text:
Talk:Columbia, Maryland

Amitparikh's edits
I'm not sure that I agree with Amitparikh's recent changes. Here are my thoughts.
 * Does it matter that the hospital was recently renovated? Will it have been "recently renovated" for a person reading ten years from now?  Perhaps a date of renovation would be more useful.
 * Ditto for listing the anchor stores in the mall - those are not the same stores that anchored the mall when I grew up in Columbia, so there's a history of change (as at all malls).
 * Style nitpicks: I think "dramatically" might be preferable to "drastically," which has a negative connotation. When I was a kid we always called it "CA" and 'not' "the CA."  What's up with calling the Supreme Sports club "24/7" - does that matter?
 * What source said that many Columbia residents work for the government and nearby DOD facilities? Plenty of people around DC work for those entities, but I haven't heard any specific citation of percentage so I don't think this is appropriate to say.
 * Columbia is nowhere near a metro station. Public transportation to DC requires a car to get you to the metro, or a series of bus rides.
 * -Etoile 15:19, 18 May 2005 (UTC)

I guess it is late, but I'll respond: Amit 15:04, 3 November 2006 (UTC)
 * Agree with date on hospital renovation.
 * Agree with date on mall anchors.
 * CA = "Columbia Association". I think all I was trying to say was "the Columbia Association".
 * Supreme being 24/7 was a major change. CA did it to compete with the new gym in town, Lifetime Fitness.  There has been a lot of money spent by CA in recent months/years to improve the gym facilities in preparation for competition with Lifetime Fitness.
 * I don't have a source for DOD and government workers... I guess I just threw that in to inform people reading the article who are not from Columbia that government employment is a big thing in the DC Metropolitan Area, including Columbia.
 * Agree about public transportation.

Census-designated place
Anyone know the Census-designated place area for Columbia since it would include about 5 zip codes. Or how do you find out? --Noitall 05:32, August 18, 2005 (UTC)

 * One very good source is the The Census Bureau website. Here, you will find more indepth information on Columbia and other CDPs across the country. Other great pages within the site include:

 * 1990 Census Profile of Columbia CDP
 * 1970 Census Profile for Places and Counties in Maryland (PDF file)
 * 1980 Census Profile for Places and Counties in Maryland (PDF file)
 * Detailed profile of Columbia.

-- Moreau36 1153, 29 August 2005

 * Thank you. That was extremely useful for additional research.  I can find the CDP for Columbia on the fact finder portion of the Census page, but I still can not find where the CDP area is defined.  I assumed it was by area code, but I am not certain.  Any idea?  --Noitall 05:30, August 31, 2005 (UTC)

population
I think the population is 88,254 according to the Cenus Bureau 2000

And, yes I'm pretty sure it's a town not a city

more high schools
Mariotts Ridge high school info and more Resevoir High School info

revert
1. "Eastablished" is not a word, and opened is more accurate 2. Big box and suburb were already linked in the article. 3. automobile is a common noun that does not require a link. dml 13:36, 3 November 2005 (UTC)
 * I admit, I didn't catch the mispelling, but I don't think you can argue that opened is more accurate. It makes it sound like an amusement park.  -James Howard (talk/web) 14:04, 3 November 2005 (UTC)

Columbia: the Pike and the town
Which came first, Columbia Pike, or Columbia, Maryland? If it's the latter, then how old are the portions called "Old Columbia Pike?" Or was there a Columbia, MD before the Rouse Co. built it into the town we know today? (A third, perhaps unlikely, scenario is the town was named as such to take advantage of the fact that the road was already named that way.) I assumed Columbia Pike actually referred to "Disctrict of Columbia", but those using the road may in fact be travelling to Columbia, MD. -- Gyrofrog (talk) 16:55, 11 February 2006 (UTC)
 * The Pike does in fact refer to the District of Columbia, it has that name in Montgomery County as well as Howard County. It dates from the early 19th century I believe. I recall reading Columbia was the name of a post office on Columbia Pike in the general vicinity of the current new town, and the subdivision of Columbia Hills, just northeast of the intersection of US 29 and MD 108 predates the new town of Columbia. dml 17:22, 11 February 2006 (UTC)
 * Various sources, notably Creating a New City, state that the project name was Columbia, as the area had previously been known as Columbia. When the it came time to pick a final name Columbia stuck.  -James Howard (talk/web) 17:29, 11 February 2006 (UTC)

Macy's vs. Hecht's @ the Mall
Hecht's was acquired by Macy's in 2006, and they have officially transitioned all Hecht's stores to Macy's stores. Although the sign at the mall may still say Hecht's, I believe it is prudent to reflect the recent change and acquisition. Amit 14:53, 3 November 2006 (UTC)

Opening Paragraph
Not that I necessarily like suburbs myself, but to say the word "inexorably" seems to be biased against the phenomenon. The word "aloof" also seems inappropriate. Icemachine79 15:23, 14 July 2007 (UTC)

Town or city?
[these comments moved from top of page]

In the opening paragraph it says "town" but in later paragraphs it says "city". Columbia has a "town center" but technically it is a city. Comments.

In the eyes of the Howard County and State of Maryland governments, I believe Columbia is technically a town, not a city, despite the fact that it has near 100,000 inhabitants. Columbia is not its own municipality, nor does it govern itself (though the Columbia Association itself has its own governing body). -user:bmortimer

 * Techncally, in the eyes of the Howard County and State of Maryland governments, Columbia is neither a town or a city. Columbia is unincorporated; it has no mayor, no city council, no separate school district. From a legal standpoint, Columbia is a series of neighborhoods and developments in an unincorporated area of Howard County.    Of course, in practice, these neighborhoods and developments form a coherent community that is perceived as a unit by its residents; thus, the area is a census-designated place.  But since it is neither a "town" nor a "city" in the way those terms are legally used in Maryland, we are left to fall back on how they are used colloquially, with the resulting inconsistencies. --Jfruh (talk) 21:17, 26 July 2007 (UTC)

 * There is in fact a sharp definition of what consitutes Columbia: it consists of that land under the control of the Columbia Association. Therefore Atholton and Diamondback are not part of Columbia proper because they both predate it and therefore are not bound by CA covenants. There are also some parcels here and there within the CA territory which they never acquired and therefore are not fully part of Columbia. For our purposes it's probably best to stick with the "new city" terminology just for consistency sake, as long as we are clear that it doesn't mean the kind of dense urbanization that people conventionally associate with the word. Mangoe (talk) 15:45, 27 November 2007 (UTC)

 * True, but that's a purely private arrangement -- in that sense, Columbia is essentially an enormous condominium complex or housing association. My point is that from the point of view of the state and county, there's no legal erected city (or town, or village, or whatever) of Columbia in the sense that, say, there's a city of Rockville. --Jfruh (talk) 04:10, 28 November 2007 (UTC)

Issue fixed for now, assuming the 10 villages are all part of CA control. It is common for parts of census-designated places to include suburbs and named places not served by the named post office.71.230.16.111 (talk) 07:04, 16 December 2019 (UTC)

Neutrality
Please list all the neutrality issues in this section so that they may be addressed. Timneu22 11:06, 20 August 2007 (UTC)
 * Since nobody has done so over the last five months, I'm removing the template. --Jfruh (talk) 22:00, 20 January 2008 (UTC)
 * I have re-added the neutrality tag, as the article appears to be written somewhat like an advertisement, promoting the city rather than describing it in a neutral manner of tone. I have removed the advert-like passages from the intro section, but there still may be more left throughout the article. Illegitimate Barrister (talk) 03:38, 21 June 2012 (UTC)

Fixed list of high schools
I've checked the high schools against the attendance area map and made corrections accordingly. Mangoe (talk) 16:39, 27 November 2007 (UTC)

Time for "fact" tags
This is quite short on citations. In particular the many claims for novelty need citation. Mangoe (talk) 02:58, 3 March 2008 (UTC)

Just how big is Columbia anyway?
We have some geographic and demographic problems as it stands, because the census tract is a lot bigger than Columbia is. Judging from their maps, they are including Atholton, Diamondback, Holiday Hills, and the southern part of Clarksville, all of which predate Columbia and are not part of any of the "new citry" planning. The 2006 maps even include Savage, which is a century older than Columbia. It's quite misleading to talk about these areas as if they have anything to do with Rouse's vision, because they don't. They are merely fiats of convenience by the census, and even then the post office agrees that Savage and Clarksville aren't in Columbia.

