text:
Talk:Richard Herrnstein

Birdland
i seem to recall PETA or similar protestors outside of Herrnstein's bldg well before the Bell Curve dust-up.

is there any record of this anywhere? 216.50.220.28 (talk) 00:23, 16 February 2012 (UTC)

Comment
The matching law has been modified to deal with more cases where it is not a good fit.

130.17.62.242 21:41, 24 April 2007 (UTC)florkle 4-24-2007

Two problems
Two problems:

1. "While the very idea of innate racial differences in intellectual abilities cannot be dismissed out of hand..." At some level this is true, but it's worth noting that a.) the subspecies concept has been largely abandoned and b.) many anthropologists see "race" as a social construct, and find it more appropriate to talk about populations or clines.

2. "..some of the attempted refutations of The Bell Curve were politically motivated..." This sentence doesn't need to be there. One could just as justifiably say that the writing of The Bell Curve was itself politically motivated. This sentence also implies that a refutation cannot be both correct and politically motivated, which isn't true, or that some opponents of The Bell Curve were motivated *entirely* by politics, which can't be proven.

If the some version of the sentence must stay, it would be better to revise it to read, "...some of the attempted refutations of The Bell Curve were *arguably* politically motivated." —Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.65.134.51 (talk • contribs)

 * At some level this is true, but it's worth noting that a.) the subspecies concept has been largely abandoned and

 * Perhaps in PC circles...

 * Regardless, it doesn't change the fact that race can be determined by blood or hair samples, or even through anthropometric means by the analysis of a skeleton.

 * many anthropologists see "race" as a social construct, and find it more appropriate to talk about populations or clines.

 * Indeed, often times it is more appropriate to use such neutral and ambiguous terms (see "political oversensitivity").

 * This sentence doesn't need to be there. One could just as justifiably say that the writing of The Bell Curve was itself politically motivated.

 * LOL

 * Although Stephen J. Gould's "refutation" of The Bell Curve (i.e. "The Mismeasure of Man") received acclaimed reviews in the popular media, the Scientific community did not embrace Gould's work, faulting it for being inherently political in its premise, and rarely scientifically credible.

 * All this, however, is in striking contrast to the evaluation of his work by fellow-scientists, most of whom regarded him as a lightweight and even a charlatan. Professor Maynard Smith, a leading evolutionary biologist, has written that others in the field “tend to see him as a man whose ideas are so confused as hardly to be worth bothering with.” Speaking for psychologists, Chris Brand has written that Gould’s Mismeasure of Man is “a masterpiece of deception;” and Professor Philippe Rushton has written of Gould’s “career of relentless special pleading.” Even anthropologists Milford Wolpoff and Rachel Caspari, who uncritically accept many of Gould’s distortions, have written that his writings “invariably have a not-so-hidden political agenda.” Professor Steve Jones, an evolutionary biologist who largely agrees with Gould on intelligence and race, has said that “scientifically, he was a failure.”

 * http://www.amren.com /0207issue/0207issue.html —Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.149.112.228 (talk • contribs)

 * Which is an ultra-right wing site and doesn't give a reference for this. What Steve Jones did actually say - and it wasn't about the Bell Curve or race, was ""He gave a salutary kick to the slumbering giant of evolution," says evolutionary biologist Steve Jones, of University College London. "He turned out to be wrong, but he was magnificently wrong."

 * Jones compares him to the explorer Christopher Columbus: "Columbus set out to find India, but found the New World. If that is failure then give me failure any day. —Preceding unsigned comment added by DougWeller (talk • contribs)

 * By contrast, "The Bell Curve" was laregely considered scientifically valid by adademia, yet was ostricized by society at large. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.149.112.228 (talk • contribs)

 * Before taking the bit below too seriously, read http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:The_Bell_Curve —Preceding unsigned comment added by DougWeller (talk • contribs)

 * Mainstream Science on Intelligence

 * This public statement, signed by 52 internationally known scholars, was active on the information highway early in 1995 following several rather heated and negative responses to Herrnstein & Murray's The Bell Curve. It was first published in The Wall Street Journal, Tuesday, December 13, 1994. An alphabetical listing of the scholars and their home institutions are given at the end of the statement...

 * The following professors -- all experts in intelligence and allied fields -- have signed this statement:
 * Richard D. Arvey, University of Minnesota
 * Thomas J. Bouchard, Jr., University of Minnesota
 * John B. Carroll, Un. of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
 * Raymond B. Cattell, University of Hawaii
 * David B. Cohen, University of Texas at Austin
 * Rene V. Dawis, University of Minnesota
 * Douglas K. Detterman, Case Western Reserve Un.
 * Marvin Dunnette, University of Minnesota
 * Hans Eysenck, University of London
 * Jack Feldman, Georgia Institute of Technology
 * Edwin A. Fleishman, George Mason University
 * Grover C. Gilmore, Case Western Reserve University
 * Robert A. Gordon, Johns Hopkins University
 * Linda S. Gottfredson, University of Delaware
 * Robert L. Greene, Case Western Reserve University
 * Richard J.Haier, University of Callifornia at Irvine
 * Garrett Hardin, University of California at Berkeley
 * Robert Hogan, University of Tulsa
 * Joseph M. Horn, University of Texas at Austin
 * Lloyd G. Humphreys, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
 * John E. Hunter, Michigan State University
 * Seymour W. Itzkoff, Smith College
 * Douglas N. Jackson, Un. of Western Ontario
 * James J. Jenkins, University of South Florida
 * Arthur R. Jensen, University of California at Berkeley
 * Alan S. Kaufman, University of Alabama
 * Nadeen L. Kaufman, California School of Professional Psychology at San Diego
 * Timothy Z. Keith, Alfred University
 * Nadine Lambert, University of California at Berkeley
 * John C. Loehlin, University of Texas at Austin
 * David Lubinski, Iowa State University
 * David T. Lykken, University of Minnesota
 * Richard Lynn, University of Ulster at Coleraine
 * Paul E. Meehl, University of Minnesota
 * R. Travis Osborne, University of Georgia
 * Robert Perloff, University of Pittsburgh
 * Robert Plomin, Institute of Psychiatry, London
 * Cecil R. Reynolds, Texas A & M University
 * David C. Rowe, University of Arizona
 * J. Philippe Rushton, Un. of Western Ontario
 * Vincent Sarich, University of California at Berkeley
 * Sandra Scarr, University of Virginia
 * Frank L. Schmidt, University of Iowa
 * Lyle F. Schoenfeldt, Texas A & M University
 * James C. Sharf, George Washington University
 * Herman Spitz, former director E.R. Johnstone Training and Research Center, Bordentown, N.J.
 * Julian C. Stanley, Johns Hopkins University
 * Del Thiessen, University of Texas at Austin
 * Lee A. Thompson, Case Western Reserve University
 * Robert M. Thorndike, Western Washington Un.
 * Philip Anthony Vernon, Un. of Western Ontario
 * Lee Willerman, University of Texas at Austin''

 * http://www.lrainc.com/swtaboo/taboos/wsj_main.html —Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.149.112.228 (talk • contribs)

1. this: R. J. Harrnstein (1972). "Nature as Nurture: Behaviorism and the Instinct Doctrine". seems to be missing from listed biography, though it is mentioned as "classic" in the article: Instinct ("History/ In biology" section).

2. previous comment saying "Perhaps in PC circles" seems to not realize, that Race is being abandoned/questioned as a useful term in regard of all biologiocal species (see Richard Dawkins: selfish gene) and not or not just in social/politically correct contex. Template:Unsigned --> — Preceding unsigned comment added by 78.131.36.185 (talk) 01:34, 13 January 2013 (UTC)

Birth/death
Birth here, death in Murray's obit in National Review, Vol. 46, 10-10-1994, pp 22. Jokestress 08:33, 4 June 2006 (UTC)

Birdland
i seem to recall PETA or similar protestors outside of Herrnstein's bldg well before the Bell Curve dust-up.

is there any record of this anywhere? 216.50.220.28 (talk) 00:23, 16 February 2012 (UTC)

Solid Research
The Bell Curve was the product of sound thinking and exhaustive research. The fact that many "intellectuals" couldn't understand it or lacked the courage to accept it does nothing to diminish it's contribution. Furthermore, the majority of genuine, able scholars has long since acknowledged the accuracy of its conclusions. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Manxtime (talk • contribs) 05:51, 25 May 2008 (UTC)

Intelligence Citations Bibliography for Articles Related to IQ Testing
You may find it helpful while reading or editing articles to look at a bibliography of Intelligence Citations, posted for the use of all Wikipedians who have occasion to edit articles on human intelligence and related issues. I happen to have circulating access to a huge academic research library at a university with an active research program in these issues (and to another library that is one of the ten largest public library systems in the United States) and have been researching these issues since 1989. You are welcome to use these citations for your own research. You can help other Wikipedians by suggesting new sources through comments on that page. It will be extremely helpful for articles on human intelligence to edit them according to the Wikipedia standards for reliable sources for medicine-related articles, as it is important to get these issues as well verified as possible. -- WeijiBaikeBianji (talk) 21:03, 30 June 2010 (UTC)

 * It is time to update this article and many other articles on related topics, so let's discuss new sources for articles about scholars on IQ testing and related topics. -- WeijiBaikeBianji (talk) 02:29, 25 August 2010 (UTC)

1. this: R. J. Harrnstein (1972). "Nature as Nurture: Behaviorism and the Instinct Doctrine". seems to be missing from biography, though it is mentioned as "classic" in the article: Instinct ("History/ In biology" section). 2. previous comment "Perhaps in PC circles" seems to not realize, that Race is being abandoned/questioned as a useful term in regard of all biologiocal species (see Richard Dawkins: selfish gene) and not or not just in social/politically correct contex. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 78.131.36.185 (talk) 01:29, 13 January 2013 (UTC)

title: Talk:Richard Herrnstein


text:
Coventry Victor

Coventry Victor was a British motorcycle and car manufacturer. Originally Morton & Weaver, a proprietary engine manufacturer in Hillfields, Coventry, founded in 1904, the company changed its name to Coventry Victor Motors in 1911. The company closed in 1971.

Morton & Weaver
Thomas Morton and William Arthur Weaver formed Morton & Weaver Limited in Coventry in 1904 as engineers and toolmakers. In 1911, they formed a new company, the Coventry Victor Motor Company, to continue their interest in motor engineering while the original company continued as tool makers.

Coventry Victor aero engines
Weaver was a pioneer in designing and building aircraft, and by 1905 Weaver was designing and building his first ornithoplane (monoplane) utilising a nine-horsepower engine built by Johnson, Hurley and Martin Ltd. Although it was claimed it flew at Hampton-in-Arden in July 1906, it was just "short hops", and it was reported that "the machine more or less failed due to lack of engine power".

The Weaver Ornithoplane No 2 was built from No 1 but with a more powerful engine and was towed on its own wheels behind a motor car to Hampton-in-Arden (the wings being strapped to the sides of the car), and was assembled and flown on 17 May 1910. In a series of four tests the Ornithoplane achieved a steady flight for a quarter of a mile, becoming the first monoplane to fly in Britain. The construction was of aluminium and bamboo, with an aluminium propeller driven by a 20 hp engine, and a wing span of about 45 feet. The four cylinder engine was also made by Johnson, Hurley and Martin at their Alpha Engine Works in Gosford Street, Coventry.

