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Oligomer

In chemistry and biochemistry, an oligomer is a molecule that consists of a few repeating units which could be derived, actually or conceptually, from smaller molecules, monomers. The name is composed of Greek elements oligo-, "a few" and -mer, "parts". An adjective form is oligomeric.

The oligomer concept is contrasted to that of a polymer, which is usually understood to have a large number of units, possibly thousands or millions. However, there is no sharp distinction between these two concepts. One proposed criterion is whether the molecule's properties vary significantly with the removal of one or a few of the units.

An oligomer with a specific number of units is referred to by the Greek prefix denoting that number, with the ending -mer: thus dimer, trimer, tetramer, pentamer, and hexamer refer to molecules with two, three, four, five, and six units, respectively. The units of an oligomer may be arranged in a linear chain (as in melam, a dimer of melamine); a closed ring (as in 1,3,5-trioxane, a cyclic trimer of formaldehyde); or a more complex structure (as in tellurium tetrabromide, a tetramer of TeBr4 with a cube-like core). If the units are identical, one has a homo-oligomer; otherwise one may use hetero-oligomer. An example of a homo-oligomeric protein is collagen, which is composed of three identical protein chains.

Some biologically important oligomers are macromolecules like proteins or nucleic acids; for instance, hemoglobin is a protein tetramer. An oligomer of amino acids is called an oligopeptide or just a peptide. An oligosaccharide is an oligomer of monosaccharides (simple sugars). An oligonucleotide is a short single-stranded fragment of nucleic acid such as DNA or RNA, or similar fragments of analogs of nucleic acids such as peptide nucleic acid or Morpholinos.

The units of an oligomer may be connected by covalent bonds, which may result from bond rearrangement or condensation reactions, or by weaker forces such as hydrogen bonds.

The term multimer is used in biochemistry for oligomers of proteins that are not covalently bound. The major capsid protein VP1 that comprises the shell of polyomaviruses is a self-assembling multimer of 72 pentamers held together by local electric charges.

Many oils are oligomeric, such as liquid paraffin. Plasticizers are oligomeric esters widely used to soften thermoplastics such as PVC. They may be made from monomers by linking them together, or by separation from the higher fractions of crude oil. Polybutene is an oligomeric oil used to make putty.

Oligomerization is a chemical process that converts monomers to macromolecular complexes through a finite degree of polymerization. Telomerization is an oligomerization carried out under conditions that result in chain transfer, limiting the size of the oligomers. (This concept is not to be confused with the formation of a telomere, a region of highly repetitive DNA at the end of a chromosome.)

Green oil
In the oil and gas industry, green oil refers to oligomers formed in all C2, C3, and C4 hydrogenation reactors of ethylene plants and other petrochemical production facilities; it is a mixture of C4 to C20 unsaturated and reactive components with about 90% aliphatic dienes and 10% of alkanes plus alkenes. Different heterogeneous and homogeneous catalysts are operative in producing green oils via the oligomerization of alkenes.

title: Oligomer


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Summer in Paradise

Summer in Paradise is the twenty-seventh studio album by American rock band the Beach Boys, released on August 3, 1992, by Brother Records. Produced by Terry Melcher, it is the only album not to feature any new contributions from Brian Wilson, and has been regarded as the band's critical and commercial low point, failing to chart in either the US or UK and receiving almost unanimously negative reviews. In North America, it was the group's first album to be released only on CD and cassette, with a rare vinyl pressing released only in South Korea. The Beach Boys did not record another album of predominately original material until That's Why God Made the Radio in 2012. Summer in Paradise was left out of Capitol's Beach Boys CD reissue campaign of 2000 to 2001, as well as all other reissues for most of the group's discography. Both it and its predecessor, Still Cruisin', are currently out of print. Summer in Paradise, along with Still Cruisin, were pulled from later re-releases due to poor public reception.

Composition
The conceptual idea behind the album's title song, co-written by Mike Love, was environmental protection, but the album was designed, in Love's words, to create, "the quintessential soundtrack of summer." With the exception of a new version of their 1970 track "Forever" and the new composition "Strange Things Happen", each song on the album deals thematically with the summer season. Of the album's twelve tracks, two songs are covers ("Hot Fun in the Summertime", originally by Sly & the Family Stone, and "Remember (Walking in the Sand)", originally by The Shangri-Las); two are new versions of older Beach Boys songs ("Surfin'" and "Forever", the latter with a vocal by John Stamos); one combines a classic song ("One Summer Night", originally by The Danleers) with a new Bruce Johnston song ("Slow Summer Dancin'"); and one takes an old song ("Under the Boardwalk," originally by The Drifters) and adds new lyrics. The rest are original songs, all containing both titular and lyrical references to summer and/or surfing, with the exception of the Transcendental Meditation-influenced "Strange Things Happen". The quasi-rap song "Summer of Love" was originally intended to be a duet with Bart Simpson for a planned Simpsons movie, but the Simpsons' producers turned down the offer. The song was instead used in an episode of Baywatch. Stamos performed the song "Forever" on several episodes of his sitcom Full House.

Production
Summer in Paradise was one of the first albums to be recorded using the Pro Tools digital audio workstation, via a Beta version on a Macintosh Quadra computer. Musically, it continued in the vein of previous albums The Beach Boys and Still Cruisin' in its use of electronic instrumentation. The entire rhythm section was electronic on most songs, with all the drum parts being programmed (although not credited as such), and most of the bass parts were also synthesized. Former Beach Boys collaborator Van Dyke Parks played accordion on two tracks, and producer Terry Melcher contributed keyboard parts, with Al Jardine's son Adam singing backup vocals on the title track. Touring musician Adrian Baker sang backup but other regular members of the contemporary Beach Boys' touring band did not contribute to the album. Mike Love and Melcher were the main composers on the album, with Johnston being the only other member to contribute a new song. Jardine had allegedly been "suspended" from the band prior to the album's recording, supposedly because of a dispute about content; however, he returned during the sessions to sing lead vocals on two of the album's songs and contributed to the partial rerecording of tracks for the UK issue on EMI.

Different versions of six tracks appeared on the album's 1993 release in the United Kingdom. This included completely re-recorded and partially rewritten versions of "Island Fever" and "Summer in Paradise", the latter of which featured new lead vocals from Roger McGuinn on one verse. Carl Wilson's vocals on "Island Fever" had also been replaced with vocals by Al Jardine. "Strange Things Happen", "Remember (Walking in the Sand)", "Under the Boardwalk", and "Forever" were remixed and shortened, though the bridge of The Drifters' original version of "Under the Boardwalk" was recorded and added to the track's mix.

Packaging
The artwork featured on the cover of this release, as well as the similar pieces that feature throughout the package, were painted by fellow Californian artist Robert Lyn Nelson. The original US front sleeve features the painting "Elements of the Universe", while the album gatefold includes further Nelson works, notably "Ring of Life" (used for the alternate UK pressing), "Embraced By the Sea", and "Amethyst Dawn at Kipahulu". The album packaging art direction and design by Spencer Drate with Judith Salavetz using the artwork of Robert Lyn Nelson on the multi-panels and CD disc.

Promotion
"Hot Fun in the Summertime" was packaged with "Summer of Love" as the first and only commercial single released in promotion of the album, in July 1992. "Forever" was released as a promotional single to radio stations in the United States later in the year. The single provided three different mixes of the track: "AC Mix," "CHR Mix" and "CD Mix." The "CHR mix" was remixed by John Stamos and Gary Griffin and is a unique remix which differs from the US and UK album versions. Stamos helped give the album further promotion during the 1993 season of his hit television show, Full House; a poster for the album and CD are frequently shown in the studio where he hosts his daily radio show. Additionally, "Summer of Love" was also released as a promotional single in the United States in 1995, to tie in with the band's appearance on Baywatch that year.

Reception
Summer in Paradise was received very poorly. Described by Blender as a "train wreck", the album is the only Beach Boys studio album that failed to make Billboard's Top Pop Albums chart; it reportedly sold fewer than 1000 copies on its release, making it the Beach Boys album with by far the poorest commercial sales performance. The poor sales of the US release reportedly contributed to independent distributor Navarre becoming bankrupt. Navarre and EMI each only issued one print run of the album on CD. It has been out of print since its initial release and has since become a collectors' item. A large number of unsold copies of the album were unloaded when the QVC network bundled them with the Good Vibrations: Thirty Years of the Beach Boys CD box set in 1993. Andrew G. Doe and John Tobler, authors of The Complete Guide to the Music of The Beach Boys, described Summer in Paradise as, "the absolute nadir of their recording career." In an online interview, Doe said he had to listen to the album three times while writing the book, "which has probably scarred me for life."

Legacy
While the album's title track is the only song from the album that has remained a concert staple of the band, "Under the Boardwalk" and the new version of "Surfin'" have also been performed, and "Summer of Love" and "Strange Things Happen" were each played on one occasion in the 1990s. For two decades, Summer in Paradise was the Beach Boys' last album of predominately original material. An interim album, Stars and Stripes Vol. 1, was a compilation of Beach Boys classics performed by country music stars, released in 1996. It featured all the surviving original Beach Boys and was Carl Wilson's last album with the band before his passing in 1998. In June 2012, the album That's Why God Made the Radio was released, featuring all-new material from the surviving members.

