… it is the wholesale rejection (not revival) of theocratic principles that is desperately needed today if the church is to be faithful to the task of gospel witness entrusted to her in the present age… It is only as the church… puts aside the lust for worldly influence and power – that she will be a positive presence in society."

Rodney Clapp wrote that reconstructionism is an anti-democratic movement.

In an April 2009 article in Christianity Today about theologian and writer Douglas Wilson, the magazine described reconstructionism as outside the "mainstream" views of evangelical Christians. It also stated that it "borders on a call for outright theocracy".

George M. Marsden, a professor of history at the University of Notre Dame, has remarked in Christianity Today that "Reconstructionism in its pure form is a radical movement". He also wrote, "[t]he positive proposals of Reconstructionists are so far out of line with American evangelical commitments to American republican ideals such as religious freedom that the number of true believers in the movement is small."

Popular religious author, feminist, and former Roman Catholic religious sister Karen Armstrong sees a potential for "fascism" in Christian reconstructionism, and sees the eventual Dominion envisioned by theologians R. J. Rushdoony and Gary North as "totalitarian. There is no room for any other view or policy, no democratic tolerance for rival parties, no individual freedom."

Traditional Calvinist Christians have argued that Christian reconstructionists have "significantly misunderstood the positions of Calvin, other Reformed teachers and the Westminster Confession concerning the relationship between the Sinai covenant's ethical stipulations and the Christian obligation to the Mosaic judicial laws today."

Relationship to dominionism
Some sociologists and critics refer to reconstructionism as a type of dominionism. These critics claim that the frequent use of the word dominion by reconstructionist writers strongly associates the critical term "dominionism" with this movement. As an ideological form of dominionism, reconstructionism is sometimes held up as the most typical form of dominion theology.

The Protestant theologian Francis Schaeffer is linked with the movement by some critics, but some reconstructionist thinkers are highly critical of his positions. Schaeffer himself disavowed any connection or affiliation with reconstructionism, though he did cordially correspond with Rushdoony on occasion. Authors Sara Diamond and Fred Clarkson suggest that Schaeffer shared with reconstructionism the tendency toward dominionism.

Christian reconstructionists object to the "dominionism" and the "dominion theology" labels, which they say misrepresent their views. Some separate Christian cultural and political movements object to being described with the label "dominionism", because in their mind the word implies attachment to reconstructionism. In reconstructionism, the idea of "godly" dominion, subject to God, is contrasted with the "autonomous" dominion of mankind in rebellion against God.

title: Christian reconstructionism


text:
Dracunculus (nematode)

Dracunculus is a genus of spiruroid nematode parasites in the family Dracunculidae.

The worms can reach a metre in length. If one simply pulls off the protruding head of the worm, the worm will break and leak high levels of foreign antigen which can lead to anaphylactic shock and fast death of the host. Hence it is important to remove the worm slowly (over a period of weeks). This is typically undertaken by winding the worm onto a stick (say, a matchstick), by a few centimetres each day.

Life cycle
All members of Dracunculus are obligate parasites of mammals or reptiles. Adult females reside just under the skin, and eventually form a blister in the host's skin through which they access the environment. When the blister comes into contact with water, the female releases several hundred thousand first-stage ("L1") larvae. L1 larvae must be ingested by a cyclopoid copepod, which serves as an intermediate host. Inside the copepod, the larvae develop to the third-stage ("L3"). Definitive hosts acquire Dracunculus by incidentally ingesting infected copepods while drinking water, or by consuming a paratenic host (e.g. a frog or fish) that has itself consumed a copepod. Inside the definitive host, the L3 larvae leave the digestive tract and migrate to deeper tissues, where within 60–70 days they undergo their final two molts to form sexually mature adults. Male and female adult worms then mate, and pregnant females migrate back to the host's skin – typically to an extremity – and form a blister to repeat the cycle. Following the release of her larvae, the female worm dies, and is either extracted by the affected animal, or falls back into the tissue and is calcified.

Description
Once released, the L1 larvae measure 0.3–0.9 millimeters in length and feature a very long tapered tail. As they develop into L3 larvae, they lose the tapered tail, broaden, and develop a tri-lobed tail; the lengths of most L3 larvae are unknown. Adults of both sexes are narrow yellow-white colored worms, with a rounded front-end, and a conical tail-end with a pointed tip. Females of different species within the genus tend to look similar, and can rarely be distinguished on morphology alone. The body of a fertilized adult female is almost completely filled by its uterus, distended with L1 larvae. Adult female Dracunculus worms are noted for their extraordinary length, with some growing up to 100 centimeters long. Males are much smaller (16 – 40 millimeters) and are relatively rare – in some species the male has never been described.