I've added a little language to clarify this, but I think it needs more elaboration. Please add your comments on this matter. Mangoe (talk) 15:44, 8 May 2008 (UTC)

 * I guess that, in the absence of an actual municipality of Columbia, there are simply multiple ways to define "Columbia." The Census Bureau has one definition, and the Columbia Association has another.  The problem is that its the Census's definition that is easiest to derive demographic data from.  If you'd like to go through the raw census data and exclude those areas that aren't part of the Columbia Association, go ahead. Failing that, it might be easiest to just put a note on the demographic data to the effect that includes some areas not part of the Columbia Assocation.--Jfruh (talk) 17:15, 8 May 2008 (UTC)

I'm surprised that the swiss cheese nature of Columbia is not mentioned. When I explain it to people who are not familiar with the area, the outparcels really confuse some people and may be worth explicit mention. Also, when did Allview become part of Columbia? I know that they are served from the Columbia post office, but traditionally in the early 1990's, they were always considered a larger outparcel. The list of communities that are separate from Columbia reads like a definitive list instead of a list of a few examples. Alcourt (talk) 10:22, 22 October 2008 (UTC)

Clarification is needed for "new town"
Citations are needed for the "new town" statement. Most wiki articles correspond "city", "town", "village" and "townships" as incorporated places under the guidelines of their respective states. Unless Columbia was chartered by the state, it's still considered unincorporated. --Moreau36 (talk) 17:31, 19 January 2009 (UTC)

 * Part of the problem is our article on new town, which covers every variety of planned community, but which should really be talking about the American "new town" movement of the 1960s-70s. I'm having trouble finding really good citations for the movement as a whole, though for instance I found the movement discussed in ; on page 1, it says "The 1960s new-town movement— most strongly reflected at Reston, Virginia; Columbia, Maryland; and Irvine, California— sought to reshape how Americans built and nurtured new suburban communities." Bloom in a footnote refers to another book which is apparently considered the classic study on the movement, which I'm going to see if I can get a hold of from the Ho Co library. In any case, I can find a host of references to Columbia that call it a "new town", up to and including the zone district for it; for instance, there's a recent Washington Post reference here. Mangoe (talk) 21:17, 19 January 2009 (UTC)

 * Thank you for the clarification. The definitions can cause major confusion for the casual reader. There are different definitions for Columbia; the USGS, the U.S. Census Bureau, and from the developers. --Moreau36 (talk) 22:01, 19 January 2009 (UTC)

This article isn't about a CDP
The article is not about a subdivision of the census; it's an article about a planned community. Mangoe (talk) 15:02, 12 February 2009 (UTC)

 * Columbia is also a census-designated place defined by the Bureau itself, just like other CDP articles within Wikipedia. The demographics in 2000 were strictly tderived from the census, which does not treat "planned communities" or "new towns" as incorporated places unless the municipal charter was given by Maryland. It's a "planned community" or "new town", but the truth of the matter is, it's still unincorporated. (see: Westchase, Florida or Reston, Virginia)  It doesn't make sense creating a separate article for just Columbia CDP. --Moreau36 (talk) 16:10, 12 February 2009 (UTC)

 * I agree with the last sentiment to extent of saying that we shouldn't have articles on CDPs at all. The problem is that people keep changing the lede in this and other articles to say that "Columbia (or whatever town name) is a CDP." Well, especially in this case the statement is misleading. Most of what the article says is UNtrue about the CDP as a whole. Mangoe (talk) 16:43, 12 February 2009 (UTC)

Adding external links
Links to Columbia Patch keep getting removed. It is a local news website for Columbia residents. Wiki pages for cities and towns traditionally have links to local media. Would a proper compromise be adding a media section with links to The Columbia Flier and Columbia Patch? —Preceding unsigned comment added by Someoneswitness (talk • contribs) 20:58, 7 November 2010 (UTC)
 * The links are removed because they do not belong in the article. Per WP:USCITY: "A link to some of the official websites should be provided here, such as the official city government, or the convention and visitors bureau. Providing links to every commercial, educational, or other entity within the city is not appropriate for this section."  This position is likewise supported by WP:EL and WP:NOT.
 * Also, if a local media section were added, it should contain internal wikilinks to articles about notable subjects, not external links to other websites (per WP:EL). --- Barek (talk • contribs) - 21:05, 7 November 2010 (UTC)

The continuing issue: what's in Columbia?
OK, so the Grace facility long predates Columbia; it actually isn't "in" anywhere. The Westvaco facility was on the far side of the road from JHU/APL and never even had a Columbia address (APL now uses the buildings as an annex). Mangoe (talk) 03:26, 12 June 2011 (UTC)

 * Is Grace in Columbia? Grace has this website Grace in Columbia, Maryland I think you are right about Westvaco. I checked and they appeared to have been at 11101 Johns Hopkins Rd, Laurel, MD 20723. I fixed the article.   (talk) 14:36, 11 November 2022 (UTC)
 * Oops, my commit message says Removed sourced statement that Westvaco was in Columbia but I meant to write Removed unsourced statement that Westvaco was in Columbia   (talk) 15:22, 11 November 2022 (UTC)

History section
The mention of "spot development" is confusing. Haphazard development in various certain spots? Of that specific area? I have no idea what this is supposed to mean, and a brief search-engine jaunt turns up nothing useful. Would also be nice to know what the "model school for the nation" bit about Wilde Lake High School is supposed to be referring to. ElectricValkyrie (talk) 22:03, 23 January 2012 (UTC)
 * Fixed.   (talk) 14:21, 11 November 2022 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Columbia, Maryland


text:
Vsevolods Zeļonijs

Vsevolods Zeļonijs (born 24 February 1973 in Riga) is a Latvian judoka, who competed in the 1992 and 2000 Summer Olympics, winning bronze medal in 2000 in the lightweight (73 kg) category.

Zeļonijs also won a bronze medal in the 1997 World Championships, and several silver and bronze medals in European Championships. He is a four-time Olympian. Between 1992 and 2004, he won eight medals (three silver and five bronze) at the World Championships, European Championships and European Junior Championships.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Vsevolods Zeļonijs


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Kamal Meattle

This is one of a number of articles on nonentities that have appeared lately. My impression is that they are personal friends or acquaintances of the contributor. Does an individual deserve inclusion by virtue of being the MD or proprietor of a company? Views, please. Deb 09:56, 1 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Sucessful in business it seems, but not noteable -- Chris 73 | Talk 12:22, 1 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: The article fails to supply notability, and we are not really going to be able to supply it in its stead. Being a proprietor surely can't give enough by itself, or we would be at several hundred million entries soon, and none of them of interest to the general public. Geogre 14:15, 1 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Non-notable; article text is an unwikified cut-and-paste job. --Benc 04:02, 2 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. This person is extremely notable in New Delhi, India for being an environmental entrepreneur. He has taken on quite a few large MNC's in his battle to clean up Delhi's air. This article however does needs some editing.  --Microchip911 03:00, 4 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete unless the one-edit wonder above me can provide some verification for the asserted notability. --Michael Snow 23:19, 5 Aug 2004 (UTC)


text:
Lituanica

Lituanica was a Bellanca CH-300 Pacemaker airplane flown from the United States across the Atlantic Ocean by Lithuanian pilots Steponas Darius and Stasys Girėnas in 1933. After successfully flying 6,411 km (4,043 miles), it crashed, due to undetermined circumstances, 650 km (404 miles) from its destination, Kaunas, Lithuania.

The aircraft
On June 18, 1932, the pilots purchased the Pacemaker airplane, serial no. 137, registered as NC-688E, from the Pal-Waukee Company for $3,200. First produced and flown in 1929, forty units of the CH-300 Pacemaker were eventually built. It was a single-engine, six-seat, high-wing monoplane. The fuselage was welded chromoly steel tubing covered with fabric. The cabin interior was covered with a sound-absorbing material. The fuselage had side and top windows, with doors on both sides. The wings were of wooden construction, with two spars, also fabric-covered. The spars and ribs were made of spruce strips and plywood. The wings had two gasoline tanks with a total capacity of 88 gal. Wing struts were 2/3 wood, 1/3 steel (at the wings) with aero-dynamic steel ribs, fabric-covered, giving an additional 47 ft² (4.4 m²) lifting surface. Tail surfaces were made of welded steel tubing. The horizontal stabilizer was of spruce strips and plywood, with the trim-angle adjustable in flight. The landing gear was a curved steel bar with rubber rope suspension. Wheels 30 × 5 inches (762 by 127 mm). The engine was a Wright J6, radial, air cooled, 9 cylinders, 300 hp (225 kW). Funds for the plane was raised from numerous Lithuanian clubs and organizations, including air shows.

On January 20, 1933, the aircraft was moved to E. M. Laird workshops at 5321 W. 65th St. in the Clearing Industrial District, Chicago, where she was rebuilt and outfitted for the transatlantic flight. New elongated wings were built, with two additional gasoline tanks installed in the fuselage, having 220 gal and 185 gal capacity, each equipped with emergency dump valves. Beneath the pilot's seat a 25 gal oil tank was outfitted with 12 cooling tubes. A longer horizontal stabilizer was built. Aero-dynamic wheel fairings were installed, and the fuselage received a new fabric covering. A new, higher compression engine, 365 hp (272 kW) Wright Whirlwind J6-9E, ser. No. 12733, had a "speed ring". On March 29, 1933, the rebuild was complete, and the registration number was changed to NR-688E, and the aircraft was painted orange. On both sides of the fuselage scrolls with the names of the sponsors were painted. The aircraft was dubbed Lituanica, Latin for Lithuania.

