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Savings and loan crisis

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The savings and loan crisis of the 1980s and 1990s (commonly dubbed the S&L crisis) was the failure of 32% (1,043 of the 3,234) of savings and loan associations (S&Ls) in the United States from 1986 to 1995. An S&L or "thrift" is a financial institution that accepts savings deposits and makes mortgage, car and other personal loans to individual members (a cooperative venture known in the United Kingdom as a building society).

The Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation (FSLIC) closed or otherwise resolved 296 institutions from 1986 to 1989, whereupon the newly established Resolution Trust Corporation (RTC) took up these responsibilities. The RTC closed or otherwise resolved 747 institutions from 1989 to 1995 with an estimated book value between $402 and $407 billion. In 1996, the General Accounting Office (GAO) estimated the total cost to be $160 billion, including $132.1 billion taken from taxpayers.

Starting in October 1979, the Federal Reserve of the United States raised the discount rate that it charged its member banks from 9.5 percent to 12 percent in an effort to reduce inflation. At that time, S&Ls had issued long-term loans at fixed interest rates that were lower than the newly mandated interest rate at which they could borrow. When interest rates at which they could borrow increased, the S&Ls could not attract adequate capital from deposits and savings accounts of members for instance. Attempts to attract more deposits by offering higher interest rates led to liabilities that could not be covered by the lower interest rates at which they had loaned money. The end result was that about one third of S&Ls became insolvent.

When the problem became apparent, after the Federal Reserve increased interest rates, some S&Ls took advantage of lax regulatory oversight to pursue highly speculative investment strategies. This had the effect of extending the period where some S&Ls were likely technically insolvent. These actions also substantially increased the economic losses for many S&Ls than would otherwise have been realized had their insolvency been dealt with earlier. One extreme example was that of financier Charles Keating, who paid $51 million financed through Michael Milken's "junk bond" operation, for his Lincoln Savings and Loan Association which at the time had a negative net worth exceeding $100 million.

Financial historian Kenneth J. Robinson, in his explanation of the crisis published in 2000 by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), offers multiple reasons as to why the S&L crisis came to pass. He identifies rising monetary inflation beginning in the late 1960s and increasing through the 1970s, caused by the federal government's domestic spending programs implemented by President Lyndon B. Johnson's "Great Society" programs and the federal government's mounting military expenses for the Vietnam War that continued into the late 1970s. The Federal Reserve's efforts to reduce rampant inflation of the late 1970s and early 1980s by raising interest rates brought on a recession in the early 1980s and the beginning of the S&L crisis. The Federal Reserve's policies to increase the discount rate charged to other banks, compared to the long-term fixed rates of loans the S&Ls had already made, practically ensured that most S&Ls would become insolvent very quickly. Deregulation of the S&L industry, combined with regulatory forbearance and fraud, worsened the crisis.

Background
The "thrift" or "building" or "savings and loans associations" industry has its origins in the British building society movement that emerged in the late 18th century. American thrifts (also known as "building and loans" or "B&Ls") shared many of the same basic goals: to help the working class save for the future and purchase homes. Thrifts were not-for-profit cooperative organizations that were typically managed by the membership and local institutions that served well-defined groups of aspiring homeowners. While banks offered a wide array of products to individuals and businesses, thrifts often made only home mortgages primarily to working-class men and women. Thrift leaders believed they were part of a broader social reform effort and not a financial industry. According to thrift leaders, B&Ls not only helped people become better citizens by making it easier to buy a home, but also taught the habits of systematic savings and mutual cooperation which strengthened personal morals.

The thrift associations and their ideals were famously portrayed in the 1946 film It's a Wonderful Life.

The first thrift was formed in 1831, and for 40 years there were few B&Ls, found in only a handful of Midwestern and Eastern states. This situation changed in the late 19th century as urban growth and the demand for housing related to the Second Industrial Revolution caused the number of thrifts to explode. The popularity of B&Ls led to the creation of a new type of thrift in the 1880s called the "national" B&L. The "nationals" were often for-profit businesses formed by bankers or industrialists that employed promoters to form local branches to sell shares to prospective members. The "nationals" promised to pay savings rates up to four times greater than any other financial institution.

The Depression of 1893 (resulting from the financial Panic of 1893, which lasted for several years) caused a sharp decline in members, and so "nationals" experienced a sudden reversal of fortunes. Because a steady stream of new members was critical for a "national" to pay both the interest on savings and the hefty salaries for the organizers, the falloff in payments caused dozens of "nationals" to fail. By the end of the 19th century, nearly all the "nationals" were out of business (National Building and Loans Crisis). This led to the creation of the first state regulations governing B&Ls, to make thrift operations more uniform, and the formation of a national trade association to not only protect B&L interests, but also promote business growth. The trade association led efforts to create more uniform accounting, appraisal, and lending procedures. It also spearheaded the drive to have all thrifts refer to themselves as "savings and loans", not B&Ls, and to convince managers of the need to assume more professional roles as financiers.

In the 20th century, the two decades that followed the end of World War II were the most successful period in the history of the thrift industry. The return of millions of servicemen eager to take up their prewar lives led to an unprecedented post-war housing crisis and boom with a dramatic increase in new families, and this so-called "baby boom" caused a surge in new mostly suburban home construction, and vast expansion beyond the central core cities with additional commercial development on radiating spoke roads and highways plus the additional construction by 1956, during the Eisenhower administration of the Interstate Highways system throughout the country allowed the explosion of suburban communities in formerly rural surrounding counties. By the 1940s S&Ls (the name change for many associations occurred gradually after the late 1930s) provided most of the financing for this expansion, which now had some sort of state regulation which predated the later similar regulation of banks instituted after the 1929 Stock Market "Crash" and the later "bank holiday" of the beginning of the administration of 32nd President Franklin D. Roosevelt in March 1933, and the subsequent requirements and regulations in the "New Deal" programs to combat the Great Depression. The result was strong industry expansion that lasted through the early 1960s.

An important trend involved raising rates paid on savings to lure deposits, a practice that resulted in periodic rate wars between thrifts and even commercial banks. These wars became so severe that in 1966, the United States Congress took the highly unusual move of setting limits on savings rates for both commercial banks and S&Ls. From 1966 to 1979, the enactment of rate controls presented thrifts with a number of unprecedented challenges, chief of which was finding ways to continue to expand in an economy characterized by slow growth, high interest rates and inflation. These conditions, which came to be known as stagflation, wreaked havoc with thrift finances for a variety of reasons. Because regulators controlled the rates that thrifts could pay on savings, when interest rates rose depositors often withdrew their funds and placed them in accounts that earned market rates, a process known as disintermediation. At the same time, rising loan rates and a slow growth economy made it harder for people to qualify for mortgages that in turn limited the ability of the S&Ls to generate income.

In response to these complex economic conditions, thrift managers resorted to several innovations, such as alternative mortgage instruments and interest-bearing checking accounts, as a way to retain funds and generate lending business. Such actions allowed the industry to continue to record steady asset growth and profitability during the 1970s even though the actual number of thrifts was falling. Despite such growth, there were still clear signs that the industry was chafing under the constraints of regulation. This was especially true with the large S&Ls in the Western United States that yearned for additional lending powers to ensure continued growth. Despite several efforts to modernize these laws in the 1970s, few substantive changes were enacted.

In 1979, the financial health of the thrift industry was again challenged by a return of high interest rates and inflation, sparked this time by a doubling of oil prices and exacerbated by dwindling resources of the Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation (FSLIC). It was not a small problem: In 1980 there were more than 4,000 savings & loans institutions with assets of $600 billion, of which $480 billion were mortgage loans, many of them made at low interest rates fixed in an earlier era. In the United States, this was 50 percent of the entire home mortgage market. In 1983, the FSLIC's reserves for failures amounted to around $6 billion, whereas, according to Robinson (footnoted), the cost of paying off insured depositors in failed institutions would have been around $25 billion. Hence, regulators were forced into "forbearance"—allowing insolvent institutions to remain open—and to hope that they could grow out of their problems.

The Federal Reserve's interest rate policy
A major factor contributing to the crisis was the Federal Reserve's response to rampant inflation, marked by Paul Volcker's speech of October 6, 1979, which resulted in a series of short-term interest rate increases. This led to a scenario whereby the short-term costs of funding to S&Ls were higher than the returns they were realizing from many of their mortgage loan portfolios. This situation could not be directly addressed because a large proportion of the loans were fixed-rate mortgages (a problem that is known as an asset-liability mismatch). As the Federal Reserve's policies continued to cause interest rates to rise, this placed even more pressure on S&Ls in late 1979 and into the 1980s, leading to an increased focus on high interest-rate transactions. As a result, fewer people borrowed money from S&Ls which further significantly lowered revenue so the institutions could not offset their losses. According to Zvi Bodie, professor of finance and economics at Boston University School of Management, writing in the St. Louis Federal Reserve Review, "asset-liability mismatch was a principal cause of the Savings and Loan Crisis".