Personnel
Partial credits from liner notes and archivist Craig Slowinski.

The Beach Boys
 * Al Jardine – vocals
 * Bruce Johnston – vocals; keyboards on “Slow Summer Dancin’ (One Summer Night)” and possibly “Under the Boardwalk”
 * Mike Love – vocals, executive producer
 * Carl Wilson – vocals

Additional personnel
 * Adrian Baker – vocals
 * Rod Clark – bass guitar
 * Craig Fall – guitars, mandolin, keyboard bass
 * Gary Griffin – accordion on “Forever”, production on “Forever”
 * Danny Kortchmar – guitars
 * Adam Jardine – harmony and backing vocals on “Summer in Paradise”
 * Sal Marullo – congas on “Island Fever”
 * Ken Mary – drums on “Forever” (uncertain)
 * Roger McGuinn – vocals and 12-string guitar on "Summer in Paradise" (UK version only)
 * Terry Melcher – vocals, keyboards, production on all tracks except “Forever”
 * Sammy Merendino – drums
 * Van Dyke Parks – accordion, keyboards
 * Joel Peskin – saxophones
 * John Stamos – lead vocals and drums on “Forever”, production on “Forever”
 * Richard Titus – keyboard programming, second engineer
 * Keith Wechsler – keyboards, keyboard programming, engineer, mix, drums on “Island Fever” and “Still Surfin’"
 * John Weston – pedal steel guitar
 * Kevin Elson – engineer on "Forever"
 * Mike Mierua – engineer on “Forever”
 * Lanny Cordola – production on “Forever”

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Summer in Paradise


text:
Petro Grigorenko

Petro Grigorenko or Petro Hryhorovych Hryhorenko (Петро́ Григо́рович Григоре́нко, 16 October 1907 – 21 February 1987) was a high-ranking Soviet Army commander of Ukrainian descent, who in his fifties became a dissident and a writer, one of the founders of the human rights movement in the Soviet Union.

For 16 years, he was a professor of cybernetics at the Frunze Military Academy and chairman of its cybernetic section before joining the ranks of the early dissidents. In the mid-1970s Grigorenko helped to found the Moscow Helsinki Group and the Ukrainian Helsinki Group, before leaving the USSR for medical treatment in the United States. The Soviet government barred his return, and he never again returned to the Soviet Union. In the words of Joseph Alsop, Grigorenko publicly denounced the "totalitarianism that hides behind the mask of so-called Soviet democracy."

Early life
Petro Grigorenko was born in Borysivka village in Taurida Governorate, Russian Empire (in present-day Zaporizhzhia Oblast, Ukraine).

In 1939, he graduated with honors from the Kuybyshev Military Engineering Academy and the Military Academy of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of Russia. He took part in the battles of Khalkhin Gol, against the Japanese on the Manchurian border in 1939, and in the Second World War. He commanded troops in initial battles following 22 June 1941. During the war, he also commanded an infantry division in the Baltic for three years.

He went on a military career and reached high ranks during World War II. After the war, being a decorated veteran, he left active career and taught at the Frunze Military Academy, reaching the rank of a Major General.

In 1949, Grigorenko defended his Ph.D. thesis on the theme "Features of the organization and conduct of combined offensive battle in the mountains."

In 1960, he completed work on his doctoral thesis. Over 70 of his scientific works on military science were published.

Dissident activities
In 1961, Petro Grigorenko started to openly criticize what he considered the excesses of the Khrushchev regime. He maintained that the special privileges of the political elite did not comply with the principles laid down by Lenin. Grigorenko formed a dissident group—The Group for the Struggle to Revive Leninism. Soviet psychiatrists sitting as legally constituted commissions to inquire into his sanity diagnosed him at least three times—in April 1964, August 1969, and November 1969. When arrested, Grigorenko was sent to Moscow's Lubyanka prison, and from there for psychiatric examination to the Serbsky Institute where the first commission, which included Snezhnevsky and Lunts, diagnosed him as suffering from the mental disease in the form of a paranoid delusional development of his personality, accompanied by early signs of cerebral arteriosclerosis. Lunts, reporting later on this diagnosis, mentioned that the symptoms of paranoid development were "an overestimation of his own personality reaching messianic proportions" and "reformist ideas." Grigorenko was not responsible for his actions and was thereby forcibly committed to a special psychiatric hospital. While there, the government deprived him of his pension despite the fact that, by law, a mentally sick military officer was entitled to a pension. After six months, Grigorenko was found to be in remission and was released for outpatient follow-up. He required that his pension be restored. Although he began to draw pension again, it was severely reduced.

Grigorenko took part in the defense of Andrei Sinyavsky and Yuli Daniel and sharply protested against the arrests of young writers Alexander Ginzburg, Yuri Galanskov, Alexey Dobrovolsky, and others. During the closed political trials of 1965–1969, he was often present at the courthouses, demanding to open the doors of the courtrooms for everyone, explained to the people gathered around the goals of the defendants, expressed his dissatisfaction with the distortions in the internal political life of the country, a demanded a return to "true Leninism".

He became much more active in his dissidence, stirred other people to protest some of the State's actions and received several warnings from the KGB. In 1968, after Grigorenko protested the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia, he was expelled from the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, arrested and ultimately committed to a mental hospital until being freed on 26 June 1974 after 5 years of detention. As Grigorenko had followers in Moscow, he was lured to the far-away Tashkent. While there, he was again arrested and examined by a psychiatric team. None of the manifestations or symptoms cited by the Lunts commission were found there by the second examination conducted under the chairmanship of Fyodor Detengof. The diagnosis and evaluation made by the commission was that "Grigorenko's [criminal] activity had a purposeful character, it was related to concrete events and facts... It did not reveal any signs of illness or delusions." The psychiatrists reported that he was not mentally sick, but responsible for his actions. He had firm convictions which were shared by many of his colleagues and were not delusional. Having evaluated the records of his preceding hospitalization, they concluded that he had not been sick at that time either. The KGB brought Grigorenko back to Moscow and, three months later, arranged a second examination at the Serbsky Institute. Once again, these psychiatrists found that he had "a paranoid development of the personality" manifested by reformist ideas. The commission, which included Lunts and was chaired by Morozov, recommended that he be recommitted to a special psychiatric hospital for the socially dangerous. Eventually, after almost four years, he was transferred to a regular mental hospital. On 17 January 1971 Grigorenko was asked whether he had changed his convictions and replied that "Convictions are not like gloves, one cannot easily change them".

In 1971, Dr. Semen Hluzman wrote an in-absentia psychiatric report on Grigorenko. Hluzman came to the conclusion that Grigorenko was mentally sane and had been taken to mental hospitals for political reasons. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Hluzman was forced to serve seven years in labor camp for defending Grigorenko against the charge of insanity. Amnesty International declared Grigorenko a prisoner of conscience.

Grigorenko became the key defender of Crimean Tatars deported to Soviet Central Asia. He advised the Tatar activists not to confine their protests to the USSR, but to appeal also to international organizations including the United Nations.

Grigorenko was one of the first who questioned the official Soviet version of World War II history. He pointed out that just prior to the German attack on June 22, 1941, vast Soviet troops were concentrated in the area west of Białystok, deep in occupied Poland, getting ready for a surprise offensive, which made them vulnerable to be encircled in case of surprise German attack. His ideas were later advanced by Viktor Suvorov.

After publishing Abdurakhman Avtorkhanov's book Stalin and the Soviet Communist Party: A Study in the Technology of Power, Grigorenko made and distributed its copies by photographing and typewriting. In 1976, Grigorenko helped found the Moscow Helsinki Group and the Ukrainian Helsinki Group.

In the United States
On 20 December 1977, Grigorenko was allowed to go abroad for medical treatment. His health was ruined during forcible confinement in KGB-run mental hospitals. On 30 November 1977, Grigorenko arrived in the United States and was stripped of his Soviet citizenship. In Grigorenko's words, Leonid Brezhnev signed the decree of depriving Grigorenko of Soviet citizenship on the ground that he was undermining the prestige of the Soviet Union. The 1970s marked a peak in the use of external exile as a punitive measure by the Soviet Union (as opposed to the internal type, which was highest between the mid-1930s and early 1950s); often the pattern was that a trip abroad for work or medical treatment was transformed into permanent exile. In the same year, Grigorenko became a U.S. citizen.

Being in USA since 1977, Grigorenko took an active part in the activities of the Ukrainian Helsinki Group foreign affiliate. On 23 July 1978, Grigorenko made a statement condemning the trials of Soviet dissidents Anatoliy Shcharanskyi, Alexander Ginzburg and Viktoras Petkus.

In 1979 in New York, Grigorenko was examined by the team of psychologists and psychiatrists including Alan A. Stone, the then President of American Psychiatric Association. The team could find no evidence of mental disease in Grigorenko and his history consistent with mental disease in the past. Their findings were drawn up and publicized by Walter Reich. Grigorenko's case confirmed accusations, Stone wrote, that psychiatry in the Soviet Union was at times a tool of political repression.

