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Christine Gregoire

Christine Gregoire (née O'Grady; born March 24, 1947) is an American politician who served as the 22nd governor of Washington from 2005 to 2013. A member of the Democratic Party, she defeated Republican candidate Dino Rossi in 2004, and again in 2008. She is the second female governor of Washington. Gregoire chaired the National Governors Association for the 2010–2011 term. She also served on the Governors' Council of the Bipartisan Policy Center in Washington, D.C.

Early life, education, and legal career
Gregoire was born in Adrian, Michigan but was raised in Auburn, Washington, by her mother, Sybil Grace Jacobs (née Palmer), who worked as a short-order cook. After graduating from Auburn Senior High School, she attended the University of Washington in Seattle, graduating in 1969 with a Bachelor of Arts in speech and sociology. At UW, she became a member of the Sigma Iota chapter of the Kappa Delta sorority. She then attended law school at Gonzaga University in Spokane, receiving her Juris Doctor in 1977.

Gregoire went to work as an assistant attorney general in the office of State Attorney General Slade Gorton, a Republican. As an assistant attorney general, Gregoire concentrated on child-abuse cases, coordinating with social workers to get children removed from abusive family situations and placed with relatives or foster homes, and was later appointed as the first female Deputy Attorney General. In 1988, at the end of his first term as governor of Washington, Booth Gardner appointed Gregoire director of the Washington Department of Ecology. During her tenure, Gregoire worked with Gardner to reach an agreement with the federal government to clean up nuclear waste at the Hanford nuclear site.

Director of the Department of Ecology
Gregoire served four years as director before running for attorney general in 1992. During her tenure, she oversaw the creation of the Pacific States/British Columbia Oil Spill Task Force. Following an oil spill off the coast of Washington and British Columbia involving the barge Nestucca, Gregoire coordinated with the Canadian government to form a task force to handle concerns West Coast citizens had surrounding oil transportation.

Hanford Cleanup
While at the Department of Ecology, Gregoire worked with Gardner and representatives from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the U.S. Department of Energy to coordinate efforts on the Hanford Site cleanup. Known by many names, including the Hanford Project, Hanford Works, Hanford Engineer Works, and Hanford Nuclear Reservation, the nuclear facility along the Columbia River in Benton County produced plutonium. The site, established in 1943 to provide support for the Manhattan Project, operated from World War II through the Cold War. Decades of production of plutonium resulted in millions of gallons of high-level radioactive waste.

In 1989, the Washington State Department of Ecology along with the EPA and the US Department of Energy (DOE) entered into the Tri-Party Agreement, which sets targets, or milestones, for cleanup.

Centennial Accord
Following the contentious US v Washington case related to Native American fishing rights, commonly known as the “Boldt Decision,” Gardner undertook to build more lasting, friendly relationships with Washington's Native American tribes. The Accord served to bring parties to the table to negotiate their shared interests. Gregoire played a principal role in helping reach agreements about the natural resource distribution between the tribes and the state.

Attorney General of Washington
Gregoire was elected attorney general in 1992 by 11 percentage points over her opponent, Norm Maleng, an attorney who served and was reelected seven times as King County prosecutor. She was Washington's first and only female attorney general. Gregoire was reelected in 1996 and 2000, both times over Richard Pope, by about 25 and 18 percentage points respectively.

As attorney general, Gregoire worked on children's issues, helped reform the juvenile system, passed a new ethics law for state government, strengthened rights for victims of identity theft, and worked to find alternatives to litigation in resolving legal disputes.

Tobacco master settlement agreement
During Gregoire's second term as attorney general, the tobacco industry was under fire for alleged fraudulent marketing, negligent advertising, and violation of several state consumer protection statutes. Multiple private suits stemming from a 1950s study in the British Medical Journal linked smoking to lung cancer and heart disease. Attorneys General on June 20, 1997, led by Gregoire negotiated a settlement that required tobacco companies to pay more than $206 billion over 25 years in reimbursements to the states for tax dollars spent to treat Medicaid patients for smoking-related illnesses. The companies also agreed to pay $50 million to national attorneys general for enforcement.

These payments funded children's health services and programs and a $25 billion trust for health-related issues. For her leading role in the litigation, Gregoire won the state of Washington a $4.5 billion share of the settlement over the next 25 years with the payments continuing in perpetuity. Gregoire and Governor Gary Locke asked the legislature to reserve portions of the settlement for restitution to the state and to establish a special account to finance a long-term tobacco prevention and control program. The account would be used to pay for anti-tobacco advertising and education, accessible cessation programs, and other activities.

In March 1999, Gregoire announced that Washington would receive at least an additional $394.9 million in settlement payments from the major tobacco companies.

Other portions of the agreement included enforcement of laws against tobacco sales to children, broad-based smoking prevention strategies, smoking cessation programs, full disclosure of tobacco's health effects, and preservation of an individual's right to sue the tobacco companies.

2004 gubernatorial election
Gregoire defeated Ron Sims and four other minor candidates in the Democratic primary election for the governorship on September 14, 2004. She had come under fire during the primary for her membership in Kappa Delta because of its nonwhite membership policy in the late 1960s. She clashed with Sims over her position at the sorority, but Sims dropped the issue and dismissed any claims of racism. Sims campaigned on tax reform and the institution of a statewide income tax. Gregoire won the primary with over 60% of the vote.

During the general election against former state senator and real estate agent Dino Rossi, Gregoire proposed a major initiative in life sciences, especially by increasing state funding for embryonic stem cell research. In debates, she tried to counter voter unease about the state government by saying she would "blow past the bureaucracy" and bring change herself. Gregoire won the backing of the legislature within six months after pushing through a number of important measures on car emission standards and unemployment benefits.

The election was held on November 2, 2004, with the initial count showing Gregoire trailing Rossi by 261 votes. A legally mandated machine recount reduced that lead to only 42 votes, then a hand count requested and funded by the state's Democratic Party gave Gregoire a 10-vote lead. Following a State Supreme Court ruling that allowed several hundred ballots from King County to be included, her lead further increased to 130 votes, but when the vote was certified by the state's Secretary of State, Sam Reed, at the end of December, one vote that had been counted in Thurston County past the deadline was disqualified and her lead was reduced to 129 votes. Washington's Republican leadership then filed suit, claiming that hundreds of votes, including votes by felons, deceased voters, and double voters, had been counted, but on June 6, 2005, Judge John E. Bridges ruled that the Republican Party had not provided enough evidence that the disputed votes were ineligible—or for whom they were cast—to overturn the election.

On October 28, 2004, the Seattle Times reported that out-of-state donors were contributing heavily to Gregoire's campaign. Trial lawyers who had worked closely with Gregoire on the 1998 tobacco settlement gave the Democratic Governors Association more than $1,000,000. According to the Times's analysis, nearly half of Gregoire's 2004 campaign contributions came from out of state.

2008 gubernatorial election
During the 2008 Democratic presidential primaries, both Barack Obama and Hillary Clinton heavily lobbied Gregoire for her endorsement as a superdelegate.

Gregoire officially endorsed Obama on February 8, 2008, hours before an event at KeyArena in Seattle where she introduced him before a crowd of 18,000 people. The Washington caucuses were held the next day; Obama beat Clinton in every county.

Gregoire began her reelection campaign at her late mother's former employer, the Rainbow Café in Auburn, Washington, on April 7, 2008. Immediately after her announcement, she began a biodiesel bus tour of the state. Her opponent in the race, Dino Rossi, had announced his candidacy in October 2007.

Gregoire and Rossi fast approached fundraising records early in their campaigns. In April, Gregoire hosted a fundraiser with Bill Richardson at the Seattle Westin that netted the campaign over $300,000. In July, she held another large fundraiser with Michelle Obama at the WaMu Theater, with 1,600 attendees raising over $400,000.

The Seattle Times reported that Gregoire gave cost-of-living increases to state employees who hadn't received raises in "many years", and funded voter-approved initiatives to raise the pay of schoolteachers, all groups that gave money to her 2004 recount campaign.

Gregoire won Washington's first ever top two primary on August 19, 2008, with 49% of the vote. She advanced to the general election against Rossi. The general election was expected to be close, but Gregoire benefited from large turnout among Democrats to vote for Obama in the concurrent presidential election and won with 53% of the vote. There was a marked geographical split in the 2008 election: the more populous and Democratic-leaning Western Washington counties supported Gregoire, while the less populous and more Republican-leaning Eastern Washington counties supported Rossi.

Education
During her time in office, Gregoire made sweeping changes to Washington's education system in areas such as the state government's responsibility in providing education, college readiness, expansion of early learning programs, as well as introducing new government-accountable educational goals.

Beginning her work with education months after taking office, Gregoire signed a host of bills in May 2005 to improve the state of education from early learning through college across the state. One such bill, E2SHB 1152 established an Early Learning Council dedicated to providing leadership in strengthening early learning programs and services available to children and their families. As a result of the Early Learning Council's work, Gregoire lobbied for the creation of a Department of Early Learning. On March 28, 2006, Gregoire signed into law a measure she had requested that consolidated Washington's scattered early learning and child-care programs into the Department of Early Learning.

Included in this 2005 package of education bills was Engrossed Second Substitute Senate Bill 5441. Introduced at Gregoire's request to establish a comprehensive education study steering committee, the legislature passed E2SSB 5441. It created a 13-member body to evaluate and reimagine Washington's education system for the modern economy. The group, chaired by Gregoire and comprising members representing business, government, philanthropy, the education committee, the legislature, and the public, met consistently for 18 months. It released a report in November 2006. It focused on five basic strategies to reform Washington's education system: (1) investing in early learning so that children start off as lifelong learners; (2) improving math and science teaching so that Washingtonians have a competitive edge; (3) personalizing learning so that every student has the opportunity to succeed; (4) offering college and workforce training for everyone; and (5) holding the system accountable for results.

Gregoire announced major education reforms that included developing criteria and standards for teacher evaluation, setting school performance requirements, and expanding teacher certification options. She signed the package into law.