Deregulation
In the early 1980s Congress passed two laws intended to deregulate the Savings and Loans industry, the Depository Institutions Deregulation and Monetary Control Act of 1980 signed by President Jimmy Carter and the Garn–St. Germain Depository Institutions Act of 1982 signed by President Ronald Reagan. These laws allowed thrifts to offer a wider array of savings products (including adjustable-rate mortgages), but also significantly expanded their lending authority and reduced regulatory oversight. These changes were intended to allow S&Ls to "grow" out of their problems, and as such represented the first time that the government explicitly sought to influence S&L profits as opposed to promoting housing and home ownership. Other changes in thrift oversight included authorizing the use of more lenient accounting rules to report their financial condition, and the elimination of restrictions on the minimum numbers of S&L stockholders. Such policies, combined with an overall decline in regulatory oversight (known as forbearance), would later be cited as factors in the collapse of the thrift industry.

Between 1982 and 1985, S&L assets grew by 56% (compared to growth in commercial banks of 24%). In part, the growth was tilted toward financially weaker institutions which could only attract deposits by offering very high rates and which could only afford those rates by investing in high-yield, risky investments and loans.

The deregulation of S&Ls by the 1980 Act gave the thrifts many of the capabilities of commercial banks without the same regulations as banks, and without explicit FDIC oversight. Savings and loan associations could choose to be under either a state or a federal charter. This decision was made in response to the dramatically increasing interest rates and inflation rates that the S&L market experienced due to vulnerabilities in the structure of the market. Immediately after deregulation of the federally chartered thrifts, state-chartered thrifts rushed to become federally chartered, because of the advantages associated with a federal charter. In response, states such as California and Texas changed their regulations to be similar to federal regulations.

Forbearance
The relatively greater concentration of S&L lending in mortgages, coupled with a reliance on deposits with short maturities for their funding, made savings institutions especially vulnerable to increases in interest rates. As inflation accelerated in the late 1970s and interest rates began to rise rapidly starting in October 1979, many S&Ls began to suffer extensive losses. The rates they had to pay on inter-bank loans (the rate set by the Federal Reserve) increased, and they also had to increase interest rates paid to depositors to attract deposits, but the amount that they earned on long-term fixed-rate mortgages did not change. Losses began to mount. Regulatory agencies responded by granting a forbearance to some requirements, which contributed to the turmoil that the S&L market experienced. Because many insolvent thrifts were allowed to remain open, their financial problems only worsened over time. Moreover, capital standards were reduced both by legislation and by decisions taken by regulators. Federally chartered S&Ls were granted the authority to make new (and ultimately riskier) loans other than residential mortgages. These government policies all prolonged and ultimately exacerbated the crisis.

Imprudent real estate lending
In an effort to take advantage of the real estate boom (outstanding U.S. mortgage loans: 1976 $700 billion; 1980 $1.2 trillion) and high interest rates of the late 1970s and early 1980s, many S&Ls lent far more money than was prudent, and to ventures which many S&Ls were not qualified to assess, especially regarding commercial real estate. L. William Seidman, former chairman of both the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) and the Resolution Trust Corporation, stated, "The banking problems of the '80s and '90s came primarily, but not exclusively, from unsound real estate lending".

Peter Lynch, a mutual fund manager at Fidelity Investments, believed lack of oversight on property debt was a key factor in the savings and loan crisis. He was heavily invested in S&Ls before and during the crisis via the Magellan Fund. Lynch generally thought they were good investments but also noted most of the troubled S&Ls were privately held, and thus faced less scrutiny from shareholders who might have noted and objected to questionable property loans and holdings that contributed to the crisis.

Brokered deposits
Deposit brokers, somewhat like stockbrokers, are paid a commission by the customer to find the best certificate of deposit (CD) rates and place their customers' money in those CDs. Previously, banks and S&Ls could only have five percent of their deposits be brokered deposits; the race to the bottom caused this limit to be lifted. A small one-branch thrift could then attract a large number of deposits simply by offering the highest rate. To make money off this expensive money, it had to lend at even higher rates, meaning that it had to make more, riskier investments. This system was made even more damaging when certain deposit brokers instituted a scam known as "linked financing". In "linked financing", a deposit broker would approach a thrift and say he would steer a large amount of deposits to that thrift if the thrift would lend certain people money. The people, however, were paid a fee to apply for the loans and told to give the loan proceeds to the deposit broker.

Major causes according to United States League of Savings Institutions
The following is a detailed summary of the major causes for losses that hurt the savings and loan business in the 1980s:

 * 1) Lack of net worth for many institutions as they entered the 1980s, and a wholly inadequate net worth regulation.
 * 2) Decline in the effectiveness of Regulation Q in preserving the spread between the cost of money and the rate of return on assets, basically stemming from inflation and the accompanying increase in market interest rates.
 * 3) Absence of an ability to vary the return on assets with increases in the rate of interest required to be paid for deposits.
 * 4) Increased competition on the deposit gathering and mortgage origination sides of the business, with a sudden burst of new technology making possible a whole new way of conducting financial institutions generally and the mortgage business specifically.
 * 5) Savings and Loans gained a wide range of new investment powers with the passage of the Depository Institutions Deregulation and Monetary Control Act and the Garn–St. Germain Depository Institutions Act. A number of states also passed legislation that similarly increased investment options. These introduced new risks and speculative opportunities which were difficult to administer. In many instances management lacked the ability or experience to evaluate them, or to administer large volumes of nonresidential construction loans.
 * 6) Elimination of regulations initially designed to prevent lending excesses and minimize failures. Regulatory relaxation permitted lending, directly and through participations, in distant loan markets on the promise of high returns. Lenders, however, were not familiar with these distant markets. It also permitted associations to participate extensively in speculative construction activities with builders and developers who had little or no financial stake in the projects.
 * 7) Fraud and insider transaction abuses from employees.
 * 8) A new type and generation of opportunistic savings and loan executives and owners – some of whom operated in a fraudulent manner – whose takeover of many institutions was facilitated by a change in FSLIC rules reducing the minimum number of stockholders of an insured association from 400 to one.
 * 9) Dereliction of duty on the part of the board of directors of some savings associations. This permitted management to make uncontrolled use of some new operating authority, while directors failed to control expenses and prohibit obvious conflict of interest situations.
 * 10) A virtual end of inflation in the American economy, together with overbuilding in multifamily, condominium type residences and in commercial real estate in many cities. In addition, real estate values collapsed in the energy states – Texas, Louisiana, and Oklahoma – particularly due to falling oil prices – and weakness occurred in the mining and agricultural sectors of the economy.
 * 11) Pressures felt by the management of many associations to restore net worth ratios. Anxious to improve earnings, they departed from their traditional lending practices into credits and markets involving higher risks, but with which they had little experience.
 * 12) The lack of appropriate, accurate, and effective evaluations of the savings and loan business by public accounting firms, security analysts, and the financial community.
 * 13) Organizational structure and supervisory laws, adequate for policing and controlling the business in the protected environment of the 1960s and 1970s, resulted in fatal delays and indecision in the examination/supervision process in the 1980s.
 * 14)  Federal and state examination and supervisory staffs insufficient in number, experience, or ability to deal with the new world of savings and loan operations.
 * 15) The inability or unwillingness of the Bank Board and its legal and supervisory staff to deal with problem institutions in a timely manner. Many institutions, which ultimately closed with big losses, were known problem cases for a year or more. Often, it appeared, political considerations delayed necessary supervisory action.

Major causes and lessons learned
In 2005, former bank regulator William K. Black listed a number of lessons that should have been learned from the S&L Crisis that have not been translated into effective governmental action:

 * 1) Fraud matters, and control frauds pose unique risks.
 * 2) It is important to understand fraud mechanisms. Economists grossly underestimate its prevalence and impact, and prosecutors have difficulties finding it, even without the political pressure from politicians who receive campaign contributions from the banking industry.
 * 3) Control fraud can occur in waves created by poorly designed deregulation that creates a criminogenic environment.
 * 4) Waves of control fraud cause immense damage.
 * 5) Control frauds convert conventional restraints on abuse into aids to fraud.
 * 6) Conflicts of interest matter.
 * 7) Deposit insurance was not essential to S&L control frauds.
 * 8) There are not enough trained investigators in the regulatory agencies to protect against control frauds.
 * 9) Regulatory and presidential leadership is important.
 * 10) Ethics and social forces are restraints on fraud and abuse.
 * 11) Deregulation matters and assets matter.
 * 12) The SEC should have a chief criminologist.
 * 13) Control frauds defeat corporate governance protections and reforms.
 * 14) Stock options increase looting by control frauds.
 * 15) The "reinventing government" movement should deal effectively with control frauds.

Failures
In 1980, the United States Congress granted all thrifts, including savings and loan associations, the power to make consumer and commercial loans and to issue transaction accounts. Designed to help the thrift industry retain its deposit base and to improve its profitability, the Depository Institutions Deregulation and Monetary Control Act (DIDMCA) of 1980 allowed thrifts to make consumer loans up to 20 percent of their assets, issue credit cards, accept negotiable order of withdrawal accounts from individuals and nonprofit organizations, and invest up to 20 percent of their assets in commercial real estate loans.