Petro Grigorenko described his life and views, and his assessment by Soviet psychiatrists and periods of incarceration in prison hospitals in his 1981 memoirs V Podpolye Mozhno Vstretit Tolko Krys… (In the Underground One Can Meet Only Rats…). In 1982, the book was translated into English by Thomas P. Whitney under the title Memoirs and reviewed by Alexander J. Motyl, Raymond L. Garthoff, John C. Campbell, Adam Ulam, Raisa Orlova and Lev Kopelev.

In 1983, he said he considered the American political-economic system to be "the best that mankind has found to date." In 1983, a stroke he suffered left him partially paralyzed. Grigorenko died on 21 February 1987 in New York City.

In 1991, a commission, composed of psychiatrists from all over the Soviet Union and led by Modest Kabanov, then director of the Bekhterev Psychoneurological Institute in St Petersburg, spent six months reviewing Grigorenko's patient files. They drew up 29 thick volumes of legal proceedings, and in October 1991 reversed the official Soviet diagnosis of Grigorenko's psychiatric condition. In 1992, an official post-mortem forensic psychiatric commission of experts met in Ukraine. They removed the stigma of being a mental patient and confirmed that there were no grounds for the debilitating treatment he underwent in high security psychiatric hospitals for many years. The 1992 psychiatric examination of Grigorenko was described by the Nezavisimiy Psikhiatricheskiy Zhurnal in its numbers 1–4 of 1992.

Family
Petro Grigorenko was married to Zinaida Mikhailovna Grigorenko and they had five sons: Anatoliy, Heorhiy, Oleh, Viktor and Andrew. Two of them died as children.

In 1975, Andrew, an electrical engineer, was declared to have inherited his father's insanity. He was expelled from the USSR to the US, two years before Petro and Zinaida Hryhorenko themselves travelled to the United States. Andrew was repeatedly told that since his father was mentally ill, then he was also mad. If he did not stop speaking out in defense of human rights and his father, they told him, he would also be sent to the psikhushka. Subsequently, Andrew Grigorenko became the founder and president of General Petro Grigorenko Foundation, dedicated to the study of his father's legacy.

Name spelling versions
The different Latin spellings of Grigorenko's name exist due to the lack of uniform transliteration rules for the Ukrainian names in the middle of the 20th century, when he became internationally known. The correct modern transliteration would be Petro Hryhorenko. However, according to the American identification documents of the late general the official spelling of his name was established as Petro Grigorenko. The same spelling is engraved on his gravestone at the Ukrainian Orthodox Church of St. Andrew in South Bound Brook, New Jersey, USA. The same spelling is also retained by his surviving American descendants: son Andrew and granddaughters Tetiana and Olga.

Honours and awards

 * Soviet Union
 * Ukraine

In Kharkiv the local Georgy Zhukov Avenue was renamed to Petro Hryhorenko Avenue to comply with decommunization laws (this was several times undone by the Kharkiv city council).

Books, interviews, letters

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title: Petro Grigorenko


text: User talk:64.7.89.54

title: User talk:64.7.89.54


text:
User talk:Trey Stone

 * :-).90.244.92.137 (talk) 15:33, 28 April 2012 (UTC)

Unreferenced BLPs
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Nomination of JEM Management Corp. for deletion
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"Corporate media" listed at Redirects for discussion
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title: User talk:Trey Stone


text:
Talk:STS-59

Untitled
The mission highlights part of this page is just a straight copy and paste from http://www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/kscpao/shuttle/missions/sts-59/mission-sts-59.html

 * Since it's NASA material, I think it's public domain (See the section "Ineligibility"). However, it's not really in the style of an encyclopedia entry.  Is there a template or guide for STS mission entries? Reuben 17:07, 12 Sep 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:STS-59


text:
Talk:Static random-access memory

access time
it is stated that SRAM is fast: how many ns does a read take, how many ns does a write takes ? why is DRAM so much slower ?

 * The specific timing will depend on the process, layout, and manufacturer, so there is little that can be said in general. DRAM is slower because of the larger capacitance of the trenched capacitor as opposed to the capacitance on the gates of a few MOSFETs in SRAM.  -- mattb

Look out for possible copyright violations in this article
This article has been found to be edited by students of the India Education Program project as part of their (still ongoing) course-work. Unfortunately, many of the edits in this program so far have been identified as plain copy-jobs from books and online resources and therefore had to be reverted. See the India Education Program talk page for details. In order to maintain the WP standards and policies, let's all have a careful eye on this and other related articles to ensure that no copyrighted material remains in here. --Matthiaspaul (talk) 14:20, 30 October 2011 (UTC)

 * I've run a report. It looks clean today. ~Kvng (talk) 18:18, 24 March 2020 (UTC)

MUX
is requesting a citation for the statement, "data buses are directly accessible rather than multiplexed." with the comment, "You must be kidding me. Any type of memory requires MUX for memory cell selection."

What this is referring to is row/column addressing used by most DRAMs. There is room for improvement here but I don't think the statement is incorrect. We can add a note explaining complexities of DRAM interfaces. We can add a citation substantiating this hobbyist motivation for SRAM. ~Kvng (talk) 15:20, 31 December 2019 (UTC)
 * I would like to see better explanation here. I can't imagine any semiconductor memory device without a multiplexer. Would be nice to a have a citation.  DAVRONOV A.A.  ✉ ⚑ 20:07, 1 January 2020 (UTC)
 * I agree it would be nice to have a citation and I have not removed your request for one. Most SRAMs have a separate pin for each address bit. Most DRAMs use a smaller number of pins for addressing. This is an additional layer of multiplexing. I agree that there is other multiplexing in both types. Using SRAM in electronics projects does simplify things. I have removed, "rather than multiplexed" from the statement. Perhaps this helps. ~Kvng (talk) 23:57, 1 January 2020 (UTC)
 * Thanks. Looks like I'm starting to figure out of which exactly «bus multiplexing» the removed statement was talking about in first place. Read my reply below please if you are interested. DAVRONOV A.A.  ✉ ⚑ 22:28, 30 March 2020 (UTC)

I feel you are talking past each other, because there is two very different kinds of "mux" you are talking about.
 * When bits of data are read out of memory, the memory drives the selected bits onto the data bus. I think we all agree that both DRAM and SRAM do this sort of internal "selection". This kind of internal memory cell selection can be seen as a kind of mux (which may be implemented either a physical mux, or tristate logic).
 * Historically, most SRAM chips and the internal microprocessor SRAM arrays have a separate pin/wire/trace for every logical signal on the system bus -- address pins and data pins; which is conceptually simpler and commonly called "non-multiplexed address bus". Historically, most (all?) DRAM chips re-use pins for different logical signals (at different times) of the system bus, by using "bus multiplexing" (see Bus (computing)). I hope we all agree that a "multiplexed bus interface" at the pins of a chip is different from a "non-multiplexed bus interface" at the pins of a chip. --DavidCary (talk) 22:36, 29 February 2020 (UTC)

 * That's a fine summary. We could put back in a "rather than multiplexed" type of statement with a link to Bus (computing)). I don't mind either way. ~Kvng (talk) 14:33, 3 March 2020 (UTC)
 * I agree. It's fine summary and we can return removed statement back safely by providing the wikilink mentioned above. I think it would be also great to mention that SRAM is typically located on the same die as CPU therefore requiring NO saving space and materials for communication circuitry as it is typically done in off-die non-SRAM implementations by using techniques like bus multiplexing. DAVRONOV A.A.  ✉ ⚑ 22:28, 30 March 2020 (UTC)

India Education Program course assignment
This article was the subject of an educational assignment at Department of Electronics and Telecommunication, College of Engineering, Pune, India supported by Wikipedia Ambassadors through the India Education Program during the 2011 Q3 term. Further details are available on the course page.

