text:
Glossary of climate change

This glossary of climate change is a list of definitions of terms and concepts relevant to climate change, global warming, and related topics.

0–9
100,000-year problem: The apparent discrepancy between the climate response and the forcing from the amount of incoming solar radiation.

A
adaptation: Any adjustment in natural or human systems in response to a changing or changed climate. additionality: In the context of a project funded by carbon offsets, the additionality is the reduction in greenhouse gas emissions that is in addition to what would have resulted in the absence of the carbon offset funding. albedo: An index of the "reflectiveness" of a surface; a way of quantifying how much radiation is reflected back, as opposed to absorbed. Objects or surfaces with low albedo (closer to 0) absorb most of the radiation directed toward them, and those with high albedo (closer to 1) reflect most of it. anoxic event: A period when the Earth's oceans are free of oxygen below the surface layer. Antarctic bottom water (ABW):

Antarctic oscillation (AAO): A low-frequency mode of atmospheric variability of the Southern Hemisphere. Antarctica cooling controversy:

anthropogenic: Created, caused, or strongly influenced by humans or human activities; man-made. anthropogenic climate change: Climate change with the presumption of human influence, usually warming. anthropogenic global warming (AGW): with the presumption of human influence. anti-greenhouse effect: The cooling effect an atmosphere has on the ambient temperature of the planet. Arctic amplification: A positive feedback loop triggered by the melting of sea ice, which results in the replacement of high- ice with low-albedo sea capable of absorbing more radiation from the Sun, which traps more heat near the Earth's surface and contributes to the melting of more ice. Arctic dipole anomaly:

Arctic oscillation (AO): The dominant pattern of non-seasonal sea-level pressure (SLP) variations north of 20 degrees N, and it is characterized by SLP anomalies of one sign in the Arctic and anomalies of opposite sign centered about 37–45 degrees N. See also. Arctic shrinkage: The observed decrease in sea ice in the Arctic Ocean and melting of the Greenland Ice Sheet in recent years. Argo:

Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO): A hypothesised mode of natural variability occurring in the North Atlantic Ocean and which has its principle expression in the sea surface temperature (SST) field. atmospheric sciences: An umbrella term for the study of the atmosphere, its processes, the effects other systems have on the atmosphere, and the effects of the atmosphere on these other systems. atmospheric window: The parts of the electromagnetic spectrum that are, with the Earth's atmosphere in its natural state, not absorbed at all. attribution of recent climate change: The study of the causes of.

B
Biofuels:

Biomass: is a term used in several contexts: in ecology, it means living organisms, and in bioenergy, it means matter from recently living (but now dead) organisms. However, Biomass is defined as all plants and plant-derived materials including feedstock such as vegetable oils, forestry residues, wastes from pulp and paper mills, urban wood wastes, animal manure, plants, grains, and animal-based oils. Blytt–Sernander system:

Bond event:

Bunker fuels: is a term used to refer to fuels consumed for international marine and air transport, e.g shipping fleets.

C
Callendar effect:

cap and trade: See. Capacity building: In the context of climate change, the Capacity building is the process of developing the technical skills and institutional capability in developing countries and economies in transition to enable them to address effectively the causes and results of climate change. carbon cycle: The biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged between the biosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of the Earth. carbon diet: The act of reducing the output of to reduce impact on the environment. carbon dioxide:

carbon footprint: The total set of greenhouse gas emissions caused by an organization, event or product. carbon offset: A mechanism for individuals and businesses to neutralize rather than actually reduce their greenhouse gas emissions, by purchasing the right to claim someone else's reductions as their own. carbon sequestration: Proposals for removing from the atmosphere, or for preventing from fossil fuel combustion from reaching the atmosphere. carbon sink: A natural or artificial reservoir that accumulates and stores some carbon-containing chemical compound for an indefinite period. carbon tax: A tax on energy sources which emit. Cartagena Dialogue: it is a collection of about 40 countries working towards an ambitious legally binding agreement under the UNFCCC, and who are committed to becoming or remaining low carbon domestically. Participants include; Australia, Bangladesh, Barbados, Burundi, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Ethiopia, European Union, France, Gambia, Georgia, Germany, Ghana, Grenada, Guatemala, Indonesia, Kenya, Lebanon, Malawi, Maldives, Marshall Islands, México, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Panama, Peru, Rwanda, Samoa, Spain, Swaziland, Sweden, Switzerland, Tajikistan, Tanzania, Uganda, UAE, and the United Kingdom. clathrate gun hypothesis: The hypothesis that melting methane clathrates could trigger runaway or very severe global warming. climate: The average and variations of weather in a region over long periods of time, which can be related to surface variables such as temperature, precipitation and wind. climate change: Includes both global warming and its effects, such as changes to precipitation, rising sea levels, and impacts that differ by region. climate change denial:

climate change feedback: A natural phenomenon that may increase or decrease the warming that eventually results from a change in radiative forcing. climate change mitigation: approaches to limit global warming, primarily by the substitution of fossil fuels with low-carbon sources of energy climate commitment: How much future warming is "committed", even if levels do not rise, due to thermal inertia, mainly of the oceans. Climate crisis: Term used to show a sense of emergency and urgency about climate change. climate cycle: See. climate ethics: An area of research that focuses on the ethical dimensions of climate change. climate forcing: An energy imbalance imposed on the climate system either externally or by human activities. climate inertia: The tendency of a climate system to resist changes. climate justice: A term used for viewing climate change as an ethical issue, and considering how its causes and effects relate to social and political concepts of justice. climate legislation: Legislation dealing with regulation of greenhouse gas emissions. climate model: An imperfect representation of a climate system that is constructed, validated, studied, and often improved upon in order to gain a knowingly limited amount of useful information. climate movement:

climate oscillation:

climate resilience: The capacity for a socio-ecological system to: (1) absorb stresses and maintain function in the face of external stresses imposed upon it by climate change and (2) adapt, reorganize, and evolve into more desirable configurations that improve the sustainability of the system, leaving it better prepared for future climate change impacts, while still being able to benefit from it now. climate sensitivity: How responsive the temperature of the climate system is to a change in ; also, the temperature change in °C associated with a doubling of the concentration of in the atmosphere (as the single most important factor of radiative forcing). climate stabilization wedge:

climate system:

climate variability: Climate change with no presumption of cause. climatology:

The scientific study of, defined as weather conditions averaged over a long period of time. cool tropics paradox:

cosmic rays:

D
Deforestation: Conversion of Forest to non-forest. dendroclimatology:

desertification: The degradation of land in arid and dry sub-humid areas, resulting primarily from natural activities and influenced by climatic variations. detection and attribution: See.

E
eco-efficiency: Creating more goods and services while using fewer resources and creating less waste and pollution. Earth's atmosphere: The layer of gases surrounding the Earth and retained by the Earth's gravity. Earth's energy imbalance: Difference between energy absorbed by Earth and energy radiated by Earth to space. A useful gauge of significant change when monitored over multiple decades. Earthshine: Sunlight reflected from Earth and illuminating the dark side of the Moon, which help determining Earth's. ecotax: A fiscal policy that introduces taxes intended to promote ecologically sustainable activities via economic incentives. ecosystem services: Benefits humans get from a multitude of resources and processes that are supplied by natural ecosystems. El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO): A set of specific interacting parts of a single global system of coupled ocean-atmosphere climate fluctuations that come about as a consequence of oceanic and atmospheric circulations. emission intensity: The average emission rate of a given pollutant from a given source relative to the intensity of a specific activity; for example grams of released per megajoule of energy produced, or the ratio of emissions produced to GDP. emission inventory:

emission standards: Requirements that set specific limits to the amount of pollutants that can be released into the environment. emissions trading:

enteric fermentation: Fermentation that takes place in the digestive systems of ruminant animals; one of the causes of emissions. environmental crime: Crime against environmental legislation that is liable for prosecution. environmental migrant: A displaced person caused by climate change-induced environmental disasters.

