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Robert Laurent

Robert Laurent (June 29, 1890 – April 20, 1970) was a French-American modernist figurative sculptor, printmaker and teacher. His work, the New York Times wrote,"figured in the development of an American sculptural art that balanced nature and abstraction." Widely exhibited, he took part in the Whitney's 1946 exhibition Pioneers of Modern Art. Credited as the first American sculptor to adopt a "direct carving" sculpting style that was bolder and more abstract than the then traditional fine arts practice, which relied on models, Laurent's approach was inspired by the African carving and European avant-garde art he admired, while also echoing folk styles found both in the U.S. and among medieval stone cutters of his native Brittany. Best known for his virtuoso mastery of the figure, Laurent sculpted in multiple media, including wood, alabaster, bronze, marble and aluminum. His expertise earned him major commissions for public sculpture, most famously for the Goose Girl for New York City's Radio City Music Hall, as well as for Spanning the Continent for Philadelphia's Fairmount Park. After the Depression, he was also the recipient of several Works Progress Administration (WPA) Federal Art Project commissions under the New Deal, including a bas-relief called Shipping for the exterior of Washington, D.C.'s Federal Trade Commission Building, commissioned by the Treasury Department's Section of Fine Arts in 1938.

Background
Laurent was born the son of French peasants in Concarneau, Brittany, France in 1890. His skill in art was recognized by Brooklyn Eagle art critic, painter and collector Hamilton Easter Field who mentored him, taught him to paint and served as Laurent's surrogate father for the rest of his life.

In 1908, Field took Laurent to Rome, where he trained with Maurice Sterne and wood carver Giuseppe Doratori, before formally studying at the British Academy. Upon graduation, Laurent moved permanently to the U.S. at age twenty, only to quickly return to Europe as a member of the navy during the First World War. In Europe, Laurent traveled to his native Brittany where he met Mimi Caraes, who became his wife.

Field died in 1922, leaving Laurent his Brooklyn home, the Ogunquit school they had co-founded and an art collection, which Laurent later used to establish as the Hamilton Easter Field Foundation with the help of other New York artists.

The Ogunquit Summer School of Graphic Arts
In the summer of 1902, Field and 12-year-old Laurent traveled to Ogunquit, Maine, a popular destination for artists, drawn by the landscape. During their stay, Field "bought a row of shacks that he started renting out cheap to artists." In 1911, Field and Laurent built a studio there and co-founded the Ogunquit Summer School of Graphic Arts. Field taught drawing and painting until his death, and Laurent taught sculpture and wood carving there for the next 50 years.

There was, however, another art school in Ogunquit. Founded by Field's former teacher, Charles Woodbury's Ogunquit Summer School of Drawing and Painting was heavily influenced by the "regional impressionist" style of painting also known as the Boston School. One of the school's more famous students was Edward Hopper. Field and Laurent were, conversely, committed modernists, and appealed to more experimental students and colleagues, such as Marsden Hartley, Yasuo Kuniyoshi, Niles Spencer, gallery owner Edith Gregor Halpert and curator Holger Cahill, among others. Together, the two schools transformed a town of fewer than 1,000 into Maine's largest art colony, an achievement that resulted, in 1953, in the opening of the Ogunquit Museum of American Art.

Public collections
Public collections across the United States hold Laurent's work, including the Art Institute of Chicago, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, MOMA, the Whitney Museum of American Art, the National Gallery of Art, the Smithsonian Art Museum, the Brooklyn Museum, the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, the Addison Gallery, Indiana University and the Terra Foundation for Art, among others.

Awards and honors
In 1938, Laurent won the second of two Logan Prizes at the Art Institute of Chicago's annual American art exhibition. In 1945, he won the Audubon Sculpture Award in New York, several first prizes in Hoosier salons, and in exhibits at the John Herron Museum, Indianapolis. He received high distinction in 1954 when was named sculptor in residence at the American Academy in Rome for a year.

Laurent was also one of 23 American sculptors whose works were selected for the controversial American National Exhibition in Moscow, in 1959. The exhibit, which included such celebrated artists as sculptors Ibram Lassaw and Isamu Noguchi and painters Hyman Bloom, Jackson Pollock and Edward Hopper was coordinated by the United States Information Agency (USIA), and liberal critics subsequently characterized it as a Cold War American "propaganda strategy." Prior to the exhibition, the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) threatened to remove many of the artists who had been accused of links to communist activities. After President Eisenhower intervened, however, the exhibition went on as planned.

Laurent was a fellow of the National Sculpture Society, president of the Hamilton Easter Field Foundation, and a member of the Sculptor's Guild – Indiana Artists, New England Sculptors Association, and the College Art Association. He was also elected to the National Institute of Arts and Letters shortly before his death at the age of seventy-nine.

Academic career
Laurent taught at the Art Students League in New York City, the Corcoran Gallery of Art in Washington D.C., Vassar College, and Goucher College. In addition to teaching seasonally at the Ogunquit School until 1961, Laurent accepted a position as Professor of Fine Arts at Indiana University, a position he held from 1942 to 1960. He had notable students including Margit Varga.

Family
Laurent's son, John, was a prominent painter in Maine, known for his landscapes and seascapes.

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Battle of Cedar Creek

The Battle of Cedar Creek, or Battle of Belle Grove, was fought on October 19, 1864, during the American Civil War. The fighting took place in the Shenandoah Valley of Northern Virginia, near Cedar Creek, Middletown, and the Valley Pike. During the morning, Lieutenant General Jubal Early appeared to have a victory for his Confederate army, as he captured over 1,000 prisoners and over 20 artillery pieces while forcing 7 enemy infantry divisions to fall back. The Union army, led by Major General Philip Sheridan, rallied in late afternoon and drove away Early's men. In addition to recapturing all of their own artillery seized in the morning, Sheridan's forces captured most of Early's artillery and wagons.

In heavy fog, Early attacked before dawn and completely surprised many of the sleeping Union soldiers. His smaller army attacked segments of the Union army from multiple sides, giving him temporary numerical advantages in addition to the element of surprise. At about 10:00am, Early paused his attack to reorganize his forces. Sheridan, who was returning from a meeting in Washington, D.C. when the battle started, hurried to the battlefield and arrived around 10:30am. His arrival calmed and revitalized his retreating army. At 4:00pm his army counterattacked, making use of its superior cavalry force. Early's army was routed and fled south.

The battle ruined the Confederate army in the Shenandoah Valley, and it was never again able to maneuver down the valley to threaten the Union capital city of Washington, D.C. or northern states. Additionally, the Shenandoah Valley had been a key producer of supplies for the Confederate army, and Early could no longer protect it. The Union victory aided the reelection of Abraham Lincoln, and along with earlier victories at Winchester and Fisher's Hill, won Sheridan lasting fame.

Union and Confederate strategies for Virginia in 1864
In March 1864, Major General Ulysses S. Grant was summoned from the Western Theater, promoted to lieutenant general, and given command of all Union armies. Grant's strategy, different from his predecessors, was for the Union armies to fight together with the objective of destroying Confederate armies instead of conquering territory. He would use multiple Union forces at the same time, making it difficult for the Confederates to transfer forces from one battlefront to another. In Virginia, General Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia was a target. Not only would Lee's army be pursued, but steps would be taken to cut off its supplies that came from Virginia's Shenandoah Valley. Those supplies often moved on the Virginia Central Railroad, Virginia and Tennessee Railroad, and other railroads—which also became targets.

