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Virginia Slims

Virginia Slims is an American brand of cigarettes owned by Altria. It is manufactured by Philip Morris USA (in the United States) and Philip Morris International (outside the United States).

Virginia Slims are narrower (23 mm circumference) than standard cigarettes (hence, "Slims"), and are also longer than normal "king-sized" cigarettes (which are 85 mm). They are sold only in longer 100 and 120 mm lengths, to afford the cigarettes a more "elegant" appearance and ostensibly to reduce the amount of smoke that they produce. They are also sold in "Superslims", "Lights" (now called "Gold"), and "Ultra Lights" (now called "Silver") varieties. All varieties are available in both menthol and non-menthol flavors. The original packaging was designed by Walter Landor and was white with colored stripes running lengthwise along the left side. In 2016, the packaging design was updated to replace the stripes with a more floral, mottled appearance.

History
Philip Morris introduced Virginia Slims on July 22, 1968 and marketed the brand as a female-oriented spinoff of the company's Benson & Hedges brand. The blends, flavorings, color scheme and overall marketing concepts closely followed the Benson & Hedges model. Early packs (1968-1978) read "Benson and Hedges Park Avenue New York" near the bottom.

The first test market was San Francisco. Originally scheduled for six months, it was cut short after seven weeks because of the success of the introduction. Distribution and marketing was implemented nationwide, and by September 30, 1968, the entire U.S. was covered. Then, in 1976, a 120 mm full-flavor packing was test-marketed in Fresno, California. Designed to compete with R. J. Reynolds' More brand, the test ultimately failed and the product was withdrawn.

Virginia Slims Lights were successfully introduced in 1978. Although early marketing concepts depicted soft packs, Philip Morris decided to use a box-pack design only. During the 1970s and early 1980s, Virginia Slims Lights' sales were so significant that competitors began introducing their own slim, female-oriented brands (such as American Tobacco Company's Misty, Brown & Williamson's Capri, Liggett's Eve, and R. J. Reynolds' Dawn). In 1984, Virginia Slims Ovals were test-marketed in Rochester, Birmingham and Las Vegas, but were unsuccessful and withdrawn. Ovals were light and had an oval-shaped cross section.

In 1985, Virginia Slims Luxury Lights 120's were introduced - a 120 mm length packaging intended to better compete with R. J. Reynolds' More brand, as well as other 120's on the market. After successfully test marketing in Portland, Oregon and Nashville, the new style was rolled out nationally. While there was initial concern that 120's might cannibalize customers from other packings (especially Lights), this proved to be unfounded, as the 120's appeared to attract a slightly older demographic. The packing has since become a mainstay of the smoking glamour community. It is arguable as to whether Virginia Slims Luxury Lights 120's are truly "light," as their strength compares closely with that of full-flavor cigarettes.

In 1987, Ultra Lights 100's were introduced, in keeping with changing consumer tastes, other competitive entries and the Benson & Hedges model. Marginally successful, this packing remains on the market today.

In 1989, Superslims 100's (both menthol and non-menthol) were introduced in response to ultra-thin (21 mm circumference) competition and consumer demand for an "ultra low-tar" and "low-smoke" product entry. These were also marginally successful, and remain on the market today.

In 1993, a 10-pack version of Lights 100's was introduced, with 10 cigarettes per pack, costing approximately half the price of a 20-pack. This entry had limited success and came under attack from critics; it was ultimately withdrawn.

In 1994, Virginia Slims Kings (85 mm length) were designed as a discount entry and possibly to compete with other king-size entries such as R. J. Reynolds' Camel brand. It is not clear whether Kings were ever test-marketed, but they were never introduced on a nationwide basis.

In 2003, a box pack was introduced for full flavor 100's in response to consumer demand. This packing is steadily displacing the classic soft pack. Also in 2003, the package graphics were slightly altered, changing the colors and striping along the edge.

In 2004, Luxury Ultra Lights 120's (both menthol and non-menthol) were introduced with marginal success. It is likely that this packing will continue to be supported.

In 2008, Virginia Slims Superslims were introduced in a smaller-sized "Purse Pack."

In 2016, the package graphics for all styles were slightly altered, changing the stripes along the edge to a more mottled and floral-like appearance.

All packings were simultaneously introduced in both menthol and non-menthol varieties. Unlike with most other brands, menthol represents 40–55% of the total sales of Virginia Slims (vs. 25–35% for other brands).

In all, there have been 11 packings introduced or test marketed in the U.S., of which seven remain on the market. There are other varieties marketed in the Asia-Pacific region (including the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore, Hong Kong, Thailand and Vietnam), Russia and South Africa. Virginia Slims has never had a significant European or South American presence.

Marketing
From inception, Virginia Slims have been designed and marketed as a female-oriented fashion brand, generally targeted to a younger demographic (18- to 35-year-olds). While various themes emerged in the marketing campaigns over the years, the basic threads have been independence, liberation, slimness, attractiveness, glamour, style, taste and a contrast to men's cigarettes. Thus, Virginia Slims functioned to implement a female-centered marketing strategy, also known as femvertising.

A report by the Surgeon General of the United States has interpreted these marketing strategies as attempting to link smoking "to women's freedom, emancipation, and empowerment." This report also tied the increase of smoking among teenage girls to rises in sales of Virginia Slims and other "niche" brands marketed directly to women.