In 1955, Weaver, then managing director of the company, converted one of the company's air-cooled flat four industrial engines for aircraft use and a Piper Cub fitted with the engine completed 50 hours flight trials at Southend in July 1955. The engine, referred to as the 'Flying Neptune', was found to be a little heavy and a little low on power, but otherwise performed admirably.

Coventry Victor motorcycles
In 1919 Coventry-Victor, using their 688 cc flat-twin engine, started making motorcycle and sidecar combinations, many of which were used as commercial outfits and became one of England's leading producers of horizontally opposed twins. They also had a factory in Brussels, and in 1922 they sold one of their motorcycles to "H.M. King of the Belgians", with all parts being made in Coventry and assembled in Brussels. The 1927 Coventry-Victor Silent Six has today become a sought after classic motorcycle. Motorcycle production ended in 1936.

The company supplied engines to many motorcycle and cyclecar makers. Examples include the Victoria Motor & Cycle Co, who launched their 688 cc Victor-engined motorcycle in 1919, and Grahame-White cyclecars.

Coventry Victor cars

By 1926, the company launched a two-seat, three-wheeled car with the single wheel at the rear as the Coventry Victor Midget. There were many versions including, the Standard, the Sports, the Super Sports, the De-luxe, and the Parcelcar; prices started at £75. The cars used variants of their own horizontally-opposed twin-cylinder engines of 688 cc at first, later enlarged to 749 cc, 850 cc and finally 998 cc. These engines included side-valve and overhead valve air cooled versions of the engine (fan assisted), and water cooled versions. Drive was to the rear wheel via a two speed gearbox and chain drive. Early cars had a foot brake operating on the transmission, but later sports model had twin front brakes as well as electric start and reverse gear. There was an update in 1932 with styling by C F Beauvais and called the Luxury Sports with three-speed gearbox and costing from £110. The previous models remained available. Car production survived until 1938.

After the Second World War, a prototype codenamed Venus was made with flat-four 747 cc engine never reached production. There were six reported Venus prototypes all of which were ordered to be destroyed but one still exists at the Coventry Transport Museum. Little is known about the vehicle but it was found and recovered from a farm in the West Country in the 1980s

Other products

Maintaining their preference for the opposed twin cylinder design, Coventry Victor Motor Co built a twin cylinder diesel in the early 1930s known as the Cub. The design of the engine was illustrated in a GB patent by W.A. Weaver, M. Hamilton-Fletcher, and Victor Oil Engine Co in 1933. Bristol Tractor pictured a Cub-engined version of their tractor in 1933, though they fitted several different engines and it's not clear how many tractors were produced with the Cub engine. In 1935 the Coventry Victor Cub engine was available as the 19.5 hp Cub and 22 hp Cub Senior (10HP and 12HP nominal rating), and was described as originally having been designed for marine work.

The Victor Cub was promoted in Australia as having been used for cars and marine work and as a stationary power unit. The 1000 cc air-cooled twin-cylinder horizontally opposed engine was rated at 10 hp and gave a peak output of 20 hp at 2800 rpm. It could run at up to 4000 rpm without danger though normally governed to between 2000 and 2800 rpm. The light alloy combined crankcase and water jackets enclosed cast iron wet liner cylinder bores. The horizontally opposed shape of the engine made it particularly suitable to fit Jowett vehicles. It also suited boats of more than 15 tons displacement and an overall length of 34 feet or 10 metres.

In 1938 Bristol Tractor re-introduced the Bristol 10 tractor with the Coventry Victor Cub diesel engine in the model "D", with production continuing to 1942. The two Cub engines were in production in 1942 though the company advert states the company making them had recently changed its name from Victor Oil Engines (Coventry) Ltd to Oil Engines (Coventry) Ltd, with the works being Atlantic Works, Harefield Rd, Coventry whereas in 1935 the Cubs were listed as made by Coventry Victor Motor Co Ltd of Cox Street, Coventry. Victor Oil Engines (Coventry) Ltd was a subsidiary of Coventry Victor Motor Co Ltd formed in 1933. By 1949 the production of the Cub engine has changed again, to Cub Oil Engines Ltd, Atlantic Works, Wishaw, Scotland. The Cox Street address still appeared in later adverts for Coventry Victor Motor Co Ltd.

In 1946 The Engineer magazine reported that Coventry Victor had added two new small flat twin petrol engines to their range, of 285 cc and 340 cc, known as the "Midget" - the two models only differing in the cylinder bore (55 mm and 60 mm respectively). The crankcases, cylinder heads, and pistons were all of aluminium alloy. The camshaft and crankshaft ran in ball bearings. These were available air-cooled (with added fan and cowling for stationary use), and as water cooled units for marine use which included outboard motors.

After the war, Coventry Victor Motor Co produced a range of petrol and diesel engines for marine and industrial use. The diesel engines included air and water cooled vertical single cylinder units (AD1, AD2, AD3 and WD1, WD2, WD3 models respectively), twin cylinder air-cooled HDA model, and water-cooled HDW models (also known as the Vixen). The petrol engines included twin cylinder air-cooled MA2 and AN4 models, and twin cylinder water-cooled MW2 and WN4 models. The AN4 was used in the 1950s by Thomas Green & Son on their Griffin models PRR and PRY motorised rollers. Coventry Victor also produced a flat-four air-cooled petrol engine (the AC4 or 'Neptune'), one use of which was in aircraft pressure test trolleys made by Sir George Godfrey & Partners. Major W.A. Weaver (managing director of the Coventry Victor Motor Co) converted one of these in 1955 for use in a Piper Cub aircraft, naming it the 'Flying Neptune'. Coventry Victor engines were also used in airfield pumping sets and to operate hydraulic ramps such as the Hylo Mk II mobile lifter made by Aviation Traders (Engineering) Ltd in the 1960s.

Present day
The Coventry Victor Motor Company Ltd was wound up voluntarily in January 1971. A.N. Weaver (Coventry Victor) Ltd. was formed in July 1971 to provide spares and offer a service to maintain existing engines.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Coventry Victor


text:
Burling Hull

Burling Hull (September 9, 1889 – November 1982) was an inventive magician, self-styled "the Edison of magic," specializing in mentalism and sleight of hand effects. During the greater part of his life he lived in DeLand, Florida. His aliases and stage names included: "Volta the Great", "The Man with the Radar Mind", "The White Wizard," and "Gideon ('Gid') Dayn."

Career
Hull claimed to be — and is generally credited as — the inventor of the Svengali deck of cards, which he patented in 1909. He claimed to have invented more than 500 magical effects and he was a prolific writer, with 52 published books to his name, including Sealed Mysteries and Sleights, The Encyclopedia of Stage Illusions, Sealed Mysteries, and How to Answer Questions for Crystal Gazing and Mind Reading Acts. He wrote on a wide variety of magical subjects, including card tricks, mentalism, escapes, razor blade swallowing, sightless vision, billiard ball manipulation, silk magic, second sight acts, publicity, and showmanship.

Hull not only produced many titles about magical effects, he also performed and taught magic for more than 80 years. In his earlier "White Wizard" years, he performed an act dressed entirely in white in which he made billiard balls and silks vanish, multiply, and reappear. In later years he gave talks to magic conventions on business methods for entertainers.

Hull was active in the movement to recognize that there are intellectual rights to magic methods and he was a strong advocate for the protection of magic trade secrets by both patents on the gimmicks and copyright on the texts, as applicable. However, he undercut his own ethical stance against plagiarism by publishing secret material from other magicians who had stolen ideas from him, in order to get revenge for having been plagiarized.

In the late 1950s, Hull published a newsletter, The G_d D__n Truth About Magic, mainly for the purpose of criticizing the equally famous mentalist Robert A. Nelson, known on stage as "Korda RaMayne." Hull used the pseudonym Gideon ("Gid") Dayn to expose Nelson's effects under the pretense of "reviewing" them.

Hull's weighty three-volume Encyclopedic Dictionary of Mentalism, published in 1961, was the largest compilation of mentalism sleights, gimmicks, effects, patter, and illusions in one collection up to that date. This work was also notable as the venue in which Hull continued to carry out his excoriating feud with Robert Nelson, whom Hull accused in print of teaching mentalism to gamblers and racketeers in order that they might commit what Hull called "thievery of the public." He also criticised Nelson for selling hoodoo folk magic curios that Hull said were used in rituals of "black magic and Devil worship".

In his final years, Hull lost his eyesight, a loss he never learned to accept. He died at the age of 93 in a nursing home. Hull's life and his impact upon the world of stage magic were described in a 1977 biography, The Edison of Magic and His Incredible Creations, written by Samuel Patrick Smith. Both his Svengali Deck of 1909 and his 33 Rope Ties and Chain Releases, written in 1915, are still popular today. While living in DeLand, the same town as Herbert L Becker, Burling and Becker worked together on illusions for Becker’s tour with Alice Cooper

Correspondence with Harry Houdini
Hull was the author of 33 Rope Ties and Chain Releases (1915). It was alleged that the magician Harry Houdini had borrowed information for his own Magical Rope Ties and Escapes (1921). However, a 1947 edition of Hull's book has an introduction titled "Houdini Did Not Steal This Book". According to Hull:

"'It is true that a book DID appear with the name of Houdini listed as the 'author', which did steal the entire contents of my original book. It purloined the original 'Patter' and the original presentations for the tricks and even reproduced exactly several of the illustrations. In addition this counterfeit book deliberately changed the names of the original tricks bearing my name and avoided giving any credit to the original author and inventor ... But Houdini explained away the matter [and] paid me a fair but moderate sum ... I accepted his explanation as plausible and ... we remained good friends.'"

Similar to Houdini, exposing the tricks of spiritualist mediums interested Hull. His writings on this subject were collected and published in 1977 under the title The Billion Dollar Bait.

Publications

 * Expert Billiard Ball Manipulation (1910)
 * Sealed Mysteries (1911)
 * A Modern Handkerchief Act (1914)
 * Bulletin Of Latest Sleights And Tricks (1914)
 * Great East Indian Rope Trick (1914)
 * Master Sleights With Billiard Balls (1914)
 * The Art of the Stage (1914)
 * Sleights (1914)
 * 33 Rope Ties and Chain Releases (1915)
 * The Challenge Handcuff Act (1916)
 * The Real Secret of the Stage Second Sight Act (1916)
 * How to Answer Questions for Crystal Gazing and Mind Reading Acts (1927)
 * The World's Cut and Restored Rope Tricks (1927)
 * Expert Manipulation (1928)
 * Sealed Message Reading Acts (1929)
 * The Volta System For The Feat Of Reading Sealed Messages (1929)
 * The Miracle of Floating Light (1931)
 * The Last Word Blindfold Methods (1932)
 * Thirty One Man Mind Reading (1935)
 * Burling Hull's Three Wow Card Hits (1939)
 * Annemann's Card Miracles And Annemann's Mental Mysteries (1940)
 * The Dictionary of Mentalism (1961)
 * The Billion Dollar Bait (1977)
 * The Edison of Magic and His Incredible Creations (1977)

title: Burling Hull


text:
Venetian School (music)

In music history, the Venetian School was the body and work of composers working in Venice from about 1550 to around 1610, many working in the Venetian polychoral style. The Venetian polychoral compositions of the late sixteenth century were among the most famous musical works in Europe, and their influence on musical practice in other countries was enormous. The innovations introduced by the Venetian school, along with the contemporary development of monody and opera in Florence, together define the end of the musical Renaissance and the beginning of the musical Baroque.