The damage to S&L operations led Congress to act, passing the Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981 (ERTA) in August 1981 and initiating the regulatory changes by the Federal Home Loan Bank Board allowing S&Ls to sell their mortgage loans and use the cash generated to seek better returns soon after enactment; the losses created by the sales were to be amortized over the life of the loan, and any losses could also be offset against taxes paid over the preceding ten years. This all made S&Ls eager to sell their loans. The buyers – major Wall Street firms – were quick to take advantage of the S&Ls' lack of expertise, buying at 60% to 90% of value and then transforming the loans by bundling them as, effectively, government-backed bonds by virtue of Ginnie Mae, Freddie Mac, or Fannie Mae guarantees. S&Ls were one group buying these bonds, holding $150 billion by 1986, and being charged substantial fees for the transactions.

In 1982, the Garn-St Germain Depository Institutions Act was passed and increased the proportion of assets that thrifts could hold in consumer and commercial real estate loans and allowed thrifts to invest 5 percent of their assets in commercial loans until January 1, 1984, when this percentage increased to 10 percent.

These policies had the effect of prolonging the crisis, and a large number of S&L customers defaulted and bankruptcies ensued. This led to many S&Ls being forced into insolvency proceedings themselves.

The Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation (FSLIC), a federal government agency that insured S&L accounts in the same way the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation insures commercial bank accounts, was obligated to repay all the depositors who lost their money. Between 1986 and 1989, FSLIC closed or otherwise resolved 296 institutions with total assets of $125 billion. An even more traumatic period followed, with the creation of the Resolution Trust Corporation in 1989 and that agency's resolution by mid-1995 of an additional 747 thrifts.

A Federal Reserve Bank panel stated the resulting taxpayer bailout ended up being even larger than it would have been because moral hazard and adverse selection incentives that compounded the system's losses.

There also were state-chartered S&Ls that failed. Some state insurance funds failed, requiring more state taxpayer bailouts.

Home State Savings Bank
In March 1985, it came to public knowledge that the large Cincinnati, Ohio-based Home State Savings Bank was about to collapse. Ohio Governor Dick Celeste declared a bank holiday in the state as Home State depositors lined up in a "run" on the bank's branches to withdraw their deposits. Celeste ordered the closure of all the state's S&Ls. Only those that were able to qualify for membership in the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation were allowed to reopen. Claims by Ohio S&L depositors drained the state's deposit insurance funds. A similar event involving Old Court Savings and Loans took place in Maryland.

Midwest Federal Savings & Loan
Midwest Federal Savings & Loan was a federally chartered savings and loan based in Minneapolis, Minnesota, until its failure in 1990. The St. Paul Pioneer Press called the bank's failure the "largest financial disaster in Minnesota history".

The chairman, Hal Greenwood Jr., his daughter, Susan Greenwood Olson, and two former executives, Robert A. Mampel, and Charlotte E. Masica, were convicted of racketeering that led to the institution's collapse. The failure cost taxpayers $1.2 billion.

The Megadeth song "Foreclosure of a Dream" is presumed to have been written about this particular failure. Megadeth's then bassist Dave Ellefson contributed lyrics to the song after his family's Minnesota farm was in jeopardy as a result of the S&L financial crisis.

Lincoln Savings and Loan
The Lincoln Savings collapse led to the Keating Five political scandal, in which five U.S. senators were implicated in an influence-peddling scheme. It was named for Charles Keating, who headed Lincoln Savings and made $300,000 as political contributions to them in the 1980s. Three of those senators, Alan Cranston (D–CA), Don Riegle (D–MI), and Dennis DeConcini (D–AZ), found their political careers cut short as a result. Two others, John Glenn (D–OH) and John McCain (R–AZ), were rebuked by the Senate Ethics Committee for exercising "poor judgment" for intervening with the federal regulators on behalf of Keating.

Lincoln Savings and Loan collapsed in 1989, at a cost of $3.4 billion to the federal government (and thus taxpayers). Some 23,000 Lincoln bondholders were defrauded and many investors lost their life savings.

Silverado Savings and Loan
Silverado Savings and Loan collapsed in 1988, costing taxpayers $1.3 billion. Neil Bush, the son of then Vice President of the United States George H. W. Bush, was on the Board of Directors of Silverado at the time. Neil Bush was accused of granting loans that benefitted himself, but he denied all wrongdoing. With the collapse in world oil prices beginning on 13 September 1985 when Saudi Arabia's Minister of Petroleum Sheikh Yamani announced a new oil policy and that Saudi Arabia would increase its production and which, over the next six months, oil production in Saudi Arabia rose tremendously, Neil Bush's Denver based J.N.B. Exploration Company and George W. Bush's Midland based Spectrum 7 Energy Corporation encountered enormous financial difficulties.

The U.S. Office of Thrift Supervision investigated Silverado's failure and determined that Neil Bush had engaged in numerous "breaches of his fiduciary duties involving multiple conflicts of interest". Although Bush was not indicted on criminal charges, a civil action was brought against him and the other Silverado directors by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation; it was eventually settled out of court, with Bush paying $50,000 as part of the settlement, The Washington Post reported. According to journalist Pete Brewton, the Federal Government knew Silverado was ready to collapse in September 1988 but was ordered not to take action until two weeks after the November 1988 Presidential election.

As a director of a failing thrift, Neil Bush voted to approve $100 million in what were ultimately bad loans to two of his business partners. And in voting for the loans, he failed to inform fellow board members at Silverado Savings & Loan that the loan applicants were his business partners.

Neil Bush paid a $50,000 fine, paid for him by Republican supporters, and was banned from banking activities for his role in taking down Silverado, which cost taxpayers $1.3 billion. An RTC suit against Bush and other Silverado officers was settled in 1991 for $26.5 million.

Jim Wright

On June 9, 1988, the House Committee on Standards of Official Conduct adopted a six-count preliminary inquiry resolution representing a determination by the committee that in 69 instances there was reason to believe that Rep. Jim Wright (D–TX), the Speaker of the House at the time, violated House rules on conduct unbecoming a Representative. A report by special counsel implicated him in a number of influence peddling charges, such as Vernon Savings and Loan, and attempting to get William K. Black fired as deputy director of the Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation (FSLIC) under Gray. Wright resigned on May 31, 1989, to avoid a full hearing after the Committee on Standards of Official Conduct unanimously approved a statement of alleged violation April 17.

Keating Five
On November 17, 1989, the Senate Ethics Committee investigation began of the Keating Five, Alan Cranston (D–CA), Dennis DeConcini (D–AZ), John Glenn (D–OH), John McCain (R–AZ), and Donald W. Riegle Jr. (D–MI), who were accused of improperly intervening in 1987 on behalf of Charles H. Keating Jr., chairman of the Lincoln Savings and Loan Association.

Keating's Lincoln Savings failed in 1989, costing the federal government over $3 billion and leaving 23,000 customers with worthless bonds. In the early 1990s, Keating was convicted in both federal and state courts of many counts of fraud, racketeering and conspiracy. He served four and a half years in prison before those convictions were overturned in 1996. In 1999, he pleaded guilty to a more limited set of wire fraud and bankruptcy fraud counts, and sentenced to the time he had already served.

Financial Institutions Reform, Recovery and Enforcement Act of 1989
As a result of the savings and loan crisis, Congress passed the Financial Institutions Reform, Recovery and Enforcement Act of 1989 (FIRREA), which dramatically changed the savings and loan industry and its federal regulation. The highlights of the legislation, which was signed into law on August 9, 1989, were:

 * 1) The Federal Home Loan Bank Board (FHLBB) and the Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation (FSLIC) were abolished.
 * 2) The Office of Thrift Supervision (OTS), a bureau of the United States Treasury Department, was created to charter, regulate, examine, and supervise savings institutions.
 * 3) The Federal Housing Finance Board (FHFB) was created as an independent agency to replace the FHLBB, i.e. to oversee the 12 Federal Home Loan Banks (also called district banks) that represent the largest collective source of home mortgage and community credit in the United States.
 * 4) The Savings Association Insurance Fund (SAIF) replaced the FSLIC as an ongoing insurance fund for thrift institutions (like the FDIC, the FSLIC was a permanent corporation that insured savings and loan accounts up to $100,000). SAIF is administered by the FDIC.
 * 5) The Resolution Trust Corporation (RTC) was established to dispose of failed thrift institutions taken over by regulators after January 1, 1989. The RTC will make insured deposits at those institutions available to their customers.
 * 6) FIRREA gives both Freddie Mac and Fannie Mae additional responsibility to support mortgages for low- and moderate-income families.

The legislation also required S&Ls to meet minimum capital standards (some of which were risk-based) and raised deposit-insurance premiums. It limited to 30% of their portfolios loans not in residential mortgages or mortgage-related securities and set down standards preventing concentrations of loans to single borrowers. It required them to completely divest themselves of junk bonds by July 1, 1994, meanwhile segregating junk bond holdings and direct investments in separately capitalized subsidiaries.

Consequences
Savings and Loan were not the only financial institutions that were adversely affected by the crisis. Many banks failed as well. Between 1980 and 1994 more than 1,600 banks insured by the FDIC were closed or received FDIC financial assistance.

