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Copper extraction

Copper extraction refers to the methods used to obtain copper from its ores. The conversion of copper ores consists of a series of physical, chemical and electrochemical processes. Methods have evolved and vary with country depending on the ore source, local environmental regulations, and other factors.

History
The Old Copper Complex in North America has been radiometrically dated to 9500 BP—i.e., about 7480 BCE—making it one of the oldest known examples of copper extraction in the world. The earliest evidence of the cold-hammering of native copper comes from the excavation at Çayönü Tepesi in eastern Anatolia, which dates between 7200 to 6600 BCE. Among the various items considered to be votive or amulets, there was one that looked like a fishhook and one like an awl. Another find, at Shanidar Cave in Mergasur, Iraq, contained copper beads, and dates back to 8,700 BCE.

One of the world's oldest known copper mines, as opposed to usage of surface deposits, is at Timna Valley, Israel, and has been used since the fourth millennium BC, with surface deposit usage occurring in the fifth and sixth millennium.

The Pločnik archaeological site in southeastern Europe (Serbia) contains the oldest securely dated evidence of copper making at high temperature, from 5,000 BCE. The find in June 2010 extends for an additional 500 years, dated to 5th millennium BCE, representing the earlier record of copper smelting from Rudna Glava (Serbia).

Copper smelting technology gave rise to the Copper Age, aka Chalcolithic Age, and then the Bronze Age. The Bronze Age would not have been possible without the development of smelting technology.

Smelting
Until the latter half of the 20th century, smelting sulfide ores was almost the sole means of producing copper metal from mined ores (primary copper production). As of 2002, 80% of global primary copper production was from copper–iron–sulfur minerals, and the vast majority of these were treated by smelting.

Copper was initially recovered from sulfide ores by directly smelting the ore in a furnace. The smelters were initially located near the mines to minimize the cost of transport. This avoided the prohibitive costs of transporting the waste minerals and the sulfur and iron present in the copper-containing minerals. However, as the concentration of copper in the ore bodies decreased, the energy costs of smelting the whole ore also became prohibitive, and it became necessary to concentrate the ores first.

Initial concentration techniques included hand-sorting and gravity concentration. These resulted in high losses of copper. Consequently, the development of the froth flotation process was a major step forward in mineral processing. The modern froth flotation process was independently invented in the early 1900s in Australia by C.V Potter and around the same time by G. D. Delprat. It made the development of the giant Bingham Canyon mine in Utah possible.

In the twentieth century, most ores were concentrated before smelting. Smelting was initially undertaken using sinter plants and blast furnaces, or with roasters and reverberatory furnaces. Roasting and reverberatory furnace smelting dominated primary copper production until the 1960s.

Concentration (beneficiation)

The average grade of copper ores in the 21st century is below 0.6% copper, with a proportion of economic ore minerals being less than 2% of the total volume of the ore rock. Thus, all mining operations, the ore must usually be beneficiated (concentrated). The concentrate is typically sold to distant smelters, although some large mines have smelters located nearby. Such colocation of mines and smelters was more typical in the 19th and early 20th centuries, when smaller smelters could be economic. The subsequent processing techniques depend on the nature of the ore.

In the usual case when it is primarily sulfide copper minerals (such as chalcopyrite, FeCuS2), the ore is treated by comminution, where the rock is crushed to produce small particles (<100 μm) consisting of individual mineral phases. These particles are then ready to be separated to remove gangue (silicate rocks residues) using froth flotation.

Froth flotation

In froth flotation, the crushed ore is wetted, suspended in a slurry, and mixed with reagents that render the sulfide particles hydrophobic. Typical reagents ("collectors") include potassium ethylxanthate and sodium ethylxanthate, but dithiophosphates and dithiocarbamates are also used. The slurry is introduced to a water-filled aeration tank containing a surfactant such as methylisobutyl carbinol (MIBC). Air is constantly forced through the slurry. The air bubbles attach to the hydrophobic copper sulfide particles, which are conveyed to the surface where the froth is skimmed off. These skimmings are generally subjected to a cleaner-scavenger cell to remove excess silicates and to remove other sulfide minerals that can deleteriously impact the concentrate quality (typically, galena), and the final concentrate sent for smelting. The rock that has not floated off in the flotation cell is either discarded as tailings or further processed to extract other metals such as lead (from galena) and zinc (from sphalerite), should they exist. A variety of measures are taken to improve the efficiency of the froth flotation. Lime is used to raise the pH of the water bath, causing the collector to bond more efficiently to the copper sulfides. The process can produce a concentrates with 27–29% and 37–40% copper contents from chalcopyrite and chalcocite, respectively.

Hydrometallurgy

Oxidised copper ores include carbonates such as azurite and malachite, the silicate chrysocolla, and sulfates such as atacamite. In some cases, sulfide ores are allowed to degrade to oxides. Such ores are amenable to hydrometallurgy. Specifically, such oxide ores are usually extracted into aqueous sulfuric acid, usually in a heap leaching or dump leaching. The resulting pregnant leach solution is purified by solvent extraction (SX). It is treated with an organic solvent and an organic chelators. The chelators bind the copper ions (and no other ions, ideally), the resulting complexes dissolve in the organic phase. This organic solvent is evaporated, leaving a residue of the copper complexes. The copper ions are liberated from the residue with sulfuric acid. The barred (denuded) sulfuric acid recycled back on to the heaps. The organic ligands are recovered and recycled as well. Alternatively, the copper can be precipitated out of the pregnant solution by contacting it with scrap iron; a process called cementation. Cement copper is normally less pure than SX-EW copper.

Specialized ores
Secondary sulfides—those formed by supergene secondary enrichment—are resistant (refractory) to sulfuric leaching. Secondary copper sulfides are dominated by the mineral chalcocite; a mineral formed from primary sulfides, like chalcopyrite, that undergo chemical processes such as oxidation or reduction. Typically, secondary sulfide ores are concentrated using froth flotation. Other extraction processes like leaching are effectively used for the extraction of secondary copper sulfides, but as demand for copper rises, extraction processes tailored for low-grade ores are required, due to the depletion of copper resources. Processes including in situ, dump, and heap leaching are cost-effective methods that are suitable for extracting copper from low-grade ores.

Extraction processes for secondary copper sulfides and low-grade ores includes the process of heap bioleaching. Heap bioleaching presents a cost efficient extraction method that requires a less intensive energy input resulting in a higher profit. This extraction process can be applied to large quantities of low-grade ores, at a lower capital cost with minimal environmental impact.

Generally, direct froth flotation is not used to concentrate copper oxide ores, as a result of the largely ionic and hydrophilic structure of the copper oxide mineral surface. Copper oxide ores are typically treated via chelating-reagent flotation and fatty-acid flotation, which use organic reagents to ensure adsorption onto the mineral surface through the formation of hydrophobic compounds on the mineral surface.

Some supergene sulfide deposits can be leached using a bacterial oxidation heap leach process to oxidize the sulfides to sulfuric acid, which also allows for simultaneous leaching with sulfuric acid to produce a copper sulfate solution. For oxide ores, solvent extraction and electrowinning technologies are used to recover the copper from the pregnant leach solution. To ensure the best recovery of copper, it is important to acknowledge the effect copper dissolution, acid consumption, and gangue mineral composition has on the efficacy of extraction.

Supergene sulfide ores rich in native copper are refractory to treatment with sulfuric acid leaching on all practicable time scales, and the dense metal particles do not react with froth flotation media. Typically, if native copper is a minor part of a supergene profile it will not be recovered and will report to the tailings. When rich enough, native copper ore bodies may be treated to recover the contained copper by gravity separation. Often, the nature of the gangue is important, as clay-rich native copper ores prove difficult to liberate. This is because clay minerals interact with flotation reagents used in extraction processes, that are then consumed, which results in minimal recovery of a high grade copper concentrate.

Roasting
The roasting process is generally undertaken in combination with reverberatory furnaces. In the roaster, the copper concentrate is partially oxidised to produce "calcine". Sulfur dioxide is liberated. The stoichiometry of the reaction is:
 * CuFeS2 + 3 O2  ->  2 FeO  +  2 CuS  +  2 SO2

Roasting generally leaves more sulfur in the calcined product (15% in the case of the roaster at Mount Isa Mines ) than a sinter plant leaves in the sintered product (about 7% in the case of the Electrolytic Refining and Smelting smelter ).

As of 2005, roasting is no longer common in copper concentrate treatment because its combination with reverberatory furnaces is not energy efficient and the SO2 concentration in the roaster offgas is too dilute for cost-effective capture. Direct smelting is now favored, and uses the following smelting technologies: flash smelting, Isasmelt, Noranda, Mitsubishi or El Teniente furnaces.