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WP:PROSE
and have recently created bulleted lists from existing prose. This is not necessarily an improvement. See WP:PROSE. ~Kvng (talk) 16:06, 31 October 2023 (UTC)

 * Please consider the context, though. There are requests to essentially make it more readable and to avoid the writing style of manual. The bullet points that I had applied were with these goals. Starlighsky (talk) 16:13, 31 October 2023 (UTC)
 * It wasn't great prose to being with...but rather it was basically lists written out in the form of sentences. So in this case I do think the bullet points were a slight improvement for readability. But I don't have a strong opinion. Em3rgent0rdr (talk) 16:36, 31 October 2023 (UTC)
 * I'm not suggesting these changes need to be reverted. I just wanted to raise awareness of this WP:MOS point that may not be intuitive to technical people like us who are so used to Powerpoint. ~Kvng (talk) 17:09, 31 October 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Static random-access memory


text:
Sakiko Tamagawa

Sakiko Tamagawa (玉川砂記子) is a Japanese actress, voice actress and singer from Tokyo. She is affiliated with Sigma Seven. She voices Rei Kuki in Genji Tsuushin Agedama, Princess Kakyuu along with Shiho Niiyama, Narumi Tsunoda, Chika Sakamoto & Kotono Mitsuishi, Natsumi Tsujimoto along with Akiko Hiramatsu, Bin Shimada & Tomokazu Seki in You're Under Arrest season 1, You're Under Arrest the Movie, You're Under Arrest Fast & Furious Season 2 & You're Under Arrest Full Throttle Season 3, Miyama Soshigaya along with the late Chieko Honda (1963 - 2013) & Yumi Kakazu in Cyber Team in Akihabara, Kazama's mother in Crayon Shin-chan, and Toyama-san in Atashin'chi. Other roles of note include Pirotess in Record of Lodoss War, Cocoa in NG Knight Ramune & 40, Tachikoma in Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex, Rouge in Starship Girl Yamamoto Yohko, Juiz in Eden of the East, and Jasmine in Cross Ange.

title: Sakiko Tamagawa


text:
User:Dscos/myskin.js

function topTabsToRightPlace { /* Remove the top "tabs" from the .portlet side column (why were they ever put there?) and put them at the top of the content area, where they belong! (This allows me to use simple    relative positioning to get a proper layout. I don't have to mess around with absolute     positioning. This is necessary for my language links at the top to work properly, but it     is cleaner anyway. */  var contents  = document.getElementById('column-content');  var tabs      = document.getElementById('p-cactions');

tabs.parentNode.removeChild (tabs); contents.insertBefore(tabs, contents.firstChild); }

title: User:Dscos/myskin.js


text:
Herb Kawainui Kāne

Herbert Kawainui Kāne (June 21, 1928 – March 8, 2011) was a Hawaiian historian and artist. He is considered one of the principal figures in the renaissance of Hawaiian culture in the 1970s. His work focused on the seafaring traditions of the ancestral peoples of Hawaii.

Kāne played a key role in demonstrating that Hawaiian culture arose not from some accidental seeding of Polynesia, but that Hawaii was reachable by voyaging canoes from Tahiti able to make the journey and return. This offered a far more complex notion of the cultures of the Pacific Islands than had previously been accepted. Furthermore, he created vivid imagery of Hawaiian culture prior to contact with Europeans, and especially the period of early European influence, that sparked appreciation of a nearly forgotten traditional life. He painted dramatic views of war, exemplified by The Battle at Nuuanu Pali, the potential of conflicts between cultures such as in Cook Entering Kealakekua Bay, where British ships are dwarfed and surrounded by Hawaiian canoes, as well as bucolic quotidian scenes and lush images of a robust ceremonial and spiritual life, that helped arouse a latent pride among Hawaiians during a time of general cultural awakening.

Early life and education as an artist
Kāne (kɑh-nay) was born in the community of Marshfield, Minnesota in the United States. His father (also named Herbert) worked in family poi business, and became a paniolo (Hawaiian cowboy), then traveled the US in a Hawaiian band. He later served in the Army and Navy, and had his own practice as a Doctor of Optometry. Herbert Jr.'s grandfather immigrated to Waipio Valley from China and being very industrious, he built the first poi factory in the islands, growing taro and producing poi for market. His mother's family were farmers of Danish ancestry in Wisconsin. Kāne's childhood was divided between Wisconsin and Hawaii. He describes in his book, Voyagers, an early awakening to art. In 1935 he was a barefoot child in Hilo, Hawaii, brought by his mother to the opening of a gallery exhibition of the work of D. Howard Hitchcock. He writes that he was "stunned, confronted with miracles" seeing Hitchcock's work and speaking with him briefly. Hitchcock was the first Hawaiian-born artist to achieve international recognition, and his work focused on unique Hawaiian subject matter, particularly the volcanic eruptions near Hilo. According to his own account, besides this exposure to art and the ongoing encouragement of his parents to pursue his interest in drawing, Kāne's most formative experiences in childhood were in Hawaii, where his father and his family passed along the traditional folk tales of the islands.

Kāne served in the United States Navy, qualifying for veteran's educational benefits under the G.I. Bill. After he was discharged, he used those benefits to attend the School of the Art Institute of Chicago, in Chicago, Illinois, earning a bachelor's degree and, in 1953, a master's degree. Under an arrangement between the two schools at the time, his master's degree was awarded by the University of Chicago.

Early career
Herb had his own advertising studio on Chicago's Michigan Avenue, which is known as "The Magnificent Mile." He was a very successful designer/illustrator/author. His talents were expansive, working with everything from books and magazines, architectural designs, to commercial television work for Kelloggs and various companies, and more. Kāne said he found advertising work unsatisfying. "The end came when I won a Jolly Green Giant campaign, and for a year, did drawings and paintings of that big green fairy until I could no longer suffer it."

Kāne had been sailing a racing catamaran on Lake Michigan, and had begun researching Hawaiian canoes in the library of the University of Chicago and in the Field Museum of Natural History, where in 1961 the museum had installed one of the most extensive collections of artifacts from Pacific Ocean cultures put on view to date. Kāne produced a series of fourteen paintings of Polynesian canoes in the 1960s, which were purchased in 1969 by the Hawaii State Foundation of Culture and the Arts, then headed by its first director, Alfred Preis, architect of the USS Arizona Memorial in Pearl Harbor, Oahu, Hawaii. Kāne has stated that this purchase made it possible for him to move to Hawaii, where he lived in Honolulu and continued his study of Polynesian voyaging canoes.

The Hōkūleʻa and its cultural impact
In Honolulu, Kāne attracted a group of sailing enthusiasts, including University of Hawaii anthropologist Ben Finney and Tommy Holmes, author of The Hawaiian Canoe. Together they founded the Polynesian Voyaging Society and began work on the Hōkūleʻa, a voyaging canoe based on historical Polynesian design, capable of sailing between Hawaii and Tahiti. Their purpose was to prove that ancestral Polynesian voyagers could have purposely navigated in vessels of similar type to settle Hawaii. Kāne has said his goal was also to spur a revival of cultural identity among Hawaiians and peoples of the Pacific islands. He wrote that in 1973 he, with a number of others at the time, realized that "if a voyaging canoe were built and sailed today, it would function as a cultural catalyst and inspire the revival of almost-forgotten aspects of Hawaiian life." "What intrigued me was to see, if by building this canoe and putting it to active use and taking it out on a cruise throughout the Hawaiian islands, introducing it to the Hawaiian people, training Hawaiians to sail it, if this would not stimulate shock waves or ripple effect throughout the culture- in music and dance and the crafts. And we know it did." Kāne designed and named the Hōkūleʻa, which was launched on March 8, 1975. Technically, the craft is a performance-accurate full-scale replica of a waa kaulua, a Polynesian double-hulled voyaging canoe. The name Hōkūleʻa came to Kāne in a dream, he has said. It is the Hawaiian term for the star Arcturus, which is of critical importance to celestial navigation in the Pacific, and the zenith star of the Hawaiian Islands. He served as the skipper for two years as the canoe sailed trial cruises among the Hawaiian Islands to attract crew and support for its maiden international voyage.

Kāne's role in the creation and promotion of the Hōkūleʻa helped restore pride to the peoples of the Pacific, and his paintings of traditional Hawaiian scenes and historical events have helped restore lost identity and, in the words of the President of School of the Art Institute of Chicago, Tony Jones, "rewritten the history of the Pacific." Kāne's colleague, Nainoa Thompson, navigator of the Hōkūleʻa, says Kāne was "the visionary, the dreamer, and he was the architect and the engineer. He's the one that carried the burden of building, and constructing, and sailing Hōkūleʻa." Elsewhere, Thompson told an interviewer, "When you look at Herb's legacy, it is transforming Hawaii's society because he brought pride and culture and inspiration back, through the canoe....He is the father of the Hawaiian Renaissance."

Kāne died on March 8, 2011, the 36th anniversary of the launch of the Hōkūleʻa.

Art works
Daniel Inouye, United States Senator from Hawaii, has been quoted as saying, "When you saw a Herb Kāne painting, you were energized and motivated to learn about the past. ...His artwork captured both ancient and modern-day Hawaii and help preserve Hawaii's unique culture for future generations." Kāne became one of the most respected figurative painters in Hawaii, with major works on view at the Bishop Museum, the largest museum in the state and the premier natural and cultural history institution in the Pacific. His work has been exhibited at Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, Puukoholā Heiau National Historic Site, and in the Hawaii State Capitol. His paintings of Polynesian sailing have been widely reproduced, appearing as illustrations in books and articles. Among the first of these were a series of seven paintings commissioned by the National Geographic Magazine and published in the December 1974 issue.

His art is characterized by emphasis on realistic and precise draftsmanship when depicting historical scenes, such as his series of voyaging canoe paintings and many other paintings of battles, everyday domestic life, and ceremonial occasions, which are extensively researched. When Kāne turns his imagination to the legends of old Hawaii and the spiritual and mythological side of the Hawaiian culture, his work is more expressionistic, with bold brushwork and vivid colors. His expressionistic style is seen in his painting Pele, Goddess of the Volcano for the Jaggar Museum at Kīlauea, which depicts the supernatural figure with literal fire in her eyes and flowing lava as her hair.

