text:
Talk:99 Flake

Older discussions
"The story about the 99 guards of the Italian monarch has been proved to be unfounded. The Wordhunt initiative in 2005 found that the myth referred to the Vatican's Swiss Guard which actually traditionally had 105 members and now has 100." I viewed the program a few minutes ago and it had no resolution to ths question of where the @99@ came from - is there any citation for the claim it came from the Vatican?

THE 99 FLAKE IS THE CADBURY CHOCOLATE BAR AND NOT THE ICE CREAM WITH THE CHOCOLATE BAR INSERTED

 * Not according to ice-cream vendors (who call the whole thing a "99 Flake"), Cadbury's (who call the chocolate bar a "Flake") or, in fact, anyone. Daibhid C 18:50 18 Oct 2004
 * Cadbury's also sell boxes of unwrapped Flakes (shorter in length than the individually wrapped bars), labelled "99 Flake", for the use in the said ice creams, so they do call the bars "99 Flakes". But Daibhid C's point is also valid - the ice cream cone/flake combo itself is nearly always refered to as a "99 Flake" too. --Zilog Jones 21:10, 13 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Actually in my experience the ice cream is known simply as a "99". You don't go up to an ice-cram van and ask for a "99 Flake", you ask for a "99". A 99 Flake is the Flake that goes in a 99.
 * The term 99 comes from the cone produced by Askeys cone manufacturers in the 1930s. People would ask for an Askeys 99 cone, with a Cadburys flake. This inevitably shortened to a "99 Flake".

The BBC has recently disp[roved many of the theories of the prodcuts origins as stated here and sated on the Cadbury's website.

 * The BBC Word Hunt and associated series "Balderdash & Piffle" has inspired another popular theory with 2 variations. The theory is that the name 99 is a play on Roman numeral notation. Ice Cream -> IC -> 99. This is contested to be based on a flawed understanding of Roman numeral notation, hence the alternative: wafer; choclate; ice cream; wafer -> XCIX -> 99. There are also a further 4 ice cream dynasties, in addition to the Portobello family, claiming to have invented the 99. These families claim either to have sold ice cream and inhabited a building numbered 99 or to have sold ice cream at a building numbered 99.IP 20:59, 16 April 2006 (UTC)
 * I was just wondering about the Roman numeral "IC" theory as well. I remember it being mentioned on that programme, but then a statement made along the lines of "No, it can't be, they would have known 99 is XCIX".  But in my mind, even if they did know this they could have seen "IC" and pretended it meant 99 in Roman numerals, and so this doesn't prove anything.  Indeed, I've just found this on the BBC website :
 * "Another theory goes that the initials of ice cream are IC, which is one way to write 99 in Roman numerals. But the convention is to write it XCIX - but it's possible this was ignored or not known."
 * And the "wafer; chocolate; ice cream; wafer" theory seems contrived. In what way are there wafers either side of it?
 * Still, is there any reason not to mention either of these theories in the article? I'm also wondering whether the suggested etymologies would be better presented as bullet points, especially if we're going to have more than three of them. — Smjg (talk) 17:26, 20 October 2013 (UTC)
 * Reasons? yes, Wikipedia policies, WP:V and WP:NOR. Only what's published in reliable sources can be summarised in the article. – Fayenatic  L ondon 20:10, 20 October 2013 (UTC)
 * I don't understand your argument. Are you claiming that the BBC is an unreliable source?  And how have I done original research by quoting something I heard on a TV show, or read on a website, that is nothing to do with me? — Smjg (talk) 22:14, 22 October 2013 (UTC)

Yeah I would concur that I (in Eastern England) ordered a '99 all the way through my childhood, and never once heard the term '99 flake'. If you didn't want a flake then you just asked for an ice-cream cone, whereas if you did then you asked for a '99. The flake did not have to be made by Cadbury's particularly, even if it was branded as an ACME chocolate stick or whatever, putting it into an ice-cream still produced a '99. --Zeth
 * On the other hand I (in Worcestershire) always called it a "99 Flake". I might well be in the minority, but I did! 86.136.250.154 (talk) 20:45, 30 September 2008 (UTC)

Living on the south coast and growing-up in the 1970's and 80's, I only ever heard the phrase or used the phrase '99 when buying one these ice creams from a beach-side parlour or ice cream van. Anything else is superfluous. JD 19:15, 15 May 2013

Actually...
I haven't stopped an ice cream van lately, but both the small Flakes and the ready-made 99s are now sold as Flake99, not 99 Flake. See pictures on main article.

The name
Surely it's because the flakes are 99mm long... Try it yourself and measure one.

Or more likely because they were introduced 99 years after the formation of Cadburys. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 193.164.14.2 (talk) 13:39, 22 January 2010 (UTC)

 * As I understand it, the metric system wasn't in common use in the UK at the time it was introduced. As such, I very much doubt that the flake was named after its length in millimetres.  If they are 99mm long now, I would presume that the length was changed in more recent times to match the name. — Smjg (talk) 22:31, 22 October 2013 (UTC)

 * Quit just guessing, see the policy No original research!
 * Moving the following to talk page from the main article (added by 91.125.34.19 in 2010) as it doesn't fully explain the falsely claimed origin, and doesn't cite the episode which refuted it:
 * ''There is a false origin of the name, claimed by the Fecci company, an Italian ice-cream outlet in Tenby, Wales, its falsity revealed by a programme on the BBC designed to originate words for the OED, called Balderdash and Piffle, introduced by Victoria Coren.
 * It sounds as if this was a different episode from the one mentioned above. - Fayenatic (talk) 22:59, 17 April 2011 (UTC)

 * Is it OK to post speculations on article talk pages, as opposed to articles? In any case, I can't see what WP:OR has to do with it.  Speculation and research are two very different things. — Smjg (talk) 22:31, 22 October 2013 (UTC)

The theory on the article page about a cone being sold for 99 pence seems incredibly unlikely. The 99 cone has existed since before decimalization in the UK. There was no such thing as 99 pence, and anything close would be an absurd amount of money for a cone. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.75.4.251 (talk) 01:49, 13 July 2014 (UTC)

The internal link from Name at the top is wrong. S C Cheese (talk) 13:29, 16 June 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:99 Flake


text:
The Rainmakers (band)

The Rainmakers are a Kansas City, Missouri-based original rock band, fronted by Bob Walkenhorst, which had a small string of hits in the late 1980s and early 1990s in the United States and Europe, especially Norway.

Biography
The Rainmakers were formed in 1983 as a three-piece bar band called "Steve, Bob and Rich", which "quickly became popular throughout the Midwest," according to one Amazon review. They released one album, Balls, under this name. The addition of drummer Pat Tomek allowed Walkenhorst to switch to guitar and assume the role of frontman. The band changed their name to The Rainmakers when they were signed to PolyGram by A&R man Peter Lubin.

The band's self-titled 1986 debut album received good reviews in the U.S. entertainment media (Newsweek magazine dubbed it "the most auspicious debut album of the year") and reached No. 87 on the U.S. Billboard album chart. The band made a fan of horror author Stephen King, who quoted the band's lyrics in his novels The Tommyknockers and Gerald's Game. The album, however, achieved its greatest commercial success overseas. In the United Kingdom, the single "Let My People Go–Go", (a song based on the American Negro spiritual anthem "Go Down Moses"), broke into the Top 20 in the UK Singles Chart.

Their follow-up album, 1987's Tornado, peaked at #116 on the U.S. chart. The Rainmakers released one more studio album, 1989's The Good News and The Bad News, and one live album, 1990's Oslo-Wichita Live, which were successful in Europe, but did not chart in the U.S.. The band broke up after the release of the live album, which was only issued in Europe.

Scandinavian interest in their music remained high, and they reformed and released a new album, Flirting with the Universe, in 1994. The album achieved the equivalent of gold record status in Norway in one month. Ruth left the band and was replaced by new bassist Michael Bliss, and one more album, Skin, followed in 1996. The band issued one further track in 1998, a collaboration with Brewer & Shipley in a new version of "One Toke Over the Line", before they broke up again.

In 2011, the Rainmakers reformed, with bassist Rich Ruth returning to the group in place of Bliss, while longtime guitarist Steve Phillips was replaced by Jeff Porter. On March 5, the band was inducted into the Kansas Music Hall of Fame, with a ceremony and concert at Liberty Hall in Lawrence, Kansas. The following week, the band's album, 25 on, was released on March 14. At the end of March, the band returned to Norway for a two-week tour. The band played two shows (May 14–15) at Knuckleheads Saloon in Kansas City.

In 2014, the Rainmakers released the album Monster Movie. In June the same year, they performed at the Sweden Rock Festival.

In 2015 they released the album Cover Band.

Steve Phillips died in 2020 after contracting Covid-19.