Smelting
The initial melting of the material to be smelted is usually referred to as the smelting or matte smelting stage. It can be undertaken in a variety of furnaces, including the largely obsolete blast furnaces and reverberatory furnaces, as well as flash furnaces, Isasmelt furnaces, etc. The product of this smelting stage is a mixture of copper, iron and sulfur that is enriched in copper, which is called matte or copper matte. The term matte grade is normally used to refer to the copper content of the matte.

The purpose of the matte smelting stage is to eliminate as much of the unwanted iron, sulfur and gangue minerals (such as silica, magnesia, alumina and limestone) as possible, while minimizing the loss of copper. This is achieved by reacting iron sulfides with oxygen (in air or oxygen enriched air) to produce iron oxides (mainly as FeO, but with some magnetite (Fe3O4)) and sulfur dioxide.

Copper sulfide and iron oxide can mix, but when sufficient silica is added, a separate slag layer is formed. Adding silica also reduces the melting point (or, more properly, the liquidus temperature) of the slag, meaning that the smelting process can be operated at a lower temperature.

The slag forming reaction is:

 * FeO + SiO2 → FeO.SiO2

Slag is less dense than matte, so it forms a layer that floats on top of the matte.

Copper can be lost from the matte in three ways: as cuprous oxide (Cu2O) dissolved in the slag, as sulfide copper dissolved in the slag or as tiny droplets (or prills) of matte suspended in the slag.

The amount of copper lost as oxide copper increases as the oxygen potential of the slag increases. The oxygen potential generally increases as the copper content of the matte is increased. Thus, the loss of copper as oxide increases as the copper content of the matte increases.

On the other hand, the solubility of sulfidic copper in slag decreases as the copper content of the matte increases beyond about 40%. Nagamori calculated that more than half the copper dissolved in slags from mattes containing less than 50% copper is sulfidic copper. Above this figure, oxidic copper begins to dominate.

The loss of copper as prills suspended in the slag depends on the size of the prills, the viscosity of the slag and the settling time available. Rosenqvist suggested that about half the copper losses to slag were due to suspended prills.

The mass of slag generated in the smelting stage depends on the iron content of the material fed into the smelting furnace and the target matte grade. The greater the iron content of the feed, the more iron that will need to be rejected to the slag for a given matte grade. Similarly, increasing the target matte grade requires the rejection of more iron and an increase in the slag volume.

Thus, the two factors that most affect the loss of copper to slag in the smelting stage are:
 * matte grade
 * mass of slag.

This means that there is a practical limit on how high the matte grade can be if the loss of copper to slag is to be minimized. Therefore, further stages of processing (converting and fire refining) are required.

The following subsections briefly describe some of the processes used in matte smelting.

Reverberatory furnace smelting
Reverberatory furnaces are long furnaces that can treat wet, dry, or roasted concentrate. Most of the reverberatory furnaces used in the latter years treated roasted concentrate because putting dry feed materials into the reverberatory furnace is more energy efficient, and because the elimination of some of the sulfur in the roaster results in higher matte grades.

The reverberatory furnace feed is added to the furnace through feed holes along the sides of the furnace, and the solid charge is melted. Additional silica is normally added to help form the slag. The furnace is fired with burners using pulverized coal, fuel oil or natural gas

Reverberatory furnaces can additionally be fed with molten slag from the later converting stage to recover the contained copper and other materials with a high copper content.

Because the reverberatory furnace bath is quiescent, very little oxidation of the feed occurs (and thus very little sulfur is eliminated from the concentrate). It is essentially a melting process. Consequently, wet-charged reverberatory furnaces have less copper in their matte product than calcine-charged furnaces, and they also have lower copper losses to slag. Gill quotes a copper in slag value of 0.23% for a wet-charged reverberatory furnace vs 0.37% for a calcine-charged furnace.

In the case of calcine-charged furnaces, a significant portion of the sulfur has been eliminated during the roasting stage, and the calcine consists of a mixture of copper and iron oxides and sulfides. The reverberatory furnace acts to allow these species to approach chemical equilibrium at the furnace operating temperature (approximately 1600 °C at the burner end of the furnace and about 1200 °C at the flue end; the matte is about 1100 °C and the slag is about 1195 °C ). In this equilibration process, oxygen associated with copper compounds exchanges with sulfur associated with iron compounds, increasing the iron oxide content of the furnace, and the iron oxides interact with silica and other oxide materials to form the slag.

The main equilibration reaction is:

 * Cu2O + FeS → Cu2S + FeO

The slag and the matte form distinct layers that can be removed from the furnace as separate streams. The slag layer is periodically allowed to flow through a hole in the wall of the furnace above the height of the matte layer. The matte is removed by draining it through a hole into ladles for it to be carried by crane to the converters. This draining process is known as tapping the furnace. The matte taphole is normally a hole through a water-cooled copper block that prevents erosion of the refractory bricks lining the furnace. When the removal of the matte or slag is complete, the hole is normally plugged with clay, which is removed when the furnace is ready to be tapped again.

Reverberatory furnaces were often used to treat molten converter slag to recover contained copper. This would be poured into the furnaces from ladles carried by cranes. However, the converter slag is high in magnetite and some of this magnetite would precipitate from the converter slag (due to its higher melting point), forming an accretion on the hearth of the reverberatory furnace and necessitating shut downs of the furnace to remove the accretion. This accretion formation limits the quantity of converter slag that can be treated in a reverberatory furnace.

While reverberatory furnaces have very low copper losses to slag, they are not very energy-efficient and the low concentrations of sulfur dioxide in their off-gases make its capture uneconomic. Consequently, smelter operators devoted a lot of money in the 1970s and 1980s to developing new, more efficient copper smelting processes. In addition, flash smelting technologies had been developed in earlier years and began to replace reverberatory furnaces. By 2002, 20 of the 30 reverberatory furnaces still operating in 1994 had been shut down.

Flash furnace smelting
In flash smelting, the concentrate is dispersed in an air or oxygen stream and the smelting reactions are largely completed while the mineral particles are still in flight. The reacted particles then settle in a bath at the bottom of the furnace, where they behave like calcine in a reverberatory furnace. A slag layer forms on top of the matte layer, and they can separately be tapped from the furnace.

Converting
The matte, which is produced in the smelter, contains 30–70% copper (depending on the process used and the operating philosophy of the smelter), primarily as copper sulfide, as well as iron sulfide. The sulfur is removed at a high temperature as sulfur dioxide by blowing air through molten matte:
 * 2 CuS + 3 O2 → 2 CuO + 2 SO2

 * CuS + O2 → Cu + SO2

In a parallel reaction the iron sulfide is converted to slag:

 * 2 FeS + 3 O2 → 2 FeO + 2 SO2
 * 2 FeO + SiO2 → Fe2SiO4

The purity of this product is 98%, it is known as blister because of the broken surface created by the escape of sulfur dioxide gas as blister copper pigs or ingots are cooled. By-products generated in the process are sulfur dioxide and slag. The sulfur dioxide is captured and converted to sulfuric acid and either sold on the open market or used in copper leaching processes.

Fire refining
The blister copper is put into an anode furnace, a furnace that refines the blister copper to anode-grade copper in two stages by removing most of the remaining sulfur and iron, and then removing oxygen introduced during the first stage. This second stage, often referred to as poling is done by blowing natural gas, or some other reducing agent, through the molten copper oxide. When this flame burns green, indicating the copper oxidation spectrum, the oxygen has mostly been burned off. This creates copper at about 99% pure.

Electrolysis

The final stage in the production of copper is refining. Refining is achieved by electrolysis, which exploits the easy (low potential) and selective conversion of copper(II) solutions to the metal. The anodes cast from processed blister copper are placed into an aqueous solution of 3–4% copper sulfate and 10–16% sulfuric acid. Cathodes are thin rolled sheets of highly pure copper or, more commonly these days, reusable stainless steel starting sheets (as in the IsaKidd process). A potential of only 0.2–0.4 volts is required for the process to commence. In industrial plants current densities up to 420 A/m2 are possible.

At the anode (oxidation reaction), copper and less noble metals dissolve. More noble metals and less soluble elements such as silver, gold, selenium, and tellurium settle to the bottom of the cell as anode slime, which forms a salable by-product. Copper(II) ions migrate through the electrolyte to the cathode. At the cathode (reduction reaction), Cu(2+) ions are reduced in copper metal and Cu(s) plates out, but less noble constituents such as arsenic and zinc remain in solution unless a higher voltage is used.