Pilots
Steponas Darius and Stasys Girėnas were Lithuanian pilots, emigrants to the United States, who made a significant flight in the history of world aviation. On July 15, 1933, they flew across the Atlantic Ocean, covering a distance of 3,984 miles (6,411 kilometers) without landing, in 37 hours and 11 minutes (107.1 mph). In terms of comparison, as far as the distance of non-stop flights was concerned, their result ranked second only to that of Russell Boardman and John Polando, and ranked fourth in terms of duration of flight at the time. Although Darius and Girenas did not have navigational equipment and flew under unfavorable weather conditions, the flight was one of the most precise in aviation history. It equaled, and in some aspects surpassed, Charles Lindbergh's classic flight.

Flight
An ordinary unmodified plane of this size cannot cover a comparable distance (the Cessna 152, for instance, has a range of 1200 km), even today. The flight was also important from a scientific and technological perspective, as it explored air flows and the capabilities of this type of aircraft. In their last letter, the pilots wrote that either a successful flight or a possible catastrophe would be valuable and significant enough and hence it was worthwhile to fly in either case.

After taking off from Floyd Bennett Field in New York on July 15, 1933, 6:24 am EDT, Darius and Girėnas successfully crossed the Atlantic, only to perish on July 17, 0:36 am (CET) by the village of Kuhdamm, near Soldin, Germany (now Pszczelnik, near Myślibórz, Poland ( 52°51'11.57"N  14°50'17.78"E)). The planned route was: New York – Newfoundland – Atlantic Ocean – Ireland – London – Amsterdam – Swinemünde – Königsberg – Kaunas airport (a total of 7,186 km). Due to weather conditions over Ireland, they veered to the north and reached Germany via Scotland and the North Sea. In 37 hours and 11 minutes, until the moment of the crash, they had flown 6411 km (over 7000 km in actual flight path), only 636 km short of their goal—Kaunas.

Possible reasons for the crash
A Lithuanian board of investigation was appointed to determine the cause. It concluded that the pilots were properly qualified, and the aircraft was properly outfitted. They added that the most difficult part of the flight was executed with great precision. The commission concluded that during the crash the aircraft engine was running (the propeller was rotating), and there was enough fuel on board.

Some sources mention pilot error, but both pilots were highly experienced. During his career as pilot, Darius had never been involved in any previous accidents. In 1931, Girėnas had won first prize in a flight festival in Chicago for gliding his plane and landing with a dead engine.

According to the board, the catastrophe occurred due to difficult weather conditions combined with engine defects. The crash most probably was a result of failed emergency landing. There were rumors and suspicions in some quarters, that the plane was shot down, having been mistaken for a spy plane, because it flew near a concentration camp. Autopsies of pilots revealed no signs of bullets. However, not all parts of the plane were returned to the Lithuanian government.

After the crash
On July 19, a German Deruluft airplane carried the bodies of the pilots back to Lithuania. The people of Kaunas met the heroes in great sorrow. The funeral was a solemn occasion and was the cause of official national mourning.

A few months after the Lituanica tragedy, some prominent members of the Chicago Lithuanian community discussed the possibility of financing another transatlantic flight. This idea was greeted with much enthusiasm, and enough funds were raised during the Great Depression. A faster and more modern Lockheed Vega was purchased from the Lockheed Aircraft Corp., the same model used by Wiley Post in his round-the-world flight, and by Amelia Earhart, the first woman to fly solo across the Atlantic.

The aircraft was christened Lituanica II on Sunday, April 22, 1934. When the pilot originally chosen for the flight unexpectedly resigned in the spring, the Lithuanian organizers turned to Felix Waitkus, and he accepted the challenge. Although he landed in Ireland and not in Kaunas, he entered aviation history for being the sixth pilot to fly solo across the Atlantic.

In 1934 the bodies of Darius and Girėnas were embalmed by professor Jurgis Zilinskas. In 1936 the Lithuanian government decided to build a mausoleum for Darius and Girėnas in Kaunas' old cemetery, that was destroyed after Soviet re-occupation. From then until the present day, the wreckage of Lituanica has been on display in the Vytautas the Great War Museum in Kaunas.

The pilots' bodies rest in the Military Cemetery of Šančiai, Kaunas.

Memorials
Chicago's Lithuanian community erected an Art Deco Monument commemorating Girėnas and Darius in Chicago's Marquette Park in 1935 where it still stands to this day. Feliksas Vaitkus was inspired by the flight and commemorated it with the flight of the Lituanica II in 1935.

The flight is commemorated in a movie Skrydis per Atlantą (Flight over the Atlantic) (1983). Kaunas's sports stadium, S.Darius and S.Girėnas Stadium, where the Lithuanian national soccer team plays its home matches, is also named in their honor. There is a tall stone monument near the stadium, the Lithuanian Academy of Sport and the Ąžuolynas Park dedicated to the pilots.

Sculptor Bronius Pundzius made a relief of the pilots' faces on the Puntukas, then the largest known boulder in the territory of Lithuania, in 1943.

In New York City, in 1957, the fliers were memorialized with a granite flagstaff showing the pair in bas-relief. The monument is located in Lithuania Square, in Williamsburg, Brooklyn.

In Kaunas, a model of the Lituanica was put in 2013 to commemorate 80 years of the event.

Lituanica Ave, Bridgeport neighborhood in Chicago, IL is named after this flight. The avenue runs between Halsted and Morgan streets from 31st and 35th streets, and after a jog east proceeds south to 38th place between Sangamon and Halsted streets.

The small town of Beverly Shores, Indiana (just west of Michigan City, Indiana), has another memorial to the Lituanica flight. There, in 1968, the American Lithuanian Club established a park and named it Lituanica Park after the Bellanca CH-300 used in the flight. In 1971, to honor the pilots, a large modern sculpture by J. Barkis was placed in the park's pond.

Before the flight Girėnas and Darius left a testament to the Lithuanian nation:

"'Young Lithuania! Inspired by Your spirit, we embark on a mission we have chosen. May our success strengthen Your spirit and confidence in Your own powers and talents! But should Neptune and the mighty ruler of storms Perkūnas unleash their wrath upon us, should they stop our way to Young Lithuania and call Lituanica to their realm – then You, Young Lithuania, will have to resolve anew, make sacrifice and prepare for a new quest, so that gods of stormy oceans be pleased with Your effort, resolution, and do not summon You for the Great Judgement.

May Lituanica's victory strengthen the spirit of young sons of Lithuania, inspire them for new quests. May Lituanica's defeat and sinking into the depths of the Atlantic nurture perseverance and resoluteness in young Lithuanians, so that a Winged Lithuanian conquers the treacherous Atlantic for the glory of Mother Lithuania! We therefore dedicate and sacrifice our flight for You, Young Lithuania!'"

title: Lituanica


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User:MaxB

I am a Dutch senior advisor/researcher in the field of innovation policy. I graduated from the Technological University of Delft in 1991 and joined an consultancy firm as an environmental consultant. After some years, I moved to a Dutch ministry and started working in the field of innovation policy. At this moment I work for a research organisation. I specialized in the field of innovation policy, focusing on foresight, sustainbility and policy instruments.

I became interested in Wikipedia in juli 2004, after searching the web on some backgrounds on the Da Vinci Code. Wikipedia showed some remarkable high quality information and I liked the philosophy. My idea about Wikipedia is that keeping the different perspectives is great, as well as the responsibility of people to edit the text of others.

title: User:MaxB


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Igors Vihrovs

Igors Vihrovs (born 6 June 1978) is a Latvian gymnast, who won the gold medal in floor exercise at the 2000 Summer Olympics, and bronze in floor exercise in 2000 European Championships and 2001 World Championships. He was the first Olympic gold medalist for independent Latvia.

title: Igors Vihrovs


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Aukštaitija

Aukštaitija (literally Highland or Upland) is the name of one of five ethnographic regions of Lithuania. The name comes from the fact that the lands are in the upper basin of the Nemunas, as opposed to the Lowlands that begin from Šiauliai westward. Although Kaunas is surrounded by Aukštaitija, the city itself is not considered to be a part of any ethnographic region in most cases.

Geography
Aukštaitija is in the northeast part of Lithuania and also encompasses a small part of Latvia and Belarus. The largest city located entirely within this region, Panevėžys, is considered to be the capital, though not in a political sense. Sometimes Utena is regarded as a symbolical capital.

The largest cities by population are:
 * Panevėžys – 84,587
 * Jonava – 26,423
 * Utena – 25,397
 * Kėdainiai – 22,677
 * Ukmergė – 20,154
 * Visaginas – 18,024
 * Radviliškis – 15,161

The region has many lakes, mainly on the eastern side.

History
Historically, Aukštaitija corresponded to the Duchy of Lithuania until the 13th century. Its initial capital was most likely Kernavė. In the 1322 treaty of Gediminas, Aukštaitija was called terra Eustoythen (land of Aukštaitians). Some German sources also titled Grand Duke Gediminas, after whom the Gediminids dynasty is named, Rex de Owsteiten (King of Aukštaitija). Aukštaitija was mentioned as Austechia in Chronicon terrae Prussiae, written around 1326. Politically, from the end of the 13th century, it comprised the Duchy of Vilnius/Lithuania and the Duchy of Trakai, and it is possible that the term was then used to refer to both of them. Since the 15th century, the Trakai and Vilnius voivodeships made up Aukštaitija, a political and ethnic entity also known as Lithuania proper.