History
Several major factors came together to create the Venetian School. The first was political: after the death of Pope Leo X in 1521 and the Sack of Rome in 1527, the long dominant musical establishment in Rome was eclipsed:  many musicians either moved elsewhere or chose not to go to Rome, and Venice was one of several places to have an environment conducive to creativity.

Another factor, possibly the most important, was the existence of the splendid St Mark's Basilica, with its unique interior with opposing choir lofts. Because of the spacious architecture of this basilica, it was necessary to develop a musical style which exploited the sound-delay to advantage, rather than fight against it: thus the Venetian polychoral style was developed, the grand antiphonal style in which groups of singers and instruments played sometimes in opposition, and sometimes together, united by the sound of the organ. The first composer to make this effect famous was Adrian Willaert, who became maestro di cappella of St. Mark's in 1527, and remained in the position until his death in 1562. Gioseffo Zarlino, one of the most influential writers on music of the age, called Willaert "the new Pythagoras", and Willaert's influence was profound, not only as a composer but as a teacher, since most of the Venetians who followed studied with him.

Yet another factor which promoted the rich period of musical creativity was printing. In the early 16th century, Venice, prosperous and stable, had become an important center of music publishing; composers came from all parts of Europe to benefit from the new technology, which then was only a few decades old. Composers from northern Europe—especially Flanders and France—were already renowned as the most skilled composers in Europe, and many of them came to Venice. The international flavor of musical society in the city was to linger into the 17th century.

In the 1560s, two distinct groups developed within the Venetian school: a progressive group led by Baldassare Donato, and a conservative group led by Zarlino, who was then maestro di cappella. Friction between the two groups came to a head in 1569 with a dramatic, public conflict between Donato and Zarlino during the Feast of Saint Mark. Members of the conservative branch tended to follow the style of Franco-Flemish polyphony, and included Cipriano de Rore, Zarlino, and Claudio Merulo; members of the progressive group included Donato, Giovanni Croce, and later Andrea and Giovanni Gabrieli. An additional point of contention between the two groups was whether or not Venetians—or at least Italians—should be given the top job of maestro di cappella at St. Mark's. Eventually the group favoring local talent prevailed, ending the dominance of foreign musicians in Venice; in 1603, Giovanni Croce was appointed to the job, followed by Giulio Cesare Martinengo in 1609.

The peak of development of the Venetian School was in the 1580s, when Andrea and Giovanni Gabrieli composed enormous works for multiple choirs, groups of brass, string instruments and organ. These works are the first to include dynamics, and are among the first to include specific instructions for ensemble instrumentation. Organists working at the same time included Claudio Merulo and Girolamo Diruta; they began to define an instrumental style and technique which moved to northern Europe in the succeeding generations, culminating in the works of Sweelinck, Buxtehude, and eventually J.S. Bach.

The term Venetian School is sometimes used to distinguish it from the contemporary, and usually more musically conservative, Roman School. Other important centers of musical activity in Italy at the same time included Florence (the birthplace of opera), Ferrara, Naples, Padua, Mantua, and Milan.

Composers
Major members of the Venetian school include:

 * Adrian Willaert (c.1490–1562)
 * Jacques Buus (c.1500–1565)
 * Andrea Gabrieli (c.1532–1585)
 * Nicola Vicentino (1511–c.1576)
 * Cipriano de Rore (c.1515–1565)
 * Gioseffo Zarlino (1517–1590)
 * Baldassare Donato (1525–1603)
 * Annibale Padovano (1527–1575)
 * Costanzo Porta (c.1529–1601)
 * Claudio Merulo (1533–1604)
 * Gioseffo Guami (c.1540–1611)
 * Vincenzo Bellavere (d.1587)
 * Girolamo Diruta (c.1554–after 1610)
 * Girolamo Dalla Casa (d.1601)
 * Giovanni Gabrieli (c.1555–1612)
 * Giovanni Croce (c.1557–1609)
 * Giovanni Bassano (c.1558–1617)
 * Giulio Cesare Martinengo (c.1561–1613)

References and further reading

 * Various articles, including "Venice," in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie. 20 vol.  London, Macmillan Publishers Ltd., 1980.  ISBN 1-56159-174-2
 * Gustave Reese, Music in the Renaissance. New York, W.W. Norton & Co., 1954.  ISBN 0-393-09530-4
 * Manfred Bukofzer, Music in the Baroque Era. New York, W.W. Norton & Co., 1947.  ISBN 0-393-09745-5
 * Harold Gleason and Warren Becker, Music in the Middle Ages and Renaissance (Music Literature Outlines Series I). Bloomington, Indiana.  Frangipani Press, 1986.  ISBN 0-89917-034-X
 * Eleanor Selfridge-Field, Venetian Instrumental Music, from Gabrieli to Vivaldi. New York, Dover Publications, 1994.  ISBN 0-486-28151-5
 * Denis Arnold, Monteverdi. London, J.M. Dent & Sons Ltd, 1975.  ISBN 0-460-03155-4
 * Blanche Gangwere, Music History During the Renaissance Period, 1520–1550. Westport, Connecticut, Praeger Publishers.  2004

title: Venetian School (music)


text:
Arabic scale

Arabic scale may refer to:
 * Double harmonic scale, a scale with two augmented seconds
 * Quarter tone scale, or 24 tone equal temperament
 * A seventeen tone unequal tuning that was historically used to describe Arabic music
 * Major locrian scale, a scale similar to locrian, also the aeolian mode with ♭ 5th and ♯ 3rd, Phrygian dominant scale with ♭ 5th and ♯ 2nd, or Blues Leading-Tone scale with ♭ 6th and ♯ tonic.

Zigeuner-Dur Escala árabe

title: Arabic scale


text:
Bagelkhand

Bagelkhand or Baghelkhand is a proposed state and a mountain range in central India that covers the northeastern regions of Madhya Pradesh and a small area of southeastern Uttar Pradesh.

Dahala
Baghelkhand was known as Dahala in the 6th–12th century. The area got its current name after Vaghela Rajput kings in the 14th century, later it was absorbed state.

Bagelkhand Agency
The Bagelkhand Agency was a British political unit which managed the relations of the British with a number of autonomous princely states existing outside British India, namely Singrauli (Venvanshi), Rewa and 11 minor states, of which the most prominent were Maihar, Nagod and Sohawal. Other principalities included Jaso, Kothi, Baraundha (aka Patharkachhar) as well as the Kalinjar Chaubes, consisting of the princely estates of Paldeo, Kamta-Rajaula, Tarauwhan, Pahra and Bhaisaunda.

Geography
Bagelkhand is surrounded by the Indo-Gangetic plains in the north and east, Bundelkhand in the west and the Vindhya range in the south.

Administration
Currently it divided between Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. It includes the Madhya Pradesh districts Rewa, Satna, Shahdol,  Sidhi of Madhya Pradesh and Chitrakoot of Uttar Pradesh.

Demographics
The inhabitants of Bagelkhand are called Bagheli and they speak the Bagheli language which is also designated as a dialect of Hindi.

title: Bagelkhand


text:
Itsukaichi Line

The Itsukaichi Line (五日市線) is a railway line operated by East Japan Railway Company (JR East) in Tokyo, Japan. It links Musashi-Itsukaichi Station in the city of Akiruno with Haijima Station in the city of Akishima. From there, some trains travel through to Tachikawa Station via the Ōme Line, and select weekend/holiday services (branded as Holiday Rapid Akigawa) continue from Tachikawa along the Chūō Line to Tokyo Station. This line can only accommodate trains of 4- or 6-car lengths.

Itsukaichi Line Local
Local trains stop at all stations between Musashi-Itsukaichi and Haijima.

Through services
The Itsukaichi Line, at times, runs through services along the Ōme Line. All through services into the Itsukaichi Line stop at every station on this line.

 * Ōme - Itsukaichi Line through service: Some Itsukaichi Line operate through service to the Ōme Line via Haijima. They operate between Musashi-Itsukaichi and Tachikawa.

Former through services

 * Chūō - Ōme - Itsukaichi Line through service: At rush hours, a few Chūō Line trains ran through services between Tokyo and the Itsukaichi Line via Haijima. These services were always joined with another through service train, which coupled / decoupled at Haijima. During morning rush, some trains from Musashi-Itsukaichi on the Itsukaichi Line, and another train from Ōme on the Ōme Line, or from Hakonegasaki / Komagawa on the Hachiko Line, coupled at Haijima, and headed for Tokyo. During evening rush, the reverse occurred. These trains operated until 11 March 2022.

Holiday Rapid Akigawa
Until 18 March 2023, Holiday Rapid Akigawa services ran on weekends on this line. See the article for more information.

Stations
All stations are located in Tokyo, and all services stop at every station.

An extension, via a switchback, formerly operated to Musashi-Iwai Station. It closed to passenger traffic in 1971 and to freight in 1982.

History
The Itsukaichi Line was built by the Itsukaichi Railway in 1925. In 1930, all sections (Tachikawa - Haijima - Musashi-Itsukaichi - Musashi-Iwai) were opened. There were two competing railways between Tachikawa and Haijima: the Ōme Electric Railway (now the Ōme Line) and the Itsukaichi Railway. In 1940, the Itsukaichi Railway was taken over by the Nambu Railway, becoming the Nambu Railway Itsukaichi Line. In 1944, Nambu Railway was nationalized and this line became the JGR Itsukaichi Line. At the same time, the section of the line between Tachikawa and Haijima was deemed non-essential and closed. However, the Tachikawa - Musashi-Uenohara and Musahi-Uenohara - Nishi-Tachikawa sections of the former Nambu Railway are still used by Chūō Main Line and Nambu Line trains traveling to and from the southern area of Tachikawa Station.