The Confederate Army of the Valley was created by Lee in June 1864 as a detachment of the Army of Northern Virginia's Second Corps and was commanded by Lieutenant General Jubal Early. Its purpose was to protect the Shenandoah Valley, which was a major source of food for Lee's Army of Northern Virginia. Another objective was to threaten the Union's capital of Washington, forcing the Union to divert resources and relieve some of the pressure on the Army of Northern Virginia near the Confederate capital of Richmond. In June, Early beat Union forces in the Battle of Lynchburg and Second Battle of Kernstown. On July 9, he won the Battle of Monocacy in Maryland. Two days later, Early threatened Washington in the Battle of Fort Stevens, but was repelled by reinforcements rushed to the battlefield. Early then sent cavalry commanded by Brigadier General John McCausland on a northern raid in late July that resulted in the burning of the town of Chambersburg, Pennsylvania.

Sheridan's campaign
After the cavalry raid that burned Chambersburg, Grant decided that Early's threat had to be eliminated. In early August, Grant consolidated four military organizations into the Middle Military Division, and Major General Philip Sheridan assumed command on August 7—calling his force of cavalry and infantry the Army of the Shenandoah. At its creation, the army had three objectives. First was to drive Early's army away from the Potomac River region and lower (northern) Shenandoah Valley, and pursue it southward. Second was to destroy the valley's capacity to provide Lee's army with food and supplies. Third was to disrupt the Virginia Central Railroad.

Sheridan was cautious in August because of a concern that any military disaster could hamper the re–election of President Abraham Lincoln. In September Sheridan had decisive victories over Early at the Third Battle of Winchester and at Fisher's Hill. Sheridan took possession of the Shenandoah Valley as far south as Staunton, Virginia, and considered Early's army cleared from the valley.

With Early much less of a threat, Sheridan could focus on denying the Confederacy the means of supplying its armies in Virginia. Sheridan's army (mostly cavalry) did this aggressively, burning crops, barns, mills, and factories. The operation, conducted primarily from September 26 to October 8, has been known to locals ever since as "the Burning" or "Red October". It encompassed the area of Harrisonburg, Port Republic, Staunton and Waynesboro. Sheridan claimed that when the destruction was completed, "the Valley, from Winchester up to Staunton, ninety-two miles [148 km], will have but little in it for man or beast." While this action achieved one of Grant's goals, Grant preferred attacks on the railroads that supplied Lee's army in Richmond.

Early reinforced
After Early's September 22 defeat at Fisher's Hill, he retreated up the valley (south) to Mount Jackson. On September 26, he was reinforced by the infantry division of Major General Joseph B. Kershaw, who also brought a battalion of artillery. More reinforcements arrived on October 5, when the Laurel Brigade of Brigadier General Thomas L. Rosser also joined Early and was combined with two other cavalry brigades to form a division commanded by Rosser. Early believed that the addition of Kershaw's Division (2,700 fighters), Rosser's Laurel Brigade (600 men), the artillery battalion, and the return of stragglers from the September battles almost made up for his losses at Winchester and Fisher's Hill.

After much of "The Burning" was conducted, Sheridan's cavalry began moving north down the valley. The Confederate cavalries of Major General Lunsford L. Lomax and Rosser harassed Sheridan's rear guard. By October 8, Rosser's men were near the Union cavalry division commanded by Brigadier General George Custer, while Lomax was near the division commanded by Brigadier General Wesley Merritt. On that evening, an annoyed Sheridan told his cavalry commander, Brigadier General Alfred Torbert, to "whip the rebel cavalry or get whipped". On October 9, in the Battle of Tom's Brook, Custer and Merritt routed the Confederate cavalry in a battle that was described by Torbert as "the most decisive the country had every witnessed".

Union
In mid-October, the Army of the Shenandoah had 11 divisions plus artillery units, totaling about 31,610 effectives with 90 artillery pieces. A few days before the battle, Sheridan attended a meeting in Washington, and Major General Horatio Wright commanded the army in Sheridan's absence. The Union forces were divided into the following:
 * VI Corps had three infantry divisions and an artillery brigade, and was commanded by Major General Horatio Wright. When Wright temporarily commanded the army during Sheridan's initial absence from the battle, the corps was commanded by Brigadier General James B. Ricketts. At least one historian says Wright's fighters had a reputation for "steadfastness and reliability". The VI Corps consisted of 8,506 infantry effectives. In addition, they had 600 men operating 24 artillery pieces.
 * XIX Corps, consisting of two infantry divisions, was commanded by Brigadier General William H. Emory. It consisted of 8,748 infantry effectives. In addition, it had 414 men operating 20 artillery pieces. The XIXCorps was considered far behind the VICorps in discipline and efficiency.
 * The Cavalry Corps, consisting of three divisions and a section of horse artillery, was commanded by Major General Alfred Torbert. It had 7,500 effectives plus 642 artillerists operating 30 artillery pieces. The three division commanders were Merritt, Colonel William H. Powell, and Custer. Fifteen regiments were completely armed, and three more were partially armed, with the carbine version of the seven-shot Spencer repeating rifle.
 * The Army of West Virginia functioned as an infantry corps in Sheridan's Army of the Shenandoah, and is sometimes incorrectly identified as the VIII Corps. It was commanded by Brigadier General George Crook, and had two divisions plus an artillery brigade. Crook's effectives for the battle consisted of only 4,000 infantry men plus 200 artillerists manning 16 artillery pieces.  To bolster Crook's small force, a Provisional Division of 1,000 men was attached.  The Provisional Division's "reliability in combat was suspect".

Confederate
Early's Confederate Army of the Valley had an estimated 21,102 effectives. In addition to his troops originally from Army of Northern Virginia's Second Corps, this figure includes over 3,000 men from Kershaw's infantry division, 2,206 men from Rosser's cavalry division after the addition of the Laurel Brigade, and 1,101 artillerists. The Confederate forces were divided into the following:
 * Infantry consisted of five divisions. Early's division commanders were Major General Stephen Dodson Ramseur, Brigadier General John Pegram, Major General John Brown Gordon, and Brigadier General Gabriel C. Wharton. Kershaw commanded a fifth division, which was attached from Lieutenant General James Longstreet's First Corps. The remainder of Longstreet's First Corps, which was an elite Confederate fighting unit, was not present. Gordon was Early's second–in–command.

 * Cavalry consisted of two divisions. Major General Lomax commanded his own division, and it consisted of four brigades. His men were armed with rifles and had no pistols or sabers, making the division more like mounted infantry which could not fight on horseback. Rosser commanded Fitzhugh Lee's Division, which was composed of three brigades including Rosser's Laurel Brigade. Rosser had a reputation as one of the most aggressive and successful cavalry commanders in the Army of Northern Virginia, but had never commanded anything larger than a brigade of four regiments. The Laurel Brigade was composed of confident veterans with many victories over Union cavalry.

Sheridan ready to leave the valley
After the decisive victory at Tom's Brook, Sheridan and many in the Union Army believed that Early's Confederate army was no longer a threat. The Union army began moving down the valley (northeast) and believed that it would fight elsewhere. While Crook's Army of West Virginia, and the XIXCorps, camped near Cedar Creek and Middletown, the VICorps was further away on the road to Front Royal. The cavalry divisions of Merritt and Custer were near Fisher's Hill, while Powell's 2nd Cavalry Division occupied Front Royal.

Because Grant still wanted the Confederate Virginia Central Railroad disabled, two brigades of cavalry from Powell's Division were sent south to attack the railroad lines at Gordonsville and Charlottesville. In an order written October 12, Wright's VICorps were ordered to depart on the next day through Ashby's Gap for Alexandria, Virginia. From Alexandria, Sheridan planned to send the VI Corps to reinforce Grant and the Army of the Potomac.