F
feedback: Either an amplification (positive feedback) or a reduction (negative feedback) of the rate of global warming caused by its own effects. forest dieback:

fossil fuel: Fossil source fuels, that is, hydrocarbons found within the top layer of the Earth's crust. Freon: The trade name for a group of proprietary odorless, colorless, nonflammable, and noncorrosive and hydrochlorofluorocarbon refrigerants which are used in air conditioning and refrigeration systems.

G
glacial earthquake: A large-scale temblor that occurs in glaciated areas where the glacier moves faster than one kilometer per year. glacial motion:

global cooling: A conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth's surface and atmosphere along with a posited commencement of glaciation. global climate model (GCM):

A computer model of the world's climate system, including the atmosphere and oceans. global climate regime:

global dimming: The observed decrease in surface insolation, that may have recently reversed. global warming (GW): Usually: the warming trend over the past century or so; also: any period in which the temperature of the Earth's atmosphere increases; also the theory of such changes. global warming controversy: Socio-political issues surrounding the theory of global warming. global warming denial: See. global warming period: Any period in which the temperature of the Earth's atmosphere increases. global warming potential: A measure of how much a given mass of greenhouse gas is estimated to contribute to global warming. greenhouse debt:

greenhouse effect:

greenhouse gas: Any gas that causes or contributes to. greenhouse gas inventory: A type of emission inventory that includes greenhouse gas emissions from source categories as well as removal by carbon sinks. Gulf Stream: A powerful, warm, and swift Atlantic Ocean current that originates in the Gulf of Mexico, exits through the Strait of Florida, and follows the eastern coastlines of the United States and Newfoundland before crossing the Atlantic Ocean.

H
historical temperature record: See. hockey stick graph: Reconstructions of Northern Hemisphere or global mean temperature changes during the past 600 to 11,300 years, a name coined for the Mann, Bradley and Hughes 1999 (MBH99) reconstruction. Holocene: A geological period, which began approximately 11,550 calendar years BP (about 9600 BC) and continued to the Anthropocene. Holocene Climatic Optimum: A warm period during roughly the interval 9,000 to 5,000 years BP. homogenization: The removal of non-climatic jump and changes in raw climate records, for example due to relocations or changes in instrumentation.

I
ice age: A period of long-term reduction in the temperature of Earth's climate, resulting in expansions of continental ice sheets, polar ice sheets, and alpine glaciers. ice core: A core sample from the accumulation of snow and ice over many years that have re-crystallized and have trapped air bubbles from previous time periods. insolation: The amount of solar radiation reaching the surface of the Earth. IMO: In climate change context, It is an acronym for International Maritime Organization. invasive species: Any non-native, introduced species that adversely affects the habitats and bioregions it invades economically, environmentally, and/or ecologically. iris hypothesis:

irradiance: The amount of electromagnetic radiation reaching a surface, measured in watts per square meter. instrumental temperature record: Shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans as measured by temperature sensors. The longest-running quasi-global record starts in 1850. Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation (IPO): A cycle of 15 to 30 years between warm or cool waters in the north and south Pacific Ocean. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC):

IUCN: International Union for Conservation of Nature. JUSSCANNZ: This is an acronym representing non-EU industrialized countries that occasionally meet to discuss various issues related to climate change. Members include Japan, the United States, Switzerland, Canada, Australia, Norway, and New Zealand. Iceland, Mexico, and the Republic of Korea may also attend JUSSCANZ meetings.

K
Keeling Curve: A graph showing the variation in concentration of atmospheric since 1958. Kyoto Protocol: A modification to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. See also post–Kyoto Protocol negotiations on greenhouse gas emissions.

L
Little Ice Age: A historical period of cooling which followed a warmer period known as the Medieval Climate Optimum.

LT-LEDS: A long term climate strategy for a country submitted to the UNFCCC.

M
magnetosphere: The region around an astronomical object in which phenomena are dominated or organized by its magnetic field. Maunder Minimum: A historical period roughly from 1645 to 1715, when sunspots became exceedingly rare, as noted by solar observers of the time. Mauna Loa: Home to the longest instrumental CO2 record. Medieval Warm Period: A historical warm period from about the 10th century to about the 14th century. meteorology: The interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere and weather processes, with a particular focus on weather forecasting. methane: A released by in livestock, rice production, and  extraction. Milankovitch cycles:

mitigation of global warming: Any procedure which involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the degree of global warming. (same as ) mode of variability: A pattern of climate change, usually oscillatory, with specific regional effects.

N
nitrous oxide: is a potent produced primarily in agriculture, particularly by the livestock sector. nonradiative forcing: A type of climate forcing which creates an energy imbalance that does not immediately involve radiation. North Atlantic Deep Water: One of the water masses of the ocean. North Atlantic oscillation: An atmospheric climate mode.

O
ocean heat content: Thermal energy stored in the global ocean. A basic indicator of climate change. ocean planet: The opposite concept of. orbital forcing:

ozone:

ozone depletion:

ozone layer:

P
Pacific decadal oscillation (PDO): A 23-year pattern of warm or cool water in the north Pacific Ocean. Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM): A historical warming event which suddenly and fundamentally altered geological and biological aspects of the planet. paleoclimatology: The study of taken on the scale of the entire history of the Earth. policies and measures (PaMs): phenology:

polar amplification: Greater temperature increases in the Arctic than in the earth as a whole is a result of the collective effect of positive feedback loops and other processes. Despite its name, polar amplification only applies to the Arctic, and not to the Antarctic, because the Southern Ocean acts as a heat sink. polar city: A proposed human refuge located in northern regions of the Earth, and in Tasmania, New Zealand, and Antarctica, where people might have to live in order to survive major global warming "events" in the far distant future. Also dubbed "Lovelock Retreats". proxy: A variable that can be related to one of interest (e.g. tree rings can be proxies for temperature variations).

R
radiative forcing: A quantifiable driver of change to Earth's energy balance. regime shift:

removal unit: A tradable or "Kyoto unit" representing an allowance to emit one tonne of greenhouse gases absorbed by a removal or activity in an Annex I country. runaway greenhouse effect: A somewhat ill-defined term associated with the idea of large irreversible temperature rises.

S
sea level rise: A basic indicator of global warming and climate change. season creep:

slash and burn: A form of deforestation used to clear fields for agricultural use. Snowball Earth:

solar variation: Changes in the amount of radiant energy emitted by the Sun. solar wind: The stream of charged particles ejected from the upper atmosphere of the Sun. stranded asset: Assets that have suffered from unanticipated or premature write-downs, devaluations, or conversion to liabilities. They can be caused by a variety of environment-related risks. Stratospheric aerosol injection:

sunspot: A region on the surface of the Sun (the photosphere) that is marked by a lower temperature than its surroundings and has intense magnetic activity, which inhibits convection, forming areas of low surface temperature.