The reactions involving metallic copper and Cu(2+) ions at the electrodes are the following:

 * – At the anode || (oxidation and dissolution) || : Cu(s)  || → Cu2+  + 2 e−
 * – At the cathode || (reduction and precipitation) || : Cu2+  +  2 e−  || → Cu(s)
 * }
 * – At the cathode || (reduction and precipitation) || : Cu2+  +  2 e−  || → Cu(s)
 * }

Concentrate and copper marketing
Copper concentrates produced by mines are sold to smelters and refiners who treat the ore and refine the copper and charge for this service via treatment charges (TCs) and refining charges (RCs). The TCs are charged in US$ per tonne of concentrate treated and RCs are charged in cents per pound treated, denominated in US dollars, with benchmark prices set annually by major Japanese smelters. The customer in this case can be a smelter, who on-sells blister copper ingots to a refiner, or a smelter-refiner which is vertically integrated.

One prevalent form of copper concentrate contains gold and silver, like the one produced by Bougainville Copper Limited from the Panguna mine from the early 1970s to the late 1980s.

The typical contract for a miner is denominated against the London Metal Exchange price, minus the TC-RCs and any applicable penalties or credits. Penalties may be assessed against copper concentrates according to the level of deleterious elements such as arsenic, bismuth, lead or tungsten. Because a large portion of copper sulfide ore bodies contain silver or gold in appreciable amounts, a credit can be paid to the miner for these metals if their concentration within the concentrate is above a certain amount. Usually the refiner or smelter charges the miner a fee based on the concentration; a typical contract will specify that a credit is due for every ounce of the metal in the concentrate above a certain concentration; below that, if it is recovered, the smelter will keep the metal and sell it to defray costs.

Copper concentrate is traded either via spot contracts or under long term contracts as an intermediate product in its own right. Often the smelter sells the copper metal itself on behalf of the miner. The miner is paid the price at the time that the smelter-refiner makes the sale, not at the price on the date of delivery of the concentrate. Under a Quotational Pricing system, the price is agreed to be at a fixed date in the future, typically 90 days from time of delivery to the smelter.

A-grade copper cathode is of 99.99% copper in sheets that are 1 cm thick, and approximately 1 meter square weighing approximately 200 pounds. It is a true commodity, deliverable to and tradeable upon the metal exchanges in New York City (COMEX), London (London Metals Exchange) and Shanghai (Shanghai Futures Exchange). Often copper cathode is traded upon the exchanges indirectly via warrants, options, or swap contracts such that the majority of copper is traded upon the LME/COMEX/SFE, but delivery is achieved directly, logistically moving the physical copper, and transferring the copper sheet from the physical warehouses themselves.

The chemical specification for electrolytic grade copper is ASTM B 115-00 (a standard that specifies the purity and maximum electrical resistivity of the product).

Peak copper

Peak copper is the point in time at which the maximum global copper production rate is reached. Since copper is a finite resource, at some point in the future new production from mining will diminish, and at some earlier time production will reach a maximum. When this will occur is a matter of dispute. Unlike fossil fuels, copper is scrapped and reused, and it has been estimated that at least 80% of all copper ever mined is still available (having been repeatedly recycled).

Copper is among the most important industrial metals, ranking third after iron and aluminium in terms of quantity used. It is valued for its heat and electrical conductivities, ductility, malleability and resistance to corrosion. Electrical uses account for about three quarters of total copper consumption, including power cables, data cables and electrical equipment. It is also used in cooling and refrigeration tubing, heat exchangers, water pipes and consumer products.

Copper has been used by humans for at least 10,000 years. More than 97% of all copper ever mined and smelted has been extracted since 1900. The increased demand for copper due to the growing Indian and Chinese economies since 2006 has led to increased prices and an increase in copper theft.

History
Concern about the copper supply is not new. In 1924 geologist and copper-mining expert Ira Joralemon warned:
 * ... the age of electricity and of copper will be short. At the intense rate of production that must come, the copper supply of the world will last hardly a score of years. ... Our civilization based on electrical power will dwindle and die.

Copper supply
Globally, economic copper resources are being depleted with the equivalent production of three world-class copper mines being consumed annually. Environmental analyst Lester Brown suggested in 2008 that copper might run out within 25 years based on what he considered a reasonable extrapolation of 2% growth per year.

New copper discoveries
Fifty-six new copper discoveries have been made during the three decades 1975–2005. World discoveries of new copper deposits are said to have peaked in 1996. However, according to the US Geological Survey (USGS), remaining world copper reserves have more than doubled since then, from 310 million metric tons in 1996 to 890 million metric tons in 2022.

Production

As shown in the table below, the three chief national producers of copper, respectively, in 2002, were Chile, Indonesia, and the United States. In 2013, they were Chile, China, and Peru. Twenty-one of the 28 largest copper mines in the world (as of 2006) are not amenable to expansion.

Reserves
Copper is a fairly common element, with an estimated concentration of 50–70 ppm (0.005–0.007 percent) in Earth's crust (1 kg of copper per 15–20 tons of crustal rock). A concentration of 60 ppm would multiply out to 1.66 quadrillion tonnes over the $27,700,000,000,000,000,000,000 kg$ mass of the crust, or over 90 million years' worth at the 2013 production rate of 18.3 MT per year. However, not all of it can be extracted profitably at the current level of technology and the current market value.

The USGS reported a current total reserve base of copper in potentially recoverable ores of 1.6 billion tonnes as of 2005, of which 950 million tonnes were considered economically recoverable. A 2013 global assessment identified "455 known deposits (with well-defined identified resources) that contain about 1.8 billion metric tons of copper", and predicted "a mean of 812 undiscovered deposits within the uppermost kilometer of the earth's surface" containing another 3.1 billion metric tons of copper "which represents about 180 times 2012 global copper production from all types of copper deposits."

Recycling
In the US, more copper is recovered and put back into service from recycled material than is derived from newly mined ore. Copper's recycle value is so great that premium-grade scrap normally has at least 95% of the value of primary metal from newly mined ore. In Europe, about 50% of copper demand comes from recycling (as of 2016).

, recycled copper provided 35% of total worldwide copper usage.

Undiscovered conventional resources
Based on discovery rates and existing geologic surveys, researchers estimated in 2006 that 1.6 billion metric tons of copper could be brought into use. This figure relied on the broadest possible definition of available copper as well as a lack of energy constraints and environmental concerns.

The US Geological Survey estimated that, as of 2013, there remained 3.5 billion metric tons of undiscovered copper resources worldwide in porphyry and sediment-hosted type deposits, two types which currently provide 80% of mined copper production. This was in addition to 2.1 billion metric tons of identified resources. Combined identified and estimated undiscovered copper resources were 5.6 billion metric tons, 306 times the 2013 global production of newly mined copper of 18.3 million metric tons.

Unconventional resources
Deep-sea nodules are estimated to contain 700 million tonnes of copper.

Criticism
Julian Simon was a senior fellow at the Cato Institute and a professor of business and economics. In his book The Ultimate Resource 2 (first printed in 1981 and reprinted in 1998), he extensively criticizes the notion of "peak resources", and uses copper as one example. He argues that, even though "peak copper" has been a persistent scare since the early 20th century, "known reserves" grew at a rate that outpaced demand, and the price of copper was not rising but falling over the long run. For example, even though world production of copper in 1950 was only one-eighth of what it was in the early 2000s, known reserves were also much lower at the time – around 100 million metric tons – making it appear that the world would run out of copper in 40 to 50 years at most.

Simon's own explanation for this development is that the very notion of known reserves is deeply flawed, as it does not take into account changes in mining profitability. As richer mines are exhausted, developers turn their attention to poorer sources of the element and eventually develop cheap methods of extracting it, raising known reserves. Thus, for example, copper was so abundant 5000 years ago, occurring in pure form as well as in highly concentrated copper ores, that prehistoric peoples were able to collect and process it with very basic technology. As of the early 21st century, copper is commonly mined from ores that contain 0.3–0.6% copper by weight. Yet, despite the material being far less widespread, the cost of, for example, a copper pot was vastly lower in the late 20th century than 5000 years ago.

title: Copper extraction


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Confederate States Marine Corps

The Confederate States Marine Corps (CSMC), also referred to as the Confederate States Marines, was a branch of the Confederate Navy during the American Civil War. It was established by an act of the Provisional Congress of the Confederate States on March 16, 1861. The Corps' manpower was initially authorized at 46 officers and 944 enlisted men, and was increased on September 24, 1862, to 1,026 enlisted men. The organization of the Corps began at Montgomery, Alabama, and was completed at Richmond, Virginia, when the capital of the Confederate States was moved to that location. The headquarters and main training facilities remained in Richmond throughout the war, located at Camp Beall on Drewry's Bluff and at the Gosport Shipyard in Portsmouth, Virginia. The last Marine unit surrendered to the Union army on April 9, 1865, with the Confederacy itself capitulating a month later.