Distribution
Dracunculus worms are distributed globally, though each species has a narrower range. The majority of Dracunculus species described infect reptiles – predominantly snakes. These are spread across the globe, with D. ophidensis in the United States, D. brasiliensis in Brazil, D. coluberensis and D. alii in India, D. houdemeri in Vietnam, D. doi in Madagascar, D. dahomensis in Benin, D. oesophageus in Italy, and D. mulbus in Australia and Papua New Guinea. The only species known to infect a non-snake reptile is D. globocephalus which has been described in snapping turtles in the United States and Costa Rica.

Most mammal-infecting species are in the Americas, with D. insignis infecting several wild and domestic mammals in the United States and Canada, D. lutrae infecting river otters in the United States and Canada, and D. fuelleborni infecting big-eared opposums in Brazil. The major exception is D. medinensis, also known as Guinea Worm Disease, as it is by far the most studied Dracunculus as it infects humans. D. medinensis was historically widespread in sub-saharan Africa and South Asia, but is now limited to dozens of cases annually in humans and domestic dogs, and may soon be driven to extinction due to eradication efforts.

Reptile-infecting species
There are 14 accepted Dracunculus species, 10 of which infect reptiles. Eurasia hosts several reptile-infecting Dracunculus species. D. oesophageus was originally described from the esophagus of the viperine water snake, and has been described several times since. The remaining three Eurasian reptile-infecting species have been described a single time each: D. coluberensis from an Indian trinket snake, and D. alii and D. houdemeri from Checkered keelback snakes in India and Vietnam respectively.

The only snake-infecting Dracunculus species known in North America is D. ophidensis. It was originally described in garter snakes in Michigan and Minnesota by Sterling Brackett in 1938, and has since been reported in blackbelly garter snakes from Mexico, as well as northern water snakes and a plain-bellied water snake in Michigan. D. brasiliensis is the only described snake-infecting Dracunculus in South America. It was described in 2009 based on a single female worm from an anaconda in Brazil, and has since also been found in a Brazilian brown-banded water snake. Several worms that appear to be from the genus Dracunculus have been described in Central America, South America, and the Caribbean; however, they have not been described in sufficient detail to assign them to a species. The Americas are also home to the only known turtle-infecting Dracunculus (also the only species that infects a non-snake reptile), D. globocephalus. First described in 1927 in Oklahoma and Illinois, it is now found in snapping turtles across the United States, as well as the South American snapping turtle in Costa Rica.

Africa hosts two known snake-infecting species. Both male and female D. doi were described from Madagascar ground boas in 1960 and 1973 respectively. D. dahomensis has been described only from a captive African rock python.

In Australia, the only known snake-infecting Dracunculus is D. mulbus, described from numerous water pythons in Northern Australia in 2007. It has since been described in Papua New Guinea's Papuan olive python as well.

Mammal-infecting species
Just four Dracunculus species are known to infect mammals, of which the best known is the human parasite D. medinensis. Historically spread across Africa and South Asia, a major eradication effort has restricted D. medinensis to just Chad, Ethiopia, Mali, and South Sudan. Case numbers have similarly fallen, from an estimated 3.5 million per year at the 1986 start of the eradication program, to just 15 in 2021. D. medinensis is now most common in dogs, particularly in Chad, where it may spread via fish or frogs as paratenic hosts.

D. insignis infects dogs and wild carnivores, causing cutaneous lesions, ulcers, and sometimes heart and vertebral column lesions. Like D. medinensis, it is also known as Guinea worm, as well as Dragon or Fiery Dragon. The range of D. insignis is limited to North America.

D. fuelliborni parasitizes opossum, D. lutrae parasitizes otters, and D. ophidensis parasitizes reptiles.

title: Dracunculus (nematode)


text:
Hustler

Hustler or hustlers may refer to:

Professions

 * Hustler, an American slang word, e.g., for a:
 * Con artist, a practitioner of confidence tricks
 * Drug dealer, seller of illegal drugs
 * Male prostitute
 * Pimp
 * Business man, more generally, possibly self-employed or self-made
 * Hustler, a con artist who deceives people into betting at a disadvantage, usually in games of skill or sports

Films

 * The Hustler (1920 film), a German silent film starring Hans Albers
 * The Hustler, a 1961 American film adaptation of the Tevis novel starring Paul Newman as Felson
 * The Hustlers (film), a 2010 Finnish comedy film
 * Hustlers, an alternate name of the 2013 film Pawn Shop Chronicles
 * Hustlers (film), a 2019 American crime drama film starring Constance Wu and Jennifer Lopez