Hupp's Hill and Sheridan goes to Washington
Concealed from Sheridan's army, Early's troops arrived at Hupp's Hill, just north of Strasburg, on October 13. They deployed in battle formation, and began shelling the camp of the XIXCorps. Early's attack was a surprise for the Union infantry, and Crook originally believed the Confederates had sent a small reconnaissance force for the purpose of causing the Union soldiers to reveal their strength and location. Colonel Joseph Thoburn's division from the Army of West Virginia moved forward to silence the guns and fought with Kershaw's division at the Abram Stickley farm, which resulted in 209 Union and 182 Confederate casualties. The Confederates withdrew through Strasburg to Fisher's Hill in the late afternoon. Sheridan recalled Wright's VICorps that evening as a precaution, and they started back to Middletown on October14. The engagement was a mistake for Early, as the 9,000 veterans from the VI Corps made a big difference in the battle that would take place six days later.

On October 13, Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton requested that Sheridan come to Washington to discuss the next objective for Sheridan's army. Grant and Stanton still wanted Sheridan to move his army toward Gordonsville and Charlottesville to threaten Confederate railroad operations. Sheridan continued to argue that the logistics would be difficult. With the skirmish at Hupp's Hill over and Early removed to Fisher's Hill, Sheridan departed for a meeting in Washington on October 15, leaving Wright in command. Sheridan ordered all three divisions of cavalry to accompany him to Front Royal, intending to send them to destroy a Virginia Central Railroad bridge. They arrived near Front Royal on October 16. At that time, Sheridan was notified that Early was sending wig-wag signals implying that Longstreet's First Corps might join him (Early) from Petersburg. This was disinformation on Early's part, hoping that it would induce the Federals to withdraw down the Valley, but instead, Sheridan sent his cavalry back to the infantry camps along Cedar Creek. Sheridan and his staff arrived in Washington on the morning of October17.

Gordon makes a plan
On October 17, Gordon climbed Massanutten Mountain and determined that the Union left was vulnerable, as the Union forces appeared to be relying on the mountain and rivers for defense. Gordon persuaded Early to approve an attack on the Union left flank, and believed they could destroy Sheridan's army. Early's approval was contingent on Gordon finding a concealed route that would enable the Confederate troops to get around the Union left. On the next day, Gordon scouted along the Shenandoah River (North Fork), and found a narrow trail. He presented his findings to Early, and Early approved an attack that would begin on the morning of October 19.

The attack would be made before dawn, and would take advantage of the morning fog that normally occurred in the valley. Gordon would lead three divisions in a rear attack on the Union left while Kershaw's Division would attack the front. Wharton's Division and the artillery would attack down the pike, northwest of Kershaw, waiting until the Union artillery was turned toward Gordon and Kershaw. Rosser would move north along Cedar Creek, hoping to keep Union cavalry located on the Union right from coming to assistance on the Union left. Gordon's force would use the narrow mountain trail to get behind the Union left, which required an evening (October 18) departure time in order to be in position before dawn. A small brigade of cavalry commanded by Colonel William H. F. Payne would move with Gordon with the mission of capturing Sheridan at his headquarters at the Belle Grove Plantation house near Middletown. Lomax would move via Front Royal to Newtown (later named Stephens City), where he could cut off a Union retreat down the Valley Pike. During the time Gordon had command of the column of three divisions, Brigadier General Clement A. Evans would command Gordon's Division. On October 18, the Confederate leaders synchronized their timepieces. They planned to be in position for the attack at 5:00am.

Confederate attacks
Early's infantry began to form into three columns on the evening of October 18. Gordon's column consisted of the divisions of Gordon (commanded by Evans), Pegram, and Ramseur, plus Payne's Cavalry Brigade. It had the farthest to march, and departed about 8:00pm, just after it became dark. The men left behind anything that might rattle, and followed the narrow trail in single file. The other two Confederate columns, commanded by Wharton and Kershaw, departed at about 1:00am on October 19, and Early rode with Kershaw to Cedar Creek. As they hoped, the Confederates' quiet approach was aided by the presence of heavy fog. All three columns were in position by 3:30am. The two Confederate cavalries were also in position. Rosser's dismounted cavalry (less Payne's Brigade), was near the ford at Cupp's Mill. His men skirmished briefly with Custer around 4:00am. Lomax's cavalry was east near Cedarville and Front Royal. His command was as far as 27 mi from Early's infantry, making cooperation difficult. Early joined Wharton around 5:15am.

Army of West Virginia
Kershaw's Division attacked the trenches of Thoburn's Union 1st Division around 5:00am. Surprise was virtually complete and most of the Army of West Virginia troops were caught unprepared in their camps—many were asleep in their tents. The Union 1st Division lost most of its organization as most of its men fled—if they could. Its First Brigade, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Wildes, kept two of its three regiments organized. The partial brigade conducted a fighting withdrawal to the Valley Pike that took over 30 minutes. Union Captain Henry A. du Pont, chief of Colonel Crook's artillery, saved nine of his sixteen artillery pieces while he kept them in action as he withdrew toward Middletown. Du Pont's efforts and Wildes' two regiments were only thing (other than fog) slowing the initial Confederate thrust by Kershaw's Division. The Union 1st Division commander, Colonel Thoburn, was mortally wounded by Confederate cavalry while trying to rally his troops near Middletown.

Colonel Rutherford B. Hayes, commander of the Union 2nd Division, learned of the attack on Thoburn's division only a few minutes before his own division was attacked by a line of seven brigades from Gordon's column. Evan's (Gordon's) Division was on the Confederate left, and Ramseur's Division was on the right. Hayes had two brigades, and only his First Brigade was in formation to receive Gordon's attackers. His Second Brigade, located on his right (southwest), was still in their tents—and then had Thoburn's retreating men racing through their camp. Soon, Hayes' division was also retreating. Most of Hayes' men retreated toward Belle Grove, while most of Thoburn's men retreated northeast down the pike. During the retreat, Hayes' horse was killed and he was briefly knocked unconscious. Although injured and almost captured, he escaped. Further north, Union Colonel J. Howard Kitching's Provisional Division of raw recruits fled after showing little resistance. On horseback, Kitching was wounded in the foot, but continued trying to rally his men. Kitching's 6th New York Heavy Artillery Regiment, coming in from camp near the wagons, supported one of du Pont's batteries. Although the Confederate attacking force from Ramseur's Division suffered minimal casualties, Brigade Commander Cullen A. Battle was seriously wounded. Crook, Hayes, and Kitching regrouped fragments of the two Union divisions near Belle Grove.

XIX Corps
Unlike Crook's men, the Union XIXCorps was not caught totally unprepared. Its 2nd Division, commanded by Brigadier General Cuvier Grover, was planning to undertake a reconnaissance mission at 5:30am south toward Strasburg. Around 5:15am they could hear musket fire near the Army of West Virginia's position, and Grover positioned his men defensively—with the bulk of his men behind fortifications. The XIXCorps began receiving artillery fire from the south and east, and was attacked from those directions by Confederate troops, commanded by Kershaw and Evans, less than one hour after the start of the battle.

XIXCorps Commander Emory received unexpected assistance from Wildes' partial brigade from Crook's Army of West Virginia. In the confusion of battle, Wildes' two regiments had been unable to reunite with Crook and the retreating men from the Army of West Virginia—so they offered assistance to Emory and Wright. When the partial brigade reported, Emory ordered it to attack—which would enable his men to have more time for reorienting the Union lines. Wright led a bayonet charge by Wildes' men and received a bloody wound to his face.