T
thermohaline circulation: The global density-driven circulation of the oceans. TEX-86: A paleothermometer based on the composition of membrane lipids of the marine picoplankton Thermoproteota (formerly called Crenarchaeota). thermocline:

A layer within a body of water or air where the temperature changes rapidly with depth. tipping points in the climate system: Thresholds in the climate system that, when exceeded, can lead to large changes in the state of the system that are often irreversible.

U
urban heat island: Any metropolitan area which is significantly warmer than its surroundings.

V
volcanism: Phenomenon of eruption of molten rock (magma) onto the surface of a solid-surface planet or moon, where lava, pyroclastics, and volcanic gases erupt through a break in the surface called a vent.

W
water vapor: Water in its gaseous state. Water vapor is considered a because its presence in the Earth's atmosphere contributes to the. with additional measures (WAM): with measures (WEM): without measures (WOM): weather:

World Climate Report:

Y
Younger Dryas: A period of rapid and severe climate changes which occurred circa 12,900 to 11,700 years before present.

title: Glossary of climate change


text: File:Kurita.jpg

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: File:Kurita.jpg


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Vasili Altfater

Vasili Mikhailovich Altfater (Василий Михайлович Альтфатер) (December 16, 1883 – April 20, 1919) was a Russian-Soviet naval officer, the first Commander-in-chief of the Soviet Navy.

Altfater was born in Warsaw the son of an artillery officer, General Mikhail Altfater who was from a noble Baltic German Family.

Altfater graduated from Marine Cadet Corps (1902) and Naval Academy's Department of Hydrography (1908). During the Russo-Japanese War, Altfater participated in the defense of Port Arthur (Lüshunkou) and rescue of the crew of the battleship Petropavlovsk. Later on, Altfater served as the squadron navigating officer of the 1st destroyer division of the Baltic Fleet (1909–1910). During World War I, as Captain 2nd Rank Altfater was one of two liaison officers for the Imperial Russian Navy at the Tsar's Supreme Headquarters (the Stavka), where he had responsibility for advising on command appointments in the Baltic Fleet. He was later head of the Military Administration under the Commander-in-chief of the Northern Fleet. In October 1917, Altfater was promoted to the rank of Rear-Admiral. After the October Revolution, he joined the Soviets. In February 1918, Altfater was appointed assistant to the head of the Naval Headquarters. He participated in peace negotiations in Brest-Litovsk as a naval technical adviser to the Soviet delegation. In April, Altfater became a board member at the People's Commissariat of Naval Affairs. In October, he became a member of the Revolutionary Military Council (Реввоенсовет, Revvoyensovet) and appointed Commander-in-chief of the Soviet Naval Forces.

Altfater died of a heart attack in Moscow on April 20, 1919. On receiving the news about his death, Leon Trotsky said that "the Red Fleet lost a tireless, competent, energetic and honest worker". He is buried in the Novodevichy Cemetery, Moscow.

title: Vasili Altfater


text:
Cantilever bridge

A cantilever bridge is a bridge built using structures that project horizontally into space, supported on only one end (called cantilevers). For small footbridges, the cantilevers may be simple beams; however, large cantilever bridges designed to handle road or rail traffic use trusses built from structural steel, or box girders built from prestressed concrete.

The steel truss cantilever bridge was a major engineering breakthrough when first put into practice, as it can span distances of over 1500 ft, and can be more easily constructed at difficult crossings by virtue of using little or no falsework.

Origins
Engineers in the 19th century understood that a bridge that was continuous across multiple supports would distribute the loads among them. This would result in lower stresses in the girder or truss and meant that longer spans could be built. Several 19th-century engineers patented continuous bridges with hinge points mid-span. The use of a hinge in the multi-span system presented the advantages of a statically determinate system and of a bridge that could handle differential settlement of the foundations. Engineers could more easily calculate the forces and stresses with a hinge in the girder.

Heinrich Gerber was one of the engineers to obtain a patent for a hinged girder (1866) and is recognized as the first to build one. The Hassfurt Bridge over the Main river in Germany with a central span of 124 feet (38 metres) was completed in 1867 and is recognized as the first modern cantilever bridge.

The High Bridge of Kentucky by C. Shaler Smith (1877), the Niagara Cantilever Bridge by Charles Conrad Schneider (1883) and the Poughkeepsie Bridge by John Francis O'Rourke and Pomeroy P. Dickinson (1889) were all important early uses of the cantilever design. The Kentucky River Bridge spanned a gorge that was 275 feet (84 metres) deep and took full advantage of the fact that falsework, or temporary support, is not needed for the main span of a cantilever bridge.

The Forth Bridge is a notable example of an early cantilever bridge. This bridge held the record for longest span in the world for twenty-nine years until it was surpassed by the Quebec Bridge. The engineers responsible for the bridge, Sir Benjamin Baker and Sir John Fowler, demonstrated the structural principles of the suspended span cantilever by sitting in chairs and supporting their colleague, Kaichi Watanabe, in between them, using just their arms and wooden poles. The suspended span, where Watanabe sits, is in the center. The wooden poles resist the compression of the lower chord, while the outstretched arms support the tension of the upper chord. The placement of the brick counterweights demonstrates the action of the outer foundations.

Function
A simple cantilever span is formed by two cantilever arms extending from opposite sides of an obstacle to be crossed, meeting at the center. In a common variant, the suspended span, the cantilever arms do not meet in the center; instead, they support a central truss bridge which rests on the ends of the cantilever arms. The suspended span may be built off-site and lifted into place, or constructed in place using special travelling supports.

A common way to construct steel truss and prestressed concrete cantilever spans is to counterbalance each cantilever arm with another cantilever arm projecting the opposite direction, forming a balanced cantilever; when they attach to a solid foundation, the counterbalancing arms are called anchor arms. Thus, in a bridge built on two foundation piers, there are four cantilever arms: two which span the obstacle, and two anchor arms that extend away from the obstacle. Because of the need for more strength at the balanced cantilever's supports, the bridge superstructure often takes the form of towers above the foundation piers. The Commodore Barry Bridge is an example of this type of cantilever bridge.

Steel truss cantilevers support loads by tension of the upper members and compression of the lower ones. Commonly, the structure distributes the tension via the anchor arms to the outermost supports, while the compression is carried to the foundations beneath the central towers. Many truss cantilever bridges use pinned joints and are therefore statically determinate with no members carrying mixed loads.

Prestressed concrete balanced cantilever bridges are often built using segmental construction.

Construction methods
Some steel arch bridges (such as the Navajo Bridge) are built using pure cantilever spans from each side, with neither falsework below nor temporary supporting towers and cables above. These are then joined with a pin, usually after forcing the union point apart, and when jacks are removed and the bridge decking is added the bridge becomes a truss arch bridge. Such unsupported construction is only possible where appropriate rock is available to support the tension in the upper chord of the span during construction, usually limiting this method to the spanning of narrow canyons.