Music

 * "Hustler" (song), a 2006 house music single by Simian Mobile Disco
 * "Hustler", a song by Kano on the album 140 Grime St
 * "Hustler", a song by K.Flay on the album Mono
 * "Hustla", 2019 single by Kash Doll
 * "Hustlers", a song from the 2006 album Hip Hop Is Dead by American rapper Nas
 * The Hustler (album), a 1968 salsa album by Willie Colón
 * The Hustlers, performers on the soundtrack for the 1965 horror film The Beach Girls and the Monster

Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media

 * Hustler (magazine), a men's pornographic magazine published by Larry Flynt Publications
 * Hustler Club, a chain of bars and go-go clubs using the brand name licensed by Larry Flynt

 * The Hustler, English title of a 1926 German novel by John Henry Mackay
 * The Hustler (novel), a 1959 American novel by Walter Tevis about pool hustler Edward "Fast Eddie" Felson
 * "The Hustler" (Porridge), an episode of the BBC sitcom Porridge
 * The Hustler, a 1950s painting by the American artist Arthur Sarnoff (1912–2000)
 * The Hustler (American game show), a 2021 television program hosted by Craig Ferguson

Transportation and vehicles

 * Hustler, a train of the Southern Pacific, between Dallas and Houston
 * Marine Heavy Helicopter Squadron 772, a US Marines unit nicknamed "The Hustlers"

Airplanes

 * Convair B-58 Hustler, an American supersonic jet bomber that first flew in 1956
 * Gulfstream American Hustler, a small American aircraft produced from 1978 to 1981

Automobiles and motorcycles

 * Hustler (car), a kit car designed in 1978
 * Hustler, a line of car wheels manufactured by American Racing in the 2000s
 * Hustler, motorcycles produced by American firm Rupp Industries in the early 1970s
 * Hustler, a line of Suzuki motorcycles produced from 1965 to 1981

Other uses

 * Hustler, Wisconsin, a village in Juneau County, Wisconsin, United States
 * William Hustler (1655–1730), English draper (cloth retailer)
 * Hustler Casino, Gardena, California, USA

title: Hustler


text: Category:Kittson County, Minnesota

title: Category:Kittson County, Minnesota


text:
Talk:Stone Arch Bridge (Minneapolis)

Old messages
In the picture showing this bridge at dusk it's hardly visible. Is there a good one showing it in daylight? Michael Hardy 18:43, 18 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Watch a video detailing the life, death and rebirth of the Stone Arch Bridge by going to (uninformative link removed)

Minnesota Bound link
I removed the Minnesota Bound link (Stone Arch Bridge) because it did not seem to provide information that is substantially different from the other links. Please discuss if you feel otherwise. Bfx12a9 18:09, 9 July 2007 (UTC)

I-35W bridge will return
May as well leave the I-35W bridge as the "next downstream bridge". It will be rebuilt in no time, on an encyclopedic scale. (SEWilco 04:20, 3 August 2007 (UTC))

Design and Construction
I am thinking of adding a brief section focusing on the design and construction of the bridge. Any thoughts or suggestions? ip2864pd 19:54, 6 Nov 2013 (UTC)
 * Sounds good to me. If you have some good, reliable sources, it could prove to be interesting and informative.  I think I remember James J. Hill saying that building the bridge was the hardest thing he had to do.  Here's a good article from a Great Northern Railway fan site. --Elkman (Elkspeak) 18:55, 7 November 2013 (UTC)
 * Excellent. That was one of the sources I had considered using. Thanks for the input. ip2864pd 17:00, 9 November 2013 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.161.240.72 (talk)

=History= I saw a great article about the history of Stone Arch and also found a timeline which would be good to add as well.Is it okay to make an edit? I'll cite my sources of course. Share your thoughts on this. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Tweedledee82 (talk • contribs) 07:42, 9 November 2013 (UTC)

=Organization= As I look at similar articles, the [|Albert's Bridge in London]in particular, what stands out is the organization of the article. It flows nicely and looks markedly better than the layout offered here. Granted that article offers more information, but I think the organization here could still be modeled after that one (or others that are similar). Any thoughts or concerns? Thanks. ip2864pd 18:54 12 Nov 2013 (UTC)

I was also thing that the section about the Heritage Plaque probably belongs after the History section. Thoughts? Ip2864pd (talk) 01:41, 13 November 2013 (UTC)

External links modified
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Sequence -- not second to Eads (which wasn't first!)
This article currently claims the Stone Arch Bridge opened in 1883 and was the second across the Mississippi.