Chronology

 * 24 April 1925: Itsukaichi Railway opens between Haijima (temporary) and Itsukaichi stations (10.62 km). Haijima (temporary), Higashi-Akiru, Nishi-Akiru, Masuko, and Itsukaichi stations open.
 * 15 May 1925: Extension from Haijima (temporary) Station to Haijima Station opens; Haijima (temporary) Station closes.
 * 16 May 1925: Masuko Station renamed Musashi-Masuko Station.
 * 1 June 1925: Itsukaichi Station renamed Musashi-Itsukaichi Station.
 * 20 September 1925: Musashi-Itsukaichi - Musashi-Iwai section opens; Okuno, Musashi-Iwai stations open.
 * 1 July 1926: Tamagawa Station (freight only) opens.
 * 1 April 1930: Distance markers changed from miles to kilometres.
 * 4 April 1930: Construction of Byōinmae Station authorized.
 * 13 July 1930: Tachikawa - Haijima extension opens; Musashi-Uenohara, Gouchi, Musashi-Fukushima, Minami-Nakagami, Miyazawa, Ōgami, Musashi-Tanaka, Minami-Haijima stations open.
 * 28 May 1931: Kumagawa Station opens.
 * 8 December 1931: Musashi-Tanaka - Haijima-Tamagawa freight branch (1.6 km) opens; Haijima-Tamagawa Station (freight only) opens. Tamagawa Station is renamed Musashi-Tamagawa Station.
 * 3 October 1940: Line taken over by Nambu Railway, becomes Itsukaichi Line. Musashi-Tamagawa Station closes.
 * 1 April 1944: Line is nationalized. Byōinmae Station renamed Musashi-Hikita Station. Musashi-Uenohara, Miyazawa, and Musashi-Tanaka stations close. Origin of freight branch (Musashi-Tanama - Haijima-Tamagawa) moved to Minami-Haijima Station (+1.4 km). Distance between Musashi-Itsukaichi and Musashi-Iwai shortened by 0.1 km.
 * 11 October 1944: Tachikawa - Haijima section of Main Line and Minami-Haijima - Haijima-Tamagawa section of freight branch close. Gouchi, Musashi-Fukushima, Minami-Nakagami, Ōgami, Minami-Haijima, Haijima-Tamagawa stations close.
 * 17 February 1961: Haijima - Musashi-Iwai section electrified at 1,500 V DC.
 * 1 February 1971: Ōkuno - Musashi-Iwai section of main line closes. Passenger service between Musashi-Itsukaichi and Ōkuno ceases; section becomes a freight branch. CTC installed in all sections.
 * 15 November 1982: Musashi-Itsukaichi - Ōkuno freight branch closes; all freight services discontinued.
 * 31 March 1987: Nishi-Akiru Station renamed Akigawa Station.
 * 1 April 1987: Following privatization of JNR line becomes part of JR East.
 * 18 March 2007: New E233 series trains enter service.
 * 15 March 2008: Semi-automated door operation starts year-round using E233 series rolling stock.
 * 20 August 2016: Station numbering introduced with stations being assigned station numbers between JC81 (Kumagawa) and JC86 (Musashi-Itsukaichi).
 * 12 March 2022: Excluding all Holiday Rapid Akigawa services, all through service beyond Tachikawa station via the Ome Line is discontinued.
 * 18 March 2023: Holiday Rapid Akigawa services are abolished.

title: Itsukaichi Line


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Phrygian dominant scale

In music, the Phrygian dominant scale is the fifth mode of the harmonic minor scale, the fifth being the dominant. Also called the altered Phrygian scale, dominant flat 2 flat 6 (in jazz), or Freygish scale (also spelled Fraigish ). It resembles the Phrygian mode but with a major third, rather than a minor third. The augmented second between its second and third scale degrees gives it an "Arabic" or Middle Eastern flavor to Western listeners.

In the Berklee method, it is known as the Mixolydian ♭9 ♭13 chord scale, a Mixolydian scale with a lowered 9th (2nd) and lowered 13th (6th), used in secondary dominant chord scales for V7/III and V7/VI.

Construction
Built on C, the scale is as follows. When related to the scale degrees of the major scale, it reads:
 * 1 – ♭2 – 3 – 4 – 5 – ♭6 – ♭7 – 1

The sequence of steps forming the Phrygian dominant scale is:
 * half – augmented second – half – whole – half – whole – whole

Traditional use
This scale occurs in Indian, Middle Eastern, Balkan, Eastern European, Central Asian, and flamenco music. It is common in Arabic and Egyptian music, in which it is called Hijaz-Nahawand or Hijaz maqam, and used in Hebrew prayers and Klezmer music, where it is known as Ahava Rabbah, Freygish or just the "Jewish scale", and is called Dastgāh-e Homāyoun in Iran. It is the most common scale in North Indian classical raga Hijaz Bhairav (Basant Mukhari) and South Indian raga Vakulabharanam.

It is sometimes called the Spanish Phrygian scale, Spanish Gypsy scale (see: gypsy scale) or Phrygian major scale (see: phrygian mode and major scale) and is common in flamenco music. It can also be found in traditional Spanish songs outside flamenco, everywhere in Spain to varying amounts, but especially in southern and central areas of the country, often being also known as escala andaluza (Andalusian scale) in Spanish. Related scales in Spanish traditional music with chromatic notes in the second degree, varying between a semitone and a tone, are also known as "gama española" ("Spanish gamut") or "gama de Castilla y León" (gamut of Castile and León) and, though found all over Spain, are particularly common in Castilian and Leonese traditional songs.

The flatted second and the augmented second between the second and third scale degrees of the scale create its distinctive sound. Examples include some versions of "Hava Nagila", "Sha Shtil" and "Misirlou", while other versions of those melodies use the closely related "double harmonic scale". The main chords derived from this scale are I, ♭II, iv, and vii.

When the Freygish scale is used in Klezmer music, the sixth degree may be left unflatted if it is melodically approached and left from above, or the seventh degree may be raised as well.

The Phrygian dominant scale is often used in jazz composition and improvisation over secondary dominants of minor chords in a major key, such as the VI7 chord in a VI7-ii7-V7-I progression. Some modal jazz compositions, such as "Nardis" by Miles Davis, are composed in the Phrygian dominant mode.

title: Phrygian dominant scale


text: User talk:68.55.187.240

title: User talk:68.55.187.240


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Beech River

The Beech River is a 38.3 mi stream draining the east-central portion of West Tennessee in the United States. The Beech rises about 5 mi northwest of Lexington, Tennessee. In the same area are the headwaters of two other West Tennessee rivers, the Big Sandy River and the Middle Fork of the Forked Deer River. The Big Sandy, like the Beech, is part of the Tennessee River system, whereas the Forked Deer system drains into the Mississippi River.

The Beech River was named for the beech timber along its course.

Hydrography
The Beech flows southeast into the town of Lexington and then primarily eastward. As is typical of most major streams in West Tennessee, much of the lower course was the subject of a channelization project in the mid-20th century conducted largely for agricultural purposes; this has resulted in a considerable loss of wetland. The stream crosses into Decatur County, flowing in between Parsons and Decaturville. The large embayment formed at the mouth of the Beech is the result of the backwaters of the Kentucky Dam project many miles downstream on the Tennessee; the embayment reaches the outskirts of both towns.

Dams
The Beech River system is somewhat unusual in that it and all of its major tributaries (a total of eight) are impounded, one of them twice, primarily by dams built in the mid 20th century as part of the Tennessee Valley Authority's Beech River Project—Beech, Cedar, Dogwood, Lost Creek (which has no permanent reservoir), Pin Oak, Pine, Redbud, and Sycamore. The dams are purely for purposes of flood control and recreation, though it is possible that the relatively small volume of water they store could result in some minimal aid to navigation on the Tennessee under some conditions. Unlike most other TVA dams, none of the Beech River dams are used for hydropower, since the small size of the streams impounded and their relative lack of fall would make power generation impractical. Some of the lakes created are located in Natchez Trace State Park, the largest of the Tennessee state parks; though located many miles west of both the Natchez Trace Parkway and the historic Natchez Trace, this area is named for a branch of the historic Trace that bore that name in the area.

title: Beech River


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User:Gebu

About me
Please visit my German user page or send me a wiki mail.

Articles started
Lookout Games

Missing articles
Missing articles

de:Benutzer:Gebu

title: User:Gebu


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Hugh Robson (politician)

Hugh Amos Robson (September 9, 1871 –July 9, 1945) was a politician and judge in Manitoba. He briefly served as leader of the Manitoba Liberal Party in the 1920s.

Career
Hugh Amos Robson was born in Barrow-in-Furness, England, on September 9, 1871. The son of Robert Robson, he came to Canada with his family in 1882, studied law in Regina, was called to the bar for the Northwest Territories in 1892 and practised in the Northwest Territories, moving to Winnipeg in 1899. Robson married Fannie Laidlaw in 1897. He was named to the Court of King's Bench on June 23, 1910, and then served as head of the Manitoba public utilities commission from 1911 to 1914.

The Manitoba Liberals were in government between 1915 and 1922, but lost much of their support to the United Farmers of Manitoba (later called the Progressives) in the early 1920s. Despite Premier Tobias Norris's personal popularity, the Liberals were reduced to only eight seats in the province's 55-member legislature following the election of 1922.

Norris remained party leader until 1927, but stepped down shortly before that year's election. He was replaced by Robson, who seems to have been chosen because of his status as a "respected outsider", and because he was regarded (incorrectly) as favouring cooperation with the Progressives. He had no experience as a provincial politician, but was a leading figure in the province's legal system.

Robson was elected a member of the Legislative Assembly of Manitoba on June 28, 1927, during the 1927 Manitoba general election. He led the Liberal ticket in Winnipeg, and placed second on the city's multi-member ballot (Winnipeg elections were determined by a form of proportional representation at the time). He was only able to elect one other Liberal in the city, however, and his party won only seven seats throughout the province. Robson left the Legislative Assembly in January 1930, becoming a judge of the Manitoba Court of Appeal that month. He served on the court until March 1944, later becoming a chief justice of Manitoba.

Robson died on July 9, 1945, at the Winnipeg General Hospital, aged 74.

Robson Hall at the University of Manitoba is named in his honour.

title: Hugh Robson (politician)


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User:JBOC

This user has been blocked for making threats on another user. Please see the wikien-l posts from Danny and Jimbo on this.

 * ''The following page has been edited to remove personal attacks. roozbeh 10:58, Jul 25, 2004 (UTC)

Hello Acegikmo1, I see how it works now, thanks. Actually my readers are surprisingly interested in how easy is it to spread anti-Islamic, anti-Khomeine anti-Iranian propaganda. Questions pop up about possible affiliations. They want to know more. They are also curious about Wikipedia and how it fits in. This will be an interesting series of articles to write. Thanks, JBOC

Don't attack Roozbeh but Roozbeh can attack Imam Khomeine and Ayatollah Ali Khamenei
Hello Roozbeh, I wish you would read what you write. To cast you in a potentially negative light is something you will not allow. You will not even allow the truth. However reading your edits about Iran and Iranian leaders it becomes apparent that you are willing to cast them in a very negative light. I showed your attack on the Imam Khomeine but what about your contribution to the Majlis Election. You added:

 * "There are rumors that some voters were transferred to Tehran or other big cities from other areas by some of the parties, and a claim that the Municipality of Tehran, whose Mayor backed the same alliance, was advertising for the alliance illegally, using the government's budget".

You offer no proof, no citations, just unsubstantiated rumor. Do unsubstantiated rumors belong in a Wikipedia article? If you said Time Magazine or the Tehran Times or the like said those rumors it might belong, but instead you just attack. Do you expect us to see you as a bumbling stooge who has no idea of what you are doing. Over a substantial period of time you constantly work to put Iran in a negative light You have even made questionable contributions to the entry for Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei. You wrote: "

 * Many reform bills have been vetoed and many reformers has been barred from running for office by the Council of Guardians whose members are chosen directly or indirectly by Khamenei.

