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Amboise conspiracy

The Amboise conspiracy, also called Tumult of Amboise, was a failed attempt by a Huguenot faction in France to gain control over the young King Francis II and to reverse the policies of the current administration of Francis, Duke of Guise and Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine through their arrest, and potentially execution. Malcontent factions of Huguenots had been chafing under the French crown since the reign of Henry II and with the arrival of a new young king, saw their chance to take power for themselves. However the plot was uncovered ahead of time, and the Guise were ready for them. As such hundreds would be arrested, and many killed. Louis I, Prince of Condé was suspected of involvement, however he was able to flee south, and it was only after some months that the Guise were able to put him on trial. Shortly thereafter, the sickly Francis II died, their hold on the administration collapsed, and with it the conviction of Condé. This tumult would be one of the key steps in the collapse of crown authority that led to the first French War of Religion.

Death of the king
On 10 July 1559, after a jousting accident, Henry II of France died suddenly. Premature as his death was, the crown fell to his young son, Francis II, who was only 15 years old, but legally of age to rule. Francis' wife's maternal uncles, Francis, Duke of Guise and Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine moved into the power vacuum, taking control over the young and sickly king's administration. They were faced with a formidable crisis; France was 40 million livres in debt, of which 19 million was owed immediately as a result of the Italian Wars. Many royal officials had been without pay for years. Along with this fiscal crisis. the Guise administration was faced with a religious crisis. Despite the persecutions undertaken by Henry II, Protestantism had continued to grow towards the end of his reign, leaving it to the new administration the crisis of solving the religious question.

Religious policy
To solve these twin problems, the Guise set upon a course of religious political continuity, and fiscal cost cutting. The former embodied in four laws in the latter half of 1559, with landlords to be prosecuted if they harboured heretics and meeting houses to be razed to the ground among other provisions. Raids were conducted of suspected Protestant homes, and in Paris these found pamphlets, lambasting the Guise. The trial of the Protestant judge Anne du Bourg which ended in his execution in December after he refused to recant, further fanned the flames of religious tension, which exploded in the capital with the Saint-Médard riot later that month and the assassination of President (of the Parlement) Minard. The backlash to these policies, and the increasing militancy of some Protestants troubled the Guise, who issued new laws, banning the wearing of masks, and long coats that might conceal pistols.

Financial policy
On the financial side the Guise made equally many enemies, the army was drastically scaled down in size, and payments to troops were deferred, upsetting many soldiers. Some came to the royal residence to voice their displeasure, and were threatened by Lorraine with hanging if they didn't vacate the premises. Further, many of the cuts to the administration and new taxes had notable exemptions for the lands of the Guise, and their clients, angering those elites, who were not among their circles. Crown lands were resumed, with the exception of Guises' holdings of Saumur, Provins and Dourdan further alienating those elites who had benefited from such crown grants. Finally venal office was suppressed, a move which inflamed the title holders who lost their privileges.

Factions form
No sooner had Henry II died than malcontent factions began to form against the new Guise led government. Those opposed to the Guise sought for Antoine of Navarre to become regent of the kingdom, conscious of his flirtations with Protestantism in the late 1550s. This was despite Francis II being of legal age to rule. This faction further desired the calling of an Estates General, to solve many of what they perceived as the kingdom's ills in the past decades. The Guise's alienation of elements of the army through their fiscal policy furthered this disgruntled clique, bringing into their number Maligny and Castelnau among others.

Conspiracy established
Around August 1559 a plan began to consolidate for the coup plot, aiming at first to assert Navarre's right to a regency, and, when he proved uninterested, Condé's more dubious right as a minor prince of the blood. La Renaudie was tasked to lead this coup attempt. He had personal reasons to want to see the Guise taken from power, the Cardinal of Lorraine having had his brother-in-law executed. La Renaudie boasted that he had the support of John Calvin in Geneva and was given an angry reception when he visited the city hunting for recruits late in the year.

The large part of the ideological support base for the coup came from petit seigneurs such as de Mauvans and Protestant clerics, such as Antoine de la Roche Chandieu. Alongside military malcontents often from their retinues or clients, many poor soldiers were easily tempted by La Renaudie's offer of 10 sous for infantry and 18 sous for cavalry. The church of Provence was the only consistory to be fully onboard, the region, one of great Protestant strength, offering 2000 soldiers to the cause of the coup. Gaspard II de Coligny who had come to terms with the Guise recently was uninterested in involving himself, and did his best to persuade the Protestant nobility of Normandy in his powerbase to stay clear of involvement.

Final meeting
On 1 February the conspirators met in the forests near Nantes for a 'Parliament' during which the baron du Raunay offered his nearby château as a springboard for the operation and all participants swore an oath. The location was chosen to coincide with the meeting of the nearby Parlement, to explain the conspirators' presence in the area.

Conspiracy exposed
On 12 February, the court left the Château de Marchenoir, where Léonor d'Orléans, duc de Longueville had been entertaining the young Francis with hunting and other pursuits, and began the journey to Amboise. On the route they were overtaken by the Duke's secretary Millet, who had with him a lawyer named Pierre des Avenelles. Avenelles' Paris home had been made into a safe house for the plotters, and he claimed he had gotten uneasy with the conversations he was overhearing. The Guise were soon to give him a reward of 10,000 livres for the information he told them, which suggests other motives for his defection however. He elaborated on a conspiracy to arrest de Guise at Amboise, and to force the King to declare a liberty of conscience. He also knew the name of the leader of the conspiracy, La Renaudie.

Rumours had been swirling for some time that a plot was in the air, however now the Guise had concrete details. They had long suspected Condé of involvement in opposition plots, and he had already been passed over for the governorship of Picardy he had been promised in January. But Condé was cautious, and however greatly involved, he carefully left no written evidence, working instead through servants. Robert Stuart, who had been suspected of involvement in the assassination of President Minard, was brought to Amboise and tortured in the hope he knew the date of the operation. In preparation for the attack much of the high nobility was invited to Amboise, including Coligny and Condé on 21 February, and they duly arrived at the castle.

Pre-emptive strike
The first action occurred on 11 March, when a group sent out from Amboise, under the count of Sancerre to Tours where they were able to pick up and arrest around ten of the plotters, including the baron de Castelnau and captain Mazères who were waiting for the delivery of money for the operation. A further 25 conspirators were picked up while they were walking outside the Château de Noizay a small distance from Amboise castle, and the whole group were taken in to the fortress. Most of the captured men would however be released, after a stern rebuke from Chancellor François Olivier, once it was determined they had largely joined the conspiracy over oaths of loyalty or lack of pay.

The main body
On the morning of 15 March, a new panic set in as 200 horsemen were sighted by boatman on the Loire, making their way down the Blois road to Amboise, wearing white sashes to symbolise their Protestant purity. A several hour fight began in the suburbs between these men and the defenders, ending in their scattering. Condé could do little but watch them flee from the battlements of the castle. In the aftermath of the battle, La Renaudie was hunted down in the woods, and killed, his corpse being taken back to Amboise for display. He would be hung from the gates with a placard which read "La Renaudie also known as la Forest, author of the conspiracy, chief and leader of the rebels."