From 1986 to 1995, the number of federally insured savings and loans in the United States declined from 3,234 to 1,645. This was primarily, but not exclusively, due to unsound real estate lending.

The market share of S&Ls for single family mortgage loans went from 53% in 1975 to 30% in 1990. U.S. General Accounting Office estimated cost of the crisis to around $160.1 billion, about $124.6 billion of which was directly paid for by the U.S. government from 1986 to 1996. That figure does not include thrift insurance funds used before 1986 or after 1996. It also does not include state run thrift insurance funds or state bailouts.

The federal government ultimately appropriated $105 billion to resolve the crisis. After banks repaid loans through various procedures, there was an estimated net loss to taxpayers of somewhere between ($123.8–132.1) 124 and 132 billion dollars by the end of 1999.

The concomitant slowdown in the finance industry and the real estate market may have been a contributing cause of the 1990–1991 economic recession. Between 1986 and 1991, the number of new homes constructed dropped from 1.8 million to 1 million, the lowest rate since World War II.

Some commentators believe that a taxpayer-funded government bailout related to mortgages during the savings and loan crisis may have created a moral hazard and acted as encouragement to lenders to make similar higher risk loans during the 2007 subprime mortgage financial crisis.

title: Savings and loan crisis


text: Talk:Music of the Cook Islands

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Music of the Cook Islands


text:
It! The Terror from Beyond Space

'It! The Terror from Beyond Space' is an independently made 1958 American science fiction horror film, produced by Robert Kent, directed by Edward L. Cahn, that stars Marshall Thompson, Shawn Smith (Shirley Patterson), and Kim Spalding. The film was distributed by United Artists as a double feature with Curse of the Faceless Man.

The story involves Earth's second mission to Mars to discover the fate of the Challenge 141 and its crew. Only a single survivor is found still alive from that crashed spaceship. The survivor, the expedition's former commander, claims that his crew were killed by a hostile Martian life form. No one from the rescue ship believes him until the creature, now a stowaway, begins hunting the crew on their return trip to Earth.

The film's premise has been cited as an inspiration for screenwriter Dan O'Bannon's screenplay for Ridley Scott's classic 1979 film Alien.

The other film that seems to have been an influence on Alien was Mario Bava’s Planet of the Vampires (1965) which involves a mysterious SOS signal from an alien planet which acts as a lure for passing ships, as with the first half of Ridley Scott’s film.

Plot
In 1973, a nuclear-powered spaceship blasts off from Mars for Earth, bringing with it the sole survivor of the first mission, Col. Edward Carruthers. He is suspected of having murdered the other nine members of his crew for their food and water rations, on the premise that he had no way of knowing if or when an Earth rescue mission would ever arrive. Carruthers denies this allegation, attributing his crew's deaths to a hostile humanoid life form on the Red Planet.

Commander Col. Van Heusen is unconvinced and makes sure that Carruthers is constantly accompanied by another member of his crew. While the ship was on the Martian surface, an emergency hatch had been left open, allowing the creature easy access. The crew are at first skeptical that something crawled aboard while they were on Mars. However, when Kienholz investigates odd sounds coming from a lower level, he is killed and his body hidden in an air duct. Next is Gino Finelli. He is found, barely alive, but the creature attacks his would-be rescuer. Bullets have no effect, forcing the crewman to leave Gino behind, much to the distress of his brother Bob. An autopsy of Kienholz's body reveals that it has been sucked dry of all fluids.

The crew use hand grenades and gas grenades, but the creature proves to be immune to both. They next try electrocution, also with no effect. When "It" is tricked into going into the spaceship's atomic reactor room, they shut the heavily shielded door and expose the creature directly to the ship's nuclear pile. It easily crashes through the door and escapes. The creature is so strong that it can tear through the metal hatches separating each of the ship's levels. The survivors (except for an injured crewman, who is trapped below in a spot inaccessible to the creature) retreat to the control room on the topmost deck. When Carruthers notices the ship's higher-than-normal oxygen consumption rate, he surmises that this is due to the creature's larger lung capacity, needed for the thin Martian atmosphere. In a last desperate move, everyone puts on their spacesuits, and Carruthers opens the command deck's hull airlock directly to the vacuum of space. A violent decompression follows, and the plan works: "It" suffocates and finally expires, stuck part way through the final hatch.

A press conference is later held on Earth, revealing the details of what happened aboard the rescue ship. The project director emphasizes that Earth may now be forced to bypass the Red Planet "because another word for Mars is Death".

Cast

 * Marshall Thompson as Col. Edward Carruthers
 * Shirley Patterson as Ann Anderson (as Shawn Smith)
 * Kim Spalding as Col. Van Heusen
 * Dabbs Greer as Eric Royce
 * Paul Langton as Lt. James Calder
 * Robert Bice as Maj. John Purdue
 * Richard Benedict as Bob Finelli
 * Ann Doran as Mary Royce
 * Richard Hervey as Gino Finelli
 * Thom Carney as Joe Kienholz
 * Ray Corrigan as It

Production
''It! The Terror from Beyond Space was financed by Edward Small and was originally known as '''It! The Vampire from Beyond Space'. Principal photography took place over a two-week period during mid-January 1958. Small kept changing his mind over whether or not he wanted plastic eyes installed in the creature's mask, causing a lot of aggravation for the film's makeup artist, Paul Blaisdell.

It! was the last film of actor Ray "Crash" Corrigan. Corrigan was set to play the creature, but during pre-production, he did not want to travel over to Topanga Canyon in western Los Angeles County where Paul Blaisdell lived and operated his studio. Therefore, Blaisdell could not take exact measurements of Corrigan's head. Consequently, there were final fit problems with the creature's head prop: "[Corrigan's]...bulbous chin stuck out through the monster's mouth, so the make-up man painted his chin to look like a tongue". Blaisdell then added a bottom row of fangs that covered Corrigan's jutting chin.

Blaisdell said working for United Artists wasn't nearly as happy an experience as working at AIP was for him. As filming progressed, Ray Corrigan turned up drunk on the set a few times, refused to follow certain directions from Ed Cahn and even damaged the monster suit, causing Blaisdell to be called in to do a couple of quick "patch-up" jobs. Blaisdell said it wasn't a happy set, what with Corrigan drunk on and off, and the film's female star Shawn Smith constantly in a bad mood, furious that she had been cast in a low-budget monster film. Blaisdell said only Marshall Thompson seemed to be enjoying himself. The creature costume became the property of UA, and wound up a year later showing up in their 1959 John Agar opus, Invisible Invaders (without paying Blaisdell for reusing his props).

Reception
At the film review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 69% based on 16 reviews, with a weighted average rating of 5.9/10.

Variety noted that the creature was the star: "'It' is a Martian by birth, a Frankenstein by instinct, and a copycat. The monster dies hard, brushing aside grenades, bullets, gas and an atomic pile, before snorting its last snort. It's old stuff, with only a slight twist". A retrospective film review by Dennis Schwartz favorably compared It! with Alien, a classic 1979 film that borrowed its creature feature plot liberally from its earlier counterpart.

Adaptations
In 1992, Millennium Publications adapted ''It! The Terror from Beyond Space'' as a short-run comic book series, written by Mark Ellis and Dean Zachary. A further comics adaptation was released by Midnite Movies (IDW Publishing) in 2010, for a three-issue run.

title: It! The Terror from Beyond Space


text:
Talk:Photophone

— Preceding unsigned comment added by 117.217.141.219 (talk) 10:19, 22 October 2012 (UTC) This might also be from http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/jun03.html – either way, this needs to be documented here in order to prevent copyvio questions, since this is the same text as what comes up with the first search for Photophone on google. Ilya 23:47, 12 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * And hence it is Public domain. Since you already noted the source here, I'll just remove the copyvio notice. Lupo 07:26, 13 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * Ok, thanks. I wasn't sure, since the LOC page didn't claim it was an original work. But I guess if it wasn't, they'd likely attribute it. Ilya 11:25, 13 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Reference error
Error notice is showing in ref section: "4. ^ abcde Carson 2007, pg. 76-78 Cite error: Invalid tag; name 'Carson-2007-gvttw' defined multiple times with different content (see the help page). Cite error: Invalid tag; name 'Carson-2007-gvttw' defined multiple times with different content (see the help page). Cite error: Invalid tag; name 'Carson-2007-gvttw' defined multiple times with different content (see the help page)." Please sort it out if you've the skills and inclination. --Kevjonesin (talk) 02:36, 5 April 2016 (UTC)

 * Now fixed. 66.81.220.246 (talk) 11:07, 21 July 2016 (UTC)

External links modified
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 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20020219111153/http://history.sandiego.edu/gen/recording/ar304.html to http://history.sandiego.edu/gen/recording/ar304.html

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title: Talk:Photophone


text:
User:Mike Storm/wel

Welcome!
Hello, and welcome to Wikipedia!

Here are some tips to help you get started:

 * Try the Tutorial, and feel free to experiment in the sandbox (test area).
 * You should familiarize yourself with how pages are edited in Wikipedia (how to make links and such).
 * If you need help, post a question at the Help Desk
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and, most importantly, have fun!