List by length
World's longest cantilever bridges (by longest span):

Related Articles

 * Southwest Line

title: Cantilever bridge


text:
Talk:84, Charing Cross Road

The Bookshop's site today
I cross-referenced both my own personal photos from a September 1991 visit and information and photos from the Marks & Co. enthusiast website to determine that the building in which the actual bookshop was located is still marked as 84 Charing Cross Road; the Med Restaurant shown in the 2008 Google Street View is now listed as having moved a few blocks away, and I cannot locate a current business listing for the address. See also http://freespace.virgin.net/angela.garry/Plaque.htm LNER4472 (talk) 20:14, 25 August 2012 (UTC)

Incorrect label
One of the boilerplates reads This article about a historical fiction book is a stub.... - I'm pretty sure the book is non-fiction, or is at least "based on a true story"", fwiw. Lee M 02:42, 23 October 2005 (UTC)

Film stub
I have removed the "film stub" template, as this article is about a book and its television, stage, and screen adaptations, not just a film. SFTVLGUY2 18:09, 17 March 2007 (UTC)

Infobox Tag
Infobox tag has been removed as article already has one. If you have any problems with this please post a message on my talk page. RWardy 22:09, 11 October 2007 (UTC)

splitting
When I split the book/film article into two, i forgot to move the tags and pertinent posts. I have done so now. EraserGirl (talk) 15:11, 5 May 2008 (UTC)

The Bookshop's site today
I think speculation about why some people (only Americans per the writer) believe the site of the shop to have been demolished is unnecessary. It is also faulty in its analysis, as numbering of addresses is variant all throughout the (quite large and diverse) United States. A clear explanation of the numbering system used on the section of Charing Cross Road (and possibly why evidently intelligent and literate people confuse it) would be helpful. The current explanation is confused and contentious. Liam (talk) 18:13, 23 August 2011 (UTC)
 * I agree -- I removed the inessentials and speculation and POV. I tried to make it make some sense but since I don't live there there's only so much I could do. Softlavender (talk) 23:00, 22 October 2011 (UTC)

Non-fiction?
So the bookshop, the persons and the correspondance are authentic? The article doesn't seem to provide any information about these pretty basic facts regarding the subject. --Saddhiyama (talk) 15:31, 7 December 2012 (UTC)

Why is the book labeled a "novel", i.e., fiction, in the article, when the rest of the article seems to indicate the events actually occurred, the letters really exchanged? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.94.241.240 (talk) 02:34, 30 March 2013 (UTC)

title: Talk:84, Charing Cross Road


text:
Talk:Battle of Liège

No Casualties
I've found no web site that lists casualties on either side in this important opening battle of the Great War. Not even Barbara Tuchman's Pulitzer-winning "The Guns of August" contains that material. Most peculiar.

BT 11-06

==

All right, I'm done for now, I'll finish the article later. It's going to be rather long... ^_^ ugen64 18:07, Aug 9, 2004 (UTC)

 * Don't worry, I'll get to it... eventually...

 * At least tell me who won the battle!--Milicz 00:15, 9 February 2006 (UTC)

Why is this "not global"?
Any idea why this was tagged as "not having a global perspective"? From my own perspective it seems fine... —Preceding unsigned comment added by 128.102.147.50 (talk) 16:55, 11 October 2007 (UTC)

 * Agree with previous comment; the tag doesn't seem relevant - I've removed it; it can of course go back, if we've both missed something here. Scoop100 (talk) 21:56, 17 April 2008 (UTC)

Cleanup
Started some cleanup, and adding some references. MarcoLittel (talk) 10:17, 8 August 2009 (UTC)

Errors about the figures and the beginning of the battle ( humbly )
[With my bad English]. According to Horne and Kramer who have strongly learned this chapter of World War I, the first German troops attacking Liège were not 59,000 but only 39,000. The first three days of the invasion was a huge disaster for the Brigades (of which the name is right on the page but they had less soldiers, firstly because some soldiers were not comitted in the battle). Five of the six German brigades must withdraw. On 5 August the 34th Brigade lost 1,500 soldiers and 30 officers (wounded or killed I think: a Brigade have two regiments of 3,500 soldiers). On 6 August 14th Brigade lost more than an half of all its soldiers. According to Horne and Kramer, between 3,500 and 5,000 German soldiers were killed during this first attack (and others were wounded). So, until 8 August, the attack failed. It is important to underline that because in order to be successfull the Schlieffen plan must work quickly!!! The German army must go quickly until France and Paris. But after three, even four days, the German army was not further than its position from the beginning and perhaps back (Horne and Kramer wrote that). For Horne and Kramers the Belgian resistance during the Battle of Liège is one of the main causes of which they named German atrocities and these atrocities linked to the Rape of Belgium. Why? The German army and perhaps also the German government found this Belgian resistance illegal or illégitime because of the neutrality of Belgium (the resistance in itself was helping France but on the other hand Belgium had the right to resist according the Europen treaties of 1839)). It seems actually the  plan Schlieffen really failed because of this resistance of Liège. It is impossible to read that in French literature about the World War I but I think it is right (even if I am hesitating, the question is very disputed). Which is certain, it is the fact you are able to understand the atrocities in Belgium (and France):  because of this resistance Germany failed.

I have their book only (Horne & Kramer), in French. But it is possible to find some good books in English on the Web or in the libraries. For instance Gerhard Ritter The Schlieffen plan: critique of a myth (I read only some passages). This book is interesting because following its author, the Schlieffen plan was the reason why Germany lost the war, on the political and diplomatic plan but perhaps also on the military plan. It is important also for the History of Belgium because of the so-called Belgian atrocities, and for the History of Wallonia because the most of the casualties of these atrocities (also in France and Flanders), were in Wallonia (2/3 I think), Wallonia being the most important territory on the road of the German invasion. I have also World War One by Priscilla Mary Roberts (one of the authors) History and strategy by Marc Trachtenberg (Princeton 1991) : [. I have aslo an older book (on the Web), who gvers the same figures fort the number of soldiers in the two regiment of the German Brigades (3,500 soldiers). For the whole German army on 4, 5, 6 and 7 August, there were 39,000 troops. After German army added 60,000 other troops and a many pieces of artillery. Sincerely, [[User:José Fontaine|José Fontaine]] (talk) 12:59, 28 July 2010 (UTC)
 * The title of the Horne & Kramer's book is John N. Horne, Alan Kramer. German Atrocities, 1914: A History of Denial. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001. 608 S. $40.00 (leinen), ISBN 978-0-300-08975-2. José Fontaine (talk) 14:54, 28 July 2010 (UTC)

CE
Added citations from OH, revised the conclusion and centred pic captions, put convert template round metric numbers and tidied some prose (adjective frenzy). Recommend that some of the recent writing more sceptical of the Schlieffen Plan as a blueprint rather than a deployment plan be incorporated (or linked) in the background section.Keith-264 (talk) 14:30, 9 January 2014 (UTC)
 * Had another go at CE, removed some repetition, did more convert templating, tried to make level 2 and 3 headers the same as the Antwerp ones and moved several paragraphs which were out of sequence. Will look for more sources to cite the first half of the page tomorrow. Gave Namur a cameo in the subsequent operations section.Keith-264 (talk) 23:11, 9 January 2014 (UTC)
 * Found some citations in the Belgian OH and added while searching.Keith-264 (talk) 11:31, 10 January 2014 (UTC)
 * Found OOB details on a website which seems pretty decent quality but still looking for one about smelly forts. ;O) A fresh pair of eyes cast over the page would help. RegardsKeith-264 (talk) 15:23, 10 January 2014 (UTC)
 * The delay of the German advance needs a balancing sentence because at least one source had the railways open before the last fort fell.Keith-264 (talk) 11:23, 11 January 2014 (UTC)

CE
Started copy editing the page using Namur as a model but it needs a lot more than I can do today, revert as desired in the meantime as I've copied it into a sandbox for surgery. Keith-264 (talk) 18:02, 6 March 2014 (UTC)
 * Finished the additions from the GOH but need to integrate the rest of the narrative.Keith-264 (talk) 17:20, 7 March 2014 (UTC)

German allegations of franc tireur crimes
Recent edits suggest that the recounting of German allegations of civilian involvement in military operations have not been sufficiently shown to be allegations. The existing text puts the claims in inverted commas, to show that they are claims rather than facts but this has been challenged. Is it the custom in Belgian writing to use "You've got a big bum" rather than You've got a big bum to demonstrate the recounting of a claim rather than an endorsement of it?Keith-264 (talk) 18:52, 5 May 2014 (UTC)

Infobox result
There has been some editing about what the infobox should display in as the battle's "result". I think it might be worth having a discussion here.