The small group of Crook's men at Belle Grove, fortified by some of Emory's men, held its position for about 40 minutes until it was flanked. Their action enabled most of the Union headquarters units and supply trains to withdraw to safety. In roughly two hours, Early had driven back five Union divisions, captured over 1,300 prisoners, and taken possession of 18 artillery pieces. With many of Crook's men from the Army of West Virginia and the XIXCorps fleeing in disorder, the Union's VICorps prepared a defense on a series of ridges further north of the Belle Grove plantation on the north side of Meadow Brook.

Early, Gordon, and the VI Corps
Sometime between 7:00 and 7:30am, Early met Gordon on the east side of the Valley Pike near the road that leads to Belle Grove. At that time, Kershaw and Evans were driving toward the camps of the Union VICorps, and the Confederate divisions of Pegram and Ramseur were aligned along the west side of the pike north of Early and Gordon's meeting place. Early later wrote that at the time of the meeting, "...the 19th and Crook's corps were in complete rout, and their camps, with a number of pieces of artillery and a considerable quantity of small arms, abandoned." He also noted that the position of the Union VICorps on a ridge west of Middletown was "a strong one", and Wharton's division had been driven back. Early and Gordon had conflicting versions of their meeting, but Early took over command and Gordon returned to his division that had been temporarily commanded by Evans. From Gordon's point of view, he wanted to concentrate an attack on the VICorps while Early was satisfied with the day's accomplishments. From Early's point of view, he "rode forward on the Pike to ascertain the position of the enemy, in order to continue the attack." Wharton's Division, plus artillery, followed Early down (northeast) the pike.

Acting Union VICorps Commander Ricketts had his men moving to position within 20 minutes of the start of the Confederate offensive. His 3rd Division of Colonel J. Warren Keifer was on the Union right with the 1st Division of Brigadier General Frank Wheaton on its left. Further northeast, the 2nd Division of Brigadier General George W. Getty had marched close to the south side of Middletown. All three Union divisions were eventually pulled back to a defensive position on the northwest side of Meadow Brook. Some cohesion was lost for this withdrawal, as Ricketts was wounded. The Confederates attacked around 7:30am, with Kershaw attacking Keifer, and Evans attacking Wheaton. Although initially repulsed, Kershaw and Evans drove the two Union divisions northwest by 8:00am. This put two Confederate divisions, Kershaw and Evans, beyond Getty's right. At that time, Getty's 2nd Division became the only organized Union infantry south of Middletown. With no support on his right, Getty moved his division back about 300 yd to a stronger defensive position at the town cemetery on a partially wooded hill west of Middletown. For over an hour, Getty's division defended this position against Confederate frontal assaults from the divisions of Ramseur, Pegram, and Wharton. During this time, Getty assumed command of the VICorps because of the wounding of Ricketts, and Brigadier General Lewis A. Grant assumed command of the division. After 30 minutes of artillery fire, Grant finally moved back and rested for 20 minutes. He then moved the division back about 1 mi, unopposed, where he found support from Union cavalry on his east side.

Union cavalry and Sheridan's ride
Custer and Merritt's Union cavalry divisions were north of the infantry when the Confederate attack began. Although Rosser had skirmished with Custer's men, he appeared tentative and did not press an attack. While waiting for orders, both Merritt and Custer sent their escort companies to the Valley Pike to attempt to stop Union infantry men from fleeing toward Winchester. Between 9:00am and 10:00am, Wright ordered Torbert to move the cavalry from the Union right to the Union left. Leaving three companies from Custer's Division to face Rosser, Custer and Merritt moved to the west side of the Valley Turnpike, about threequarters of a mile (1.21km) northeast of Middletown. Although they faced strong artillery fire, they prevented Early from getting to the rear of the Union army.

On his return trip from the Washington conference, Sheridan spent the night in Winchester on October 18. At 6:00am on October 19, pickets south of Winchester reported to him that they heard the distant sounds of artillery. Sheridan assumed the noise was from Grover's reconnaissance mission, and dismissed the report. As additional reports arrived, he ordered the horses to be saddled and ate a quick breakfast. By 9:00am he was riding south to the Valley Pike. Sheridan noticed that the sounds of battle were increasing in volume quickly, so he inferred that his army was retreating in his direction. He encountered retreating men and wagons less than 2 mi south of Winchester. Hearing stories from panic stricken men that all was lost, he ordered a line set up to intercept stragglers. Wright had already begun to organize a defensive line between Newtown and Middletown. Sheridan arrived around 10:30am and began to rally the men to complete the line. His presence inspired his soldiers, and one soldier described it as like an "electric shock".

Early's halt
By 10:00am, Early believed he had a Confederate victory, after capturing 1,300 Union prisoners and 24 artillery pieces, and driving seven infantry divisions off the field. When Early rode into Middletown, he found that the Confederate attack had been stalled by Union artillery and cavalry. Ironically, the main reason two of the Union cavalry divisions were present for the battle was Early's Longstreet ruse from a few days earlier. Instead of exploiting his victory, Early ordered a halt in his offensive to reorganize, a decision for which he later received criticism from subordinates such as Gordon.

In a second meeting with Early, Gordon wanted to press the attack against the VI Corps immediately, and later wrote that the "fatal halting...converted the brilliant victory of the morning into disastrous defeat in the evening". Early's main reason for caution was concern over the Union cavalry, which had repeating rifles, on the Confederate flanks. Another problem was that many of the hungry Confederate troops had stopped to plunder the Union camps abandoned in the early morning attack. By 11:30am, the Confederate line was ready to continue the advance, and Early attacked with Gordon's, Kershaw's, and Ramseur's divisions. After an advance of about one–half mile (0.80 km), the Confederate attack stopped at 1:00pm. Early's reasons for the ending the attack were the same issues causing his caution a few hours earlier: Union cavalry, missing troops that were plundering the Union camps, and exhausted and hungry soldiers.

Union counterattack
When Sheridan arrived at the scene of the battle at 10:30am, he assumed that Early's Longstreet ruse from a few days earlier was true. After interrogating prisoners, he learned that only Kershaw's Division from Longstreet's corps was present. Sheridan also feared that Longstreet was approaching from Front Royal to trap the Union army between Longstreet and Early. Once Sheridan received confirmation (around 3:30pm) that Longstreet was not near Front Royal, he ordered an attack.

The Union counterattack began just before 4:00pm. Custer's Division was back on the Union far right, further northwest from the main infantry line, facing Rosser. Merritt's Division was on the Union left on the southeast side of the pike. The XIXCorps, with Brigadier General William Dwight now commanding the 1st Division and Grover returning to command the 2nd Division, was on the right of the main Union line. The VICorps was to the left of Grover. Crook's Army of West Virginia was held in reserve close to the turnpike, as support for the VI Corps. Sheridan's plan was for his cavalry to contain the Confederate flanks while the XIXCorps turned the Confederate left flank and drove them east of the pike, which would prevent Early's army from using the Valley Pike's bridge across Cedar Creek to escape.

The Union infantry attack stalled. Dwight was able to overlap Gordon's left flank, but could not push Gordon's Division toward the pike. On Gordon's right, the divisions of Kershaw and Ramseur were positioned behind stone walls and assisted by artillery. Grover's Division and Wright's VICorps had little success against them, and Grover was again wounded. On the Union left, Merritt's cavalry made two charges only to be repulsed by Confederate artillery and enfilading fire from enemy infantry that had resisted the advance of the VICorps. On Merritt's third charge, bolstered by the VICorps moving forward, Confederate troops gave way in disorder. Moments before the Confederate troops fled, Union Colonel Charles Russell Lowell, commander of Merritt's Reserve Brigade located at the Union cavalry's left flank, was mortally wounded at Thorndale Farm.