Demographics
The local people mainly speak the Aukštaitian dialect of Lithuanian. Under the new classification of dialects, Lithuanian is divided into only two dialects, Aukštaitian and Samogitian, with all other varieties now classified as subdialects. The Sudovian and Dzūkian dialects are also considered subdialects of Aukštaitian; the specific subdialect spoken in Aukštaitija is thus known as East Aukštaitian.

The region has Russian and Belarusian minorities in the east. The subdialects spoken there use more loanwords from those languages. However, the usage of dialects in the region, as in Lithuania in general, is declining.

title: Aukštaitija


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Caledonian Road & Barnsbury railway station

Caledonian Road & Barnsbury railway station in the London Borough of Islington in North London is on the North London line and is in Travelcard Zone 2. The station and all trains serving it are operated by London Overground.

History
The station opened in 1870 as "Barnsbury" replacing the 1852 Caledonian Road station which was slightly west of the present site. Barnsbury was renamed "Caledonian Road & Barnsbury" in 1893.

Between 14 May 1979 and 11 May 1985 the station was served by the Crosstown Linkline diesel multiple unit service between Camden Road and North Woolwich.

To allow four-car trains to run on the London Overground network, the North London line between Gospel Oak and Stratford closed in February 2010, and reopened 1 June that year, in order for a new signalling system to be installed and 30 platforms to be extended. After the reopening the work continued until May 2011 with a reduced service and none on Sundays.

Design
The station entrance on Offord Street leads to the old westbound platform (until February 2010) from which a footbridge gives access to the newer island platforms, numbered 2 and 3, probably to distinguish them from the old platform 1. There is a footpath, with Oyster readers, from Caledonian Road to the entrance.

Location
London Buses routes 17, 91, 259, 274 and night route N91 serve the station.

Services
The typical off-peak weekday, Saturday and Sunday service at the station in trains per hour is
 * 4 westbound to Richmond
 * 4 westbound to Clapham Junction
 * 8 eastbound to Stratford


text:
User talk:Sraigiuz

Hello!

title: User talk:Sraigiuz


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Aigars Fadejevs

Aigars Fadejevs (born December 27, 1975) is a former Latvian athlete, competing in 20 km, 50 km walk and marathon running, and a rehabilitologist for sprinters.

Fadejevs competed in 1996 Summer Olympics, finishing 6th in the 20 km walk and in the 2000 Summer Olympics, winning the silver medal in 50 km, 2004 Olympics, 50 km 11th, 20 km 9th. He also won a gold medal in the European U23 Championships in 1997, a silver medal in the 1998 European Championships at the 20 km distance, and finished 4th in 50 km at the World Championships in Edmonton in 2001.

Fadejevs quit race walking 2004 and competed as a marathon runner, He almost qualified for the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing. He currently works as a sports therapist.

His personal records are 1:19:36 in the 20 km walk and 3:43:18 in the 50 km walk, and 2:18:19 in the marathon. He also holds the unofficial world record of 58:23 in the rare 15 km walk distance.

title: Aigars Fadejevs


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Bar Kokhba revolt

The Bar Kokhba revolt (מֶרֶד בַּר כּוֹכְבָא ) was a large-scale armed rebellion initiated by the Jews of Judea, led by Simon bar Kokhba, against the Roman Empire in 132 CE. Lasting until 135 or early 136, it was the third and final escalation of the Jewish–Roman wars. Like the First Jewish–Roman War and the Second Jewish–Roman War, the Bar Kokhba revolt resulted in a total Jewish defeat; Bar Kokhba himself was killed by Roman troops at Betar in 135 and the Jewish rebels who remained after his death were all killed or enslaved within the next year.

Roman rule in Judea was not well-received among the Jewish population, especially after the destruction of the Second Temple during the Roman siege of Jerusalem in 70. The Romans had also continued to maintain a large military presence across the province; pushed unpopular changes in administrative and economic life; constructed the colony of Aelia Capitolina over the destroyed city of Jerusalem; and erected a place of worship for Jupiter on Jerusalem's Temple Mount, where the Jews' Second Temple had stood. Rabbinic literature and the Church Fathers emphasize the role of Quintus Tineius Rufus, the erstwhile Roman governor of Judea, in provoking the Bar Kokhba revolt. The charismatic and messianic nature of Bar Kokhba may have also been a factor in popularizing the uprising across all of Judea.

With the onset of the conflict, initial rebel victories established an independent Jewish enclave covering much of the province for several years. Bar Kokhba was appointed nasi (נָשִׂיא, lit. 'prince') of the rebels' provisional state, and much of Judea's populace regarded him as the Messiah of Judaism who would restore Jewish national independence. This initial setback for the Romans led Hadrian to assemble a large army—six full legions with auxiliaries and other elements from up to six additional legions, all under the command of Sextus Julius Severus—and launch an extensive military campaign across Judea in 134, ultimately crushing the revolt.

The killing of Bar Kokhba and the subsequent defeat of his rebels yielded disastrous consequences for Judea's Jewish populace, even more so than the crackdown that had taken place during and after the First Jewish–Roman War. Based on archeological evidence, ancient sources, and contemporary analysis, between 500,000–600,000 Jews are estimated to have been killed in the conflict. Judea was heavily depopulated as a result of the number of Jews killed or expelled by Roman troops, with a significant number of captives sold into slavery. Following the failure of the Bar Kokhba revolt, the center of Jewish society shifted from Judea to Galilee. The Jews were also subjected to a series of religious edicts by the Romans, including an edict that barred all Jews from entering Jerusalem. The Bar Kokhba revolt also had philosophical and religious ramifications; Jewish belief in the Messiah was abstracted and spiritualized, and rabbinical political thought became deeply cautious and conservative. The rebellion was also among the events that helped differentiate Early Christianity from Judaism.

Naming
The Bar Kokhba revolt was the last of three major Jewish–Roman wars, so it is also known as the Third Jewish–Roman War or the Third Jewish Revolt. Some historians also refer to it as the Second Revolt of Judea, not counting the Kitos War (115–117 CE), which had only marginally been fought in Judea.

Background
After the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE), Roman authorities took measures to suppress the rebellious province of Roman Judea. Instead of a procurator, they installed a praetor as a governor and stationed an entire legion, the X Fretensis, in the area. Tensions continued to build up in the wake of the Kitos War, the second large-scale Jewish insurrection in the Eastern Mediterranean during 115–117, the final stages of which saw fighting in Judea. Mismanagement of the province during the early 2nd century might well have led to the proximate causes of the revolt, largely bringing governors with clear anti-Jewish sentiments to run the province. Gargilius Antiques may have preceded Rufus during the 120s. The Church Fathers and rabbinic literature emphasize the role of Rufus in provoking the revolt.

Historians have suggested multiple reasons for the sparking of the Bar Kokhba revolt, long-term and proximate. Several elements are believed to have contributed to the rebellion; changes in administrative law, the widespread presence of legally-privileged Roman citizens, alterations in agricultural practice with a shift from landowning to sharecropping, the impact of a possible period of economic decline, and an upsurge of nationalism, the latter influenced by similar revolts among the Jewish communities in Egypt, Cyrenaica and Mesopotamia during the reign of Trajan in the Kitos War.

The proximate reasons seem to centre around the construction of a new city, Aelia Capitolina, over the ruins of Jerusalem and the erection of a temple to Jupiter on the Temple mount. Until recently, some historians had tried to question the Colonia foundation event as one of the causes of the revolt, suggesting to rather time the Colonia establishment to the aftermath of the revolt as a punishment. However, the 2014 archaeological finding of the Legio Fretensis inscription in Jerusalem dedicated to Hadrian and dated to 129/130 CE, as well as identification of Colonia Aelia Capitolina struck coins have since been largely accepted as confirmation to the sequence of events depicted in Jewish traditional literature. One interpretation involves the visit in 130 CE of Hadrian to the ruins of the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem. At first sympathetic towards the Jews, Hadrian promised to rebuild the Temple, but the Jews felt betrayed when they found out that he intended to build a temple dedicated to Jupiter upon the ruins of the Second Temple. A rabbinic version of this story claims that Hadrian planned on rebuilding the Temple, but that a malevolent Samaritan convinced him not to. The reference to a malevolent Samaritan is, however, a familiar device of Jewish literature.

An additional legion, the VI Ferrata, arrived in the province to maintain order. Works on Aelia Capitolina, as Jerusalem was to be called, commenced in 131 CE. The governor of Judea, Tineius Rufus, performed the foundation ceremony, which involved ploughing over the designated city limits. "Ploughing up the Temple",  seen as a religious offence, turned many Jews against the Roman authorities. The Romans issued a coin inscribed Aelia Capitolina.

The Historia Augusta, a text which is problematic when used as a source for historical fact, states tensions rose after Hadrian banned circumcision, referred to as mutilare genitalia,  taken to mean brit milah. Were the claim true it has been conjectured that Hadrian, as a Hellenist, would have viewed circumcision as an undesirable form of mutilation. The claim is often considered suspect, and it may in reality have been intended to constitute a form of mockery of Jewish traditions which seemed absurd to the Romans.