Herb is well known on so many different levels. Most of Herb's art was heavily researched, making sure that everything was historically accurate, even when it came to the weather and cloud coverage at that time in history. He had contacts in Washington, DC, and all around the globe who helped him achieve accuracy in his research. His art was not made by someone simply reaching into the imagination. It was created by an achievement of tireless research and this all adds to the value of his paintings. Herb was the first person to accurately paint Europeans' ships and more. After heavy research in the Maritime Museum in London, Herb had uncovered ship plans that they never even knew they had! He used these for some of his paintings. Herb had also designed some large, magnificently woven tapestries that had the breathtaking beauty of his paintings.

Site-specific works
Kāne's paintings include several very large canvasses or murals for hotel lobbies and similar public and commercial spaces. His 1973 mural, made of wool, titled Opening of the Pacific to Man, was designed for a space above the entrance to the Pacific Trade Center, on Alakea and King Streets in central Honolulu. It measures 11 ft high and 43 ft wide, and offers views of several voyaging canoes and a central monumental male figure holding a paddle. In the corner of the mural is a representation of the wayfarer's chart, traditionally made of shells and sticks, in which islands and ocean swell patterns are encoded to assist the training of a navigator. As a design consultant, Kāne worked on resorts and visitor centers in Hawaii and the South Pacific, as well as a cultural center in Fiji. Kāne was commissioned by the National Park Service in 1976 to paint "Keoua's Arrival", which is on permanent display in the Visitor Center at Puukoholā Heiau National Historic Site. Several of his large canvasses are on permanent view at the Outrigger Hotel in Waikiki in Honolulu, where the management dedicated the area as a permanent tribute to Kāne.

One 1973 site-specific mural, painted on a custom-designed wall as part of a history center under construction (and never completed) at Punaluu Beach, twice gained notoriety. The historical mural, titled Ancient Punaluu, Hawaii Island measured 24 ft wide by 10 ft high. According to a news report, "The mural shows alii, warriors and commoners on the black sandbar, which separates Punaluu Bay from a pond where springs provide fresh water immediately behind the beach.....A ceiling of thatch gave the feeling of being inside an old Hawaiian shelter and the thatch hid lighting, which gave a natural, daylight look to the mural. Pebbles and sand at the base of the painting met real pebbles and sand on the floor of the history center." In 1975 the mural survived a tsunami that destroyed the interior of the building. According to Kāne's account on his personal blog, quoting eyewitnesses, the wave pushed all the displays out the far side of the room and left a mud line three or four feet high on the wall—except on the mural, which was dry and undamaged. Then in 2005 the mural was stolen from the site, which was vacant and unfinished. Thieves are believed to have cut out the wall in five sections using a circular saw powered by a portable generator, and in this way stole the painting, which has never been recovered. Kāne responded by recreating a version of the mural in oil paint on canvas, saying, "Now all the thieves have is a preliminary sketch. Vengeance is mine."

Stamps
Kāne's work on a much smaller scale reveals his artistic versatility. Kāne designed seven postage stamps for the U.S. Postal Service including stamps commemorating each of the 25th and the 50th anniversaries of Hawaiian statehood. His 1984 stamp for the 25th anniversary of Hawaiian statehood depicts a double-hulled voyaging canoe, a Pacific golden plover (a migratory bird which winters in Hawaii), and a volcano erupting on the flank of Mauna Loa, on the Big Island of Hawaii. On the day of its release, sales of this stamp set a new record for the U.S. Postal Service. His 2009 stamp for the State's 50th anniversary depicts a person surfing and people paddling a traditional outrigger canoe, all riding the same wave. This stamp engendered some controversy, as Kāne was highly critical of the typography in the final design, which he felt mistakenly substituted an apostrophe for the symbol that signals a glottal stop in the word Hawaii and is known by the term okina. He also designed postage stamps for several Pacific island nations, including French Polynesia, the Federated States of Micronesia, as well as the Republic of the Marshall Islands.

Three-dimensional art
Although best known for his paintings, Kāne also produced limited-edition bronze sculpture and other three-dimensional works besides the Hōkūleʻa, which has been called his moving sculpture. His monumental bronze figure, The Young Kamehameha stands in Wailea, Maui.

Last commission
Kāne's last commissioned work was for the Royal Hawaiian Hotel, a wall sized painting of Kamehameha I's landing in Oahu. His health declined and he passed before the work could be completed; however, he had left instructions that, should he die before the work was finished, he wished Brook Kapūkuniahi Parker to complete the work. Eventually the hotel decided to display the work unfinished.

Publications
Kāne communicated his message of the importance of Hawaiian culture and its origins, in print (as author, publisher, and illustrator) and television. Kāne is the author of several books, including:

 * Canoes of Polynesia (1974) (portfolio of 12 lithographs with accompanying booklet)

 * Voyage, the Discovery of Hawaii (1976)

 * A Canoe Helps Hawaii Recapture Her Past in National Geographic Magazine, April, 1976

 * Pele, Goddess of Volcanoes (1987)

 * Voyagers (1991, 2nd edition 2006)

 * Ancient Hawaii (1997)

Kāne is illustrator of:

 * The Life and Times of John Young: Confidant and Advisor to Kamehameha the Great

 * The Power of the Stone: A Hawaiian Ghost Story

 * Christmas Time with Eddie Kamae and the Sons of Hawaii (1977 album cover: Hawaii Sons HS-4004)

 * Voyagers, The First Hawaiians (film directed and scored by Paul Csige, based on the 1976 book Voyage, The Discovery of Hawaii by Herb Kāne)

Online interviews include:

 * Never Lost: Polynesian Navigation (The Offering)

 * Ask the Experts: Herb Kawainui Kāne (The Wayfinders: A Pacific Odyssey) Kāne served as a member of the advisory panel for the 1998 independent film, The Wayfinders: A Pacific Odyssey, which was broadcast widely on television stations including those of the U.S. Public Broadcasting System.

Honors

 * 1984—Named a Living Treasure of Hawaii by the Honpa Hongwanji Mission of Honolulu
 * 1987 —One of 16 chosen as Pookela (Champion) for the Year of the Hawaiian Celebration
 * 1988–1992 – A founding trustee of the Native Hawaiian Culture & Arts Program, Bishop Museum
 * 1998 – Awarded Bishop Museum's Charles Reed Bishop Medal
 * 2002 – Received an award for excellence from The Hawaii Book Publishers Association
 * 2008 – Awarded an honorary Doctorate of Fine Arts by the School of the Art Institute of Chicago

title: Herb Kawainui Kāne


text:
Hiroko Kasahara

Hiroko Kasahara (笠原 弘子) is a Japanese voice actress, J-pop singer and stage actress. She sang the ending theme song of the PlayStation 2 role-playing video game Shadow Hearts, titled Ending Theme ~ Shadow Hearts, and the ending theme of the PC and PlayStation 2 visual novel Ever 17: The Out of Infinity, titled Aqua Stripe.

Television animation

 * Katue Pearson in Ginga Hyōryū Vifam (1983)
 * Coco in Anpanman (1988)
 * Princess Camille in Little Nemo: Adventures in Slumberland (1989)
 * Mint in Magical Angel Sweet Mint (1990)
 * Nanako Misonou in Oniisama e (1991)
 * Fuu Hououji in Magic Knight Rayearth (1994)
 * Hazuki Kōyama in Full Moon o Sagashite (2002)

Non-TV works

 * Oniyuri Kageyama in Hyakko
 * Sayo Amakusa / Magdalia in Rurouni Kenshin
 * Azalyn in Irresponsible Captain Tylor
 * Naomi Armitage in Armitage III (original)
 * Ishtar in The Super Dimension Fortress Macross II: Lovers, Again
 * Laura Sullivan in Dancouga – God Bless Dancouga
 * Chris Parton in Burning Rangers
 * Hitomi Kasahara in Shinesman
 * Sunako's Mother in The Wallflower
 * Arieta Lyuis in Growlanser II: The Sense of Justice
 * Sora Akanegasaki in Ever17 -the out of infinity-
 * Phorni in Symphonic Rain
 * Jessica in Kurau Phantom Memory
 * Princess Rose in Yu-Gi-Oh! Duel Monsters GX
 * Koudelka Iasant in Shadow Hearts
 * Sakura Tomoe in Weiss Kreuz
 * Ami in DNA²
 * Retsu Unohana in Rock Musical BLEACH
 * Kachua Pearson in Vifam (her first voice acting role, at age 13)
 * Senri's Mother in Vampire Knight
 * Sango Otojima in Kyūkyoku Chōjin R
 * Princess Mariel in Yami to Bōshi to Hon no Tabibito
 * Maron Namikaze in Assemble Insert

title: Hiroko Kasahara


text:
Earthbag construction

Earthbag construction is an inexpensive building method using mostly local soil to create structures which are both strong and can be quickly built.

Features
It is a natural building technique developed from historic military bunker construction techniques and temporary flood-control dike building methods. The technique requires very basic construction materials: sturdy sacks filled with organic material usually available on site.

Standard earthbag fill material has internal stability. Either moist subsoil that contains enough clay to become cohesive when tamped, or a water-resistant angular gravel or crushed volcanic rock is used. Walls are gradually built up by laying the bags in courses—forming a staggered pattern similar to bricklaying.