Band members

 * Bob Walkenhorst: guitar, vocals (1983-1990, 1994-1998, 2011-present)
 * Jeff Porter: guitar, vocals (2011–present)
 * Rich Ruth: bass, vocals 1983–1990, 1994–1995, 2011–present)
 * Pat Tomek: drums (1986–1990, 1994–1998, 2011–present)

Former members
 * Steve Phillips: guitar, vocals (1983–1990, 1994–1998)
 * Michael Bliss: bass, vocals (1995–1998)

Discography
The Rainmakers have released eight studio albums, two live albums and a compilation album.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: The Rainmakers (band)


text:
Chrysler Hemi-6 Engine

The Chrysler Hemi-6 engine is a family of inline six-cylinder petrol engines produced by Chrysler Australia in three piston displacements and multiple configurations. Hemi-6 engines were installed in Australian-market Chrysler Valiants from 1970 through 1981. It was also installed in the Valiants closely related variants, the Chrysler VIP, the Chrysler by Chrysler & the Valiant Charger.

Development and release
Chrysler Corporation in the US had been working since 1966 on an inline 6-cylinder engine, called the D-engine, to replace the Slant 6 (G-engine) in Dodge trucks, but abandoned the effort after prototypes were built. This was Chrysler's first thin wall (lightweight) cast iron engine design. Chrysler Australia wanted a new six-cylinder engine for use in the Australian Chrysler Valiant, and so Chrysler USA sent a prototype engine to Chrysler Australia's engineers to continue developing the D-engine. The first 245 cuin variant was released for the 1970 model year in the VG-model Valiant.

In a major coup for the company, Chrysler Australia's ad agency, the Young & Rubicam Advertising Agency in Adelaide, South Australia, secured the services of British racing driver Stirling Moss to promote the new Hemi-6 245 cuin in 1969. The agency managed to fly Moss to Adelaide in secret for the advertising campaign, surprising Chrysler Australia's executives. Young & Rubicam's parent company were also the advertising agents for the Chrysler Corporation in the US.

Engineering and design features
The Hemi-6 is a pushrod O.H.V. (overhead valve engine), with combustion chambers comprising about 35% of the top of the globe. This creates what is known as a low hemispherical shaped chamber. In this way, the "Hemi" moniker was used for the same kind of marketing cachet as Chrysler's 1950s-1970s Hemi V8 engines.

The Hemi-6 valves are angled apart (splayed) 18 degrees (included angle) along the crankshaft axis, and the intake valves are as large as 1.96 in. The 6 intake and 6 exhaust valves open slightly towards each other and away from the cylinder wall, which results in less "shrouding" of the valves and greater airflow potential. In addition, both valves are slightly inclined across the crankshaft axis, similar to a conventional "wedge" chamber. The cylinder head is not a crossflow design, meaning the 6 intake and 6 exhaust ports are on the same side of the engine (the left, Australian and British passenger, side).

Unlike Chrysler's contemporaneous hemi V8 engines, the Hemi-6's rocker arms are mounted on individual studs (similar to the Chevrolet "big block" V8), rather than on 2 separate rocker shafts as in all 1951-58 Hemis—Dodge, DeSoto, Imperial, and Chrysler "Firepower" and 1964-'71 Plymouth and Dodge 426 V8s.

All Hemi-6s share a robust crankshaft supported by seven main bearings, and this family of engines quickly developed a reputation for excellent performance, economy, and durability.

The Australian Hemi engines were designed by a five-man team which included the late Maurice Harcus.

245 cu in (4.0 L)

The 245 was the initial version of the Hemi-6 engine. It was first used in the 1970 VG-model Valiant, and was available clear through to the final CM model of 1981. Initially, only a single barrel carburettor version was available for Australian built cars but a two barrel version was made especially for the VH and VJ Valiant Ranger XL variants assembled in New Zealand from 1971 to 1975. The two barrel consequently became available in Australia with the VK series update.

Specifications (for 1bbl carbureted variant):
 * Bore x Stroke Size: 3.76x3.68 in
 * Compression ratio: 9.5:1
 * Power: 123 kW at 4600 rpm
 * Torque: 318 Nm at 1800 rpm
 * Intake valve head diameter: 1.845 in
 * Exhaust: 1+1/2 in

245LC (Low Compression) released in 1977
 * Bore x Stroke Size: 3.76x3.68 in
 * Compression ratio: 7.6:1
 * Power: 130 hp estimate
 * Torque: 180 lbft estimate
 * Intake valve head diameter 1.845 in
 * Exhaust valve head diameter 1+1/2 in

265 cu in (4.3 L)

The 265 cuin was introduced in 1971 in the VH. It used a new cylinder block with a bigger bore diameter of 3.91 in—the same as many of the Chrysler small-block V8s—and a new cylinder head, having slightly more hemispherical shaped combustion chambers with larger valves.

The standard version of the 265 produced 203 hp at 4600 rpm and 262 lbft of torque at 2800 rpm.

The top-of-the-line performance engine in the E49 Chargers produced 302 hp at 5600 rpm and 320 lbft of torque at 4400 rpm. The increased power is due mainly to a more aggressive camshaft, high-load valve springs, triple 45 mm DCOE sidedraught Weber carburetors, tuned-length exhaust headers and a higher compression ratio of 10.0:1.

Specifications (for 2bbl carbureted variant):
 * Bore x Stroke Size: 3.91x3.68 in
 * Compression ratio: 9.5:1
 * Power: 151 kW at 4600 rpm
 * Torque: 355 Nm at 2800 rpm
 * Intake valve head diameter: 1.96 in
 * Exhaust: 1.6 in

215 cu in (3.5 L)
This economy-orientated version of the Hemi 6 was released as a running change in early 1971 as the base model engine in the VH Valiant. This engine shares the same stroke length as the other engines but has a smaller bore size of 3.52 in and lower compression ratio of 8.0:1. It ran on regular petrol and produced 104 kW at 4400 rpm and 270 Nm of torque at a low 1800 rpm.

Specifications:
 * Bore x Stroke Size: 3.52x3.68 in
 * Compression ratio: 8.0:1
 * Power: 104 kW at 4400 rpm
 * Torque: 270 Nm at 1800 rpm
 * Intake valve head diameter: 1.835 in
 * Exhaust valve head diameter: 1+1/2 in

title: Chrysler Hemi-6 Engine


text:
Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi

Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi (Білгород-Дністровський, ; Cetatea Albă; Белгород-Днестровский), historically known as Aq Kirmān (Akkerman) or by other names, is a port city in Odesa Oblast, southwestern Ukraine. It is situated on the right bank of the Dniester Estuary leading to the Black Sea, in the historical region of Budjak. It also serves as the administrative center of Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi Raion and is coterminous with Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi urban hromada, one of the hromadas of Ukraine. It is the location of a large freight seaport. Population:

Name
The city of Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi is also referred to by alternative transliterations from Ukrainian as Bilhorod-Dnistrovsky. Dnistrovsky was added to differentiate it from Belgorod (in Ukrainian Bilhorod), a city in Russia, when both were a part of the Soviet Union.

 * Previous names
 * Ophiussa (Οφιούσσα), Phoenician colony (meaning "city of snakes" in Greek)
 * Tyras (Τύρας), Ancient Greek colony (also the Greek name for the River Dniester)
 * Turis, Antes name
 * Asprokastron (Ἀσπρόκαστρον, "White Castle"), Greek name in Antiquity and the Middle Ages. Name attested from 944 to 1484 AD.
 * Maurokastron (Μαυρόκαστρον, "Black Castle"), Greek name of a Roman/Byzantine fort in Late Antiquity on a site directly opposite Asprokastron, but usually taken together.
 * Album Castrum ("White Castle"), Latin name
 * Cetatea Albă ("White Citadel"), Romanian name
 * Moncastro, Italian corruption of Maurokastron used by Genoese traders and during Genoese rule (14th–15th centuries)
 * Turla, Turkic
 * Akkerman, Ottoman Turkish ("White Castle") and Russian name until 1944
 * Aqkermen, Crimean Tatar name
 * Belgorod-Dnestrovskiy, Russian (Белгород-Днестровский, "White city on the Dniester")
 * Weißenburg, ("White Castle"), German name

The town became part of the Principality of Moldavia in 1359. The fortress was enlarged and rebuilt in 1407 under Alexander the Good and in 1440 under Stephen II of Moldavia. It fell to Ottoman conquest on August 5, 1487. The city was known in Romanian as Cetatea Albă with other languages using the Turkish name, Akkerman, or variations of the Turkish name. Since 1944 the city has been known as "Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi" (Білгород-Дністровський), while on the Soviet geography maps often translated into its Russian equivalent of "Belgorod-Dnestrovskiy" (Белгород-Днестровский), literally "white city on the Dniester".

The city is known by translations of "white city" or "castle" in a number of languages including Белгород Днестровски (Belgorod-Dnestrovski) in Bulgarian, Akerman (Акерман) in Gagauz, Białogród nad Dniestrem in Polish, Walachisch Weißenburg in Transylvanian German, Dnyeszterfehérvár in Hungarian and עיר לבן (Ir Lavan) in Hebrew.

In Western European languages, including English, the city has typically been known by the official name of the time or a transliteration derived from it.

The city's former name Akkerman is still extensively used as a nickname in informal speech and in local media.

History
In the 6th century BC, Milesian colonists founded a settlement named Tyras on the future location of Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi, which later came under Roman and Byzantine rule. In Late Antiquity, the Byzantines built a fortress and named it Asprokastron ("White Castle" - a meaning kept in several languages), but it passed out of their control in the 7th-15th centuries under control of Bulgaria, the cities called Belgorod (white city), as it was the border of the Bulgarian empire. The Voskresensk Chronicle lists Bilhorod "at the mouth of the Dniester, above the sea" among the towns controlled by Kievan Rus'.

