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Chris Rawlinson

Christopher "Chris" Lee Rawlinson (born 19 May 1972) is a former track and field athlete who competed in the 400 metre hurdles.

Life and career
He also appeared in the 1995 series of the TV series Gladiators.

After trying the pole vault, decathlon and 110 m hurdles in his early career, Rawlinson found the gruelling 400 m hurdles to be his best event.

A graduate of Loughborough University, until 2020 Rawlinson held the world best of 34.48 seconds for the rarely run 300 m hurdles, which he set at Sheffield, England on 30 June 2002.

In July 2004 he ranked third on the United Kingdom all-time list for the 400 m hurdles with a time of 48.14 seconds, set in 1999 at Zürich, Switzerland. In the build-up to the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, Greece, Rawlinson was ranked number five in the world by the IAAF.

Rawlinson retired from competitive athletics at the end of 2005 at the age of 33.

He married Australian athlete Jana Pittman on 31 March 2006.

Now married to Catherine Clark, sports administrator, they have 2 sons.

title: Chris Rawlinson


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Chayito Valdez

María del Rosario Valdez Campos (28 May 1945 – 20 June 2016), known professionally as Chayito Valdez, was a Mexican singer and actress who was born in Guasave, Sinaloa, Mexico. She was associated with and contributed to the folk music of Mexico.

Biography
Valdez started her music career at an early age participating in amateur competitions with songs such as "La Cigarra", "Historia de un amor", "La Bikina", and "Leña de Pirul". Her godmother was Amalia Mendoza, a successful singer known as "La Tariácuri", and in the early 1970s, she recorded four songs the Sinaloan city of Los Mochis: "Besos y Copas", "Una Noche me Embriagué", "Una Sombra", and "Amor que Muere", which earned her a reputation as a Mexican folk singer. She won the fifth Festival de la Canción Ranchera with the song "No me pregunten por él".

Valdez moved to Los Angeles, California in 1982 and became a US citizen. On September 17, 1985, she suffered an automobile accident that left her in a wheelchair, but after a long recovery began making public appearances again. In June 2003 she suffered a cerebral hemorrhage and fell into a coma for 50 days. Her last show was in Nogales, Sonora. She spent her last days in a persistent vegetative state in a hospital in Coronado, California.

Music
During her 30-year career, Valdez contributed over 300 hits and 1500 recorded songs to the Mexican musical heritage. Her musical legacy includes the following:

Corridos de Caballos (traditional Mexican ballads)

 * "El Moro de Cumpas"
 * "Caballo Prieto Afamado"
 * "Caballo Prieto Azabache"
 * "El alazán y el Rocío"
 * "El Cantador"
 * "Caballo Tequila"
 * "Caballo Alazán Lucero"
 * "Los Dos Alazanes"

Traditional Songs

 * "San Juan del Río"
 * "Mi Soldadita"
 * "La Gallera"
 * "Lindo Michoacán"
 * "El Sinaloense"
 * "Sonora Querida"
 * "Acuarela Potosina"
 * "Pelea de Gallos

Romantic Boleros

 * "Comprendeme"
 * "Mía Nomás"
 * "Sentencia"
 * "Besos Callejeros"
 * "No Vuelvas"
 * "Ojazos Negros."

Television
Valdez appeared in Mexican television programs such as:
 * Siempre en Domingo
 * Noches Tapatías
 * El Estudio de Lola
 * Hoy mismo
 * Para gente Grande
 * Aun hay más
 * Nuestra Gente

Film

 * Hijos de tigre (1980)
 * El charro del misterio (1980)
 * Pasión por el peligro (1979)
 * La hija del contrabando (1977)
 * Tierra de Valientes (1987)
 * Caballo Prieto Afamado (1977)
 * En el camino Andamos
 * Los 4 jinetes del apocalipsis
 * Pistoleros famosos II
 * El ratero de la vecindad
 * Pánico en la Frontera
 * Zacazonapan(1976)
 * De la Gloria al Infierno
 * Hasta el último trago... corazón (documentary 2005)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Chayito Valdez


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National Republican Senatorial Committee

The National Republican Senate Committee (NRSC) is the Republican Hill committee for the United States Senate, working to elect Republicans to the Senate. The NRSC was founded in 1916 as the Republican Senatorial Campaign Committee. It was reorganized in 1948 and renamed the National Republican Senatorial Committee. It is currently chaired by Senator Steve Daines from Montana.

The NRSC helps elect Republican incumbents and challengers primarily through fundraising.


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Uzbekistan Airways

JSC Uzbekistan Airways, operating as Uzbekistan Airways (Oʻzbekiston Havo Yoʻllari, Ўзбекистон Ҳаво Йўллари; Узбекские Авиалинии), is the flag carrier of Uzbekistan, headquartered in Tashkent. From its hub at Islam Karimov Tashkent International Airport, the airline serves a number of domestic destinations; the company also flies international services to Asia, Europe and North America.

History
Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Uzbek President Islam Karimov in 1992 authorised the creation of Uzbekistan Airways. The airline was established on 28 January 1992, and took over the operations of the Uzbekistan division of Aeroflot on 31 May 1992. In 1993, Uzbekistan Airways acquired its first two Airbus A310-300s. The two A310s were counted as part of the fleet, along with Russian-built aircraft (25 Antonov An-24/26s, one Ilyushin Il-62, 13 Ilyushin Il-76s, one Ilyushin Il-86, 23 Tupolev Tu-154 and three Yakovlev Yak-40s). By this time, the airline was still the sole operator in the country. Late in 1995, the carrier ordered its first Boeing aircraft: two Boeing 767-300ERs and a single Boeing 757.

Uzbekistan Airways was the launch customer for the Ilyushin Il-114; it took delivery of the first, locally assembled aircraft, in July 1998. In June 1998, the airline took delivery of the last-built Airbus A310 ever (msn. 706, reg. UK-31003). Two more Boeing 757-200s were directly ordered from Boeing in April 1999. Late in 1999, the company took ownership of the first of these two 184-seater Boeing 757-200.

By April 2000, the airline had 16,296 employees. At this time, the fleet comprised three Airbus A310-300s, three Antonov An-12s, one Antonov An-24, 18 Antonov An-24Bs, three Antonov An-24RVs, three Boeing 757-200s, two Boeing 767-300ERs, three Avro RJ85s, four Ilyushin Il-114s, two Ilyushin Il-62s, six Ilyushin Il-62Ms, ten Ilyushin Il-76Ts, nine Ilyushin Il-86s, 15 Tupolev Tu-154Bs, two Tupolev Tu-154Ms and 19 Yakovlev Yak-40s. Destinations served at the time included Almaty, Amsterdam, Andizhan, Ashgabat, Athens, Baku, Bangkok, Beijing, Bishkek, Bukhara, Chelyabinsk, Delhi, Dhaka, Ekaterinburg, Fergana, Frankfurt, Istanbul, Jeddah, Karshi, Kazan, Khabarovsk, Kuala Lumpur, London, Mineralnye Vody, Moscow, Namangan, New York, Novosibirsk, Nukus, Omsk, Paris, Riyadh, Rostov-on-Don, Samara, Samarkand, Seoul, Sharjah, Simferopol, St. Petersburg, Tashkent, Tel Aviv, Termez, Tyumen, Ufa and Urgench.

Two more Boeing 767-300ERs, equipped with Pratt & Whitney PW4000 powerplants, were ordered in 2001 and scheduled for delivery in 2002.

Uzbekistan Airways carried 2.625 million passengers in 2014, a 1.9% decrease year-on-year (YOY), whereas 4.6% more cargo was handled YOY.

Destinations
Since its formation, Uzbekistan Airways has focused its passenger service on Western Europe and other international locations. Most international flights operate from Tashkent, although international services to other Uzbek cities exist. The carrier is not part of any partnership or airline alliance.