Modeled after USMC
Before the war, the United States Marine Corps had been an "exceptionally fine and well-disciplined" organization, and "from it came the nucleus of the corresponding establishment of the Confederate service", the CSMC. The CSMC was modeled after the United States Marine Corps, but there were some differences: the Confederates organized themselves into permanent companies, replaced the fife with the light infantry bugle, and wore uniforms similar to those of British Royal Marines. Like the USMC, when ashore they provided guard detachments for Confederate naval stations at:
 * Richmond, Virginia
 * Camp Beall, located near Fort Darling at Drewry's Bluff, Virginia
 * Wilmington, North Carolina – Fort Fisher
 * Charlotte, North Carolina
 * Charleston, South Carolina
 * Hilton Head Island, South Carolina
 * Savannah, Georgia
 * Pensacola, Florida – (manned naval shore batteries)
 * Mobile, Alabama

Seagoing detachments served aboard the various warships and even on commerce destroyers.

Organization
The C.S. Marine Corps was formed in the early days of the Civil War from three sources:

 * Sixteen officers (and 100 enlisted men) resigning or deserting from the U.S. Marine Corps
 * The amalgamation of state organizations such as the Virginia State Marines
 * Active recruitment

Source of men
The Colonel-Commandant of the CSMC, Lloyd J. Beall, said the CSMC "was composed of enlisted men, many of whom were old soldiers and commissioned officers, a number of whom had seen service before in the U.S. Marine Corps and elsewhere." The record of US Marine officers who "resigned and tendered their swords to the Confederate Government" were:

These officers assembled with the CSMC as it stood up in Richmond, Virginia, with the exception of Captain Tansill, who had resigned while still on board USS Congress at sea. Captain Tansill was arrested by order of Secretary Welles of the U.S. Navy when he arrived in New York on August 23, 1861, and was held without charge, hearing or trial. He was released on January 10, 1862, as part of a prisoner exchange, and subsequently joined the CSMC in Virginia. "The gross injustice done him was recognized in an act of the Confederate Congress of April 11, 1863, which provided that 'officers of the navy and Marine Corps who resigned from the navy and Marine Corps of the United States in consequence of secession, and who were arrested and imprisoned in consequence of such resignation, and who subsequently joined the navy and Marine Corps of the Confederate States,' should receive 'leave of absence, pay for and during the term of such imprisonment, and up to the time of their appointment in the navy and marine corps of the Confederate States.'"

Manpower composition
The breakdown of officer manpower composition was:
 * One colonel-commandant
 * One lieutenant colonel
 * Three majors (a quartermaster, paymaster, and an adjutant)
 * Ten captains
 * Ten first lieutenants
 * Twenty second lieutenants

The breakdown of enlisted manpower composition as of Sep 24, 1862 was:
 * One sergeant major
 * One quartermaster sergeant
 * Sixty sergeants
 * Sixty corporals
 * 840 privates
 * Thirty drummers
 * Thirty fifers
 * Two principal musicians and two musicians

Although the CSMC had an authorized manpower of 1,026 men, its enrollment never approached that number; the figures for October 30, 1864 list only 539 officers and enlisted men. Though the officers were mostly former U.S. Marine officers, the head of the corps, Colonel-Commandant Lloyd J. Beall, was a former U.S. Army paymaster with no Marine experience. Major Lloyd J. Beall, USA graduated from the United States Military Academy, and had served in the First Infantry and Second Dragoons before becoming a paymaster from 1844 until the outbreak of the war. He resigned his commission on April 22, 1861, and was appointed Colonel-Commandant of the CS Marine Corps on May 23, 1861. Colonel Beall served throughout the war as the only Commandant of the Marine Corps.

Unit organizations
The C.S. Marine Corps was organized into six lettered companies (A to F) and numerous shore-based and shipboard detachments. Companies A, B, and C were originally formed between April 10 and June 29, 1861, at New Orleans, LA. Company D, initially recruited in Memphis, Tennessee and Mobile, Alabama (August - September 1861) served in Pensacola, FL before being disbanded there and reformed at Mobile in November, 1861. Company E was formed at Savannah, Georgia in July 1862. There was also a Company F, initially formed at New Orleans in the spring of 1861, where it served for a brief period before being disbanded; it was later reformed at Mobile in April 1863 and disbanded for the second time in June 1864.

Companies A, B, and C were individually transferred from New Orleans to Pensacola from April through June 1861. Company A was subsequently transferred to Savannah in September 1862 before being transferred to Camp Beall, Virginia, to join Companies B and C, already there. Company B was briefly transferred to Mobile in February 1862 before being transferred to Camp Beall a few weeks later to join Company C, which had already been transferred there in November, 1861 to form the nucleus of what would become the organization (with the addition of Companies A and B) known as the "field battalion."

The battalion served in the defense of Richmond against riverine attack, provided ship's detachments to warships based in the Norfolk area, and participated in the general Confederate retreat from Richmond, performing notable combat action in the rear guard of General Lee's army as the Marine Battalion of Brigadier General (formerly Rear Admiral and commander of the Charleston Squadron, CSN) John R. Tucker's Naval Brigade at the Battle of Saylor's Creek (Virginia) on April 6, 1865. The majority of the battalion surrendered at Saylor's Creek on April 7, 1865, with most of the remainder surrendering with the Army of Northern Virginia on April 9, 1865, at Appomattox, Virginia.

Company D, initially stationed in Pensacola was disbanded in December, 1861 after being used to fill-out Companies B and C, also serving at that station. Company D was reformed at Mobile and served there, where it remained until that city fell to U.S. forces. Company D was the last organized unit of the CSMC to surrender; elements of the company surrendered on May 9, 1865, at Citronelle, Alabama and the remaining platoon, under the command of 1st Lieutenant David G. Raney Jr., surrendered at Nanna Hubba Bluff, Alabama on May 10, 1865.

Company E, initially formed in Savannah, subsequently evacuated to Charleston, South Carolina. A detachment of the company was sent to Wilmington, NC and participated in the unsuccessful defense of Fort Fisher. The remainder of Company E, still at Charleston, ultimately evacuated to North Carolina and joined with General Joseph E. Johnston's Army of Tennessee near Raleigh, North Carolina and surrendered with Brigadier General (formerly Rear Admiral and commander of the James River Squadron, CSN) Raphael Semmes's Naval Brigade at Greensboro, North Carolina on April 28, 1865.

Company F served originally at New Orleans as a "depot" company (i.e., recruiting and training unit) before being disbanded. It was later reformed at Mobile, again as a depot company, supplying Marines for Company D and the battalion at Camp Beall, eventually being disbanded for the final time in June 1864. CS Marine Corps units were stationed at Confederate naval bases, as well as helping garrison shore fortifications such as Fort Fisher in North Carolina. Marines also served on Confederate warships. In the famous battle between the ironclads USS Monitor and CSS Virginia, Company C, Confederate States Marine Corps, served aboard CSS Virginia, helping to man several of her guns.

In the summer of 1862, some CS Marine Corps troops were organized into squad-sized units and dispersed throughout the south. Dispersed Marine units were intended to provide training to overcome a shortage of trained naval gunners, with greater overall effect than their service as a single naval artillery battalion. With detachments spread at every major Confederate naval installation, Headquarters for the Confederate States Marines was established at Fort Darling and Camp Beall, located at Drewry's Bluff on the James River in Virginia. As described above, three companies (A, B, and C) were stationed semi-permanently as the "field battalion" at CSMC headquarters. New CSMC officers were trained in the battalion prior to assignment to one of the detached companies (viz., D or E) or directly to one of the shore-based or shipboard Marine detachments. The "field battalion" Marines helped repulse the attack made on the bluff by U.S. naval forces including USS Monitor and USS Galena (1862) in the summer of 1862.

Despite desertions and even near-mutinies, most Marines served competently and deserved Navy Secretary Stephen R. Mallory's praise for their "promptness and efficiency." The corps' weakness was due largely to internal squabbles over rank, shore duty, and administrative assignments. Also, with no funds for bounties, the corps could not easily enlist recruits. Until 1864 the monthly pay of enlisted men was $3 less than that of equivalent army grades. Only late in the war were the Marines allowed to draw from army conscripts to augment their ranks.

Service during the war
Confederate Marines saw their first naval action aboard CSS Virginia (formerly USS Merrimack (1855)) off Hampton Roads, Virginia, March 8 to 9, 1862, and near the end of the war were part of the naval brigade that fought at Sailor's Creek, Virginia.