Mopping up
It was now that a fanning out of arrest parties took place. Jacques d'Albon, Seigneur de Saint André was dispatched with 200 horsemen to Tours, Paul de Thermes was dispatched to Blois, François de Scépeaux to Orléans, and Louis, Duke of Montpensier to Angers. They conducted further arrests during the day, with some of their targets retreating into houses to continue fighting and having to be burned out. On 17 March, Francis II made the duke of Guise lieutenant-general of the kingdom, giving him overall authority of the military. He set about further refortifying Amboise, providing artillery to weak sections, and assigning princes and knights to each quarter of the castle. Further efforts to contain the situation were made. A general amnesty notice was issued for any rebels who returned to their homes within 24 hours; others would be proclaimed rebels, anyone would be allowed to kill them, and their property would be forfeit. Conscious of the confused composition of the insurrection, a provision allowing petitions from subjects if they came to the king 'loyally' was also granted.

Over the following days, work continued on the castle, and trenches around it were made. With the arrest parties mopping up stragglers, all relevant bailiffs and seneschals were granted authority to arrest those found in the countryside around Amboise.

Immediate consequences
With most of the conspiracy's leadership captured or killed in the field, the Guise set about interrogating the prisoners they had caught, and examining the papers they had captured from the various raided châteaux. The number of executions that followed has been reported to be as high as 1500, though this appears to be an exaggeration. What was more shocking to aristocratic contemporaries was the summary nature of the executions - even of men of 'good birth' - who were hanged or drowned in the Loire. The baron de Castelnau was executed, despite the promise of the gentleman who arrested him that if he came quietly he would not be killed. Guise's wife Anna d'Este pled for his life, but to no avail.

Eager to avoid suspicion, Condé did not immediately depart the scene, and stayed at Amboise, angrily denouncing those who were now murmuring of his involvement as 'scum.' Once the court had moved off to the Queen Mother's residence at Chenonceau, he went further, calling his questioners liars - a cutting rebuke in aristocratic circles - and challenged anyone who would openly accuse him to fight him in single combat. The duke of Guise, aware that for the moment he lacked proof, consoled Condé that he had no suspicions, and in an audience with the King and Queen Mother they accepted his denials, although Lorraine could not help but avoid eye contact. Taking advantage of Condé's absence at the King's lever on April 18, his apartments were raided on the orders of Catherine de' Medici; however, nothing was found. A few days later, Condé decided that things had finally gone too far, and slipped down south to Bordeaux and the relative safety of his brother's household.

Edict of Amboise
Despite their victory over the rebellion, the Guise were conscious that the religious policy of recent years had decidedly failed, and they sought to take a different path. The general pardon established during the conspiracy itself made a distinction between those of religious motivation and those of political motivation, with the former to be tolerated as long as they lived in obedience to the King, and the latter to be treated as enemies of the state. This represented a sharp contrast from recent policy. This trend would be continued in the Edict of Amboise, which pardoned those convicted of heresy offences as long as they lived as good Catholics from then on. A further shift came next month with the Edict of Romorantin, which transferred heresy cases to ecclesiastical courts that lacked the authority to give the death penalty, effectively ending capital punishment for heresy in France.

Lyon and disorder in the south
The rebellion may have been crushed in Amboise, but the situation was deteriorating in the provinces. Troops raised for the conspiracy in Dauphiné, Provence, and the Lyonnais were left without central direction, creating the nucleus of guerrilla armies instead. In Montauban, several churches were seized and modified in a Calvinist manner. Meanwhile, an attempt by the governor of Rouen to crack down on Protestants in his city resulted in a riot against him.

It was in Lyon where the most serious element of the conspiracy outside Paris would occur. On September 7, 1560, 3 days after the discovery of a stockpile of weapons had been found in a leading Protestant church member's house, Pierre Menard would be arrested. The house was full of Protestant soldiers who fought their way out of the building before fleeing the town. Menard explained to his captors that Amboise had been part of a wider conspiracy, which was to have involved the capture of Lyon for the Protestants, and that leading Geneva clergy — including John Calvin — were involved. John Calvin's letters to Maligny in Lyon confirmed Menard's testimony; Calvin referred to Maligny as "our hotspur."

The narrow foiling of this Lyon plot further angered Guise and Lorraine, who had suspected Condé and Navarre's involvement in the affair — a matter seemingly confirmed when an agent sent by Condé was captured with papers implicating him. They called an Assembly of Notables to discuss reforms for the kingdom, and agreed upon a package to present to a planned Estates General. Only Condé and Navarre were absent, being too fearful of arrest. To further isolate the renegade princes, two super-governorships were created for the kingdom, with one given to Charles, Prince of La Roche-sur-Yon and the other to Louis, Duke of Montpensier, thus separating them from their cousins.

Arrest, trial and release of Condé
No longer able to tolerate this treason, Condé was summoned to join the soon to be convened Estates General of 1560-1. Thoroughly outnumbered by the troops under the Guises and Philip II, they had little choice but to attend. Upon arrival, Condé was arrested on October 31, along with the Vidame of Chartres. Condé filibustered the proceedings, demanding a trial of his peers, and not recognising the authority of his judges. Eventually, though, the trial would proceed, and he would be found guilty, with an indeterminate sentence, likely at the Château de Loches. However, his imprisonment was to be short. Not long after, Francis II, who had always been of fragile health, suffered an ear infection brought about by the cold, and he died on December 5, 1560. This spelled the end for the Guise administration. Soon a regency was arranged for the young Charles IX under Catherine de' Medici. She negotiated Navarre out of his position as regent (the usual prerogative as first prince of the blood) with the leverage of offering the release of the arrested Condé. Subsequently he was released on 20 December.

title: Amboise conspiracy


text:
"V" device

A "V" device is a metal 1/4 in capital letter "V" with serifs which, when worn on certain decorations awarded by the United States Armed Forces, distinguishes a decoration awarded for combat valor or heroism from the same decoration being awarded for a member's actions under circumstances other than combat.

The decorations with which a "V" may be authorized differ among the military services, as well as the manner in which the "V" is worn and the name by which it is referred to. Until 2017, each service also used different criteria in determining whether a "V" could be authorized.

Etymology
The Department of Defense, Army, and Air Force refer to the "V" as the "V" device. The Coast Guard refers to it as the Valor Device, while the Navy and Marine Corps refer to it as the Combat Distinguishing Device or Combat "V". When referring to a medal that has been awarded with the "V" device, it is often referred to as having been awarded "with valor".

History
On 22 December 1945, in War Department Circular 383, the United States Army decided to introduce the "V" device to distinguish the award of a Bronze Star Medal for acts of valor and heroism, rather than meritorious service. Soldiers, including Army airmen, who were awarded the Bronze Star Medal for heroism in combat were now authorized to wear a bronze "V" on the suspension and service ribbon of the medal. Only one "V" was allowed to be worn on a ribbon. The Department of the Navy introduced the "V" as the "Combat Distinguishing Device", and on 15 February 1946, authorized the "V" device to be worn on the Legion of Merit and Bronze Star Medal for services or acts performed in actual combat with the enemy; in February 1947, this was changed to acts or services involving direct participation in combat operations. Most World War II veterans who were entitled to the "V" probably did not know about or apply for the device, since large-scale separations from the services were taking place after the war ended. Stocks of the device also were not available for issue for at least a year after the issuance of the Army circular.

To be worn on a decoration, the "V" device must have been specifically authorized in the written award citation issued with the medal. In 1996, the "V" device garnered public attention after the suicide of Admiral Jeremy Boorda, who was the Chief of Naval Operations. The news media reported that his death by suicide may have been caused by a Navy investigation following a story by Newsweek about Boorda wearing two "combat valor pins" on the service ribbons of his uniform, which he received for duty as a weapons officer and executive officer aboard two naval ships off the coast of Indochina during the Vietnam War. Although there were indications these "combat distinguishing devices" were authorized to be worn on his Navy Commendation Medal and Navy Achievement Medal, the Department of the Navy Board For Correction of Naval Records determined after his death that both of the devices were not authorized to be worn on the two decorations.