Codeshare agreements
Uzbekistan Airways has codeshare agreements with the following airlines:

 * airBaltic
 * Belavia
 * Korean Air
 * Malaysia Airlines
 * S7 Airlines
 * Turkish Airlines
 * Ural Airlines

Interline agreements
Uzbekistan Airways has interline agreements with the following airlines:

 * AccesRail (Railway)
 * Aeroflot
 * Air Astana
 * airBaltic
 * Air Europa
 * Air France
 * All Nippon Airways
 * APG Airlines
 * Arkia
 * Asiana Airlines
 * Azerbaijan Airlines
 * Bangkok Airways
 * Belavia
 * China Southern Airlines
 * Czech Airlines
 * Delta Air Lines
 * Etihad Airways
 * Flynas
 * Garuda Indonesia
 * Iberia
 * Japan Airlines
 * KLM
 * Korean Air
 * Lufthansa
 * Malaysia Airlines
 * Qantas
 * Qatar Airways
 * S7 Airlines
 * Singapore Airlines
 * SriLankan Airlines
 * Thai Airways International
 * Turkish Airlines
 * Ukraine International Airlines
 * Ural Airlines

Current fleet
, the airline operates the following aircraft:

Fleet development
In mid-2007, the carrier ordered six Airbus A320s; by that time the fleet was 55 strong, comprising ten different aircraft models; the Russian-built Yakovlev Yak-40 was among them. Also that year, the airline ordered two Boeing 787-8s.

In late 2008, the company ordered four Boeing 767-300ERs in a US$597 million deal, and the A320 order was boosted to ten aircraft. The airline took delivery of its first A320 in July 2010; the type started operations servicing the Tashkent–Baku route. The first of four Boeing 767-300ERs ordered in 2008 was delivered in February 2012, coinciding with the carrier's 20th anniversary. Also in 2012, the airline retired the An-24 from active service. It was announced in May 2013 that the Islamic Development Bank signed a deal for US$270 million with the Government of Uzbekistan that will be partly (US$170 million) used to finance the acquisition of two Boeing aircraft, yet the type involved was not disclosed. In July 2013, the Airbus A310 was retired from active service.

The carrier ordered the Boeing 767-300ER for the first time in 1995. It decided to convert two of the oldest Boeing 767-300ERs into freighters subsequently. Conversion of the first aircraft was completed in December 2014. In late December 2014, the second converted aircraft arrived in Tashkent.

Uzbekistan Airways received its first Boeing 787-8 in late August 2016. The Business Class on the 787 features the first fully flat seats of the carrier.

In 2023, the carrier ordered two Let 410UVPs with an option for further two of these aircraft; the first of them were delivered in June 2023.

Retired fleet
Uzbekistan Airways previously operated the following aircraft:

 * Airbus A300-600F
 * Airbus A310-300
 * Antonov An-24B
 * Antonov An-24RV
 * Avro RJ85
 * Ilyushin Il-62
 * Ilyushin Il-62M
 * Ilyushin Il-76T
 * Ilyushin Il-86
 * Ilyushin Il-114-100
 * Tupolev Tu-154B
 * Tupolev Tu-154M
 * Yakovlev Yak-40

Accidents and incidents
According to the Aviation Safety Network, the airline experienced eight accidents and incidents throughout its history, totalling 54 reported fatalities; only those involving fatalities and hull-losses are listed below.

title: Uzbekistan Airways


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Chrysler A engine

The Chrysler A engine is an OHV small-block V8 gasoline engine built by Chrysler from 1956 until 1967. It featured polyspherical combustion chambers, and was offered in displacements from 276.1 cuin to 325.2 cuin, and in various high-power configurations. It began to be replaced by the wedge-head LA engine in 1964, and is not related to the hemispherical-head Hemi engine of the 1950s or 1960s.

The A engine was released in 1956, and was used exclusively in Plymouths until 1958 and in Chryslers and Dodges from 1959 on. The DeSoto and Dodge 270/315/325 poly utilized similar head architecture but was not related to the Plymouth A Engine, using its own heads and the same bottom end as the Dodge and Desoto Red Ram Hemi. The A engine cylinder bore center distance is 4.46 in, larger than the earlier Dodge-based poly engines. The A engine formed the design basis of the Chrysler LA engine, evidenced in the many parts that interchange between the two engine families.

277
The 277 "Hy-Fire" was the first A-block engine, produced for 1955 in the fall of 1954 and sharing almost nothing but the basic concepts with other engines built by Chrysler. Bore is 3+3/4 in and stroke is 3+1/8 in for a piston displacement of 276.117 cuin. It was replaced by the 301 in 1957, except for in low-priced Plaza models where it continued to be used during the 1957 model year. Power for the two-barrel version is 187 hp; this increased to 200 hp for the four-barrel "Power Pack" version which also came equipped with dual exhausts. The Power Pack was also fitted to the Facel Vega FV3, of which 48 examples were built in 1956 and 1957.

301
The Plymouth 301 replaced the 277 in 1957 and kept that engine's 3.125 in stroke. Its piston displacement is 299.606 cuin, thanks to the larger 3+29/32 in bore. These dimensions are entirely different from the 1955 Chrysler 301. This engine was also installed in the 1957–1958 Facel Vega FV3B.

303
The 1956 Plymouth 303 displaces 302.521 cuin and uses the same connecting rods as the 277; the bore is 3+13/16 in and the stroke is 3+5/16 in.

This engine was used in the following vehicles:
 * 1956 Dodge Custom Royal (Canadian)
 * 1956 Chrysler Windsor (Canadian)
 * 1956 Plymouth Fury, 240 bhp with 4-barrel carburetor
 * 1957 standard on all 118 in-wheelbase Dodges and Plymouths

313
A 312.521 cuin version of the A engine called the 313 was produced from 1957 to 1967 primarily for Canadian and export markets. This engine has a bore of 3.875 in and the common 3.3125 in stroke, and was used in the following vehicles, amongst others:
 * 1957 Canadian Dodge Custom Royal
 * 1957–1964 Australian Chrysler Royal
 * 1958–1967 standard or available in all Canadian-market Dodges and Plymouths except Valiants, Barracudas, and Darts.
 * 1961–1963 Bristol 407
 * 1963–1965 Bristol 408 Mark I

318
The 318 is the most common version of the A engine, produced from 1957 through 1966 in the US and 1967 in some export markets when it was replaced in all markets by the LA 318. Only Plymouth used this 318 in 1957 and 1958, but it was shared with Chrysler from 1959 on and Dodge from 1960 on. It displaces 318.192 cuin and has a 3.91 in bore and the 3.3125 in stroke.

A high-performance version called the V-800, offered in 1957 and 1958, used two four-barrel Carter carburetors to produce 290 hp, making it the highest-output factory A engine. It was used in the 1957 and 1958 Plymouth Fury, but was also an option on Plymouth models lower in the model range.

Bristol Cars introduced the 318 in the Mark II model of their 408 (in 1965) and continued to use it in the succeeding 409 and 410 until 1969. From 1962 until early 1965, Checker used this engine for their Aerobus limousines.

326
The 326 was launched in 1959 Dodges. Its actual piston displacement is 325.25 cuin but it was marketed as a 326 to avoid confusion with the Dodge Red Ram 325. The 326 uses the same 3+5/16 in stroke as the 318, but with the largest bore of any A engine at 3+61/64 in. It uses hydraulic valve lifters, unlike the other A engines that used solid lifters, and was used in the 1959 Dodge Coronet.

title: Chrysler A engine


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Chrysler Slant-6 engine

The Slant-Six is the popular name for a Chrysler inline-6 internal combustion engine with an overhead valve reverse-flow cylinder head and cylinder bank inclined at a 30-degree angle from vertical. Introduced in 1959 for the 1960 models, it was known within Chrysler as the G-engine. It was a clean-sheet design that began production in 1959 at 170 cuin and ended in 2000 at 225 cuin. It was a direct replacement for the flathead Chrysler straight six that the company started business with in 1925 until the old design was discontinued in the 1960s.