From the Drewry's Bluff and other major posts (Wilmington, Charleston, Pensacola, Norfolk, Galveston, and Savannah), Marine detachments were parsed out to serve on major warships and for special operations, including the captures of USS Underwriter (1852) and USS Water Witch (1851), and an attack to free Confederate prisoners of war being held at Point Lookout, Maryland.

Marine sea-based amphibious operations included the "Old" CSS Savannah shore party at Fort Beauregard, Phillips Island, South Carolina to evacuate the garrison under attack. Marines under the command of Commodore Josiah Tattnall III were used to construct and man shore batteries which turned back Union gunboats and monitors both at Richmond and at Savannah.

The end of the war found most surviving Confederate States Marines gathered together in Richmond in support of the last desperate defenses of the South. Marines in Virginia were part of the General Richard S. Ewell's Corps which fought with distinction at the Battle of Sayler's Creek, the last major battle before the surrender of Lee's Army at Appomattox.

Uniform

Their uniform resembled that prescribed for the Confederate Army, but since the CSMC was not as large and many of its records were destroyed in 1865, there is controversy about the exact details of the uniform. It is clear, however, that the Marines were often equipped out of the stores of whichever garrison was nearest their location. One description has the Marines dressed in frock coats of a particular (and undetermined) shade of gray and dark blue or black trousers. It appears that Confederate States Marines wore forage caps although it is unclear if there was any ornamentation on the cover. Much of the gear worn by the CSMC was imported from the United Kingdom and its empire, namely Canada.

Rank Insignia
Sources:

The forage cap insignias were the same hunting horn surrounding the Marine corps M on a red background. This is verified as being placed on a sun hat worn by a CS marine at the 75 reunion.

References and further reading

 * Donnelly, Ralph W. (1989) The Confederate States Marine Corps: The Rebel Leathernecks,
 * Donnelly, Ralph W. Biographical Sketches of the Commissioned Officers of the Confederate States Marine Corps (Published by the Author, 1973. Pp. xii, 68.)
 * Donnelly, Ralph W. Service Records of Confederate Enlisted Marines (Published by the Author, 1979. Pp. xxii, 125. Copies can be ordered from 913 Market Street, Washington, North Carolina 27889.)
 * Krivdo, Michael E. "Marines in gray: the birth, life and death of the Confederate States Marine Corps" (PhD Diss. Texas A & M University, 2010). online
 * Krivdo, Michael E. "Confederate Marine Corps Recruiting in New Orleans and Marine Activities in the First Year of the Civil War." Louisiana History 48.4 (2007): 441–466. online
 * McGlone, John E., III, The Lost Corps: The Confederate States Marines, United States Naval Institute Proceedings, November 1972. online
 * Scharf, J. Thomas (1887) History of the Confederate States Navy from its organization to the surrender of its last vessel. New York: Rogers and Sherwood, (Reprint: The Fairfax Press, 1977),E'Book OpenLibrary
 * Sullivan, David M., "Biographical Sketches Of The Commissioned Officers Of The Confederate States Marine Corps." White Mane Publishing, 2001.
 * Sullivan, David M. "The Confederate States Marine Corps in South Carolina, 1861-1865." South Carolina Historical Magazine 86.2 (1985): 113–127. online
 * Sullivan, David M. "Tennessee's Confederate Marines: Memphis Detachment." Tennessee Historical Quarterly 45.2 (1986): 152–168. online
 * Sullivan, David M. "Tennessee's Confederate Marines: Memphis Detachment." Tennessee Historical Quarterly 45.2 (1986): 152–168. online

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Confederate States Marine Corps


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Star (classification)

Star ratings are a type of rating scale using a star glyph or similar typographical symbol. It is used by reviewers for ranking things such as films, TV shows, restaurants, and hotels. For example, a system of one to five stars is commonly used in hotel ratings, with five stars being the highest rating.

Similar systems have been proposed for electing politicians in the form of score voting and STAR voting.

Historical usage
Repeated symbols used for a ranking date to Mariana Starke's 1820 guidebook, which used exclamation points to indicate works of art of special value: ...I have endeavored... to furnish Travellers with correct lists of the objects best worth notice...; at the same time marking, with one or more exclamation points (according to their merit), those works which are deemed peculiarly excellent. Murray's Handbooks for Travellers and then the Baedeker Guides (starting in 1844) borrowed this system, using stars instead of exclamation points, first for points of interest and later for hotels.

The Michelin restaurant guide introduced a star as a restaurant rating in 1926, which was expanded to a system of one to three stars in 1931.

Books
In 1915, Edward O'Brien began editing The Best American Short Stories. This annual compiled O'Brien's personal selection of the previous year's best short stories. O'Brien claimed to read as many as 8,000 stories a year, and his editions contained lengthy tabulations of stories and magazines, ranked on a scale of zero to three stars, representing O'Brien's notion of their "literary permanence." He further listed stories with a ranking of three stars "in a special 'Roll of Honor.'" In this list, O'Brien attached an additional asterisk to those stories that he personally enjoyed.

Oliver Herford's essay Say it with Asterisks, quips "Never, I think, were a mob of overworked employees so pitifully huddled together in an ill-ventilated factory as are the Asterisks in this Sweatshop of Twaddle." Literary editor Katrina Kenison dismisses O'Brien's grading systems as "excessive at best, fussy and arbitrary at worst."

Book reviewers generally do not use a star-rating system though there are exceptions. The West Coast Review of Books rates books on a scale of one ("poor") to five ("superior") stars. According to editor D. David Dreis, readers love the ratings but publishers don't.

Films
In the 31 July 1928 issue of the New York Daily News, the newspaper's film critic Irene Thirer began grading movies on a scale of zero to three stars. Three stars meant 'excellent,' two 'good,' and one star meant 'mediocre.' And no stars at all 'means the picture's right bad,'" wrote Thirer. Carl Bialik speculates that this may have been the first time a film critic used a star-rating system to grade movies. "The one-star review of The Port of Missing Girls launched the star system, which the newspaper promised would be 'a permanent thing.'

According to film scholar Gerald Peary, few newspapers adopted this practice until the French film magazine Cahiers du cinéma "started polling critics in the 1950s and boiling their judgment down to a star rating, with a bullet reserved for movies that the magazine didn't like." The highest rating any film earned was five stars. The British film magazine Sight and Sound also rated films on a scale of one to four stars. Some critics use a "half-star" option in between basic star ratings. Leonard Maltin goes one further and gives Naked Gun $33 1/3$: The Final Insult a $2 1/3$ star rating.

Critics do not agree on what the cutoff is for a recommendation, even when they use the same scale. Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert "both consider[ed] a three-star rating to be the cutoff for a "thumbs up" on their scales of zero to four stars. Film critic Dave Kehr—who also uses a 0–4 star scale—believes "two stars is a borderline recommendation". On a five-star scale, regardless of the bottom rating, 3 stars is often the lowest positive rating, though judging on a purely mathematical basis, 2 1/2 stars would be the dividing line between good and bad on a 0–5 scale. Common Sense Media uses a scale of one to five, where 3 stars are "Just fine; solid" and anything lower is "Disappointing" at best.

There is no agreement on what the lowest rating should be. Some critics make "one star" or a "half-star" their lowest rating. Dave Kehr believes that "one star" indicates the film has redeeming facets, and instead uses zero stars as his lowest rating.

Examples of rating scales:
 * 0–4: Roger Ebert, Gene Siskel, David Kehr and Peter Travers
 * 0.5–4: Steven H. Scheuer's now-defunct film guide grades films from a half-star ("abysmal") to four stars ("excellent"). Despite this, Scheuer's guide intentionally gives Wes Craven's film The Last House on the Left no stars, making it the lowest-rated film in the book.
 * 0–5: The Times
 * 1–4: Film critic Leonard Maltin rates films on a scale of one through four stars, although his guide notes that there is no actual "one star" rating. For these "bottom-of-the-barrel movies", Maltin's guide uses the citation "BOMB". However, according to Maltin, the 1981 Bo Derek film Tarzan, the Ape Man "nearly forced the editors of this book to devise a rating lower than BOMB".
 * 1–5: Common Sense Media, Empire

Critics have different ways of denoting the lowest rating when this is a "zero". Some such as Peter Travers display empty stars. Jonathan Rosenbaum and Dave Kehr use a round black dot. Leslie Halliwell uses a blank space. The Globe and Mail uses a "0", or as their former film critic dubbed it, the "death doughnut". Roger Ebert used a thumbs-down symbol. Other critics use a black dot.