You write from a very strong position. Who are you working for? Time to come clean Roozbeh. JBOC

title: User:JBOC


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Talk:Muk-jji-ppa

Is Muk-Chi-Ba (the New York variation) really famous? A search with google only turns up Wikipedia and related websites. It seems likely to me that the creator of Muk-Chi-Ba is using wikipedia to promote their variation. -- Tlotoxl
 * You are right that this game doesn't turn up on Google (at least when the keyword "New York" is added to the search), but local games like this are often spread by word-of-mouth. E.g. I remember Stupid Ninja Game was put up on VFD a while ago, but it was later proven to be not invented by the author.  Anyway, this game is so hilarious it would be a crime to delete this article. --Shibboleth 08:00, 26 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * I don't want to be a stick in the mud and I sorta hate myself for saying this, but I think that not publishing "original research" is one of Wikipedia's core policies. If Muk-Chi-Ba exists and is known in New York then this article is cool.  If Muk-Chi-Ba only exists through the article, then the article is an abuse of Wikipedia, funny or not.  The Stupid Ninja Game example suggests to me that Muk-Chi-Ba should be listed on the VFD so that its validity can be determined one way or the other (since the author doesn't seem interested in addressing the issue here). -- Tlotoxl 11:22, 26 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * The author seems to not have been on Wikipedia recently, judging from his user page. Yeah, Google seems to really turn up nothing at all, although internal evidence in the article seems to indicate that the game is second-hand (e.g. "tingkwa," a word no doubt altered from its original pronunciation).  Well, if you want to put it up for voting I don't have any real objections other than I like this game, so go ahead if you want to.  I've at least saved a backup for personal use :). --Shibboleth 21:18, 26 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Neither can I find anything on this "New York City" version on Google except for a few other pages that copy the text verbatim. But as far as Muk-Chi-Ba (or as I heard it called, Muk-Chi-Pa) it is a game. The "addicting layer of complexity" mentioned in the New York version, is mistakenly referring to the complexity of Muk-Chi-Ba itself, when comparing it to Rock, Paper, Scissors. And the New York version seems to be mostly a cosmetic variation. So, I do say, New York version section should be deleted, and that seems to be the general consensus. --Apatterno 23:04, 22 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Don't know much about New York City, but a Google search for 묵찌빠 turns up more than 5000 hits, of which a good portion are related to the game. -- Visviva 04:08, 23 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Muk-Chi-Ba is definately a real game (it seems like a traditional korean game) but i think whoever made up the "New York City" version is the one who wrote that though. However, they are wrong about there being an "aditional layer of play" added to that version. The "additional layer" exists in the original as well as the "New York City Version." I really think the whole NYC version thing should be deleted.

 * I'm the author of the NYC variant section... first of all, I'd like to say I'm amazed at the attention to detail on Wikipedia, and the evolution in quality of this article is a good example of wikipedia's promise. I also appreciate the AGF ref below! I am a regular, low-frequency wikipedia contributor and I must say, I never understood what talk pages were and I imagine others like me don't either... this is the first talk post I ever made. I just read everyone's comments and I think you're collectively right, that the entry wasn't right for the page; I'm not the inventor of the variant, but I thought it would make sense to put it out there and I understand now that that's what external links are for. I agree with the immediately above comment that the NYC version isn't much of a variant; when I added it to the page, the "additional layer" wasn't mentioned. Now that I read the current version I see that the core concept is covered. Brw12 05:44, 1 August 2005 (UTC)

Finally correct
The article, in its present state is a good representation of what Muk-Chi-Pa is. Muk-Chi-Pa is definitely an established Korean game. I think that the person who wrote the New York section was just a little confused (but assume good faith)... they wrote as if New York was a variation of Rock-Paper-Scissors, therefore incorporating all of the differences between Rock-Paper-Scissors and Muk-Chi-Pa. Without those differences, New York is no more than a cosmetic variation with a different priming method, and therefore not worth mentioning (unless we decide to mention the countless other cosmetic variations).

If there's one thing I might want to add, it would be my attempt to standardize Muk-Chi-Pa, but that's original research so I guess I shouldn't. --Apatterno 03:31, 27 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Your efforts to improve the article are appreciated, but you need to cite some reliable sources. I could find nothing in Google Books, and the vast majority of web search results appear to be derived from this very page. In this unreliable source, the game is described as being rock-paper-scissors but played with the feet. As it stands this is no more or less reliable than the description in our article, so I'm reducing it to a stub until reliable sources can be found. The old version is here which can be used to look for supporting sources before it's restored. (btw I checked the Korean article for Korean-language sources but that doesn't have any either)--Pontificalibus (talk) 08:22, 23 August 2011 (UTC)

romanization
just wondering if anyone has any thoughts on the romanization of this article name. Appleby 18:50, 26 April 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Muk-jji-ppa


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Hydrofluorocarbon

Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) are synthetic organic compounds that contain fluorine and hydrogen atoms, and are the most common type of organofluorine compounds. Most are gases at room temperature and pressure. They are frequently used in air conditioning and as refrigerants; R-134a (1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane) is one of the most commonly used HFC refrigerants. In order to aid the recovery of the stratospheric ozone layer, HFCs were adopted to replace the more potent chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which were phased out from use by the Montreal Protocol, and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) which are presently being phased out. HFCs replaced older chlorofluorocarbons such as R-12 and hydrochlorofluorocarbons such as R-21. HFCs are also used in insulating foams, aerosol propellants, as solvents and for fire protection.

They may not harm the ozone layer as much as the compounds they replace, but they still contribute to global warming --- with some like trifluoromethane having 11,700 times the warming potential of carbon dioxide. Their atmospheric concentrations and contribution to anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions are rapidly increasing --- consumption rose from near zero in 1990 to 1.2 billion tons of carbon dioxide equivalent in 2010 --- causing international concern about their radiative forcing.

Chemistry
Fluorocarbons with few C–F bonds behave similarly to the parent hydrocarbons, but their reactivity can be altered significantly. For example, both uracil and 5-fluorouracil are colourless, high-melting crystalline solids, but the latter is a potent anti-cancer drug. The use of the C-F bond in pharmaceuticals is predicated on this altered reactivity. Several drugs and agrochemicals contain only one fluorine center or one trifluoromethyl group.

Environmental regulation
Unlike other greenhouse gases in the Paris Agreement, hydrofluorocarbons are included in other international negotiations.

In September 2016, the New York Declaration on Forests urged a global reduction in the use of HFCs. On 15 October 2016, due to these chemicals' contribution to climate change, negotiators from 197 nations meeting at a summit of the United Nations Environment Programme in Kigali, Rwanda reached a legally-binding accord (the Kigali Amendment) to phase down hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) in an amendment to the Montreal Protocol. As of February 2020, 16 U.S. states ban or are phasing down HFCs.

COVID-19 relief legislation, which included a measure that would require chemical manufacturers to phase down the production and use of HFCs, was passed by the United States House of Representatives and United States Senate on December 21, 2020. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency signed a final rule phasing down HFCs on 23 September, 2021.

title: Hydrofluorocarbon


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Second Schweinfurt raid

The second Schweinfurt raid, also called Black Thursday, was a World War II air battle that took place on 14 October 1943, over Nazi Germany between forces of the United States 8th Air Force and German Luftwaffe fighter arm (Jagdwaffe). The American bombers conducted a strategic bombing raid on ball bearing factories to reduce production of these vital parts for all manner of war machines. This was the second attack on the factories at Schweinfurt. American wartime intelligence claimed the first Schweinfurt–Regensburg mission in August had reduced bearing production by 34 percent but had cost many bombers. A planned follow-up raid had to be postponed to rebuild American forces.

As the squadrons rebuilt, plans for the return mission were modified based on the lessons learned. Planners added additional fighter escorts to cover the outward and return legs of the operation and sent the entire force against Schweinfurt alone, instead of splitting the force. Despite these changes, a series of minor mishaps combined with the ever-increasing efficiency of the German anti-aircraft effort proved to be devastating. Of the 291 B-17 Flying Fortresses sent on the mission, 60 were lost, another 17 damaged so heavily that they had to be scrapped and another 121 had varying degrees of battle damage. Losses represented over 26 percent of the attacking force and losses in aircrew were equally severe, with 650 men lost of 2,900, 22 percent of the bomber crews. The American Official History of the Army Air Forces in the Second World War acknowledged losses had been so great that the USAAF would not return to the target for four months, "The fact was that the Eighth Air Force had for the time being lost air superiority over Germany".

The operation was a failure. The bomber formations were left exposed to attacks by German fighters and the faulty preparations for the creation of reserves in the summer of 1943 meant that such costly operations could not be sustained. An escort of 24 squadrons of Spitfires equipped with drop tanks was provided on the first and last leg of the mission.

The strategy of the Allied air forces was flawed. Arthur Harris, Air Officer Commanding RAF Bomber Command questioned the intelligence that claimed ball bearings to be vital to the German war economy. Harris refused to cooperate with the Americans, believing ball bearing targets to be a "panacea". Post-war analysis has shown Harris's objections to be correct. The Germans had built up enormous reserves of ball bearings and were receiving supplies from all over Europe, particularly Italy, Sweden and Switzerland. The operation against these industries would, even if successful, have achieved little. By 1945, the Germans had assembled more reserves than ever.

Background
Factories in and around Schweinfurt accounted for a significant amount of German ball bearing production. The Kugelfischer plant produced 22 percent, the Vereinigte Kugellagerfabriken I and II produced 20 percent, and another one percent came from the Fichtel & Sachs factory. After the supposed German ball bearing "bottleneck" had been identified in 1942 and ball bearings had been named the second-most-vital Pointblank industry for the Combined Bomber Offensive in March 1943, Schweinfurt's ball bearing plants were selected for a second air raid after being bombed during the August Schweinfurt–Regensburg mission.

Mission
Each of the three bomber wings was to be escorted by fighters from a single group with multiple squadrons of P-47 Thunderbolts. The fighters were inexplicably not employing drop tanks which limited their escort range. One fighter outfit was sidetracked to escort a squadron of 29 B-24s that switched to a diversion mission to Emden because of the bad weather forecast. Some 229 of 291 B-17s hit the city area and ball bearing plants at Schweinfurt in two groups: the first group bombed at 1439–1445 hours, the second group at 1451–1457 hours. They claimed 186 Luftwaffe aircraft - more than four times the Germans’ actual losses of 35-38 aircraft. Sixty B-17s were lost, two damaged beyond repair and 13 damaged; casualties amounted to five KIA, 40 WIA and 594 MIA.

The bomber formations were spread out and vulnerable because of bad weather. The Luftwaffe military intelligence officers had suspected a deep penetration air raid because of the substantial amount of bombers. Jagdgeschwader 3 Udet fighter wing intercepted the bombers as they crossed the coast but P-47s succeeded in shooting down seven Bf 109s while losing just one P-47. However one P-47 was also lost when it crashed at Herongate and another during a one-wheel landing on base. Over the Netherlands elements of two more "named" Luftwaffe fighter wings, JG 1 Oesau and JG 26 Schlageter made repeated attacks. The 305th Bomb Group lost 13 of its 16 B-17s in minutes. The B-17s were attacked after bombing by fighters that had refueled and rearmed (JG 11 downed 18 B-17s).

