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Police community support officer

A Police Community Support Officer (PCSO; swyddog cymorth cymunedol yr heddlu, SCCH), or as written in legislation Community Support Officer (CSO; swyddog cymorth cymunedol, SCC), is a uniformed member of police staff in England and Wales, a role created by Section 38(2) of the Police Reform Act 2002, which was given Royal Assent by Queen Elizabeth II on 24 July 2002. They are not warranted, but hold a variety of police powers and the power of a constable in various instances by the forty-three territorial police forces in England and Wales and the British Transport Police (which is the only specialist police service to employ PCSOs).

History
PCSOs were introduced in September 2002 and first recruited by the Metropolitan Police. The first ever PCSO on the streets was PCSO 7115 Barry Faust, who was stationed at Belgravia Police Station in Westminster, Central London. PCSO 7155 was due to begin his shift at 7am on Monday 9th September 2002, however due to a vehicle needing to go to a garage for repair, Barry and a Sergeant left Belgravia early at 6:30-6:45. En route, the duo were required to assist a lorry under a bridge - and thus Barry became the first PCSO with duties on the streets of the UK.

Proposals for PCSOs in Northern Ireland were prevented by a budget shortfall in the Police Service of Northern Ireland, as well as fears that the introduction of uniformed and unarmed PCSOs in Northern Ireland (PSNI constables all carry firearms) would mean they would potentially then become a "legitimate target" in the eyes of the IRA who have attacked other civilians working for the police in Northern Ireland in the past. The Police Reform Act 2002 does not apply to Scotland, which consequently does not have Police Community Support Officers (the acronym PCSO in Police Scotland refers to a Police Custody and Security Officer, known as a detention officer in other parts of the UK.)

, there were 8,263 PCSOs in England and Wales. PCSO numbers had, like those of police constables, been falling in previous years due to austerity. At their prior peak in 2009, 16,814 PCSOs were employed. PCSOs represent 6.8% of total police employees in England and Wales. The Metropolitan Police has the highest contingent of PCSOs, accounting for a quarter of PCSOs in England and Wales. The service with the second largest contingent as of 2012 was Greater Manchester Police (GMP) with 837 PCSOs, which was 5% of the total.

, pay for PCSOs, which vary from force to force, range between £19,000 to around £26,000 per year depending on experience.

Role
Most PCSOs work within a Safer Neighbourhood team (SNT) or Neighbourhood Policing team (NPT) that contains special constables and beat managers (police sergeants). These teams are led by a neighbourhood inspector. Day-to-day duties usually include high visibility patrolling, tackling anti-social behaviour, dealing with minor offences, crowd control and directing traffic at public events, helping direct traffic at roadblocks or scenes of accidents, gathering criminal intelligence, and supporting front-line policing. The Home Office have specifically limited the powers designated to PCSOs to maintain the distinction between them and police officers. Some PCSOs are attached to Road Policing Units, and British Transport Police PCSOs are deployed as part of station teams. As with many aspects of PCSOs, the specifics of each job description vary depending on the relevant force.

Recruitment and selection
Police forces will recruit PCSOs through adverts placed in newspapers and on the Internet and by posters in public places. Some may use open days as a method of attracting applicants which is the same way constables are recruited. The recruitment of PCSOs has helped some police forces increase the representation of ethnic minorities among their employees. Unlike with police constables, there is no set selection procedure for PCSOs and the process varies between forces although section 38 of the Police Reform Act 2002 (the law that made PCSOs) requires that chief constables or Commissioners in charge of police forces have a duty to ensure a recruit "is a suitable person to carry out the functions for the purposes of which they are designated" and is "capable of effectively carrying out those functions". Generally, PCSOs will be selected through a process that involves: an application form, interview and fitness tests; a medical test; and security and background vetting. Welsh PCSOs must have basic abilities to speak the Welsh language.

Training
Unlike police constables, there is no set training procedure for PCSOs so the training given varies from force to force although section 38 of the Police Reform Act 2002 (the law that made PCSOs) requires that chief constables or commissioners to ensure a recruit "Has received adequate training in the carrying out of those functions and in the exercise and performance of the powers and duties to be conferred on him by virtue of their designation". The original PCSOs recruited in 2002 by the Metropolitan Police received only 3 weeks' training, which was criticised as too little. The training period was eventually raised, and new Metropolitan Police PCSOs are now trained for six weeks. Training in other forces takes between four and eleven weeks, with the length of training depending on how close the PCSOs' authority comes to that of a regular police officer.