Critics also do not agree on what the lower ratings signify, let alone the lowest rating. While Maltin's and Scheuer's guides respectively explain that lowest rated films are "BOMB(s)" and "abysmal", British film critic Leslie Halliwell instead writes that no star "indicates a totally routine production or worse; such films may be watchable but are at least equally missable." Like Halliwell and Dave Kehr, film critic Jonathan Rosenbaum believes one-star films have some merit, however unlike Halliwell, Rosenbaum believes that no stars indicate a "worthless" movie. Roger Ebert occasionally gave zero stars to films he deemed "artistically inept and morally repugnant." Scheuer's guide calls "one and a half star" films "poor", and "one star" films "bad".

Not all film critics have approved of star ratings. Film scholar Robin Wood wondered if Sight and Sound readers accepted "such blackening of their characters." Jay Scott of Canada's The Globe and Mail was an opponent of using symbols to summarize a review and wrote in 1992 that "When Globe editors first proposed the four-star system of rating movies about a year ago, the response from Globe critics was, to put it mildly, underwhelming." More recently, Mark Kermode has expressed a dislike of star ratings (assigned to his online reviews but not his print or radio reviews) on the grounds that his verdicts are sometimes too complex to be expressed as a rating.

Comedy and theatre
Star ratings are also given out at stand-up comedy performances and theatre productions. Star ratings are given at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe, the largest arts festival in the world. Since 2010, the British Comedy Guide has collected over 4,300 reviews of around 1,110 different acts, across 83 different publications in the form of a star rating.

The use of star ratings is controversial because the public may ignore the reviews and concentrate more the star ratings alone.

Video games
Star ratings are not often used to rate the quality of a video game but are rather used within certain games for varying purposes. One notable use of the star system is to grade a player's performance in completing a level with up to three stars, used in many modern multi-level games like Angry Birds. This three-star rating system challenges the player to repeat and fully master previously beaten levels in order to receive a perfect 3-star rating, which may confer other benefits or bonus content. Another use of star ratings is to denote the rarity of characters in video games where players are tasked in collecting numerous characters, such as Star Wars: Galaxy of Heroes and Marvel: Contest of Champions, in which stronger and rarer characters are marked with more stars to make them appear more valuable. Stars are also used to rank a game or stage's difficulty (such as in the SNES version of Street Fighter II and its updates), or to rate the attributes of a selectable character or, in sports games, a team.

Restaurant ratings
Restaurant guides and reviewers often use stars in restaurant ratings. The Michelin system reserves star for exceptional restaurants, and gives up to three; the vast majority of recommended restaurants have no star at all. Other guides now use up to four or five stars, with one-star being the lowest rating. The stars are sometimes replaced by symbols such as a fork or spoon. Some guides use separate scales for food, service, ambiance, and even noise level.

The Michelin system remains the best known star system. A single star denotes "a very good restaurant in its category", two stars "excellent cooking, worth a detour", and three stars, "exceptional cuisine, worth a special journey".

Michelin stars are awarded only for the quality of food and wine; the luxury level of the restaurant is rated separately, using a scale of one ("quite comfortable") to five ("luxury in the traditional style") crossed fork and spoon symbols.

Hotel ratings

Hotel luxury is often denoted by stars.

Other classifiers, such as the AAA Five Diamond Award, use diamonds instead of stars to express hotel rating levels.

Hotels are assessed in traditional systems and rest heavily on the facilities provided. Some consider this disadvantageous to smaller hotels whose quality of accommodation could fall into one class but the lack of an item such as an elevator would prevent it from reaching a higher categorization.

In recent years hotel rating systems have also been criticized by some who argue that the rating criteria for such systems are overly complex and difficult for laymen to understand. It has been suggested that the lack of a unified global system for rating hotels may also undermine the usability of such schemes.

Financial product ratings
In the UK, providers and comparison websites often use stars to indicate how feature-rich financial products are.

Military ranks
The most senior military ranks in all services are classified by a star system in many countries, ranging from one-star rank which typically corresponds to brigadier, brigadier general, Commodore or air commodore, to the most senior five-star ranks, which include Admiral of the Fleet, Grand Admiral, Field Marshal, General of the Army and Marshal of the Air Force—some five-star ranks only exist during large-scale conflicts.

American college football
Recruits entering American college football are commonly ranked on a five-star scale, with five representing what scouts think will be the best college players.

Transport safety
International organisations use a star rating to rank the safety of transportation. EuroRAP have developed a Road Protection Score which is a scale for Star Rating roads for how well they protect the user from death or disabling injury when a crash occurs. The assessment evaluates the safety that is 'built into' the road through its design, in combination with the way traffic is managed on it. The RPS protocol has also been adapted and used by AusRAP, usRAP and iRAP.

Euro NCAP awards 'star ratings' based on the performance of vehicles in crash tests, including front, side and pole impacts, and impacts with pedestrians.

The United States National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) also uses a star ranking to rank the safety of vehicles in crash tests, including front, side, pole impacts, and rollovers, with 5 stars being the most secure.

Voting and preferences
Some web content voting systems use five-star grades. This allows users to distinguish content more precisely than with binary "like buttons".

Many recommender systems, such as MovieLens or Amazon.com, ask people to express preferences using star ratings, then predict what other items those people are likely to enjoy. Predictions are often expressed in terms of the number of predicted stars.

Unicode
The Unicode Standard encodes several characters used for star ratings in the Miscellaneous Symbols and Arrows block:

The STAR WITH LEFT HALF BLACK and LEFT HALF BLACK STAR are intended for use in left-to-right contexts where the half star is positioned to the right of one or more whole stars, whereas the STAR WITH RIGHT HALF BLACK and RIGHT HALF BLACK STAR are intended for use in right-to-left contexts (such as Arabic or Hebrew) where the half star is positioned to the left of one or more whole stars.

title: Star (classification)


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Ivey Business School

Ivey Business School is the main business school of the University of Western Ontario, located in London, Ontario, Canada. It offers full-time undergraduate and graduate programs and maintains two teaching facilities in Toronto and Hong Kong for its EMBA and Executive Education programs.

History
Business courses were first taught at Western in 1922 and the business school was officially created in 1950, when the School of Business Administration was established as a separate faculty at Western. In 1995, the school was renamed the Richard Ivey School of Business after an $11 million donation by the Richard M. Ivey family. The school is named after Richard G. Ivey, the father of Richard M. Ivey.

In 1998, Ivey was the first North American business school to open a campus in Hong Kong offering an Executive MBA program at the Cheng Yu Tung Management Institute. In 2010, Ivey became the first North American business school to offer the CEMS Global Alliance in Management Education, joining the likes of London School of Economics, HEC Paris, ESADE, University of St. Gallen, and Bocconi University.

In 2013, the school abbreviated its name to "Ivey Business School" and updated its visual identity. The legal name of the Faculty of Business at Western University, however, remains Richard Ivey School of Business.

Rankings
Ivey Business School has consistently ranked among Canada's top business schools. The Economist ranked Ivey's MBA program best in Canada for Education Experience, Career Services, and Student Quality in 2021. In 2023, Ivey's MBA program was ranked first in Canada by Bloomberg Businessweek. Financial Times ranked Ivey's Executive Education program number one in Canada.

Canadian MBA Alliance
The school is also a founding member of the Canadian MBA Alliance which was created in 2013. All six members of the alliance rank among the world's top 100 schools, according to their participation in key rankings – Financial Times, Business Week, and The Economist.

Programs
The Ivey Business School offers a number of programs and degrees:

Honors Business Administration
The Ivey HBA (Honours Business Administration) was the first degree program in business at the University of Western Ontario. A class of six men were the program's first graduates in 1923.

In 2010, the HBA program grew to 525 students with the program size being updated to 610 students in 2013, and most recently adding 2 new sections for a total of 765 students in 2023.

The HBA program is a second-entry, two-year program that enrolls students who have completed two years of undergraduate study (in any faculty at any recognized university). First year Ivey students, known as HBA1s, are typically in their third year of university. Previously, prospective students applied for admission to Ivey during their second year of university. In 1998, Ivey introduced the Advanced Entry Opportunity status (AEO), a conditional pre-admission status offered to secondary school students. Advanced Entry Opportunity (AEO) students may study in any faculty of interest at the University of Western Ontario for their first two years of university.

The Advanced Entry Opportunity Status is a 2+2 model, where for the first 2 years you study in any program (at Western or affiliate programs) and in your second year, you apply for HBA, there are a list of requirements found here that you must also meet (along with AEO status) to be accepted into HBA, note that admission from AEO to HBA is not guaranteed.