In the 1960s and 1970s, the themes of feminism and women's liberation, with the "You've Come a Long Way, Baby" slogan, were often used in advertising for Virginia Slims. These ads often featured anecdotes about women in the early 20th century who were punished for smoking, usually by their husbands or other men, as compared to the present day when women had equal rights such as the right to vote. Later campaigns have used the slogan "It's a Woman Thing" in the 1990s and "Find Your Voice" in the 2000s.

Television and print ads often featured well-known models and designer fashions. Print ads were generally placed in women's magazines, and formed the mainstay of the marketing campaign, supplemented with billboards and point-of-purchase displays. From 1969 until cigarette advertising on television was prohibited in 1971, television advertising was an important component. The commercials would begin with actors in period costumes reenacting the early 20th century anecdotes in comedic fashion, followed by a glamorous modern-day model smoking the product while dressed in the latest fashions, accompanied by "You've Come a Long Way, Baby," an up-tempo, catchy pop-rock jingle:

You've come a long way, baby To get where you've got to today You've got your own cigarette now, baby You've come a long, long way

On January 1, 1971 at 11:59 p.m, an ad for Virginia Slims was aired during The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson that became notable as the final cigarette advertisement to air on television before the implementation of the Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act, which prohibited the radio and television advertising of all cigarettes in the United States.

Several other, less important, marketing vehicles were employed, such as the Virginia Slims Book of Days (a day timer/calendar book), fashion shows and an extensive line of products, apparel and accessories.

The "Find Your Voice" ad campaign was criticized as offensive to those who have lost their voices to throat cancer from smoking, especially in light of the well-publicized laryngectomy of Janet Sackman, a former model for another cigarette brand who developed throat and lung cancer. The campaign was an attempt to associate the brand with themes of empowerment, independence, women's rights and sexual allure. The campaign was also criticized for targeting minority women. The campaign was also criticized for the slogan "NEVER let the goody two shoes get you down," which uses reactance to promote product use. It has also been suggested that it urges smokers to disregard health warnings. The campaign also featured a model using a throat-touching gesture, which echoes earlier ads that made more explicit claims of voice box benefits.

The Leo Burnett advertising agency handled the Virginia Slims account throughout most of the product lifetime.

Market share
From its inception until 1978, Virginia Slims saw a steady increase in market share to 1.75% (3.9% of all female smokers). With the introduction of Lights in 1978, the market share increased to 2.5%. Other packings, including 120's, Ultra Lights, and Superslims helped push the market share to a peak of 3.1% (nearly 7% of female smokers) in 1989. With increased competition from other brands, notably Capri and Misty, the brand lost ground but stabilized at around 2.4% though 2003. Since then, it has lost about 0.1% per year, and was 2.0% in 2007 and 1.8% in 2009. This slow but steady decline is expected to continue, since the brand is no longer heavily promoted. Despite this, brand loyalty is well above average, and is still one of the highest in the industry.

Markets
Virginia Slims are mainly sold in the United States, but also were or still are sold in the British Virgin Islands, Brazil, Argentina, Germany, France, Switzerland, Portugal, Poland, Hungary, Cyprus, Belarus, Ukraine, Russia, Kazakhstan, Philippines, Singapore, Hong Kong, South Korea, Japan and Australia.

Women's tennis
Virginia Slims sponsored the Women's Tennis Association (WTA) Tour from 1971 to 1978 and again from 1983 to 1994. This sponsorship is sometimes credited for the growth and success of women's tennis during the 1970s and early 1980s.

Virginia Slims also sponsored the Virginia Slims Circuit, a tennis tour consisting of a group of originally nine female professional players. Formed in 1970, the Virginia Slims Circuit eventually became the basis for the later WTA Tour. The players, dubbed the Original 9, rebelled against the United States Lawn Tennis Association (USLTA) because of the wide inequality between the prize money paid to male and female tennis players.

Magazine publisher and former tennis pro Gladys Heldman, with the assistance of Joe Cullman of Philip Morris, paid $5,000 out of her own pocket to allow the "Original 9" to sign token $1 contracts and set up their own tour of eight professional tournaments in 1970, sponsored by Virginia Slims. This independent women's professional tennis circuit provided more prize money than had been provided previously by the USLTA and other organizations. Despite the USLTA's suspension of the "Original 9" from its tournaments, by the end of the year, the Virginia Slims Circuit was able to boost its numbers from nine to 40 members, which helped pave the way for the first full year season of the circuit in 1971. In the aftermath of the creation of the WTA in 1973, the Virginia Slims Circuit would eventually absorb the ILTF's Women's Grand Prix circuit and become the WTA Tour.

Music
You've Come a Long Way, Baby is the name of the second album of the electronic musician Fatboy Slim, released in 1998. The Black Lips' song "Dog Years" references Virginia Slims Ultra Lights. Greyson Chance references Virginia Slims as his mother's favorite brand and mentions it multiple times on his 'Portraits' album.

Outkast’s “Elevators (Me and You)” makes specific references to the cigarette and its famous tag line in the last verse, when André 3000 raps, “ Yes, we done come a long way like them slim-ass cigarettes. From Virginia...”

Singer Britney Spears admits in her book “The Woman in Me” that this is the brand of cigarettes she usually smokes. In chapter 4 of the book she says: "My mom was a typical young Southern mom, often gossiping, always smoking cigarettes with her friends at the bar (she smoked Virginia Slims, the same cigarettes I smoke now) or talking with them on the phone."

Television
Episode 66 of the animated television show Duckman is titled "You've Come a Wrong Way, Baby" and its plot involves the tobacco industry.