Design
The Chrysler Slant Six engine was a clean-sheet design, led by Willem Weertman, later Chrysler's chief engine designer. Its characteristic 30° inclination of cylinder block gives it a lower height overall engine package. This 30° inclination had already been used by Mercedes-Benz in their 300SL sports car with the M186 engine since 1952. This enabled vehicle stylists to lower hood lines, and also made room for the water pump to be mounted with a lateral offset, significantly shortening the engine's overall length. The slanted cylinder block also provides space in the vehicle's engine bay for intake and exhaust manifolds with runners of longer and more nearly equal length compared to the rake- or log-style manifolds typical of other inline engines. The No. 1 and No. 6 intake runners are of approximately equal length, the No. 2 and No. 5 equal but shorter, and the No. 3 and No. 4 equal and shortest. This has the effect of broadening the torque curve for better performance. The Slant Six manifold configuration gives relatively even distribution of fuel mixture to all cylinders, and presents less flow restriction. This, in turn, provides for relatively good airflow through the engine despite the intake and exhaust ports being on the same side of the head rather than in a crossflow arrangement.

It was introduced in two piston displacement sizes in 1960: The 170 cuin "LG" (low-G, referring to the relatively short engine block casting and crankshaft stroke) in the Valiant, and the 225 cuin "RG" (raised-G, referring to the relatively tall engine block casting and crankshaft stroke) in full-size Plymouth and Dodge Dart models. In 1960, the engine was called the "30-D Economy Six" engine by Plymouth marketers, referring to the 30° cylinder block angle.

The G-engine was offered in various configurations in the North American market until 1983 in cars, 1987 in trucks, and 1991 for marine, agricultural, and industrial use. Replacement engines were built in Mexico through 2000. The G-engine was used by Chrysler's international operations in locally produced vehicles. It was also purchased by other original equipment manufacturers for installation in commercial vehicles, agricultural and industrial equipment, and boats.

The G-engine gained a reputation for reliability and durability. The basic design is rigid and sturdy, in part because the engine was designed to be made of either iron or aluminum. An aluminum block was produced in 1961–1963, but most blocks were made of iron. The block is of a deep-skirt design, with the crankshaft axis well above the oil pan rails for structural rigidity. Although only four main bearings are used, they are of the same dimensions as those in the 2G (1964–1971) Hemi, and fewer mains results in a crankshaft better able to withstand the effects of torque. Efficient cooling and lubrication systems, a favorable ratio of connecting rod length to stroke, and a forged steel crankshaft (on engines made through mid-1976) all contributed to the engine's strength and durability.The 2G engine, (Hemi) only has one more main bearing.

The G-engine gave better performance than its competitors at its 1960 introduction, and generally kept up through the 1960s and early-1970s, though engines like the Pontiac OHC Six, a brief GM outlier, bested the performance of most versions of the Slant-6. After an early factory racing program was discontinued by 1962, the Slant Six did not receive much performance development. Most Slant Sixes were equipped with a single 1-barrel carburetor. Starting in the early 1970s, primitive emission controls adversely affected driveability and power, though a version of the 2-barrel carburetor package first released for marine and export markets in 1967 was offered in North America from 1977 to 1983 under the "Super Six" name. Performance figures were only slightly higher, but driveability was substantially improved.

Other Chrysler engines were released with more advanced combustion chambers, electronic fuel injection, and other modern improvements, but the length of the Slant Six precluded its use in Chrysler's front-wheel-drive cars. A new 3.9 L V6 engine was created for the 1987 Dodge Dakota compact pickup truck by removing two cylinders from the corporate 318 cuin LA V8 engine. It replaced the Slant-6 in the rest of the Dodge truck line at the end of the 1987 model year.

Significant production changes

 * The combustion chamber shape was slightly modified for 1967 to promote more complete combustion and reduce exhaust emission toxicity.
 * All G engines used forged steel crankshafts until the middle of model year 1976, when a less costly cast-iron crankshaft was introduced. The cast crankshaft uses a different block, different main and connecting rod bearings and different connecting rods.
 * The counterbore in the rear flange of the crankshaft was 1+1/4 in diameter until 1967. For 1968, it was enlarged to 1+1/2 in. This difference has implications when swapping engines with automatic transmissions.
 * All G-engines used solid valve lifters through the 1980 model year, with the exception of a small production test of hydraulic lifters in the 1978 model year. For model year 1981, all North American G-engines received top-fed hydraulic lifters. Retrofitment in both directions is possible.
 * Emission control devices and systems, carburetor make and specification, and engine assembly details changed over the years to comply with market requirements and preferences.
 * Electronic ignition, which had been made available on V8 engines late in 1971, was made standard equipment on all engines including the RG in 1973.
 * Induction-hardened exhaust valve seats and upgraded exhaust valves were made standard in 1973 to withstand prolonged operation on no-lead fuel.

170
The 170 engine was offered in model years 1960 through 1969 in North America, and through 1971 for export markets. The first vehicle to offer the 170 slant-6 was the 1960 Valiant. The engine has a bore of 3+2/5 in and a stroke of 3+1/8 in for an actual displacement of 170.2 cuin. Connecting rod length is 5.707 in. The "LG" low-deck block was unique to the 170 engine.

198
The 198 was introduced in the North American market for model year 1970 as a more powerful base-model engine than the previous 170 engine. The increased displacement gave improved vehicle performance and lower manufacturing cost, for it was achieved with the tall RG block also used with the 225 engine by installing a crankshaft with 3.64 in stroke and connecting rods 7.006 in long, for an actual displacement of 198.3 cuin. Manufacturing costs were reduced by eliminating using two different blocks for the two different available sizes of slant-6 engine. The 198 engine was available through the 1974 model year.

225
The 225 used the RG (tall) block with a 3+2/5 in bore, a 4+1/8 in stroke and 6.699 in connecting rods, for an actual displacement of 224.7 cuin. This undersquare geometry was a departure from the emerging trend towards oversquare engines. It provided strong low-rpm torque characteristics for automobiles and trucks, as well as other commercial and marine applications. The 225 was originally designed and introduced in 1960 for use in full-size models, and it eventually became the best known of the Slant Six engines. The original Chrysler 225 Slant Six produced around 145 hp at 4,000 rpm and 215 lbft of torque at 2,800 rpm.

In 1982, Chrysler signed an agreement with Perkins Engines to build a dieselized version of the 3.7, with seven main bearings and turbocharged as well as naturally aspirated (and also of the 2.2-liter inline-four) in Windsor, Ontario. Design work had started in 1975, but with the collapse of the diesel market in North America, these plans were cancelled in 1983.

Aluminum block 225
Between late model year 1961 and early model year 1963, approximately 52,000 die-cast aluminum RG blocks were produced and installed in passenger cars. These open-deck blocks used integrally cast high-nickel iron cylinder liners, and bolt-in iron upper and lower main bearing caps. Internal components (crank, rods, pistons, etc.) were the same as used in the iron engine, and an iron cylinder head was used with a special copper-asbestos gasket. The aluminum block weighs about 80 lb less than the iron RG block.

Although serviceable examples can still be found, the aluminum RG tended to undergo delamination between the iron cylinder liner and the surrounding aluminum. Severe corrosion within the block is also commonly found because of the general tendency in the 1960s and 1970s to fill cooling systems in summer with plain water without corrosion inhibitors. Moreover, the open-deck design and primitive head gasket technology are not sufficiently robust to withstand the increased seal demands of increased compression or forced induction.

High-performance variants
Most G-engines were equipped with small-capacity carburetors (such as the ubiquitous Holley 1920) and exhaust systems adequate for standard passenger car usage at low altitudes, but which tended to hamper maximum available performance at high altitudes, in heavy or race-purpose vehicles and/or where quicker acceleration was desired. To meet the demand for improved responsiveness, modified engine configurations were made available in various markets over the years.