Timeline of events
Jewish leaders carefully planned the second revolt to avoid the numerous mistakes that had plagued the first First Jewish–Roman War sixty years earlier. In 132, the revolt, led by Simon bar Kokhba and Elasar, quickly spread from Modi'in across the country, cutting off the Roman garrison in Jerusalem.

After Legio X and Legio VI failed to subdue the rebels, additional reinforcements were dispatched from neighbouring provinces. Gaius Poblicius Marcellus, the Legate of Roman Syria, arrived commanding Legio III Gallica, while Titus Haterius Nepos, the governor of Roman Arabia, brought Legio III Cyrenaica. Later on it is proposed by some historians that Legio XXII Deiotariana was sent from Arabia Petraea, but was ambushed and massacred on its way to Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem), and possibly disbanded as a result.

According to Rabbinic sources some 400,000 men were at the disposal of Bar Kokhba at the peak of the rebellion.

Simon bar Kokhba took the title Nasi Israel and ruled over an entity named Israel that was virtually independent for over two and a half years. The Jewish sage Rabbi Akiva, who was the spiritual leader of the revolt, identified Simon Bar Koziba as the Jewish messiah, and gave him the Aramaic patronymic bar Kokhba, meaning "Son of a Star", a reference to the Star Prophecy in Numbers : "A star rises from Jacob". The name Bar Kokhba does not appear in the Talmud but in ecclesiastical sources.

With the slowly advancing Roman army cutting supply lines, the rebels engaged in long-term defense. The defense system of Judean towns and villages was based mainly on underground hiding complexes, which were created in large numbers in almost every population center. Many houses utilized underground hideouts, where Judean rebels hoped to withstand Roman superiority by the narrowness of the passages and even ambushes from underground. The cave systems were often interconnected and used not only as hideouts for the rebels but also for storage and refuge for their families. Hideout systems were employed in the Judean hills, the Judean desert, northern Negev, and to some degree also in Galilee, Samaria and Jordan Valley. As of July 2015, some 350 hideout systems have been mapped within the ruins of 140 Jewish villages.

Following a series of setbacks, Hadrian called his general Sextus Julius Severus from Britannia, and troops were brought from as far as the Danube. In 133/4, Severus landed in Judea with three legions from Europe (including Legio X Gemina and possibly also Legio IX Hispana), cohorts of additional legions and between 30 and 50 auxiliary units.

The size of the Roman army amassed against the rebels was much larger than that commanded by Titus sixty years earlier - nearly one third of the Roman army took part in the campaign against Bar Kokhba. It is estimated that forces from at least 10 legions participated in Severus' campaign in Judea, including Legio X Fretensis, Legio VI Ferrata, Legio III Gallica, Legio III Cyrenaica, Legio II Traiana Fortis, Legio X Gemina, cohorts of Legio V Macedonica, cohorts of Legio XI Claudia, cohorts of Legio XII Fulminata and cohorts of Legio IV Flavia Felix, along with 30–50 auxiliary units, for a total force of 60,000–120,000 Roman soldiers facing Bar Kokhba's rebels. It is plausible that Legio IX Hispana was among the legions Severus brought with him from Europe, and that its demise occurred during Severus' campaign, as its disappearance during the second century is often attributed to this war.

According to some views one of the crucial battles of the war took place near Tel Shalem in the Beit She'an valley, near what is now identified as the legionary camp of Legio VI Ferrata. This theory was proposed by Werner Eck in 1999, as part of his general maximalist work which did put the Bar Kokhba revolt as a very prominent event on the course of the Roman Empire's history. Next to the camp, archaeologists unearthed the remnants of a triumphal arch, which featured a dedication to Emperor Hadrian, which most likely refers to the defeat of Bar Kokhba's army. Additional finds at Tel Shalem, including a bust of Emperor Hadrian, specifically link the site to the period. The theory for a major decisive battle in Tel Shalem implies a significant extension of the area of the rebellion, with Werner Eck suggesting the war encompassed also northern Valleys together with Galilee.

After losing many of their strongholds, Bar Kokhba and the remnants of his army withdrew to the fortress of Betar, which subsequently came under siege in the summer of 135. Legio V Macedonica and Legio XI Claudia are said to have taken part in the siege. According to Jewish tradition, the fortress was breached and destroyed on the fast of Tisha B'av, the ninth day of the lunar month Av, a day of mourning for the destruction of the First and the Second Jewish Temple. Rabbinical literature ascribes the defeat to Bar Kokhba killing his maternal uncle, Rabbi Elazar Hamudaʻi, after suspecting him of collaborating with the enemy, thereby forfeiting Divine protection. The horrendous scene after the city's capture could be best described as a massacre. The Jerusalem Talmud relates that the number of dead in Betar was enormous, that the Romans "went on killing until their horses were submerged in blood to their nostrils."

According to a rabbinic midrash, the Romans executed eight leading members of the Sanhedrin (The list of Ten Martyrs includes two earlier rabbis): Rabbi Akiva; Haninah ben Teradion; the interpreter of the Sanhedrin, Rabbi Huspith; Eleazar ben Shammua; Hanina ben Hakinai; Jeshbab the Scribe; Judah ben Dama; and Judah ben Bava. The precise date of Akiva's execution is disputed, some dating it to the beginning of the revolt based on the midrash, while others link it to final phases. The rabbinic account describes agonizing tortures: Akiva was flayed with iron combs, Ishmael had the skin of his head pulled off slowly, and Haninah was burned at a stake, with wet wool held by a Torah scroll wrapped around his body to prolong his death.

Following the Fall of Betar, the Roman forces went on a rampage of systematic killing, eliminating all remaining Jewish villages in the region and seeking out the refugees. Legio III Cyrenaica was the main force to execute this last phase of the campaign. Historians disagree on the duration of the Roman campaign following the fall of Betar. While some claim further resistance was broken quickly, others argue that pockets of Jewish rebels continued to hide with their families into the winter months of late 135 and possibly even spring 136. By early 136 however, it is clear that the revolt was defeated. The Babylonian Talmud (Sanhedrin 93b) says that Bar Kokhba reigned for a mere two and a half years.

Roman losses

Roman casualties are also considered to have been heavy; the Roman army disbanded Legio XXII Deiotariana following the revolt, perhaps due to serious losses. Cassius Dio wrote that "Many Romans, moreover, perished in this war. Therefore, Hadrian, in writing to the Senate, did not employ the opening phrase commonly affected by the emperors: 'If you and your children are in health, it is well; I and the army are in health.'" Some argue that the exceptional number of preserved Roman veteran diplomas from the late 150s and 160s CE indicate an unprecedented conscription across the Roman Empire to replenish heavy losses within military legions and auxiliary units between 133 and 135, corresponding to the revolt.

As noted above, XXII Deiotariana may have been disbanded after serious losses. In addition, some historians argue that Legio IX Hispana's disbandment in the mid-2nd century could have been a result of this war. Previously it had generally been accepted that the Ninth disappeared around 108 CE, possibly suffering its demise in Britain, according to Mommsen; but archaeological findings in 2015 from Nijmegen, dated to 121 CE, contained the known inscriptions of two senior officers who were deputy commanders of the Ninth in 120 CE, and lived on for several decades to lead distinguished public careers. It was concluded that the Legion was disbanded between 120 and 197 CE—either as a result of fighting the Bar Kokhba revolt, or in Cappadocia (161), or at the Danube (162). Legio X Fretensis sustained heavy casualties during the revolt.

Impact on the Jewish population
The Bar Kokhba Revolt had catastrophic consequences for the Jewish population in Judaea, with profound loss of life, extensive forced displacements, and widespread enslavement. The scale of suffering surpassed even the aftermath of the First Jewish–Roman War, leaving central Judea in a state of desolation. Some scholars characterize these consequences as an act of genocide. After the revolt, the province of Judaea was renamed Syria Palaestina as an intended punishment for the Jews and as a result of the desires of the region’s non-Jewish inhabitants.

Casualties and widespread destruction
Roman historian Cassius Dio (c. 155–235) wrote that:

"50 of their most important outposts and 985 of their most famous villages were razed to the ground. 580,000 men were slain in the various raids and battles, and the number of those that perished by famine, disease and fire was past finding out, Thus nearly the whole of Judaea was made desolate.'"

Archaeological evidence supports the widespread destruction in Judaea. Excavations have revealed that every village in Judea shows signs of destruction from the revolt. The majority of Roman-period settlements in Judea that have been excavated exhibit destruction or abandonment layers, and there is a settlement gap above these layers. It appears that Jewish settlement in Judea had been almost completely eradicated by the end of the revolt.

In 1981, Schäfer suggested that Dio exaggerated his numbers. On the other hand, in 2003 Cotton considered Dio's figures highly plausible, in light of accurate Roman census declarations. In 2021, an ethno-archaeological comparison analysis by Dvir Raviv and Chaim Ben David supported the accuracy of Dio's depopulation claims, describing his account as "reliable" and "based on contemporaneous documentation." Applebaum estimates that about two-thirds of the Jewish population of Judea died during the revolt.