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Hermann Rorschach

Hermann Rorschach (8 November 1884 – 2 April 1922) was a Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst. His education in art helped to spur the development of a set of inkblots that were used experimentally to measure various unconscious parts of the subject's personality. His method has come to be referred to as the Rorschach test, iterations of which have continued to be used over the years to help identify personality, psychotic, and neurological disorders. Rorschach continued to refine the test until his premature death at age 37.

Early life
Rorschach was born in Zürich, Switzerland, the eldest of three children born to Ulrich and Philippine Rorschach. He had one sister, Anna, and one brother, Paul. He spent his childhood and youth in Schaffhausen, in northern Switzerland. He was known to his school friends and in his fraternity as Klex, or "inkblot" since he enjoyed klecksography, the making of fanciful inkblot "pictures". By the time of Rorschach's youth, consideration of the projective significance of inkblots already had some historical context. For example, in 1857, German doctor Justinus Kerner had published a popular book of poems, each of which was inspired by an accidental inkblot. It has been speculated that the book was known to Rorschach. French psychologist Alfred Binet had also experimented with inkblots as a creativity test.

Rorschach's father, an art teacher, encouraged him to express himself creatively through painting and drawing conventional pictures. As the time of Rorschach's high school graduation approached, he could not decide between a career in art and one in science. He wrote a letter to the German biologist Ernst Haeckel asking his advice. A major factor that led Rorschach to differ from his father and not pursue art was that his father died while he was still trying to decide what to study.

Education and career
Rorschach, in his early years, attended Schaffhausen Cantonal School in Schaffhausen, Switzerland. Rorschach was a bright student from the beginning, and he often tutored other students at his school. After Ernst Haeckel suggested a career in science, Rorschach attended Académie de Neuchâtel in 1904 studying geology and botany. After just a single term, he transferred to the Université de Dijon to take French classes. The same year he enrolled in medical school at the University of Zurich. While studying, Rorschach began learning Russian, and in 1906, while studying in Berlin, he traveled to Russia for a holiday.

Travel was a large part of his life after medical school. On a trip to Dijon, in France, he met a man who taught him about Russian culture. Torn by the decision of whether to stay in Switzerland or move to Russia, he eventually took a job as first assistant at a Cantonal Mental Hospital. While working at the hospital, Rorschach finished his doctoral dissertation in 1912 under the psychiatrist Eugen Bleuler, who had taught Carl Jung. The excitement in intellectual circles over psychoanalysis constantly reminded Rorschach of his childhood inkblots. Wondering why different people often saw entirely different things in the same inkblots, he began, while still a medical student, showing inkblots to schoolchildren and analyzing their responses. This dissertation contained the origins for his ink blot experiment.

All the while, Rorschach remained fascinated by Russian culture. In 1913, he obtained a fellowship opportunity in Russia, where he continued to study contemporary psychiatric methods. Rorschach spent some time in the village of Kryukovo outside of Moscow, and in 1914 he returned to Switzerland to work at the Waldau University Hospital in Bern, part of the. In 1915, Rorschach took the position of assistant director at the regional psychiatric hospital at Herisau, and in 1921 he wrote his book Psychodiagnostik, which was to form the basis of the inkblot test.

Personal life
Rorschach graduated in medicine at Zurich in 1909 and at the same time became engaged to Olga Stempelin, a girl from Kazan (in the present-day Republic of Tatarstan, Russia). The couple were married in 1913 and lived in Russia until their return to Switzerland, for Rorschach's work, in 1915. They had two children, a daughter Elizabeth (called "Lisa", 1917–2006) and a son, Ulrich Wadin (called "Wadim", 1919–2010). Neither Lisa nor Wadim had children.

One year after writing Psychodiagnostik, Rorschach died of peritonitis, probably resulting from a ruptured appendix. He was still associate director of the Herisau Hospital when he died, aged 37, on 2 April 1922.

Legacy
In 2001 the inkblot test was criticised as pseudoscience and its use was declared controversial by Scientific American, as different psychologists drew different findings from the same data, suggesting their results were subjective rather than objective. In 2013 and 2015 two systemic reviews and meta-analyses were published that resulted in the criticism as pseudoscience being lifted. In November 2013, Google celebrated the 129th anniversary of Rorschach's birth with a Google Doodle showing an interpretation of his inkblot test. Aside from the MMPI, the Rorschach Inkblot Method has generated more published research than any other psychological personality measure.

The cover of The Essentials of Psycho-analysis by Sigmund Freud, published in the "Vintage Freud" series by Vintage Books in 2005, features artwork by Michael Salu based on a Rorschach Inkblot.

In 2016, the Phobrain website began showing dynamically generated pairs of photos, which the author dubs 'Rorschach pairs' when labelled accept/reject by a user. Unlike descriptions of inkblots and their characterizations, this instantiation of the Rorschach concept is numerically/topologically analysable, with neural nets and latent space geometries capable of predicting preference to as much as 90% accuracy. The immediate application is a workbench for studying perception, generating novelty, and self-reflection. Open source release was in 2023, under the AGPL license.