In the 13th century the site was controlled by the Cumans, and became a center of Genoese commercial activity from c. 1290 on. Briefly held by the Second Bulgarian Empire in the early 14th century, by the middle of the century it was a Genoese colony. Sfântul Ioan cel Nou (Saint John the New), the patron saint of Moldavia, was martyred in the city in 1330 during a Tatar incursion. In 1391, Cetatea Albă was the last city on the right bank of the Dnister to be incorporated into the newly established Principality of Moldavia, and for the next century was its second major city, the major port and an important fortress.

In 1420, the citadel was attacked for the first time by the Ottomans, but defended successfully by Moldavian Prince Alexander the Kind.

In the 15th century, the port saw much commercial traffic as well as being frequently used for passenger traffic between central Europe and Constantinople. Among the travellers who passed through the town was John VIII Palaiologos. Following the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453, Sultan Mehmed II brought in colonists from Asprokastron to repopulate the city.

In 1484, along with Kiliia, it was the last of the Black Sea ports to be conquered by the Ottomans. The Moldavian prince Stephen the Great was unable to aid in its defence, being under threat of a Polish invasion. The citadel surrendered when the Ottomans claimed to have reached an agreement with Prince Stephen, and promised safe passage to the inhabitants and their belongings; however, most of the city-dwellers were slaughtered. Later, attempts by Stephen the Great to restore his rule over the area were unsuccessful. Cetatea Albă was subsequently a base from which the Ottomans were able to attack Moldavia proper. In 1485, Tatars setting out from this city founded Pazardzhik in Bulgaria. In 1570 (Hijri 977) the town of Akkerman was inhabited by Muslims, Christians and Jews. It had 55 Muslim households in 25 neighbourhoods and 113 Non-Muslim households in 9 neighbourhoods and it was a "has" of the Sultan, a land property that was directly owned by the Sultan. The castle of Akkerman also had a Jewish congregation and a Roma congregation.

It was established as the fortress of Akkerman, part of the Ottoman defensive system against Poland-Lithuania and, later, the Russian Empire. Major battles between the Ottomans and the Russians were fought near Akkerman in 1770 and 1789. Russia conquered the town in 1770, 1774, and 1806, but returned it after the conclusion of hostilities. It was not incorporated into Russia until 1812, along with the rest of Bessarabia.

On 25 September 1826, Russia and the Ottomans signed here the Akkerman Convention which imposed that the hospodars of Moldavia and Wallachia be elected by their respective Divans for seven-year terms, with the approval of both Powers.

During the Russian Revolution, Akkerman was alternatively under the control of the Ukrainian People's Republic and troops loyal to the government of Soviet Russia. Furthermore, the city and the surrounding district were also claimed by the Moldovan Democratic Republic, which however had no means to enforce such claims on the ground. The city was occupied by the Romanian Army on 9 March 1918, after heavy fighting with local troops led by the Bolsheviks. Formal integration followed later that month, when an assembly of the Moldovan Democratic Republic proclaimed the whole of Bessarabia united with Romania. In the interwar period, projects aimed to expand the city and the port were reviewed. Romania ceded the city to the Soviet Union on 28 June 1940 following the 1940 Soviet Ultimatum, but regained it on 28 July 1941 during the invasion of the USSR by the Axis forces in the course of the Second World War and had it within its boundaries until 22 August 1944 when the Red Army reoccupied the city. The Soviets partitioned Bessarabia, and its southern flanks (including Bilhorod/Belgorod) became part of the Ukrainian SSR, and after 1991, nowadays Ukraine.

Until 18 July 2020, Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi was incorporated as a city of oblast significance and the center of Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi Municipality. The municipality was abolished in July 2020 as part of the administrative reform of Ukraine, which reduced the number of raions of Odesa Oblast to seven. The area of Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi Municipality was merged into Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi Raion.

Jewish history
In Jewish sources, the city is referred as Weissenburg and Ir Lavan (meaning "white castle" in German and "white city" in Hebrew) as well as Akerman (אַקערמאַן). Karaite Jews lived there since the 16th century, some even claim the existence of Khazar Jews in the town as early as the 10th century. In 1897, 5,613 Jews lived in the city (19.9% of the total population). The town Jewish community was influenced mainly from the Jewish community of nearby Odesa. During a pogrom in 1905, eight Jews living in the city were killed. During World War II, most of the Jews living in the city fled to nearby Odesa, where they were later killed. The 800 Jews who were left in the city were shot to death in the nearby Leman River. Around 500 of the prewar town Jews survived the war, and around half of them returned to the city.

Demographics
As of 1920, the population was estimated at 35,000. 8,000 were Romanian, 8,000 were Jewish, and 5,000 were German. Additional populations included Turks, Greeks, Bulgarians and Russians.

According to the 2001 Ukrainian census, the majority of the city's population are Ukrainians (62.88%). Other communities include Russians (28.25%), Bulgarians (3.72%), Moldovans (1.89%), Gagauz (0.41%) and Romanians (0.02%). The language situation is notably different, with self-identified Russian-speakers representing a majority (54.52%), followed by speakers of Ukrainian (42.08%), Bulgarian (1.66%) and Moldovan (0.67%).

Climate
Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi has a humid continental climate (Köppen: Dfb bordering on Dfa.).

Notable people

 * Nicolas Astrinidis (1921-2010), composer who settled in Greece
 * Elena Cernei (1924–2000), Romanian opera singer
 * Mihail Crama (1923–1994), Romanian poet and prose writer
 * Oleksiy Kikireshko (born 1977), rally driver
 * Boris Levenson (1884-1947), composer and conductor
 * Vasyl Lomachenko (born 1988), Ukrainian professional boxer
 * Jacques Roitfeld (1889–1999), French film producer
 * Porfiriy Stamatov (1840–1925), Minister of Justice of Bulgaria (1881)
 * Tamara Tchinarova (1919-2017), ballet dancer
 * Nicolae Văcăroiu (born 1943), former Prime Minister of Romania
 * Osip Yermansky (1867-1941), Menshevik economist

Sister cities

 * 🇹🇷 TUR Fethiye, Turkey
 * 🇦🇲 ARM Vagharshapat, Armenia

title: Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi


text:
User talk:889a

Hello and welcome to Wikipedia! Hope you like it here, and stick around.

Here are some tips to help you get started:

 * To sign your posts (on talk pages, for example) use the '~' symbol. To insert just your name, type ~~~ (3 tildes), or, to insert your name and timestamp, use ~~~~ (4 tildes).
 * Try the Tutorial, and feel free to experiment in the test area.
 * If you need help, post a question at the Help Desk
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 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Remember Neutral point of view
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and, most importantly, have fun!

Good luck!

title: User talk:889a


text:
William Carey (missionary)

William Carey (17 August 1761 – 9 June 1834) was an English Christian missionary, Particular Baptist minister, translator, social reformer and cultural anthropologist who founded the Serampore College and the Serampore University, the first degree-awarding university in India.

He went to Calcutta (Kolkata) in 1793, but was forced to leave the British Indian territory by non-Baptist Christian missionaries. He joined the Baptist missionaries in the Danish colony of Frederiksnagore in Serampore. One of his first contributions was to start schools for impoverished children where they were taught reading, writing, accounting and Christianity. He opened the first theological university in Serampore offering divinity degrees, and campaigned to end the practice of sati.

Carey is known as the "father of modern missions." His essay, An Enquiry into the Obligations of Christians to Use Means for the Conversion of the Heathens, led to the founding of the Baptist Missionary Society. The Asiatic Society commended Carey for "his eminent services in opening the stores of Indian literature to the knowledge of Europe and for his extensive acquaintance with the science, the natural history and botany of this country and his useful contributions, in every branch."

He translated the Hindu classic, the Ramayana, into English, and the Bible into Bengali, Punjabi, Oriya, Assamese, Marathi, Hindi and Sanskrit. William Carey has been called a reformer and illustrious Christian missionary.

Early life
William Carey, the oldest of five children, was born to Edmund and Elizabeth Carey, who were weavers by trade, in the hamlet of Pury End in the parish of Paulerspury, Northamptonshire. William was raised in the Church of England; when he was six, his father was appointed the parish clerk and village schoolmaster. As a child he was inquisitive and keenly interested in the natural sciences, particularly botany. He possessed a natural gift for language, teaching himself Latin.

At the age of 14, Carey's father apprenticed him to a cordwainer in the nearby village of Piddington, Northamptonshire. His master, Clarke Nichols, was a churchman like himself, but another apprentice, John Warr, was a Dissenter. Through his influence Carey would leave the Church of England and join with other Dissenters to form a small Congregational church in nearby Hackleton. While apprenticed to Nichols, he also taught himself Greek with the help of Thomas Jones, a local weaver who had received a classical education.