In 2011, the Department of Defense changed its awards manual regulations concerning the Medal of Honor (MOH), specifying that the "V" device instead of the oak leaf cluster and $5/16$ inch star would be used to denote additional citations in the rare event of a service member being awarded a second MOH. By May 2015, the Department of Defense changed its awards manual again concerning the MOH, specifying that a separate MOH is presented to an individual for each succeeding act that justifies an award. There has not been a living repeat MOH recipient since the World War I era, so the "V" device has yet to be worn in this fashion by a living recipient.

Until 2017, the criteria and conditions under which the "V" device could be awarded differed among the services. For the Army, the "V" was worn solely to denote "participation in acts of heroism involving conflict with an armed enemy". For the Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard, the "V" could be worn to denote combat heroism, or to recognize individuals who were "exposed to personal hazard during direct participation in combat operations". For the Air Force, the "V" could be worn on the Bronze Star Medal to denote heroism in combat, but also on the Commendation Medal and Achievement Medal to denote heroism or for being "placed in harm's way" during contingency deployment operations.

Prior to 1 January 2014, the device was also authorized on Outstanding Unit Awards and Organizational Excellence Awards to indicate the unit participated in direct combat support actions. The "V" device is also authorized for the Air Medal by all the services where heroism in aerial combat was involved on an individual mission. On 15 August 2016, the Coast Guard changed their criteria such that new awards of the "V" would be for valor only, to denote a heroic act or acts while participating in conflict or combat with an armed enemy. On 6 January 2016, the Department of Defense announced that it was revising its military decorations and awards program to include a "V" device change to its original 1940s use of denoting heroism in combat only on specific decorations for the military services. Two new "C" and "R" devices will also be used on relevant awards.

Device changes
On 2 February 2017, new silver-plated and gold-plated "V" devices were introduced, followed by wreathed versions in September which led to speculation that the various versions of the "V" device would now indicate how many times a specific medal was awarded with the "V." The U.S. Air Force uniform regulations update of 15 April 2019, was the first to describe and depict the new "V" devices as follows:

On 21 December 2016, the "V" device ceased being authorized for Achievement Medals. Retroactive to January 2016, the "V" device ceased being authorized for the Legion of Merit, being replaced by the "C" device.

Decorations eligible for the "V" device
Currently, the following decorations of the United States Armed Forces are eligible to be awarded with a "V" device.

Army, Air Force and Space Force
For the Army and the Air Force, the "V" is positioned to the right of any bronze or silver oak leaf clusters from the wearer's perspective, or positioned in the center of the service ribbon if worn alone.

Only 4 devices may be worn per ribbon; an additional ribbon is worn to the wearer's left when necessary to support additional devices:

Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard
For the Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard, the "V" is always worn in the center of the service ribbon, while any gold or silver $5/16$ Inch Stars are added in balance to the right and left of the "V" starting with the right side from the wearer's perspective. Marine Corps refer to it as Combat Distinguishing Device. The Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard continue to award and issue the bronze version. The Marine Corps allows anodized medals and anodized Combat "V"s to be worn on the dress blues uniform.

Combined with Arabic numerals
Golden or brass Arabic numerals may be used to indicate the total number of times the medal was awarded if the total number of devices, of any types, exceed 4 total devices and would thus not fit on a single ribbon.

Notable recipients

 * Brett Blanton, Architect of the Capitol
 * Eddie Albert, actor and activist
 * Richard Lee Armitage, US Deputy Secretary of State
 * Monica Beltran
 * Michael Boorda, 25th Chief of Naval Operations
 * Jim Bridenstine, US Representative
 * Maurice Britt, NFL football player
 * William B. Caldwell III
 * Duane Carey, NASA astronaut
 * Christopher Cassidy, NASA astronaut
 * Llewellyn Chilson
 * Max Cleland, US Senator
 * Dan Crenshaw, US Representative
 * Paris Davis, former Commander of the 10th Special forces
 * Ray Davis, 14th Asst Commandant of the Marine Corps
 * Bob Dole, US Senator
 * Desmond Doss
 * Joseph Dunford, 19th Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
 * Joseph F. Enright, World War II submarine captain.
 * Michael Fahey, Mayor of Omaha
 * Kenneth Raymond Fleenor, Mayor of Selma, Texas
 * Ronald Fogleman, 15th Chief of Staff of the Air Force
 * Tommy Franks, Commander of the US Central Command
 * William J. Gainey
 * Jonny Kim, SEAL Team 3 member, NASA Astronaut
 * Joseph L. Galloway, newspaper correspondent and columnist
 * Bill Genaust
 * Calvin Graham, youngest US serviceman to serve and fight during World War II, at 12 years of age
 * Mark Green, US Representative
 * William Guarnere
 * David H. Hackworth, journalist
 * Michael Hagee, 33rd Commandant of the Marine Corps
 * Alexander Haig, US Secretary of State
 * John Harllee
 * Gustav Hasford, novelist, journalist and poet
 * Michael Hayden, Director of the CIA
 * Ira Hayes
 * Joseph P. Hoar, Commander in Chief of US Central Command
 * Charles T. Horner Jr.
 * Robert L. Howard
 * Zach Iscol, entrepreneur, candidate in the 2021 New York City Comptroller election
 * Jack H. Jacobs, military analyst and investment manager
 * Richard Jadick
 * Sam Johnson, US Representative
 * James L. Jones, 32nd Commandant of the Marine Corps
 * Woodrow Keeble
 * John Kerry, US Secretary of State
 * Harry Kizirian
 * Charles C. Krulak, 31st Commandant of the Marine Corps
 * Victor H. Krulak, author
 * Chris Kyle, Navy Seal Sniper
 * Douglas MacArthur, five-star general
 * Richard Marcinko, 1st commanding officer of Seal Team Six
 * Lee Marvin, actor
 * John McCain, US Senator
 * Michael A. Monsoor
 * Robert Mueller, Director of the FBI
 * Audie Murphy, actor, songwriter, and rancher
 * Raymond L. Murray
 * John P. Murtha, US Representative
 * Peter Pace, 16th Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
 * David Petraeus, Director of the CIA
 * Chance Phelps
 * Chesty Puller
 * Charles B. Rangel, US Representative
 * L. Scott Rice
 * Matthew Ridgway, 19th Chief of Staff of the US Army
 * John Ripley
 * Norman Schwarzkopf, Commander of US Central Command
 * Sidney Shachnow
 * Hugh Shelton, 14th Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
 * David M. Shoup, 22nd Commandant of the Marine Corps
 * Arthur D. Simons
 * Jamie Smith
 * Clifton Sprague World War II admiral, commander of Task Unit 77 during the Battle off Samar
 * Robert L. Stewart, NASA astronaut
 * Earl E. Stone, 1st Director of the Armed Forces Security Agency, the predecessor of the National Security Agency
 * Oliver Stone
 * Jeff Struecker
 * Keni Thomas, country music singer
 * Strom Thurmond, US Senator
 * Matt Urban
 * John William Vessey Jr., 10th Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
 * Alejandro Villanueva, NFL football player
 * Raúl G. Villaronga, Mayor of Killeen, Texas
 * Larry D. Welch, 12th Chief of Staff of the US Air Force
 * Allen West, US Representative
 * Chuck Yeager, first pilot confirmed to have exceeded the speed of sound in level flight
 * Elmo R. Zumwalt Jr., 19th Chief of Naval Operations

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: "V" device


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Bureau of Intelligence and Research

The Bureau of Intelligence and Research (INR) is an intelligence agency in the United States Department of State. Its central mission is to provide all-source intelligence and analysis in support of U.S. diplomacy and foreign policy. INR is the oldest civilian element of the U.S. Intelligence Community and among the smallest, with roughly 300 personnel. Though lacking the resources and technology of other U.S. intelligence agencies, it is "one of the most highly regarded" for the quality of its work.