Custer joins the attack
On the extreme Union right, Custer's First Brigade was engaged in halfhearted fire with Rosser. Custer left his brigade commander with three of his regiments, and took the remaining men from his division toward the infantry attack on his left. He planned to get to the rear of Early's men and secure the Valley Pike at the bridge over Cedar Creek—which would cut off the main Confederate route of retreat. As many of the Confederate soldiers saw Union cavalry moving toward their escape route, they began to panic and retreat. The appearance of Custer riding toward the creek was a signal for Dwight to resume his infantry attack. The remnants of Gordon's Division, already panicked from Custer's appearance, now had a renewed attack from Dwight and more Union infantry on the Confederate right. Soon most of Gordon's men fled toward the pike, and it caused a domino effect that spread to Kershaw's Division and then Ramseur's. During this time, Ramseur, who was already wounded, tried to rally his men. His horse was shot dead, and he was mortally wounded.

While Custer was on the Union right, Merritt's Division was on the Union left. Colonel Thomas Devin's Second Brigade from Merritt's Division took possession of the Cedar Creek bridge before Custer got there, so Custer took his two lead regiments (5th New York and 1st Vermont) to the right of the bridge where they forded the creek and continued chasing the fleeing enemy up (south) the Valley Pike. Near 5:30pm, the divisions of Wharton, Pegram, and Wofford's Brigade (from Kershaw's Division) were the last Confederate units to across Cedar Creek. The fields between Cedar Creek and Fisher's Hill were filled with fleeing men, wagons, ambulances, and artillery—all being chased by Union cavalry using sabers. The situation worsened for the Confederates when a small bridge on the Valley Pike south of Strasburg collapsed, making it impossible to cross with wagons or artillery. Early's army was forced to abandon all of the captured Union guns and wagons from the morning attack, as well as most of its own. Sheridan's pursuit ended at nightfall. The retreating Confederate soldiers gathered temporarily on Fisher's Hill, and moved further south before dawn on the next day.

Casualties
The official report for the Union listed 644 officers and men killed, 3,430 wounded, and 1,591 captured or missing—a total of 5,665 casualties for the Union side of the battle. Both the VICorps and XIXCorps had over 2,000 casualties, but the VICorps had more killed and wounded. As the principal victims of the surprise attack, the Army of West Virginia had 540 men captured or missing, and 790 of the XIXCorps' 2,383 casualties were captured or missing. Crook's Army of West Virginia had two division commanders killed or mortally wounded, colonels Thoburn and Kitching. Two Union brigade commanders were killed: Brigadier General Daniel D. Bidwell from the VI Corps, and Colonel Charles Russell Lowell from the Cavalry Corps.

Confederate casualties, which are less certain, are estimated to be 320 killed, 1,540 wounded, and 1,050 missing (or captured). This totals to 2,910, which is far less than the Union casualties. The Confederates also lost 300 wagons and ambulances, and 43 artillery pieces (including 20 Union pieces captured in the morning). The highest ranking Confederate casualty was Major General Ramseur, an infantry division commander, who was mortally wounded and captured by the 1st Vermont Cavalry Regiment. The Union army captured many more soldiers than the 1,591 count, including some soldiers multiple times, but many prisoners escaped in the darkness while their captors searched for more men. Among those that escaped was Early's artillery chief, Colonel Thomas H. Carter.

Performance and impact
Three factors contributed to the initial success by the Confederate army. First, many of the soldiers in the Union army believed the campaign against Early's army was over, which caused a lack of vigilance. Second, the terrain and poor placement of the Union infantry units created a vulnerability that allowed the Confederates to surprise, flank, and outnumber segments of the Union army. Third, Union cavalry was misplaced, leaving open the left flank. Once the Union cavalry was utilized, it had a crucial role in the Union victory. Cavalry accounted for nearly half (ten of twenty-one) of the medal of honor winners at Cedar Creek, even though it had only about one fourth of the men present. Two days after the battle, Sheridan sought promotions for two cavalry commanders, Merritt and Custer, and one infantry commander, Getty.

Many people gave Sheridan credit for the Union victory, and he was featured on the cover of Harper's Weekly. It is "beyond dispute" that Sheridan had an electrifying effect on his men when he arrived at the battlefield. Others believe that Wright deserves much of the credit, as his VI Corps stopped the Confederate attack, and Wright's tactical judgements made it possible for Sheridan to successfully rally his men. Some credit for the Union victory can be given to Confederate leader Jubal Early. Although the early morning Confederate infantry and artillery attack was well-planned and attained total surprise, Early's cavalry was divided and awkwardly placed. The Confederate army's relative inactivity after 10:00am, one of Gordon's complaints, allowed the Union army to reorganize and eventually win the battle. Gordon, the architect of the early morning attack and a critic of Early, received blame from Early for the stalling of the attack. Early claimed that excessive plundering by Gordon's Division depleted his force, and the depletion plus the threat of Union cavalry on his right flank caused the pause in the attack.

Sheridan's victories in the Shenandoah Valley helped boost President Lincoln's re-election campaign to victory in November. Earlier in August, Lincoln was being advised that his reelection was in doubt. The Union army's numerical superiority was in trouble, and the country was tired of the war. Lincoln was overjoyed with the victory at Cedar Creek, as it came three weeks before the presidential election. Sheridan enjoyed instant acclaim, and poet Thomas Buchanan Read wrote a popular poem, Sheridan's Ride, that added to the general's fame. Sheridan's success propelled him to status only eclipsed by Grant and William Tecumseh Sherman, and he would eventually become Commanding General of the United States Army. An equestrian statue of Sheridan rallying his men at Cedar Creek, sculpted by Gutzon Borglum, was dedicated in 1908 and stands in Washington, D.C.'s Sheridan Circle. Contrasting Sheridan's fame, Early's status declined considerably. He was accused of incompetence and mismanagement, and no longer had the confidence of his subordinates. Portions of his army were recalled to Richmond. On March 2, 1865, Early and the remnants of his army were defeated by Custer in the Battle of Waynesboro, and the Army of the Valley ceased to exist. Although Early escaped, his artillery, wagons, and headquarters equipment were captured—and his men were captured, killed, or scattered to the countryside.

Battlefield preservation
Portions of the Cedar Creek battlefield are preserved as part of Cedar Creek and Belle Grove National Historical Park, established in 2002. The park encompasses about 3,700 acres across three counties, and has trails, exhibits, and the Belle Grove Plantation Manor House. Belle Grove, built in the 1790s by the brother-in-law of future President James Madison, was listed in the Virginia Landmarks Register on November 5, 1968. It was also listed in the National Register of Historic Places, and as a National Historic Landmark, on August 11, 1969. The American Battlefield Trust and its partners have preserved more than 729 acres of the Cedar Creek battlefield in 19 different transactions since 1996.

title: Battle of Cedar Creek


text:
Fresno Dome

Fresno Dome is a dominant granite dome rising in isolation above the forest of Soquel Meadow in the Sierra National Forest in Madera County, California.

The dome as known to the Mono Indians as "the greeting place" ("wah-me-yelo"). John Muir encountered Fresno Dome, calling it "Wamello", in the 1870s, and used its summit to locate Fresno Grove (now known as Nelder Grove).

It is accessible by a trailhead which is a three-mile drive from the Sierra Vista Scenic Byway (part of the National Scenic Byway system). The nearest town is Bass Lake, California, 9.1 mi to the south.