Publications

 * Rorschach, H. (1924). Manual for Rorschach Ink-blot Test. Chicago, IL: Stoelting
 * Rorschach, H., Oberholzer, E. (1924). The Application of the Interpretation of Form to Psychoanalysis. Chicago.
 * Rorschach, H., Beck, S.J. (1932). The Rorschach Test as Applied to a Feeble-minded Group. New York.
 * Rorschach, H., Klopfer, B. (1938). Rorschach Research Exchange. New York.
 * Rorschach, H. (1942). Psychodiagnostics: A diagnostic test based on perception (P. Lemkau & B. Kronenberg, Trans.). Berne, Switzerland: Hans Huber.
 * Rorschach, H. (1948). Psychodiagnostik (tafeln): Psychodiagnostics (plates). Bern: Hans Huber; distributors for the United States: Grune and Stratton, New York, N.Y.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

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Jan Swafford

Jan Swafford (born September 10, 1946) is an American author and composer. He earned his Bachelor of Arts magna cum laude from Harvard College and his M.M.A. and D.M.A. from the Yale School of Music. His teachers included Earl Kim at Harvard, Jacob Druckman at Yale, and Betsy Jolas at Tanglewood. He has written respected musical biographies of Charles Ives, Johannes Brahms, Ludwig van Beethoven, and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart as well as the Vintage Guide to Classical Music. He appeared in the award-winning 2018 German documentary The Unanswered Ives.

Works
Swafford has written columns on music and other subjects in Slate, and is heard as a commentator on NPR and the BBC. He is a regular program annotator for orchestras and venues including the Boston Symphony, Cleveland Orchestra, Chicago Symphony, San Francisco Symphony, the Metropolitan Opera, and Carnegie Hall.

His writing honors include a 2012 Deems Taylor Award for internet writing and a Mellon Fellowship at Harvard. His Brahms and Ives biographies were end-of-year Critics' Choices in The New York Times. The Ives biography was nominated for a National Book Critics Circle award in biography and won the Pen-Winship prize for a book on a New England subject. His biography Beethoven: Anguish and Triumph in its first week appeared on the New York Times bestseller list.

He has taught at schools including Boston University, Amherst College, Tufts, and Boston Conservatory.

Swafford's music, which is highly lyrical and moves freely between tonality and atonality, has been called New Romantic in style. There are equal if less overt contributions from world music, especially Indian and Balinese, and from jazz and blues. The titles of his works reveal a steady inspiration from nature and landscape. The composer views his own work as a kind of classicism: a concern with clarity, directness, and expression, or as he puts it, "music that sounds familiar though it is new, works that sound like they wrote themselves."

Notable are his orchestral works Landscape with Traveler (1979–80), After Spring Rain (1981–82) and From the Shadow of the Mountain (2001), the piano quintet Midsummer Variations (1985), the piano quartet They Who Hunger (1989), and the piano trio They That Mourn (2002), the last in memoriam 9/11. In 2012 cellist Rhonda Rider premiered his solo cello work The Silence at Yuma Point, part of a commissioning project of pieces inspired by the Grand Canyon (where Swafford has been a frequent hiker). His compositional awards include a National Endowment for the Arts Composer Grant, two Massachusetts Artists Foundation Fellowships, and a Tanglewood Fellowship. His work is published by Peermusic Classical and Meridian Records.

Awards and honors

 * 1997 L.L. Winship/PEN New England Award, Charles Ives: A Life With Music

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Talk:Teething

misc
Wikipedia is not qualified to give medical advice. Maybe someone else can find a way to put this advice back into the article without 1) endorsing a particular product (which would violate our NPOV rule) or 2) giving explicit unlicensed medical advice. I've pulled the paragraph for now. Rossami "A product, know as Zilactin (r) Baby can be applied to a gauze pad and used on the infant's gums. The active ingredient in the product, benzocaine (10%) is said to relieve pain and provide a cooling sensation. Problems can occur in babies that show no teeth after the age of 12 months; a pediatrician is usually called in in these cases."

If is this over the counter, and according to the label, does it count as medical advice? Is that a lawyer or a doctor who wrote that above, or is it just fear of getting sued? Will any doctor who comes on this site put quotes around it and sign his name to it? Can we just type the label, verbatim, or some other site, verbatim on here, and thus transfer the blame to them? ~mrcolj 2004

scary image?
is there any way a less frightening picture of a toothless infant's mouth could be used? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.221.152.45 (talk) 13:53, 26 March 2013 (UTC)

special chemicals?
The article mentions "special chemicals" that are released to allow for the teeth to break through, seems kind of ambiguous for an encyclopedia. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 67.191.41.156 (talk) 10:36, 20 July 2011 (UTC)

age
What is the average age for teething? Saying the upper and lower limits doesn't do much for me to tell whether or not my kid is teething. ~ mrcolj

excessive or more slobber than since birth is a common one.
 * uh like the symptoms/signs are given did you read the entire article

Is this is stub / in need of expansion?
I got here from Dog. At some point mention needs to be made of teething regarding animals. --Rob 01:32, 6 November 2005 (UTC)

Teenage and adult teething?
Is it considered teething when the later molars and then the wisdom teeth come in?... Blackcats 07:44, 26 December 2005 (UTC)

Fluoridation section
Should the fluoridation section be in there at all? It's somewhat POV, has little to do with teething, and makes no reference to the already extant article on fluoridation and the associated controversies.

 * see also Water fluoridation controversy. Probably the section should be replaced with a brief reference to these articles. --Matt McIrvin 03:03, 5 October 2006 (UTC)

We use filtered spring water to mix up formula, if it has any natural fluoride it is not the product of industrial processes. How many ions of fluoride/ fluorine are there?
 * This is posted on the topic because of the connection to disrupt the timing of teeth eruption,and thus teething onset and the lenghth of time it takes to get cavities as a result, seems obvious for such and article; is there any other substances that can change the growth patterns of human infants? which I did not directly see mention in the supposly exaustive floride controversy artical, if it is there. As a new parent this is EXTREMELY important to me. My young en has no teeth why use flouride laced Nursery water? It it sitting right on the shelf in the baby section of most stores with no instructions or guidlines for use.
 * I am so "deranged" I have now expanded the rant to include pleanty to worry or be ignor-ant of; it is all "gennerally recognised as safe" just pray over your food and or vioxxx/lead paint/ortho patch/agent orange . ..