INR is descended from the Research and Analysis Branch (R&A) of the World War II-era Office of Strategic Services (OSS), which was tasked with identifying the strengths and weaknesses of the Axis powers. Widely recognized as the most valuable component of the OSS, upon its dissolution in 1945, R&A assets and personnel were transferred to the State Department, forming the Office of Intelligence Research. INR was reorganized into its current form in 1947.

In addition to supporting the policies and initiatives of the State Department, INR contributes to the President's Daily Briefings (PDB) and serves as the federal government's primary source of foreign public opinion research and analysis. INR is primarily analytical and does not engage in counterintelligence or espionage, instead utilizing intelligence collected by other agencies, Foreign Service reports and open-source materials, such as news media and academic publications. INR reviews and publishes nearly two million reports and produces about 3,500 intelligence assessments annually.

The INR is headed by the Assistant Secretary of State for Intelligence and Research reporting directly to the Secretary of State and serves as the secretary's primary intelligence advisor. In March 2021, President Joe Biden nominated Brett Holmgren to lead INR.

History
INR has played a key role in the US intelligence community.

Review of Covert Actions During Johnson Administration
In 1967, the INR played an important role in an internal governmental review of covert operations oversight. In early 1967, in the wake of news reports regarding CIA interference in domestic affairs and efforts to assassinate Castro, the Johnson White House ordered the Justice Department to investigate CIA ties to private voluntary organizations in the US. It was increasingly clear, writes journalist Tim Weiner, that “[t]he mechanisms created to watch over the CIA and to invest its clandestine service with presidential authority were not working.” The INR provided a memo to Deputy Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs Foy D. Kohler dated February 15, 1967. The memo identified several weaknesses in the oversight and management of the CIA’s “5412 activities” (which refers to an NSC Directive 5412/2 of December 28, 1955 authorizing the CIA to conduct foreign covert actions ). While concluding the procedures of the 303 Committee “are not too bad except for the shortness of time for staffing” the INR memo went on to point out that some covert activities “lack adequate detail on how certain programs are to be carried out and we lack continuing review of major ongoing programs in the light of changing circumstances.” The memo made a number of recommendations to improve oversight by the 303 Committee and to revisit procedures for the “handling of 5412 activities.” Later that year, INR’s director Thomas L. Hughes made recommendations to revise NSC 5412 in order “to deal more explicitly with the risks, consequences, and alternatives of covert operations” among other reasons. Among the recommended changes to NSC 5412 are the need for the U.S. to maintain plausible deniability for covert actions as well as an acknowledgment that covert actions “carry the serious long-term risk of eroding or negating [legal and social] principles, which are fundamental to the achievement of long-range United States objectives.” Therefore, “United States policy to keep covert operations to an irreducible minimum, and to undertake a covert operation only when it is determined, after careful consideration, that the prospective results (a) are essential to national security or national interests; (b) are of such value as significantly to outweigh the risks, both immediate and long-term; and (c) cannot be effectively obtained in any other way.” (see Memorandum From the Director of the Bureau of Intelligence and Research (Hughes) to the Deputy Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs (Kohler) ). Hughes discussed these recommendations with Secretary of State Dean Rusk and Assistant AG Nick Katzenbach on May 5, 1967. However, NSC 5412 was not revised during the Johnson administration.

Vietnam War
In May 2004, the National Security Archive released a highly classified review of INR's written analysis of the Vietnam War during the 1960s commissioned in 1969 by then-INR director Thomas L. Hughes. The INR written analysis was a 596 page study examining US decisions made during the Vietnam War. Some notable information within the review included pointing out the INR relied on circumstansial evidence to blame the North Vietnamese for maliciously attacking the US during the Gulf of Tonkin Incident. The review showed that INR had repeatedly warned of the weaknesses of the South Vietnamese Government and of the failing US strategy in Vietnam, and that, despite pressure from the military and Pentagon, INR had portrayed and projected the course of the war more accurately than any other source. That being said, there are instances within the review noting events the INR could not have predicted, one of the most infamous being the Tet Offensive in 1968; "Nothing, however... of the situation led INR to anticipate the scope or nature of the Tet Offensive." Still, the majority of the INR's findings were accurate to the course of the war and highlighted the poor intelligence gathering of the CIA in comparison. An annex within the review was dedicated to critiquing the CIA's decision in intelligence gathering and the conflict the CIA had with the Defense Intelligence Agency.

Iraq War
In July 2004, the United States Senate Select Committee on Intelligence issued a scathing report on prewar intelligence on Iraq. INR was spared the poor performance review that most other intelligence agencies received, and the panel specifically endorsed the dissent that INR inserted into the National Intelligence Estimate of 2002. The bureau was being studied as a positive example as Congress debated how to best reform U.S. intelligence agencies in the wake of the 2003 invasion of Iraq.

Myer Arrest (2009)
In June 2009, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) arrested former INR employee Walter Kendall Myers on charges of serving as an illegal agent of the Cuban government for nearly 30 years and conspiring to provide classified U.S. information to the Cuban government. Myers had worked in the INR from 2000 to 2007. His arrest was the culmination of a three-year joint investigation by the FBI and the Department of State Diplomatic Security Service.

2022 Russian Invasion of Ukraine
INR was the only US intelligence agency to dissent from the consensus that Kyiv would fall in a few days during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. Although it agreed with other agencies in overestimating Russian military capability, unlike the others INR used growing Ukrainian willingness to fight in opinion surveys to predict that the country would strongly resist the invasion.

Mission
The primary mission of the INR is to provide all-source intelligence to support U.S. diplomats. This is achieved through all-source analysis, intelligence policy and coordination, polling and media analysis, and conferences and workshops to integrate outside expertise. As the nexus of intelligence and foreign policy, it plays a key role in ensuring that intelligence activities are consistent with U.S. foreign policy, and that other components of the Intelligence Community (IC) understand the information and analysis needs of senior foreign policy decision makers. INR's portfolio is as broad and diverse as the secretary's global agenda. As a result, INR employs experts who understand current policy concerns as well as the historical context to provide input to policymakers and timely guidance to the IC. Officially, INR intelligence is aimed at ensuring that diplomats, policymakers, and other government officials have access to focused intelligence products that will help advance U.S. foreign policy, namely to build democracies, promote economic stability, provide humanitarian assistance, and combat terrorism, disease, and the proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) around the world. INR is the department's principal liaison with the Office of the Director of National Intelligence (ODNI). Since the creation of the ODNI, there have been many changes in the IC, including more attention to customer needs, new standards for information sharing, and initiatives regarding analytic standards. INR participates in a wide variety of working groups and committees on behalf of the Department of State, and INR analysts participate in the drafting of IC assessments and analyses.

Priorities

 * Expanding electronic dissemination of intelligence so that Department policymakers can access intelligence quickly and securely from the desktop;
 * Creating and maintaining an expert workforce through recruitment, training, and professional development in support of the national security mission;
 * Tracking and analyzing issues that may undermine efforts to promote peace and security such as terrorism, the spread of WMD, and trafficking in humans and illicit drugs;
 * Playing a key role in the IC to optimize intelligence collection and requirements so that current and future diplomatic information needs are met, resulting in enhanced intelligence support for policymakers;
 * Increasing collaboration and information sharing on humanitarian issues through the interagency Humanitarian Information Unit;
 * Serving as a leader in the USG for foreign public opinion surveys and polls that will help inform the USG’s public diplomacy initiatives; and
 * Providing all-source analyses and assessments that examine trends in governance, democracy, and human rights and assess domestic policies and leadership performance in countries of interest.