In an ongoing effort to reform higher education in Washington, Gregoire asked the Higher Education Funding Task Force to look at college funding and performance options. On the task force's recommendation, on June 6, 2011, Gregoire signed into law several bills to improve Washington's education system. Additionally, on December 13, Gregoire proposed further education reforms to evaluate teachers and principals and designate six failing schools as “laboratory schools” to help improve student performance. She passed and signed those into law on March 8, 2012.

Public health
Washington was one of the first states to tackle rising health care and insurance costs. Gregoire proposed major health care reforms including changes in how the state purchased health care, consolidating state health care spending, and streamlining purchasing practices. As part of the reforms, Gregoire implemented a Health Care Cabinet to ensure the state was ready. She announced, “Washington is going to lead the nation in implementing health care reform.” Through the Health Insurance Partnership, Gregoire extended health care coverage to 1,100 small-business employees. She announced legislation to modernize the state's health care and pension system, while keeping health care inflation at 4-5% year. She announced “the promise of reform is a day when no one goes without health care coverage.

Gregoire pushed SB 5093, Washington State’s Cover All Kids Law, in March 2007. Advancing from this action, in 2009 Gregoire and the state legislature strengthened coverage during the financial crisis by passing HB 2128, the Apple Health For Kids Act.

On May 11, 2011, Gregoire signed six bills to transform Washington’s health care system. They included creation of a health care exchange to limit health care inflation to 4% over 10 years, saving citizens $26 billion in health care costs, and legislation consolidating the state’s two largest health care purchasers to make care programs more effective.

On January 13, 2012, Gregoire filed an amicus brief in support of the Affordable Care Act. On March 23 she created one of the nation’s first health benefit exchanges, giving buyers information on health care plans.

Affordable Care Act
Concurrently, as Gregoire made reforms in the state, she led implementation of the Federal Affordable Care Act. The ACA required the formation of a health insurance exchange in each state either by the federal government or the state. With an emphasis on extending health insurance coverage to low-income residents, Gregoire signed ESSB 5445 into law on May 11, 2011, making Washington the fourth state to implement the health insurance exchange provision.

Gregoire also signed ESSB 5122 and ESSB 5371 to conform state law with the ACA by extending insurance coverage to dependents under the age of 26, removing lifetime benefit maximums, and preventing insurance companies from denying coverage to people because of preexisting conditions.

Environment
Gregoire said she wanted to clean up Puget Sound by making it more “fishable, swimmable and diggable”. In 2007 she created the Puget Sound Partnership. The agency sets science-based priorities, spurs implementation of priority actions and ensures accountability.

On May 21, 2009, Gregoire issued an Executive Order directing state actions to cut greenhouse gases and battle climate change by increasing transportation and fuel-conservation options and protecting water supplies and vulnerable coastal areas.

On April 29, 2011, Gregoire fulfilled a longstanding goal and signed legislation that transitioned Washington state off of coal power. The announcement was made at the TransAlta coal plant.

Tribal relations
In October 2005, Gregoire sent a letter to the state's Gambling Commission recommending that it renegotiate a compact with the Spokane Native American tribe it had submitted for approval. The original compact would have allowed the tribe, and any other tribe that signed on to the compact, to have off-reservation gambling facilities, increase the number of slot machines allowed to 7,500, operate 24 hours a day, seven days a week, remove betting limits for some card players, and give credits to high rollers in exchange for sharing their gambling winnings with state and local governments. It was opposed by many of the state's lawmakers of both parties and anti-gambling groups that were concerned about the spread of gambling across the state, as well as other Native American tribes. The renegotiated compact, which was signed by the Spokane and 26 other Washington tribes, was signed by Gregoire in early 2007 and eliminated the revenue sharing and off-reservation facilities, but included an increase of allowed slot machines to 4,700 with a limit of 2,000 per location, increased the betting limit of some of its slot machines to $20, and allowed high-stakes gambling on blackjack and poker tables to players who pass financial screening and aren't known problem gamblers. The tribe also agreed to donate 2% of the gross revenue from table games and 1% from gambling devices to charity.

LGBT rights
A landmark gay civil rights bill failed in the 2005 session but passed in the 2006 session. It was primarily responsible for expanding the scope of protected classes to include sexual orientation and gender identity in cases of discrimination. The bill was originally requested and subsequently signed by Gregoire on January 31, 2006. She also signed a law on April 21, 2007, granting same-sex couples domestic partnership rights.

Gregoire signed Senate Bill 5688 ensuring state-registered domestic partners have the same rights as married spouses, further extending rights to LGBTQ+ Washingtonians. Opponents gathered signatures to put 2009 Washington Referendum 71 on the ballot in an attempt to repeal the bill. Washington voters approved the measure 53% to 47% in the country's first statewide referendum to extend domestic partnership rights to LGBT citizens.

On January 4, 2012, Gregoire announced her support for same-sex marriage and pledged to sign a marriage bill if it were passed by the legislature. The bill was passed on February 8, 2012. Gregoire signed the bill on February 13. Opponents of the bill collected the necessary signatures to place it Referendum 74 on the November ballot, where it was approved by 53.7% of the voters. The law took effect December 6.

Transportation
In March 2006, Gregoire's requested bill, SB 6508, was signed into law. The law directly affected transportation fuels by requiring fuel suppliers to ensure that 2% of the diesel and 2% of the gasoline they provide for sale is biodiesel and ethanol as of December 2008. The measure was the nation's first requirement for alternative fuels.

In 2009, Gregoire led public and political support to build two of the nation's largest infrastructure projects, replacement of the 520 floating bridge and a plan to replace the aging and earthquake vulnerable State Route 99 Alaskan Way Viaduct with a deep bore tunnel. At the time, the tunnel was the world's largest deep bore tunnel project. The 520 floating bridge is the world's longest floating bridge and opened in 2016. Seattle's new waterfront tunnel opened in 2019, making way for a revitalized new waterfront.

Bridging transportation and the environment in 2010, Gregoire announced the nation's first “electric highway,” an initial network of electric vehicle recharging stations along the I-5 corridor. Additionally, she used more than $13 million in Recovery Act grants to help train Washington workers for “green-collar” jobs in energy efficiency and renewable energy industries.

Along with Oregon Governor Kitzhaber, Gregoire announced support for the Columbia River Crossing to replace the aging I-5 bridge connecting Washington and Oregon.

Gregoire signed the 2011–2013 transportation budget putting 30,000 people to work and investing $5.6 billion into more than 800 transportation construction projects.

Medical marijuana
Together with Governor Lincoln Chaffee (I-RI), on November 30, 2011, Gregoire filed a petition with the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) asking to reschedule marijuana as a Schedule 2 drug, allowing its use for treatment as prescribed by doctors and filled by pharmacists.

Life Sciences Discovery Fund
On May 12, 2005, Gregoire signed a bill creating the Life Sciences Discovery Fund, which gives grants for research in health and agriculture. With funding from the tobacco settlement, which Gregoire secured, the state was able to combine funds with the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Microsoft, the Paul G. Allen Family foundation and others to impact research on cures for debilitating diseases and improvement of the quality and yield of agricultural products.

Aerospace
In 2009 Gregoire set out to increase Washington's aerospace focus. By singling out Boeing and looking at working with local businesses, schools, and unions, Gregoire formed the Aerospace Council, which was tasked with developing aerospace-skills training, research and development.

As home to global aerospace, with more than 84,000 aerospace employees and more than 650 aerospace supply companies, Gregoire commended Boeing on the completion and delivery of its first 787 Dreamliner in Seattle.

Government reforms
On June 15, 2011, Gregoire signed the 2011–2013 budget taking into account the ideas presented by the public and the Transforming Washington's Budget Committee. Changes included a reform to the pension system saving $368 million in the following two years and setting up a user-pay system for state parks and other services.

On September 30, 2011, Gregoire completed the most significant transformation of state government in 20 years, merging five agencies into three, saving taxpayers $18.3 million. As a further $2 billion deficit loomed, Gregoire launched a further package of reforms to continue to cut costs. On December 3, 2011, Gregoire announced that the government reform measures saved businesses more than $450 million in unemployment taxes and workers’ compensation rates.

Great Recession
As the Great Recession began to impact states across the U.S. Gregoire announced the "Washington Jobs Now" package to provide economic stimulus and job creation. As the economic slowdown put Washingtonians out of work, she increased unemployment benefits and supported the Federal Recovery Act efforts by identifying shovel-ready projects to put people to work and make investments in communities and infrastructure. As signs of the Great Recession worsened, Gregoire announced additional measures to reform state government. As part of her 21st Century Government Reform Initiative she set out to streamline government, eliminate 17 boards and commissions, and reduce another 78. She also introduced legislation to reduce or eliminate a third of 64 small Cabinet agencies through mergers or realignments. Additionally, she signed a budget anticipating a potential $9 billion shortfall and reduced spending.

In January 2010 Gregoire released a 10-point plan to accelerate recovery and create as many as 40,000 jobs over the next three years. As the most trade dependent state in the nation, and as a way to more quickly emerge from the Great Recession, Gregoire also announced the Washington Export Initiative to expand the state's export opportunities and create jobs. As the Great Recession deepened, Gregoire announced plans to cut costs and streamline government by reducing state agencies from 21 to nine, saving $30 million. She also reached an agreement with state unions to reduce state employees’ pay by 3%.

To continue to help spur economic recovery, Gregoire emphasized small businesses as job creators and eased administrative burdens for them and local governments by Executive Order. As part of a significant and unprecedented overhaul of Workers’ Compensation reforms, she passed a bill to save $200 million over four years and increase outcomes for workers and employers. To emphasize Washington's role in global trade, Gregoire led a delegation of automotive, life-science, aerospace and education leaders to Europe on her sixth trade mission. She also led a trade mission to China and Japan.

Post-gubernatorial career
Gregoire's term ended in January 2013 and her official portrait was painted by artist Michele Rushworth.

Gregoire was reportedly considered by the Obama administration for a position in either the State Department or the Department of the Interior, but was not chosen. After leaving office, Gregoire became a public speaker, notably speaking with former Oregon governor Ted Kulongoski at the Emerging Local Government Leaders in October 2013. On July 1, Gregoire began a term as a board member for the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center. Larry Corey, an M.D. and the director of the Hutchinson Center commented, "As governor, Chris Gregoire was a visionary leader and advocate of biomedical research. Under her watch she proposed a major initiative in the life sciences. Gregoire will be instrumental in helping to shine a spotlight on the lifesaving work of the Hutchinson Center and how it contributes to the health and well-being of people throughout the state and the world."