Speaking personally, I agree with that "German victory" is not sufficient. I also respect 's citing of the template guidance at Template:Infobox military conflict that the result perimeter "may use one of several standard terms" only. However, as I mentioned, I think "German victory" is actually misleading and we have a duty under Manual of Style/Infoboxes (which, unlike the template instructions, is actually binding) to "[summarize] key features of the page's subject". Personally, I think that means some mention of the city's role in delaying the German advance which is already enumerated in the article itself. The exact magnitude of the delay is debatable, as Keith says, but mentioning it is far from a fringe theory and therefore reasonable to include.—Brigade Piron (talk) 10:09, 21 April 2016 (UTC)
 * I suggest we go back to See Aftermath Section. That it took time to capture the forts is not disputed by the sources but control of the railways is what mattered to the Germans. In the Analysis section the effect of the Belgian defence of Liege is described. It's not for us to arbitrate between the authors' conclusions.Keith-264 (talk) 10:21, 21 April 2016 (UTC)
 * I'll return it to "See Aftermath Section." I agree that we shouldn't summarize any effect unless we find multiple sources with a definitive conclusion on the effect of the delay. Indy beetle (talk) 14:41, 21 April 2016 (UTC)
 * With full respect to both of you, the "see aftermath" idea fails to meet any of the guidelines which were at issue in the first place. Frankly, if we can't summarise the content of the article, we should bin the infobox in its entirety. Is there really any doubt that the defence actually delayed the German advance ("German advance delayed", for example, would seem pretty uncontroversial)?, I agree with you in principle, but in practice we all choose selectively from WP:RS content because we have limited space on Wikipedia and so need to make some kind of judgment about what gets included and what doesn't.
 * My suggestion would be "German victory" with "German advance delayed" as a bullet point underneath AND a footnote to the effect that the magnitude of the delay is disputed by historians.—Brigade Piron (talk) 16:48, 21 April 2016 (UTC)
 * NoKeith-264 (talk) 17:19, 21 April 2016 (UTC)
 * I'm not sure if the phrase "German advance delayed" is quite suitable. I think "Successful Belgian delaying action" would be better, because it conveys the that the Belgians achieved their goal as well, and from what it seems to me reading about this is that the Belgians wanted to delay for as long as possible to buy the French enough time to enter Belgium (which they did, but the French still lost the Battle of the Frontiers). We could also put bullet for "Strategic result disputed" under that, and make a note with a link to the aftermath, eh? Like, I think we can eventually change the "See Aftermath" tag, but it works at present. At the moment I'm still looking for sources that discuss the strategic outcome. I've found some books, but anything you guys can do would be nice. And , could you please explain your dissent with what Brigade Piron suggested (even if it's what you said before, just to be clear)? Indy beetle (talk) 21:12, 21 April 2016 (UTC)
 * This always happens when tactics, operations and strategy don't coincide but either it goes down as a German victory because it was or See aftermath where the differences between tactical, operational and strategic results are described. The infobox is not the place for a discussion.

Could this be more explicit? Keith-264 (talk) 21:27, 21 April 2016 (UTC)

 * Yes, but then would it confuse the reader to add a bullet point below such a statement that adds a little more information, as per summarizing the info in infoboxes? It's certainly much better than the "tactical X victory" or the like which the guide condemns. Indy beetle (talk) 15:31, 22 April 2016 (UTC)
 * Which reader? You can have German victory, Belgian victory, inconclusive or what you put earlier, See aftermath section. How have you been getting on looking for RS on the verdict? If you fancy a laugh, look at the reviews for Ten Days in August: The Siege of Liège 1914 here. Keith-264 (talk) 15:41, 22 April 2016 (UTC)

 * , I don't believe that the guidance you cite from the template has any binding status like an official WP essay or MOS has. I may be wrong. Either way, I'm really not convinced by the argument that adding a bullet point makes it impossible for the reader to follow. By the way, Hew Strachan supports the delay thesis, even if he plays down its magnitude, which he argues contributed to the collapse of the German strategic plan.—Brigade Piron (talk) 16:20, 22 April 2016 (UTC)

 * Either you follow

"result – optional – this parameter may use one of several standard terms: "X victory", "Decisive X victory" or "Inconclusive". The choice of term should reflect what the sources say. In cases where the standard terms do not accurately describe the outcome, a link to the section of the article where the result is discussed in detail (such as "See the 'Aftermath' section") should be used instead of introducing non-standard terms like "marginal" or "tactical" or contradictory statements like "decisive tactical victory but strategic defeat". It is better to omit this parameter altogether than to engage in speculation about which side won or by how much."

or you don't but it isn't a matter of opinion. You can have German victory, Belgian victory, inconclusive or See aftermath section.

Strachan wrote "in practice the delay to the German advance was at most a couple of days, as the concentration of the active corps was not completed until 13 August".

Zuber wrote "...contrary to the legend, the resistance of Liege did not delay the beginning of the German advance by a single day."

Herwig wrote "Leman's gallant defence of Liege had cost the Germans perhaps two days...."

Foley wrote "...the fortress was eventually neutralised sufficiently to allow the troops of the right wing to pass, creating just a small bump in the road for the advancing Germans."

Der Weltkrieg "...the fortress of Liege was in German hands - just in time to allow the German army to begin its advance....credit for the rapid success...."

OH 1914 I ".... the German armies were to reach Thionville-Sedan-Mons on the 22nd day of mobilisation - 23 August and were ahead of schedule."Keith-264 (talk) 16:36, 22 April 2016 (UTC)

 * Just to note, William R. Griffiths argument is basically the same as Herwig's, that the battle caused a 2 day delay. Also,, I have yet to look into "Ten Days in August," but keep in mind that the bad "reviews" you said it had is actually just a single 2-star rating. So can we please evaluate books by other means? Indy beetle (talk) 20:47, 22 April 2016 (UTC)
 * I. was. joking. ...Terry is famously stroppy when his judgement is questioned but his descriptions of German army organisation are very good. The review by Japer has him to a T.Keith-264 (talk) 21:18, 22 April 2016 (UTC)

Keith-264, Brigade Piron. I hope no one is too bothered by me bringing the subject up so long after the discussion, but I actually want to revisit this. About the bullet points as a result (non)option. I believe that if we except the "delaying action" theory, then we should add a bullet that further explains a result of "German victory." I think this would truly be a beneficial addition to the page, ignoring the rules as per WP:BUREAU. Thoughts?
 * That sort of hair-splitting is what "see Aftermath section" and leaving it blank is for; there's no need for it. That said you might care to look at the Territory criterion to see if you can use that. Keith-264 (talk) 08:07, 13 July 2016 (UTC)

territory – optional – any changes in territorial control as a result of the conflict[; this should not be used for overly lengthy descriptions of the peace settlement].Keith-264 (talk) 08:11, 13 July 2016 (UTC)