When Nichols died in 1779, Carey went to work for the local shoemaker, Thomas Old; he married Old's sister-in-law Dorothy Plackett in 1781 in the Church of St John the Baptist, Piddington. Unlike William, Dorothy was illiterate; her signature in the marriage register is a crude cross. William and Dorothy Carey had seven children, five sons and two daughters; both girls died in infancy, as did son Peter, who died at the age of 5. Thomas Old himself died soon afterward, and Carey took over his business, during which time he taught himself Hebrew, Italian, Dutch, and French, often reading while working on the shoes.

Carey acknowledged his humble origins and referred to himself as a cobbler. John Brown Myers entitled his biography of Carey William Carey the Shoemaker Who Became the Father and Founder of Modern Missions.

Founding of the Baptist Missionary Society
Carey became involved with a local association of Particular Baptists that had recently formed, where he became acquainted with men such as John Ryland, John Sutcliff, and Andrew Fuller, who would become his close friends in later years. They invited him to preach in their church in the nearby village of Earls Barton every other Sunday. On 5 October 1783, William Carey was baptised by Ryland and committed himself to the Baptist denomination. In 1785, Carey was appointed the schoolmaster for the village of Moulton. He was also invited to serve as pastor to the local Baptist church. During this time he read Jonathan Edwards' Account of the Life of the Late Rev. David Brainerd and the journals of the explorer James Cook, and became concerned with propagating the Christian Gospel throughout the world. John Eliot (c. 1604 – 21 May 1690), Puritan missionary in New England, and David Brainerd (1718–47) became the "canonized heroes" and "enkindlers" of Carey.

In 1789 Carey, became the full-time pastor of Harvey Lane Baptist Church in Leicester. Three years later, in 1792, he published his groundbreaking missionary manifesto, An Enquiry into the Obligations of Christians to use Means for the Conversion of the Heathens. This short book consists of five parts. The first part is a theological justification for missionary activity, arguing that the command of Jesus to make disciples of all the world (Matthew 28:18-20) remains binding on Christians.

The second part outlines a history of missionary activity, beginning with the early Church and ending with David Brainerd and John Wesley.

Part 3 comprises 26 pages of tables, listing area, population, and religion statistics for every country in the world. Carey had compiled these figures during his years as a schoolteacher. The fourth part answers objections to sending missionaries, such as difficulty learning the language or danger to life. Finally, the fifth part calls for the formation by the Baptist denomination of a missionary society and describes the practical means by which it could be supported. Carey's seminal pamphlet outlines his basis for missions: Christian obligation, wise use of available resources, and accurate information.

Carey later preached a pro-missionary sermon (the Deathless Sermon), using Isaiah 54:2–3 as his text, in which he repeatedly used the epigram which has become his most famous quotation: Expect great things from God; attempt great things for God. Carey finally overcame the resistance to missionary effort, and the Particular Baptist Society for the Propagation of the Gospel Amongst the Heathen (subsequently the Baptist Missionary Society and since 2000 BMS World Mission) was founded in October 1792, including Carey, Andrew Fuller, John Ryland, and John Sutcliff as charter members. They then concerned themselves with practical matters such as raising funds, as well as deciding where they would direct their efforts. A medical missionary, Dr John Thomas, had been in Calcutta and was in England raising funds; they agreed to support him and that Carey would accompany him to India.

Missionary life in India

Carey, his eldest son Felix, Thomas and his wife and daughter sailed from London aboard a British ship in April 1793. Dorothy Carey had refused to leave England, being pregnant with their fourth son and having never been more than a few miles from home; but before they left they asked her again to come with them and she gave consent, with the knowledge that her sister Kitty would help her give birth. En route they were delayed at the Isle of Wight, at which time the captain of the ship received word that he endangered his command if he conveyed the missionaries to Calcutta, as their unauthorised journey violated the trade monopoly of the British East India Company. He decided to sail without them, and they were delayed until June when Thomas found a Danish captain willing to offer them passage. In the meantime, Carey's wife, who had by now given birth, agreed to accompany him provided her sister came as well. They landed at Calcutta in November.

During the first year in Calcutta, the missionaries sought means to support themselves and a place to establish their mission. They also began to learn the Bengali language to communicate with others. A friend of Thomas owned two indigo factories and needed managers, so Carey moved with his family west to Midnapore. During the six years that Carey managed the indigo plant, he completed the first revision of his Bengali New Testament and began formulating the principles upon which his missionary community would be formed, including communal living, financial self-reliance, and the training of indigenous ministers. His son Peter died of dysentery, which, along with other causes of stress, resulted in Dorothy suffering a nervous breakdown from which she never recovered.

Meanwhile, the missionary society had begun sending more missionaries to India. The first to arrive was John Fountain, who arrived in Midnapore and began teaching. He was followed by William Ward, a printer; Joshua Marshman, a schoolteacher; David Brunsdon, one of Marshman's students; and William Grant, who died three weeks after his arrival. Because the East India Company was still hostile to missionaries, they settled in the Danish colony in Serampore and were joined there by Carey on 10 January 1800.

Late Indian period

Once settled in Serampore, the mission bought a house large enough to accommodate all of their families and a school, which was to be their principal means of support. Ward set up a print shop with a secondhand press Carey had acquired and began the task of printing the Bible in Bengali. In August 1800 Fountain died of dysentery. By the end of that year, the mission had their first convert, a Hindu named Krishna Pal. They had also earned the goodwill of the local Danish government and Richard Wellesley, then Governor-General of India.

In May 1799 William Ward and Hannah and Joshua Marshman arrived from England and joined Carey in his work. The three men became known as the Serampore trio.

The conversion of Hindus to Christianity posed a new question for the missionaries concerning whether it was appropriate for converts to retain their caste. In 1802, the daughter of Krishna Pal, a Sudra, married a Brahmin. This wedding was a public demonstration that the church repudiated the caste distinctions.

Brunsdon and Thomas died in 1801. The same year, the Governor-General founded Fort William College, a college intended to educate civil servants. He offered Carey the position of professor of Bengali. Carey's colleagues at the college included pundits, whom he could consult to correct his Bengali testament. One of his colleagues was Madan Mohan who taught him the Sanskrit language. He also wrote grammars of Bengali and Sanskrit, and began a translation of the Bible into Sanskrit. He also used his influence with the Governor-General to help put a stop to the practices of infant sacrifice and suttee, after consulting with the pundits and determining that they had no basis in the Hindu sacred writings (although the latter would not be abolished until 1829).

Dorothy Carey died in 1807. Due to her debilitating mental breakdown, she had long since ceased to be an able member of the mission, and her condition was an additional burden to it. John Marshman wrote how Carey worked away on his studies and translations, "…while an insane wife, frequently wrought up to a state of most distressing excitement, was in the next room…".

Several friends and colleagues had urged William to commit Dorothy to an asylum. But he recoiled at the thought of the treatment she might receive in such a place and took the responsibility to keep her within the family home, even though the children were exposed to her rages.

In 1808 Carey remarried. His new wife Charlotte Rhumohr, a Danish member of his church was, unlike Dorothy, Carey's intellectual equal. They were married for 13 years until her death.

From the printing press at the mission came translations of the Bible in Bengali, Sanskrit, and other major languages and dialects. Many of these languages had never been printed before; William Ward had to create punches for the type by hand. Carey had begun translating literature and sacred writings from the original Sanskrit into English to make them accessible to his own countryman. On 11 March 1812, a fire in the print shop caused £10,000 in damages and lost work. Among the losses were many irreplaceable manuscripts, including much of Carey's translation of Sanskrit literature and a polyglot dictionary of Sanskrit and related languages, which would have been a seminal philological work had it been completed. However, the press itself and the punches were saved, and the mission was able to continue printing in six months. In Carey's lifetime, the mission printed and distributed the Bible in whole or part in 44 languages and dialects.

Also, in 1812, Adoniram Judson, an American Congregational missionary en route to India, studied the scriptures on baptism in preparation for a meeting with Carey. His studies led him to become a Baptist. Carey's urging of American Baptists to take over support for Judson's mission, led to the foundation in 1814 of the first American Baptist Mission board, the General Missionary Convention of the Baptist Denomination in the United States of America for Foreign Missions, later commonly known as the Triennial Convention. Most American Baptist denominations of today are directly or indirectly descended from this convention.

In 1818, the mission founded Serampore College to train indigenous ministers for the growing church and to provide education in the arts and sciences to anyone regardless of caste or country. Frederick VI, King of Denmark, granted a royal charter in 1827 that made the college a degree-granting institution, the first in Asia.

In 1820 Carey founded the Agri Horticultural Society of India at Alipore, Calcutta, supporting his enthusiasm for botany. When William Roxburgh went on leave, Carey was entrusted to maintain the Botanical Garden at Calcutta. The genus Careya was named after him.

Carey's second wife, Charlotte, died in 1821, followed by his eldest son Felix. In 1823 he married a third time, to a widow named Grace Hughes.

Internal dissent and resentment was growing within the Missionary Society as its numbers grew, the older missionaries died, and they were replaced by less experienced men. Some new missionaries arrived who were not willing to live in the communal fashion that had developed, one going so far as to demand "a separate house, stable and servants." Unused to the rigorous work ethic of Carey, Ward, and Marshman, the new missionaries thought their seniors - particularly Marshman - to be dictatorial, assigning them work not to their liking.