From August to December 2014, Gregoire took a position as a Fall Fellow at the Harvard Institute of Politics at the Harvard Kennedy School in Harvard Square, where she spent time engaging with students at the school about leadership in various positions of government.

Challenge Seattle
After taking time away from public life following her governorship, Gregoire coordinated with several business and community leaders to found Challenge Seattle, an alliance of CEOs from 18 of the region's largest employers. Launched in 2015, Challenge Seattle, with Gregoire as its CEO, focuses on improving the Cascadia Innovation Corridor, education, middle-income housing affordability, and transportation projects.

Personal life
Gregoire's first child, Courtney, was born in Spokane in 1979. In 2013, Courtney was appointed to the Seattle Port Commission. Courtney has 2 children, Audrey and Alexa. Her second daughter, Michelle, was born in 1984. When not in Olympia, Gregoire lives in nearby Lacey with her husband, Michael.

In 2003, she was diagnosed with breast cancer in an early stage after a routine check-up and a mammogram. She had surgery and recovered. She mentions her fight with cancer in speeches about health care.

Awards
In 2007, Gregoire was named one of Governing magazines “Public Officials of the Year”

In 2009, Gregoire received a sort of tongue-in-cheek Fuse "Fizzle" Award. The awards program is aimed at promoting leadership and accountability in the Washington State Legislature.

In 1995, Gregoire received the honorary degree of LL.D. from Gonzaga University. In 2012, she was awarded an honorary Doctor of Laws after delivering the commencement speech at Washington State University. In 2015, she received an honorary Doctor of Laws from the University of Washington.

title: Christine Gregoire


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Atwater Village, Los Angeles

Atwater Village is a neighborhood in the 13th district of Los Angeles, California. Much of Atwater Village lies in the fertile Los Angeles River flood plain. Located in the northeast region of the city, Atwater borders Griffith Park and Silver Lake to the west, Glendale to the north and east and Glassell Park to the south. The eastern boundary is essentially the railroad tracks (originally, the Southern Pacific). The area has three elementary schools—two public and one private. Almost half the residents were born abroad, a high percentage for the city of Los Angeles.

History

Much of Northeastern Los Angeles was part of Rancho San Rafael, until 1868, when parts of it were purchased by W.C.B. Richardson, who renamed it Rancho Santa Eulalia. The entire region was subdivided and sold to home builders in 1902, with the Atwater Village portion being named as such due to its proximity to the Los Angeles River. The area was initially named "Atwater," while the "Village" was added in 1986.

Initial residents included the newly created middle-class workers employed at the nearby DWP substation. The location between the Los Angeles and Glendale city cores made it a highly sought after residential neighborhood beginning in the 1920s. The majority of homes and structures in Atwater Village have never been demolished (although many have changed in use or have been renovated), resulting in the neighborhood having one of the highest number of structures built before 1939 in Los Angeles County.

In recent years, the neighborhood has seen an increase in gentrification.

2013 findings
Census tracts 1883, 1881 and 1871.01 lie wholly within Atwater Village boundaries, and a large portion of census tract 1871.02 is also within Atwater Village. Here are the five-year findings as reported by American Community Survey in 2013:

Census tract 1883 had a median income of $31,111 and was 37.8% non-Hispanic white, 34.1% Hispanic, 20.2% Asian, 1.6% Pacific Islander and 1.1% black. Census tract 1871.01 had a median income of $72,526 and was 42.9% non-Hispanic white, 34.4% Hispanic, 21.2% Asian and 1.4% black. Census tract 1881 was 60.3% Hispanic, 23.9% non-Hispanic white, 13.2% Asian, 2% black and 1.3% American Indian or Alaska Native. Median income for this census tract was $30,996. Census tract 1871.02 was 47.9% Hispanic, 27.5% non-Hispanic white, 13.9% Asian and 8.4% black, with a median income of $24,852.

2008 estimate
In 2008, the city estimated that 15,455 people lived in Atwater Village.

2000 census
The 2000 U.S. census counted 14,888 residents in the 1.78-square-mile Atwater Village neighborhood—or 8,379 people per square mile, an average population density for the city. The median age for residents was 34, about average for the city.

The neighborhood was considered highly diverse ethnically, with a high percentage of Asians. The breakdown was Latinos, 51.3%; whites, 22.2%; Asians, 19.7%; black, 1.4%; and others, 5.4%. Mexico (27.2%) and the Philippines (20.4%) were the most common places of birth for the 49.3% of the residents who were born abroad—a high percentage, compared to the city at large.

The median yearly household income in 2008 dollars was $53,872, an average figure for Los Angeles. The percentages of households that earned $20,000 to $60,000 yearly were high for Los Angeles County. The average household size of 2.7 people was average for Los Angeles. Renters occupied 59.6% of the housing stock, and house or apartment owners held 40.4%. The percentage of never-married women was among the county's highest.

Geography
Much of Atwater lies in the old Los Angeles River flood plain, which resulted in deep, fertile soil.

According to the Mapping L.A. project of the Los Angeles Times, Atwater Village is bordered on the north and east by Glendale, on the southeast by Glassell Park, on the south by Echo Park,  on the southwest by Los Feliz and Silver Lake and on the west by Griffith Park.

Street and other boundary limits are the Ventura Freeway on the north, San Fernando Boulevard on the east, and the Los Angeles River on the south and west.

Education
22% of Atwater Park residents aged 25 and older held a four-year degree by 2000, an average figure for both the city and the county.

Schools

 * Glenfeliz Boulevard Elementary School, LAUSD, 3955 Glenfeliz Boulevard
 * Holy Trinity Elementary School, private, 3716 Boyce Avenue
 * Atwater Avenue Elementary School, LAUSD, 3271 Silver Lake Boulevard

Library
The Atwater Village District is served by the Atwater Village Branch of the Los Angeles Public Library. It is located at 3379 Glendale Boulevard, east of the Los Angeles River and Interstate 5.

Transportation
Atwater Village is close to the Interstate 5, SR 134, SR 2 and SR 110 freeways.

It is served by several Metro Bus lines, including the 92, 94 & 180. It also is adjacent to Metrolink Glendale Station.

In popular culture
A number of film locations in Atwater Village were used for Quentin Tarantino's movie Pulp Fiction, including the house of Lance (Eric Stoltz) and his wife, Jody (Rosanna Arquette).

Atwater Village was featured in Our Neighborhoods with Huell Howser.

Atwater Village has been used recently as a setting in HBO'S Winning Time (the basketball court in North Atwater Park was used as the court in Michigan where Magic Johnson battled a romantic rival during a trip back home after college and before his rookie season), in the first episode of the final season of Westworld (exteriors where Aaron Paul attempts to rescue his daughter) and in the first season of This Fool on Hulu (exterior flashback scene). Exteriors in Atwater Village are often used as a stand in for locations in south and east Los Angeles.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Atwater Village, Los Angeles


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Mount Sinai Hospital (Toronto)

Mount Sinai Hospital (MSH) is a hospital in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Mount Sinai is part of Sinai Health. Sinai Health was formed through the voluntary amalgamation of Mount Sinai Hospital (including the Lunenfeld-Tanenbaum Research Institute) and Hennick Bridgepoint Hospital on January 22, 2015.

Mount Sinai is linked by bridges and tunnels to three adjacent hospitals of the University Health Network (Toronto General Hospital, Toronto Rehabilitation Institute, and Princess Margaret Cancer Centre). During the 2005 annual charity, the hospital reported to the Canada Revenue Agency as having assets of roughly C$ 520 million. In the 2019–2020 fiscal year there were nearly 29,000 inpatient stays and 59,700 emergency department visits for Mount Sinai Hospital. The average length of stay for inpatients was 4.4 days.

Mount Sinai Hospital has existed in Toronto since 1923 under various names; it has occupied its present site on University Avenue since 1953. In the fiscal year ending March 2013, Mount Sinai Hospital cared for 128,714 inpatients days, delivered almost 7,000 babies and performed almost 20,000 surgeries. Toronto and area residents made more than half a million ambulatory clinic visits to Mount Sinai. In that same year, the hospital's Schwartz/Reisman Emergency Department saw 56,080 visits and that number is expected to increase to 80,000 per year over the next few years.

More than 600 staff work at the Lunenfeld-Tanenbaum Research Institute, Mount Sinai's research facility. The institute was established in 1985 as the Samuel Lunenfeld Research Institute. On June 24, 2013, it became the Lunenfeld-Tanenbaum Research Institute. Many of its researchers hold faculty appointments at the University of Toronto.

In October 2010, Mount Sinai Hospital was named one of Greater Toronto's Top Employers by Mediacorp Canada Inc.

Dr. Gary Newton was appointed president and CEO of Mount Sinai Hospital, Sinai Health in October 2016.

History
In 1913, the Ezras Noshem Society was founded by Slova Greenberg. During the August of that year, the Society began a fundraising campaign to establish a hospital, spearheaded by four immigrant women: Mrs. Cohn, Mrs. Miller, Mrs. Spiegel and Mrs. Adler.

In 1922, a location at 100 Yorkville Avenue was purchased with $12,000. The two-storey building was built as a private residence in 1871 by James D. Bridgland, the Crown's Inspector of Roads; in 1914, the home was converted into the Lyndhurst Private Hospital.

In 1923, the hospital opened and was named "The Hebrew Maternity and Convalescent Hospital". Dorothy Dworkin, who helped in the fundraising campaign, became president of the institution. The first list of permanent staff included: a nursing superintendent, four graduate and two undergraduate nurses, a cook, a laundress, a housemaid and a janitor, while the 33 Jewish doctors in the city all volunteered some time.

In 1924, the name was changed to Mount Sinai Hospital.

In 1930, a new surgical wing was begun by architects, Kaminker & Richmond. The original designs were drawn up in 1928 by Benjamin Swartz. The project was only completed in 1934.

In 1943, a new site was purchased on University Avenue at the corner of Gerrard Street. In 1953, it opened. In the same year, the original Mount Sinai Hospital became the St. Raphael's Nursing Home.