Displacement
Eusebius writes that:

"[...] all the families of the Jewish nation have suffered pain worthy of wailing and lamentation because God's hand has struck them, delivering their mother-city over to strange nations, laying their Temple low, and driving them from their country, to serve their enemies in a hostile land."

Jerome provides a similar account:

"in Hadrian's reign, when Jerusalem was completely destroyed and the Jewish nation was massacred in large groups at a time, with the result that they were even expelled from the borders of Judaea."

Jews were expelled from the area of Jerusalem. Mor writes that Jews were expelled from the districts of Gophna, Herodion, and Aqraba. In addition, the revolt triggered a widespread migration of Jews from Judaea to coastal cities and Galilee.

Artistic, epigraphic and numismatic findings from post-revolt Judea, in Klein's assessment, indicates that the Roman authorities replaced the departing and slain Jews with a mixed population that was made up of a mixture of Roman veterans and immigrants from the western parts of the empire who settled in Aelia Capitolina, its surroundings, administrative centers, and along the main roads, as well as immigrants from the coastal plain and neighboring provinces from Syria, Phoenicia, and Arabia who settled in the Judean countryside.

In the vicinity of Jerusalem, villages were depopulated, and arable land owned by Jews was confiscated. The lack of an alternative population to fill the empty villages led Roman and later Byzantine authorities to seek a different approach to benefit the nobles and finally the church by constructing estate farms and monasteries on the empty village lands. The Roman legionary tomb at Manahat, the ruins of Roman villas at Ein Yael, Khirbet er-Ras, Rephaim Valley and Ramat Rachel, and the Tenth Legion's kilns discovered near Giv'at Ram are all indications that the rural area surrounding Aelia Capitolina underwent a romanization process, with Roman citizens and Roman veterans settling in the area during the Late Roman period. Indications for the settlement of Roman veterans in other parts of Judea proper includes a magnificent marble sarcophagus showing Dionysus discovered in Turmus Ayya, Latin-inscribed stone discovered at Khirbet Tibnah, a statue of Minerva discovered at Khirbat al-Mafjar, a tomb of a centurion at Beit Nattif and a Roman mansion with western elements discovered at Arak el-Khala, near Beit Guvrin.

In Perea, a Roman military presence in the middle of the second century CE suggests that the Jews there were also victims of the revolt. The name of a Roman veteran from the village of Meason in Perea appears on a papyrus that was signed in Caesarea in the year 151 CE, implying that lands there had been expropriated and given to Roman settlers. A building inscription of the Sixth Legion from the second century CE was discovered at as-Salt, which is identified as Gadara, one of the principal Jewish settlements in Perea, and provides more proof of the Roman military presence there.

Enslavement
Sources indicate that Jewish captives were sold into slavery and sent to various parts of the empire. A chronicle written in the 7th century CE, which was based on lost ancient sources, states that "Jewish captives were sold for the price of one ration of food for a horse." This number indicates that the slave market was flooded with new slaves. According to Harris, the overall number of enslaved captives taken in the revolt must have been much higher than 100,000. Captives who were not sold as slaves were deported to Gaza, Egypt and elsewhere, greatly adding to the Jewish diaspora.

Punitive measures against Jews
After the suppression of the revolt, Hadrian promulgated a series of religious edicts aimed at uprooting the Jewish nationalism in Judea. He prohibited Torah law and the Hebrew calendar and executed Judaic scholars. The sacred scrolls of Judaism were ceremonially burned at the large Temple complex for Jupiter which he built on the Temple Mount. At this Temple, he installed two statues, one of Jupiter, another of himself. These proclamations remained in effect until Hadrian’s death in 138, which marked a significant relief to the surviving Jewish communities.

A further, more lasting punishment was also implemented by the Romans. In an attempt to erase any memory of Judea or Ancient Israel, the name Judaea was dropped from the provincial name, and Provincia Iudaea was renamed Syria Palaestina. Despite such name changes taking place elsewhere, rebellions have never resulted in a nation's name being expunged. Similarly, under the argument to ensure the prosperity of the newly founded Roman colony of Aelia Capitolina, Jews were forbidden to enter, except on the day of Tisha B'Av. After Hadrian's death in 138, the Romans scaled back on their crackdown across Judea, but the ban on Jewish entry into Jerusalem remained in place, exempting only those Jews who wished to enter the city for Tisha B'Av. By destroying the association of Jews with Judea and forbidding the practice of the Jewish faith, Hadrian aimed to root out a nation that had inflicted heavy casualties on the Roman Empire.

Sharp decline of Hebrew language
After the victorious defeat of the Jews in the Bar Kokhba revolt and the destruction of Judea, the Hebrew language disappeared from daily use. Before the revolt, Hebrew was still used as a living language among a very significant part of the Jewish population in this region of the country. In the 3rd century sages no longer knew how to identify the Hebrew names of many plants mentioned in the Mishnah. Only a small number of sages who resided in the south still spoke Hebrew. The Jerusalem Talmud and the classic legend midrashes (in which the majority of the acts and stories are in Aramaic) both demonstrate that Hebrew was used mostly as a literary and artificial language. Hebrew is only found on a small percentage of cemeteries and synagogues.

Philosophical and religious consequences
Rabbinical political thought became deeply cautious and conservative, with Jewish belief in the Messiah becoming abstracted and spiritualized. The Talmud refers to Bar Kokhba as "Ben Koziva" (בֶּן כּוֹזִיבָא, lit. 'Son of Deception'), placing him among the false Messiahs.

Jewish continuity in Palestine
While Jewish presence in the region significantly dwindled after the failure of the Bar Kokhba revolt, there was a continuous small Jewish presence, and Galilee became its religious center. Some of the Judean survivors resettled in Galilee, with some rabbinical families gathering in Sepphoris. The Mishnah and part of the Talmud, central Jewish texts, were composed during the 2nd to 4th centuries CE in Galilee.

Jewish communities continued to live on the edges of Judea, including Eleutheropolis, Ein Gedi and the southern Hebron Hills. There were also Jewish communities along the coastal plain, in Caesarea, Beit She'an and on the Golan Heights.

In the aftermath of the defeat, the maintenance of Jewish settlement in Palestine became a major concern of the rabbis. They endeavored to halt Jewish dispersal, and even banned emigration from Palestine, branding those who settled outside its borders as idolaters.

Impact on Jewish Christians
Eusebius of Caesarea wrote that Christians were killed and suffered "all kinds of persecutions" at the hands of rebel Jews when they refused to help Bar Kokhba against the Roman troops. Although Christians regarded Jesus as the Messiah and did not support Bar Kokhba, they were barred from Jerusalem along with the Jews.

The rebellion contributed to the differentiation between early Christianity and Judaism, and their eventual clear separation.

Later relations between the Jews and the Roman Empire
Relations between the Jews in the region and the Roman Empire continued to be complicated. Constantine I allowed Jews to mourn their defeat and humiliation once a year on Tisha B'Av at the Western Wall. In 351–352 CE, the Jews of Galilee launched yet another revolt, provoking heavy retribution. The Gallus revolt came during the rising influence of early Christians in the Eastern Roman Empire, under the Constantinian dynasty. In 355, however, the relations with the Roman rulers improved, upon the rise of Emperor Julian, the last of the Constantinian dynasty, who, unlike his predecessors, defied Christianity. In 363, not long before Julian left Antioch to launch his campaign against Sassanian Persia, he ordered the Jewish Temple rebuilt in his effort to foster religions other than Christianity. The failure to rebuild the Temple has mostly been ascribed to the dramatic Galilee earthquake of 363, and traditionally also to the Jews' ambivalence about the project. Sabotage is a possibility, as is an accidental fire, though Christian historians of the time ascribed it to divine intervention. Julian's support of Judaism caused Jews to call him "Julian the Hellene".

In 438 CE, when the Empress Eudocia removed the ban on Jews' praying at the Temple site, the heads of the Community in Galilee issued a call "to the great and mighty people of the Jews" which began: "Know that the end of the exile of our people has come!" However, the Christian population of the city saw this as a threat to their primacy, and a riot erupted which chased Jews from the city.

During the fifth and sixth centuries, a series of Samaritan revolts broke out across the Palaestina Prima province. Especially violent were the third and the fourth revolts, which resulted in near annihilation of the Samaritan community. It is likely that the Samaritan revolt of 556 was joined by the Jewish community, which had also suffered brutal suppression of their religion under Emperor Justinian.

In the belief of restoration to come, in the early seventh century, the Jews made an alliance with the Sasanian Empire, joining the invasion of Palaestina Prima in 614 to overwhelm the Byzantine garrison, and briefly gained autonomy in Jerusalem.