PCSOs are trained in a variety of tasks, including: radio procedure; report writing; dealing with evidence; going to court; gathering intelligence; managing a crime scene; usage of PCSO powers under the Police Reform Act 2002 and any person powers; use of force; human rights; race and diversity; traffic direction and cordon manning; general health and safety; self-defence (including restraint techniques and the use of handcuffs or leg restraints if used by their force); and first aid. Written examinations are usually performed during training. Upon successful completion of training, there may be a passing out parade.

After training a new PCSO is normally sent out on patrol with a tutor—usually an experienced PCSO—until they are able to patrol on their own. All PCSOs go through a twelve-month probationary period after completing training.

Uniform and equipment
The uniform of a PCSO is similar to that of a police constable, but has a variety of uniquely distinguishing features depending on the wearer's respective force. As with a lot of things about PCSOs, their uniforms have a great deal of variation between police forces. The current ACPO guidance states that "PCSOs should be recognisable to the public as police staff, but visibly distinct from sworn police officers". Since PCSOs were first created in 2002, many forces have made changes to the uniforms issued. Most of these changes are commonly in regards to shirts, trousers and headgear.

Headgear
A PCSO's headgear is normally a black formal peaked cap for men and a black bowler for women, although some forces are now opting for female PCSOs to wear the peaked cap. Headgear may or may not display the force crest, some have a metal shield, usually blue, stating "police community support officer" followed below with the name of the wearer's respective force in smaller letters. Some newer versions of such shields have the wearer's respective force crest printed on them. Most forces now simply issue the same hat badge that is issued to constables. The band on the hat is usually a silver reflective band with blue edging, a plain blue band, a chequered blue and silver band or a black and white Sillitoe tartan chequered band.

Male PCSOs wear flat, peaked caps rather than custodian helmets, which are worn by male police constables and sergeants. The Metropolitan Police Authority noted in 2004 that the hats worn by male PCSOs were not rigid and 'may therefore not offer adequate protection'. Female PCSOs wear bowler hats which contain foam padding as protection.

Some police forces have unique hat designs for PCSOs which are different from the more common styles, such as those worn by the City of London Police PCSOs who adhere to the force's tradition of red detailing, red banding, and a red shield. Another is Merseyside Police, whose PCSOs wear a blue band with green edging. The badge was formerly a black cloth patch bearing the words ‘Merseyside Police Community Support & Traffic Officer’. Merseyside PCSOs are now issued a metal force badge instead. North Wales Police (Heddlu Gogledd Cymru) PCSOs wear black baseball caps with a blue band with "police support" written in both English and Welsh.

Surrey Police and Greater Manchester Police (GMP) give their Traffic PCSOs (who are part of GMP's Road Policing Unit (RPU)) white covered caps in the same style as traffic police officers. The hat retains though the standard blue band and force crest as other PCSOs in GMP.

Formal uniform
Generally, most forces do not have a formal uniform for their PCSOs, but a few provide tunics. Tunics are the same as that of a Police Constable but may have special badging to distinguish the wearer as a PCSO. As with police constables, PCSOs very rarely wear tunics (provided they have been given them). One of the few examples was during the funeral of PCSO Mark Marshall of Devon and Cornwall Police who was killed in Afghanistan whilst serving in the Territorial Army. His funeral was attended by police colleagues wearing tunics including PCSOs.

In 2012, PCSOs who had been in service since Monday 6 February 2012 and had completed five full calendar years in the role were awarded the Queen Elizabeth II Diamond Jubilee Medal. This is a commemorative medal created in 2011 to mark the 60th anniversary of the accession to the throne of Elizabeth II. PCSOs awarded the honour may wear the ribbon of the medal while on daily routine patrol. This medal was also given to police constables under similar rules. Gwent Police issued a silver coloured "Gwent Police Staff Diamond Jubilee Badge 2012", a small lapel badge awarded to all police constables and PCSOs who received the Jubilee Medal.

Operational uniform
Shirts for PCSOs are either white, blue or black. Originally the shirts were collared, ironed, smart and formal with two front pockets and radio loops but in recent years are being replaced in most forces with breathable shirts made to be worn with stab vests. Such new shirts unlike their predecessors are sometimes marked with "PCSO" or "police community support officer" on the sleeves or chest. North Wales Police now have the Welsh flag on both sleeves of their shirts, for both constables and PCSOs.

Neckwear if worn is a tie for men or a cravat for women. Neckwear is normally light blue, but is sometimes black. Some police forces issue name and/or number badges to its officers to be worn on their uniforms. PCSOs in such forces have "PCSO" or "police community support officer" written before their name or number. The badge is sometimes also differently coloured from the badge of regular police officers. Trousers are usually black or dark navy blue. Originally, these were ironed, smart and formal, but in recent years are being replaced in most forces with cargo pocketed designs to allow the PCSO to carry more items.