A total of 13 bombers were shot down by German fighters and flak and 12 bombers were damaged so badly that they crashed upon return or had to be scrapped. Another 121 bombers returned with moderate damage. Of 2,900 crewmen, about 254 men did not return (65 survived as prisoners-of-war), while five killed-in-action and 43 wounded were in the damaged aircraft that returned (594 were listed as missing-in-action). Among the most seriously affected American units was the 306th Bomb Group. It lost 100 men: 35 died on the mission or of wounds and 65 were captured. The 305th Bomb Group lost 130 men (87%), with 36 killed.

The defensive efforts of both JG 1 and JG 11 during the "Black Thursday" raid are said to have included substantial use of the BR 21 unguided stand-off rockets against the USAAF combat boxes, as both Luftwaffe fighter wings had started use of the ordnance some six months earlier.

Aftermath
Although the Schweinfurt factories were badly hit, the mission failed to achieve any lasting effect. The production of ball bearings in the factories was halted for only 6 weeks and Germany's war industry could easily rely on its substantial inventory of ball bearings as well as a large production surplus. In addition, the ball bearing facilities were dispersed to reduce their bombing risk. Consequently, despite General Henry H. Arnold's claim that the Black Thursday "loss of 60 [downed/ditched] American bombers in the Schweinfurt raid was incidental", unescorted daylight bomber raids deep into Germany were suspended until the February 1944 Big Week missions with P-51B Mustang escorts that included additional Schweinfurt day/night USAAF/RAF bombing on the 24th.

Another example of the strategy of using heavy bombers against a particular wartime resource, the Oil Campaign of World War II was essentially started by the RAF Bomber Command as early as August 1941 – two months after Hitler's invasion of the Soviet Union, and six months before the United States entered the war. It went forward relentlessly from that time with the USAAF joining in on the efforts by late June 1943 during daylight. The Oil Campaign had its priority diminished from time to time with important events, such as the lead-up to Operation Overlord, which by June 1944 demanded heavy bomber support for a time, but soon thereafter the relentless attacks by day and night resumed, starving the entire German Wehrmacht military of fuel and lubricants from the autumn of 1944 onwards.

title: Second Schweinfurt raid


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How the Steel Was Tempered

How the Steel Was Tempered (Как закалялась сталь) or The Making of a Hero, is a socialist realist novel written by Nikolai Ostrovsky (1904–1936). With 36.4 million copies sold, it is one of the best-selling books of all time and the best-selling book in the Russian language.

Summary
The story follows the life of Pavel Korchagin, including his fighting in and aftermath of the Russian Civil War when he fought for the Bolsheviks during the war and was injured. The novel examines how Korchagin heals from his wounds and thus becomes as strong as steel.

The novel begins when Korchagin is 12, living in the town of Shepetovka in Ukraine. He gets kicked out of school for putting tobacco in some bread dough and must go to work as a dishwasher. As a dishwasher he is beaten by a coworker, but his brother Artyom defends him. The novel jumps forward to age 16 when he is working in a power plant. He meets a Bolshevik named Zhukhrai after a run-in with the Tsarist secret police. Zhukrai tells him about the Bolsheviks and Lenin. He also meets Tonia Toumanova, his first of many love interests. Again the novel jumps, to 1917 as the German army invades Shepetovka. Korchagin witnesses the town change hands several times in the chaos of the following months, with a pogrom against the town's Jewish population occurring during its occupation by soldiers loyal to Symon Petliura. Korchagin eventually joins the Bolsheviks and fights in the Civil War and Polish-Soviet War. He receives an injury in his spine, which slowly saps his strength for the remainder of the novel. After the war he works as a railway mechanic and advances as a Komsomol member in Kyiv. He develops many social connections there but loses touch with many of his friends after he is presumed dead during work to build an emergency railway line to provide Shepetovka with firewood. As his health worsens due to his life of hardship and wartime injuries, he spends time in Sanatoria on the Black Sea coast, where he eventually meets and marries the young daughter of a friend of his mother's. Eventually, having lost his eyesight and almost totally paralyzed, Pavel moves to Moscow to consult medical specialists, but his condition is hopeless and he ends up staying there to write a novel about his cavalry division from the Civil War.

Analysis
The story is a fictionalized autobiography of its author, Nikolai Ostrovsky. In real life, Ostrovsky's father died, and his mother worked as a cook. As he joined the war with the Red Army, he lost his right eye from artillery fire during the war.

In 2016, Russia's newspaper Russia Beyond The Headlines analyzed the story as part of the Soviet narrative of Communism forging uncivilized men into ideal men, like iron into steel. The protagonist fits the mold of pre-Khrushchev literature: an immaculate, ideally communistic individual.

Characters

 * Pavel Korchagin – The novel's protagonist. He is fighting on the Bolsheviks' side in the Civil War (1917–1922). He is a quintessential positive hero of socialist realism.
 * Tonia Toumanova – Pavel's teenage love. Tonia and Pavel became good friends after their first encounter, which later develops into an intimate relationship. Though born of a wealthy and influential family, Tonia treated everyone equally unlike her friends, who only interact with other children of well-reputed families. However, this changed as she grew up, as she became more aware of her appearance and social status of others.

Publication history
The first part of How the Steel was Tempered was published serially in 1932 in the magazine Young Guard. The second part of the novel appeared in the same magazine from January to May, 1934. The novel was published in 1936 in book form in a heavily edited version that conformed to the rules of socialist realism. In the serial version Ostrovsky had described the tense atmosphere of Pavel's home, his suffering when he became an invalid, the deterioration of his relationship with his wife, and their separation. All of this disappeared in the 1936 publication and in later editions of the novel. A Japanese translation of the novel was made by Ryokichi Sugimoto.

Adaptations
In the Soviet Union, three films were produced based on this novel:
 * How the Steel Was Tempered (1942)
 * Pavel Korchagin (1956, Korchagin was played by Vasily Lanovoy)
 * How the Steel Was Tempered, 1973 (TV series of 6 episodes; Korchagin was played by Vladimir Konkin)

In China, the novel was adapted into a television series of the same title in 2000; all the members of the cast were from Ukraine.

In other media

 * The third studio album of Russian experimental group Shortparis is titled Tak zakalyalas stal (Russian: Так закалялась сталь, lit. 'Thus the Steel Was Tempered') (2019).

title: How the Steel Was Tempered


text:
Cosmic Rough Riders

The Cosmic Rough Riders are an alternative rock band from Glasgow, Scotland. They were originally formed in 1998 by Daniel Wylie and Stephen Fleming, and later they were joined by Mark Brown, James Clifford, Gary Cuthbert and Paul Docherty. To date they have recorded five albums, and had four singles in the UK top 40.

Recording history
They self-released the albums Deliverance (1999) and Panorama (2000), both having been recorded in a community funded recording studio located in Glasgow's Castlemilk housing scheme. Both albums were named in Virgin's Encyclopaedia of the Greatest Albums of All Time.

Cosmic Rough Riders signed a one album license deal with Poptones Records, the newly formed label of ex-Creation Records boss Alan McGee, who released the band's third album, Enjoy the Melodic Sunshine in November 2000, actually a compilation of songs from Panorama and Deliverance.

Single releases in 2001 earned them increasing numbers of fans in the press. Their single "Revolution (In the Summertime?)" was released and went into the UK Singles Chart, scoring them their first Top 40 hit and debut on BBC Television's Top of the Pops. This was immediately followed into the chart by "The Pain Inside", giving them back-to-back Top 40 hit single success.

By the end of 2001, the album Enjoy the Melodic Sunshine had achieved silver status (sales of 60,000) in the UK and it was named by Q magazine as one of the 50 best albums of the year.

In March 2002, founder member of Cosmic Rough Riders, Stephen Fleming added lead vocals to his duties when original singer, Daniel Wylie, left to pursue a solo career. The release in September 2002 of the rarities and b-sides album, Pure Escapism, was the closing of one chapter in the band's story.

June 2003 saw the release of "Because You". It entered the UK Singles Chart at number 34 – becoming the band's third successive Top 40 hit and their highest entry yet.

The self-written and self-produced album, Too Close to See Far was released by Measured Records in July 2003. The entire album was play-listed by BBC Radio 2 and on its release, entered the UK's official independent chart at number 7. A second single from the album was released in September 2003, and "Justify the Rain" entered the UK Singles Chart, giving the band four Top 40 hits in a row. 2003 ended with Cosmic Rough Riders being the recipients of the best newcomer award at the Tartan Clef Awards ceremony, an event that raised over £100,000 for the charity, Nordoff Robbins Music Therapy. The band were presented with their award by Scotland's First Minister, Jack McConnell.

During 2005 the band wrote and recorded a new album, The Stars Look Different from Down Here, in southern Spain. The album was released in May 2006.

Touring history
The Cosmic Rough Riders have performed at major UK music festivals including Carling Weekend, Glasgow Green and T In The Park. The band have played at the Norwegian festival Quart; plus two Japanese festivals, Summersonic and Fuji Rock. They have appeared as guests of several other touring artists, including the Black Crowes, Ocean Colour Scene, Stereophonics, Paul Weller, Robert Plant, Lenny Kravitz, and were twice invited to appear as special guests of U2 when they performed in Scotland. When they made a special appearance at Glasgow Barrowlands as part of a show paying tribute to the Scottish singer-songwriter Frankie Miller, they were joined onstage by Joe Walsh (Eagles). He played guitar on the track "When I'm Away From You", recorded by Cosmic Rough Riders, and released on a Frankie Miller tribute album.

Albums

 * Deliverance (1999)
 * Panorama (2000)
 * Enjoy the Melodic Sunshine (2000)
 * Pure Escapism (2002) (Japanese Edition)
 * Too Close to See Far (2003)
 * The Stars Look Different From Down Here (2006)

Singles

 * "Melanie" (February 2001) UK No. 111
 * "Baby, You're So Free" (April 2001) UK No. 76
 * "Revolution (In the Summertime?)" (July 2001) UK No. 35
 * "The Pain Inside" (September 2001) UK No. 36
 * "Because You" (June 2003) UK No. 34
 * "Justify the Rain" (September 2003) UK No. 39
 * "In Time" (May 2006)
 * "When You Come Around" (July 2006)

title: Cosmic Rough Riders


text:
Nagios

Nagios is an event monitoring system which offers monitoring and alerting services for servers, switches, applications and services. It alerts users when things go wrong and alerts them a second time when the problem has been resolved.

Ethan Galstad and a group of developers originally wrote Nagios as NetSaint. , they actively maintain both the official and unofficial plugins. Nagios is a recursive acronym: "Nagios Ain't Gonna Insist On Sainthood" – "sainthood" makes reference to the original name NetSaint, which changed in response to a legal challenge by owners of a similar trademark. "Agios" (or "hagios") also transliterates the Greek word άγιος, which means "saint".