In 1985, the original property was designated as a site of historical significance by the Toronto Historical Board Despite this, the 1930 wing was partially demolished in 1988. (Heritage Toronto).

In 2015, Mount Sinai Hospital, Hennick Bridgepoint Hospital, and Circle of Care joined in a voluntary amalgamation to create the Sinai Health, which has the goal of creating an integrated health system that provides more efficient, coordinated care for patients.

At the time of its founding, Mount Sinai Hospital was the only hospital to offer kosher food in Canada. Indeed, it was an institution where Jewish patients could communicate in Yiddish, and be able to observe their religious practices. The hospital has continued to be an institution to provide culturally appropriate services to the Jewish community alongside other immigrant and non-English speaking communities. It is affiliated with many universities, including University of Toronto.

title: Mount Sinai Hospital (Toronto)


text: List of ambassadors of the United States from Ohio


text:
Talk:List of video game developers

Forcefully sorting by alphabet
Its really irritating if you want to sort by country to go true each box. Can we just put everything together in one chart so that its easier to sort? Like exactly what someone did with the list of indie game developers. That indie list is simple and easy to use. Meanwhile here it just gets clumsy, because there is already a sort by alphabet option in the chart. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 84.209.20.227 (talk) 17:48, 20 August 2018 (UTC)

Companies
Many of these companies are in the Category:Computer companies of the united states. Personally, when I look at that category, I'm not expecting to see game companies. This list is much more appropriate grouping. How do people feel about removing the game companies from the aforementioned category? Dyl 20:37, Aug 11, 2004 (UTC)

Wouldn't have a problem with that, so long as they're interlinked clearly, like this list and the "list of game manufacturers". I'd also suggest removing the defunct ones, and just making sure they're all added to Category:Defunct_video_game_companies instead.--DewiMorgan 22:29, 21 September 2007 (UTC)

Lots of missing console companies
Lots of missing console companies such as Gust (made docens of great jrpgs that were ported to occident) or Acquire (makers of Tenchu, Shinobido, and Way of the Samurai, all outstanding classics that are still alive) (they port games here from japan, its not like im talking about jrpg games that never leave japan), or the companies that made GEB or MonHun, i cant remember which companies they were right now, but those are major titles. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 190.18.134.89 (talk) 23:20, 11 September 2012 (UTC)
 * Hi, you could add them but remember that they must have some notability to be featured here, as this is infact a list of notable video game companies. Zionnomonus (talk) 23:46, 22 January 2013 (UTC)

?
why is ther FusionGames.com listed as a company in "F" section (and its not even placed right) FusionGames.com is a game STORE not maker or compani —Preceding unsigned comment added by EPIC MASTER (talk • contribs) 16:14, 10 December 2007 (UTC)

Added a new column
I thought it wouldn't be a bad idea to start adding a new column to the page, displaying the role of the company in the industry. This gives people a better idea of what the company actually does. So far in this list I've used categories:

- Video game publisher

- Video game developer

- Video game engine developer

- Console developer

But I think that there are probably chances in the list to use the following, as they still have something to do with the industry:

- Video game retailer

- Console accessory manufacturer

Also, I would argue that the defunct companies should not be removed, because they are still a video game company and to me this article is about providing all the companies in one place, although I don't think it would be a bad idea to add a "defunct or not?" style column. This page will eventually get to be a featured article through our efforts!

ShmenonPie - You wanna slice of me? (talk) 21:41, 2 March 2008 (UTC)

 * I think it's best to work this off somewhat strategically.
 * I would first complete/clean-up the list of game developer, console developer and game publisher, the active ones.
 * Then we can add the defunct ones, maybe just put a note there when it's defunct.
 * The retailers and accessory manufacturers (how about media?) I would wait with untill we have the above filled in. GameLegend (talk) 22:54, 6 May 2008 (UTC)

Dates on the Article
I think that some degree of consistency should be kept regarding the dates - that is to say a year and a year only. Not a month and a year, or a date and a year, just a year. If you disagree, state why I'm wrong and change it back. ShmenonPie - You wanna slice of me? (talk) 19:48, 14 March 2008 (UTC)

States
Do you think we should add the state to the location, I'm trying to find out which ones are in Washington, and it's difficult, especially if a company is in a city that's not well-known city. Maybe I'll start adding states, but could other people help out please? Adam (talk) 02:20, 22 March 2008 (UTC)

 * What I've done is link to the appropiate Wikipedia article to begin with. Since Wikipedia is an international website, and not a US-one, the states are of no importance in this list. Just link to the right article, which includes the state anyway, and use only the city name here in this list. GameLegend (talk) 00:06, 4 May 2008 (UTC)

Redlinks
All non-notable companies (ie, those not notable enough for their own articles), should be removed from this list. -- Zim Zala Bim talk  11:46, 30 March 2009 (UTC)

This is sort of a mess.
This list is sort of a mess. I would prefer to see it broken out by role, so there would be List of video game publishers (I see this already exists and is probably more comprehensive than this list is currently) and List of video game developers, and possibly other lists. This "list of companies" article would be a disambig. The list is going to get tremendously huge when people get around to adding all the little video game companies that have existed over time.

There should be minimum criteria for inclusion. Do we include as a "video game company" an art house like Blur Studio which creates in-game cinematics for video games? (This is another reason to have role-specific lists like the above; Blur is clearly not a developer or publisher.) 42 Entertainment is on here, though they have never developed or published a video game. What exactly is a "video game company"?

I think the list should have a column called "Status", or, more amusingly, "Fate", with terms in it like "Active", "Acquired by Vivendi Games in 1999", "Merged with Blizzard in 2008", etc. "Fate" could be much more complicated - how do we discuss the fate of Atari in 5 words? - but we could again be amusing and say "It's Complicated", just to fit in the table, and give a footnote to explain. Tempshill (talk) 17:39, 28 April 2009 (UTC)

Name
I am thinking to replace the name of this category to 'List of video game developers'... any takers? Antman -- chat 08:19, 13 April 2010 (UTC)
 * I am in the process of doing that right now. This list also needs publisher and indies moved first. See VG talk. — H3llkn0wz ▎talk 12:52, 13 April 2010 (UTC)
 * FYI, the pages have been by large sorted now. — H3llkn0wz ▎talk 14:42, 13 April 2010 (UTC)

Flag icons
Hi, do we really need those little blips of colour crowding out one collumn? Some readers will find them irritating. They add no information, since the countries are already included. Tony  (talk)  02:47, 5 May 2010 (UTC)

Separation on city and country
Do we need to separate the city and country into two columns? I would advise against due to already limited horizontal space. Many devices do not support wide resolutions and nothing is more misaligned than wide tables. On the other hand, it does help with sorting by country. I am not going to revert the edit that added these, rather bringing this to the talk page first. — HELL KNOWZ  ▎TALK 16:34, 28 June 2011 (UTC)

Country?
Shouldn't it be correct/better to rewrite everywhere where England is written into Britain instead? Or are those developers all really located only in England? The list itself also seems a bit outdated. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 195.230.183.56 (talk) 08:52, 12 February 2013 (UTC)
 * Britain or Great Britain is the name of the Island where England is situated, so there is nothing wrong with calling it England as the developers/publishers are situated in England the country. The list itself is getting updated from time to time with new notable developers and publishers, notes, games and such but also a monthly clean up from my side so it should be fairly up to date. Hope this cleared it up Zionnomonus (talk) 21:47, 19 September 2013 (UTC)
 * Apologies, you were talking about the Administrative District section, not the Country section. -Gavintantleff (talk) 13:56, 10 May 2020 (UTC)

Developer or Publisher
Companies like EA and Ubisoft is a publisher. They don't develop games. Their subsidiaries developed games. So, should we break them down into several columns. AdrianGamer (talk)

Inclusion criteria
Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Video games czar  18:54, 4 March 2017 (UTC)

 * Archived convenience link: Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Video games/Archive 128 (agree). GermanJoe (talk) 16:31, 18 April 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:List of video game developers


text:
Talk:Handspring, Inc.

Microphone
It isn't wrong, but it sounds misleading to say the Visor Pro has a built-in microphone. It does, but you can't use it for anything out-of-the-box; it doesn't ship with any applications that use it, and I'm not sure any Palm application even could use it. You need to buy a Springboard expansion card to use it, like (probably) the one that makes it into a portable telephone. Perhaps just add a note like "...built-in microphone (for use by Springboard expansion cards only)...", but worded nicer. —Preceding unsigned comment added by  4.16.250.83  (talk • contribs)  15:38, August 11, 2004

Any Visor one of the cellphone modules work with has a microphone.
 * If it's supported by a phone module

The Platinum has a 4bit greyscale screen, which would make it superior to the Neo in hardware.

This page needs updated since PalmOne is defunct and has been restructured (again!) and is back to the old http://www.palm.com

PalmSource, where downloads of software like Palm Desktop were available from after the "split" into PalmOne and PalmSource, has been spun off as a seperate company and Palm Desktop and other downloads for 3-Com/USR, Palm Inc., PalmOne and Handspring PDAs are now all at www.palm.com —Preceding unsigned comment added by  67.136.145.228  (talk • contribs)  03:32, February 18, 2006

 * Everything for Palm OS PDA's manufactured by Palm Inc, 3-Com, Handspring and PalmOne, as well as software produced under the PalmSource name, is now at http://www.palm.com —Preceding unsigned comment added by  4.254.220.237  (talk • contribs)  03:48, April 3, 2006

According to MobileDB (Springboards) you have a GSM Cellphone springboard module that costs $299 from Handspring.Philpalm (talk) 04:03, 12 February 2009 (UTC)Philpalm

==Weight difference between reported weight and weight reported by mobileDB (Palm comparison chart)(6.1 oz) Maybe it is with alkaline batteries?Philpalm (talk) 04:03, 12 February 2009 (UTC)PhilpalmPhilpalm (talk) 04:03, 12 February 2009 (UTC)

More Prism trivia
The Prism's power button is on the right, unlike all others in the Visor line except the Edge. The thickness of the screen bezel's sides is also reversed from the other Visors. These changes are likely due to the color LCD. These changes also required any peripherals (like Palm's 'Gameface' joystick) which snap onto the front of a Visor had to be made in a unique version for the Prism. The Prism is also thicker (by 0.1") than any of the rest of the Visor line, unless the Edge with its Springboard attachment is thicker yet.