Good luck!

Mike Storm (Talk)

P.S. One last helpful hint. To sign your posts like I did above (on talk pages, for example) use multiple '~' symbols. To insert just your name, type ~~~ (3 tildes), or to insert your name and timestamp, which is customary, use ~~~~ (4 tildes).

title: User:Mike Storm/wel


text:
Redgrave

Redgrave may refer to:

People

 * Redgrave family, a British family of actors and actresses
 * Roy Redgrave (1873–1922)
 * Michael Redgrave (1908–1985)
 * Vanessa Redgrave (born 1937)
 * Corin Redgrave (1939–2010)
 * Lynn Redgrave (1943–2010)
 * Jemma Redgrave (born 1965)
 * Bill Redgrave (1881–1931), New Zealand cricketer
 * Richard Redgrave (1804–1888), English landscape artist and painter
 * Samuel Redgrave (1802–1876), English civil servant and writer on art
 * Sidney Redgrave (1878–1958), Australian cricketer
 * Steve Redgrave (born 1962), Olympic rowing champion
 * William Redgrave (1903–1986), British sculptor

Fictional characters

 * Antonio and Luka Redgrave, characters in the video game series Bayonetta
 * Tony Redgrave, an alias of Dante in the video game series Devil May Cry

Places

 * Redgrave (railway point), British Columbia
 * Redgrave, Suffolk, a village and civil parish in England containing the historic Redgrave Manor, Redgrave Park, Redgrave Hall, and Redgrave Park Farm
 * Redgrave and Lopham Fens, a biological Site of Special Scientific Interest between Thelnetham in Suffolk and Diss in Norfolk
 * Redgrave Pinsent Rowing Lake, a rowing lake in the United Kingdom
 * Redgrave Theatre, Farnham, a theatre in Surrey from 1974 to 1998

title: Redgrave


text: Talk:Verio

title: Talk:Verio


text:
The Real World: Paris

The Real World: Paris is the thirteenth season of MTV's reality television series The Real World, which focuses on a group of diverse strangers living together for several months in a different city each season, as cameras follow their lives and interpersonal relationships. It is the only season to be filmed in France.

The season featured seven people living in a four-story château and is the second of four seasons of The Real World to be filmed entirely outside of the United States after The Real World: London in 1995, and before The Real World: Sydney in 2007, and The Real World: Cancun in 2009.

The season was filmed over 120 days from January 19 to May 18, 2003. The season premiered on June 3 of that year and consisted of 25 episodes.

Assignment
Almost every season of The Real World, beginning with its fifth season, has included the assignment of a season-long group job or task to the housemates, continued participation in which has been mandatory to remain part of the cast since the tenth season. The Paris cast was assigned to write reviews for Frommer's, reviewing various Paris bars, clubs and other attractions. A weekly bonus would be given to the housemates if they all completed their weekly assignments, which they rarely did. In fact, two of the castmates, Chris "C.T." Tamburello and Leah Gillingwater, were caught submitting fake reviews.

The residence
The four-story 5382 sqft Château was built in 1869, and is located in Le Vésinet, a commune of France in the western suburbs of Paris, France. It is located 10.2 mi from the center of Paris. Le Vésinet is one of the wealthiest suburbs of Paris, known for its wooded avenues and bourgeois mansions built around boating lakes and English-Style gardens. In some of the rooms of the Château, fake walls were built to protect 18 carat gilding on the original surfaces. The Château includes a wine cellar.

After filming
Six months after the cast left the Real World house, six of them, except for Simon, who was there via telephone, appeared to discuss their experiences both during and since their time on the show, French Kissing and Telling: The Real World Paris Reunion which premiered on November 11, 2003, and was hosted by La La Vazquez.

At the 2008 The Real World Awards Bash, Mallory was nominated in the "Hottest Female" category, CT in the "Hottest Male" one, and Adam for "Best Dance-Off".

Mallory Snyder later became a Sports Illustrated swimsuit model. She posed for the 2005 and 2006 Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Editions, and has also modeled for Abercrombie & Fitch and J. Crew.

Chris Tamburello's son, Christopher Junior, was born in 2016 and also appeared in an episode of Invasion of the Champions. In 2018, Tamburello married Lilianet Solares and their wedding aired on MTV as a two-week special. That same year, he appeared on Fear Factor alongside Cara Maria Sorbello from Fresh Meat II. He also starred in the movie Habitual directed by Johnny Hickey, which was released on November 13, 2020, and also featured Emilee Fitzpatrick from The Real World: Cancun and Sabrina Kennedy from Real World: Go Big or Go Home. In 2022, Tamburello filed for divorce from Solares. In 2024, Tamburello competed on and won the second season of The Traitors.

Leah Gillingwater has a son named Griffin.

Simon Sherry-Wood appeared as a member of the Scruff Pit Crew during season 6 of RuPaul's Drag Race.

The Challenge
Note: CT made an appearance on Cutthroat for an elimination, Battle of the Bloodlines for a challenge and an elimination, and Battle for a New Champion for an elimination.

title: The Real World: Paris


text: Category:Staind albums

title: Category:Staind albums


text:
Krups

Krups is a German kitchen appliance manufacturer. It is part of the Groupe SEB. It is named after its founder, Robert Krups.

The company produces a large variety of household appliances such as coffee makers, toasters, blenders, kettles, waffle makers, egg cookers, hand mixers, food processors, etc.

History

The company began in 1846 manufacturing precision scales and mainly industrial balances, in Wald, now a district of Solingen in North Rhine-Westphalia. This was the company's principal product for the next 110 years.

In 1951, following the 1950s postwar reconstruction and economic boom in Germany, Krups moved into the lucrative consumer appliance arena. The highly popular 3Mix (German, Drei-Mix) mixing machine was released in 1959 and soon became a fixture in nearly every second West German household, followed in 1961 by the ONKO coffee machine, available as the F468 until 2014. In 1965, the company launched its first slicer, a highly popular product in Germany where sausage (wurst) and cheese are consumed as staples.

In 1979 the Krups Type 223 Coffina Super coffee grinder was used as a prop in the film Alien as part of the Nostromo spacecraft, and also in Back to the Future as 'Mr. Fusion'. In 1983 the first Krups coffee machines were released.

By 1990, the firm employed 3,000 people in four German factories, as well as one in Limerick, Ireland, with annual revenue of DM541 million. Coffee machines were the most popular product, constituting 40 percent of sales in Germany and 30 percent in the United States. The following year Krups undertook a joint venture with Nestlé to produce the Nespresso machine.

In 1999 the Krups Irish factory in Limerick, formerly employing 800 people, closed. Two years later, following bankruptcy, Krups joined Groupe SEB, which subsequently reoriented Krups as a premium brand and employed designer Konstantin Grcic.

title: Krups


text:
User talk:Eequor/Reference/Carbon

WHY IS CARBON COAL AND A DIAMOND TRANSPARENT?
Carbon is coal because it grew into horsetails, which were easily trod into the ground and compressed by dinosaurs. Since horsehair is made of lignin, coal retains its solid form, unlike prehistoric horses, which evolved independently of horsetails and were made of the less durable protein collagen, becoming oil instead when stepped on. Coal and oil are considered nonrenewable resources because there are no more dinosaurs to compact carbon into the proper form. Instead, all dinosaurs are now fossils, and so coal and oil are called fossil fuels.

Potential coal and oil deposits were further limited when natural selection decided horses with tails were more fit for survival. This evolutionary breakthrough, combining lignin and collagen for the first time in the same animal, was, however, an ecologic disaster: horses became neither compressible into oil, nor into coal, instead remaining in a gel-like intermediate phase known as blood agar.

Bacteria grows easily on agar. While this property makes agar deposits valuable to modern medicine, it spelled doom for most life on Earth. The resulting plague killed nearly every living thing -- a mass extinction.

Horses and seahorses, having natural immunity to their own bacteria, were largely unaffected by the plague. For several million years eohippus was the only animal found on land, while seohippus was the only animal found in the oceans; this period is called the Eocene Epoch because scientists have peculiar senses of humor.

The evolution of horses eventually diverged, resulting in a separate species known as merychippus. Few other changes occurred for millions of years; this period is called the Oligocene Epoch, after Greek oligos (ολίγος), which translates to few.

A new era (called the Neogene Era, after Greek neos (νέος, meaning new), as scientists have unfortunately little imagination) began with the arrival of aliens, who colonized and terraformed the Earth, using genetic engineering to reintroduce life on the planet. Their descendants, the Mayans and Aztecs, had a highly advanced and successful civilization with electrical power generated by the abundant horses.

These early humans, familiar with tools, quickly discovered that horses could be separated into collagen and lignin by skinning them. Enormous pyramids called ziggurats were constructed, and used to generate the immense pressures needed to compress collagen into oil and lignin into coal by crushing them beneath the heavy stone bases. Civilization progressed until horses became extinct in the Americas, causing a sudden energy crisis, and subsequently the South American civilization collapsed.