 * Template:Infobox military operation there might be something in adding this under the infobox if you want more details of what was intended and how it went. RegardsKeith-264 (talk) 08:13, 13 July 2016 (UTC)

Recent edits
I've reverted recent edits for a lack of citation but would prefer to discuss them with the new editor 71 to avoid wasting effort. Keith-264 (talk) 08:09, 23 August 2016 (UTC)
 * 71 has been kind enough to add the citations, thanks very much; I've altered them to sfn for consistency. Let's hope that Zuber's book is on offer soon at a discount. Regards Keith-264 (talk) 10:51, 23 August 2016 (UTC)

John Buchan
John Buchan was a novelist who also wrote during and after the war on military subjects including battalion and divisional histories. Keith-264 (talk) 20:48, 8 January 2017 (UTC)

@TiltuM please stop making disruptive edits. Zuber has some good things to say but he is not the only authority on the subject. Might I suggest you explain why you want to alter the article here so we can discuss it? Regards Keith-264 (talk) 16:07, 10 January 2017 (UTC)

As it is currently constructed, the article's header implies the Germans were delayed at Liège by up to five days. No mention at all is made of the fact that at least two RS (Der Weltkrieg and Zuber) that detail the German right-wing deployment in detail say there was no delay whatsoever. The only justification presented in the article for not regarding the battle as an unambiguous German victory is the supposedly rock-solid fact that the main German advance was delayed by Belgian resistance at Liège. There's actually another point to consider, namely that the British entry into the war might have been delayed had the Germans not attacked Liège, but that's speculation.

 * If you look in the Analysis section there is a list of delays of lack with citations, Zuber's view can go in there in chronological order. Same goes for Der Weltkrieg.

The falsehood of Edmonds' claim of a delay forced on the Germans by Belgian resistance can be demonstrated in detail. Edmonds claims that the German II, III and IV AK had deployed on 7 August but only reached a line forty miles west of Liége on 17 August due to Belgian heroics at Liège and that without it, the Germans would have been assembled there by 12 or 13 August. And there's the basis of Edmonds' "four or five days of delay" claim.

 * Whether Edmonds is false is not for us to judge, it's OR and not NPOV so since he's a RS it can stay as description of what he wrote in the context of the varying views of the other RS.

In fact, III and IV AK deployed by 11 August and II AK the day after. OHL ordered the 1st Army to begin forward movement of these active-army corps on 12 August, a day ahead of schedule. The active-army corps transited past Liège without any trouble whatsoever. It's obvious that Edmonds was utterly clueless about the facts of the German deployment. Are we supposed to give the German and British official histories equal weight on the details of the German deployment? (See Zuber's Mons Myth (2010), chapter 3 paragraphs 94-100)

 * We shouldn't be giving weight to either but describing what they contain.

The "See Aftermath" line implies that we should consider as factual the notion that Liège was a strategic German defeat because of a non-existent delay for them at Liège. Anyway, since this is an encyclopedia and we must apparently give "equal weight" to "reliable sources", no matter how demonstrably wrong, I added the claims by Strachan and Herwig that the Germans were delayed by two days at Liège to the header and didn't put "German victory" into the results box in my second edit.

 * Actually, that's you inferring, Template:Infobox military conflict has

"result – optional – this parameter may use one of several standard terms: "X victory", "Decisive X victory" or "Inconclusive". The choice of term should reflect what the sources say. In cases where the standard terms do not accurately describe the outcome, a link to the section of the article where the result is discussed in detail (such as "See the 'Aftermath' section") should be used instead of introducing non-standard terms like "marginal" or "tactical" or contradictory statements like "decisive tactical victory but strategic defeat". It is better to omit this parameter altogether than to engage in speculation about which side won or by how much."

Since there is quite a range of verdicts, In cases where the standard terms do not accurately describe the outcome, a link to the section of the article where the result is discussed in detail (such as "See the 'Aftermath' section") applies.

One would imagine that if all RS are indeed created equal, then at the very least the opposing viewpoint of "no delay at all" would somewhow be represented in the header.

 * Quite agree but the sources we used in writing the article determined it and Zuber hadn't published then.

With regards to casualties, the source "French Battlefields" actually mentions 7,000 Belgian casualties not 6,000 and secondly does not mention that the Belgian 3rd Division disintegrated after retreating from Liège and that thousands deserted and just went home, which is why Zuber lists 19,000 Belgian casualties and Herwig 20,000. TiltuM (talk) 18:44, 10 January 2017 (UTC)

 * Fair enough but in the past, where there hasn't been a consensus in the sources the range in them has been given instead. Usually, printed sources get precedence over websites.

Notice that the Analysis has Tyng wrote that the delay imposed on the Germans was about 48 hours, although various authorities had claimed anything from no delay to five days.[45]? I wouldn't want you to think that I rubbish Zuber but fitting his findings into the article needs some thought. For example, can his views be summarised in 10-12 lines for the Analysis section and go in chronologically? Does he dwell on earlier accounts which we can include? I have the Canadian trans of OH G 1914 so I can check what's there too.

PS did he include and index? I have Ardennes 1914 and it doesn't have one, which make is much harder to use. Regards Keith-264 (talk) 19:06, 10 January 2017 (UTC)

Lead
The Battle of Liège (French: Bataille de Liège) was the opening engagement of the German invasion of Belgium and the first battle of World War I. The attack on Liège city began on 5 August 1914 and lasted until 16 August, when the last fort surrendered. The length of the siege of Liège may have delayed the German invasion of France by 4–5 days. Railways needed by the German armies in eastern Belgium were closed for the duration of the siege and German troops did not appear in strength before Namur until 20 August.

Not the longest or most informative lead is it? May was justified by the sources we had and if Zuber rejects that view altogether, we can reword it here. I'll let Brigade Piron know. Regards Keith-264 (talk) 19:12, 10 January 2017 (UTC)

Siege artillery numbers?
Can anyone please clarify the numbers of heavy siege artillery involved - and please source this, as it's to make a change to existing content. At present, WP and some external sources, are making various claims for the numbers.

A small number (either 1 or 2) of the new German Krupp 42cm 'Big Bertha' were available. So Germany had to call on Austro-Hungary for use of the Skoda M 11 30.5cm siege mortars, with their Austro-Daimler M 12 tractors. Either four or eight of these were supplied. The tractors were so effective that the mortars were very quickly in position.