Length Width Thickness Weight Visor Prism 4.8" 3.0" 0.8" 6.9 oz. 12cm 7.5cm 2.1cm 194g

Visor Deluxe 4.8" 3.0" 0.7" 5.4 oz. 12cm 7.5cm 1.8cm 153g

The Prism and IIIc use exactly the same color LCD, the difference in displayable colors is due to the different display controller chips used.

The Prism also includes an LED for indicating the state of its battery while charging. Blinking indicates charging, steady indicates fully charged. —Preceding unsigned comment added by  4.254.220.237  (talk • contribs)  03:56, April 3, 2006

What about Treo 90 ?
Hi, I see there's no reference to Treo 90. I think there should be a few rows about. —Preceding unsigned comment added by  81.208.60.205  (talk • contribs)   08:40, September 30, 2006

 * I've added an article about the Treo 90. --ginbot86 21:14, February 3, 2008

stylus
removed here Visor's stylus design included two useful tools, a screwdriver on one end and a reset push tool on the other.

I own and use daily a Visor Deluxe. The stylus is only to control the PDA. It has no other functions. No screwdriver, no reset push tool. --Walter 21:00, 28 August 2007 (UTC)

 * I have found the problem. The stuff about the stylus was written originally by an ip in the section about the Visor Prism. Of it is corect for the Prism I do not know. But later that was moved to the section about the Visor and the Visor Deluxe, making it incorrect. --Walter 21:10, 28 August 2007 (UTC)
 * Thank you for pointing this out to me. I own and have used daily a Visor Deluxe (Ice) since January, 2001. It originally came with a color-coordinated stylus, comprised of two "ice" ends and a chrome shaft between them. A five-stylus pack including black, green, blue, orange, and ice was also available (I got one for free from a drawing) -- one for each color of the Deluxe, and black from the original. The ends easily unscrew to reveal the noted tools. As such, I was of the impression that the three-piece stylus had been there since the model came out, so moved it accordingly when the anon user added it to the Prism section. Apparently, according to comments on this review, the three-piece stylus was added to the regular device in July 2000, and the solid plastic stylus was the original stock version. So the information *is* correct, and does apply to the Visor & Deluxe, but lacks proper time context, because it wasn't there to begin with (going by that review and a couple others I'm not bothering to link to). Anyway, it's really minor information. Lacking a definitive reference to include (Handspring's website doesn't appear to make mention of this feature), may as well leave it out. -Salamurai 02:45, 29 August 2007 (UTC)

 * That is interesting this about the stylus. So we are both correct. I must say I find it strange that Handspring included a screwdriver option on the stylus. Yes, the device has some screws on it, but why would you encourage people to take the device apart? The reset button pusher would indeed be handy to have. In any case I agree that this information is realy very trivial and is best excluded. Greetings, --Walter 22:35, 30 August 2007 (UTC)

Copycat
Until the Treo, Handspring was first and foremost a copycat of the Palm. I'm not saying that negatively, just that the no reader could possibly understand what they're reading in this article without understanding that Handspring was first and foremost exact copies of palm devices, with token visual changes to make the process legal. The times I considered buying a handspring, it was because it was exactly like the Palm I wanted but cheaper. While there are people who were really attracted to the colored faceplates, I'm sure they are in the slimmest minority. Someone please say this in the article. (At the same time, more emphasis needs to be put on that reputation disappearing immediately upon release of the Treo.) --Mrcolj (talk) 10:08, 21 November 2007 (UTC)
 * I bought a Visor because it used USB and therefore worked with a Macintosh. For my situation it was superior to the Palm, which at the time couldn't do that. It also had slightly different features (exactly what I no longer recall, it's been 8 years), and the module-slot was a significant difference in hardware. Salamurai (talk) 06:18, 19 February 2008 (UTC)

Yahoo community?
The article mentions an "active Yahoo community" -- has anyone checked on it recently? I can find several old, abandoned Yahoo groups focused on Handspring PDAs, but recent postings are confined to irrelevant spam. 216.64.241.85 (talk) 21:42, 25 January 2010 (UTC)RobinS, Handspring Neo user

title: Talk:Handspring, Inc.


text:
Young adult literature

Young adult literature (YA) is typically written for readers aged 12 to 18 and includes most of the themes found in adult fiction, such as friendship, substance abuse, alcoholism, and sexuality. Stories that focus on the challenges of youth may be further categorized as social or coming-of-age novels.

The earliest known use of term young adult occurred in 1942. The designation of young adult literature was originally developed by librarians to help teenagers make the transition between children's literature and adult literature, following the recognition, around World War II, of teenagers as a distinct group of young people. While the genre is targeted at adolescents, a 2012 study found that 55% of young adult literature purchases were made by adults.

Definitions
Author and academic Michael Cart states that the term young adult literature "first found common usage in the late 1960's, in reference to realistic fiction that was set in the real (as opposed to imagined), contemporary world and addressed problems, issues, and life circumstances of interest to young readers aged approximately 12–18". However, "The term 'young adult literature' is inherently amorphous, for its constituent terms “young adult” and “literature” are dynamic, changing as culture and society — which provide their context — change", and "even those who study and teach it have not reached a consensus on a definition".

Victor Malo-Juvera, Crag Hill, in "The Young Adult Canon : A Literary Solar System" note that in 2019 there was no consensus on a definition of young adult literature and list a number of definitions, including:

 * Books that readers aged 12 to 20 chose independently
 * Literature written for young people aged 11 to 18 and books marked as "young adult" by a publisher
 * Literature including a teenager who is the main character and, as the center of the plot, engages in problems related to and relatable to the lives of teenagers
 * Novels told by "a teen protagonist speaking from an adolescent point of view, with all the limitations of understanding that implies"

History
Librarians first defined this new category of fiction, in particular librarians from the New York Public Library. The NYPL's first annual Books for Young People list was sent in 1929 to schools and libraries across the country. Then "In 1944 [...] NYPL librarian Margaret Scoggin changed the name of her library journal column from 'Books for Older Boys and Girls' to 'Books for Young Adults', and the genre was christened with a name that has lasted to this day". Initially the YA genre "tended to feature the same" boy and girl love story. But in the 1960s the novels developed to more fully examining the lives of adolescents. Particularly noteworthy was S.E. Hinton's "The Outsiders.".

Pre-20th-century

French historian Philippe Ariès argues, in his 1962 book Centuries of Childhood, that the modern concept of childhood only emerged in recent times. He explains that children were in the past not considered as greatly different from adults and were not given significantly different treatment. Furthermore, "Teenagers weren't a designated demographic in most respects until around World War II, due in part to advances in psychology and sociological changes, like the abolishment of child labor". With this development came the marketing of "clothes, music, films, radio programs, and ... the novel" for young adults.

All the same Sarah Trimmer in 1802 recognized young adults as a distinct age group describing "young adulthood" as lasting from ages 14 to 21. In her children's literature periodical, The Guardian of Education, Trimmer introduced the terms "Books for Children" (for those under fourteen) and "Books for Young Persons" (for those between fourteen and twenty-one), establishing terms of reference for young adult literature that still remain in use.

"At the beginning of the eighteenth century", according to M O Grenby: "very few ... enjoyable books for children ... existed. Children read, certainly, but the books that they probably enjoyed reading (or hearing) most, were not designed especially for them. Fables were available, and fairy stories, lengthy chivalric romances, and short, affordable pamphlet tales and ballads called chapbooks, but these were published for children and adults alike. Take Nathaniel Crouch's Winter-Evenings Entertainments (1687). It contains riddles, pictures, and 'pleasant and delightful relations of many rare and notable accidents and occurrences' which has suggested to some that it should be thought of as an early children's book. However, its title-page insists that it is 'excellently accommodated to the fancies of old or young'."

A number of works by eighteenth and nineteenth-century authors, though not written specifically for young readers, have appealed to them. Novels by Daniel Defoe, Jonathan Swift, Jane Austen, Walter Scott, Charles Dickens, Lewis Carroll, Robert Louis Stevenson, Mark Twain, Francis Hodgson Burnett, and Edith Nesbit.

Alice's Adventures in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll, published in 1865 and one of the best-known works of Victorian literature, has had widespread influence on popular culture and literature, especially in the fantasy genre. It is credited as helping end an era of didacticism in children's literature, inaugurating an era in which writing for children aimed to "delight or entertain". The tale has had a lasting popularity with adults as well as with children. A shortened version for young children, The Nursery "Alice" was published in 1890. It was inspired when, on 4 July 1862, Lewis Carroll and Reverend Robinson Duckworth rowed in a boat with the three young daughters of scholar Henry Liddell:  Lorina (aged 13); Alice (aged 10); and Edith Mary (aged 8). During the trip Carroll told the girls a story that he described in his diary as "Alice's Adventures Under Ground" and which his journal says he "undertook to write out for Alice". She finally got the manuscript more than two years later.

A number of novels by Robert Louis Stevenson were first published in serial form, in a weekly children's literary magazine Young Folks, including Treasure Island, Kidnapped, and The Black Arrow. This magazine was for boys and girls of an older age than many of its contemporaries.

Mark Twain's Tom Sawyer is described by publisher Simon & Schuster as "The classic tale of a young boy's adventures on the Mississippi in the nineteenth century". The same description can be applied to its sequel, Huckleberry Finn. Huck is 12 or 13.

20th century
According to journalist Erin Blakemore, "Though young adult literature had existed since at least Laura Ingalls Wilder's Little House series, which was published in the 1930s, teachers and librarians were slow to accept books for adolescents as a genre".

In 1942, Seventeenth Summer – called by some the first young adult novel – by 17 years old Maureen Daly, was published. Its themes were especially relevant to teenagers, underaged drinking, driving, dating, and angst. Another early example is the Heinlein juveniles, which were science fiction novels written by Robert A. Heinlein for Scribner's young-adult line, beginning with Rocket Ship Galileo in 1947. Scribner's published eleven more between 1947 and 1958, but the thirteenth, Starship Troopers, was instead published by Putnam. The intended market was teenaged boys. A fourteenth novel, Podkayne of Mars (1963), featured a teenaged girl as the protagonist.