Hyper Pak
The Hyper Pak was a parts package made available from 1960 through 1962 at Chrysler Corporation dealer parts counters. The parts were made available to comply with the regulations of sanctioning bodies for racing events in which Valiants had been entered by factory-backed teams: All parts used had to be "stock" parts, the definition of which meant that they were available through normal factory parts channels. The Hyper Pak consisted of a very-long-ram intake manifold meant to accept an AFB 4-barrel Carter Carburetor, the AFB carburetor itself and an appropriate air cleaner, dual (front-3 and rear-3) cast-iron exhaust headers, a large-diameter exhaust Y-pipe to connect to these dual cast-iron headers, a larger muffler, a 276°-duration camshaft with appropriate valve springs and pushrods, a heavier-duty clutch, a manual choke control, a starter motor modification template and, in the full-race version of the package, high-compression pistons designed to increase the engine's compression ratio to 10.5 from the stock 8.5. The Hyper Pak was recommended for installation only on vehicles equipped with manual transmissions, for the camshaft was of such characteristics that a high idle speed was required to prevent engine stall-out. The Hyper Pak was primarily intended for competition driving, its road manners involving rough idling and poor cold-engine driveability, a high power band and poor fuel economy. In competition events it proved unbeatable. Seven factory-backed Valiants entered the 1960 NASCAR compact car race at Daytona Beach, and humbled the competition. The Valiants came in first through seventh. A high-fidelity reproduction of the Hyper Pak intake manifold was created by Slant-6 builder Doug Dutra in the late 1990s. Subsequently the tooling was sold to a marketer of performance equipment (Clifford Research, 6=8) for inline six-cylinder engines.

Multiple carburetors
For the 1965–1968 model years, Chrysler Argentina equipped Valiant GT models with a system of dual 1-barrel Holley RX 7000 A carburetors and other engine specification changes. Claimed output was 180 bhp, compared to the single-carburetor version of the engine producing 145 bhp

Export 2-barrel setup
For the 1967 model year, a 2-barrel carburetor setup was released for export production. This configuration, similar to that found on marine G-engines beginning in 1965, consisted of an iron intake manifold with open-plenum 2-barrel carburetor mounting pad, a Carter BBD carburetor, and associated air cleaner, linkage and plumbing changes. Also installed on these export 2-barrel engines was a slightly hotter camshaft (244° duration rather than 240°), and a distributor with modified advance curves. This engine, rated at 160 bhp, was popular in Central and South America, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand. Driveability characteristics were generally superior to those of the 1-barrel engine, but to avoid cutting into sales of the more expensive V8 engine, this 2-barrel setup was not offered in the North American market. Of particular note is the automatic choke design found in this export 2-barrel setup. Most Chrysler products used remote automatic chokes, with a bimetal coil spring mounted on the exhaust manifold, exposed to exhaust heat and operating a pushrod which rotated the choke lever on the carburetor. The export 2-barrel setup used an integral heat-tube style automatic choke: Air heated by the exhaust manifold was routed to a round bakelite housing on the carburetor air horn, which contained a bimetal spring acting directly on the choke lever.

Slant Six 225 high performance
At the end of 1973 Chrysler Argentina returned to the fight for the high performance 6 cylinders. Since 1972 Chrysler had not offered a 6 cylinder with sports aspiration but that would change with the release of the Dodge Polara RT, it was a hard top coupe equipped with the new high-performance Slant Six RG 225 or commonly known as Slant Six RT, thanks to the addition of a new Holley 2300 two-barrel carburetor, "3a1" exhaust manifolds, a more violent camshaft with 273° duration; and a compression ratio of 8.5:1 this version produced 174 bhp and torque of 245.6 lbft, this engine coupled to a 4-speed gearbox and a differential with a ratio of 3.07 to 1 launched the Dodge Polara RT to a maximum speed of 181 km/h or 113 mph and an acceleration of 0 to 63 mph in 11 seconds.

Super Six
By the mid-1970s in the North American market, emission control regulations were reducing engine performance at the same time as safety regulations were making cars heavier. An increase in performance was required for the G-engine, so a 2-barrel setup was released for the 1976 model year. This was not the same as the export 2-barrel package; the intake manifold used a throttle-bored plenum rather than an open one, and had provisions for an EGR valve. The carburetor, a Carter BBD similar but not identical to the one used on Chrysler's 318 CID V8 engine, used a standard Chrysler-style remote automatic choke. A 2+1/4 in exhaust head pipe was also provided, as well as 2-barrel-specific advance curves in the ignition distributor. This package, called "Super Six" by the marketing division, brought rated horsepower from 100 to 110 hp and torque from 170 to 180 lbft, while improving throttle response and driveability while maintaining compliance with emission laws.

Passenger cars, trucks, vans

 * 1980-1983 Chrysler Cordoba
 * 1982-1984 Chrysler Fifth Avenue
 * 1977-1981 Chrysler LeBaron
 * 1962-1970 Chrysler Valiant
 * 1975-1980 Dodge Aspen
 * 1970-1971 Dodge Challenger
 * 1969-1974 Dodge Charger
 * 1965-1976 Dodge Coronet
 * 1960-1976 Dodge Dart
 * 1971-1972 Dodge Demon
 * 1971-1988 Dodge Ram Van
 * 1977-1983 Dodge Diplomat
 * 1960-1962 Dodge Lancer
 * 1980-1983 Dodge Mirada
 * 1965-1967 Dodge Monaco (Canada)
 * 1977-1978 Dodge Monaco
 * 1969-1973 Dodge Polara
 * 1981-1987 Dodge Ram
 * 1978-1981 Dodge St. Regis
 * 1964-1970 A-series truck and van
 * 1960-1987 D-series truck and van
 * 1961-1987 W-series 4WD truck
 * 1964-1971 Plymouth Barracuda
 * 1962-1967 Plymouth Belvedere
 * 1969-1976 Plymouth Duster
 * 1960-1973;1975-1978 Plymouth Fury
 * 1980-1984 Plymouth Gran Fury
 * 1971-1974 Plymouth Satellite
 * 1955-1956;1962-1964 Plymouth Savoy
 * 1960 Valiant
 * 1961-1976 Plymouth Valiant
 * 1975-1980 Plymouth Volaré

title: Chrysler Slant-6 engine


text:
Talk:Marik Ishtar

Marik vs. Malik
The Rs have it. (More's the pity.) --Aponar Kestrel 18:48, 2004 Jul 27 (UTC)
 * "marik ishtar" Google (Added to a staggering 8,770)
 * "marik ishtar" Google (Added to 2,780)
 * "marik ishtar" Google (Reduced to 2,590)
 * "marik ishtar" Google (2,610)
 * "marik ishtar" Google (2,580)
 * "malik ishtar" Google (1,670)

I think this should be moved to Malik Ishtar, as that's consistent with the rest of the articles here. WhisperToMe 04:02, 14 Sep 2004 (UTC)

VIZ is going to use "Marik". WhisperToMe 23:39, 2 Dec 2004 (UTC)

I think it should be Malik too.

-- [User:The_S] -- Malik is the name of a demon in Babylonian mythology, and Ishtar is a Babylonian goddess.

Obsession
Marik is obsessed with the 3 God Cards and Millenium Items. Will he ever stop bragging? Actually,yes he does stop bragging in the Dawn of the Duel saga (the last one),cause he's not evil and obsessed with them.He actually is one of Yugi's friends in the end of the series. -Adreanna (Mystery)
 * Naw, Marik was only after the Millennium Puzzle. Bakura's after the Millennium Items. And he becomes Yugi's friend at the end of Enter the Shadow Realm/Alcatraz Tower saga. Ggctuk 09:50, 9 March 2007 (UTC)

To "l" "r" examples
I don't want to mess up your theories,but Zoro was renameds Zolo due to fear of sueing by the "Zoro" character owners,not as an alternate speling. New Babylon

Marik's age
I thought that Marik was 16.