Questions remain over:
 * One or two of the 42cm?  Only the two prototypes were ready, but did both see service?
 * When did Germany request support from Austro-Hungary? Was this prior planning, or an emergency request?
 * How many of the Skoda mortars were used, four or eight? (Sixteen were in service)

Thanks Andy Dingley (talk) 12:14, 6 February 2019 (UTC)
 * I have a copy of Zuber now so will have a look. Keith-264 (talk) 12:16, 6 February 2019 (UTC)

 * Short Naval Gun Battery 3: [1] × 42cm mortar
 * II and III FAR 4: 16 × 21cm mortars
 * I and II FAR 9: 16 × 21cm mortars
 * II RFAR 7: 8 × 13cm guns
 * 5 Fortress Combat Engineer Battalion: 4 × 30cm [p. 214] heavy trench mortars. p. 204 [Zuber Ten Days in August (2014)]
 * No Skoda 30.5cm mortars at Liege p. 199, Zuber criticises the GOH, Tuchmann, Keegan for received opinion. p. 200 9 of 12 forts reduced by 32 × 21cm mortars, only Loncin by 1 × 42cm. Generally Zuber credits the 21cm for destroying forts and moans at writers for embellishing reports of the 42cm.Keith-264 (talk) 13:13, 6 February 2019 (UTC)

 * p. 214 includes Heavy Coastal Mortar Battery 5: 1 × 30cm mortar

 * p. 233 Mozin (Fleron commandant?) wrote that Fleron bombarded by v heavy shells, couldn't have known about the 42cm at Pontisse on 14 August and speculated that the fire could have come from the Austrian 30.5cm, which didn't fire at Liege Keith-264 (talk) 13:24, 6 February 2019 (UTC)
 * As you know, I'm an engineering rather than a military historian. What I'm reading (mostly Ludvigsen's Porsche biog) claims 2+8, in a panic afterwards, but specifically for Liège. So I'm wondering if the chronology was an early attack on Liège (i.e. without the Austro-Hungarians in the OOB) turning into a request to the Austro-Hungarians, and the 1+4 OOB from the outset applying specifically to Namur afterwards. Andy Dingley (talk) 14:24, 6 February 2019 (UTC)

Not according to Zuber but he's a bit one eyed so I'll cast around more.
 * Zuber contrasts the siege of Manonviller in Lorraine, "Six super-heavy guns were assigned to Liege, four to Manonviller, however the 30.5cm did not arrive at Liege in time to fire...." p. 251
 * Strachan p.212 has "But by 1914 only five [42cm] were complete. The Germans therefore had to bring up four batteries of Austrian Skoda 305 mm howitzers and not until 12 August could these guns open fire." Strachan H. The First World War: To Arms (2003) p. 212. I wonder if older accounts confuse the 300 mm mortars with Austrian Skodas? Keith-264 (talk) 17:31, 6 February 2019 (UTC)
 * Ludvigsen's point is about the tractor units, not the guns. Because these had Austro-Daimler's new 100hp tractors (which were dedicated to hauling the M11 Skodas), they could go from the railhead to their emplacements surprisingly fast, faster than anything else could. Andy Dingley (talk) 17:34, 6 February 2019 (UTC)

 * Romanych & Rupp p. 26 "Because the number of batteries was four short of the pre-war planning estimates, the German General Staff requested four batteries (eight howitzers) of Skoda 30.5cm Model 11 howitzers from the Austro-Hungarian Army. These batteries arrived in mid-August, participating in the sieges of Namur, Maubeuge, and Antwerp, and in attacks against the French fortifications at Givet and the fortification zone between Verdun and Toul."

42cm "Big Bertha" and German Siege Artillery of World War I (2013) Osprey p. 26 Keith-264 (talk) 18:03, 6 February 2019 (UTC)
 * I am the author of Big Bertha (howitzer) and will refer back to my main source, named above by Keith. At this time in the war, there were only two Big Berthas and both were equipped by KMK Battery 3. The official name for the Big Bertha was schwere Küstenmörser, "big huge coastal mortar", to obscure its true purpose - that term is therefore a reference to the Big Bertha. In addition to the Berthas, there were 16 other German siege guns, all detailed on page 26. There were no 42cm Gamma guns because they were a nightmare to transport. I am also going to take this time to remind the universe that "Big Bertha" refers to the M-Gerät, not the Gamma and especially not the Paris guns, which were 21cm, not 42cm. – ♠Vami _IV†♠  22:32, 6 February 2019 (UTC)

 * What are these "380 mm (15 in) coastal mortars" in use at Pontisse and Fléron on the 12th? (see Battle of Liège).  Are these "coastal mortars"?  and if so, what and where from, or is it the schwere Küstenmörser camouflage name for the Big Berthas (which shouldn't be translated outside of a proper name), or is it a confusion for the Skodas, which weren't there yet? Andy Dingley (talk) 11:36, 23 July 2019 (UTC)
 * I cited it to the Humphries and Maker translation of Der Weltkrieg that already cited the paragraph. Regards Keith-264 (talk) 12:44, 23 July 2019 (UTC)
 * I'm busy elsewhere but I'll make time to look in Zuber later on. Keith-264 (talk) 13:04, 24 July 2019 (UTC)

Ludvigsen
Is that on p. 38? Not convincing that he thinks the Germans invaded Holland too. I'd trust Romanych more. Keith-264 (talk) 18:20, 6 February 2019 (UTC)
 * Andy Dingley (talk) 18:57, 6 February 2019 (UTC)
 * Andy Dingley (talk) 18:57, 6 February 2019 (UTC)

Obliterated
Apropos obliterated, should the following about 420 mm guns be gun? Regards Keith-264 (talk) 19:04, 8 February 2019 (UTC)
 * They can be but I would use "howitzer" or "superheavy artillery." – ♠Vami _IV†♠  20:56, 8 February 2019 (UTC)
 * I meant was there one or two howitzers? Regards Keith-264 (talk) 20:58, 8 February 2019 (UTC)
 * Two Howitzers. – ♠Vami _IV†♠  20:01, 9 February 2019 (UTC)
 * Eythenkew! Keith-264 (talk) 19:52, 10 February 2019 (UTC)

 * "Gun" is wrong, except in the most generic sense. But even "mortar" vs. "howitzer" is problematic here. Andy Dingley (talk) 12:00, 24 July 2019 (UTC)

Overfilling article with illustrations
We'll need to take some out to make roomKeith-264 (talk) 01:46, 24 June 2019 (UTC)
 * Did zeppelins ever bomb Liège? Bomb the forts? (which seems utterly impractical)   It would seem far more likely that they were spotting for the heavy siege artillery, rather than bombing. Andy Dingley (talk) 11:59, 24 July 2019 (UTC)

 * Cited, see here regards. Keith-264 (talk) 12:17, 19 February 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Battle of Liège


text:
Penrhyn atoll

Penrhyn (also called Tongareva, Māngarongaro, Hararanga, and Te Pitaka) is an atoll in the northern group of the Cook Islands in the south Pacific Ocean. The northernmost island in the group, it is located at 1365 km north-north-east of the capital island of Rarotonga, 9 degrees south of the equator. Its nearest neighbours are Rakahanga and Manihiki, approximately 350 km to the southwest. Once one of the most heavily populated atolls, it was almost completely depopulated by Peruvian slavers in 1864.

Geography
Penrhyn is a roughly circular coral atoll with a circumference of approximately 77 km, enclosing a lagoon with an area of 233 sqkm. The atoll is atop the highest submarine volcano in the Cook Islands, rising 4876 m from the ocean floor. The atoll is low-lying, with a maximum elevation of less than 5 m. The total land area is 9.84 sqkm.