Incomplete
This article has information exclusively about the emergence of milk, or deciduous teeth. Conspicuous by its absence is any information about the emergence of permanent teeth. There is not even a link.

Ironically, I was led to this article by a link from another article, referencing abnormal third dentition. The more surprising to find nothing even about the normal process of deciduous tooth replacement, let alone unusual cases.

I have made some makeshift repairs in the form of wikilinks to relevant articles, such as Tooth eruption and Permanent teeth, but the subject in general is badly disorganized, and I am not qualified to address this. Is there a dentist in the house? Freederick (talk) 01:58, 21 January 2011 (UTC)

 * I think that this is more or less in line with the main meaning of the word "teething" in ordinary non-specialist use. The growing in of permanent teeth is covered more at article Deciduous teeth... AnonMoos (talk) 07:12, 21 January 2011 (UTC)

In animals
Animals go through teething as well. I think it would be a good addition to the article if information on the process in animals was added. 90.200.150.240 (talk) 18:15, 29 March 2011 (UTC)

Amber necklace pseudoscience
• Sbmeirow  •  Talk  • 05:25, 7 February 2017 (UTC)
 * https://scienceornot.net/2012/10/30/amber-necklaces-and-teething-babies/
 * http://www.kwch.com/content/news/?article=412558473

Contradiction
The following two sentences contradict each other.

Teething may cause signs and symptoms in the mouth and gums, but does not cause problems elsewhere in the body.[8]

Pulling on the ears is another sign of pain; the pain in the mouth throbs throughout the baby's head so they pull their ears believing that it will provide relief

As well may be worth stating that anecdotal reports link nappy rash, colic and other symptoms to teething kersti (talk) 09:17, 3 November 2021 (UTC)

Dr. Clay Jones' critique
Dr. Clay Jones, a practicing paediatrician, has recently raised concern over potential errors and inappropriate health advice in this article. Please, see this link for more information:

https://sciencebasedmedicine.org/from-the-vault-infant-teething-myths-and-misconceptions/ AufbauPrinciple (talk) 12:19, 28 December 2023 (UTC)

 * Please could you raise this at WT:MED? Bon courage (talk) 13:12, 28 December 2023 (UTC)
 * Certainly! Sorry, I wasn't sure where to raise this potential issue. AufbauPrinciple (talk) 16:24, 28 December 2023 (UTC)
 * Here is good, there is better. I'd do it myself but I didn't want to steal your thunder (so to speak)! Bon courage (talk) 16:27, 28 December 2023 (UTC)

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Tyrannius Rufinus

Tyrannius Rufinus, also called Rufinus of Aquileia (Rufinus Aquileiensis; 344/345–411), was an early Christian monk, philosopher, historian, and theologian who worked to translate Greek patristic material, especially the work of Origen, into Latin.

Life
Rufinus was born in 344 or 345 in the Roman city of Julia Concordia (now Concordia Sagittaria), near Aquileia (in modern-day Italy) at the head of the Adriatic Sea. It appears that both of his parents were Christians.

Around 370, he was living in a monastic community in Aquileia when he met Jerome. In about 372, Rufinus followed Jerome to the eastern Mediterranean, where he studied in Alexandria under Didymus the Blind for some time, and became friends with Macarius the elder and other ascetics in the desert. In Egypt, if not even before leaving Italy, he had become intimately acquainted with Melania the Elder, a wealthy and devout Roman widow. When she moved to Palestine, taking with her a number of clergy and monks on whom the persecutions of the Arian Valens had borne heavily, Rufinus followed her, moving to Jerusalem in 380. There, while his patroness lived in a convent of her own in Jerusalem, Rufinus, at her expense, gathered together a number of monks to form a new monastery on the Mount of Olives, devoting himself to the study of Greek theology. This combination of the contemplative life and the life of learning had already developed in the Egyptian monasteries. When Jerome came to Bethlehem in 386, the friendship formed at Aquileia was renewed. Jerome, along with his patroness Paula, set up a similar community in Bethlehem a few years later. Another of the intimates of Rufinus was John II, Bishop of Jerusalem, and formerly a monk of the Natrun desert, by whom he was ordained to the priesthood in 390.

In 394, as a result of the attacks by Epiphanius of Salamis upon the doctrines of Origen made during a visit to Jerusalem, a fierce quarrel broke out, which found Rufinus and Jerome on different sides. Although both Jerome and Rufinus had previously been great admirers of Origen's work, in the light of Epiphanius' criticism of Origen, Jerome felt that Rufinus was not fierce enough in attacking the works of Origen. Three years afterwards a formal reconciliation was brought about between Jerome and Bishop John, with whom Rufinus sided, but this was to prove only temporary.