At its base, sits the Fresno Dome campground, a backwoods campground accessible only by jeep trails. The campground is a favorite spot for deer hunters and is largely empty other than during deer season. The dome offers several technical free climbs rated or better, with "Guides in a Snowbank" rated at 5.10a.

title: Fresno Dome


text:
Pepsi Max

Pepsi Max (also known as Pepsi Zero Sugar and Pepsi Black in some countries) is a low-calorie, sugar-free cola, marketed by PepsiCo as an alternative to Pepsi and Diet Pepsi, except for Norway, where it is the main Pepsi flavor. Pepsi Max is available primarily in Asian, European and Australia/New Zealand markets. While Pepsi Max was released in April 1993, it did not become available in the United States until 2007.

A drink with the same name but different formulation (containing ginseng and higher quantities of caffeine) was sold in the United States until it was renamed "Pepsi Zero Sugar" in late 2016.

History
Pepsi Max debuted in Australia, the United Kingdom, and Italy on April 5, 1993. The rollout was expanded to Ireland the following September, and to France, Greece, Spain, Portugal, and the Netherlands the following December. By the end of 1994, Pepsi Max was sold in approximately twenty countries. By the end of 1995, that figure had more than doubled. The product remained unavailable in the United States until 2006 (the US, PepsiCo's home market, and the largest consumer of carbonated soft drinks), where one of its principal ingredients had not yet been approved by the Food and Drug Administration. The ingredient—acesulfame potassium—is combined with aspartame to provide the beverage's sweetness, whereas some other diet colas are sweetened by aspartame alone.

In early-2005, Pepsi Max Twist (with added lemon-lime flavour) joined the UK and Australian product line. In autumn 2005, "Pepsi Max Punch" was marketed in the UK for the festive season. Containing ginger and cinnamon, the product was similar in flavour to Pepsi Holiday Spice, a sugar-sweetened variety of Pepsi that was marketed in the US one year earlier. In late-2005 and early-2006, a coffee-flavoured variety was introduced in France, Finland, Ireland, Norway, and the UK. Known as "Pepsi Max Cappuccino" ("Pepsi Max Coffee Cino" in the UK), the product was prefigured by the similar Pepsi Kona (briefly test-marketed in the US in 1996) and Pepsi Tarik, available in Malaysia since 2005.

Pepsi Max was introduced to South Korea, Bulgaria, and the Philippines in 2006, as well as being reintroduced into Argentina in the spring of 2006 after being phased out after its launch in 1994. As well as this, Pepsi Max was introduced into Brazil, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Turkey and the United Arab Emirates during early 2007.

In October 2008, Pepsi announced it would be redesigning its logo and re-branding many of its products. Pepsi, Diet Pepsi, and Pepsi Max all use lower-case fonts for name brands, Mountain Dew was renamed "Mtn Dew", and Diet Pepsi Max was re-branded as Pepsi Max. The brand's blue and red globe trademark became a series of "smiles", with the central white band arcing at different angles depending on the product. The new imagery is being used. In the case of Pepsi Max, besides renaming of the drink its international name, the logo has a large "smile" likely to emphasize the North American drink's "Wake up people!" advertising campaign, and also uses black in the bottom half of the globe as opposed to the more standard royal blue. The new lower-case font used on Pepsi's products is reminiscent of the font used in Diet Pepsi's logo from the 1960s to the mid-1980s. The website for the "Wake up people!" campaign now redirects to the Pepsi Refresh Project. It is expected that the version of Pepsi Max outside North America will adopt the new logo used by its US–Canada counterpart; this has now occurred in Australia. In the UK, the cans now have the "Pepsi" text and the new Pepsi globe (with the normal Pepsi "smile" and the blue bottom half, as opposed to the black half used in the US) but the "Max" is in the previous style. A Pepsi Max Lime version was released in the United States in February 2010 under the name "Pepsi Max Cease Fire" It was introduced in the UK in late-2011. It was cross-promoted with a new flavor series of Doritos chips called "3rd Degree Burn". In July 2010, Pepsi began to move its North American branding for Pepsi Max to match its global branding. It now carries a Max typography similar to that used worldwide, and rolled out a new slogan: "Zero Calories. Maximum Pepsi Taste". Its formula has not changed. In May 2011, Pepsi introduced the drink to Spain. In 2016, the drink was introduced to Venezuela. In 2017 Pepsi Max was launched in Costa Rica.

In 2013, Pepsi Max collaborated with English magician Steven Frayne, also known as Dynamo, as part of their 'Live for Now' campaign which was launched the previous year. As part of a launch event, Dynamo was seen in London hanging from the side of a number 543 double-decker bus on its journey along Millbank, past the Houses of Parliament and across Westminster Bridge, while hundreds of passers by watched. The partnership also saw Dynamo appear in an on-pack promotion on cans and bottles of Pepsi Max during July and August, and secured 19 million unique impressions and 7 million total video views on social media.

In 2017, the drink was reintroduced in Belarus, the Czech Republic, Greece, Hungary, India, Slovakia, Slovenia and Ukraine as Pepsi Black. As of 2017 it is available as Pepsi Max in Albania, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, China, Croatia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, Iceland, Ireland, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Macedonia, Moldova, Montenegro, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, the Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Thailand, Turkey, the United Kingdom and Venezuela.

Product positioning
Recent UK/Australia Pepsi Max television advertisements (as well as in several European countries) have featured the taglines "Maximum taste, no sugar" and "Don't worry, there's no sugar." Some have incorporated extreme sports, as well as video games such as Motocross Mania, in an attempt to appeal to young men (in contrast to other diet cola drinks, which tend to target young women). The British advertising campaign involved retouched versions of the American "Do the Dew" commercials for Mountain Dew (a variant of which is sold in the UK), rebranded as "Live life to the Max".

Coca-Cola Zero, a sugar-free cola from The Coca-Cola Company, is marketed in a similar manner. In the UK, some Coke Zero advertising alluded to Pepsi Max, leading to a counter-campaign by Pepsi extolling the virtues of the concept of "maximum" over that of "zero".

Variants
The Pepsi Max brand has seen many flavor variants and varieties across the world where the drink is marketed.

Pepsi Max
In early 2005, the North American drink Pepsi ONE was revised, with Splenda brand sucralose replacing the aspartame ingredient.

Canadian formulation
Beginning in early 1994, an entirely different Pepsi Max was marketed in Canada. Now regarded as a precursor to Pepsi Edge, it was sweetened with a combination of aspartame and high fructose corn syrup. As a result, it contained two-thirds fewer calories than full-sugar colas (including regular Pepsi), but more calories than conventional diet/light colas (or the version of Pepsi Max sold elsewhere). The Canadian product was discontinued in 2002; the Diet Pepsi Max product introduced in 2008 has no direct relationship to the earlier formulation.

title: Pepsi Max


text:
IBM Lotus Word Pro

Lotus Word Pro is a word processor produced by IBM's Lotus Software group for use on Microsoft Windows-compatible computers and on IBM OS/2 Warp. Word Pro was available as part of the Lotus SmartSuite office suite.

Word Pro was based upon Ami Pro (originally published by Samna), but was substantially rewritten (including a new native document format). The predecessor to Ami Pro, Amí, was released in 1988, and was the first fully functional Windows word processor. (The Windows version of Microsoft Word did not debut until early 1989.) Shortly after the release of Amí, the development team added support for tables and renamed the product Ami Pro.

Lotus obtained Ami Pro to round out their office suite by acquiring Samna in 1990. Lotus continued to develop Ami Pro further with version 3 released in 1992. Version 3.1 is the last version of Ami Pro released (all versions were 16 bit). The Windows versions of Ami Pro were also bundled with Adobe Type Manager for Windows, as Windows had poor support for scalable fonts before the introduction of TrueType.