The atoll rim consists of 18 major islets. Clockwise, from the northwest, these are:
 * Tokerau
 * Painko
 * Ruahara
 * Takuua
 * Veseru
 * Tuirai
 * Pokerekere IsletPenrhyn.png
 * Kavea
 * Temata
 * Patanga
 * Tepuka
 * Ahu a Miria
 * Atutahi
 * Moturakina
 * Atiati
 * Mangarongaro
 * Moananui Islet
 * Matunga
 * Tekasi

History
Polynesians are believed to have lived on Penrhyn since 900 or 1000 AD. According to oral tradition, the island was fished up by Vatea, using part of his thigh as bait, and has been inhabited since the time of creation. Other legends tell of the island being visited by various ancestors of Tangiia-nui of Rarotonga on their way from Samoa to Tahiti. Other ancestors came from Aitutaki and Rakahanga. The Polynesians named the atoll Tongareva ("Tonga floating in space", "Tonga-in-the-skies" and "Away from the South").

Europeans first encountered the island in 1788, when the Lady Penrhyn, commanded by Captain William Crofton Sever, passed by the island on 8 August while returning from delivering the first convicts to Australia. It was later visited by the Russian explorer Otto von Kotzebue in April 1816, and then by the American brig USS Porpoise, under command of Lieutenant Commander Cadwalader Ringgold, as part of the United States Exploring Expedition in February 1841. The brig Chatham ran aground at Penrhyn during a storm in January 1853, resulting in some of the crew being stranded on the island for almost a year. One of them, the trader Edward Henry Lamont, documented his stay in Wild Life among the Pacific Islanders. The London Missionary Society, which had begun missionary activities in the Cook Islands from 1821, sent a group of three Polynesian missionaries to Penrhyn in 1854.

Robert Louis Stevenson visited Penrhyn in May 1890.

Slavery
In the early 1860s, Penrhyn was almost completely depopulated by Peruvian blackbirding expeditions. In 1862, the ship Adelante took hundreds of Tongarevans aboard, ostensibly to transport them to a nearby island as agricultural workers. The Tongarevans went willingly: coconut blight had led to famine, while the local missionaries saw work overseas as a way of bring money to the atoll to pay for larger churches. Once on board, they were shackled in the hold and guarded day and night. 253 survived the voyage to reach Callao, Peru, where they were sold for between $100 and $200 each. Further slaving expeditions followed, and in total, 472 Tongarevans were sold in Peru.

Foreign claims
Penrhyn was officially annexed for Great Britain by Captain Sir William Wiseman of HMS Caroline on 22 March 1888. The island was considered to have a strategic location on the route of a proposed Trans-Pacific telegraphic connection between Canada and Australia.

The Cook Islands were a British protectorate 1888 to 1900, when annexed to New Zealand, until independence in 1965 when residents chose self-government in free association with New Zealand.

From 1856 to 1980, the United States claimed sovereignty over the island under the Guano Islands Act. That claim had never been recognised by Britain and the Cook Islands. New Zealand sovereignty was recognised during World War II U.S. military operations involving the islands. On 11 June 1980, in connection with establishing the maritime boundary between the Cook Islands and American Samoa, the United States signed Cook Islands–United States Maritime Boundary Treaty acknowledging that Penrhyn was under Cook Islands sovereignty.

World War II
In early 1942, Japanese advances had placed the South Pacific air ferry route's initial path at some risk so that an alternate route was directed. In March, Leif J. Sverdrup was determined for a tour of suitable islands for local labour that could help build an airfield. U.S. Navy Seabees began work on a runway in July 1942, with aviation gasoline storage tanks added to the completed field. Two additional runways were added later. During the war, U.S. Navy PBY Catalina and USAAF B-24 Liberator bombers were stationed on the island, along with about a thousand support personnel. A communications link through the island was established by the U.S. Army Signal Corps. American forces were withdrawn in September 1946.

The U.S. Army vessel Southern Seas struck an uncharted reef on 22 July 1942 and was severely damaged with flooded engine rooms and abandoned in Taruia Pass while on an island charting assignment in support of the construction. The ship was later salvaged by the Navy and commissioned for naval use.

Cyclone Pat
In February 2010, much of Omoka was damaged by Cyclone Pat, but there were no serious casualties. The village school was demolished, and the community was left without teaching facilities. Tongareva's Women's Craft Guild loaned their meeting house; however, this meant that five classes ranging from 3 to 16 years old had to be taught in a single room. New Zealand Aid paid completely for a new school to be constructed, called Meitaki Poria.

Demographics
Penrhyn was formerly one of the most densely inhabited atolls in Polynesia, with an estimated pre-European population of 2,000. Depopulation by slavers reduced this to just 88 people, and its population on annexation by New Zealand was just 420.

Villages
All of the habitable islets were previously occupied, with Moananui home to two rival settlements. Following the arrival of the missionaries, the population concentrated around the churches in four villages. Two of these villages were subsequently abandoned due to depopulation by slavers.

Today, Penrhyn Atoll has two villages. The main village of Omoka, the seat of Penrhyn Island Council, is on Moananui Islet, on the western rim of the atoll, north of the airport. The village of Te Tautua is on Pokerekere Islet (also known as Pokerere or Tautua), on the eastern rim.

The inhabitants of the island are Christians, with 92% of the population belonging to the Cook Islands Christian Church, while the remaining 8% adhere to the Roman Catholic Church.

Economy and resources
The World War II airstrip is still used today as Tongareva Airport, with its initial 3,000-meter runway reduced to 1,700 meters. Weekly flights to the atoll by Air Rarotonga are subject to frequent cancellations due to a lack of passengers or lack of fuel on Penrhyn for the return flight.

A large passage in the lagoon allows inter-island ships to enter the lagoon, and the island has become popular as a stopover for yachts crossing the Pacific from Panama to New Zealand. The inter-island Taio Shipping company visits the island approximately every three months.

The locally produced Rito hats are woven from fibre from young coconut leaves, which are stripped, boiled and dried, resulting in a fine white leaf. Called rito weaving, the traditional items woven are Sunday church fans, small baskets and hats, the hats originally being copies of the ones the sailors wore. Weaving is an economic activity in both villages; both traditional and artificial dyes may be used.

Black pearl farming
Black pearl farming, together with mother of pearl, was previously the only significant economic activity on the island. Pearl farming began in 1997–1998. In 2000, algal blooms spread around the lagoon, and a virus killed the pearl oysters. The stocks never recovered, and the final harvest was in 2003, resulting in significant losses of equipment, outlay and resources.

Food
The present population of the island relies on the ocean for most of their food as well as locally grown plants such as coconut, pawpaw, breadfruit and puraka (yam). Every morning (except on Sundays), men from the island head out in small tin boats to spear or trawl for fish for their families. The islanders' diet is supplemented with imported rice and flour shipped in from Rarotonga or Hawai'i. The boats are infrequent (usually every 3 months).

Energy
Electricity has been supplied by a generator in each village (Omoka 65 KVA, Te Tautua 35 KVA); these have been installed by Australian Aid. Provision of diesel fuel required two long sea voyages: Auckland to Rarotonga, then onwards to the northern Cooks Islands (ships travelled 7,000 km each way). To save fuel, electricity was always turned off overnight (11 pm to 6 am). The New Zealand Government (Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade) decided to assist the Cook Islands Government by funding solar power arrays in all the northern atolls. The Aid programme Uira Natura ko Tokerau was for NZ$20 million. The build was by PowerSmart Solar of New Zealand. Construction began on 23 February 2015, each village was solar powered by the end of May 2015. Some work is possibly still ongoing for all northern atolls to be on renewable energy.

The Omoka solar farm and Te Tautua solar farm now provide 126 kW and 42 kW respectively.

title: Penrhyn atoll