There were at least three other railroad bridges across the river open before that date: the 1856 Government Bridge at Davenport https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_Bridge the 1868 Dubuque Railway Bridge https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dubuque_Rail_Bridge the 1874 Eads Bridge at St Louis https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eads_Bridge

I don't see a complete list at the moment, perhaps someone can find one and update this article and others that make similar misleading claims. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 65.128.142.233 (talk) 21:05, 16 March 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Stone Arch Bridge (Minneapolis)


text:
User:AntonR~enwiki

Leave me a message

Prior Contributions ?

title: User:AntonR~enwiki


text:
Us (Mull Historical Society album)

Us is the second album from Scottish indie band Mull Historical Society, and the follow-up to Loss. It includes the singles "The Final Arrears" and "Am I Wrong". Us (2003) received generally positive reviews; NME called it "a joyous slice of orchestral prozac". The track "The Supermarket Strikes Back" is a riposte to "Barcode Bypass" from Loss. After the album was released the record label, Warners, dropped the band.

Track listing

 * 1) "The Final Arrears" – 5:02
 * 2) "Am I Wrong" – 3:29
 * 3) "Oh Mother" – 3:05
 * 4) "Asylum" – 4:38
 * 5) "Live Like the Automatics" – 4:09
 * 6) "Don't Take Your Love Away from Me" – 3:52
 * 7) "Minister for Genetics & Insurance M.P." – 5:25
 * 8) "5 More Minutes" – 3:32
 * 9) "Gravity" – 4:04
 * 10) "Can" – 3:42
 * 11) "The Supermarket Strikes Back" – 4:23
 * 12) "Clones" – 4:33
 * 13) "Her Is You" – 1:58
 * 14) "Us/Whiting of the People" – 7:38
 * 15) "Can’t Do It (CD Rom track)"
 * 16) "You Asked Her to Marry You (CD Rom track)"
 * 17) "MHS Lady (CD Rom track)"
 * 18) "When I’m Awake (Cavum) (CD Rom track)"

title: Us (Mull Historical Society album)


text:
Nicholas Chamberlaine School

Nicholas Chamberlaine School is a coeducational secondary school and sixth form with an academy status, located in the town of Bedworth, Warwickshire, England. It has approximately 1,400 pupils between the ages of 11 and 18.

Nicholas Chamberlaine VI Form College is located in the Ada Lovelace building on the school campus. It offers BTEC and A-Level subjects.

The school is named after Nicholas Chamberlaine (1632–1715), squire and benefactor of the town.

History
The school officially opened in 1953 when the Headmaster was Gilbert Skinner; at this time NCS was a comprehensive school.

The school became a specialist technology college before transferring to an academy in September 2013, when it became affiliated with the Griffin Schools Trust.

Ofsted inspections in 2019 and 2021 judged that the school Requires Improvement. , the school's most recent inspection was in April 2024, with an outcome of Good.

Previous headteachers

 * Gilbert Skinner
 * Bryan Addison
 * Lesley King
 * Nick Smallman – Former Head Teacher
 * Louise Newman – Former Principal
 * Justin Creasey – Former Principal with Mr M Bland
 * Mark Bland – Former Principal with Mr J Creasey
 * Paul Merrell – Former Head of School

Academic performance
In 2022, 28% of pupils achieved grade 5 or above in English and maths GCSEs. Because of the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic, the government recommends "Not making direct comparisons with data from previous years or between schools or colleges".

In 2019, the school's progress score at A Level was "well above average". The average result at the school was C−, compared to C+ in Warwickshire overall and C+ nationally.

Qualifications at NCS
KS3:
 * Students in Key Stage 3 (Year 7–9) have the chance to study English, Maths, Science, Art, Cuisine, Woodwork, Graphics, PE, History, Geography, RE, Music, Drama, French, Spanish and Computer Science. They also have an Accelerated Reader session once per week.

GCSE:
 * Compulsory: English Language, English Literature, Mathematics, Combined Science (double award) or Triple Science (biology, chemistry, physics), French, History or Geography.

 * Optional: Art, Business, Beauty Business, Computer Science, Cuisine, Drama, Fashion and Textiles, Graphics, Geography or History (depending on what was chosen as a compulsory subject), Health and Social Care, Music, Photography, Product Innovation (Woodwork), PE, Religious Studies, Psychology or Sociology.

A-Level:
 * Art, Applied Science, Biology, Business Studies, Chemistry, Criminology, Digital iMedia, Drama, English Literature, French, Further Mathematics, Forensics, Geography, Government and Politics, History, Mathematics, Music, Philosophy and Ethics, Photography, Physics, Psychology, Sport, Sociology.