Destroyed Jewish villages and fortresses
Several archaeological excavations have been performed during the 20th and 21st centuries in ruins of Roman-period Jewish villages across Judea and Samaria, as well in the Roman-dominated cities on the coastal plain. Most of the villages in Judea's larger region show signs of devastation or abandonment that dates to the Bar-Kokhba revolt. Buildings and underground installations carved out beneath or close to towns, such as hiding complexes, burial caves, storage facilities, and field towers, have both been found to have destruction layers and abandonment deposits. Furthermore, there is a gap in settlement above these levels. Fragmentary material from Transjordan and the Galilee adds to the discoveries from Judea. Excavations at archaeological sites such as Hurvat Itri and Khirbet Badd ‘Isa have demonstrated that these Jewish villages were destroyed in the revolt, and were only resettled by pagan populations in the third century. Discoveries from towns like Gophna, known to be Jewish before the revolt, demonstrate that pagans of Hellenistic and Roman culture lived there during the Late Roman period.

Herodium was excavated by archaeologist Ehud Netzer in the 1980s, publishing results in 1985. According to findings, during the later Bar-Kokhba revolt, complex tunnels were dug, connecting the earlier cisterns with one another. These led from the Herodium fortress to hidden openings, which allowed surprise attacks on Roman units besieging the hill.

The ruins of Betar, the last standing stronghold of Bar Kokhba, can be found at Khirbet al-Yahud, an archeological site located in the vicinity of Battir and Beitar Illit. A stone inscription bearing Latin characters and discovered near the site shows that the Fifth Macedonian Legion and the Eleventh Claudian Legion took part in the siege.

Underground refuges
There were three categories of underground refuges: man-made hiding complexes with living spaces connected by tunnels, cliff shelters carved into steep cliff faces, and natural caves.

Hiding complexes

The Bar Kokhba revolt has been better understood thanks to the discovery of artificially carved hiding complexes under many sites across Judea, and on a lesser level in the Lower Galilee. Their discovery is consistent with Cassius Dio's writings, which reported that the rebels used underground networks as part of their tactics to avoid direct confrontations with the Romans. Many were hewn in earlier times and were utilized by rebels during the revolt as indicated by the usage of the coinage produced by Bar Kokhba and other archaeological findings.

Hiding complexes were found at more than 130 archaeological sites in Judea; most of them in the Judaean Lowlands, but also in the Judaean Mountains, and some also in Galilee. Examples include: Hurvat Midras, Tel Goded, Maresha, Aboud and others.

Cliff shelters and natural caves

Near the end of the uprising, many Jews fleeing for their life sought asylum in refuge caves, the most of which are found in Israel's Judaean Desert on high cliffs overlooking the Dead Sea and the Jordan Valley. The majority of these caves are large natural caverns (with few man-made modifications) that are situated in nearly inaccessible vertical cliffs.

They carried luxury goods, cash, arms, papers and deeds, and even the keys to their homes as a hint that they intended to return there once the fighting was over. These items were frequently discovered with their owners' bones in caverns, which is evidence of their tragic fate. The Cave of Letters in Nahal Hever and the caverns in Wadi Murabba'at, which yielded a plethora of written records from the time of the revolt, are among the best-known refuge caves.

The Cave of Letters was surveyed in explorations conducted in 1960–1961, when letters and fragments of papyri were found dating back to the period of the Bar Kokhba revolt.

Cave of Horror is the name given to Cave 8, where the skeletons of 40 Jewish refugees from the Bar Kokhba revolt, including men, women and children, were discovered. Three potsherds with the names of three of the deceased were also found alongside the skeletons in the cave.

In 2023, archaeologists discovered a cache consisting of four Roman swords and a pilum concealed within a crevice in a cave located within the Ein Gedi nature reserve. Analysis of the sword types and the discovery of a Bar Kokhba revolt coin within the cave strongly support the hypothesis put forth by archaeologists, which suggests that these items were concealed by Jewish rebels during the Bar Kokhba revolt, serving as a precautionary measure to elude detection by Roman authorities.

Coinage
As of 2023, twenty-four coins from the Bar Kokhba revolt have been discovered outside of Judaea in various parts of Europe, including what was then the provinces of Britannia, Pannonia, Dacia, and Dalmatia. The bulk of the coins were discovered near Roman military locations, including multiple legionary and auxiliary camps, though not necessarily in a strict military context. It has been suggested to attribute these findings to Roman soldiers who took part in the uprising and brought the coins as souvenirs or commemorative relics, or to Jewish captives, slaves or immigrants who arrived in those areas in the aftermath of the revolt.

Hoards
One Baraita contains a rabbinic depiction of a widespread archeological phenomenon: the discovery of hoards of Bar Kokhba coinage all over Judea. The Jews who hid those hoards were unable to collect them due to the presence of Roman garrisons, or because they were killed during the revolt's suppression. It is reasonable to believe that the extensive destruction played a part in the loss of the hiding locations as well. Thirty hoards from this era have been found, more than any other decade.

Roman legionary camps
A number of locations have been identified with Roman Legionary camps in the time of the Bar Kokhba War, including in Tel Shalem, Jerusalem, Lajjun and more.

Jerusalem inscription dedicated to Hadrian (129/30 CE)
In 2014, one half of a Latin inscription was discovered in Jerusalem during excavations near the Damascus Gate. It was identified as the right half of a complete inscription, the other part of which was discovered nearby in the late 19th century and is currently on display in the courtyard of Jerusalem's Studium Biblicum Franciscanum Museum. The complete inscription was translated as follows:

"To the Imperator Caesar Traianus Hadrianus Augustus, son of the deified Traianus Parthicus, grandson of the deified Nerva, high priest, invested with tribunician power for the 14th time, consul for the third time, father of the country (dedicated by) the 10th legion Fretensis Antoniniana."

The inscription was dedicated by Legio X Fretensis to the emperor Hadrian in the year 129/130 CE. The inscription is considered to greatly strengthen the claim that indeed the emperor visited Jerusalem that year, supporting the traditional claim that Hadrian's visit was among the main causes of the Bar Kokhba Revolt, and not the other way around.

Tel Shalem triumphal arc and Hadrian's statue
The location was identified as a Roman military post during the 20th century, with archaeological excavation performed in the late 20th century following an accidental discovery of Hadrian's bronze statue in the vicinity of the site in 1975. Remains of a large Roman military camp and fragments of a triumphal arc dedicated to Emperor Hadrian were consequently discovered at the site.

Geographic extent of the revolt
Over the years, two schools formed in the analysis of the Revolt. One of them is maximalists, who claim that the revolt spread through the entire Judea Province and beyond it into neighboring provinces. The second one is that of the minimalists, who restrict the revolt to the area of the Judaean hills and immediate environs.

Judea proper
It is generally accepted that the Bar Kokhba revolt encompassed all of Judea, namely the villages of the Judean hills, the Judean desert, and northern parts of the Negev desert. It is not known whether the revolt spread outside of Judea.

Jerusalem
Until 1951, Bar Kokhba Revolt coinage was the sole archaeological evidence for dating the revolt. These coins include references to "Year One of the redemption of Israel", "Year Two of the freedom of Israel", and "For the freedom of Jerusalem". Despite the reference to Jerusalem, as of early 2000s, archaeological finds, and the lack of revolt coinage found in Jerusalem, supported the view that the revolt did not capture Jerusalem.

In 2020, the fourth Bar Kokhba minted coin and the first inscribed with the word "Jerusalem" was found in Jerusalem Old City excavations. Despite this discovery, the Israel Antiques Authority still maintained the opinion that Jerusalem was not taken by the rebels, due to the fact that of thousands of Bar Kokhba coins had been found outside Jerusalem, but only four within the city (out of more than 22,000 found within the city). The Israel Antiques Authority's archaeologists Moran Hagbi and Dr. Joe Uziel speculated that "It is possible that a Roman soldier from the Tenth Legion found the coin during one of the battles across the country and brought it to their camp in Jerusalem as a souvenir."

Galilee
Among those findings are the rebel hideout systems in the Galilee, which greatly resemble the Bar Kokhba hideouts in Judea, and though are less numerous, are nevertheless important. The fact that Galilee retained its Jewish character after the end of the revolt has been taken as an indication by some that either the revolt was never joined by Galilee or that the rebellion was crushed relatively early there compared to Judea.

Northern valleys
Several historians, notably W. Eck of the University of Cologne, theorized that the Tel Shalem arch depicted a major battle between Roman armies and Bar Kokhba's rebels in Bet Shean valley, thus extending the battle areas some 50 km northwards from Judea. The 2013 discovery of the military camp of Legio VI Ferrata near Tel Megiddo. However, Eck's theory on battle in Tel Shalem is rejected by M. Mor, who considers the location implausible given Galilee's minimal (if any) participation in the Revolt and distance from the main conflict flareup in Judea proper.

Samaria
A 2015 archaeological survey in Samaria identified some 40 hideout cave systems from the period, some containing Bar Kokhba's minted coins, suggesting that the war raged in Samaria at high intensity.

Transjordan
Jews from Peraea are thought to have taken part in the revolt. This is demonstrated by a destruction layer dating from the early second century at Tel Abu al-Sarbut in the Sukkoth Valley, and by abandonment deposits from the same period that were discovered at al-Mukhayyat and Callirrhoe. There is also evidence for Roman military presence in Perea in the middle of the century, as well as evidence of the settlement of Roman veterans in the area.