Andrew Fuller, who had been secretary of the Society in England, had died in 1815, and his successor, John Dyer, was a bureaucrat who attempted to reorganise the Society along business lines and manage every detail of the Serampore mission from England. Their differences proved to be irreconcilable, and Carey formally severed ties with the missionary society he had founded, leaving the mission property and moving onto the college grounds. He lived a quiet life until his death in 1834, revising his Bengali Bible, preaching, and teaching students. The couch on which he died, on 9 June 1834, is now housed at Regent's Park College, the Baptist hall of the University of Oxford.

Life in India
Much of what is known about Carey's activities in India is from missionary reports sent back home. Historians such as Comaroffs, Thorne, Van der Veer and Brian Pennington note that the representation of India in these reports must be examined in their context and with care for its evangelical and colonial ideology. The reports by Carey were conditioned by his background, personal factors and his own religious beliefs. The polemic notes and observations of Carey, and his colleague William Ward, were in a community suffering from extreme poverty and epidemics, and they constructed a view of the culture of India and Hinduism in light of their missionary goals. These reports were by those who had declared their conviction in foreign missionary work, and the letters describe experiences of foreigners who were resented by both the Indian populace as well as European officials and competing Christian groups. Their accounts of culture and Hinduism were forged in Bengal that was physically, politically and spiritually difficult to preach in. Pennington summarises the accounts reported by Carey and his colleagues as follows,

Plagued with anxieties and fears about their own health, regularly reminded of colleagues who had lost their lives or reason, uncertain of their own social location, and preaching to crowds whose reactions ranged from indifference to amusement to hostility, missionaries found expression for their darker misgivings in their production of what is surely part of their speckled legacy: a fabricated Hinduism crazed by blood-lust and devoted to the service of devils.

Carey recommended that his fellow Anglo-Indians learn and interpret Sanskrit in a manner "compatible with colonial aims", writing that "to gain the ear of those who are thus deceived, it is necessary for them to believe that the speaker has a superior knowledge of the subject. In these circumstances, knowledge of Sanskrit is valuable." According to Indian historian V. Rao, Carey lacked tolerance, understanding and respect for Indian culture, with him describing Indian music as "disgusting" and bringing to mind practices "dishonorable" to God. Such attitudes affected the literature authored by Carey and his colleagues.

Family history
Biographies of Carey, such as those by F. D. Walker and J. B. Myers, only allude to Carey's distress caused by the mental illness and subsequent breakdown suffered by his wife, Dorothy, in the early years of their ministry in India. More recently, Beck's biography of Dorothy Carey paints a more detailed picture: William Carey uprooted his family from all that was familiar and sought to settle them in one of the most unlikely and difficult cultures in the world for an uneducated eighteenth century British working-class woman. Faced with enormous difficulties in adjusting to all of this change, she failed to make the adjustment emotionally and ultimately, mentally, and her husband seemed to be unable to help her through all of this because he just did not know what to do about it. Carey even wrote to his sisters in England on 5 October 1795, that "I have been for some time past in danger of losing my life. Jealousy is the great evil that haunts her mind."

Dorothy's mental breakdown ("at the same time William Carey was baptizing his first Indian convert and his son Felix, his wife was forcefully confined to her room, raving with madness" ) led inevitably to other family problems. Joshua Marshman was appalled by the neglect with which Carey treated his four boys when he first met them in 1800. Aged 4, 7, 12 and 15, they were unmannered, undisciplined, and even uneducated.

Eschatology
Besides Iain Murray's study, The Puritan Hope, less attention has been paid in Carey's numerous biographies to his postmillennial eschatology as expressed in his major missionary manifesto, notably not even in Bruce J. Nichols' article "The Theology of William Carey." Carey was a Calvinist." and a postmillennialist. Even the two dissertations which discuss his achievements (by Oussoren and Potts ) ignore large areas of his theology. Neither mention his eschatological views, which played a major role in his missionary zeal. One exception, found in James Beck's biography of his first wife, mentions his personal optimism in the chapter on "Attitudes Towards the Future," but not his optimistic perspective on world missions, which he derived from postmillennial theology.

Translation, education and schools
Carey devoted great efforts and time to the study not only of the common language of Bengali, but to many other Indian vernaculars including the ancient root language of Sanskrit. In collaboration with the College of Fort William, Carey undertook the translation of the Hindu classics into English, beginning with the three-volume epic poem the Ramayana. He then translated the Bible into Bengali, Oriya, Marathi, Hindi, Assamese, Sanskrit and parts of it into other dialects and languages. For 30 years Carey served in the college as the professor of Bengali, Sanskrit and Marathi, publishing, in 1805, the first book on Marathi grammar.

The Serampore Mission Press that Carey founded is credited as the only press which "consistently thought it important enough that costly fonts of type be cast for the irregular and neglected languages of the Indian people.". Carey and his team produced textbooks, dictionaries, classical literature and other publications which served primary school children, college-level students and the general public, including the first systematic Sanskrit grammar which served a model for later publications.

In the latter 1700s and early 1800s in India, only children of certain social strata received education, and even that was limited to basic accounting and Hindu religion. Only the Brahmins and writer castes could read, and then only men, women being completely unschooled. Carey started Sunday Schools in which children learned to read using the Bible as their textbook. In 1794 Carey opened, at his own cost, what is considered the first primary school in all of India. The public school system that Carey initiated expanded to include girls in an era when the education of the female was considered unthinkable. Carey's work is considered to have provided the starting point of what blossomed into the Christian Vernacular Education Society providing English medium education across India.

Legacy and influence
William Carey spent 41 years in India without a furlough. His mission counted some 700 converts in a nation of millions, but he had laid an impressive foundation of Bible translations, education, and social reform. He has been referred to as the "father of modern missions", and as "India's first cultural anthropologist."

His teaching, translations, writings and publications, his educational establishments and influence in social reform are said to have "marked the turning point of Indian culture from a downward to an upward trend." "[Carey] saw India not as a foreign country to be exploited, but as his heavenly Father's land to be loved and saved... he believed in understanding and controlling nature instead of fearing, appeasing or worshipping it; in developing one's intellect instead of killing it as mysticism taught. He emphasized enjoying literature and culture instead of shunning it as maya."

Carey was instrumental in launching Serampore College in Serampore.

Carey's passionate insistence on change resulted in the founding of the Baptist Missionary Society.

Carey has at least eleven schools named after him: William Carey Christian School (WCCS) in Sydney, NSW, William Carey International University, founded in 1876 in Pasadena, California, Carey Theological College in Vancouver, British Columbia, Carey Baptist College in Auckland, New Zealand, Carey Baptist Grammar School in Melbourne, Victoria, Carey College in Colombo, Sri Lanka, William Carey University, founded in Hattiesburg, Mississippi, in 1892, and Carey Baptist College in Perth, Australia. The William Carey Academy of Chittagong, Bangladesh teaches both Bangladeshi and expatriate children, from kindergarten to grade 12, and the William Carey Memorial School, (A Co-ed English Medium), operates in Serampore, Hooghly. An English medium school named William Carey International School was established on 17 August 2008 in Dhaka, Bangladesh.

Artefacts
St James Church in Paulerspury, Northamptonshire, where Carey was christened and attended as a boy, has a William Carey display. Carey Baptist Church in Moulton, Northamptonshire, also has a display of artefacts related to William Carey, as well as the nearby cottage where he lived.

In Leicester, Harvey Lane Baptist Church, the last church in England where Carey served before he left for India, was destroyed by a fire in 1921. Carey's nearby cottage had served as a 'Memories of Carey' museum from 1915 until it was destroyed to make way for a new road system in 1968. Artefacts from the museum were given to Central Baptist Church in Charles Street, Leicester which houses the William Carey Museum.

Angus Library and Archive in Oxford holds the largest single collection of Carey letters as well as numerous artefacts such as his Bible and the sign from his cordwainer shop. There is a large collection of historical artefacts including letters, books, and other artefacts that belonged to Carey at the Center for Study of the Life and Work of William Carey at Donnell Hall on the William Carey University Hattiesburg campus.

title: William Carey (missionary)


text:
National Special Security Event

A National Special Security Event (NSSE) is an event of national or international significance deemed by the United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS) to be a potential target for terrorism or other criminal activity. These events have included summits of world leaders, meetings of international organizations, presidential nominating conventions and presidential inaugurations. NSSE designation requires federal agencies to provide full cooperation and support to ensure the safety and security of those participating in or otherwise attending the event, and the community within which the event takes place, and is typically limited to specific event sites for a specified time frame.

An NSSE places the United States Secret Service as the lead agency in charge of the planning, coordination, and implementation of security operations for the event, the Federal Bureau of Investigation in charge of intelligence, counterterrorism, and investigation of major criminal activities associated with the event, and the Federal Emergency Management Agency in charge of recovery management in the aftermath of terrorism, major criminal activities, natural disasters, or other catastrophic incidents following the event. Like the FBI and FEMA, the Secret Service brings in local law enforcement, public safety, and military experts to assist with developing the plan, and give them the special guidance and training to operate within the security plan. NSSE designation is not a funding mechanism, and currently there is no specific federal "pot of money" to be distributed to state and local governments within whose jurisdiction NSSEs take place.