Nagios was originally designed to run under Linux, but it also runs on other Unix variants. It is free software licensed under the terms of the GNU General Public License version 2 as published by the Free Software Foundation.

History
On 16 January 2014, Nagios Enterprises redirected the nagios-plugins.org domain to a web server controlled by Nagios Enterprises without explicitly notifying the Nagios Plugins community team the consequences of their actions. Nagios Enterprises replaced the nagios-plugins team with a group of new, different members. The community team members who were replaced continued their work under the name Monitoring Plugins along with a different website with the new domain of monitoring-plugins.org.

Design
Nagios agents include:

 * NRPE: Nagios Remote Plugin Executor (NRPE) is a Nagios agent that allows remote system monitoring using scripts that are hosted on the remote systems. It allows for monitoring of resources such as disk usage, system load or the number of users currently logged in. Nagios periodically polls the agent on remote system using the  plugin. NRPE allows you to remotely execute Nagios plugins on other Linux/Unix machines. This would allow you to monitor remote machine metrics (disk usage, CPU load, etc.). NRPE can also communicate with some Windows agent add-ons, so you can execute scripts and check metrics on remote Windows machines, as well. As of 28 Jan 2020, NRPE 4.0.1 has been deprecated.
 * NRDP: Nagios Remote Data Processor (NRDP) is a Nagios agent with a flexible data transport mechanism and processor. It is designed with an architecture that allows it to be easily extended and customized. NRDP uses standard ports and protocols (HTTP and XML) and can be implemented as a replacement for Nagios Service Check Acceptor (NSCA).
 * NSClient++: This program is mainly used to monitor Windows machines. Being installed on a remote system NSClient++ listens to port TCP 12489. The Nagios plugin that is used to collect information from this addon is called . As NRPE, NSClient++ allows to monitor the so-called 'private services' (memory usage, CPU load, disk usage, running processes, etc.) Nagios is a host and service monitor which is designed to inform you of network problems.
 * NCPA: The Nagios Cross Platform Agent is an open source project maintained by Nagios Enterprises. NCPA installs on Windows, Linux, and Mac OS X. Created as a scale-able API that allows flexibility and simplicity in monitoring hosts. NCPA allows multiple checks such as memory usage, CPU usage, disk usage, processes, services, and network usage. Active checks are queried through the API of the "NCPA Listener" service while passive checks are sent via the "NCPA Passive" service.

Nagios XI
Nagios XI is a proprietary interface using Nagios Core as the back-end, written and maintained by the original author, Ethan Galstad, and Nagios Enterprises. CentOS and RHEL are the currently supported operating systems. It combines Nagios Core with other technologies. Its main database and the ndoutils module that is used alongside Nagios Core use MySQL. While the front-end of Nagios Core is mainly CGI with some PHP, most of the Nagios XI front-end and back-end are written in PHP including the subsystem, event handlers, and notifications, and Python is used to create capacity planning reports and other reports. RRDtool and Highcharts are included to create customizable graphs that can be displayed in dashboards.

title: Nagios


text:
Svengali

Svengali is a character in the novel Trilby which was first published in 1894 by George du Maurier. Svengali is a Jewish man who seduces, dominates and exploits Trilby, a young half-Irish girl, and makes her into a famous singer.

Definition
After the book's publication in 1894, the word "svengali" has come to refer to a person who, with evil intent, dominates, manipulates and controls another.

In court, the Svengali Defence is a legal tactic that portrays the defendant as a pawn in the scheme of a greater, and more influential, criminal mastermind.

Novel

Svengali is a stereotypical antisemitic portrayal of an Ashkenazic (Eastern European) Jew, complete with "bold, black, beady Jew's eyes" and a "hoarse, rasping, nasal, throaty rook's caw, his big yellow teeth baring themselves in a mongrel canine snarl". He is continually filthy and yet still "clean enough to suit (his own) kind". George Orwell wrote that Svengali, who while cleverer than the Englishmen, is evil, effeminate, and physically repugnant, was "a sinister caricature of the traditional type" and an example of "the prevailing form of antisemitism."

"(Svengali) would either fawn or bully, and could be grossly impertinent. He had one kind of cynical humour, which was more offensive than amusing, and always laughed at the wrong thing, at the wrong time, in the wrong place, and his laughter was always derisive, and full of malice."

In the novel, Svengali transforms Trilby into a great singer by using hypnosis. Unable to perform without Svengali's help, Trilby becomes entranced.

Portrayals
Svengali was almost immediately stripped of his Jewishness in portrayals. Svengali was first portrayed by the English actor Herbert Beerbohm Tree in London and by the actor Wilton Lackaye in the United States in the stage play of 1895, Trilby. The story has also been used in several movies.

The character was portrayed in the following films which were all titled Svengali: first by Ferdinand Bonn in the silent film of 1914, then by Paul Wegener in the silent film of 1927, by John Barrymore in 1931, by Donald Wolfit in 1954 (in Technicolor), and by Peter O'Toole in the film of 1983, which was a modernised version made for television and co-starred Jodie Foster. In the movie of March 1983 however, the names of the characters were changed.

The character "Levi Svengali" was portrayed by actor and director Ash Avildsen in the television series Paradise City released by Amazon Prime Video in March 2021.

title: Svengali


text:
Sandgate railway station, Brisbane

Sandgate railway station is located on the Shorncliffe line in Queensland, Australia. It serves the Brisbane suburb of Sandgate.

History
The railway line from Brisbane to Sandgate opened in 1882. The terminal station was located near Curlew Street, behind the Osbourne Hotel, and was named Sandgate. The line was extended to Shorncliffe in 1897 and the new terminal station was named Sandgate while the original terminus was renamed Sandgate Central. In 1911 Sandgate Central station was relocated to its present position, closer to the Post Office. When the former Sandgate station was renamed Shorncliffe in 1938, Sandgate Central was renamed simply Sandgate.

Services
Sandgate station is served by all stops Shorncliffe line services from Shorncliffe to Roma Street, Cannon Hill, Manly and Cleveland.

Transport links
Transport for Brisbane operate seven bus routes to and from Sandgate station:
 * 310: Brighton to City
 * 311: to Bracken Ridge
 * 312: to Brighton
 * 313: from Shorncliffe
 * 314: Deagon to Shorncliffe
 * 326: Fitzgibbon to Toombul
 * 335: to City via Chermside
 * N310: City to Sandgate

Hornibrook Bus Lines operate two bus routes to and from Sandgate station:
 * 690: to Redcliffe
 * 691: to Scarborough

title: Sandgate railway station, Brisbane


text:
Joe Cahill

Joe Cahill (Seosamh Ó Cathail; 19 May 1920 – 23 July 2004) was a prominent figure in the Irish republican movement in Northern Ireland and former chief of staff of the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA). He joined a junior-republican movement, Na Fianna Eireann, in 1937 and the following year, joined the Irish Republican Army. In 1969, Cahill was a key figure in the founding of the Provisional Irish Republican Army. During his time in the Provisional IRA, Cahill helped import weapons and raise financial support. He served as the chief of staff in 1972, but was arrested the following year when a ship importing weapons was intercepted.

After his release, he continued to serve on the IRA Army Council and lead all financial dealings for Sinn Féin. In the 1990s, the IRA and Sinn Féin began to work on seeking peace. Cahill served on the council that called a cessation on 21 July 1997. Cahill attended several of the talks that finally led to the Good Friday Agreement on 10 April 1998. Shortly after the agreement was made, Cahill resigned as treasurer of Sinn Féin. To honour his service, he was made honorary Sinn Féin vice-president for life. Cahill served the republican movement in Ireland all his life, as one of the longest-serving political activists in Ireland of any political party.

Background
Cahill was born above his father's small printing shop at 60 Divis Street on 19 May 1920 in West Belfast.

Cahill was the first child of eleven siblings born to Joseph and Josephine Cahill. Both of his parents supported republicanism. Cahill spoke of his family's interest in Irish culture and history: "I was always taught to attend to things that were Irish. For instance, do Irish dancing. Do Irish things, a lot. In the house there would be lots of Irish history books. You wouldn't be forced to read them, but because they were in the house you would naturally read them. I suppose from that point of view there was a certain amount of indoctrination." His father was involved with the Irish National Volunteers and would print republican material at his print shop. Joseph Senior applied to be a part of the Irish Republican Army but was asked to remain in the print business as his way of assisting the republican movement. He was arrested in 1932 for printing illegal material, but was acquitted for any crimes. Cahill's childhood was marked by hardship and his family was very poor. Cahill's grandparents were neighbours of the Scottish-born Irish socialist and Easter Rising leader James Connolly, who co-founded the Irish Citizens Army.

Cahill was educated at St. Mary's Christian Brothers' School, then located on Barrack Street. At age 14 he left school to assist in the print shop. Soon after, he joined the Catholic Young Men's Society, which campaigned on social issues with a focus on eradicating moneylenders from working-class areas of Belfast, as they often charged usurious interest rates. At the age of seventeen, Cahill then joined Na Fianna Eireann, a republican-orientated Scouting movement. Na Fianna Eireann was regarded as the "Junior Irish Republican Army".

Early paramilitary career
The following year, 1938, at the age of 18, Cahill joined the local Clonard-based 'C' Company of the Belfast Brigade of the Irish Republican Army. By 1942, Cahill was serving as second in command. That year, during an anniversary march by the IRA for the Easter Rising, Cahill got into a shootout with five other IRA men against four Royal Ulster Constabulary Officers. Several men were wounded and Constable Patrick Murphy was killed. Cahill and four of the other men spent time in prison in Belfast, where they were interrogated daily. Tom Williams, the sixth IRA man to be charged, spent time in the Royal Victorian Hospital due to his injuries. It was there that he made a statement taking full responsibility for killing Constable Patrick Murphy. All six men were found guilty and sentenced to death in August 1942. The men's legal team managed to suspend the execution date after the verdict. An appeal campaign began and 207,000 signatures were collected. The United States State Department and the Vatican also supported the campaign. As a result, the men's sentences were changed to life in prison, except for Tom Williams who was executed.

The IRA declared a formal ceasefire in 1945. Afterwards, republican prisoners began to be released. Cahill, Perry, Oliver, Cordner and Simpson, who had all been sentenced to life in prison, became free men in October 1949. Following his release from prison, Cahill got a job at the Harland and Wolff shipyards in Belfast. It was at the shipyards where he was said to have contracted the disease asbestosis, one of the causes of his death many years later.

In 1953, Cahill had an accident on the job when he was hit on the head by scaffolding. He subsequently spent time recovering in a convalescent home. After he recovered, he travelled to Leixlip near Dublin to visit his aunt. It was there that he met Annie Magee. Joe and Annie were married on 2 April 1956 in St John's Church on the Falls Road in Belfast. Together they had seven children. Annie was said to be his best friend.

The IRA launched a new campaign in 1956. The IRA border campaign attacked ten targets in six counties, damaging bridges, courthouses and border roads. By 1957, three RUC officers and seven republicans had been killed during the campaign. Cahill was arrested and interned in January 1957 with several other republicans. In the same year, Cahill's first son was born and was named Thomas, after Tom Williams. Cahill was released from internment in April 1961.