Assistant Secretary for Intelligence and Research (INR)
The assistant secretary for intelligence and research provides intelligence support for the secretary of state, other department principals and policy bureaus and directs the department's program of research and analysis. The assistant secretary serves as the representative of the secretary of state in the Intelligence Community (IC), liaises with the Director of National Intelligence and the IC, and ensures bureau participation in community intelligence analysis, as appropriate. The assistant secretary ensures that U.S. intelligence activities support U.S. foreign policy priorities and are carried out in accordance with law and with Executive Order 12333 dated December 4, 1981. The assistant secretary articulates requirements for intelligence collection and analysis in support of diplomacy. The assistant secretary maintains information management systems to ensure efficient, timely receipt, processing, and dissemination of intelligence materials. The assistant secretary facilitates requests to other intelligence agencies from Department offices for declassification, release, or exceptional use of information derived from intelligence sources. As senior officer of the intelligence community, the assistant secretary delegates to the Determination Authority, the administration of access eligibility for sensitive compartmented information (SCI) under Director of Central Intelligence Directive (DCID) 6/4 “Personnel Security Standards.”

Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary for Intelligence and Research (INR/PDAS)
The Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary for Intelligence and Research (INR/PDAS) serves as the senior deputy and advisor to the assistant secretary. The PDAS has the authority to act on the assistant secretary’s behalf in his or her absence. The PDAS provides overall management for the bureau. The PDAS, in consultation with the assistant secretary, plans and supervises the substantive work of the bureau. The PDAS represents the bureau in department and interagency groups. The PDAS supervises six offices, as directed by the assistant secretary.

Office of the Executive Director (INR/EX)
The Office of the Executive Director (INR/EX) advises the assistant secretary and Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary on, and provides executive management and direction of: INR/EX liaises with the Office of the Director of National Intelligence (ODNI) on a variety of intelligence policy issues in the areas of: INR/EX serves as the INR coordinator for internal controls management, Department inspections and audits, and other reporting requirements.
 * Budget and finance;
 * Human resources;
 * Information technology;
 * General services;
 * Communications;
 * Administrative services;
 * Strategic planning and performance management; and
 * Security.
 * Human capital;
 * Training and rotational assignments;
 * Budget and financial management;
 * Strategic planning and performance management;
 * Security; and
 * Continuity of operations.

The Office of Administrative Liaison (INR/EX/AL)

 * Reports to the executive director, INR; and
 * Serves as the department’s focal point for coordinating personnel and other administrative issues with Intelligence Community agencies.

The Office of Research (INR/PDAS/R)

 * Commissions and manages surveys of foreign public and elite opinion around the world on major policy issues;
 * Produces written analyses of foreign opinion for high-level policy makers and briefs results to officials;
 * Produces daily analyses of foreign media editorial commentary on major policy issues for officials in Washington, DC and abroad; and
 * Represents INR in interagency committees on open source issues.

The External Research Staff (INR/PDAS/R/RES)

 * Reports to the Director, Office of Research;
 * Organizes and funds conferences and studies which facilitate the interchange of experience and ideas between outside experts and U.S. Government officials;
 * Provides briefings for newly appointed U.S. ambassadors on key issues pertaining to their assignments; and
 * Manages on behalf of the Secretary of State the Russian, Eurasian and East European Research and Training Program.

The Watch (INR/Watch)

 * Is the State Department’s 24-hour/7 days-a-week intelligence center for monitoring, evaluating, alerting, and briefing time-sensitive intelligence to Department and bureau principals; and
 * Is the principal liaison to other Intelligence Community operations centers.

Publications Staff (INR/PDAS/PUB)

 * Standardizes format, assures quality in INR publications, and edits and produces all bureau publications;
 * Manages INR participation in Intelligence Community and Department Web sites, including content, production, and security for all sites; and
 * Represents the bureau on interagency boards dealing with electronic publishing and information sharing.

The Deputy Assistant Secretary for Analysis (INR/AN)

 * Manages a comprehensive program of current and long-term intelligence analysis for the department;
 * Represents INR on Intelligence Community bodies concerned with the planning, coordination, and quality of analytic intelligence products;
 * Serves as an advocate in INR for analytic integrity and effectiveness; and
 * Supervises 10 offices, as directed by the assistant secretary.

Geographic Offices

 * Produce timely, all-source analysis and assessments on regions, countries, and topics of interest to the Secretary and Department principals;
 * Provide current intelligence support to Department principals and desk officers;
 * Draft intelligence assessments and articles for the President’s Daily Brief, National Intelligence Estimates (NIEs), and other Intelligence Community (IC) products; and
 * Collaborate with analysts in other IC agencies, U.S. Government experts, and outside experts on intelligence topics and countries.

The geographic offices are:

Office of Analysis for Africa (INR/AN/AA)
Responsible for sub-Saharan Africa.

Office of Analysis for East Asia and the Pacific (IN/AN/EAP)
Responsible for East Asia and the Pacific.

Office of Analysis for Europe (INR/AN/EU)
Responsible for all European countries, including the Baltic States, but excluding other states that were formerly part of the Soviet Union.

Office of Analysis for Inter-American Affairs (INR/AN/IAA)
Responsible for Latin America, the Caribbean, and Canada.

Office of Analysis for Near East and South Asia (INR/AN/NESA)
Responsible for the Near East, including North Africa and South Asia.

Office of Analysis for Russia and Eurasia (INR/AN/REA)
Responsible for Russia and Eurasia.

Office of Economic Analysis (INR/AN/EC)
The Office of Economic Analysis (INR/AN/EC) produces all-source intelligence analysis and assessments on international economic issues, including: INR/AN/EC serves as the bureau lead on sanctions issues. INR/AN/EC provides support to the National Intelligence Council Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States (CFIUS).
 * Economic growth and development;
 * Economic security;
 * Trade;
 * Energy; and
 * Terrorism financing.

Office of the Geographer and Global Issues (INR/AN/GGI)
The Office of the Geographer and Global Issues (INR/AN/GGI) produces intelligence analysis and assessments on humanitarian crises and multilateral interventions; international migration and refugee flows; the environment and sustainable development; tensions over natural resource scarcity and energy issues; boundary disputes and territorial claims; human rights abuses and war crimes; democracy promotion and elections; the activities of the United Nations and other international organizations; and the impact of climate on national security.

In consultation with country directors, INR/AN/GGI submits official non-US geographic names used by U.S. Government agencies to the US Board on Geographic Names. INR/AN/GGI advises the department and other federal agencies on geographic and cartographic matters. INR/AN/GGI produces maps, graphics, and Geographic Information System (GIS) products for the department and other customers, and reviews maps and charts produced by other agencies. INR/AN/GGI serves as the U.S. Government’s Executive Agent for information sharing with the international criminal tribunals for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) and Rwanda (ICTR), and with the war crimes Special Court for Justine Rose. INR/AN/GGI serves as the U.S. Government focal point for collecting, analyzing, and disseminating unclassified information related to humanitarian crises. The Director of INR/AN/GGI serves as the Geographer.