 * I did too. He recieved his scars when he was 10 (in the Japanese version anyway) and he left the tomb for the first time when he was 11. During Isis's story of the Ishtar tragedy, she said, "It was five years ago when the sun touched Malik's body for the first time." 11+5 = 16. If you must, his age at the series end was 17 at the most.

Johnathon Todd Ross as Yami Marik
Has anybody noticed that the first time Yami Marik appears in the dub, Johnathon Todd Ross plays his voice as a darker version of regular Marik's? The afterward, he just speaks as regular Marik and the guys at 4Kids lower the pitch of his voice digitally. Open GoldWave and Episode 90 and see for yourself (Set Play speed to 1.20 and you get regular Marik's voice, likewise, use regular Marik's voice and set Play speed to 0.80 and you get Yami Marik's voice). This is also evident in one of the Noah arc episodes. They forgot to lower Marik's voice pitch so Yami Marik sounded like regular Marik. Ggctuk 09:53, 9 March 2007 (UTC)

Tombkeeper...
Someone switch all the 'timekeepers' to tombkeeper. WTF is a timekeeper anyway? —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 71.104.176.36 (talk) 02:35, 15 April 2007 (UTC).

 * I'll answer this one simply by pressing all the letters on the top row of the keyboard:

qwertyuiop

I and O are right next to each other. Easy mistake to make. Ggctuk 12:36, 16 April 2007 (UTC)

shadow realm
I know pycho marik was sent to the shadow realm in dub but what happend in the orignal?? ♥Eternal Pink-Ready to fight for love and grace♥ 17:32, 11 May 2007 (UTC)

Why was the first image of Malik changed? It used to be an image from the second series anime. Now it's a fanart image by a (Japanese?) fan-artist. It's shouldn't be there, as it is not from the original anime or manga. Also it is not accurate, as it is an iterpritation of a anime charcter, not the original from the anime or manga. It should be removed and replaced with an actual screenshot.

Image Change
Why was the first imagine of Malik changed? It used to be a picture from the second series anime. Now it is an imagine by a (Japanese) fan artist. Also, it should not be there, as it inaccurate and an iterpritation of the orginal character, giving it many faults. It should be removed and replaced with a screenshot from the anime, or at least the manga.
 * One: Were you not able to? Two: What is an "imagine"?—Ｌｏｖｅはドコ？ (talk • contribs) 19:43, 16 June 2007 (UTC)

Marik/Malik
how come the page is called Marik but it says Malik evreywhere elece on the page? ♥Fighting for charming Love♥ 09:06, 17 June 2007 (UTC)

Vandalism
The Yugioh Abridged crowd seems to be on a vandalism spree. Be vigilant. Brash (talk) 17:05, 2 April 2008 (UTC)

god bless them —Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.126.229.106 (talk) 15:01, 4 September 2009 (UTC)

title: Talk:Marik Ishtar


text:
Talk:Dossie Easton

Untitled
The last edit of this article has removed the ISBN numbers from books in the ==References and further reading== section...... Dlloyd 18:50, 27 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * That was me. Both books were listed with the wrong co-author and as I can't confirm that the other details were correct seemed safer to delete the ISBNs for the moment --[[User:VampWillow|VampWillow]] 19:15, 27 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * I looked 'em up on Amazon.... Dlloyd 22:21, 27 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Well, just as Google gets it wrong sometimes, clearly so does Amazon. The original entry had the wrong co-authors. They may have been the correct ISBNs but seemed safer to remove until confirmed (which I will do by looking at copies of them tomorrow). ps. I'd been meaning to write an article on Dossie for m-o-n-t-h-s (as I have met her ;-) but didn't get around to it. Shows you shouldn't put off writing articles! --[[User:VampWillow|VampWillow]] 09:38, 28 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Hi, I've figured it out, we were both right.....:-) The *original* editions of the topping and bottoming books were both Dossie Easton & Catherine A. Liszt (which are the ones I referred to in the article), the *new* editions of both books are Dossie Easton & Janet W. Hardy. The ISBN numbers have also changed between the editions. Maybe it's worth mentioning both editions in the article, and listing the new ones in the further reading sections (as the original editions are now out of print). Did you meet Dossie in London ?
 * PS. Here is the Greenery Press site http://www.greenerypress.com/. Cheers. Dlloyd 21:57, 28 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * That'd explain it then! Probably useful to mention both editions although I expect only the later versions will be available and need ISBNs. And yes, I met Dossie a couple of months' ago at a meal (and took her home afterwards ;-) [[User:VampWillow|VampWillow]] 22:48, 28 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * - you obviously know her better than I do ;-) PS. I just started a < > on Greenery Press. Dlloyd 10:10, 30 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Not as well as we had planned though. (this is in danger of becoming TMI so I shall stop there! --[[User:VampWillow|VampWillow]] 12:07, 1 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Hardy
Liszt ==

As per the page on Janet Hardy, Catherine A. Liszt is her pseudonym. Therefore all the books are by the same co-authors. I believe the pseudonym was in use when Hardy could not afford to be out about her sexuality, but now they are billed as 'Easton and Hardy, co-authors of the Ethical Slut' at conferences and what-not. Kit 06:12:28, 2005-08-10 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:New Topping Book.jpg
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BetacommandBot (talk) 21:29, 2 January 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:Dossie Easton


text:
Intercultural communication

Intercultural communication is a discipline that studies communication across different cultures and social groups, or how culture affects communication. It describes the wide range of communication processes and problems that naturally appear within an organization or social context made up of individuals from different religious, social, ethnic, and educational backgrounds. In this sense, it seeks to understand how people from different countries and cultures act, communicate, and perceive the world around them. Intercultural communication focuses on the recognition and respect of those with cultural differences. The goal is mutual adaptation between two or more distinct cultures which leads to biculturalism/multiculturalism rather than complete assimilation. It promotes the development of cultural sensitivity and allows for empathic understanding across different cultures.

Description
Intercultural communication is the idea of knowing how to communicate in different parts of the world. Intercultural communication uses theories within groups of people to achieve a sense of cultural diversity. This is in the hopes of people being able to learn new things from different cultures. The theories used give people an enhanced perspective on when it is appropriate to act in situations without disrespecting the people within these cultures; it also enhances their perspective on achieving cultural diversity through the ideas of intercultural communication.

Many people in intercultural business communication argue that culture determines how individuals encode messages, what medium they choose for transmitting them, and the way messages are interpreted. With regard to intercultural communication proper, it studies situations where people from different cultural backgrounds interact. Aside from language, intercultural communication focuses on social attributes, thought patterns, and the cultures of different groups of people. It also involves understanding the different cultures, languages and customs of people from other countries.

Learning the tools to facilitate cross-cultural interaction is the subject of cultural agility, a term presently used to design a complex set of competencies required to allow an individual or an organization to perform successfully in cross-cultural situations.

Intercultural communication plays a role in social sciences such as anthropology, cultural studies, linguistics, psychology, and communication studies. Intercultural communication is also referred to as the base for international businesses. Several cross-cultural service providers assist with the development of intercultural communication skills. Research is a major part of the development of intercultural communication skills. Intercultural communication is in a way the 'interaction with speakers of other languages on equal terms and respecting their identities'.

Identity and culture are also studied within the discipline of communication to analyze how globalization influences ways of thinking, beliefs, values, and identity within and between cultural environments. Intercultural communication scholars approach theory with a dynamic outlook and do not believe culture can be measured nor that cultures share universal attributes. Scholars acknowledge that culture and communication shift along with societal changes and theories should consider the constant shifting and nuances of society. The study of intercultural communication requires intercultural understanding. Intercultural understanding is the ability to understand and value cultural differences. Language is an example of an important cultural component that is linked to intercultural understanding.

Intercultural communication is something that is not just needed in the United States, but it is also needed in many other parts of the world. Wherever intercultural communication is, it helps to not only create behaviors between domestic and international contexts but also becomes a shared experience for all.

Theories
The following types of theories can be distinguished in different strands: focus on effective outcomes, on accommodation or adaptation, on identity negotiation and management, on communication networks, on acculturation and adjustment.