Authority
NSSE procedures were established by President Bill Clinton in a portion of Presidential Decision Directive 62 in May 1998, which set out the security roles for federal agencies at major events. The Presidential Threat Protection Act of 2000 (, signed into law on 2000-12-19) added special events explicitly to the powers of the United States Secret Service in.

Procedure
A number of factors are taken into consideration when designating an event as a National Special Security Event. Department of Homeland Security press releases usually cite the following factors:

 * Anticipated attendance by dignitaries. Events attended by officials of the United States government or foreign dignitaries may create an independent federal interest to ensure that the event transpires without incident and that sufficient resources are brought to bear in the event of an incident.
 * Size of the event. A large number of attendees and participants generally increases security requirements. In addition, larger events are more likely to draw the attention of terrorists or other criminals, particularly those interested in employing weapons of mass destruction.
 * Significance of the event. Some events have historical, political, cultural, or other symbolic significance that may heighten concern about possible terrorist acts or other criminal activity.
 * Duration of the event. State and local law enforcement and public safety agencies may possess the manpower and other resources to provide adequate security for a major event within their jurisdiction (e.g. World Series, NASCAR race, Super Bowl, televised awards show), but unable to do so for events over several days or weeks and at the same time continue to meet routine obligations in the greater community.
 * Availability of state and local resources. When state and local jurisdictions lack the expertise, experience, manpower or other assets needed to ensure comprehensive protection of these major events of national or international significance.
 * Multiplicity of Jurisdictions. Extensive coordination of law enforcement and public safety agencies from multiple jurisdictions.
 * Threat assessments. Anticipation of terrorism, or extensive illegal civil disobedience or other criminal activity.

Typical NSSE security measures include:

 * Interagency coordination and interoperability
 * Heavy police (days off and leaves may be canceled) and often National Guard presence
 * Police dogs for bomb detection
 * Surveillance
 * WMD detection, mitigation, and decontamination
 * Sharpshooters and other tactical capabilities
 * Flight restrictions around the area
 * United States Coast Guard patrols
 * Increased railroad security
 * Extensive road closures
 * When applicable members of Joint Task Force - Civil Support and the Chemical Biological Incident Response Force (CBIRF) are deployed

The Secret Service notes that since the "Presidential Protection Act of 2000 became public law...the Secret Service is authorized to participate in the planning, coordination and implementation of security operations at special events of national significance....[and that] when an event is designated by the Secretary of Homeland Security as a National Special Security Event (NSSE), the Secret Service assumes its mandated role as the lead agency for the design and implementation of the operational security plan...The goal of the cooperating agencies is to provide a safe and secure environment for Secret Service protectees, other dignitaries, the event participants and the general public. There is a tremendous amount of advance planning and coordination in preparation for these events."

Events
paragraph (e)(2) requires that, at the end of each federal fiscal year, the executive branch report to Congress which events were designated NSSEs, and what criteria were used to make the designations.

Typical types of NSSEs are state funerals, major political conventions, and the State of the Union addresses. The table below lists some NSSEs since enactment of the relevant statute.

title: National Special Security Event


text:
Ivan Bella

Ivan Bella (born 21 May 1964) is a Slovak Air Force officer who became the first Slovak citizen to fly in space. He participated in an eight-day joint Russian-French-Slovak mission to the Mir space station in 1999.

Education and military career
Bella graduated from military school in 1983 and subsequently graduated from Košice Military Academy in 1987. He rose to the rank of lieutenant colonel in the Slovak Republic Army as a pilot at the 33rd Air Force Base in Malacky, Slovakia.

Spaceflight
Bella began training as a research cosmonaut on 25 March 1998. He completed his training successfully at the Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Centre in August of the same year.

Bella launched along with mission commander Viktor Afanasyev and flight engineer Jean-Pierre Haigneré on the Soyuz TM-29 mission on 20 February 1999. TM-29 arrived at Mir on 22 February. While on board the station Bella performed various scientific experiments as well as experiments involving the possibility of survival of Japanese quails during long flights. Bella spent just over a week in space and returned to earth on 28 February aboard Soyuz TM-28 along with fellow crew member Gennady Padalka.

Diplomatic career
In 2004, Bella was appointed to serve as a military attaché for Slovakia in Moscow, Russia.

title: Ivan Bella


text:
United States District Court for the Western District of New York

The United States District Court for the Western District of New York (in case citations, W.D.N.Y.) is the federal district court whose jurisdiction comprises the western parts of Upstate New York.

Appeals are taken to the Second Circuit (except for patent claims and claims against the U.S. government under the Tucker Act, which are appealed to the Federal Circuit).

Jurisdiction
The Western District of New York includes the following counties: Allegany, Cattaraugus, Chautauqua, Chemung, Erie, Genesee, Livingston, Monroe, Niagara, Ontario, Orleans, Schuyler, Seneca, Steuben, Wayne, Wyoming, and Yates. Cities within its jurisdiction include Buffalo, Rochester, and Elmira. From 1904 to 1916, the court met at the United States Post Office (Lockport, New York).

Buffalo Division comprises the following counties: Allegany, Cattaraugus, Chautauqua, Erie, Genesee, Niagara, Orleans, and Wyoming.

Rochester Division comprises the following counties: Chemung, Livingston, Monroe, Ontario, Schuyler, Seneca, Steuben, Wayne, and Yates.

The United States government is represented in the district by the United States Attorney for the Western District of New York. the U.S. attorney is Trini E. Ross.


text:
Jaz

Jaz or JAZ may refer to:

People

 * Jaz (singer), Bruneian singer
 * Jazmin Carlin (born 1990), Welsh swimmer
 * Jaz Brisack, American barista and labor organizer
 * Jaz Coleman (born 1960), English musician and record producer
 * Jaz Deol, British actor
 * Jaz Dhami, British-Indian singer
 * Jaz Hedgeland, Australian triathlete
 * Jaz Lochrie, Scottish musician
 * Jaz O'Hara, British human rights activist
 * Jaz Rabadia MBE, Energy professional
 * Jaz Rai, British Aerospace engineer and chairperson of the Sikh Recovery Network
 * Jaz Shelley (born 2000), Australian basketball player
 * Jaz Sinclair (born 1994), American actor

Places

 * Jaz, Hormozgan, a village in Hormozgan Province, Iran
 * Jezeh, Isfahan, a village in Hormozgan Province, Iran, also known as Jaz
 * Gaz, Iran, a city in Isfahan Province, Iran, also known as Jaz
 * Jaz (island), a Croatian island
 * Jaz Beach, on the Montenegro Riviera

Other uses

 * Jaz drive, a disk storage system
 * Jaz (beer), Malaysia's only locally brewed beer
 * JALways (JAZ), a Japanese airline
 * ISO 639-3 code for the Jawe language of New Caledonia
 * Jaz Hoyt, a fictional character in the American television series Oz
 * Jaz Milvane, one of the principal characters on the BBC Radio 4 series Ed Reardon's Week

title: Jaz


text:
Extreme points of Canada

The following lists include extreme and significant points of the geography of Canada.

All Canada

 * Northernmost point — Cape Columbia, Ellesmere Island, Nunavut 83.11139°N, -69.95833°W
 * Southernmost point — South point of Middle Island, Ontario, in Lake Erie 41.68139°N, -82.68222°W
 * Easternmost point — Cape Spear, Newfoundland 47.52361°N, -52.61944°W
 * Westernmost point — Boundary Peak 187, Yukon 60.30639°N, -141.00194°W

Non-insular (mainland) Canada

 * Northernmost point — Zenith Point, Nunavut 72°N, -94.64972°W
 * Southernmost point — Point Pelee, Ontario 41.90917°N, -82.50889°W
 * Easternmost point — Cape Saint Charles, Labrador 52.2175°N, -55.62083°W
 * Westernmost point — Boundary Peak 187, Yukon 60.30639°N, -141.00194°W

Highest points

 * Mount Logan Yukon 60.57583°N, -140.40278°W — highest Canadian summit at 5959 m
 * Barbeau Peak, Ellesmere Island, Nunavut 81.90833°N, -75.025°W — highest Canadian island summit and highest summit of the Canadian Arctic at 2616 m

Lowest points

 * Coastline — lowest Canadian surface point at sea level
 * Great Slave Lake bottom, Northwest Territories 61.66667°N, -114°W — lowest fresh water point of North America at -458 m

Islands

 * Baffin Island, Nunavut 63.55°N, -65.43333°W — most extensive Canadian island at 507,451 km2
 * Ellesmere Island, Nunavut 81.92667°N, -74.98667°W — tallest Canadian island at 2616 m
 * Island of Newfoundland, Newfoundland and Labrador 49°N, -56°W — most extensive Canadian Atlantic island at 108,860 km2
 * Vancouver Island, British Columbia 49.5°N, -125.5°W — most extensive Canadian Pacific island at 31,285 km2
 * Manitoulin Island in Lake Huron, Ontario 45.76667°N, -82.2°W — most extensive lake island on Earth at 2,766 km2

Lakes

 * Lake Superior, Ontario 47.75°N, -87.5°W — most voluminous lake of Western Hemisphere at 11,600 km3
 * Great Slave Lake, Northwest Territories 61.66667°N, -114°W — deepest lake of Western Hemisphere at 614 m
 * Lake Michigan–Huron, Ontario 45.81667°N, -84.75°W — by some considerations the most extensive lake of Western Hemisphere and the most extensive freshwater lake on Earth at 117400 km2
 * Nettilling Lake on Baffin Island, Nunavut 66.5°N, -70.83333°W — most extensive lake on an island on Earth at 5,066 km2
 * Lake Manitou on Manitoulin Island in Lake Huron, Ontario 45.77833°N, -81.99167°W — most extensive lake on an island in a lake on Earth at 104 km2
 * Upper Dumbell Lake on Ellesmere Island Nunavut 82.46667°N, -62.5°W — most northern lake, there are more northern lakes but they are all unnamed and are only shown on detailed maps.