The walls can be curved or straight, domed with earth or topped with conventional roofs. Curved walls provide good lateral stability, forming round rooms and/or domed ceilings like an igloo.

Buildings with straight walls longer than 5 m in length need intersecting walls or bracing buttresses. International standards exist for bracing wall size and spacing for earthen construction in different types of seismic risk areas, most notably the performance-based standards of New Zealand recommended by the ASTM International's earth building standards. Static shear testing shows that earthbag can reach similar strengths to New Zealand's reinforced adobe standards with specific soil strengths and reinforcement although unreinforced weak soil earthbag can have lower shear strength than unreinforced adobe. To improve friction between bags and wall tensile strength barbed wire is usually placed between courses. Twine is also sometimes wrapped around the bags to tie one course to the next, to hold in-progress structures together and keep courses well-seated on barbed wire prongs. Rebar can be hammered into walls to strengthen corners and opening edges and provide resistance against overturning.

The structure is typically finished with plaster, either cement stucco on a strong mesh layer or an adobe or lime plaster, to shed water and prevent fabric UV damage. Finishes can differ from protected interior applications to exposed external applications.

This construction technique is one of the most versatile natural building methods and can be used for benches, freestanding walls, emergency shelters, temporary or permanent housing, or barns and commercial buildings. Earthbag is frequently chosen for many small-to-medium-sized institutional structures in the developing world. Subgrade structures including underground and bermed dwellings (such as Earthships), cisterns, spring boxes, root cellars, and retaining walls can be built with stabilized soil fill or with additional reinforcement and water-resistant gravel or sand fill.

Writers
Although Joseph Kennedy probably invented the term earthbag (as well as contained earth), Paulina Wojciechowska wrote the first book on the topic of earthbag building in 2001, Building with Earth: A Guide to Flexible-Form Earthbag Construction. Kelly Hart developed a massive online database of earthbag information that encouraged idea sharing. Kaki Hunter and Doni Kiffmeyer worked on a variety of projects after studying with Khalili, calling earthbag "flexible form rammed earth". Their 2004 book, Earthbag Building: the Tools, Tricks and Techniques, is available as an e-book.

Free online booklets have been developed by different authors, including Owen Geiger and Patti Stouter. These include structural research and field testing techniques developed for rural areas.

A 2011 e-book by Geiger, Earthbag Building Guide: Vertical Walls Step-by-Step, provides photo illustrations of the process and discussions of new techniques for low-risk areas.

Proponents
Many like Akio Inoue, from Tenri University in Japan and Scott Howard of Earthen Hand have tested and built buildings. Hart, with Geiger, encouraged earthbag's development into different culturally and climatically-appropriate shapes. Robert Shear built an earthship inspired earthbag house in Utah and Morgan Caraway of Sustainable Life School is building a house that incorporates earthship design principles as well.

While Gernot Minke, the German professor of earthen architecture, first developed a technique of using bags filled with pumice to build walls, architect and builder Nader Khalili helped reintroduce earthbag construction as a modern technique called superadobe for humanitarian efforts (particularly for residential buildings) as well as natural flood control.

Dr. John Anderton of South Africa has tested a triple channel bag version that reduces the slumping problems inherent in non-cohesive fill material like sand, and pioneered work in a narrow wall contained sand system which he calls E-khaya.

Fernando Pacheco of Brazil pioneered the use of lighter HDPE mesh tubing for simpler hyperadobe walls.

Rebuilding after natural disasters and in low-income regions around the world has included earthbag. Although heavy earthen walls are usually dangerous in quakes, Nepal's spring 2015 earthquakes left earthbag buildings in good condition near destroyed buildings.

Engineer Nabil Taha developed the first general specifications for one type of exterior pinning reinforcement appropriate for the highest seismic risk zones. Several engineering students have tested uncured or low strength earthbag, and Build Simple has tested cured cohesive walls. Organizations building in Nepal are currently working with engineers to improve and refine reinforcement options for seismic-resistant earthbag.

Construction method
Construction usually begins by digging a trench to undisturbed mineral subsoil, which is partially filled with stones and/or gravel to create a rubble trench foundation. In high seismic risk regions a reinforced concrete footing or grade beam may be recommended. Earthbag buildings can also be built on conventional concrete slabs (though this is more expensive and uses more embodied energy than a rubble trench foundation) and can have a bermed or underground "floating" foundation like an earthship as well.

Several courses of gravel in doubled woven bags form a water-resistant foundation. Each layer usually has two strands of barbed wire on top, that attaches to the bag to prevent slippage and resists any tendency for the outward expansion of dome or rectangular walls.

Bags on the course above are offset by 200 mm—half of the 450 mm wall width—similar to running bond in masonry. Bags can either be pre-filled with material and hoisted up, or bags or tubes are filled in place. The weight of the earthen fill locks the bag in place on the barbed wire below. A light tamping of the bags or tubes consolidates the moist clay-containing fill and creates interlocking bags or tubes anchored on the barbed wire.

Container types
Solid-weave polypropylene is most popular, available around the world to transport rice or other grains. Polypropylene is low cost and resists water damage, rot, and insects. Tubes are often available from manufacturers who sew them into bags. Mesh tubes of soft crocheted poly fibers are also used, although stiff extruded mesh or woven mesh bags can also be used.

Organic/natural materials such as hemp, burlap (like "gunny sacks") can be used. Since these may rot, they should only be used with cohesive fills (containing a significant proportion of clay) that form solid masses when tamped.

Terminology
Earthbag is now a varied family of techniques. Each type of fill and container has different strength and reinforcement requirements.

For hazardous locations, accurate terminology is needed. Contained earth (CE) is based on the original technique, but with specific soil strengths and reinforcement chosen for hazard levels. CE uses damp, cohesive, tamped bag fill, which bonds strongly with barbed wire and other reinforcement as the wall cures.

CE is not "sandbags". Contained sand (CS) uses sand fill or any fill too dry or with poor cohesion that performs structurally like sandbags. CS must be built with solid-weave fabric bags and have good protection from fabric damage, relying on the strength of the bag fabric for wall strength. CS needs more vertical reinforcement for both shear and out-of-plane strength than CE, or may require a structural skin. Some builders use narrow bags of contained sand as wall infill.

Contained gravel (CG) uses fill of any aggregate larger than coarse sand, usually in doubled rice bags, although strong mesh can be used. CG limits dampness transmission from footings.

Modular CE is built in grain bags or similar tubes. Walls rely on attachment between barbed wire barbs and/ or added pins between courses. Solid CE is hyperadobe built in some type of knit raschel mesh tube, so that the damp earthen fill solidifies between courses.

Bag-fill materials
Generally inorganic material is used as filler, but some organic material (such as rice hulls) can be used if a strong matrix like wire mesh reinforces the plaster.

Earthen fill may contain 5–50% clay, and can be "reject fines", "road base", "engineered fill", or local subsoil. "Raw" or un-stabilized soils cure as solid units but cannot withstand prolonged soaking. Subsoils with clay mold tightly and attach well to barbed wire prongs and rebar.

Soil fill can contain a high proportion of aggregate, as long as it tamps and cures strongly. Crushed bottles, strong rubble, or plastic trash can be used, but high aggregate mixes may interfere with inserting rebar.

Sands, stone dust and gravels can survive prolonged flood conditions, but most require special bracing during construction as well as some form of structural skin. Sand fill may be appropriate for several courses to provide a vibration damping building base, but becomes unstable in ordinary bags above 60-100 cm in height.

Cement, lime or bitumen stabilization can allow clay soil to withstand flooding or allow sands to be used in traditional bags with a non-structural plaster skin. Because earthbag walls are usually 38 cm thick a large amount of stabilizer is needed. Thermal insulating properties are important for climates that experience temperature extremes. The thermal insulating value of a material is directly related to both the porosity of the material and the thickness of the wall. Crushed volcanic rock, pumice or rice hulls yield higher insulation value than clay or sand. Untreated organic materials that could decay should not be used as part of a structural wall, although they can be used as infill.

United Earth Builders has tried a light straw clay in the hyperadobe mesh tubing to form a layer 200 mm (8") thick outside of a dome. Thermal mass properties of earthen fill moderate temperature swings in climates that experience high temperature fluctuations from night to day. This thermal flywheel effect makes massive earth walls ideal for mild or hot and dry climates. Clay or sand also have excellent heat retention characteristics and, when properly insulated from the home's exterior, can serve as thermal mass in a passive solar building design in cool climates, keeping interior temperatures stable year-round.

Reinforcement and structural performance
Solid CE may be built with less barbed wire in low-risk areas because walls solidify between courses. Earthbag using woven bags or tubes need barbed wire for any level of natural hazard since the bag-to-bag surfaces are slippery. Pins between courses do not contribute important linear out-of-plane strength. Walls of earthbag with barbed wire are more flexible than adobe and may resist collapse when carefully detailed.