This view is supported by a destruction layer in Tel Hesban that dates to 130 CE, and a decline in settlement from the Early Roman to the Late Roman periods discovered in the survey of the Iraq al-Amir region. However, it is still unclear whether this decline was caused by the First Jewish–Roman War or the Bar Kokhba revolt.

Bowersock suggested of linking the Nabateans to the revolt, claiming "a greater spread of hostilities than had formerly been thought... the extension of the Jewish revolt into northern Transjordan and an additional reason to consider the spread of local support among Safaitic tribes and even at Gerasa."

Dio Cassius
The best recognized source for the revolt is Cassius Dio, Roman History (book 69), even though the writings of the Roman historian concerning the Bar Kokhba revolt survived only as fragments. The account extends on about two pages and is largely an historical perspective with the general course of the rebellion and its disastrous results, without mentioning specific names and locations.

Eusebius of Caesarea
The Christian author Eusebius of Caesarea wrote a brief account of the revolt within the Church History (Eusebius) compilation, notably mentioning Bar Chochebas (which means “star” according to Eusebius) as the leader of the Jewish rebels and their last stand at Beththera (i.e., Betar). Though Eusebius lived one and a half centuries after the revolt and wrote the brief account from the Christian theological perspective, his account provides important details on the revolt and its aftermath in Judea.

Jerusalem Talmud
The Jerusalem Talmud contains descriptions of the results of the rebellion, including the Roman executions of Judean leaders and religious persecution.

In Rabbinic Judaism
The disastrous end of the revolt occasioned major changes in Jewish religious thought. Jewish messianism was abstracted and spiritualized, and rabbinical political thought became deeply cautious and conservative. The Talmud, for instance, refers to Bar Kokhba as "Ben-Kusiba", a derogatory term used to indicate that he was a false Messiah. The deeply ambivalent rabbinical position regarding Messianism, as expressed most famously in Maimonides' "Epistle to Yemen," would seem to have its origins in the attempt to deal with the trauma of a failed Messianic uprising.

In Zionism and modern Israel
In the post-rabbinical era, the Bar Kokhba Revolt became a symbol of valiant national resistance. The Zionist youth movement Betar took its name from Bar Kokhba's traditional last stronghold, and David Ben-Gurion, Israel's first prime minister, took his Hebrew last name from one of Bar Kokhba's generals.

A popular children's song, included in the curriculum of Israeli kindergartens, has the refrain "Bar Kokhba was a Hero/He fought for Liberty," and its words describe Bar Kokhba as being captured and thrown into a lion's den, but managing to escape riding on the lion's back.

title: Bar Kokhba revolt


text:
Sleepover (film)

Sleepover is a 2004 American teen comedy film directed by Joe Nussbaum, in his feature film directorial debut. The film stars Alexa Vega and Mika Boorem with supporting roles from Jane Lynch, Sara Paxton, Brie Larson, Steve Carell and Jeff Garlin.

It was released theatrically in the United States on July 9, 2004, and was both a box office and critical failure upon its release, but has since become a cult classic among fans who viewed the film through the ancillary market in subsequent years.

Plot
On the last day of 8th grade before their freshman year in high school, Julie Corky has a slumber party with three best friends, Hannah Carlson, Farrah James, and Yancy Williams. A group of popular girls, led by a former friend of Julie's, Staci Blake, challenge the girls to a scavenger hunt after Staci's boyfriend dumps her, barring her from the high school dance. The prize is a coveted lunchtime seat near the fountain in high school, where the popular kids sit. The losers will sit at tables near the school's dumpsters.

The list includes things like a picture of the girls with a date inside an exclusive nightclub, the insignia from a local private security firm, a pair of boxers from Steve Phillips (a boy that Julie has a crush on) and to dress an Old Navy mannequin with their own clothing. After instructing her older brother Ren to keep her parents believing that they are still home, the girls sneak out of Julie's house, using Yancy's father's Hypermini to travel to different locations and get the required objects. Along the way they dodge a Patroltec security guard and try to keep Julie's parents Gabby and Jay from discovering their absence. At the club, the four sneak in and Julie finds out that her date is her schoolteacher. Understanding her situation, he buys her a drink. Julie drops her scarf, which Gabby finds at the same club and attempts to call Julie about. When Julie uses a skateboard to go home quickly when the Hypermini gets boxed in traffic, Steve Philips sees Julie skateboarding in a dress and is impressed. Afterward, Julie sneaks into Steve's house and narrowly escapes him in the bathroom, before grabbing his boxers and leaving. The girls meanwhile try to find a way to charge their car, and Staci and her team alert Patroltec about a suspicious person at Steve's house. Finally before running away they grab the Patroltec insignia on the security guard's car. Later the girls meet up at the school dance, but both groups have obtained all listed items.

Staci suggests a tiebreaker, where the group which is able to get the crown from the homecoming king or queen will win. Staci catches her boyfriend, Todd, dancing with and kissing another girl who claims that she has been Todd's girlfriend for six months. After the two break up, Staci shares a dance with a scruffy skater friend of Julie's, Russell. Russell drops his copy of the scavenger hunt list, which Steve finds. Steve ends up named homecoming king and picks Julie as his partner for a victory dance, giving her the crown and ensuring victory for her friends.

After the dance, Julie and Steve are about to kiss when Ren notifies her that Gabby is headed home. The girls run home where Julie drops the crown, and pretend to be sleeping just as Julie's parents check on them. The next morning at breakfast, Gabby confronts her asking "exactly" what they did last night, showing Julie the scarf she had dropped in the Cosmo club. Surprisingly, she is not mad but confesses her amazement at how fast Julie is maturing. After she says goodbye to her friends, Julie finds Steve waiting inside her tree fort with her lost crown, where the two begin kissing passionately. The film ends with a scene of Staci and her friends, now in high school, eating their lunch by the school dumpsters among the trash and the social rejects.

Cast

 * Alexa Vega as Julie Corky, a 14-year-old girl who has a sleepover with her best friends to celebrate the summer.
 * Mika Boorem as Hannah Carlson, a teenager who is the best friend of Julie, and ends up moving to Vancouver. She is somewhat the leader of the group because of her leadership and determination.
 * Jane Lynch as Gabby Corky, the mother of Julie and Ren Corky, who has a "girls night" to have fun.
 * Sara Paxton as Staci Blake, one of the queen bees of the school and a typical middle school mean girl. She and her best friend Liz plan a scavenger hunt for her, Julie and her friends, which Hannah ends up changing the rules so Julie, Farrah, and Yancy can sit at "The Fountain" freshman year of high school.
 * Brie Larson as Liz Daniels, one of Staci's friends.
 * Steve Carell as Officer Sherman Shiner, a security officer in Julie's neighborhood, whom the girls encounter multiple times that night.
 * Jeff Garlin as Jay Corky, the father of Julie and Ren Corky, who is a plumber. He has his heart obsessively determined on fixing the water in their house during the sleepover.
 * Scout Taylor-Compton as Farrah James, Hannah and Julie's best friend and is known for being the fashionista of the group.
 * Kallie Flynn Childress as Yancy Williams, a slightly overweight teenage girl, who is very self-conscious and worries about what people think about her.
 * Sam Huntington as Ren Corky, Julie's older brother.
 * Sean Faris as Steve Phillips, the local hottie of high school.
 * Evan Peters as Russell "Spongebob" Hayes, a very clumsy skateboarder who has his heart set on making Staci fall in love with him.
 * Ryan Slattery as Peter, Yancy's love interest.
 * Johnny Sneed as Mr. Corrado, the girls' teacher.
 * Douglas Smith as Gregg, one of Steve's friend.
 * Katija Pevec as Molly, one of Staci's friends.
 * Eileen April Boylan as Jenna, one of Staci's friends.
 * Thad Luckinbill as Todd, Staci's ex-boyfriend.
 * Alice Greczyn as Linda, Todd's new girlfriend.
 * Shane Hunter as Miles, one of Russell's friends.
 * Hunter Parrish as Lance, one of Russell's friends.
 * Max Van Ville as Skater Dude, one of Steve's friends.
 * Summer Glau as a lonely ticket girl.

Reception
The film underperformed, opening at #10 in the box office with $4,171,226. The film would later make $9,436,390 in the United States and $712,563 internationally, resulting in a $10,148,953 gross worldwide, on a $10 million budget.

On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 15% based on 101 reviews, with an average rating of 3.7/10. The site's critics' consensus reads, "Tween girls will enjoy this sugar coated fluff, but others will find Sleepover a snooze." On Metacritic the film has a score of 33% based on reviews from 29 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".

Soundtrack

 * 1) "Imaginary Superstar" – Skye Sweetnam
 * 2) "Freeze Frame" – Jump5
 * 3) "I Want Everything" – Hope 7
 * 4) "That's What Girls Do" – No Secrets
 * 5) "Stuck" – Allister
 * 6) "Havin' Fun" – Planet Melvin
 * 7) "Remember" – Gabriel Mann
 * 8) "We Close Our Eyes" – Allister
 * 9) "Hole in the Head" – Sugababes
 * 10) "Next Big Me" – Verbalicious
 * 11) "Heaven Is a Place on Earth" – Becky Baeling
 * 12) "Wannabe" – Spice Girls

title: Sleepover (film)