In the autumn of 397 Rufinus embarked for Rome, where, finding that the theological controversies of the East were exciting much interest and curiosity, he published a Latin translation of the Apology of Pamphilus for Origen. In an appendix, he claimed that many of the controversial features in Origen's teaching arose from interpolations and falsifications of the genuine text. In his somewhat free translation of Origen's De Principiis (Περὶ Αρχῶν), published 398/399, Rufinus downplayed these controversial passages. In the preface to De Principiis, Rufinus referred to Jerome as an admirer of Origen, and as having already translated some of his works with modifications of ambiguous doctrinal expressions. This allusion annoyed Jerome, who was exceedingly sensitive as to his theological and scholarly reputation. The consequence was a bitter pamphlet war, with Rufinus's Against Jerome and Jerome's Against Rufinus.

At the instigation of Theophilus of Alexandria, Pope Anastasius I (399-401) summoned Rufinus from Aquileia to Rome to vindicate his orthodoxy, but he excused himself from a personal attendance in a written Apologia pro fide sua. The pope in his reply expressly condemned Origen, but left the question of Rufinus's orthodoxy to his own conscience. He was, however, regarded with suspicion in orthodox circles (cf. the Decretum Gelasii, 20).

Rufinus spent most of the first decade of the fifth century translating Origen. He translated Origen's homilies for the whole Heptateuch except Deuteronomy, and others on selected Psalms, the Song of Songs, and 1 Samuel. Rufinus's translation of Origen's Commentary on Romans (c. 405-6) gave fresh stimulus to discussions of destiny and free will that had been going on in Roman circles since the mid-390s and would shortly become an issue in Augustine's clash with Pelagius.

Rufinus also translated other works. These include Eusebius' Ecclesiastical History, translated in 401 at the request of Bishop Chromatius of Aquileia as an antidote to the terror caused by the Gothic incursions into Italy. Rufinus omits much of Eusebius' tenth book, and compresses what remains of it into book 9; he also retouches the narrative in several places and adds two books of his own to bring the account down to the death of Theodosius the Great (395).

Such translations often appear to have been done as a result of a commission or with a local readership in mind, and so it seems likely that Rufinus worked with the support of friends and patrons. Between 397 and 408 he lived in Italy, probably mainly in Rome and Aquileia; in 408 Rufinus was at the monastery of Pinetum (in the Campagna?), having been driven there by the arrival of Alaric in northern Italy. He fled to Sicily when Alaric moved south and pillaged Rome in 410. He was in the company of Melania the Younger in his flight. He died in Sicily in 411.

Original works
Many of his extant works are defences of himself against attacks by Jerome.
 * Commentarius in symbolum apostolorum: a commentary on the Apostles' Creed which gives evidence of its use and interpretation in 4th-century Italy. (Commentary on the Apostles' Creed, at New Advent)
 * The Church History of Rufinus of Aquileia.
 * De Adulteratione Librorum Origenis – an appendix to his translation of the Apology of Pamphilus, and intended to show that many of the features in Origen's teaching which were then held to be objectionable arise from interpolations and falsifications of the genuine text
 * De Benedictionibus XII Patriarcharum Libri II – an exposition of Gen. xlix.
 * Apologia s. Invectivarum in Hieronymum Libri II
 * Apologia pro Fide Sua ad Anastasium Pontificem (Apology, Sent to Anastasius, Bishop of the City of Rome, at New Advent)
 * Historia Eremitica – consisting of the lives of thirty-three monks of the Nitrian desert

The anti-Origenist Liber de fide was in the past sometimes attributed to Rufinus of Aquileia, but now it is more often assigned to Rufinus the Syrian.

Translations from Greek to Latin
Rufinus translated the Historia Ecclesiastica of Eusebius of Caesarea and continued the work from the reign of Constantine I to the death of Theodosius I (395). It was published in 402 or 403.

Origen's commentary on the New Testament Epistle to the Romans, along with many of his sermons on the Old Testament, survive only in versions by Rufinus. The full text of Origen's De principiis (On first principals) also survives only in Rufinus's translation. Jerome, earlier a friend of Rufinus, fell out with him and wrote at least three works opposing his opinions and condemning his translations as flawed. For instance, Jerome prepared a (now lost) translation of Origen's De principiis to replace Rufinus's translation, which Jerome said was inadequate.

Other translations by Rufinus include:
 * 1) the Instituta Monachorum and some of the Homilies of Basil of Caesarea
 * 2) the Apology of Pamphilus, referred to above
 * 3) Origen's Homilies (Gen. Lev. Num. Josh. Kings, also Cant, and Rom.)
 * 4) De recta in Deum fide by Pseudo-Origen (Adamantius)
 * 5) Opuscula of Gregory of Nazianzus
 * 6) the Sententiae of Sixtus, an unknown Greek philosopher
 * 7) the Sententiae of Evagrius
 * 8) the Clementine Recognitions (the only form in which that work is now extant)
 * 9) the Canon Paschalis of Anatolius Alexandrinus.
 * 10) Josephus' Antiquities and The Jewish War (Josephus de antiquitatibus ac de bello judaico.)

Quotes from Rufinus
He said;

"[The Incarnation] was that the divine nature of the Son of God might be like a kind of hook hidden beneath the form of human flesh… to lure on the prince of this world to a contest; that the Son might offer him his human flesh as a bait and that the divinity which lay underneath might catch him and hold him fast with its hook… then, just as a fish when it seizes a baited hook not only fails to drag off the bait but is itself dragged out of the water to serve as food for others; so he that had the power of death sees the body of Jesus in death, unaware of the hook of divinity which lay hidden inside. Having swallowed it, he was immediately caught. The gates of hell were broken, and he was, as it were, drawn up from the pit, to become food for others." — Christian Theology, an Introduction, Chapter 13, The Doctrine of Salvation in Christ.