Social engineering effective outcomes

 * Cultural convergence
 * The theory that when two cultures come together, similarities in ideas and aspects will become more prevalent as members of the two cultures get to know one another. In a relatively closed social system, in which communication among members is unrestricted, the system as a whole will tend to converge over time toward a state of greater cultural uniformity. The system will tend to diverge toward diversity when communication is restricted.
 * Communication accommodation theory
 * This theory focuses on linguistic strategies to decrease or increase communicative distances. In relation to linguistics, communication accommodation theory is the idea when two people are speaking to one another, one participant modifies the way they speak to accommodate another person in a given context. This is similar to code-switching in the sense that people are changing their dialects from a given language, to adjust to a different setting for others to understand. Communication accommodation theory seeks to explain and predict why, when, and how people adjust their communicative behavior during social interaction and what social consequences result from these adjustments.
 * Intercultural adaptation
 * Intercultural adaptation is the idea that after living in a culture for an extended period of time, people will start to develop the ideas, rules, values, among other themes of that culture. Adaptation theories conclude that in order to adapt, immigrants need to fully engage in changing one's self beliefs to that of the society's majority. To elaborate, for example, while someone lives abroad it is imperative they are ready to change in order to live cohesively with their new culture. By understanding intercultural competence, we know that people have an understanding of what it takes to thrive in a culture, by following the norms and ideals that are presented.
 * Intercultural adaptation involves learned communicative competence. Communicative competence is defined as thinking, feeling, and pragmatically behaving in ways defined as appropriate by the dominant mainstream culture. Communication competence is an outcomes-based measure conceptualized as functional/operational conformity to environmental criteria such as working conditions. Beyond this, adaptation means "the need to conform" to mainstream "objective reality" and "accepted modes of experience".
 * Cultural adaptation is the process in which individuals are able to maintain stability and reestablish with their environment while in unfamiliar cultural environments. Intercultural adaptation is a two-way process, this is between the host culture as well as the individuals outside/home culture. This is based on whether the host culture is willing to adapt, adopt cultural sensitivity, and/or adopt some aspects of the incoming individual's culture. Intercultural adaptation is a two-way process.
 * Co-cultural theory
 * Co-cultural theory is the idea pertaining to a group of people that someone belongs to, with people from different parts of the world sharing characteristics of one another.
 * In its most general form, co-cultural communication refers to interactions among underrepresented and dominant group members. Co-cultures include but are not limited to people of color, women, people with disabilities, gay men and lesbians, and those in the lower social classes. Co-cultural theory, as developed by Mark P. Orbe, looks at the strategic ways in which co-cultural group members communicate with others. In addition, a co-cultural framework provides an explanation for how different persons communicate based on six factors.
 * Cultural fusion theory
 * Cultural fusion theory explains how immigrants can acculturate into the dominant culture they move to. They maintain important aspects of their culture while adopting aspects of the dominant culture. This creates an intercultural identity within an individual, their native identity as well as their new host culture identity.

Identity negotiation or management

 * Identity management theory
 * Identity negotiation
 * Cultural identity theory
 * Double-swing model

Communication networks

 * Networks and outgroup communication competence
 * Intracultural versus intercultural networks
 * Networks and acculturation

Acculturation and adjustment
Acculturation can be defined as the process of an individual or individuals exchanging or adopting certain culture values and practices that the dominant culture of their location possesses. Acculturation differs from assimilation because the people who are adopting new culture habits are still processing some of their original own culture habits. Young Yun Kim has identified three personality traits that could affect someone's cultural adaptation. These personality traits include openness, strength, and positive. With these personality traits, individuals will be more successful in acculturating than individuals who do not possess these traits. Kim proposes an alternative to acculturation is complete assimilation.
 * Communication acculturation
 * This theory attempts to portray "cross-cultural adaptation as a collaborative effort in which a stranger and the receiving environment are engaged in a joint effort."
 * Anxiety/uncertainty management
 * When strangers communicate with hosts, they experience uncertainty and anxiety. Strangers need to manage their uncertainty as well as their anxiety in order to be able to communicate effectively with hosts and then to try to develop accurate predictions and explanations for hosts' behaviors.
 * Assimilation, deviance, and alienation states
 * Assimilation and adaptation are not permanent outcomes of the adaptation process; rather, they are temporary outcomes of the communication process between hosts and immigrants. "Alienation or assimilation, therefore, of a group or an individual, is an outcome of the relationship between deviant behavior and neglectful communication."
 * Assimilation
 * Assimilation is the process of absorbing the traits of the dominant culture to the point where the group that was assimilated becomes indistinguishable from the host culture. Assimilation can be either forced or done voluntarily depending on situations and conditions. Regardless of the situation or the condition, it is very rare to see a minority group replace and or even forget their previous cultural practices.
 * Alienation
 * Alienation frequently refers to someone who is ostracized or withdrawn from other people with whom they would ordinarily be expected to associate with. Hajda, a representative theorist and researcher of social alienation says, "alienation is an individuals feeling of uneasiness or discomfort which reflects his exclusion or self-exclusion from social and cultural participation."

Three perspectives on intercultural communication
A study on cultural and intercultural communication came up with three perspectives, which are the indigenous approach, cultural approach, and cross-cultural approach.

 * Indigenous approach: trying to understand the meaning of different cultures. The process of passing preserved indigenous knowledge and how that is interpreted.
 * Cultural approach: similar to the indigenous approach; however, the cultural approach also focuses on the sociocultural context of an individual.
 * Cross cultural approaches: focuses on two or more cultures to perceive cross-cultural validity and generalizability.

Other theories

 * Meaning of meanings theory – "A misunderstanding takes place when people assume a word has a direct connection with its referent. A common past reduces misunderstanding. Definition, metaphor, feedforward, and Basic English are partial linguistic remedies for a lack of shared experience."
 * Face negotiation theory – "Members of collectivistic, high-context cultures have concerns for mutual face and inclusion that lead them to manage conflict with another person by avoiding, obliging, or compromising. Because of concerns for self-face and autonomy, people from individualistic, low-context cultures manage conflict by dominating or through problem solving".
 * Standpoint theory – An individual's experiences, knowledge, and communication behaviors are shaped in large part by the social groups to which they belong. Individuals sometimes view things similarly, but other times have very different views in which they see the world. The ways in which they view the world are shaped by the experiences they have and through the social group they identify themselves to be a part of. "Feminist standpoint theory claims that the social groups to which we belong shape what we know and how we communicate.(Wood, 2005) The theory is derived from the Marxist position that economically oppressed classes can access knowledge unavailable to the socially privileged and can generate distinctive accounts, particularly knowledge about social relations."
 * Stranger theory – At least one of the persons in an intercultural encounter is a stranger. Strangers are a 'hyperaware' of cultural differences and tend to overestimate the effect of cultural identity on the behavior of people in an alien society, while blurring individual distinctions.
 * Feminist genre theory – Evaluates communication by identifying feminist speakers and reframing their speaking qualities as models for women's liberation.
 * Genderlect theory – "Male-female conversation is cross-cultural communication. Masculine and feminine styles of discourse are best viewed as two distinct cultural dialects rather than as inferior or superior ways of speaking. Men's report talk focuses on status and independence. Women's support talk seeks human connection."
 * Cultural critical studies theory – The theory states that the mass media impose the dominant ideology on the rest of society, and the connotations of words and images are fragments of ideology that perform an unwitting service for the ruling elite.
 * Marxism – Aims to explain class struggle and the basis of social relations through economics.

Authentic intercultural communication
Authentic intercultural communication is possible. A theory that was found in 1984 and revisited on 1987 explains the importance of truth and intention of getting an understanding. Furthermore, if strategic intent is hidden, there can't be any authentic intercultural communication.

In intercultural communication, there could be miscommunication, and the term is called "misfire." Later on, a theory was founded that has three layers of intercultural communication. The first level is effective communication, second-level miscommunication, and third-level systemically distorted communication. It is difficult to go to the first level due to the speaker's position and the structure.