In the 1950s, The Catcher in the Rye (1951) attracted the attention of the adolescent readers although it was written for adults. The themes of adolescent angst and alienation in the novel have become synonymous with young adult literature.

The Hobbit (1937) and Lord of the Rings (1954-5) by J. R. R. Tolkien are highly successful fantasy novels, which are read to young children and read by both children and adults They are found in the teen or young adult section of American public and school libraries. However, Lord of the Rings is generally not on the curriculum of high schools. This is because the paperback version can run to almost 1200 pages and the vocabulary is difficult.

A Wrinkle in Time, written by Madeleine L'Engle in 1960, received over twenty-six rejections before publication in 1962, because it was, in L'Engle's words, "too different," and "because it deals overtly with the problem of evil, and it was really difficult for children, and was it a children's or an adults' book, anyhow?"

In 1957 the Young Adult Library Services Association – initially called the Young Adult Services Division following a reorganization of the American Library Association – had been created. YALSA evaluates and selects materials for young adults, with the most active YASLA committee being the book selection committee.

Michael Cart argues that the 1960s was the decade when literature for adolescents "could be said to have come into its own". A significant early example of young adult fiction was S. E. Hinton's The Outsiders (1967). The novel features a truer, darker side of adolescent life that was not often represented in works of fiction of the time. Written during high school and written when Hinton was only 16, The Outsiders also lacked the nostalgic tone common in books about adolescents written by adults. The Outsiders remains one of the best-selling young adult novels of all time. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, five other very popular books were published: I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings (1969), an autobiography of the early years of American poet Maya Angelou; The Friends (1973) by Rosa Guy; the semi-autobiographical The Bell Jar (US 1963, under a pseudonym; UK 1967) by poet Sylvia Plath; Bless the Beasts and Children (1970) by Glendon Swarthout; and Deathwatch (1972) by Robb White, which was awarded 1973 Edgar Award for Best Juvenile Mystery by the Mystery Writers of America. The works of Angelou and Plath were published as adult works but The Bell Jar deals with a nineteen year old's "teenage angst," and Angelou's autobiography is one of the ten books most frequently banned from high school and junior high school libraries and classrooms.

Authors Philip Pullman and Neil Gaiman have both argued for the importance of British fantasy writer Alan Garner. According to Pullman Garner "is indisputably the great originator, the most important British writer of fantasy since Tolkien, and in many respects better than Tolkien". Similarly Ursula le Guin in a review praising Garner's novel Red Shift, argues that "Some of the most interesting English novels of recent years have been published as children's books". Although Garner's early work is often labelled "children's literature", Garner himself rejects such a description. Critic Neil Philip, commenting on Garner's early novels, notes that "It may be that Garner's is a case" where the division between children's and adults' literature is "meaningless".

Judy Blume author of Are You There God? It's Me, Margaret. (1970), has significantly contributed to children's and young adult literature. She was one of the first young adult authors to write novels focused on such controversial topics as masturbation, menstruation, teen sex, birth control, and death.

Ursula le Guin's A Wizard of Earthsea, published in 1968, had a significant influence on YA fantasy fiction. It won or contributed to several notable awards for le Guin, including the Boston Globe–Horn Book Award in 1969,  and was one of the last winners of the Lewis Carroll Shelf Award. With regard to the Earthsea series Barbara Bucknal stated that "Le Guin was not writing for young children when she wrote these fantasies, nor yet for adults. She was writing for 'older kids'. But in fact she can be read, like Tolkien, by ten-year-olds and by adults. Margaret Atwood said that ... A Wizard of Earthsea ... since it dealt with themes such as "life and mortality and who are we as human beings", it could be read and enjoyed by anybody older than twelve. Reviewers have commented that the basic premise of A Wizard of Earthsea, that of a talented boy going to a wizard's school and making an enemy with whom he has a close connection, is also the premise of Harry Potter.

As publishers began to focus on the emerging adolescent market, more booksellers and libraries began creating young adult sections distinct from children's literature and novels written for adults. The 1970s to the mid-1980s have been described as the golden age of young-adult fiction, when challenging novels began speaking directly to the interests of the identified adolescent market.

In the 1980s, young adult literature began pushing the envelope in terms of the subject matter that was considered appropriate for their audience: Books dealing with topics such as rape, suicide, parental death, and murder which had previously been deemed taboo, saw significant critical and commercial success. A flip-side of this trend was a strong revived interest in the romance novel, including young adult romance. With an increase in number of adolescents, the genre "matured, blossomed, and came into its own, with the better written, more serious, and more varied young adult books (than those) published during the last two decades".

The first novel in J.K. Rowling's seven-book Harry Potter series, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, was published in 1997. Originally marketed in the UK under the broad category of children's literature, the books received attention and praise for their increasingly mature and sophisticated nature, eventually garnering a significant audience of adult readers. This phenomenon led many to see Harry Potter and J.K. Rowling as responsible for a resurgence of young adult literature. It also established a pre-eminent role for speculative fiction in the field, a trend further solidified by The Hunger Games trilogy by Suzanne Collins. The end of the decade saw a number of awards appear such as the Michael L. Printz Award and Alex Awards, designed to recognize excellence in writing for young adult audiences.

Philip Pullman's fantasy trilogy His Dark Materials, published between 1995 and 2000, added another controversial topic to the field by attacking established religion, especially Roman Catholicism. Northern Lights, the first volume in the trilogy, won the 1995 Carnegie Medal as the year's outstanding English-language children's book. Pullman has written other YA fiction, including the Sally Lockhart series (1985–94), as well as books for younger children.

21st century
The category of young adult fiction continues to expand into other media and genres: graphic novels/manga, light novels, fantasy, mystery fiction, romance novels, and even subcategories such as cyberpunk, techno-thrillers, and contemporary Christian fiction.

A survey of attendees at a 2018 conference of educators found that the most frequently taught YA texts in America from 2013 to 2018, ordered from most to least taught, were Speak, The Absolutely True Diary of a Part-Time Indian, The Giver, The Outsiders, The House on Mango Street, American Born Chinese, Monster, The Book Thief, Persepolis, and The Perks of Being a Wallflower.

Themes
Many young adult novels feature coming-of-age stories. These feature adolescents beginning to transform into adults, working through personal problems, and learning to take responsibility for their actions. YA serves many literary purposes. It provides a pleasurable reading experience for young people, emphasizing real-life experiences and problems in easier-to-grasp ways, and depicts societal functions.

An analysis of YA novels between 1980 and 2000 found seventeen expansive literary themes. The most common of these were friendship, getting into trouble, romantic and sexual interest, and family life. Other common thematic elements revolve around the coming-of-age nature of the texts. This includes narratives about self-identity, life and death, and individuality.

Genre
Some of the most common YA genres are contemporary fiction, fantasy, science fiction, historical fiction, and romance. Hybrid genres are also common in YA.

Problem novels
The social problem novel or problem novel is a sub-genre of literature focusing and commenting on overarching social problems. This type of novel is usually seen as originating in the 19th century, though there were precursors in the 18th century, like Amelia by Henry Fielding (1751), and Caleb Williams (1794) by William Godwin. They are typically a type of realistic fiction that characteristically depict, in the YA version of this genre, issues such as poverty, drugs, and pregnancy. Published in 1967, S.E. Hinton's The Outsiders is a well-known example of the YA problem novel. Following its publication, problem novels became popular during the 1970s.

Librarian Sheila Egoff described three reasons why problem novels resonate with adolescents:

 * They depict real situations that the readers are experiencing so they have "therapeutic value".
 * They are interesting, new and foreign to those not experiencing these issues.
 * They feature mature story lines which appeal to a child's desire to grow up.

A classic example of a problem novel, and one that defined the sub-genre, is Go Ask Alice anonymously published by Beatrice Sparks in 1971. Go Ask Alice is written as the diary of a young girl, who, to cope with her many problems, experiments with drugs. More recent examples include Speak by Laurie Halse Anderson, Crank by Ellen Hopkins, and The Perks of Being a Wallflower by Stephen Chbosky.

Boundaries between children's, young adult, and adult fiction
The boundary between books for children and adult literature is flexible and loosely defined and in particular "the young have always been efficient [plunderers] of stories from all sources, and have carried off such literary booty as pleased them". This boundary has been policed by adults and has "alternated between the rigid and the permeable depending on the political and cultural climate".

At the lower end of the age spectrum, fiction targeted to readers aged 8–12 is referred to as middle grade fiction. Some novels originally marketed to adults are of interest and value to adolescents, and vice versa, as in the case of books such as the Harry Potter series of novels. Some examples of middle grade novels and novel series include the Percy Jackson & the Olympians series by Rick Riordan, The Underland Chronicles by Suzanne Collins, and Diary of a Wimpy Kid by Jeff Kinney.

Examples of young adult novels and novel series include the Harry Potter series by J. K. Rowling, The Hunger Games trilogy by Suzanne Collins, the Alex Rider series by Anthony Horowitz and the Mortal Instruments series by Cassandra Clare.

Middle grade novels are usually shorter, and are significantly less mature and complex in theme and content than YA. YA novels are for ages 12–18, and tackle more mature and adult themes and content than middle grade novels. The latter usually feature protagonists between the ages of 10 and 13, whereas young adult novels usually feature protagonists from 14 to 18.

Uses in the classroom
YA has been integrated into classrooms to increase student interest in reading. Studies have shown that YA can be beneficial in classroom settings. YA fiction is written for adolescents and some believe it to be more relevant to students' social and emotional needs instead of classic literature. Use of YA in classrooms is linked to:

 * higher levels of engagement and motivation among students
 * increased levels of self-confidence, personal development and self-identification
 * increased desire to read similar books

Students who read YA are more likely to appreciate literature and have stronger reading skills than others. YA also allows teachers to talk about "taboo" or difficult topics with their students. For example, a 2014 study shows that using Laurie Halse Anderson's novel Speak aided in discussions on consent and complicity. Those who read about tough situations like date rape are more emotionally prepared to handle the situation if it arises. It is important to use diverse literature in the classroom, especially in discussing taboo topics, to avoid excluding minority students.