Office of Analysis for Terrorism, Narcotics, and Crime (INR/AN/TNC)
The Office of Analysis for Terrorism, Narcotics, and Crime (INR/AN/TNC) produces analysis of issues involving trends in international terrorism, narcotics, and crime, particularly as they affect U.S. security and diplomatic efforts. INR/AN/TNC works closely with major Intelligence Community (IC) analytic centers concerned with counterterrorism, narcotics, and international crime issues. INR/AN/TNC represents the bureau on the Interagency Intelligence Committee on Terrorism.

Office of Analysis for Strategic, Proliferation, and Military Issues (INR/AN/SPM)
The Office of Analysis for Strategic, Proliferation, and Military Issues (INR/AN/SPM) produces analysis on a wide range of strategic, arms control, proliferation, and political-military issues, including: INR/AN/SPM drafts intelligence assessments and articles for the President’s Daily Brief, National Intelligence Estimates (NIEs), and other Intelligence Community (IC) products. INR/AN/SPM collaborates with analysts in other IC agencies, U.S. Government experts, and outside experts on intelligence topics and countries.
 * Proliferation of weapons of mass destruction and their means of delivery;
 * International transfers of advanced conventional weapons and weapons-related technologies;
 * Bilateral and multilateral arms control agreements; and
 * Military conflicts and military balances in areas of priority interest to Department customers.

Deputy Assistant Secretary for Intelligence Policy and Coordination (INR/IPC)
The Deputy Assistant Secretary for Intelligence Policy and Coordination (INR/IPC) coordinates the department's participation in intelligence activities to include those related to counterintelligence and counterterrorism. INR/IPC serves as the focal point for liaison among the department, chiefs of mission (COMs), and the Intelligence Community for matters relating to requirements, collection, evaluation and the management of intelligence activities. INR/IPC develops Department positions on intelligence and counterintelligence policy issues that directly affect foreign policy and concerns of U.S. missions abroad. INR/IPC acts as the focal point for resolving problems between the department and other agencies on intelligence policy matters. INR/IPC supervises three offices, as directed by the assistant secretary.

Office of Intelligence Operations (INR/IPC/I)
The Office of Intelligence Operations (INR/IPC/I) coordinates sensitive civilian and military intelligence operations and programs. INR/IPC/I supports the Secretary and chiefs of mission in the exercise of their intelligence oversight responsibilities. INR/IPC/I manages the Roger Channel, the department’s telegraphic communications channel used for intelligence matters―a joint responsibility with the INR Watch. INR/IPC/I acts as the bureau’s focal point for liaison with Congress. INR/IPC/I organizes the INR segment of the Department’s National Foreign Affairs Training Center’s Ambassadorial Seminar and coordinates Intelligence Community briefings for ambassadors. INR/IPC/I works with the Office of the Director of National Intelligence (ODNI) on a variety of intelligence issues, including foreign intelligence relationships. INR/IPC/I coordinates collection and analysis of biographic information on foreign leaders.

Office of Intelligence Resources (INR/IPC/IRE)
The Office of Intelligence Resources (INR/IPC/IRE) coordinates actions within the department, with other Federal agencies, and with U.S. missions abroad on U.S. technical intelligence programs, operations, policies, and relations with foreign technical services. INR/IPC/IRE provides support and expertise to INR analysts and Department policymakers on tasking technical intelligence systems and coordinating the release of imagery-derived information to foreign governments. INR/IPC/IRE develops and represents the department's intelligence information needs in interagency forums concerned with requirements, collection, evaluations, and future architectures in signals, imagery, and measurement and signatures intelligence, as well as open-source information. INR/IPC/IRE provides staff support to INR principals for their participation in interagency mechanisms dealing with intelligence collection, prioritization, and resource issues. INR/IPC/IRE serves as the Executive Secretariat for the State Intelligence Policy Board.

Office of Intelligence Coordination (INR/IPC/IC)
The Office of Intelligence Coordination (INR/IPC/IC) is the principal point of contact for the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). INR/IPC/IC supports State Department participation on the National Counterintelligence Policy Board (NACIPB) and other national counterintelligence executive-managed activities. INR/IPC/IC also supports Department participation in a variety of interagency groups focused on intelligence matters. INR/IPC/IC serves as the focal point for ensuring policy review of sensitive counterintelligence and law enforcement activities. INR/IPC/IC provides operational support to Department of State activities involving the issuance/revocation of visas issued to persons believed to be a threat to U.S. national security. INR/IPC/IC coordinates other agency approval for Department of State use of intelligence in demarches and other discussions with foreign government officials. INR/IPC/IC coordinates within the Department of State implementation of the Foreign Agents Registration Act (FARA) and agreements of foreign ambassadors assigned to the United States. INR/IPC/IC manages the department’s special compartmentalized intelligence (SCI) Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) document review process. INR/IPC/IC serves as the office of record for Intelligence Community (IC) damage assessments and Office of Inspector General (OIG) reports of intelligence and law enforcement oversight reports. INR/IPC/IC works with the National Counterterrorism Center (NCTC), the National Targeting Center (NTC) and the Terrorist Screening Center (TSC) to ensure appropriate information sharing with the department. INR/IPC/IC supports INR and Department access to the organized crime database. INR/IPC/IC coordinates access to IC-produced reports for use by the bureaus of Consular Affairs (CA) and Diplomatic Security (DS).

title: Bureau of Intelligence and Research


text: File:Whatshappeningnow.jpg

title: File:Whatshappeningnow.jpg


text:
What's Happening Now!!

What's Happening Now!! is an American sitcom sequel to the original ABC 1976–1979 sitcom What's Happening!! focusing on its main characters as independent people. It aired in first-run broadcast syndication from September 7, 1985 until March 26, 1988.

Premise
In the series, Roger "Raj" Thomas (Ernest Thomas) has graduated from the University of Southern California, and become a fledgling writer. He and his new wife Nadine (Anne-Marie Johnson), a social worker, move in to his old home in Watts (given to him by his mother, Mabel Thomas (Mabel King), now remarried and living in Phoenix, Arizona). His sister, Dee (Danielle Spencer), is away at college. Childhood friend, Dwayne Nelson (Haywood Nelson), has become a computer programmer, while Freddie "Rerun" Stubbs (Fred Berry) is now a used-car salesman. The old soda shop hangout, Rob's Place, has gone out of business and has been left abandoned. Reminded of his youth, and seeing an opportunity, Raj and Shirley Wilson (Shirley Hemphill), who used to wait tables there, decide to buy the business together, renaming it "Rob's."

Cast

 * Ernest Thomas as Roger "Raj" Thomas
 * Anne-Marie Johnson as Nadine Hudson-Thomas
 * Haywood Nelson as Dwayne Nelson
 * Fred Berry as Fred "Rerun" Stubbs (season 1)
 * Shirley Hemphill as Shirley Wilson
 * Reina King as Carolyn Williams (season 1)
 * Martin Lawrence as Maurice Warfield (season 3)
 * Ken Sagoes as Darryl (season 3)
 * Danielle Spencer as Dee Thomas (recurring)

Recurring guests

 * Meshach Taylor as Buddy Carlton (2 episodes, seasons 1–2)

Cast change
After the first successful season, Fred Berry attempted to negotiate a higher salary than his co-stars based on what he perceived as the popularity of the "Rerun" character. Having caused similar issues during the production of the original series, which led to its cancellation, producers fired Berry from the series and no further mention was made of Rerun from that point forward.