Diamonds are transparent because they are made of glass. Diamonds contain fire, which can sometimes be seen glittering inside. Applying sufficient heat to a diamond will cause the fire to escape, whereupon the diamond will burn away into air.

title: User talk:Eequor/Reference/Carbon


text:
The Valley of Gwangi

The Valley of Gwangi is a 1969 American fantasy Western film produced by Charles H. Schneer and Ray Harryhausen, directed by Jim O'Connolly, written by William Bast, and starring James Franciscus, Richard Carlson, and Gila Golan.

Creature stop-motion effects were by Harryhausen, the last dinosaur-themed film that he animated. He had inherited the film project from his mentor Willis O'Brien, responsible for the effects in the original King Kong (1933). O'Brien had planned to make The Valley of Gwangi decades earlier but died in 1962 before it could be realized. Producer Charles Scheer called it "probably the least of the movies Ray and I made together."

Plot
In Mexico at the turn of the 20th century, a cowgirl named T.J. Breckenridge hosts a struggling rodeo. Her former lover, Tuck Kirby, a heroic former stuntman working for Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show, wants to buy her out. Along the way, he is followed by a Mexican boy named Lope, who intends to join the rodeo on a quest for fame and fortune. T.J. is not interested in Tuck because of this, but Tuck is still attracted to T.J., especially when T.J. jumps off a diving board on her horse. T.J. finally accepts Tuck when he saves Lope from a bull and Tuck and T.J. kiss.

T.J. has an ace she hopes will boost attendance at her show – a tiny horse called El Diablo. Tuck meets a British paleontologist named Horace Bromley, who is working in a nearby Mexican desert. Bromley shows Tuck fossilized horse tracks, and Tuck notes their similarity to El Diablo's feet. Tuck sneaks Bromley into the circus for a look at El Diablo, and Bromley declares the horse to be a prehistoric Eohippus.

The tiny horse came from a place known as the Forbidden Valley. A gypsy known as Tia Zorina claims that the horse is cursed, and demands that it be immediately returned. Later, she and the other gypsies collaborate with Bromley to steal El Diablo and release it back in the valley. Bromley hopes to follow the horse to its home in search of other prehistoric specimens. Carlos, an ex-member of the Gypsy tribe now working for T.J.'s circus, walks in on the theft and tries to stop it, but is knocked out.

Tuck arrives just as the Gypsy posse leaves. Carlos sees him as he is regaining consciousness. Tuck notices that the horse is missing, and sets off after Bromley. When T.J. and her crew discover Carlos, Carlos claims that Tuck has stolen El Diablo for himself. Carlos, T.J., and the others decide to follow Tuck and Bromley into the valley.

Making their way into the Forbidden Valley, Tuck, T.J., and the rest of the group meet up and soon discover why the valley is said to be cursed when a Pteranodon swoops down and snatches Lope. But due to the extra weight (from apparently only having half-digested Lope's pet mule Rosita from the night before), it falls back to the ground. After Carlos kills the Pteranodon by twisting its neck, they spot an Ornithomimus, which they chase after in the hopes of capturing it. Just as it is about to escape, it is killed by Gwangi, a vicious Tyrannosaurus which chases Bromley and the rest of the group. However, a Styracosaurus appears and drives Gwangi away. As Gwangi leaves, he takes the dead Pteranodon with him.

Later, Gwangi pursues the group to their base camp and they try to rope him down, but he breaks free when the Styracosaurus reappears. Gwangi battles and kills the Styracosaurus and later manages to catch and kill Carlos, but is knocked out by a rockslide while trying to exit the valley in pursuit of the rest of the group.

Securing the creature with ropes, Tuck and the other men in the group take Gwangi back to town to be put on display in T.J.'s show. On the opening day of the show, the dwarfed Gypsy who works for Tia Zorina sneaks in and begins to unlock Gwangi's cage in an effort to free him, only to be killed when Gwangi breaks free. The crowd begins to flee as Gwangi attacks, and Tia Zorina is trampled to death in the chaos. Bromley is crushed by a broken piece of the cage, and Gwangi attacks and kills a circus elephant before rampaging through the town. Tuck, accompanied by T.J. and Lope, tries to hide the crowd in a cathedral, but Gwangi finds them and breaks in. Tuck urges the crowd out through a back exit, leaving Tuck inside with Gwangi, T.J. and Lope.

Though Gwangi tries to eat them, he is distracted when the cathedral's organ is accidentally sounded off as Tuck falls backwards into the keyboard. Tuck then manages to wound the dinosaur with a flag and throws a torch onto the floor near Gwangi, setting the building on fire. Tuck and the others manage to escape, leaving Gwangi trapped in the burning, collapsing building. Shrieking in agony as he is burned alive, Gwangi is finally crushed to death by the falling debris, as Tuck, T.J., Lope (with tears in his eyes), and the townspeople look on.

Cast

 * James Franciscus as Tuck
 * Gila Golan as T.J.
 * Richard Carlson as Champ
 * Laurence Naismith as Professor Bromley
 * Freda Jackson as Tia Zorina
 * Gustavo Rojo as Carlos
 * Mario De Barros as Bean (as Mario de Barros)
 * Dennis Kilbane as Rowdy
 * Curtis Arden as Lope

Development
The story of Gwangi was originally conceived by Willis O'Brien (1886–1962), the man who created the special effects for the original King Kong (1933). The plot was inspired by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's book The Lost World (1912), with added elements from King Kong (capturing a creature and bringing it to civilization where it runs amok). News of O'Brien's project first appeared in June 1941.

In O'Brien's scenario, then called Valley of the Mists, cowboys discover an Allosaurus in the Grand Canyon. After finally roping the dinosaur, they put it in a Wild West show but the creature, now called "Gwangi", breaks free and fights lions from the show that have also escaped. After killing the lions, Gwangi goes on a rampage around the town and is run off a cliff by a man in a truck.

O'Brien worked on the project at RKO Pictures during most of 1942. The studio cancelled the production, reportedly because of research done that the public did not want to see a picture about dinosaurs.

According to Harryhausen the project "didn't get to the shooting stage. They built a series of dioramas in three-dimensional cardboard cutouts for each set-up. I saw those and I saw a lot of O'Brien's drawings at the time, but that's as far as it got."

O'Brien went on to make Mighty Joe Young for RKO instead.

In 1949, Hollywood columnist Hedda Hopper reported that Jesse Lasky was going to Central America to film scenes for Valley of the Mists with O'Brien, with a script by Richard Landau. However, no film resulted.

Seven years after O'Brien died in 1962, The Valley of Gwangi was released in 1969. A similar film The Beast of Hollow Mountain (1956 United Artists / produced by a Mexican film company and also employing stop-motion effects, but not by Harryhausen), was the only other feature film in the history of cinema to have the unusual story combination of cowboys and dinosaurs.

Ray Harryhausen
In the late 1960s, Ray Harryhausen and producer Charles Schneer decided to reunite after several years of making films apart. Harryhausen suggested reviving two old O'Brien projects, War Eagles, which had been developed for MGM, and Gwangi which had been done for RKO. Schneer did not see how they could get a script out of War Eagles but was enthusiastic about the Gwangi script and bought the rights from O'Brien's widow. Although O'Brien was the creator of the original Gwangi story, an on-screen credit for him was not included in The Valley of Gwangi.

Schneer had the script rewritten by William Bast and offered the project to Columbia, who had made all Scheer's previous collaborations with Harryhausen. The studio turned it down but Warner Bros agreed to finance. James O'Connelly signed to direct.

Harryhausen said they decided to keep the story's early 20th Century time period to eliminate the "cliches about the army moving in with tanks and missiles."

Gwangi was described in O'Brien's original script as an Allosaurus, although O'Brien apparently did not draw much distinction between Allosaurus and Tyrannosaurus, as he also referred to the Tyrannosaurus in the original King Kong (modeled by Marcel Delgado) as an "Allosaurus". According to Ray Harryhausen, his own version of Gwangi (and O'Brien's Gwangi too, as well as Delgado's Tyrannosaurus) was based on a Charles R. Knight painting of a Tyrannosaurus – one of the two most famous paintings by Knight, and one that is instantly recognizable by the eye being placed too far forward on the skull (this was based on concurrently incomplete skeletal remains and the eye was mistakenly placed in one of the antorbital fenestrae), as well as ultimately and incorrectly portraying Tyrannosaurus with a three-fingered hand. This famous Tyrannosaurus image is also reflected in Harryhausen's "Rhedosaurus" in The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms. In an interview featured on the Valley of Gwangi DVD, Harryhausen said "We sometimes called it an Allosaurus... They're both meat eaters, they're both Tyrants... one was just a bit larger than the other." Gwangi was scaled to be 14 feet tall, within the size range of an average adult Tyrannosaurus (although not the largest), and at the upper limit of the largest Allosaurus specimens.