Rivers

 * Yukon River, British Columbia, Yukon, and Alaska 62.59861°N, -164.79444°W — longest Bering Sea main stem river at 3,185 km
 * Nelson River, Manitoba 57.08472°N, -92.50222°W — longest Hudson Bay main stem river at 2,575 km
 * Columbia River, British Columbia 46.24417°N, -124.05806°W — longest Canadian Pacific Ocean main stem river at 2,000 km
 * Mackenzie River, Northwest Territories 68.93972°N, -136.17278°W — longest Canadian Arctic Ocean main stem river at 1,738 km
 * Saint Lawrence River, Ontario and Quebec 49.66667°N, -64.5°W — longest Canadian Atlantic Ocean main stem river at 965 km

Extreme distances

 * Greatest driving distance between any two points via the Canadian road network (including the Trans-Canada Highway Ferry): 9262 km from L'Anse Aux Meadows, Newfoundland and Labrador to Tuktoyatuk, Northwest Territories.
 * Greatest driving distance between any two points via the Canadian road network (excluding the Trans-Canada Highway Ferry): 9156 km from Old Fort, Quebec to Tuktoyatuk, Northwest Territories.

title: Extreme points of Canada


text:
User:Darksun

You may be interested in some of the following. But you probably just want to go to my talk page.

 * My contributions
 * My first edit - August 2004
 * Countries I've visited
 * Some of my friends who have Wikipedia accounts
 * My sandbox

This is a Wiki. Please feel free to edit this page

title: User:Darksun


text:
BVT

BVT may refer to:
 * The Bobby Van Trust, a group of charities that improve home security in the UK
 * BVT Surface Fleet, former name of BAE Systems Maritime – Naval Ships, British naval shipbuilding company
 * Bandwidth-variable transponder, a type of transponder used in optical networks
 * The Beaverton Valley Times, a weekly newspaper in Oregon, United States
 * Bee venom therapy, a type of apitherapy
 * Blackstone Valley Regional Vocational Technical High School, a technical high school in Upton, Massachusetts
 * BVT, ISO 3166-1 alpha-3 country code for Bouvet Island
 * Borrowed Virtual Time, a soft real-time algorithm for Scheduling (computing)
 * Bournville Village Trust, the governing body of Bournville, England
 * Brevet (military), a warrant authorizing a commissioned officer to hold a higher rank temporarily
 * Build verification test, a procedure in software testing
 * Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz und Terrorismusbekämpfung (Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution and Counterterrorism), Austria's intelligence agency
 * Black Velvet Travel, a bus company in Hampshire, England.
 * Bek Vol Tanden, Dutch expression
 * Boundary volume tree, another name for Bounding volume hierarchy
 * BVT Publishing, an American publisher of textbooks

title: BVT


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Șimleu Silvaniei

Șimleu Silvaniei (Szilágysomlyó, Schomlenmarkt) is a town in Sălaj County, Crișana, Romania with a population of 13,948 people (2021 census). It is located near the ancient Dacian fortress Dacidava.

Three villages are administered by the town: Bic (Bükk), Cehei (Somlyócsehi), and Pusta (Csehipuszta).

Ancient times
Before the Roman conquest of Dacia, Șimleu was a political, social and administrative Dacian centre, of high importance. Seven Dacian fortresses, some with associated settlements, were arranged in an arc shape around the hills of Șimleu. They had a strategic role in supervising the trade along the salt road coming from areas around Napoca, Potaissa, and modern Dej, and heading to Pannonia.

The centre of an early Gepidia, on the plains northwest of the Meseș Mountains, appears to have been located around Șimleu Silvaniei, where early 5th-century precious objects of Roman provenance have been unearthed.

Middle Ages
The town was mentioned in 1258 as Wathasomlyowa. The name means "Wata's mountain"; the name Wata is of Old Turkish origin, while somlyowa is an archaic Hungarian word for mountain(side).

The town belonged to the Báthory family, whose ancestral castle stood here. The castle was built by Miklós, voivode of Transylvania in the early 13th century and was first mentioned in 1319. After the Báthory family built a mansion in the town in 1592, the castle became deserted and today lies in ruins.

The Catholic church was built in 1534 by Transylvania's voivode Báthory István and his wife Telegdy Katalin with the occasion of their son's birth. Holy Trinity Statue was built in 1772. The Reformed church was rebuilt between 1729 and 1736. The synagogue was built in 1876.

The mansion was occupied by Giorgio Basta from Zsigmond Báthory in 1600. It was occupied by the Ottomans in 1660 and was part of Varat Eyalet until 1692. In 1703 it was occupied by Kurucs.

From 1876 to 1920, Șimleu Silvaniei was part of the Szilágy County of the Kingdom of Hungary.

The Greek Catholic Vicariate of Șimleu Silvaniei was formed in 1910 and in 1817 the vicariate opened its own school. George Tatu (1810-1824), Georgiu Abraham (1824-1828), Isidor Alpini (1828-1835), Alexandru Sterca-Șuluțiu (1836-1850), Demetriu Coroianu (1850-1873), Alimpiu Barboloviciu (1873-1914), Alexandru Ghetie (1914-1922), Emil Bran (1926-1932), Petru Cupcea (1932-1940), Cornel Darabant (1940-1945), Gheorghe Țurcaș (2004-2009) served as vicars of Șimleu Silvaniei. The old Greek Catholic church was destroyed by a storm in 1866. Notre Dame Church was built between 1871 and 1873.

In 1919, the Simion Bărnuțiu National College, the first Romanian language high school in Sălaj County was founded here, and today the town is home to three high schools.

In 1940, Șimleu Silvaniei, along with the rest of Northern Transylvania, was given to Hungary through the Second Vienna Award imposed by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy; Romania regained the area in 1944.

Since 1997, inside Bic Monastery, there is the wooden church from Stâna; built in 1778 it has a rectangular plan with nave and pronave.

Holocaust
The Cehei ghetto operated within the town's administrative area. The ghetto was one of the Nazi-era ghettos for European Jews during World War II. It was active in the spring of 1944, following Operation Margarethe. The deportations from Cehei took place in three transports: May 31 (3,106), June 3 (3,161) and June 6 (1,584), with a total of 7,851 Jews sent to Auschwitz. Some 1,200 Sălaj Jews survived the Holocaust but later emigrated from Romania, so that by the 2000s, under fifty Jews remained in the county.

Population
At the 2021 census, Șimleu Silvaniei had a population of 13,948. According to the census from 2011, there were 14,436 people living within the town; of those, 66.77% were ethnic Romanians, while 22.87% were ethnic Hungarians, 9.82% ethnic Romani, and 0.51% others. At the 1910 census, out of 6,885 inhabitants, 6,030 were Hungarians (87,58%) and 759 were Romanians (11,02%).

2012 election
The Șimleu Silvaniei Council, elected in the 2012 local government election, is made up of 17 councilors, with the following party composition: 7-Democratic Party, 4-Social Democratic Party, 3-Democratic Alliance of Hungarians in Romania, 2-National Liberal Party, and 1-People's Party – Dan Diaconescu.

2008 election
The mayor Septimiu Țurcaș was elected in the second round of 2008 local government election.

2004 election
The mayor Septimiu Țurcaș was elected for the first time in 2004 local government election as a member of the Democratic Liberal Party and re-elected in 2008 and 2012.

Mayors

 * József Udvari
 * Octavian Guțu (b. February 23, 1946) was elected in 2000.
 * Septimiu Țurcaș (b. September 6, 1968) was elected in 2004, 2008, 2012, 2016 and 2020.
 * Mihai-Cristian Lazar was elected in 2021.

Flora and fauna
Cehei Pond Nature Reserve is a protected area with aquatic vegetation and fauna within the town's administrative area.

Sights to see

 * Cehei Pond (18.20 ha)
 * Castle ruins
 * Báthory mansion (16th century)
 * Roman Catholic church (1532)
 * Northern Transylvania Holocaust Memorial Museum
 * Wooden Church, Cehei

Notable people

 * Liviu Antal (born 1989) a Romanian footballer with 400 club caps.
 * Andrew Báthory (ca.1562–1599) a Cardinal-deacon and Prince of Transylvania in 1599.
 * Christopher Báthory (1530–1581) voivode of Transylvania from 1576 to 1581.
 * Sophia Báthory, (died 1680), notable member of the Somlyó branch of the Báthory family.
 * Stephen Báthory (1533–1586) Prince of Transylvania, King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania (1576–1586).
 * György Bölöni (1882–1959), Hungarian writer and journalist.
 * Zoltan Farmati (1924–2006) a Romanian footballer with 219 club caps and 21 for Romania.
 * Elly Gross (born 1929) a Holocaust survivor and public speaker in the United States.
 * Gisella Grosz (1875–1942) a Hungarian classical pianist.
 * Miklós Nyiszli (1901–1956) a Hungarian prisoner of Jewish heritage at Auschwitz.
 * Joe Pasternak (1901–1991) a Hungarian-American film producer in Hollywood.