Literature written for young adults can also be used as a stepping stone to canonical works that are traditionally read in classrooms, and required by many school curriculums. In Building a Culture of Readers: YA Literature and the Canon by Kara Lycke, Lycke suggests pairing young adult literature and canon works to prepare young adults to understand the classic literature they will encounter. YA can provide familiar and less alienating examples of similar concepts than those in classic literature. Suggested pairings include Rick Riordan's Percy Jackson series with the Iliad or the Odyssey, or Stephenie Meyer's Twilight with Wuthering Heights. When discussing identity, Lycke suggests pairing Hawthorne's The Scarlet Letter with Sherman Alexie's The Absolutely True Diary of a Part-Time Indian.

Political content
The trend to include same-sex relationships and transgender characters in young adult fiction has caused considerable controversy. Conservative activists and religious groups have also criticized young adult fiction for violence, explicit sexual content, obscene language, and suicide. Speculative young adult fiction is sometimes targeted by critics for religious reasons, including religious debates over the Harry Potter series and Philip Pullman's trilogy His Dark Materials. Criticism has also been leveled at young adult fiction authors for alleged insensitivity to marginalized communities or cultural appropriation.

Lack of diversity
English language young adult fiction and children's literature in general have historically shown a lack of books with a main character who is a person of color, LGBT, or disabled. In the UK 90% of the best-selling YA titles from 2006 to 2016 featured white, able-bodied, cis-gendered, and heterosexual main characters. The numbers of children's book authors have shown a similar lack of diversity. Between 2006 and 2016, eight percent of all young adult authors published in the UK were people of color.

Some consider diversity beneficial since it encourages children of diverse backgrounds to read and it teaches children of all backgrounds an accurate view of the world around them. In the mid-2010s, more attention was drawn to diversity from various quarters. In the several years following, diversity numbers seem to have increased: One survey showed that in 2017, a quarter of children's books were about minority protagonists, almost a 10% increase from 2016.

Literary merit
Jack Zipes, a professor of German and literature, has criticized the standardized nature of young adult fiction in Western society. He writes that to become a phenomenon, a work has to "conform to the standards [...] set by the mass media and promoted by the culture industry in general." Zipes complains of similarities between Harry Potter and other well known heroes.

Professor Chris Crowe argues that criticism of young adult fiction arises from the fear that the genre will replace classic works. He also suggests that because there is much poorly written young adult fiction, and the genre's recent development, it has difficulty in establishing its value in relation to the classics of literature.

Cited references

 * Cart, Michael (1996). From Romance to Realism: 50 Years of Growth and Change in Young Adult Literature. New York: HarperCollins

title: Young adult literature


text:
Rembert Dodoens

Rembert Dodoens (born Rembert Van Joenckema, 29 June 1517 – 10 March 1585) was a Flemish physician and botanist, also known under his Latinized name Rembertus Dodonaeus. He has been called the father of botany.

Life
Dodoens was born Rembert van Joenckema in Mechelen, then the capital of the Spanish Netherlands in 1517. His parents were Denis van Joenckema (d. 1533) and Ursula Roelants. The van Joenckema family and name are Frisian in origin. Its members were active in politics and jurisprudence in Friesland and some had moved in 1516 to Mechelen. His father was one of the municipal physicians in Mechelen and a private physician to Margaret of Austria, Governor of the Netherlands, in her final illness. Margaret of Austria's court was based in Mechelen. Rembert later changed his last name to Dodoens (literally "Son of Dodo", a form of his father's name, Denis or Doede).

Education, marriage, and travels
Dodoens was educated at the municipal college in Mechelen before beginning his studies in medicine, cosmography and geography at the age of 13 at the University of Leuven (Louvain), under Arnold Noot, Leonard Willemaer, Jean Heems, and Paul Roelswhere. He graduated with a licentiate in medicine in 1535, and as was the custom of the time, began extensive travels (Wanderjahren) in Europe till 1546, including Italy, Germany, France, and a stay in Basel 1542–1546. In 1539 he married Kathelijne De Bruyn (1517–1572), who came from a medical family in Mechelen. With her he had four children, Ursula (b. 1544), Denijs (b. 1548), Antonia, and Rembert Dodoens. After his wife's death at the age of 55 in 1572, he married Maria Saerinen by whom he had a daughter, Johanna.

Medical career
In 1548, Dodoens followed in his father's footsteps by becoming one of the three municipal physicians in Mechelen together with Joachim Roelandts and Jacob De Moor. In 1557, Dodoens turned down an offer of a chair at the University of Leuven. He also turned down an offer to become court physician of king Philip II of Spain. In 1575–1578, he was the court physician of the Holy Roman emperor Maximilian II and his successor Austrian emperor Rudolph II in Vienna. In 1582, he was appointed professor of medicine at the University of Leiden. He died in Leiden in 1585, and was buried at Pieterskerk, Leiden.

State of botanical science in Dodoens' time

In the early sixteenth century the general belief was that the plant world had been completely described by Dioscorides in his De Materia Medica. During Dodoens' lifetime, botanical knowledge was undergoing enormous expansion, partly fueled by the expansion of the known plant world by New World exploration, the discovery of printing and the use of wood-block illustration. This period is thought of as a botanical Renaissance. Europe became fascinated with natural history from the 1530s, and gardening and cultivation of plants became a passion and prestigious pursuit from monarchs to universities. The first botanical gardens appeared as well as the first illustrated botanical encyclopaedias, together with thousands of watercolours and woodcuts. The experience of farmers, gardeners, foresters, apothecaries and physicians was being supplemented by the rise of the plant expert. Collecting became a discipline, specifically the Kunst- und Wunderkammern (cabinets of curiosities) outside of Italy and the study of naturalia became widespread through many social strata. The great botanists of the sixteenth century were all, like Dodoens, originally trained as physicians, who pursued a knowledge of plants not just for medicinal properties, but in their own right. Chairs in botany, within medical faculties were being established in European universities throughout the sixteenth century in reaction to this trend, and the scientific approach of observation, documentation and experimentation was being applied to the study of plants.

Otto Brunfels published his Herbarium in 1530, followed by those of Jerome Bock (1539) and Leonhard Fuchs (1542), men that Kurt Sprengel would later call the "German fathers of botany". These men all influenced Dodoens, who was their successor.

Publications
Dodoens' initial works were published in the fields of cosmography and physiology. His De frugum historia (1552), a treatise on cereals, vegetables, and fodders marked the beginning of a distinguished career in botany.

Cruydeboeck
His herbal Cruydeboeck (herb book) with 715 images (1554, 1563) was influenced by earlier German botanists, particularly that of Leonhart Fuchs. Of the drawings in the Cruydeboeck, 515 were borrowed from Leonhart Fuchs' New-Kreuterbüchlein (1543) while 200 new drawings were drawn by Pieter van der Borcht the Elder and the woodblocks cut by Arnold Nicolai.

Rather than the traditional method of arranging the plants in alphabetical order, the Cruydeboeck divided the plant kingdom into six groups (Deel), based on their properties and affinities. It treated in detail especially the medicinal herbs, which made this work, in the eyes of many, a pharmacopoeia. This work and its various editions and translations became one of the most important botanical works of the late 16th century, part of its popularity being his use of the vernacular rather than the commonly used Latin.

Translations
The Cruydeboeck was translated first into French in 1557 by Charles de L'Ecluse (Histoire des Plantes), and into English in 1578 by Henry Lyte (via L'Ecluse) (A new herbal, or historie of plants), and later into Latin in 1583 (Stirpium historiae pemptades sex). The English version became a standard work in that language. At the time, it was the most translated book after the Bible. It became a work of worldwide renown, used as a reference book for two centuries.

Expanded editions
The Cruydeboeck's latin version published at the Plantin Press in Antwerp in 1583 under the title Stirpium historiae pemptades sex sive libri XXXs was a considerable revision. It contained new families, enlarged the number of groups from 6 to 26 and included many new illustrations, both original and borrowed. It was used by John Gerard as the source for his widely used Herball (1597). Thomas Johnson, in his preface to his 1633 edition of Herball, explains the controversial use of Dodoens' work by Gerard. The Latin version was also translated back into Dutch and published in 1608 in Leiden by the Plantin Press of Frans van Ravelingen under the title Crvydt-Boeck van Robertus Dodonaeus, volgens sijne laatste verbetering... etc. This edition included additional information on American plants prepared by Joost van Ravelingen, the brother of the publisher and a botanist and physician like Dodoens himself. The Dutch editions of 1618 and 1644 were reprints of this 1608 edition. The 1644 edition had 1492 pages and 1367 woodcuts.

List of selected publications
See

 * (1584) De sphaera sive de astronomiae et geographiae principiis cosmographica isagoge. Antwerp (2nd ed.)
 * , also at Teylers Museum
 * 2nd ed. 1563
 * 2nd ed. 1576, see also Aboca Museum
 * , also at Teylers Museum
 * 2nd ed. 1563
 * 2nd ed. 1576, see also Aboca Museum
 * , also at Teylers Museum
 * 2nd ed. 1563
 * 2nd ed. 1576, see also Aboca Museum
 * 2nd ed. 1576, see also Aboca Museum

Posthumous

 * Praxis medica (1616)
 * Remberti Dodonaei Mechilensis ... stirpium historiae pemptades sex, sive libri XXX : varie ab Auctore, paullo ante Mortem, aucti & emendati. Antverpiae : Moretus / Plantin, 1616 Digital edition of the University and State Library Düsseldorf.
 * Ars medica, ofte ghenees-kunst (1624)
 * Cruydt-Boeck (1644) (13th, last and most comprehensive edition, 5th Flemish ed.)

Eponomy
The plant genus Dodonaea was named after Dodoens, by Carl Linnaeus. The following species are also named after him: Epilobium dodonaei,: Comocladia dodonaea, Phellandrium dodonaei, Smyrnium dodonaei, Hypericum dodonaei  and Pelargonium dodonaei .