The HBA1 year has no elective course work. HBAs are placed into "sections" of 76 students and work with the same classmates and professors in the same classroom year-round. The curriculum includes courses in finance, accounting, marketing, operations management, organizational behavior, and general management. The HBA2 year is less structured with students taking four required courses along with elective courses that tailor to individual interests.

The HBA program has also introduced an elective Sustainability Certificate that "empowers Ivey HBA students to build and lead more sustainable organizations." The certificate offers HBA students an interrelated mix of courses and experiences which "provide a strong grounding in the principles and best practices of sustainability." The Sustainability Certificate has grown significantly in popularity and scope since being introduced in 2012, with the 2023-2024 cohort being the largest ever with 83 students enrolled.

Master of Business Administration
The Ivey full-time MBA was created in 1948 and was Canada's first MBA program as well as the first one offered outside of the United States. Its first class graduated in 1950. It was modeled on the Harvard Business School MBA as a two-year program. In 2006, it was converted to a 12-month program and was relocated from the University of Western Ontario campus to the Spencer Leadership Centre. A Health Sector Stream is offered through the Ivey Centre for Health Innovation and Leadership.

With over 25,000 alumni in 105 countries. Ivey offers networking opportunities.

 * The Alumni Partnership Program involves top Ivey alumni who have volunteered to act as mentors to current students and alumni. Students can choose to be partner with an alumnus based on a number of criteria including function, industry or geography.
 * The "Get Connected" event in Toronto is hosted by Ivey's Career Management team in partnership with its alumni and recruiting firms. For three days, students are exposed to information sessions, formal networking events, functional panels and mock interviewing events with Ivey recruiters and alumni. This is the students’ official ‘debut’ or introduction to the market, following their 12-weeks of in-class Career Management programming.
 * Global Ivey Day is an annual event for Ivey students and alumni around the world. Events are hosted by alumni chapters, including a Gala event in Toronto, with live webinars and webcasts available for alums and students to join as well.

Master of Science in Management
The Ivey MSc is a direct-entry program requiring no previous full-time work experience. The Ivey MSc program is based on the case method and global learning opportunities, designed to prepare the student for an international career.

In December 2009, Ivey was selected as the first Canadian partner in the CEMS Global Alliance in Management Education and in 2012 was named the CEMS School of the Year. This gives Ivey MSc students the opportunity to participate in the Master of International Management program with students from 29 other schools in the alliance. Students register as Ivey MSc students and pursue the CEMS MIM program concurrently.

In 2016, a second stream in the MSc program was launched in Business Analytics. In both streams of the program, students undertake 3 terms of academic study and 1 term placement in an industry internship. This was complemented in 2021 with a third stream, MSc Digital Management.

PhD
The University of Western Ontario began offering a PhD in Business Administration in 1961, Canada's first PhD in business. The program has focused on study in eight disciplines: Finance, General Management, Information Systems, Management Science, Managerial Accounting, Marketing, Operations Management and Organizational Behaviour.

Executive MBA program
The Ivey Executive MBA (EMBA) was founded in 1991 with the addition of a Hong Kong-based program and a remote video-conference program in 1995. In 2007, the program's headquarters was relocated to a new facility in downtown Toronto named the Tangerine Leadership Centre. The program provides a part-time MBA program for working managers with at least seven years of work experience. The program consists of four in-class days (Thursday to Sunday) once per month. Classes continue for three consecutive terms, each five months long.

Pre-HBA Undergraduate Courses
Ivey also offers five undergraduate business courses, organized under the Business Foundations Group.
 * Business 1220E (BUS 1220E): A comprehensive business course for first-year students, covering finance, marketing, operations, organizational behaviour, enterprise strategy, and valuation.
 * Business 1299E (BUS 1299E): A variant of 1220E for engineering students, identical except for the inclusion of time value of money in the operations and valuation components of the course. Successful completion of this course is a graduation requirement for students in the engineering program.
 * Business 2257 (BUS 2257): A second-year course with a focus on Financial Accounting, Business Analysis and Managerial Accounting. This course is a prerequisite course for the HBA program.
 * Business for Science Students 2295F (BUS 2257): Introductory course in business designed for Science, Medical and Dentistry students. This is a half-year course, covering a selection of topics covered in the full-year BUS 1220E course.
 * Business for Engineers 2299E (BUS 2299E): The predecessor to BUS 1299E. This is a fourth-year course being transitioned out in favour of BUS 1299E.

Collaborative program
Master in Financial Economics or MFE is a collaborative program between Ivey Business School, Western Economics, Western Law School and Math/Stat department.

Locations
Ivey operates on four campuses:
 * Richard Ivey Building on the main campus of the University of Western Ontario.
 * Spencer Leadership Centre (formally known as Spencer Hall) in London, Ontario
 * Donald K. Johnson Leadership Centre located in downtown Toronto at the Exchange Tower
 * Cheng Yu Tung Management Institute is located in the Hong Kong Convention and Exhibition Centre

On September 10, 2009, Ivey broke ground on a new 235000 sqft faculty building on the Western campus in front of Brescia University College on former soccer fields. The project cost approximately $110 million, with the federal and provincial governments contributed $50 million in funding with the remainder funded by private donations. The building was to be designed by Hariri Pontarini Architects of Toronto. In September 2013, Ivey officially moved from their old building to new Richard Ivey Building located across campus.

Case studies
With over 8,000 cases in their collection, Ivey Publishing adds more than 350 classroom-tested case studies each year. Ivey is among the largest producers and publishers of cases all around the world, just behind Harvard Business School. Recently, Ivey signed deals with Indian Institute of Management Calcutta to design and publish case studies.

Ivey Business Journal
Ivey Business Journal (IBJ) started in 1933 as the Quarterly Review of Commerce. The publication transitioned from a quarterly magazine to a bi-monthly web publication in the 2000s and is read in over 150 countries. The current editor of the journal is Thomas Watson.

Ivey Business Review
Ivey Business Review (IBR) is an undergraduate publication dealing with business strategy,  written and managed by students in the honours business administration program at the School. It is published twice per academic year, in December and April, and is managed at the school's main campus in London, Ontario. Published copies of IBR are available in print formator on the publication's website. Since its inception, the magazine has published eight issues containing over 100 total articles and involving more than 150 students.

The Review is an original research–based publication with all content created for the magazine through collaboration between the writers and members of the editorial board. It focuses on providing actionable recommendations for specific businesses, industries, business models, strategies, or events, rather than management techniques for managers and leaders.

Notable alumni and faculty

 * Thomas H. Bailey, founder Janus Capital
 * Tima Bansal, Chaired Professor of Strategy, Director of Ivey's Centre on Building Sustainable Value.
 * Hitish "Tesher" Sharma, Canadian rapper and singer-songwriter
 * Sukhinder Singh Cassidy, founder and chairman, TheBoardlist, tech founder and executive
 * John Chayka, former General Manager, Arizona Coyotes
 * Henry Cheng, chairman, New World Development Co. Ltd.
 * Dean A. Connor, President and CEO, Sun Life Financial
 * George Cope, former president and CEO, Bell Canada
 * Cynthia Devine, CFO, Maple Leafs Sports and Entertainment, former CFO, RioCan REIT, Tim Hortons Inc.
 * Bob Singh Dhillon, venture capitalist, CBC's Dragon's Den
 * David Furnish, Executive and Board, Ogilvy & Mather
 * Don Getty, Premier of Alberta
 * Stephen K. Gunn, co-founder and chairman, Sleep Country Canada
 * Donald K. Johnson, Advisory Board, BMO Capital Markets
 * Michael Katchen, founder and CEO, Wealthsimple
 * Gar Knutson, Member of Parliament
 * Arkadi Kuhlmann, chairman and CEO, ING Group
 * Simu Liu, actor, Shang-Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings, Kim's Convenience; former accountant, Deloitte
 * Christine Magee, co-founder and President, Sleep Country Canada
 * Michael McCain, President and CEO, Maple Leaf Foods
 * David I. McKay, President and CEO, Royal Bank of Canada
 * Pierre Morrisette, founder, Pelmorex, operator of The Weather Network
 * Ray Muzyka, CEO, BioWare
 * Richard Nesbitt, President and CEO, CIBC World Markets, former CEO, TMX Group
 * Dave Nichol, founder, President's Choice
 * Robert Nourse, founder Bombay Company
 * Kevin O'Leary, Venture Capitalist, CBC's Dragon's Den
 * Larry Rosen, chairman and CEO, Harry Rosen Inc.
 * Ray Sharma, Founder and CEO, XMG Studio
 * Charles Sousa, former MPP and Minister of Finance
 * Bernard Trottier, former Member of Parliament
 * Prem Watsa, CEO, Fairfax Financial Holdings
 * Darryl White, CEO, Bank of Montreal

title: Ivey Business School


text:
Mushing

Mushing is a sport or transport method powered by dogs. It includes carting, pulka, dog scootering, sled dog racing, skijoring, freighting, and weight pulling. More specifically, it implies the use of one or more dogs to pull a sled, most commonly a specialized type of dog sled on snow, or a rig on dry land.