In 1994, Joe Guthridge was one of seven awarded the Windows Pioneer Award for feedback which the Ami development team gave to Microsoft during the early development of Windows.

title: IBM Lotus Word Pro


text:
Talk:Carl Milles

Untitled
whoops, i forgot to sign in before doing Milles in America. oh well Carptrash 05:07, 17 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Another Sun Singer
Any interest in adding a link to this park Robert_Allerton_Park and sculpture in Illinois ? http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Sun_Singer--Robert_Allerton_Park_Oct_2006.jpg Lattefever (talk) 18:47, 6 August 2009 (UTC)Lattefever

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Talk:1991 Soviet coup attempt

Last sentence, first paragraph
Changed from "Although the coup collapsed in only three days and Gorbachev returned to power, the event crushed the Soviet leader's hopes that the union could be held together in at least a decentralized form." to "Although the coup collapsed in only three days and Gorbachev returned to power, the event seriously undermined the legitimacy of the CPSU and ultimately contributed to the collapse of the Soviet Union", as the coup did not 'crush' Gorbachev's hopes of preserving the Union - Gorbachev continued to try and hold together a loose Union of states until December, when Yeltsin organised the Belovezh meeting and effectively dissolved the Soviet Union behind Gorbachev's back. However, what the coup was instrumental in doing, was sealing the fate of the CPSU, the legitimacy of which by then no-one, even its previously-ardent supporter Gorbachev, could uphold.

Kernow1985 14:40, 13 May 2008 (GMT)

Albania, Angola, India, Laos and Sudan.
Were Albania, Angola, India, Laos and Sudan actually neutral during the coup d'etat attempt ? Did they really not support it? I find that hard to believe. More like Ethiopia than Angola. This is very useless, but I am done with this article.

Valentina Ivanovna
Boris Pugo's wife, Valentina, died of suicide and should be included in "casualties and losses." 2601:246:5E01:6760:2196:3DF1:36A2:9FFE (talk) 16:58, 23 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:1991 Soviet coup attempt


text:
Sonia Waddell

Sonia Waddell (née Scown; born 19 February 1973) is a New Zealand athlete. She represented her country at a World Junior Championship in hurdles before becoming a rower, in which sport she was twice an Olympic competitor and where she won silver at a World Rowing Championship. She later competed as a cyclist and won medals at a UCI Para-cycling Track World Championship as a sighted guide.

Private life
Waddell is the daughter of former All Black Alistair Scown and sister of rugby player Hayden Scown. In 1998, she married fellow rower Rob Waddell. Rower Rebecca Scown is her cousin.

Athletics
Waddell represented New Zealand in the 400 m hurdles at the 1990 World Junior Championships in Athletics in Plovdiv, Bulgaria.

Rowing
She first represented her country in rowing at the 1995 World Rowing Championships in Tampere, Finland, where she came ninth in the women's quadruple sculls. From 1997 onwards, she competed in the single sculls, and at the World Rowing Championships in 1997, 1998, and 1999, she placed tenth, tenth, and fifth, respectively. At the 2000 and 2004 Summer Olympics, she continued to compete in the single sculls, placing sixth and fifth, respectively.

She won a silver medal in the 2001 World Rowing Championships in the quadruple sculls, alongside Paula Twining and twins Caroline and Georgina Evers-Swindell. In the 2003 World Rowing Championships, she competed in the single sculls and came seventh.

Cycling
In 2011, she won the New Zealand Cycling Time Trial Championship.

At the 2011 UCI Para-cycling Track World Championships she took one gold and one bronze as a pilot, with teammate Jayne Parsons.

title: Sonia Waddell


text:
User talk:Kafaka

What are you trying to do here? Please explain how any of those most recent articles you've posted have anything to do with creating an encyclopedia. RickK 05:11, Aug 17, 2004 (UTC)

well, it was a dream I had as a teen, and since I was dreaming with things that really existed ( without my knowlege ), I'm trying to meet people who might help me finding a sense in all this

This isn't the place to do it. I'm pretty sure Rhuma kushuma will be deleted soon. RickK 05:55, Aug 17, 2004 (UTC)

Welcome to Wikipedia, Kafaka! Would you please explain to me what exactly Flesh fetish is? I can't find any mention on Google. Andre 06:13, 17 Aug 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Kafaka


text:
Lapsed Catholic

A lapsed Catholic is a Catholic who is non-practicing. Such a person may still identify as a Catholic, and remains one according to Catholic canon law.

Interpretations
The Merriam-Webster Dictionary definition of "lapsed" in relation to "lapsed Catholic" is "no longer believing or following the teachings of a religion". The Oxford American Writer's Thesaurus associates the term "lapsed Catholic" as one who is backsliding. Lapsing is thus not necessarily connected with a lack of belief. However, author Daniel Ford links being a lapsed Catholic with rejection of Catholic teaching, either totally or by being an "à la carte Catholic".

Other sources associate the term with abandonment of practice of the Catholic religion rather than with rejection of its doctrine. Thus the Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary defines "lapsed", again in relation to "lapsed Catholic", as "no longer involved in an activity or organization", and the Oxford Dictionary speaks only of "no longer following the rules and practices of a religion or doctrine".

Richard John Neuhaus distinguished between Catholic and Protestant ideas of what it means to be "lapsed" by quoting G.K. Chesterton, who remarked that a Protestant typically says he is a good Protestant, while a Catholic typically says he is a bad Catholic. For many, being a lapsed Catholic is just another way of being a Catholic.

Catholic teaching on membership in the Church
According to Catholic belief, baptism "seals the Christian with the indelible spiritual mark of belonging to Christ. No sin can erase this mark, even if sin prevents baptism from bearing the fruits of salvation."

Even the form of censure known as excommunication does not erase this sacramental character of their baptism; but excommunicated persons are "cut off from the Church", barred from receiving the Eucharist and all other sacraments, and from taking an active part in the liturgy (reading, serving at the altar, etc.).

History
In the time of the persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire, many Christians, including clergy and even some bishops, were referred to as the lapsi (those who had slipped and fell) as opposed to the stantes (those who stood firm). Different attitudes developed within the Church towards the lapsed: some held they should never be readmitted to the Church before death, others were for demanding serious penance of them before readmitting them, while others again were still more lenient. The First Council of Nicaea insisted that any clergy who had lapsed were not to be readmitted to clerical rank.

From 1983, a formal act of defection from the Catholic Church was recognised in the 1983 Code of Canon Law, making defectors ineligible for the privileges of membership of the Church, such as marrying in church. This form of defection was removed from the Code in 2009.

In the religion question on the Republic of Ireland census, "lapsed (Roman) Catholic" (a write-in option rather than a pre-printed checkbox option) was collated separately for the first time in 2011, when 1,268 were recorded (0.033% of the "Roman Catholic" total); the 2016 census recorded 8,094 (0.21%).

Present canon law
Today, a Latin Catholic who lapses to the extent of becoming an apostate, a heretic or a schismatic is automatically excommunicated; and, until the excommunication is lifted, is forbidden to have any ministerial part in the celebration of Mass or other worship ceremonies, to celebrate or receive the sacraments or to exercise any Church functions. This is an obligation that binds the excommunicated person. Unless the excommunication has been publicly declared by the Church and not merely incurred automatically, the excommunicated person cannot on that ground alone be publicly refused the sacraments, even by a priest who knows of it. However, to assist at the marriage of someone who has "notoriously" (i.e. widely known to have done so) rejected the Catholic faith, a priest needs the permission of the ordinary and the same promises required by spouses in mixed marriages are also required.