Special effects
The Valley of Gwangi was the last dinosaur-themed film that Harryhausen animated, and he made much use of his experience in depicting extinct animals from his earlier films. Close to a year was spent on the special effects (there were more than 300 'Dynamation' cuts in the film, a record number for Harryhausen), with the roping of Gwangi being the most labor-intensive animated sequence. It was achieved by having the actors hold on to ropes tied to a "monster stick" that was in the back of a jeep. The jeep and stick when filmed with Gwangi are on a back rear projection plate and hidden by his body, and the portions of rope attached to his body are painted wires that are matched with the real ropes. The coordination of Gwangi's animation with live actors on horseback (and the horses appearing to react to Gwangi) was particularly difficult to film, and the source of an editorial lapse in a following scene. Gwangi bites through the ropes around his neck when first lassoed and later has his jaws roped together when unconscious. However, he is then shown being transported in a cart again held only by ropes around his neck but with jaws now un-bound.

The first animated sequence in the film is a diving act done by T.J. and her horse. Because it was decided that it was too risky to have a rider and horse jump off a 40-foot high platform into a tank of water, a model horse and rider were used. After tempting Gila Golan's horse to jump from a mock-up platform onto a trampoline, the film cut to an animated model suspended on wires (actually it was just a tiny toy horse and rider bought in a toy store). The splash was real, triggered by an electric charge inside the tank.

After local Gypsies steal the Eohippus, it is released back into the Forbidden Valley. For all the scenes where the cowboys are chasing the creature, the animated model was used. However, in one long shot, a baby goat was used instead because the model would have been too small.

The pterosaurs were mistakenly given bat's wings (with elongate fingers supporting the membrane; pterosaurs had one finger forming the wing's leading edge but none on the membrane). The wings appear to mimic those of a pterosaur from an earlier Harryhausen film, One Million Years B.C. (1966). Close-up sequences of the pterosaurs in Gwangi were provided by life-size models. For the scene when Lope is snatched from his horse by the Pteranodon, the boy was raised by wires painted out in the studio and Harryhausen animated the eight-inch-high model pterosaur to correspond with his movements. However, once the creature gets up to a certain altitude the real boy was replaced with a model which was used until he crawls away from the creature which is being killed by Carlos on the ground. Bromley the paleontologist correctly identifies it as a pterodactyl (the classification of pterosaurs that Pteranodon is a part of) while he is inspecting it on the ground.

The scene where Gwangi pounces on the Ornithomimus has been copied many times in dinosaur films, primarily in Jurassic Park, when the Tyrannosaurus pounces on the Gallimimus. The smaller dinosaur had never appeared on the film screen before and although its movements were unlikely it was one of Harryhausen's favorite sequences in the film. The battle between Gwangi and the Styracosaurus features battle moves such as biting, stabbing, butting, and pinning. After Gwangi is captured, he is wheeled back to town in a cart; and for several of the long shots of this scene the crew built and used a full-sized mock-up of Gwangi, again because an actual model would have been far too small.

Harryhausen originally planned to have used a real elephant in some of the scenes for the fight with Gwangi. This did not work out because he wanted to have used a 15-foot tall elephant (the world's biggest elephant was two feet shorter than this). So the live 8-foot elephant was only used in the beginning when a woman is seen briefly riding on its back. For some of the elephant fight scenes Harryhausen used the animation table as the bullring floor.

For Gwangi's death scene a number of special effects were used. When the torch hits the ground near Gwangi, the flames are seen quickly developing and surrounding Gwangi. The flames were added in by double printing the camera. The outside of the burning church was a mixture of composites: the lower half was the real church photographed on location in Spain, and the upper, burning half was a miniature, again added in by double printing the camera.

The model of the Eohippus was supposed to have toes but appears to have regular hooves with 'toes' painted on (the sound effects of the animal moving also resemble hooves). The model of the Styracosaurus featured an inflatable air 'bladder' to simulate the animal breathing heavily after its combat with Gwangi (a feature first used in models made for much earlier films by Marcel Delgado).

Some of the models used in the film were reused model armatures from earlier films. Gwangi, the Ornithomimus, and the Styracosaurus were all made from the Ceratosaurus, the Phorusrhacos and the Triceratops, who were stripped down and had their armatures modified for further use. The actual model of Gwangi was about 14 inches high and the Ornithomimus was about 5 inches high. A solid-latex, non-armatured model of Gwangi was also used for the scenes when he knocks himself out while trying to exit the valley in pursuit of the cowboys (but Harryhausen was never pleased with this, as the solid model did not look right).

Casting
Actress Gila Golan was cast at the insistence of Warner Bros. Her Israeli accent was so strong that all of her lines were redubbed on the film by a voice actress.

Actor Laurence Naismith, who plays Professor Bromley, had earlier appeared in Harryhausen's Jason and the Argonauts as the shipbuilder Argos.

Location shooting
The film was filmed in Almería and Cuenca, Spain. The bullring scenes were shot in Almería's Plaza de Toros and the finale at Cuenca's cathedral. Some scenes with dinosaurs like the Pteranodon scene or the fight between the Epanterias and Styracosaurus were filmed in Almería, in Tabernas Desert. The unusual rock formations of Ciudad Encantada near Cuenca were used for the forbidden valley.

Scheer says the director "lost interest in the middle of shooting. I don't think he enjoyed it. He just didn't have his heart in it, when he was halfway through."

According to Bast, "the director was monumentally stupid. Charlie opted for someone who matched his own insensitivity. O’Connolly started tampering with the script as they were leaving. I thought, 'This is going to be a mess.'"

Box office
According to Harryhausen "we got trapped in a change of management shuffle at Warner Bros. If only they had publicized it properly! They just dumped the picture on the market. A lot of people who would have loved it never got a chance to see it, never knew it was playing."

""The new administration didn't give it the kind of release I expected," said Schneer. "They didn't know how to market our type of picture as well as Columbia did. It was their money and their property, and they did what they wanted. I had no rapport with that new management. There was nothing I could do to change their minds."

Critical reception
Schneer later said he "wasn't very keen about" the film. "Because of the subject matter and the period in which it was set, it just didn't have the same appeal to me that our other pictures had. The central image of the cowboys roping the dinosaur was imaginative, but it didn't hold up for feature length."

The film currently sits at an 80% rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on an aggregate of ten reviews.

Comic book adaptation

 * Dell Movie Classic: The Valley of Gwangi (December 1969)

Legacy
By the time of the film's release, interest in monster movies of this type was waning. Management at Warner Bros. and Warner Bros.-Seven Arts also changed, and the film was released with little promotional effort on a double-bill with a biker film; it thus missed its target audience and was not as successful as earlier Harryhausen efforts, but has since become a cult classic.

Among the critics, The New York Times called it a "generally run-of-the-mill monster rally."

The scene where Gwangi suddenly appears from behind a hill and snatches the fleeing Ornithomimus in his jaws was later copied in Steven Spielberg’s big-budget dinosaur film, Jurassic Park.

During the 1980s hit TV series Scarecrow and Mrs. King, anytime a television was shown on in the series, The Valley of Gwangi was on the screen.

In episode 2–28 (2000) of the American version of the TV series Whose Line Is It Anyway?, the scene of Tuck fighting the pterodactyl was used for the green screen video during the Newsflash segment.

Artist Mark Cline's 2005 attraction Dinosaur Kingdom was inspired by The Valley of Gwangi.

Justin Parpan's 2007 children's read-aloud book, Gwango's Lonesome Trail (Red Cygnet Press, Inc., ISBN 1-60108-004-2) features a prehistoric dinosaur named "Gwango" roaming the contemporary American Southwest.

In the episode "The One Where Joey Speaks French" (2004) of the situation comedy Friends (1994), Ross Geller watches the film while in a hospital.

In the 2011 animated film, Scooby-Doo! Legend of the Phantosaur, during a night time chase scene through the town a movie theatre can be seen in the background playing two dinosaur-themed monster movies, The Valley of Gwangi (1969) and The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms (1953) (another Ray Harryhausen film from Warner Bros).

In July 2018, The Valley of Gwangi was shown at the Pickwick Theater in Park Ridge, Illinois as part of the G-Fest convention events going on in Rosemont, Illinois. Playing on a double-bill with another 1960's dinosaur fantasy film using stop-motion animation (albeit not by Harryhausen), Dinosaurus!.

title: The Valley of Gwangi


text: User talk:68.98.119.14

title: User talk:68.98.119.14


text:
Class-based programming

Class-based programming, or more commonly class-orientation, is a style of object-oriented programming (OOP) in which inheritance occurs via defining classes of objects, instead of inheritance occurring via the objects alone (compare prototype-based programming).

The most popular and developed model of OOP is a class-based model, instead of an object-based model. In this model, objects are entities that combine state (i.e., data), behavior (i.e., procedures, or methods) and identity (unique existence among all other objects). The structure and behavior of an object are defined by a class, which is a definition, or blueprint, of all objects of a specific type. An object must be explicitly created based on a class and an object thus created is considered to be an instance of that class. An object is similar to a structure, with the addition of method pointers, member access control, and an implicit data member which locates instances of the class (i.e., objects of the class) in the class hierarchy (essential for runtime inheritance features).

Encapsulation
Encapsulation prevents users from breaking the invariants of the class, which is useful because it allows the implementation of a class of objects to be changed for aspects not exposed in the interface without impact to user code. The definitions of encapsulation focus on the grouping and packaging of related information (cohesion) rather than security issues.