Earthbag of weak soil with no steel can be half the shear strength of unreinforced adobe, which is easily damaged in earthquakes. New Zealand's code detailing and plans allow unreinforced adobe walls to survive almost 0.6 g forces (comparable to Ss values for 2% probability of excedance in 50 years), but earthbag needs stronger soil to match this strength. Earthbag in Nepal surpassed this strength slightly by resisting forces above 0.7 g in early 2015. Domes tested in California resisted approximately 1 g forces, due to the stable shape of these less than 7 m diameter buildings.

Current earthbag techniques of inserting rebar unattached to base and overlapping without connection may only resist 1.2 g or less, even if using very strong soil. Special reinforcement is needed

Solid CE of strong soil has higher shear and out of plane strength than modular CE,. It may also allow the use of mesh for horizontal reinforcement in addition to or in place of barbed wire.

Contained gravel or contained sand may perform best with wire wrapped around the sides of straight wall sections, alternating with the next course having barbed wire gift-wrapped under and over the same straight sections. Base walls of CG in high risk regions may need additional buttresses at the foundation level where builders cannot afford a reinforced concrete (RC) grade beam or footing. A narrower plastic mesh tube often used for erosion control wattle could be filled with gravel to allow a half-width RC ring beam under the wide walls.

Forming the house
A roof can be formed by gradually sloping the walls inward to construct a dome. Vaulted roofs can be built on forms. Or a bond beam is used under a traditional roof type. Hip roofs, gable-type trusses or vigas may be needed to reduce outward stress on earthen walls.

Earth domes are inexpensive to build, but waterproofing them is complex or expensive in humid regions. Windows and doors can be formed with a traditional masonry lintel or with corbeling or brick-arch techniques, on temporary forms. Light may also be brought in by skylights, glass-capped pipes, or bottles placed between bag courses during construction.

Finishing
Cover the wall to prevent damage to the bags from UV rays or moisture with cement-based stucco, or lime or earthen plaster. If walls are 'raw' earth, an infill plaster of earth with straw is used to fill the nooks between bags or courses. A finish plaster is applied on top.

Roof overhangs are helpful to reduce plaster waterproofing requirements, although plaster on lower walls may be stronger and more water-resistant than plaster on upper walls.

Some buildings use a planted-earth "living roof" ("green-roof") to top the structure, while others use a more conventional framing and roof placed atop earth-bag walls.

Environmental friendliness
Earthbag construction uses very little energy compared to other durable construction methods. Unlike concrete, brick or wood, no energy is needed to produce the earthen fill other than gathering soil. If on-site soil is used, little energy is needed for transportation. Unlike rammed earth construction, only human labor energy is required to tamp the soil lightly. The energy-intensive materials that used – plastic (for bags & twine), steel wire, and perhaps the outer shell of plaster or stucco – are used in relatively small quantities compared to other types of construction, often totaling less than 5% of the building materials. Buildings last a long time when maintained. However, if "raw" or unstabilized soil is used as fill, when the building is no longer useful the earthen fill can be recycled into either garden areas, backfill, or new earthen buildings.

Use in disaster areas
Earthbag building techniques were also explored in Sri Lanka after the 2004 tsunami. Multiple earthbag construction projects have been completed in Haiti, most of these after the earthquake. First Steps Himalaya and other charities had built more than 50 earthbag buildings in Nepal prior to the April 2015 earthquake. Since then, local builders flocked to ongoing earthbag training opportunities, including those by Good Earth Global, which have led to official Nepal building code acceptance of this technique for residences. International NPOs have built hundreds of contained earth or earthbag buildings in Nepal as well, more residences than larger clinics or schools. NPOs are asking for more structural information to be better able to choose reinforcement types and intensity appropriate to local soil strength and seismic risk. University testing has begun but more is needed.

Colonization of the Moon and Mars
Khalili proposed using the techniques of earthbag construction for building structures on the Moon or other planets. Currently, it is quite expensive to lift a positive-mass payload from Earth. Thus, Khalili's techniques would seem to be an ideal solution as the requisite supplies would consist of lightweight bags and a few tools to fill them. He specified that such bags would probably have pre-sewn "hook and loop" (i.e. Velcro) fastener strips in lieu of barbed wire.

title: Earthbag construction


text:
Tweed Heads, New South Wales

Tweed Heads is a coastal city at the mouth of the Tweed River in the Northern Rivers region of the state of New South Wales, Australia. Tweed Heads is the northernmost town in New South Wales, and is located in the Tweed Shire local government area. It is situated 830 km north of Sydney and 103 km south of Brisbane. The town is next to the border with Queensland and is adjacent to its "twin town" of Coolangatta, which is a suburb of the Gold Coast in Queensland.

History
In 1823 John Oxley was the first European to see the Tweed Valley, and he wrote of it: "A deep rich valley clothed with magnificent trees, the beautiful uniformity of which was only interrupted by the turns and windings of the river, which here and there appeared like small lakes. The background was Mt. Warning. The view was altogether beautiful beyond description. The scenery here exceeded anything I have previously seen in Australia."

Timber cutters originally moved to the Tweed Valley in 1844. After the timber had been cleared, farmers moved in with bananas, cane and dairy farming dominating the area, while a fishing industry developed. The first school opened in 1871.

In May 1888, 119 subdivided lots of "Boyd Estate" were advertised to be auctioned by W. H. Brett. A map advertising the auction shows that the estate was located next to the Tweed River.

Tweed Heads was once connected to the Queensland Railways system, with the South Coast line providing a direct connection to Brisbane. The railway opened on 10 August 1903 It had been hoped that the New South Wales government would extend their railway line from Murwillumbah to Tweed Heads, but this did not occur due to cost of resuming the land and the expenses associated with the tunnel and bridge that would be required. The Tweed Heads railway station was located on the western side of Enid Street between Bay Street and Frances Street (-28.17193°N, 153.54073°W). The railway line to Brisbane closed in 1961; the site of the station has been converted to parklands and commercial development.

The Tweed Heads and Coolangatta Surf Life Saving Club opened on 13 September 1911.

In April 1916, 69 allotments of "Charles' Tweed Heads subdivision were advertised to be auctioned by P. Smith & Son. A map advertising the auction shows the location of the estate in proximity to Terranora Creek.

In November 1917, 46 subdivided allotments of "Marks Estate" were advertised for auction by S. A. Thornton. A map advertising the auction illustrates the location of the estate in proximity to Terranora Creek, Coolangatta and the Pacific Ocean and describes the allotments as perfectly flat, large areas with splendid frontages.

The Tweed Shire, inclusive Murwillumbah was declared in 1947.

Tweed Heads was the location of fictional town Porpoise Spit in the 1994 movie Muriel's Wedding.

In April 2020, checkpoint barriers were established in Tweed streets near the state border to restrict travel into Queensland during the COVID-19 pandemic.

City and suburbs
The urban boundaries of Tweed Heads extend south along the coastline to Hastings Point, and westward along the Terranora Creek encompassing Bilambil Heights and Terranora. This area includes the suburbs and localities of:

 * Banora Point
 * Bilambil Heights
 * Bogangar
 * Cabarita Beach
 * Casuarina
 * Chinderah
 * Fingal Head
 * Hastings Point
 * Kingscliff
 * Terranora
 * Tweed Heads
 * Tweed Heads South
 * Tweed Heads West

Tourism
Given its proximity to the Gold Coast, Tweed Heads has a shared economy with Coolangatta based heavily on tourism.

Tweed Heads' most popular tourist destinations include Mount Warning, one of the largest shield volcanoes in the Southern Hemisphere, and the nearby Nightcap, Border Ranges, Springbrook and Lamington National Parks, which abound with sub-tropical fauna and flora.

Television
Some areas of the Tweed can receive both TV broadcasts from Brisbane and Northern NSW. Brisbane stations are Seven Brisbane BTQ, Nine Brisbane QTQ, and 10 Brisbane TVQ. The local Northern NSW stations are Seven, Nine's NBN and WIN Television's 10 Northern NSW.

Demographics
In the 2021 census, The Tweed Heads urban centre had 63,721 people. In the same year, the Tweed Heads suburb recorded a population of 8,176 people made up of 52.9 percent female and 47.1 percent male. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people made up 3.0% of the population. The median age of the population was 55 years, 17 years above the Australian median. This has made the Tweed Heads region a prime location for retirement living, with 14 separate retirement villages. 70.9% of people were born in Australia. The next most common countries of birth were England 5.0%, New Zealand 3.7%, Brazil 2.3% and the Philippines 1.0%. 83.8% of people spoke only English at home.

The most common responses for religion were No Religion 37.9%, Catholic 22.1% and Anglican 15.3%.

Composition of the Tweed Heads urban area Population by Statistical Local Area:

Amenities
Banora Point Uniting Church is at 63 Darlington Drive (-28.2151°N, 153.5418°W).