Notable former students

 * Andy Blair (footballer)
 * Pete Doherty, musician

title: Nicholas Chamberlaine School


text:
User talk:Gdementen

Welcome to the Wikipedia
Here are some links I thought useful:

 * Tutorial
 * Help desk
 * Policy Library
 * Utilities
 * Cite your sources
 * Verifiability
 * Wikiquette
 * Civility
 * Conflict resolution
 * Brilliant prose
 * Neutral point of view
 * Pages needing attention
 * Peer review
 * Bad jokes and other deleted nonsense
 * Village pump
 * Boilerplate text
 * IRC channel
 * Mailing lists
 * Current polls

Feel free to ask me anything the links and talk pages don't answer. You can sign your name by typing 4 tildes, likes this: ~.

Be Bold!

Sam [Spade] 18:50, 18 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Talk page link in signature
If you go to "Preferences", there should be an option in "User data" that says "Your nickname (for signatures)". There, you can enter your signature, in my case including a link to my talk page. HTH. Best, [[User:Meelar|Meelar (talk)]] 21:52, 18 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Wikinations
Hello Gaëtan! You are Belgian and you like to contribute to Wikipedia, like me ? Then you may like to contribute to Wikinations.be too: it is a wiki site that collaboratively builds a practical encyclopedia of Belgium (in French for the moment). I just started this project, and I thought that you might be interested. So, see you soon over there ? (Sorry for the disturbance if you are not interested) Pcarbonn 09:18, 11 Nov 2004 (UTC)

About the CTL article
Salut Gaetan ! Bon je vais continuer en anglais car cette page est publique...

Thanks for creating the CTL article!! I see there has not been much consolidation done recently, and I am willing to help with that. Temporal logic is one of my (professional) research topics and I believe Wikipedia definitely needs a CTL entry. What are your plans for going on with this page?

I faced the problem of explaining CTL to non-experts when writing on temporal logics and model checking for the book Verification de logiciels : techniques et outils du model-checking. Here are some suggestions that come to mind regarding the Wikipedia article.

 * 1) Rephrase the opening paragraph. No need to focus on synctactic issues here. Should be readable for people outside logic or computer science.
 * 2) Describe the syntax in a more informal and narrative way. Use illustrative examples.
 * 3) Have a short section on CTL model checking. Do not describe algorithms. Simply state the main result and explain that CTL is popular because of these results. Name tools like SMV. Plus a bit of history of model checking.
 * 4) Have a short section on expressive power of CTL. Explain and illustrate what can be written in CTL, discuss limitations.

I believe the really technical details should not be found in the article, only in the references and links it gives.

What do you think? PhS

CTL
Hej Gaetan,

thanks for your effort of adding CTL to the Wikipedia.

I'm writing to you because I noticed that you use 'Computational Tree Logic' while CTL is in fact called 'Computation Tree Logic'. I already corrected this in the article, and also put a comment on the talks page.

Right now I'm trying to figure out how to change the name of the page itself. It really should be 'Computation Tree Logic'.

I will see what I can do to improve the CTL article.

Cweise (talk) 12:47, 9 September 2008 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Gedeon. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Gedeon~enwiki that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name. If you think you might own all of the accounts with this name and this message is in error, please visit Special:MergeAccount to check and attach all of your accounts to prevent them from being renamed.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 00:08, 20 March 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Gdementen


text:
G2 Beijing–Shanghai Expressway

The Beijing–Shanghai Expressway designated as G2 and commonly abbreviated as the Jinghu Expressway is a major expressway of China, linking the capital Beijing in the north to Shanghai on the central coast. It extends 1262 kilometres in length, and was finished in 2006.

The expressway's name, Jinghu, is a combination of the two cities' one-character Chinese abbreviations: Jing stands for Beijing, while Hu stands for Shanghai. The trip from Beijing to Shanghai by automobile takes about ten hours to complete with multiple drivers taking shifts and under good road conditions.

Route
The expressway passes the following major cities:
 * Beijing
 * Langfang, Hebei
 * Tianjin
 * Cangzhou, Hebei
 * Dezhou, Shandong
 * Jinan, Shandong
 * Laiwu, Shandong
 * Linyi, Shandong
 * Huaian, Jiangsu
 * Yangzhou, Jiangsu
 * Taizhou, Jiangsu
 * Wuxi, Jiangsu
 * Suzhou, Jiangsu
 * Shanghai

title: G2 Beijing–Shanghai Expressway