The 1983 Code of Canon Law lays down no particular penalty for a lapse in one's religious duties as a Catholic that consist in failure to attend Sunday Mass and failure to receive Communion during Eastertide other than a recommendation toward penance and reconciliation.

Colloquial names
Some lapsed Catholics attend Mass on special occasions like Christmas and Easter. Such lapsed Catholics are colloquially and sometimes derogatorily called Cultural Catholics or A&P Catholics (for Ash Wednesday and Palm Sunday).

"Cultural Catholic" is also used to refer to a non-religious member of a historically Catholic ethnic group: Hungarian, Polish.

title: Lapsed Catholic


text:
Talk:Joe Fedele

Untitled
Am I the only one who thinks the whole Fairway/FreshDirect rivalry is a riot? Wikisux 05:11, 17 Aug 2004 (UTC)

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Talk:Fernão Pires de Andrade

GA Review

 * GA review (see here for criteria)

 * 1) It is reasonably well written:
 * ''Pass no problems there.
 * 1) It is factually accurate and verifiable:
 * Pass though I would recommend getting more sources if the article is to be improved any further. It looks like all of the information comes from 10 or so sources, and A- or FA- class articles usually have several dozen. I would recommend adding more sources so that the article's neutrality cannot be called into question. Also I would recommend adding external links to the references; if the books don't have their own websites, then a source like amazon.com will do.
 * 1) It is broad in its coverage:
 * Pass The article is very strong in this respect.
 * 1) It follows the neutral point of view policy:
 * Pass no problems there.
 * 1) It is stable:
 * Pass no problems there.
 * 1) It is illustrated by images, where possible and appropriate:
 * Pass plenty of images.
 * 1) Overall:
 * The article is very well written and extensive. It is definately GA quality. -Ed! (talk) 22:44, 17 February 2008 (UTC)

Awesome! Thanks. I'm glad you liked the article.-- Pericles of Athens  Talk 06:27, 18 February 2008 (UTC)

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translation into Chinese Wikipedia
The UTC 04:40, 24 September 2003 version of this article had been or the UTC 02:05, 21 October 2006 version was translated into Chinese wikipedia --- Ktsquare (talk) 04:46, 14 January 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Fernão Pires de Andrade


text:
User:Autiger

AUtiger (born January 26) is a technology professional. He is a graduate of Auburn University's Management Information Systems program. He originally began in Auburn's nationally recognized Architecture program and still retains significant interests in architecture and city planning.

In his spare time, he is an avid college football fan having attended games in 41 different stadia. He also attended the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta and the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney.

He has significant interests in music, both listening and performing, with considerable experience as a trumpet player and choral singer, as well as experience as a DJ and the host of the jazz show on WEGL-FM while a student at AU. He is also a photographer and Nikon enthusiast as well as movie fan and Oscars completionist.

Editing
NOTE: AUtiger is now an infrequent editor.

Wikipedia Milestones:
 * First edit: July 10, 2004
 * 1000: September 7, 2005

 * 5000: August 5, 2007

 * 8000: January 15, 2008

Images

 * Atlanta Gallery - images in and around Atlanta, Georgia
 * Auburn Gallery - images related to Auburn University
 * Sports Gallery - non-Auburn sports-related images
 * Other - various other images
 * Oakland Cemetery (Atlanta)(FA) - many monument photos.

Recognition
Thanks for your contributions to the Auburn University article and for your vandal/spammer whacking. Your hard work is appreciated. War Eagle! -- Tantalum T  e  lluride  03:44, 24 February 2006 (UTC)

Tools
Super toolbox shamelessly stolen by proxy from Esprit15d.

Other templates

 * username

title: User:Autiger


text:
Talk:Ilidža

Untitled
In his last edit, Asim suggested that similar standards should be applied to former YU censa as to USA ones. Difference lies in the fact that, while "African American" and "Negro" are two different terms for the same thing, "Muslim" and "Bosniak" are two different terms for two different things. See the article on Muslims by nationality for more on this. Nikola 05:16, 17 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * However the amount of Muslims by nationality that are not the same as Bosniaks in the whole Balkans was a very small percentage, and this is taking into consideration all the regions that had Muslims in the ex-yugoslavia. Within Ilidza itself, it is a well known fact that the overwhelming majority of muslims by nationality were Bosniaks. The number of non-Bosniak Muslims by nationality in Ilidza during the 1991 census was so small (If at all existant) that the difference in percentage of Bosniaks would be negligable. In an effort to provide accurate information wikipedia can and should label the muslims by nationality in Ilidza as Bosniaks. Otherwise it would just seem like cheap attempts at a Serbian nationalist agend.. oh wait. Asim Led 12:47, 17 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * No, it shouldn't. The census didn't record a single Bosniak and saying that it did is pure falsification of its results, and nothing more--even if we would somehow know for certain that all people who registered at the previous census as Muslims are now declaring as Bosniaks. Of course, if you think that it is important to mention the fact that most people who were registered as Muslims are now declaring as Bosniaks, I won't be stopping you. Nikola 16:06, 19 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * Nikola, I perfectly understand your concern about possible misinterpitation of the census results. Perhaps you're a statistician? To solve our dispute, I've taken out any mention of the 1991 census and left rounded numbers of ethnicities. This way your concerns about accuracy of census results are soothed while foreign wikipedia users aren't confused. Asim Led 04:13, 20 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * Having made the article on demographic history of Montenegro, you can see that I am interested in censa. I will pretend that your lowering of the number of Serbs ten times was a typo, but anyway I don't think that it is a good idea to have inaccurate data when there are accurate data. I will return exact census results with a notice about the thing, please comment on it. Nikola 02:06, 22 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * This is more understandable. And as for the number of Serbs, sorry, that was a typo. Asim Led 14:35, 22 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * I think that the change from pre-1993 "Bosniaks" to "Muslims by nationality" is factually correct, but it's also important to make sure that we don't sidestep the issue that the vast majority of Bosnian Muslims (by nationality) became Bosniaks. If a sentence talks about the population of a place in Bosnia in 1991 and after the war, it's also correct to refer to both as either as Bosniaks or as (Bosnian) Muslims (by nationality), both terms will be understood correctly.
 * I can see how the mass change to link to Muslims by nationality could be interpreted as an anti-Bosniak-national-determination agenda, but given that that page doesn't misconstrue anything (e.g. it does not suggest that a non-negligible Muslims by nationality in Bosnia aren't Bosniaks today) and says rather clearly what happened, it shouldn't be a big deal. --Joy [shallot]   20:39, 19 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * Bosnian Muslims is a dumb and outdated term that implies some 200,000 of us give a damn about Islam, when we don't. And the changing of links to Muslim by nationality, while technically correct (And this is only when describing census results), is obviously meant to imply to foreign (non yugoslavian) visitors and wikipedians a wide number of things (That there weren't as many Bosniaks back then as there are now, that Muslims overnight magically turned into Bosniaks, that Bosniaks or a seperate sense of national identity independent from religion only materialized in the past 10 years, etc. etc.). To resolve the conflict, I've taken out any mention of the 1991 census. I believe we can now live in peace. Asim Led 04:13, 20 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Name derivation?
Could it be that the name Ilidza might have derived from Ilıca in Turkish meaning "warm thermal spring"? There is no such word in Turkish which means "giving health" or is spelt the way it is in the article. --leandros 18:33, 6 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * Hmm, that is possible... maybe the official website got it wrong. Feel free to change it into something like "Ilidza is possibly derived from...". Asim Led 03:26, 8 Nov 2004 (UTC)

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External links modified
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title: Talk:Ilidža