Twin towns — sister cities
Șimleu Silvaniei is twinned with:

Climate
Șimleu Silvaniei has a humid continental climate (Cfb in the Köppen climate classification).

title: Șimleu Silvaniei


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Cehu Silvaniei

Cehu Silvaniei (Szilágycseh) is a town in Sălaj County, Crișana, Romania. Four villages are administered by the town: Horoatu Cehului (Oláhhorvát), Motiș (Mutos), Nadiș (Szilágynádasd), and Ulciug (Völcsök).

History of the town
The first written mention of the town dates from 1319 under the name Cheevar. In 1405, the city was mentioned under the name Chehy. The Hungarian name of the city referred to a stand of Czech origin.

The town was until 1918 part of the Kingdom of Hungary and specifically of the Principality of Transylvania. In 1529, the voviode István Báthory granted the city the right to govern itself.

After the dissolution of the principality of Transylvania in 1867 and its direct integration into the Austro-Hungarian Empire as part of Hungary (see the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867), the city is attached to Szilágy County in 1876. In 1918, during the disintegration of the empire at the end of World War I, the city became part of the Kingdom of Romania.

From 1940 to 1944 it was annexed by Hungary as a result of the Second Vienna Award. In May 1944, its Jewish community was exterminated by the Nazis during several deportations to Auschwitz.

At the end of World War II, the city was incorporated into Romania again.

The city has long been an agricultural center. In 1968, during the country's administrative reorganization, it acquired city status and then industrialization take place (textiles, furniture).

Climate
Cehu Silvaniei has a humid continental climate (Cfb in the Köppen climate classification).

Demographics
At the 2021 census, Cehu Silvaniei had a population of 6,369. At the 2011 census, there were 7,130 inhabitants; of those, 50.4% were Hungarians, 44.5% Romanians, and 4.9% Roma. At the same census, 47% were Romanian Orthodox, 44.4% Reformed, 3.5% Roman Catholic, 2.4% belonged to "another religion" and 1% Baptist.

Hungarian Reformed Church of Cehu-Silvaniei - national monument
Probably members of two families, Miklós Drágffy and his wife, and Eufémia Jakcs or their son, Bertalan, later voivod of Transylvania (1493–98) built the church somewhere in the middle of the second half of the 15th century. Governor Drágffy János (1525–26) was an important patron of the church: he made some changes on the church in 1519, and had a lombard-patterned renaissance sedile made for it in 1522.

In 1614, due to the generosity of Prépostváry Zsigmond and his wife Széchy Katalin, the rules of the market-town then, the tower at the western façade is built, as shown by the escutcheoned memorial tablet on its southern wall. The medieval nave is enlarged in 1801, and then 1905, with square side-aisles and the interior gets a classicist proportions. This church is a national monument classified with number SJ-II-m-A-05034.

Jewish cemetery
The Jewish cemetery is located at Cehu Silvaniei, Cloșca Str. no. 8, Sălaj County, 249.1 miles NNW of Bucharest and 34 km from Zalău.

The 1850 Jewish population by census was 63, in 1857 was 66, in 1880 was 206, in 1900 was 369, in 1910 was 517, and in 1930 was 551. In May 1944, the Jews were gathered in the ghetto that the Nazis and their collaborators set up near Cehu Silvaniei (the Cehei ghetto, outside Șimleu Silvaniei), and on May 31 and June 6, 8 they were deported to Auschwitz. The unlandmarked Orthodox cemetery was established in the 19th century. The last known burial was in the 20th century.

The isolated suburban flat land has no sign or marker. Reached via private road, access is open with permission. A fence with a gate that locks surrounds the site. Approximate 1-20 stones are visible, some not in original location with 25%-50% of the stones being toppled or broken. The location of the stones that have been removed from the cemetery is unknown. Vegetation overgrowth in the cemetery is a seasonal problem preventing access. Water drainage is good all year. There are no special sections.

The oldest known gravestone dates from the 19th century. The 19th and 20th century marble, granite, sandstone, and limestone boulders, flat and shaped, smoothed and inscribed, carved relief decorated gravestones have Hebrew inscriptions. Some have traces of painting on their surfaces. No known mass graves. The national Jewish community owns the property used for Jewish cemetery only. Adjacent properties are residential. The cemetery maintenance worked on the re-erection of stones, patching broken stones, cleaning stones, and clearing vegetation. Current care involves occasional clearing or cleaning of the cemetery by unpaid individuals. There are no structures.

Natives

 * Alexandru Koller (born 1953), football player, businessman
 * Agi Mishol (born 1947), Israeli poet
 * Iosif Șilimon (1918–1981), aircraft designer

title: Cehu Silvaniei


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User talk:Exonumia

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Sergey Avdeev

Sergei Vasilyevich Avdeyev (Сергей Васильевич Авдеев; born 1 January 1956) is a former Russian engineer and cosmonaut.

Avdeyev was born in Chapayevsk, Samara Oblast (formerly Kuybyshev Oblast), Russian SFSR. He graduated from Moscow Engineering Physics Institute in 1979 as an engineer-physicist. From 1979 to 1987 he worked as an engineer for NPO Energiya. He was selected as a cosmonaut as part of the Energia Engineer Group 9 on 26 March 1987. His basic cosmonaut training was from December 1987 through to July 1989. He retired as a cosmonaut on 14 February 2003.

Avdeyev at one point held the record for cumulative time spent in space with 747.59 days in Earth orbit, accumulated through three tours of duty aboard the Mir Space Station. He has orbited the Earth 11,968 times traveling about 515,000,000 kilometers. In August 2005, this record was taken by another cosmonaut, Sergei K. Krikalev; it has since been surpassed by other cosmonauts, the current record holder being Oleg Kononenko since February 2024.

Avdeyev is married with two children. He is an amateur radio operator, and his call sign is RV3DW.

Time dilation record
For a long time, Avdeyev held the record for time dilation experienced by a human being. In his 747 days aboard Mir, cumulative across three missions, he went approximately 27,360 km/h and thus aged roughly 0.02 seconds (20 milliseconds) slower from an Earthbound person's perspective, which is considerably more than any other human being, except Sergei Krikalev. This is due to the special relativistic effect of time dilation and is not properly thought of as time travelling as described by mainstream culture. A common misconception is that the Apollo program astronauts hold the record—they did go faster than Avdeyev, but they were only in space for a few days.

Spaceflights

 * Soyuz TM-15 – 27 July 1992 to 1 February 1993 – 188 days, 21 hours, 41 minutes, 15 seconds
 * Soyuz TM-22 – 3 September 1995 to 29 February 1996 – 179 days, 1 hour, 41 minutes, 45 seconds
 * Soyuz TM-28 and Soyuz TM-29 – 13 August 1998 to 28 August 1999 – 379 days, 14 hours, 51 minutes, 9 seconds

Spacewalks (42 hours, 2 minutes)

 * 1. MIR EO-12 – 3 September 1992 – 3 hours, 56 minutes
 * 2. MIR EO-12 – 7 September 1992 – 5 hours, 8 minutes
 * 3. MIR EO-12 – 11 September 1992 – 5 hours, 44 minutes
 * 4. MIR EO-12 – 15 September 1992 – 3 hours, 33 minutes
 * 5. MIR EO-20 – 20 October 1995 – 5 hours, 11 minutes
 * 6. MIR EO-20 – 8 December 1995 – 0 hours, 37 minutes
 * 7. MIR EO-26 – 15 September 1998 – 0 hours, 30 minutes
 * 8. MIR EO-26 – 17 November 1998 – 5 hours, 54 minutes
 * 9. MIR EO-27 – 23 July 1999 – 6 hours, 7 minutes
 * 10. MIR EO-27 – 28 July 1999 – 5 hours, 22 minutes

Honours and awards

 * Hero of the Russian Federation (February 5, 1993) - for the successful implementation of spaceflight on the orbital scientific research complex Mir and displaying courage and heroism
 * Order of Merit for the Fatherland;
 * 2nd class (22 November 1999) - for courage and heroism displayed during prolonged space flight on the orbital scientific research complex Mir
 * 3rd class (April 1, 1996) - for the successful implementation of spaceflight on the orbital scientific research complex Mir and displaying courage and heroism
 * Medal "For Merit in Space Exploration" (April 12, 2011) - for the great achievements in the field of research, development and use of outer space, many years of diligent work, public activities
 * Chevalier of the Legion of Honour (France, March 1999)
 * Pilot-Cosmonaut of the Russian Federation (February 5, 1993)
 * Honorary Citizen of Chapayevsk, Samara Oblast (2004)

title: Sergey Avdeev