Retirement Living
Below are a list of retirement villages and retirement living facilities in the Tweed Region:

 * Serene Living
 * Tall Trees Care Communities Banora Point
 * Palm Lake Resort
 * Aveo Banora Point
 * Tweed Broadwater Village
 * Southern Cross Car St Joseph's Villa
 * Fairways
 * Winders Retirement Community
 * St Cuthbert's Retirement Living Complexes
 * Darlington Retirement Community
 * Southern Cross Care St Martha
 * Ocean View Banora Point
 * Bangalor Retreat
 * Gateway Lifestyle Tweed Shores

Sport and recreation
Due to its close proximity, Tweed Heads sports teams often compete in Gold Coast/Queensland-based competitions, and the area acts as a feeder zone for both the Gold Coast Titans in the National Rugby League and the Gold Coast Suns in the Australian Football League. Tweed United is a soccer Club based in the area that competes in the Football Gold Coast competition plus the Coolangatta Tweed Barbarians who compete in the Gold Coast and District Rugby Union. Other sports facilities in the area include Tweed Heads Bowls Club, Tweed Heads Rowing Club, Coolangatta & Tweed Heads Golf Club, Tweed Valley Sailing Club and Tweed Heads & Coolangatta Surf Life Saving Club.

Rugby league
Tweed Heads was once home to several iterations of professional rugby league clubs in the New South Wales Rugby League (NSWRL) competition between 1988 and 1995. The Gold Coast-Tweed Giants were established in 1988 and based out of the Tweed Heads Seagulls premises in west Tweed Heads. The Seagulls ran a very successful social club that turned large profits due to poker machines and by 1990 the club had acquired the Giants' NSWRL licence and rebranded the team to become the Gold Coast Seagulls, despite remaining based in Tweed Heads. The team pulled off its biggest coup in 1990 when it signed future Rugby League Immortal Wally Lewis. After years of poor on field results and low attendances, the Seagulls sold their NSWRL licence to businessman Jeff Muller who moved the team to Carrara on the Gold Coast.

The Seagulls returned to the Group 18 Rugby League competition in 1996 and were granted entry into the Queensland Cup in 2003. Australian rules football was brought to the area in 1962 when the Coolangatta Tweed Heads Australian Football Club. It was intended to represent the twin towns of Coolangatta and Tweed Heads and competed in the Gold Coast Australian Football League competition. In 1984 the Northern Rivers region established the Summerland Australian Football League that later included the Tweed Coast Football Club. The league was amalgamated into Queensland Australian Football League as its own division in 2012.

Notable people
The following is a list of notable people who were born, resided, or died in Tweed Heads:

 * Wayne Bartholomew, world champion surfer
 * Cheyse Blair, rugby league footballer
 * Trevor Butler, 2004 Big Brother Australia winner
 * Larry Corowa, rugby league footballer
 * Brad Davis, rugby league footballer
 * Steve Edmed, rugby league footballer
 * Mick Fanning, world champion surfer
 * Sam Gilbert, Australian rules footballer
 * Stephanie Gilmore, world champion surfer
 * Michael Gordon, rugby league footballer
 * David Hale, Australian rules footballer
 * Samantha Harris, fashion model
 * Daniel Holdsworth, rugby league footballer
 * Ryan James, rugby league footballer
 * Jesse Joyce, Australian rules footballer
 * Kayne Lawton, rugby league footballer
 * Tom Learoyd-Lahrs, rugby league footballer
 * Marc Lock, Australian rules footballer
 * Lionel Morgan, rugby league footballer
 * Barry Muir, rugby league footballer
 * Luke O'Dwyer, rugby league footballer
 * Mark Occhilupo, world champion surfer
 * Joel Parkinson, world champion surfer
 * Cedric Popkin, soldier who may have killed Manfred von Richthofen during World War I
 * Tony Rampling, rugby league footballer
 * Kieran Ricketts, journalist, broadcaster, and filmmaker
 * James Roberts, Australian Olympic swimmer
 * Matt Seers, rugby league footballer
 * Elwyn Walters, rugby league footballer
 * Jarrad Wright, creator and star of The Big Lez Show

title: Tweed Heads, New South Wales


text:
Frederick McCubbin

Frederick McCubbin (25 February 1855 – 20 December 1917) was an Australian artist, art teacher and prominent member of the Heidelberg School art movement, also known as Australian impressionism.

Born and raised in Melbourne, Victoria, McCubbin studied at the National Gallery of Victoria Art School under a number of artists, notably Eugene von Guerard and later George Folingsby. One of his former classmates, Tom Roberts, returned from art training in Europe in 1885, and that summer they established the Box Hill artists' camp, where they were joined by Arthur Streeton and Charles Conder. These artists formed the nucleus of what became known as the Heidelberg School, a plein air art movement named after Heidelberg, the site of another one of their camps. During this time, he began teaching at the National Gallery school, and later served as president of both the Victorian Artists' Society and the Australian Art Association.

Concerned with capturing the national life of Australia, McCubbin produced a number of large landscapes that reflect the melancholic themes then popular in literary accounts of European settlers' interactions with the bush. Several of these works have become icons of Australian art, including Down on His Luck (1889), On the Wallaby Track (1896) and The Pioneer (1904).

During his first and only trip to Europe in 1907, McCubbin gained first-hand exposure to works by J. M. W. Turner and the French impressionists, accelerating a shift in his art towards freer, more abstracted brushwork and lighter colours. Works from this late period, although not as well known as his earlier national narratives, are considered by many critics to be his strongest artistically. "When he died", wrote Barry Pearce, "McCubbin was one of the very few Australian painters who found an exalted resolution of vision that progressed with age, so that some of his greatest paintings were made in the last ten years of his life."

Early years and background
McCubbin was born in Melbourne, the third of eight children of baker Alexander McCubbin (from Ayrshire, Scotland) and his English wife Anne, née McWilliams. McCubbin was educated at William Willmett's West Melbourne Common School and St Paul's School, Swanston Street. He later worked for a time as solicitor's clerk, a coach painter and in his family's bakery business while studying art at the National Gallery of Victoria's School of Design, where he met Tom Roberts and studied under Eugene von Guerard. He also studied at the Victorian Academy of the Arts and exhibited there in 1876 and again from 1879 to 1882, selling his first painting in 1880. In this period, after the death of his father, he became responsible for running the family business.

Career
By the early 1880s, McCubbin's work began to attract considerable attention and won a number of prizes from the National Gallery, including a first prize in 1883 in their annual student exhibition. By the mid-1880s he concentrated more on painting the Australian bush, the works for which he became notable.

In 1883, McCubbin received first prize in the first annual Gallery students' exhibition, for best studies in colour and drawing. That year, while still a student, he joined the bohemian Buonarotti Club whose members painted en plein air at their art camps and exhibited the resulting landscapes for critique at Club meetings. Mead argues that such early experience was formative in his Heidelberg School landscape painting. In 1888, he became instructor and master of the School of Design at the National Gallery. In this position he taught a number of students who themselves became prominent Australian artists, including Charles Conder and Arthur Streeton.

McCubbin was exhibiting and perhaps painting in the studio of his friend Tom Roberts in the Grosvenor Chambers in Collins St by May 1888. His son, Louis, would later have a studio in the same building.

McCubbin married Annie Moriarty in March 1889. They had seven children, of whom their son Louis McCubbin became an artist and director of the Art Gallery of South Australia 1936–1950. A grandson, Charles, also became an artist.

In 1901 McCubbin and his family moved to Mount Macedon, transporting a prefabricated English style home up onto the northern slopes of the mountain which they named Fontainebleau. It was in this beautiful setting, in 1904, that he painted The Pioneer, amongst many other works, and this is the only place that McCubbin ever painted fairies. The house survived the Ash Wednesday fires and stands today as a monument to the artist. It was at Macedon that he was inspired by the surrounding bush to experiment with the light and its effects on colour in nature.

McCubbin continued to paint through the first two decades of the 20th century, though by the beginning of World War I his health began to fail. He traveled to England in 1907 and visited Tasmania, but aside from these relatively short excursions lived most of his life in Melbourne. There he taught at the National Gallery of Victoria Art School, where his students included painters Clarice Beckett, William Beckwith McInnes, Hugh Ramsay, Jessie Traill and Hilda Rix Nicholas, and the photographer Ruth Hollick.

In 1912 he became the founding member of the Australian Art Association.

McCubbin died in 1917 from a heart attack.

Legacy
In 1998 McCubbin's painting Bush Idyll (1893) sold for $2,312,500, a then-record price for an Australian painting at public auction. Widely considered to be amongst the finest paintings in Australian art history, Bush Idyll was on long term display in the National Gallery of Australia, Canberra between 2017 and 2020 and between late 2021 and early 2022 it formed part of the key retrospective, 'Frederick McCubbin - Whisperings in wattle boughs" at the Geelong Gallery, Geelong.

On 25 February 2005, the 150th anniversary of his birth, the premiere of McCubbin: A Musical Biography of Frederick McCubbin by Peter Burgess was staged at Federation Square, Melbourne.

On 22 March 2016, McCubbin's painting An Old Politician (1879), resurfaced from a private vault in an Australian bank. The painting has not been viewed in public exhibition since its sale to a private collector in the 1880s.

McCubbin's letters to Tom Roberts, from the period 1891-1916, are held in the State Library of New South Wales.

Works
"McCubbin creates an engulfing, claustrophobic landscape by barely suggesting any horizon and compressing midground and background. In contrast, the bush folk are portrayed as heroic figures."

title: Frederick McCubbin