Founding the Provisional IRA
Following his release from prison, Cahill was disappointed at the direction of the IRA. They had given up armed struggle, and desired seats in elections. Failed campaigns led to the IRA becoming weak and disorganised. Cahill resigned from the IRA around 1962.

In August 1969, intense rioting broke out in Northern Ireland, the most violent being in Belfast. In the Northern Ireland riots of August 1969, Cahill, along with Billy McKee, tried to defend the Catholic Clonard area from attack, but was unable to prevent Bombay Street being burned by Ulster Protestant rioters. When he subsequently tried to organise the defence of the Ballymurphy area, he was initially chased away by its Catholic residents. The 1969 Northern Ireland riots displaced 1,800 families from their homes. It was a humiliation for the IRA and made evident that they could not protect their people. The slogan 'IRA: I Ran Away' was painted on walls all over Belfast. The riots were said to be the beginning of "the Troubles" in Ireland.

Later that year, Cahill was a key figure in founding the Provisional Irish Republican Army. Angry at the failure of the IRA (led in Belfast by Billy McMillen) to defend Catholic areas during the communal rioting, Cahill and McKee stated in September 1969 that they would no longer be taking orders from the IRA leadership in Dublin, or from McMillen. In December 1969, they declared their allegiance to the Provisional IRA, which had split away from the leadership. This action took 9 out of the 13 units of the IRA in Belfast into the Provisional IRA. The remnants of the pre-split IRA became known as the Official IRA. The Provisional IRA was created and an executive council of 12 men was elected. Of the executive members, seven, one of whom was Joe Cahill. were elected to serve as the Provisional Army Council. Cahill also served as the second-in-command to Billy McKee, OC of the Belfast Battalion.

Provisional IRA activities
In April 1971, after the arrest and imprisonment of Billy McKee, Cahill became the commander of the Provisional IRA Belfast Brigade. He held this post until the introduction of internment in August of that year. It was during this period that the Provisional IRA campaign got off the ground in the city. Cahill authorised the beginning of the IRA's bombing campaign as well as attacks on British troops and the RUC. He based himself in a house in Andersonstown and toured the city, co-ordinating IRA activity. The day after the British Army mounted Operation Demetrius, designed to arrest the IRA's leaders, Cahill held a press conference in a school in Ballymurphy and stated that the operation had been a failure. He said, "we have lost one brigade officer, one battalion officer and the rest are volunteers, or as they say in the British Army, privates". To avoid the propaganda defeat that his capture would then have entailed, Cahill fled to the Republic of Ireland, temporarily relinquishing his command of the Belfast Brigade.

In March 1972, Cahill was part of an IRA delegation that held direct talks with the British Labour Party leader Harold Wilson. However, although the IRA called a three-day ceasefire for the talks, no permanent end to violence was agreed upon. Upon his return to Ireland, Cahill was arrested in Dublin by Gardaí and charged with IRA membership. He went on hunger strike for twenty-three days and was subsequently released due to lack of evidence. In November 1972, Cahill became the IRA's chief of staff and held this position until his arrest the following year.

Cahill was then put in charge of importing arms for the IRA. He liaised with the NORAID group in America and with the Libyan dictatorship of Muammar al-Gaddafi to this end. On March 29, 1973 he was arrested by the Irish Navy in Waterford, aboard the Claudia, a ship from Libya loaded with five tons of weapons. Cahill was sentenced to three years imprisonment by the Irish Special Criminal Court. Cahill stated at his trial that, "If I am guilty of any crime, it is that I did not succeed in getting the contents of the Claudia into the hands of the freedom fighters in this country".

Upon his release, Cahill again was put in charge of arms importation and to this end went to the United States. He was deported from the United States in 1984 for illegal entry (see Provisional IRA arms importation). He served on the IRA Army Council as late as the 1990s. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, he argued against proposals for Sinn Féin to stand in elections. However, in 1985, he spoke at the party's Ard Fheis in favour of republicans contesting elections and taking seats in the Dublin parliament, the Dáil.

Peace process
In his later years as honorary life vice-president of Sinn Féin, Cahill was a strong supporter of Gerry Adams and the Good Friday Agreement. In 1994, a controversial but central aspect of the IRA's ceasefire was the granting of a limited visa by then United States President Bill Clinton to Cahill, in the face of opposition by John Major's government, for the purpose of trying to win support for the new Sinn Féin peace strategy from Irish American IRA supporters.

In 1998 he stood in North Antrim in the elections to the Northern Ireland Assembly, but was unsuccessful.

Death
Cahill died at age 84 in Belfast. He had been diagnosed with asbestosis, which he probably developed while working at the Harland & Wolff shipyards in his twenties. He and several other former shipyard workers later sued the company for their exposure to the dangerous substances but only won minimal compensation. An Irish republican flute band in Glasgow is named after Cahill.

title: Joe Cahill


text: User talk:68.18.182.58

title: User talk:68.18.182.58


text:
Channa

Channa is a genus of predatory fish in the family Channidae, commonly known as snakeheads, native to freshwater habitats in Asia. This genus contains about 50 scientifically described species. The genus has a wide natural distribution extending from Iraq in the west, to Indonesia and China in the east, and parts of Siberia in the Far East. A particularly high richness of species exists in Myanmar (Burma) and northeastern India, and many Channa species live nowhere else. In contrast, a few widespread species have been introduced to several regions outside their natural range, where they often become invasive. The large and medium-sized Channa species are among the most common staple food fish in several Asian countries, and they are extensively cultured. Apart from their importance as a food fish, snakeheads are consumed in some regions as a traditional medicine for wound healing and reducing postoperative pain and discomfort, and collected for the international aquarium pet trade.

All snakeheads are highly predatory, and the diets of the various species of Channa include fish, amphibians (like frogs), snakes, rodents, birds, and invertebrates (insects and crustaceans). They have a labyrinth organ, which allows them to breathe air for short periods, and they use this adaptation to travel across land in the event that their habitat becomes inhospitable. They are mostly solitary or live in monogamous pairs that are highly aggressive towards outsiders of their own species, but C. pleurophthalma often occurs in small groups. Larger species are mostly nestbrooding (making a nest of vegetation at the water surface), and the dwarfs mostly paternal mouthbrooding, but exceptions occur; the large C. barca is a paternal mouthbrooder and the dwarf C. bleheri is a free-spawner (the eggs float to the surface where the parents take care of them, but they do not mouthbrood or built a nest).

Taxonomy
The taxonomy of the genus Channa is incomplete, and a comprehensive revision of the family has not been performed. A phylogenetic study in 2010 has indicated the likelihood of the existence of undescribed species of channids in Southeast Asia, and a more comprehensive phylogenetic study in 2017 indicated that several undescribed species exist in Asia (as well as an undescribed Parachanna in Africa). In 2011, the Malabar snakehead Channa diplogramma from peninsular India was shown to be a distinct species, 146 years after its initial description and 134 years after it was synonymised with C. micropeltes, establishing it is an endemic species of peninsular India. The study also suggested that the species shared a most recent common ancestor with C. micropeltes, around 9.52 to 21.76 MYA.

Species

Currently, 51 recognized species are placed in this genus:

 * Channa amari Dey et al., 2019
 * Channa amphibeus (McClelland, 1845) (Borna snakehead)
 * Channa andrao Britz, 2013
 * Channa ara (Deraniyagala, 1945)
 * Channa argus (Cantor, 1842) (northern snakehead)
 * Channa aristonei Praveenraj, Thackeray, Singh, Uma, Moulitharan & Mukhim, 2020
 * Channa asiatica (Linnaeus, 1758) (small snakehead)
 * Channa aurantimaculata Musikasinthorn, 2000 (orange-spotted snakehead)
 * Channa aurantipectoralis Lalhlimpuia, Lalronunga & Lalramliana, 2016
 * Channa auroflammea Adamson, Britz and S. Lieng, 2019
 * Channa aurolineata (F. Day, 1870)
 * Channa bankanensis (Bleeker, 1853)
 * Channa baramensis (Steindachner, 1901)
 * Channa barca (F. Hamilton, 1822) (barca snakehead)
 * Channa bipuli Praveenraj, Uma, Moulitharan & Bleher, 2018
 * Channa bleheri Vierke, 1991 (rainbow snakehead)
 * Channa brahmacharyi Chakraborty, Yardi & Mukherjee, 2020
 * Channa brunnea Praveenraj, Uma, Moulitharan & Kannan, 2019
 * Channa burmanica B. L. Chaudhuri, 1919
 * Channa cyanospilos (Bleeker, 1853)
 * Channa diplogramma (F. Day, 1865) (Malabar snakehead)
 * Channa gachua (F. Hamilton, 1822) (dwarf snakehead)
 * Channa harcourtbutleri (Annandale, 1918) (Burmese snakehead)
 * Channa hoaluensis Nguyen, 2011
 * Channa kelaartii (Günther, 1861)
 * Channa limbata (Cuvier, 1831)
 * Channa lipor Praveenraj, Uma, Moulitharan & Singh, 2019
 * Channa longistomata (Nguyen & Nguyen, 2012)
 * Channa lucius (G. Cuvier, 1831) (forest snakehead)
 * Channa maculata (Lacépède, 1801) (blotched snakehead)
 * Channa marulioides (Bleeker, 1851) (emperor snakehead)
 * Channa marulius (F. Hamilton, 1822) (great snakehead)
 * Channa melanoptera (Bleeker, 1855)
 * Channa melanostigma Geetakumari & Vishwanath Waikhom, 2011
 * Channa melasoma (Bleeker, 1851) (black snakehead)
 * Channa micropeltes (G. Cuvier, 1831) (giant snakehead)
 * Channa ninhbinhensis V. H. Nguyễn, 2011
 * Channa nox C. G. Zhang, Musikasinthorn & Watanabe, 2002 (night snakehead)
 * Channa orientalis Bloch & J. G. Schneider, 1801 (Ceylon snakehead)
 * Channa ornatipinnis Britz, 2008
 * Channa panaw Musikasinthorn, 1998 (Panaw snakehead)
 * Channa pardalis Knight, 2016
 * Channa pleurophthalma (Bleeker, 1851)
 * Channa pomanensis Gurumayum & Tamang, 2016
 * Channa pseudomarulius (Günther, 1861)
 * Channa pulchra Britz, 2007
 * Channa punctata (Bloch, 1793) (spotted snakehead)
 * Channa quinquefasciata Praveenraj et al., 2018
 * Channa rara Britz et al., 2019
 * Channa royi Praveenraj et al., 2018 (Andaman emerald snakehead) — likely a synonym of C. harcourtbutleri
 * Channa shingon M. Endruweit, 2017)
 * Channa stewartii (Playfair (fr), 1867) (Assamese snakehead)
 * Channa stiktos Lalramliana, Knight, Lalhlimpuia & Singh, 2018
 * Channa striata (Bloch, 1793) (striped snakehead)
 * Channa torsaensis Dey, Nur, Raychowdhury, Sarkar, Singh & Barat, 2018 (cobalt blue snakehead)

title: Channa