Broadcast
A partial list of stations the show was syndicated to:

Home media
On June 12, 2007, Sony Pictures Home Entertainment released the first season of What's Happening Now!! on DVD in Region 1.

title: What's Happening Now!!


text:
Talk:History of the British peerage

older entries
"Catholic peers were hindered/disqualified from the House of Lords because they were forced, before taking their seats, to recite a declaration that denounced some of the Roman Church's doctrines as "superstitious and idolatrous." These provisions would not be repealed until 1829."

I have added hindered in place of disqualified because many did take the oath so weren't disqualified. Obviously others wouldn't due to their own interpretation of their faith. Alci12 18:59, 26 May 2006 (UTC)

Serious Errors in Article
This article has errors. Hundreds - were a Saxon creation (Alfred the Great) not Norman. In the Danelaw counties (East Anglia & East Midlands) a Hundred was a Wapentake (spelling might be incorrect). They were a Sub-divsion of a Shire or County. A Manor (also Saxon) could either be a sub-division of a Hundred OR an entire Hundred could be within a Manor (rare but there are cases) there was no hard and fast rule for a Manors size. William the Conqueor gave his Manors NOT Hundreds. This is quite clear in the Doomsday Book.

A Saxon Thane was not the same as a Baron. The legel definition of a Thane was ownership of five "hides of land" (the typical size of a small Manor). Though some/most Thanes owned a lot more. An actual size of a "Hide" varied 60 to 120 aces. He was thus a much smaller landowner than a Baron.

Barons created by William were granted several Manors -- between 10 to 100+. They in tern granted their Manors to their own Tenents (Usually Knights) -- Thus a Manor was often known as a "Knight's Fee"

Jarl/Earldomoman - difficult terms. Before the viking King Canute, Earldoman were the military leaders of Shires, while Jarls were the Military leaders of the Danelaw counties. These guys usually were appointed from prominent local families. (Often the descendents of pre-England/Heptachry kings). But King Canute created the Great Earls (or Jarls) to rule over groupings of counties that followed roughly the ancient kingdoms of the Heptachery (Wessex, Mercia, East Anglia etc..). The "Great Earls were far more powerful than the Norman Barons.77.251.125.7 (talk) 23:31, 28 January 2008 (UTC)
 * And eorl (which occurs in Beowulf) is an Anglo-Saxon word. The idea of using it for a local subking may be Norse; but that's not what the passage said. I have replaced it. Septentrionalis PMAnderson 02:18, 18 January 2011 (UTC)

Indeed, this article is quite a mess. Just for on thing, it's not even internally consistent. I'm going to make a few corrections, but I am merely an informed amateur on this subject, so if an expert sees a need to overrule my changes, feel free, (but please do give an eye to rest of the article if you're here).184.147.211.109 (talk) 19:25, 4 February 2021 (UTC)

External links modified
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title: Talk:History of the British peerage


text:
Jacques Raverat

Jacques Pierre Paul Raverat (pronounced Rav-er-ah) (20 March 1885 – 6 March 1925) was a French painter; Raverat was the son of Georges Pierre Raverat and Helena Lorena Raverat, née Caron; he was born in Paris, France, in 1885.

Raverat started at Bedales School in Steep, Hampshire in 1898. From Bedales, he went up to Jesus College, Cambridge.

He married the English painter and wood engraver Gwen Darwin, in 1911, the daughter of George Darwin and Lady Maud Darwin, née Maud du Puy; she was a granddaughter of Charles Darwin. They had two daughters, Elisabeth (1916–2014), who married the Norwegian politician Edvard Hambro, and Sophie Jane (1919–2011) who married the Cambridge scholar M. G. M. Pryor and later Charles Gurney. Raverat suffered from a form of multiple sclerosis and died on 6 March 1925, following complications of it. His funeral took place in Christ Church in Cannes, France, where he may be buried.

Before moving, in 1920, to Vence in France the couple were active members of an intellectual circle known as the "Neo-Pagans" and centred on Rupert Brooke. They also moved on the fringes of the Bloomsbury Group, whose members included Virginia Woolf, John Maynard Keynes, Vanessa Bell and Lytton Strachey.

In 2004, his grandson, William Pryor edited the complete correspondence between Raverat, his wife and Virginia Woolf which was published as Virginia Woolf and the Raverats.

title: Jacques Raverat


text:
Astragalus (plant)

Astragalus is a large genus of over 3,000 species of herbs and small shrubs, belonging to the legume family Fabaceae and the subfamily Faboideae. It is the largest genus of plants in terms of described species. The genus is native to temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Common names include milkvetch (most species), locoweed (in North America, some species) and goat's-thorn (A. gummifer, A. tragacantha). Some pale-flowered vetches (Vicia spp.) are similar in appearance, but they are more vine-like than Astragalus.

Description
Most species in the genus have pinnately compound leaves. There are annual and perennial species. The flowers are formed in clusters in a raceme, each flower typical of the legume family, with three types of petals: banner, wings, and keel. The calyx is tubular or bell-shaped.

Taxonomy
The genus was formally described in 1753 by Carl Linnaeus in his Species Plantarum.

The name Astragalus is Greek, an old name for this group of plants which were believed to have a positive effect on goat milk production.

Selected species
• Astragalus acutirostris – sharpkeel milkvetch

• Astragalus agnicidus – Humboldt County milkvetch

• Astragalus agrestis – field milkvetch, purple milkvetch, cock's-head

• Astragalus albens – Cushenbury milkvetch

• Astragalus alpinus – alpine milkvetch, mountain locoweed

• Astragalus amphioxys – crescent milkvetch

• Astragalus ampullarioides – Shivwits milkvetch

• Astragalus andersonii – Anderson's milkvetch

• Astragalus anemophilus – San Quintin Dune milkvetch

• Astragalus anisus - Gunnison milkvetch

• Astragalus annularis

• Astragalus anserinus – Goose Creek milkvetch

• Astragalus anxius – troubled milkvetch

• Astragalus applegatei – Applegate's milkvetch

• Astragalus arrectus – Palouse milkvetch

• Astragalus asymmetricus – San Joaquin milkvetch

• Astragalus atropilosulus

• Astragalus austiniae – Austin's milkvetch

• Astragalus australis – Indian milkvetch

• Astragalus azizi – Iranian milkvetch

• Astragalus barrii – Barr's milkvetch

• Astragalus bernardinus – San Bernardino milkvetch

• Astragalus bibullatus – limestone-glade milkvetch

• Astragalus bicristatus – crested milkvetch, two-crested milkvetch

• Astragalus bidentatus

• Astragalus bisulcatus – two-groove milkvetch

• Astragalus boeticus – kaffevedel (Swedish)

• Astragalus alopecurus

• Astragalus bolanderi – Bolander's milkvetch

• Astragalus brachycalyx

• Astragalus brauntonii – Braunton's milkvetch

• Astragalus breweri – Brewer's milkvetch

• Astragalus californicus – California milkvetch

• Astragalus canadensis – Canadian milkvetch

• Astragalus casei – Case's milkvetch

• Astragalus cavanillesii

• Astragalus cicer – wild lentil, chickpea milkvetch

• Astragalus cimae – Cima milkvetch

• Astragalus claranus – Clara Hunt's milkvetch, Napa milkvetch

• Astragalus clevelandii – Cleveland's milkvetch

• Astragalus coccineus – scarlet milkvetch, scarlet locoweed

• Astragalus congdonii – Congdon's milkvetch

• Astragalus cremnophylax – Sentry milkvetch

• Astragalus crotalariae – Salton milkvetch

• Astragalus curtipes – Morro milkvetch

• Astragalus danicus – purple milkvetch

• Astragalus deanei – Deane's milkvetch, Dean's milkvetch

• Astragalus desereticus – Deseret milkvetch

• Astragalus didymocarpus – two-seeded milkvetch, dwarf white milkvetch, white dwarf locoweed