Inheritance
In class-based programming, inheritance is done by defining new classes as extensions of existing classes: the existing class is the parent class and the new class is the child class. If a child class has only one parent class, this is known as single inheritance, while if a child class can have more than one parent class, this is known as multiple inheritance. This organizes classes into a hierarchy, either a tree (if single inheritance) or lattice (if multiple inheritance).

The defining feature of inheritance is that both interface and implementation are inherited; if only interface is inherited, this is known as interface inheritance or subtyping. Inheritance can also be done without classes, as in prototype-based programming.

Critique
Class-based languages, or, to be more precise, typed languages, where subclassing is the only way of subtyping, have been criticized for mixing up implementations and interfaces—the essential principle in object-oriented programming. The critics say one might create a bag class that stores a collection of objects, then extend it to make a new class called a set class where the duplication of objects is eliminated. Now, a function that takes an object of the bag class may expect that adding two objects increases the size of a bag by two, yet if one passes an object of a set class, then adding two objects may or may not increase the size of a bag by two. The problem arises precisely because subclassing implies subtyping even in the instances where the principle of subtyping, known as the Liskov substitution principle, does not hold. Barbara Liskov and Jeannette Wing formulated the principle succinctly in a 1994 paper as follows: "Subtype Requirement: Let $\phi(x)$ be a property provable about objects $x$ of type $T$. Then $\phi(y)$ should be true for objects $y$ of type $S$ where $S$ is a subtype of $T$."

Thus, normally one must distinguish subtyping and subclassing. Most current object-oriented languages distinguish subtyping and subclassing, however some approaches to design do not.

Also, another common example is that a person object created from a child class cannot become an object of parent class because a child class and a parent class inherit a person class but class-based languages mostly do not allow to change the kind of class of the object at runtime. For class-based languages, this restriction is essential in order to preserve unified view of the class to its users. The users should not need to care whether one of the implementations of a method happens to cause changes that break the invariants of the class. Such changes can be made by destroying the object and constructing another in its place. Polymorphism can be used to preserve the relevant interfaces even when such changes are done, because the objects are viewed as black box abstractions and accessed via object identity. However, usually the value of object references referring to the object is changed, which causes effects to client code.

Example languages
Although Simula introduced the class abstraction, the canonical example of a class-based language is Smalltalk. Others include PHP, C++, Java, C#, and Objective-C.

title: Class-based programming


text:
Emma Lee French

Emma Louise Batchelor Lee French (April 21, 1836 – November 16, 1897), better known as Emma Lee French, was an English nurse born in Uckfield, East Sussex. She travelled to Utah and Arizona in the United States, where she became well known as a carer for the sick.

Journey to Salt Lake City
After being converted to Mormonism, Emma Lee arrived in Chicago from England. She then headed to Iowa, where she pushed a cart filled with goods given by her church. She then left for Salt Lake City, Utah. She pushed the cart herself for the 1,400 mile walk, as one of the many Mormon handcart pioneers.

She joined a company of her church's members for that trip, of which 150 died during snowstorms. Many others suffered from other illness, such as frozen feet, noses and other diseases. Emma Lee helped care for them, eventually leading to most of them fully recovering. During the trip, she also served as midwife to a pregnant woman, carrying her in the cart as the woman was close to delivering.

Life with John D. Lee
Upon arriving in Salt Lake City, she worked for one year as an indentured servant to pay for her trip from England. Afterwards, she met John D. Lee, a prominent man among Latter-day Saints members. Brigham Young married the couple on January 7, 1858. Emma was John’s 17th wife.

John D. Lee was eventually convicted for his participation in the Mountain Meadows massacre that left 140 people dead. Before this, John and Emma Lee were followed by federal marshals for about twenty years. At one time John Lee was tried but was freed after a hung jury. In 1868, George Hicks, a columnist from Harmony, Utah, wrote in a local newspaper that the Lees had to leave town in ten days or John would be hanged.

Emma then spoke personally with George Hicks, warning him not to keep making threats against her and her husband. Hicks relented, never speaking against the Lees on his column again. He did, however, complain about the Lees to the town's Bishop, who proposed that Hicks and Lee should be baptized together. Emma Lee agreed, but not without complaining; she told the bishop she'd do it "seeing that (the bishop) are so inconsiderate as to require a woman to be immersed when the water is full of snow and that too for defending the rights of her husband". She continued on, saying: "Perhaps if (the bishop's) backside gets wet in ice water (he) will be more careful how (he) decide again". Impressed by her speech, the bishop then agreed not to go on with the baptism.

Lee was ordered to carry out important tasks for the Mormons, and in 1871, he was sent to the Colorado River, near the border between Arizona and Utah, to establish a ferry service in a location now known as Lee's Ferry.

Because, under Mormon doctrine, John Doyle Lee was allowed to have multiple wives, he had to travel much of the time, to attend to his other wives and children. Lee often left to visit his "gold mines". As a consequence, Emma Lee was left to attend both the ferry and her children. When Emma Lee left Lonely Dell after Lee's death, she had several coffee cans of gold. At one time there was a gold map showing the location of the mine which is now under Lake Powell.

In 1873, a settlement of Navajo people came up near the Lee home. Fearful for her children's fate, she decided to befriend the Navajos, and discovered that the tribe's chief was a friend of her husband's. They spent one night at the Navajo camp, after which the Navajo left. At one time, a Navajo Chief came into Emma's lodge to attack her, but Emma had a steaming pot of water on the stove. She threw the hot water into his face. Later, the chief came back and apologized and asked medical attention for the burns. Afterwards, he told his tribe that Emma was a very powerful woman and had a great spirit and to leave her alone. Another time, a group of warriors camped nearby. Emma heard them talking about killing her and the children. In response, she took the children and camped with the Navajos.

Later that year, Emma Lee gave birth to her sixth baby. With John Doyle gone, she had to ask the oldest person besides her at the Lee house, her son John Jr., to help her cut the umbilical cord. They did this task to perfection, and a daughter was safely born.

John Doyle Lee was caught by the US Army, tried again for the Meadow Mountain Massacre, found guilty, and shot by a firing squad on March 23, 1877, and buried at the site of the massacre. With small children and economically in need, Emma Lee sold the ferry to the LDS Church for 100 milk cows in 1879. She was helped by a Civil War veteran, Franklin French. French was a wandering gold prospector.

Life with Franklin French
On August 9, 1879, Emma Lee and French married, in Snowflake, Arizona. They found a home near Holbrook, Arizona. Afterwards, they moved to the White Mountains. The White Mountain Apaches rose up in 1882 and killed 150 settlers that night. Emma was warned just before the attack on her ranch and was able to escape with her children and some ranch hands. She heard the shooting of the livestock and saw the smoke from the burning buildings. Later, French sued the government for $10,000 for the loss of the ranch, but the land was resurveyed and was found to be on Apache land.

In 1887 she and Franklin moved to Winslow, Arizona, and established a dairy ranch. At that time, the Santa Fe railroad was being built. Many times, the railroad would send a special train to bring Emma to help take care of the railroad workers injuries. She was known as "Dr. French", although she had no official medical title. She helped multiple women, including Navajos and prostitutes, give birth.

In 1888, her daughter, Victoria Lee, committed suicide. In 1892, her son Ike confronted a man who was trying to seduce his wife and was murdered by the man.

Death
On November 17, she was fixing breakfast when she said "I don't feel too well" and suffered a heart attack. A crowd of businessmen, Navajos and prostitutes kept vigil outside her home as she lay in bed dying that night.

Her funeral was one of the largest held in Winslow. The Santa Fe railway stopped their trains as a tribute to her.

Her tombstone is in the old cemetery in Winslow, Arizona, marked as "Dr. French".

title: Emma Lee French


text: User talk:66.74.199.199

title: User talk:66.74.199.199


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Sakana Yama

Sakana Yama was proposed for deletion. This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was delete

Non-notable sprite comic. Did not meet criteria for inclusion, even before it was discontinued. — Gwalla | Talk 00:11, 13 Aug 2004 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like other '/delete' pages is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion or on the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.
 * I remember when this one was hugely popular, I was even a fan; if it still existed with the following it had then, I'd vote for it to be kept. However, it's gone, and slowly being forgotten. So delete. Rhymeless 03:12, 13 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Weird how a person can follow a subject like webcomics and never have heard of something other seems to have been popular. Crazy mixed up world or something. -- Cyrius|✎ 06:15, 16 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Don't blame me, I only live here. Rhymeless 06:30, 16 Aug 2004 (UTC)


text:
Talk:List of national and international statistical services

Untitled
A suggestion: if there is a Wikipedia page for the statistical service, then no external link here. If there is not a page yet then an external link is OK for the time being. --Henrygb 00:12, 13 Aug 2004 (UTC)

List from Statistics Norway
Bornsommer added this link to the Statistics article. While it isn't needed there, it seems to include some agencies missing from our list here. Avenue 23:57, 23 May 2006 (UTC)

There seems to be some confusion. In some cases academic institutions have been listed while in some cases National Statistical Offices have been listed. There are also cases where both are there and are incomplete. --K N Unni 11:40, 27 July 2007 (UTC)

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