Influence
Rufinus exerted considerable influence on Western theologians by thus putting the great Greek fathers into the Latin tongue. Dominic Vallarsi's uncompleted edition of Rufinus (vol. i. folio. Verona, 1745) contains the De Benedictionibus, the Apologies, the Expositio Symboli, the Historia Eremitica and the two original books of the Historia Ecclesiastica. Vallarsi intended to collect the translations in vol. ii., but it was never published. See also Migne, Patrologia Latina (vol. xxi). For the translations, see the various editions of Origen, Eusebius, etc.

title: Tyrannius Rufinus


text:
Laysan

Laysan (Kauō ) is one of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, located 808 nmi northwest of Honolulu. It comprises one land mass of 1016 acre, about 1 by in size. It is an atoll of sorts, although the land completely surrounds a shallow central lake some 2.4 m above sea level that has a salinity approximately three times greater than the ocean. Laysan's Hawaiian name, Kauō, means 'egg'.

Geology
Laysan is the second largest single landmass in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, after Sand Island at Midway Atoll. Laysan was created by coral growth and geologic upshift. The fringing reefs surrounding the island cover about 735 acre. Lake Laysan, the 100 acre, brown, hypersaline lake in the island's interior, has varied in depth over the decades. In the 1860s, the lake was at most 9.1m deep, but by the 1920s it averaged 0.91–1.52 m deep, because of the buildup of sand that had been blown away in sandstorms. The best way to find fresh water on Laysan is to observe where the finches are drinking; the fresh water floats on the saltier water and accumulates around the shore. The tallest point on the island is at 15m above sea level, on a large dune that covers much of the northern portion of the island.

A U.S. Geological Survey study found that Laysan, Midway Atoll, and Pacific islands like them could become inundated and unfit to live on during the 21st century.

Discovery and early expeditions
Native Hawaiians may have known about Kauō before Americans and Europeans sailed their ships into the region in the early 19th century (see below). The first reported sightings of the island were by Massachusetts based whalers in the 1820s. The Nantucket Enquirer reported a sighting in 1825. Here one finds probably the first reference to the name Laysan in print. They were among many who took advantage of the newly discovered whaling grounds off the coast of Japan, making the waters around the Northwest Hawaiian archipelago an increasingly popular commercial route. A United States government survey of Pacific Ocean geography in 1828 included the earlier whalers' reports and an additional sighting of an island fitting Laysan's description by Capt. "Brigs." This may refer to Capt. John Briggs of New Bedford, who may have come across the island as early as 1822. Various publications name Capt. Stanyukovich of the Russian ship Moller as the discoverer of Laysan. Although he mapped the island in 1828 and attempted to name it for his ship, he clearly was there after the New Englanders, at least.

In 1857, Capt. John Paty of the Manuokawai annexed Laysan to the Kingdom of Hawaii.

The island held an economic value in guano. In 1859, Capt. Brooks of the ship Gambia traveled to the island, and in his ship log wrote that there was guano there, but "not of sufficient quantity to warrant any attempts to get it." Despite this estimate, in 1890 George D. Freeth and Charles N. Spencer successfully petitioned the Kingdom of Hawaii for permission to mine guano on Laysan and agreed to make royalty payments to the Kingdom. Around 100 ST were extracted per day. Given that iron-hulled sailing ships towards the end of the guano mining era had a capacity of 5,000 tons, Laysan produced a shipload every two months.

The working condition at the guano mine was grueling. In August 1900, Japanese workers mutinied against American management. At first the workers refused to work. That strike action turned to violence because of a language barrier. As a result, there were two deaths and two injuries.

This newfound attention to Laysan attracted scientists, and in the next decade, many of Laysan's unique species were scientifically examined for the first time. However, guano digging affected the island's ecosystem dramatically. Professor William Alanson Bryan of the Bernice P. Bishop Museum estimated that there were 10 million seabirds on Laysan in 1903, but eight years later the estimation was at little more than a million. In those eight years, the Pritchardia palms that were unique to Laysan, and the island's sandalwood trees (Santalum ellipticum) both became extinct.

1894 marked the arrival of Laysan's most notorious inhabitant, German immigrant Max Schlemmer. Schlemmer released domestic rabbits, Belgian hares, English hares and guinea pigs on the island, expecting them to multiply and provide supplies for a future meat-canning business. This proved to be crucial in the decline of Laysan's indigenous flora and fauna.

Period of extinction
The rabbits did reproduce rapidly. Soon, their appetite far exceeded the available vegetation on Laysan island. Complaints about this and about Japanese poachers of the bird population led President Theodore Roosevelt to declare the Northwestern Hawaiian chain a bird sanctuary in 1909. Schlemmer continued to allow the Japanese to export bird wings illegally and so was removed from the island. But without plant cover, much of the soil and sand became loose and blew about in dust storms. By 1918, the rabbits had eaten so much that the remaining vegetation was only enough to sustain 100 rabbits. Twenty-six plant species had been eradicated, and the Laysan millerbird had gone extinct.

In 1923, the Tanager Expedition arrived, and the rabbits were exterminated at long last. The bird population had been reduced to about a tenth of its former size. Three endemic taxa had become extinct, as had numerous other plant species. Two other endemic species, the Laysan duck and the Laysan finch, survive to this day, but are endangered.

Recent history
Like most of the Northwestern Hawaiian islands, Laysan is currently uninhabited. It is protected by the Hawaiian Natural Life Act of 1961 and stewarded by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, who have had success in eliminating pests, restoring the island's vegetation, and restoring the numbers of imperiled species.