• Astragalus distortus – Ozark milkvetch

• Astragalus douglasii – Douglas's milkvetch

• Astragalus ehrenbergii

• Astragalus ertterae – Walker Pass milkvetch

• Astragalus falcatus - Russian milkvetch, sickle milkvetch, sicklepod milkvetch, silverleaf milkvetch, Russian-sickle

• Astragalus filipes – basalt milkvetch

• Astragalus funereus – Funeral Mountain milkvetch

• Astragalus gambelianus – Gambel's dwarf milkvetch, dwarf locoweed

• Astragalus gibbsii – Gibbs's milkvetch

• Astragalus gilmanii – Gilman's milkvetch

• Astragalus glycyphyllos – wild liquorice, licorice milkvetch

• Astragalus harbisonii - Punta Baja milkvetch

• Astragalus holmgreniorum – Holmgren locoweed

• Astragalus humillimus – Mancos milkvetch

• Astragalus hypoxylus – Huachuca Mountain milkvetch

• Astragalus inversus – Susanville milkvetch

• Astragalus inyoensis – Inyo milkvetch

• Astragalus iselyi – Isely's milkvetch

• Astragalus jaegerianus – Lane Mountain milkvetch

• Astragalus johannis-howellii – Long Valley milkvetch

• Astragalus kentrophyta – spiny milkvetch

• Astragalus layneae – widow's milkvetch

• Astragalus lemmonii – Lemmon's milkvetch

• Astragalus lentiformis – lens pod milkvetch

• Astragalus lentiginosus – freckled milkvetch, mottled locoweed, speckled locoweed, spotted locoweed

• * Astragalus lentiginosus var. iodanthus – Humboldt River milkvetch

• * Astragalus lentiginosus var. pseudiodanthus – Tonopah milkvetch

• Astragalus leontinus – Tyrolean milkvetch

• Astragalus leptaleus

• Astragalus leucolobus – Bear Valley woollypod, Bear Valley milkvetch

• Astragalus limnocharis

• * Astragalus limnocharis var. montii – Monti's milkvetch

• Astragalus linifolius – Grand Junction milkvetch

• Astragalus loanus – Glenwood milkvetch

• Astragalus lotoides

• Astragalus malacus – shaggy milkvetch

• Astragalus microcymbus – Skiff milkvetch

• Astragalus miguelensis – San Miguel milkvetch

• Astragalus missouriensis – Missouri milkvetch

• Astragalus mohavensis – Mojave milkvetch

• Astragalus molybdenus - Leadville milkvetch, molybdenum milkvetch.

• Astragalus mongholicus – huang qi (黄芪/黃芪 huáng qí; běi qí 北芪) Mongolian milkvetch

• Astragalus monoensis – Mono milkvetch

• Astragalus monspessulanus - Montpellier milkvetch

• Astragalus mulfordiae – Mulford's milkvetch

• Astragalus nevinii – San Clemente Island milkvetch

• Astragalus newberryi – Newberry's milkvetch

• Astragalus nitidiflorus – Tallante's milkvetch

• Astragalus nutans – Providence Mountains milkvetch

• Astragalus nuttallianus – small-flowered milkvetch

• Astragalus nuttallii – Nuttall's milkvetch

• Astragalus obscurus – arcane milkvetch

• Astragalus onobrychis

• Astragalus oocarpus – Descanso milkvetch, San Diego milkvetch

• Astragalus oophorus – egg milkvetch

• Astragalus osterhoutii – Osterhout milkvetch

• Astragalus oxyphysus – Mt. Diablo milkvetch, Diablo locoweed

• Astragalus pachypus – thickpod milkvetch

• Astragalus panamintensis – panamint milkvetch

• Astragalus pauperculus – depauperate milkvetch

• Astragalus phoenix – Ash Meadows milkvetch

• Astragalus platytropis – broadkeel milkvetch

• Astragalus pomonensis – Pomona milkvetch, Pomona locoweed

• Astragalus proimanthus – precocious milkvetch

• Astragalus proximus - Aztec milkvetch

• Astragalus pulsiferae – Ames's milkvetch

• Astragalus purshii – Pursh's milkvetch, Woollypod milkvetch, woollypod locoweed

• Astragalus pycnostachyus – Marsh milkvetch

• Astragalus rattanii – Rattan's milkvetch

• Astragalus ripleyi - Ripley's milkvetch

• Astragalus robbinsii – Robbins's milkvetch

• Astragalus sabulonum – gravel milkvetch

• Astragalus sarcocolla

• Astragalus scaphoides – bitterroot milkvetch

• Astragalus schmolliae – Schmoll milkvetch

• Astragalus shevockii – Shevock's milkvetch, Little Kern milkvetch

• Astragalus sinicus – Chinese milkvetch, renge

• Astragalus sinuatus – Whited's milkvetch

• Astragalus soxmaniorum – Soxman's milkvetch

• Astragalus subvestitus – Kern County milkvetch

• Astragalus tener – alkali milkvetch

• Astragalus tennesseensis – Tennessee milkvetch

• Astragalus tidestromii – Tidestrøm's milkvetch

• Astragalus tragacantha - Marseille milkvetch

• Astragalus traskiae – Trask's milkvetch

• Astragalus tricarinatus – triple-ribbed milkvetch

• Astragalus trichopodus – Santa Barbara milkvetch, coast locoweed, Southern California locoweed

• Astragalus tuyehensis from Iran

• Astragalus tyghensis - Tygh Valley milkvetch

• Astragalus umbraticus – Bald Mountain milkvetch

• Astragalus webberi – Webber's milkvetch

• Astragalus wetherillii - Wetherill's milkvetch

• Astragalus whitneyi – balloon-pod milkvetch

• Astragalus zionis – Zion milkvetch

Ecology
Astragalus species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including many case-bearing moths of the genus Coleophora: C. cartilaginella, C. colutella, C. euryaula, and C. onobrychiella feed exclusively on Astragalus, C. astragalella and C. gallipennella feed exclusively on the species Astragalus glycyphyllos, and C. hippodromica is limited to Astragalus gombo.

Traditional medicine
Astragalus has been used in traditional Chinese medicine over centuries to treat various disorders, but there is no high-quality evidence that it is effective or safe for any medical purpose.

Phytochemicals and supplements
Extracts of astragalus root include diverse phytochemicals, such as saponins and isoflavone flavonoids, which are purported in traditional practices to increase lactation in nursing mothers. There is no valid clinical evidence to indicate such use is effective or safe for the mother or infant. Dietary supplement products containing astragalus extracts may not have been adequately tested for efficacy, safety, purity or consistency. The root extracts of astragalus may be used in soups, teas or sold in capsules.

Side effects and toxicology
Although astragalus supplements are generally well tolerated, mild gastrointestinal upset, diarrhea, and allergic reactions may occur. Because astragalus may affect regulation of blood sugar and blood pressure, it may be risky for people with blood disorders, diabetes, or hypertension to use it as a supplement. Astragalus may interact with prescribed drugs that suppress the immune system, such as medications used by people being treated for cancer or recovery from organ transplants.

Some astragalus species can be toxic, such as those found in the United States containing the neurotoxin swainsonine, which causes "locoweed" poisoning in animals. Some astragalus species may contain high levels of selenium, possibly causing toxicity.

Ornamental use
Several species, including A. alpinus (bluish-purple flowers), A. hypoglottis (purple flowers), and A. lotoides, are grown as ornamental plants in gardens.

title: Astragalus (plant)