At a practical level, the success of intercultural communication will not be modeled around awareness of and sensitivity to the essentially different behaviors and values of ‘the other culture’, but around the employment of the ability to read culture which derives from underlying universal cultural processes.

History of assimilation
Forced assimilation was very common in the European colonial empires the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries. Colonial policies regarding religion conversion, the removal of children, the division of community property, and the shifting of gender roles primarily impacted North and South America, Australia, Africa, and Asia.

Voluntary assimilation has also been a part of history dating back to the Spanish Inquisition of the late 14th and 15th centuries, when many Muslims and Jews voluntarily converted to Roman Catholicism as a response to religious prosecution while secretly continuing their original practices. Another example is when the Europeans moved to the United States. in reference assimilation developed

Intercultural competence
Intercultural communication is competent when it accomplishes the objectives in a manner that is appropriate to the context and relationship. Intercultural communication thus needs to bridge the dichotomy between appropriateness and effectiveness: Proper means of intercultural communication leads to a 15% decrease in miscommunication.

 * Appropriateness: Valued rules, norms, and expectations of the relationship are not violated significantly.
 * Effectiveness: Valued goals or rewards (relative to costs and alternatives) are accomplished.

Competent communication is an interaction that is seen as effective in achieving certain rewarding objectives in a way that is also related to the context in which the situation occurs. In other words, it is a conversation with an achievable goal that is used at an appropriate time/location.

Components
Intercultural communication can be linked with identity, which means the competent communicator is the person who can affirm others' avowed identities. As well as goal attainment is also a focus within intercultural competence and it involves the communicator to convey a sense of communication appropriateness and effectiveness in diverse cultural contexts.

Ethnocentrism plays a role in intercultural communication. The capacity to avoid ethnocentrism is the foundation of intercultural communication competence. Ethnocentrism is the inclination to view one's own group as natural and correct, and all others as aberrant.

People must be aware that to engage and fix intercultural communication there is no easy solution and there is not only one way to do so. Listed below are some of the components of intercultural competence.

 * Context: A judgment that a person is competent is made in both a relational and situational context. This means that competence is not defined as a single attribute, meaning someone could be very strong in one section and only moderately good in another. Situationally speaking competence can be defined differently for different cultures. For example, eye contact shows competence in western cultures whereas, Asian cultures find too much eye contact disrespectful.
 * Appropriateness: This means that one's behaviors are acceptable and proper for the expectations of any given culture.
 * Effectiveness: The behaviors that lead to the desired outcome being achieved.
 * Motivations: This has to do with emotional associations as they communicate interculturally. Feelings which are one's reactions to thoughts and experiences have to do with motivation. Intentions are thoughts that guide one's choices, it is a goal or plan that directs one's behavior. These two things play a part in motivation.

Basic tools for improvement
The following are ways to improve communication competence:
 * Display of interest: Showing respect and positive regard for the other person.
 * Orientation to knowledge: Terms people use to explain themselves and their perception of the world.
 * Empathy: Behaving in ways that shows one understands the point of view of others
 * Task role behavior: Initiate ideas that encourage problem solving activities.
 * Relational role behavior: Interpersonal harmony and mediation.
 * Tolerance for unknown and ambiguity: The ability to react to new situations with little discomfort.
 * Interaction posture: Responding to others in descriptive, non-judgmental ways.
 * Patience
 * Active listening
 * Clarity

Important factors

 * Proficiency in the host culture language: understanding the grammar and vocabulary.
 * Understanding language pragmatics: how to use politeness strategies in making requests and how to avoid giving out too much information.
 * Being sensitive and aware to nonverbal communication patterns in other cultures.
 * Being aware of gestures that may be offensive or mean something different in a host culture rather than one's own culture.
 * Understanding a culture's proximity in physical space and paralinguistic sounds to convey their intended meaning.
 * Mutual understanding with the aim of promoting a future of appreciation, robustness and diversity.

Traits

 * Flexibility.
 * Tolerating high levels of uncertainty.
 * Self-reflection.
 * Open-mindedness.
 * Sensitivity.
 * Adaptability.
 * "Thinking outside the box" and lateral thinking

Effective communication depends on the informal understandings among the parties involved that are based on the trust developed between them. When trust exists, there is implicit understanding within communication, cultural differences may be overlooked, and problems can be dealt with more easily. The meaning of trust and how it is developed and communicated varies across societies. Similarly, some cultures have a greater propensity to be trusting than others.

The problems in intercultural communication usually come from problems in message transmission and in reception. In communication between people of the same culture, the person who receives the message interprets it based on values, beliefs, and expectations for behavior similar to those of the person who sent the message. When this happens, the way the message is interpreted by the receiver is likely to be fairly similar to what the speaker intended. However, when the receiver of the message is a person from a different culture, the receiver uses information from his or her culture to interpret the message. The message that the receiver interprets may be very different from what the speaker intended.

Cross-cultural business strategies
Cross-cultural business communication is very helpful in building cultural intelligence through coaching and training in cross-cultural communication management and facilitation, cross-cultural negotiation, multicultural conflict resolution, customer service, business and organizational communication. Cross-cultural understanding is not just for incoming expats. Cross-cultural understanding begins with those responsible for the project and reaches those delivering the service or content. The ability to communicate, negotiate and effectively work with people from other cultures is vital to international business.

Management
Important points to consider:

 * Develop cultural sensitivity.
 * Anticipate the meaning the receiver will get.
 * Careful encoding.
 * Use words, pictures, and gestures.
 * Avoid slang, idioms, regional sayings.
 * Selective transmission.
 * Build relationships, face-to-face if possible.
 * Careful decoding of feedback.
 * Get feedback from multiple parties.
 * Improve listening and observation skills.
 * Follow-up actions.

Facilitation
There is a connection between a person's personality traits and the ability to adapt to the host-country's environment—including the ability to communicate within that environment.

Two key personality traits are openness and resilience. Openness includes traits such as tolerance for ambiguity, extroversion and introversion, and open-mindedness. Resilience, on the other hand, includes having an internal locus of control, persistence, tolerance for ambiguity, and resourcefulness.

These factors, combined with the person's cultural and racial identity and level of liberalism, comprise that person's potential for adaptation.

Miscommunication in a Business Setting
In a business environment, communication is vital, and there could be many instances where there could be miscommunication. Globalization is a significant factor in intercultural communication and affects business environments. In a business setting, it could be more difficult to communicate due to different ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving. Due to globalization, more employees have negative emotions in a business environment. The reason why one gets negative feelings is because of miscommunication.

One study done entails the communication between non-native English speaking and native English speaking people in the United States. The study showed that, in a business environment, non-native English speakers and native English speakers had similar experiences in the workplace. Although native English speakers tried to breakdown the miscommunication, non-native English speakers were offended by the terms they used.

Cultural Perceptions
There are common conceptualizations of attributes that define collectivistic and individualistic cultures. Operationalizing the perceptions of cultural identities works under the guise that cultures are static and homogeneous, when in fact cultures within nations are multi-ethnic and individuals show high variation in how cultural differences are internalized and expressed.

Manuela Guilherme, a teacher of foreign languages and cultures at secondary schools and university-level courses in Portugal and Great Britain, recognizes a need for a postmodern, decentered critique of Western societies from the point of view of the other in which no one should be regarded as culturally inferior or colonizable. Holliday states their opposition to this approach by discussing their distaste in Guilherme's and Byram's, a Professor of Education at Durham University, England, orientations towards a clear line between "our culture" and "their culture."

Culture-Based Conflict Situation Models
The goal of the original CBSCM proposed by Ting-Toomey and Oetzel (2001) was to use the model as a tentative map to organize and explain the various research concepts in the growing intercultural conflict field. It was based of the culture-based situational model in 2001 and Toomey and Oetzel envisioned that researchers and practitioners could collaborate in an integrative manner and locate concepts and linkage of ideas between the factors and test them in a systematic manner when creating the original CBSCM.