History
The practice of using dogs to pull sleds dates back to at least 6000 BC. Remnants of sleds and harnesses has been found with canine remains in Siberia which carbon-dated to 7800–8000 years ago. Native American cultures also used dogs to pull loads.

For the better part of the 1600s, the Iroquois and French clashed in a series of attacks and reprisals. For this reason, Samuel de Champlain arranged to have young French men live with the natives, to learn their language and customs and help the French adapt to life in North America. These men, known as coureurs des bois (runners of the woods), were the first European mushers in North America, extended French influence south and west and in 1609, New France controlled all the Canadian Shield. In 1680, the intendant of New France, Jacques Duchesneau de la Doussinière et d'Ambault, estimated that there was not one family in New France who did not have a "son, brother, uncle or nephew" among the coureurs des bois. During the winter, sled became the ordinary transportation in the north of New France.

In 1760, the British Army completed the conquest of Canada and gained control of the Canadian Shield. Many coureurs des bois accepted British rule and continued to use the sled dog. The French term Marche! became Mush! in English.

During the Klondike Gold Rush, many prospectors came in the Yukon with sled dogs. This "Last Great Gold Rush" has been immortalized by American author Jack London in The Call of the Wild. Sled-dog became the common mode of transportation in Yukon and in the new US Territory of Alaska.

In 1911, Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen used sled dogs in a race to become the first person to reach the South Pole. He succeeded, while his competitor Robert Falcon Scott, who had instead used Siberian ponies, died.

By the time of the First World War, mushing had spread to European countries such as Norway, where dog sleds were used for nature tours, as ambulances in the woodlands and mountains, and to bring supplies to soldiers in the field.

During the 1925 serum run to Nome, 20 mushers and about 150 sled dogs relayed diphtheria antitoxin 674 mi by dog sled across the U.S. territory of Alaska in five and a half days, saving the small city of Nome and the surrounding communities from an incipient epidemic.

Etymology
France was the first European power established in the Canadian Shield; accordingly, the coureurs des bois and the voyageurs of New France used the French word marche!, meaning "walk" or "move", to command to the team to commence pulling. Marche! became "mush!" for English Canadians. "Mush!" is rarely used in modern parlance.

Practice
Mushing can be utilitarian, recreational, or competitive. Mushing as a sport is practiced worldwide, but primarily in North America, northern Europe and the Alps. Racing associations such as the International Federation of Sleddog Sports (IFSS) and the International Sled Dog Racing Association (ISDRA) are working toward organizing the sport and in gaining Olympic recognition for mushing. It is the state sport of Alaska. The most famous sled dog races in the world are:
 * Finnmarksløpet in Norway
 * Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race in Alaska
 * La Grande Odyssée in France and Switzerland
 * Yukon Quest in Alaska and the Yukon

Although dogsled racing gets more publicity and is seen now as the primary form of mushing, recreational mushing thrives as an unorganized sport providing a healthy outdoor form of winter exercise for families.

Mushing for utilitarian purposes includes anything from hauling wood or delivering milk or the mail to rural travel and equipment hauling. Dogs have been replaced by snowmobiles in many places, but some trappers and other isolated users have gone back to sled dogs, finding them safer and more dependable in extreme weather conditions.

Dog team members
Dog team members are given titles according to their position in the team relative to the sled. These include leaders or lead dogs, swing dogs, team dogs, and wheelers or wheel dogs.

Lead dogs steer the rest of the team and set the pace. Leaders may be single or double; the latter is more common now, though single leaders used to be more common during the mid-20th century. Sometimes a leader may be unhitched (a loose or free leader) to find the trail for the rest of the team, but the practice is uncommon and is not allowed at races. Qualities for a good lead dog are intelligence, initiative, common sense, and the ability to find a trail in bad conditions.

Swing dogs or point dogs are directly behind the leader (one dog if the team is in single hitch). They swing the rest of the team behind them in turns or curves on the trail. (Some mushers use the term swag dog to denote a team dog.)

Team dogs are those between the wheelers and the swing dogs, and add power to the team. A small team may not have dogs in this position. Alternatively, the term may be used to describe any dog in a dog team.

Wheel dogs are those nearest the sled and musher, and a good wheeler must have a relatively calm temperament so as not to be startled by the sled moving just behind it. Strength, steadiness, and ability to help guide the sled around tight curves are qualities valued in "wheelers."

Originally, sled dogs would run in either one or two straight lines, depending on how many people were driving the sled (two lines if there was one person, one line if there were two people). However, now, all dogs run in two lines, even if there is more than one person.

Equipment
Many pieces of equipment are useful or necessary for driving sled dogs, depending on the sled or vehicle, terrain, weather conditions, size of the team and dogs, speed of the run, and other factors.

Harnesses
Harnesses are worn by dogs used in mushing to allow them to run and pull with freedom of movement. They are designed to distribute pulling weight evenly over the body, and are made of material that is durable and lightweight to varying degrees. Many different styles of sled dog harnesses exist for specialized styles of mushing and dogs, with many outfitters evolving and updating designs and materials to fit the needs of different mushers. The most commonly used styles include X-back (also referred to as racing harnesses), half-back (used more commonly in mushing where the line angle is steeper such as canicross and bikejoring), and spreader-bar/freighting (used for hauling heavy loads low to the ground, or by wheel dogs on teams). Harnesses have certain requirements for some competitions such as weight pull, to ensure the safety of the dog in their task.

Sleds
Dogsleds can be a variety of styles, ranging from highly traditional wooden sleds lashed with twine, to modern lightweight racing sleds made of carbon fiber or aluminum and outfitted with utilities such as steering mechanisms. The nomadic tribes of Siberia such as the Chukchi used sleds which rode low to the ground (known as a "narta"), and sat or lie down to ride them while the dogs pulled - today most mushers use a standing style sled with a handlebar, and foot grips on top of the runners. Sleds range in length, with longer toboggan-style sleds used for expedition and long-distance mushing in order to carry more needed supplies, and "basket" sleds used more commonly in racing and on groomed trails. Kicksleds can be used as a small recreational dog sled, pulled by one or two dogs. Sleds normally have some form of braking system, the most common of which are a metal brake (a metal bar or claw) and a rubber drag-mat made of tire or snowmobile track; many sleds have both, for controlling speed in different conditions. Full-sized sleds are typically outfitted with a sled bag used for carrying equipment or injured/tired dogs in the sled basket. For racing competitions, sled bags are often required to have ventilation for dog safety.

Other Equipment
Other gear used in mushing includes but may not be limited to:

 * Gangline: A cable and rope line system connecting the sled to the dogs' harnesses and collars, usually with carabiners, metal snaps, bungees, and knots.
 * Tugline/s: Individual rope or cable sections made of the same material as the gangline which attach to the dogs' harnesses
 * Snow Hook: A metal anchor-like hook used for securing the team in deep snow or ice when stopping on the trail
 * Snub-line: A securing rope or cable used to tie the team to a fixed object such as a tree or post before beginning a run, or while resting.
 * Picket Line: Used to attach dogs in a secure area before hooking them into a gangline, or while camping on the trail.

Bikejoring
Bikejoring is dog mushing similar to skijoring, canicross, and dog scootering. A dog or team of dogs is attached with a towline to a bicycle. Bikejoring and canicross probably developed from skijoring and dogsled racing. Bikejoring is also sometimes used to train racing sled-dogs out of season. Beginning in the early 1990's, a hybrid of traditional bikejoring developed where riders use devices attached the side of their bikes (vs traditional front mounted attachments).

Dog scootering
Dog scootering uses one or more dogs to pull a human riding an unmotorized kick scooter. It is similar to mushing, which is done in the winter, but generally with fewer dogs and with a scooter instead of a dogsled. The dogs wear the same harnesses that sled dogs wear, and are hooked to the scooter with a gangline. The gangline usually incorporates a bungee cord to smooth out the shocks of speeding up and takeoff. Dog scooterers get together for fun runs, where a number of dog scooterers run their dogs and scooters on the same trails. Fun runs may be just a morning run, or can be a weekend-long activity with multiple runs scheduled. This is still a maturing activity, but there are a few formal dog races that include scooter events.

title: Mushing