Books and articles

 * Review. Margarita Winkel Newsletter: International Institute for Asian Studies 32. Autumn 2003
 * Review. Margarita Winkel Newsletter: International Institute for Asian Studies 32. Autumn 2003
 * Review. Margarita Winkel Newsletter: International Institute for Asian Studies 32. Autumn 2003
 * Review. Margarita Winkel Newsletter: International Institute for Asian Studies 32. Autumn 2003
 * Review. Margarita Winkel Newsletter: International Institute for Asian Studies 32. Autumn 2003
 * Review. Margarita Winkel Newsletter: International Institute for Asian Studies 32. Autumn 2003
 * Review. Margarita Winkel Newsletter: International Institute for Asian Studies 32. Autumn 2003
 * Review. Margarita Winkel Newsletter: International Institute for Asian Studies 32. Autumn 2003
 * Review. Margarita Winkel Newsletter: International Institute for Asian Studies 32. Autumn 2003
 * Review. Margarita Winkel Newsletter: International Institute for Asian Studies 32. Autumn 2003

Chapters

 * , in
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 * , in

title: Rembert Dodoens


text:
Neotyphodium

Neotyphodium is a genus of endophytic fungi symbiotic with grasses. It used to contain a number of asexually reproducing species that colonize the leaves of cool-season grasses, but most of them, including the type species N. coenophialum, were merged into the genus Epichloë in 2014. Two species of unclear position were excluded from this treatment:

 * Neotyphodium chilense from Chile should be treated as Acremonium chilense since the previous transfer to Neotyphodium is untested.
 * Neotyphodium starrii is closely related to N. coenophialum, but the taxonomic status within Epichloë (whether it is a distinct species or not) is unclear (nomen dubium).

title: Neotyphodium


text:
Enrico Forlanini

Enrico Forlanini (13 December 1848 – 9 October 1930) was an Italian engineer, inventor and aeronautical pioneer, known for his works on helicopters, aeroplanes, hydrofoils and dirigibles. He was born in Milan. His older brother Carlo Forlanini was a physician.

Early life

Enrico Forlanini was born to Francesco Forlanini, a notable physician and director of the Ospedale Fatebenefratelli in Milan. After elementary school he attended one of the three Milan Regie Scuole Tecniche, in 1863 he entered the Military College of Turin.

In 1866 he enrolled at the Military Academy of Turin, and became a Lieutenant of Engineers. Enrico enrolled in the Scuola di Applicazione Artiglieria e Genio (Application School of Artillery and Engineers) in Turin in 1868.

Upon graduation in 1870, Forlanini was assigned to Casale Monferrato, where he was able to work in the police station's workshop. He began working on a systematic testing of propellers. He subsequently studied at Politecnico di Milano and graduated in Industrial Engineering.

Helicopter model
In 1877, he developed an early helicopter powered by a steam engine. It was the first of its type that rose to a height of 13 metres, where it remained for some 20 seconds, after a vertical take-off from a park in Milan.

Industry
Then, in 1893 he worked in Forlì, in a company named Società Anonima Forlivese per l’illuminazione a gas e per la fonderia di ferro.

Airships
Later he designed and built a series of dirigibles, notably, designed in 1901 and launched in 1909, the Leonardo da Vinci that he dedicated to the famous Renaissance inventor and, in 1912, the Città di Milano, dedicated to his beloved home town. The latter showed exceptionally good characteristics of stability and controllability that won Forlanini international renown. A further four airships were constructed: F3, F4, F5 and F6. A seventh, named Omnia Dir was only completed after his death.

Hydrofoils
He is also known for his hydrofoils that he started modelling since 1898. One of those, built at full scale, used a ladder system of foils and a 60 hp engine driving two counter-rotating air props. During testing on Lake Maggiore in 1906, this craft reached a top speed of 68 km/h (42.5 mph). He also tested a hydrofoil with a 25 hp steam engine but this only achieved around 50 km/h in 1908-1909.

Legacy
Forlanini obtained a number of British and American patents on his ideas and designs, most of which were aimed at seaplane applications.

He died in 1930 while still working on the design of the Omnia Dir airship.

Milan has dedicated to Enrico Forlanini its city airport, also named Linate Airport, as well as the nearby park, the Parco Forlanini. In Milan he also has an avenue named after him, Viale Enrico Forlanini.

title: Enrico Forlanini


text:
Talk:Hair cell

The hair cells of the inner ear are also carbon dioxide sensitive chemoreceptors which send information about carbon dioxide levels to the brain to drive breathing.
https://www.audiologyonline.com/releases/ears-may-hold-answers-to-4038

A loss of these sensitive hair cells can trigger death. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 31.124.246.188 (talk) 18:34, 29 August 2022 (UTC)

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article is or was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment. Further details are available on the course page. Peer reviewers: Chandramaas.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 22:59, 16 January 2022 (UTC)

Topic
Looks like this article is describing inner hair cells in particular (i.e., not hair cells in general). It's my understanding that inner hair cells convert sound waves into neural signals, and that outer hair cells do some fine-tuning based on feedback received from the CNS. It's not my field (but what is, really?) so I hesitate to make any additions without doing some research. --Diberri | Talk 20:42, Aug 11, 2004 (UTC)

 * Sigh, yes pretty much every wikipedia article on the auditory system needs work. But at least we have a pretty thorough start on inner hair cells.  I was going to work on this tonight, but I got side-tracked by sound localization, so I'll try to get to this next.  --Chinasaur 09:11, 27 Sep 2004 (UTC)''' ==]]
 * Anyway the English wiki has an article about these powerful sensory cells used in all kinds of vertebrates for various purposes (Lateral line system etc.) I agree it is all about some specific hair cells in the inner ear. Maybe somebody can fix that and make the general principle of the hair cell understandable. Pity most references are not specified in the text itself, by way of a note, but it seems the article is well founded and doesn't deserve the label. I am side tracked here myself missing an article about the hair cell in Dutch wikipedia to refer to making a table about senses in general.Viridiflavus (talk) 13:20, 13 January 2009 (UTC)

Disambiguation link?
Since the article title is potentially confusing, how about adding a disambiguation link to Hair follicle at the top? Something like:

Also, as I understand the article, hair cells don't actually protrude hair, but hair-like structures - is this distinction worth stating? WhiteCat 02:37, 5 February 2006 (UTC)

Page edited by some joker?
In the section "Outer hair cells – acoustical pre-amplifiers" it seems someone has edited the article and replaced some words by the sentence 'o i love asian women' I'm new to editing on wikipedia, and I couldn't find in the history of the document what the correct words should 've been. I hope someone can fix this. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 80.200.95.53 (talk) 17:06, 4 January 2007 (UTC).

Number
Please add the approximate number of each type of cell. I read once that in humans it's 15 to 20 thousand. Badagnani 06:12, 11 February 2007 (UTC)
 * About 20,000 outer, 3500 inner in each cochlea. See Schauf CL, Moffett DF, Moffett SB. Human physiology: foundations & frontiers (1990) p.229 http://books.google.ca/books?id=RLpqAAAAMAAJ LeadSongDog come howl  18:26, 6 January 2010 (UTC)

I'm trying to learn about the inner ear. It seems I have been reading that there are about 15,000 stereocilia hairs. But this article indicates that there are actually that number of hair "cells." But aren't the stereocilia grouped in bundles, each bundle "growing" out of a hair "cell." That would seem to suggest that there are fewer hair cells than there are stereocilia hairs. What are the actual number of hair cells compared to the number of stereocilia hairs? … Thanks, James. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2600:8801:B011:300:1436:D705:4D59:218E (talk) 23:10, 5 February 2021 (UTC)

Images
One of the images is of a semicircular canal which isn't even discussed in this article. Also, this article is terrible. So poorly written, so much missing, and certain details like pesticides being concentrated in whales are emphasized while the protein responsible for electromotility, prestin, isn't even explained. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 128.249.107.38 (talk • contribs) 11:19, 6 January 2010
 * So fix it! Bring new sources or use the existing ones to support better explanations and fill in missing concepts. That's how Wikipedia grows. :-) LeadSongDog come howl  16:34, 6 January 2010 (UTC)

Inner hair cells – from sound to nerve signal mistake?
i am by no means an expert on the auditor system, but is the part

"Within the hair shaft is the medulla, cortex and secondary cuticle. Medulla is not completely dead cells, cortical substance - it's dead skin cells, which are pigments responsible for light hair (eumelanin or phaeomelanin). Zumelanin responsible for black-and-brown color, and pheomelanin in the yellow-red. In different proportions of these pigments give hair a certain color: brown, black, blond, red, gray and ashy, and their different shades." in the section "Inner hair cells – from sound to nerve signal"

just plain wrong? can someone who actually has the knowledge fix that? --Denkmeister (talk) 01:29, 28 September 2011 (UTC) there is just one row of inner hair cells that also have supporting cells, or Deiter Cells. Do you think this should be added? Chandramaas (talk) 19:49, 2 September 2016 (UTC)

Link to Cochlear Amplifier
As the precise term was not used in the description, I added the term "cochlear amplifier" to the description of outer hair cell sensitivity and amplification. Cmayhew 22:27, 20 November 2011 (EST) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Caitlinmayhew (talk • contribs)

Outer Hair Cells
There are 3 rows of outer hair cells (OHC's) that have supporting cells or Deiter Cells. Should this be included? Chandramaas (talk) 19:51, 2 September 2016 (UTC)

Text removed
I cut this recent addition, as I could find nothing independent to support it, and it is barely notable even if there were:

"A company, called Frequency Therapeutics Inc. is currently in the preclinical development of a compound called FX-322. This compound, in gel form, will be injected into the middel ear through an established intra-tympanic procedure. From there it will diffuse into the inner ear through the round window membrane of the cochlea. Well within the cochlea this compound is believed to stimulate, already present dormant stem-cells called progenitor cells, to divide and regenerate new and functional hair-cells. A trial on humans is expected to commence mid-2018."

The cited source is by no means a wp:RS. LeadSongDog come howl!  16:06, 4 August 2017 (UTC)

Possible improvements
(1) the photos, captions, and commons-notes don't say the size of these cells nor the amount of magnification; (2) title of article maybe should be inner-ear hair cell, since most hairs are elsewhere; (3) new research by the company mentioned above and Stefan Heller can bring life to the relevance of regrowth; (4) can we clarify how often deafness is related to a hair-cell-growth vs something else? Ruminating. . . -- econterms (talk) 19:14, 7 April 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Hair cell