The original CBSCM consists of four components: (1) primary orientation factors (e.g., value patterns and personal attributes), (2) situational and relational boundary features (e.g., in-group-out-group boundary, interpersonal relationship boundary, and conflict goals’ assessment), (3) conflict communication process factors (e.g., conflict styles and facework behaviors), and (4) conflict competence features (e.g., appropriates and effectiveness, productivity and satisfaction).

The integration of the newly revised socioecological framework added by Ting-Toomey and Oetzel (2013) and the original CBSCM results in the revised model. The model still depicts two parties (e.g., people) in conflict with one another and illustrates how the conflict process unfolds. The model is meant to describe the process as continuous and flowing rather than starting at a particular point.

The model is meant to describe the process as continuous and flowing rather than starting at a particular point. It is possible to consider additional conflict parties or entities in the conflict process, yet we are constrained in drawing a model on a single page. The primary orientation factors now include multilevel factors at the macro-, exo-, meso-, and microlevels. The situational appraisals also include multilevel factors at each of these levels.

Globalization
Globalization plays a central role in theorizing for mass communication, media, and cultural communication studies. Intercultural communication scholars emphasize that globalization emerged from the increasing diversity of cultures throughout the world and thrives with the removal of cultural barriers. The notion of nationality, or the construction of national space, is understood to emerge dialectically through communication and globalization.

The Intercultural Praxis Model by Kathryn Sorrells, Ph.D. shows us how to navigate through the complexities of cultural differences along with power differences. This model will help you understand who you are as an individual, and how you can better communicate with others that may be different from you. In order to continue living in a globalized society one can use this Praxis model to understand cultural differences (based on race, ethnicity, gender, class, sexual orientation, religion, nationality, etc.) within the institutional and historical systems of power. Intercultural Communication Praxis Model requires us to respond to someone who comes from a different culture than us, in the most open way we can. The media are influential in what we think of other cultures and what we think about our own selves. However it is important, we educate ourselves, and learn how to communicate with others through Sorrells' Praxis Model.

Sorrells’ process is made up of six points of entry in navigating intercultural spaces, including inquiry, framing, positioning, dialogue, reflection, and action. Inquiry, as the first step of the Intercultural Praxis Model, is an overall interest in learning about and understanding individuals with different cultural backgrounds and world-views, while challenging one's own perceptions. Framing, then, is the awareness of “local and global contexts that shape intercultural interactions;” thus, the ability to shift between the micro, meso, and macro frames. Positioning is the consideration of one's place in the world compared to others, and how this position might influence both world-views and certain privileges. Dialogue is the turning point of the process during which further understanding of differences and possible tensions develops through experience and engagement with cultures outside of one's own. Next, reflection allows for one to learn through introspection the values of those differences, as well as enables action within the world “in meaningful, effective, and responsible ways." This finally leads to action, which aims to create a more conscious world by working toward social justice and peace among different cultures. As Sorrells argues, “In the context of globalization, [intercultural praxis] … offers us a process of critical, reflective thinking and acting that enables us to navigate … intercultural spaces we inhabit interpersonally, communally, and globally."

Interdisciplinary orientation
Cross-cultural communication endeavors to bring together such relatively unrelated areas as cultural anthropology and established areas of communication. Its core is to establish and understand how people from different cultures communicate with each other. Its charge is to also produce some guidelines with which people from different cultures can better communicate with each other.

Cross-cultural communication, as with many scholarly fields, is a combination of many other fields. These fields include anthropology, cultural studies, psychology and communication. The field has also moved both toward the treatment of interethnic relations, and toward the study of communication strategies used by co-cultural populations, i.e., communication strategies used to deal with majority or mainstream populations.

The study of languages other than one's own can serve not only to help one understand what we as humans have in common, but also to assist in the understanding of the diversity which underlines our languages' methods of constructing and organizing knowledge. Such understanding has profound implications with respect to developing a critical awareness of social relationships. Understanding social relationships and the way other cultures work is the groundwork of successful globalization business affairs.

Language socialization can be broadly defined as “an investigation of how language both presupposes and creates anew, social relations in cultural context”. It is imperative that the speaker understands the grammar of a language, as well as how elements of language are socially situated in order to reach communicative competence. Human experience is culturally relevant, so elements of language are also culturally relevant. One must carefully consider semiotics and the evaluation of sign systems to compare cross-cultural norms of communication. There are several potential problems that come with language socialization, however. Sometimes people can overgeneralize or label cultures with stereotypical and subjective characterizations. Another primary concern with documenting alternative cultural norms revolves around the fact that no social actor uses language in ways that perfectly match normative characterizations. A methodology for investigating how an individual uses language and other semiotic activity to create and use new models of conduct and how this varies from the cultural norm should be incorporated into the study of language socialization.

Verbal communication
Verbal intercultural communication techniques improve speakers' or listeners' capacity for speech production or comprehension. Depending on the communication situation, the plans could either be formal or informal. Verbal communication consists of messages being sent and received continuously with the speaker and the listener, it is focused on the way messages are portrayed. Verbal communication is based on language and use of expression, the tone in which the sender of the message relays the communication can determine how the message is received and in what context.

Factors that affect verbal communication:

 * Tone of voice
 * Use of descriptive words
 * Emphasis on certain phrases
 * Volume of voice
 * Practice active listening

The way a message is received is dependent on these factors as they give a greater interpretation for the receiver as to what is meant by the message. By emphasizing a certain phrase with the tone of voice, this indicates that it is important and should be focused more on.

Along with these attributes, verbal communication is also accompanied with non-verbal cues. These cues make the message clearer and give the listener an indication of what way the information should be received.

Example of non-verbal cues

 * Facial expressions
 * Hand gestures
 * Use of objects
 * Body movement

In terms of intercultural communication there are language barriers which are effected by verbal forms of communication. In this instance there is opportunity for miscommunication between two or more parties. Other barriers that contribute to miscommunication would be the type of words chosen in conversation. Due to different cultures there are different meaning in vocabulary chosen, this allows for a message between the sender and receiver to be misconstrued.

Nonverbal communication
Nonverbal communication refers to gestures, facial expressions, tone of voice, eye contact (or lack thereof), body language, posture, and other ways people can communicate without using language. Minor variations in body language, speech rhythms, and punctuality often cause differing interpretations of the situation among cross-cultural parties. Kinesic behavior is communication through body movement—e.g., posture, gestures, facial expressions and eye contact. The meaning of such behavior varies across countries. Clothing and the way people dress is used as a form of nonverbal communication.

Object language or material culture refers to how people communicate through material artifacts—e.g., architecture, office design and furniture, clothing, cars, cosmetics, and time. In monochronic cultures, time is experienced linearly and as something to be spent, saved, made up, or wasted. Time orders life, and people tend to concentrate on one thing at a time. In polychronic cultures, people tolerate many things happening simultaneously and emphasize involvement with people. In these cultures, people may be highly distractible, focus on several things at once, and change plans often.

Occulesics are a form of kinesics that includes eye contact and the use of the eyes to convey messages. Proxemics concern the influence of proximity and space on communication (e.g., in terms of personal space and in terms of office layout). For example, space communicates power in the US and Germany.

Paralanguage refers to how something is said, rather than the content of what is said—e.g., rate of speech, tone and inflection of voice, other noises, laughing, yawning, and silence.

Nonverbal communication has been shown to account for between 65% and 93% of interpreted communication. Minor variations in body language, speech rhythms, and punctuality often cause mistrust and misperception of the situation among cross-cultural parties. This is where nonverbal communication can cause problems with intercultural communication. Misunderstandings with nonverbal communication can lead to miscommunication and insults with cultural differences. For example, a handshake in one culture may be recognized as appropriate, whereas another culture may recognize it as rude or inappropriate.

title: Intercultural communication


text: Category:1904 films

title: Category:1904 films