Garbage from passing ships often washes ashore on Laysan. This poses a danger to birds because they can swallow plastic waste, which remains undigested and crowds the stomach, leaving no room for actual food. According to observations in her 2006 mission log, Patricia Greene, a NOAA Teacher-at-Sea, found that most of the plastic is Japanese in origin. Additionally, in the 1990s, biologists found that a container of poisonous carbofuran had floated to shore and burst open above the high tide line, creating a "dead zone" which killed anything alive that went near it.

Sandbur eradication
In 1991, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service started an effort to eradicate alien sandbur, a grass that crowds out the native bunchgrass, which is habitat for the birds. Sandbur was first introduced in the 1960s by US Armed Forces personnel. Costing almost one million dollars, the project ended in 2000 when the sandbur was completely removed. With this threat gone, the USFWS hopes to restore Laysan to how it was before it was discovered. To replace the native Pritchardia palms that became extinct, the FWS wants to bring in Pritchardia remota from Nihoa, a similar species to Laysan's lost fan palm. Next may be Nihoa millerbirds, to replace the extinct Laysan millerbirds that were closely related. These transfers would accomplish a two-fold goal: to restore Laysan to an ecology similar to its pre-industrial one, and to protect those two species from extinction by maintaining a second population on Laysan. That way, if diseases, fires, or hurricanes obliterate the Nihoa population, the population can be revived by transplanting some from Laysan.

"Laysan fever"
In 1991, several workers on Laysan contracted a feverish illness previously unknown there or anywhere else. It affected workers on Laysan in varying levels of severity: one woman was evacuated for persistent fever, but others exhibited very mild symptoms. Cedric Yoshimoto, of the University of Hawaii at Mānoa School of Public Health, wrote that "surveillance has identified a newly-described illness of humans termed 'Laysan fever (LF)' It is associated with bites of the seabird tick Ornithodoros capensis... [and] joins a short list of human illnesses associated with seabird colonies..." The symptoms of Q fever overlap significantly with those of Laysan fever, and scientists have speculated as to their possible common causes.

Possible ancient Hawaiian presence
In 2003, an archaeologist examining sediment cores found pollen from coconut palms deep below the bottom of the central lagoon. This unexpected find raises several issues. Heretofore, no evidence existed that the coconut ever reached any of the Hawaiian Islands before the arrival of the Polynesian voyagers. Further, there has never been any physical evidence that the ancient Hawaiians extended their explorations of the Hawaiian chain beyond Nihoa and Mokumanamana (Necker). Dating the sediment containing the Cocos pollen is imprecise, but appears to be somewhere between 5,500 years ago, and the arrival of Europeans in Hawaiian waters in the late 18th century. The full length of the core was 70 ft and is thought to represent a record spanning 7,000 years. Coconut pollen was not found in the deeper (older) part of the core. However, cores from Guam in the western Pacific show the presence of coconut trees there as early as 9,000 years ago, well before human habitation. Hawaiian traditions suggest that the Hawaiians were aware that islands existed to the northwest, and the pollen evidence could be interpreted as proof of early Hawaiian visitation to Laysan. Clearly, more precise dating of the sediment layers will be crucial to better interpreting this find.

Distinctive species of Laysan

Laysan is generally regarded as the "gem" of the NWHI, with the most biodiversity. It is home to the Laysan duck, the rarest duck in the world. The other native land bird of Laysan is the Laysan finch, an opportunistic hunter. Eighteen other bird species nest here and use Lake Laysan, the only lake in the NWHI, as a rest stop or breeding ground. Laysan also has its share of native plants, many of which, such as Eragrostis variabilis, were extirpated from Laysan during its extinction period and then reintroduced by scientists afterwards, from other leeward islands. Like most other of the NWHI, Laysan is home to Hawaiian monk seals and green sea turtles.

Birds

 * Laysan finch, Telespiza cantans – endemic
 * Laysan duck, Anas laysanensis – endemic
 * Laysan albatross, Phoebastria immutabilis – nearly endemic
 * Black-footed albatross,  Phoebastria nigripes
 * Short-tailed albatross, Phoebastria albatrus
 * Great frigatebird, Fregata minor
 * Lesser frigatebird, Fregata ariel
 * White tern (or "fairy tern"), Gygis alba
 * Sooty tern, Onychoprion fuscatus
 * Spectacled tern, Onychoprion lunata
 * Bristle-thighed curlew, Numenius tahitiensis
 * Pacific golden plover, Pluvialis fulva
 * Christmas shearwater, Puffinus nativitatis
 * Red-tailed tropicbird, Phaethon rubricauda rothschildi
 * Brown noddy, Anous stolidus
 * Black noddy, Anous minutus melangogenys
 * Masked booby, Sula dactylatra
 * Brown booby, Sula leucogaster
 * Red-footed booby, Sula sula rubripes
 * Bonin petrel, Pterodroma hypoleuca
 * Laysan rail, Porzana palmeri – extinct, endemic
 * Laysan honeycreeper Himatione fraithii – extinct, endemic
 * Laysan millerbird, Acrocephalus familiaris familiaris – extinct, endemic

Insects

 * Laysan dropseed noctuid moth, (Hypena laysanensis) – extinct
 * Laysan noctuid moth, (Agrotis laysanensis) - endemic
 * Procellaris grotis noctuid moth, (Agrotis procellaris)
 * Laysan weevil, (Oedemasylus laysanensis) – extinct

title: Laysan