Body armour vests are issued to PCSOs—although originally not all forces did this—and wearing one is usually compulsory. Staffordshire Police was the last police force to issue Stab vests to PCSOs; they were only issued to officers of this force in April 2011. Some forces issue tactical vests to PCSOs that go over the body armour to provide alternative storage to a duty belt. The vest usually comes in black or hi-vis yellow.

Most PCSOs tend to wear blue epaulettes on their shoulders, although some forces use black epaulettes. Since 2009 a few forces began embroidering names on to epaulettes. PCSOs are issued with hi-visibility jackets and waterproof coats of varying design depending on the force. Officers may also be issued with a simple tabard for traffic duties. PCSOs wear nylon duty belts with quick release buckles to hold their equipment in pouches.

Cycle patrol uniform
Special uniforms exist in most forces for cycling for both PCSOs and constables. This typically consists of a cycling helmet, breathable cycling shirt and cargo cycling trousers. Hi-visibility jackets or vests are normally compulsory for cycling.

Equipment
PCSOs use a police radio to communicate with other PCSOs, police officers and the control room on the same channel. Some neighbourhood police teams (NPT) or safer neighbourhood teams (SNT) also monitor local shop/pub watch radios. A body armour vest is issued to all PCSOs although in previous years some forces did not do this. Arrangements for use vary between forces, from compulsory use throughout shift down to officers choice of use. Unlike constables, due to the non-confrontational nature of their role PCSOs are not normally issued with batons, incapacitant spray, handcuffs or leg restraints. However PCSOs are authorised to carry and use this equipment. Four forces are an exception to this convention: British Transport Police PCSOs are issued with handcuffs and leg restraints; Also Dyfed-Powys Police, North Wales Police and Merseyside PCSOs are issued with handcuffs.

Forces such as South Wales Police also issue 'Biteback' dog spray.

Most police forces allow some PCSOs to use laser and radar guns to help enforce speed limits.

Powers
PCSO powers vary between forces. The powers of PCSOs mainly stem from the Police Reform Act 2002, and every PCSO since 2007 has a number of standard powers that were introduced for all PCSOs regardless of which force they belong to. This is in addition to the discretionary powers that can be designated by the chief constable or commissioner of each PCSO's respective force. Before 2003, the British Transport Police was unable to have PCSOs until Section 28 of the Railways and Transport Safety Act 2003 allowed the BTP Chief Constable to recruit PCSOs and designate powers to them using the Police Reform Act 2002—which previously only extended to chief constables or commissioners of territorial police forces.

PCSOs must adhere to certain standards. Failure to do so could result in disciplinary or criminal proceedings related to misfeasance in public office or malfeasance in public office. Leeway may be given depending on the situation, as the circumstances may dictate they do not have the training or equipment to deal with a situation like a constable could. It is also accepted that PCSOs do not have to intervene in high risk situations and it is reasonable if they decide to withdraw from one. This is due to the non-confrontational purpose of their role.

PCSOs are not attested constables, and therefore do not have the same powers of arrest under section 24 of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984. They can, however, utilise the 'any person' powers of arrest under section 24A of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 (commonly known as a citizens' arrest). This means they are able to arrest anyone without warrant providing there are reasonable grounds to suspect they are committing, or have committed or are suspected to be guilty of an indictable or 'either-way' offence, provided the necessity criteria set out in statute are met. This covers offences such as arson, criminal damage, theft, assault, possession of a controlled drug and burglary, etc. All PCSOs can also make common law arrests in exactly the same manner as anyone to prevent a breach of the peace along with a power of entry.

Legislation exists that states that PCSOs are entitled to use reasonable force in order to effect an arrest as described above (under section 3 of the Criminal Law Act 1967), or to forcibly detain (using Police Reform Act 2002 powers) There is also a 'reasonable code of conduct' which is a legitimate and tested defence to a (technical) common assault of which the courts have accepted and has now been written into case law ( e.g. leading two disputing parties away from each other to prevent a fight – technically an assault as neither party has been arrested/detained at this point, but still considered otherwise lawful).

The term to detain (under the meaning of the Police Reform Act 2002) is a relatively new one, but under law, it is considered a temporary arrest (in accordance with Schedule 4, Part 1, Paragraph 2A(2)(b) of the Police Reform Act 2002). As a result, a PCSO may any person arrest someone he or she has reasonable grounds to suspect is attempting to escape from lawful custody when subject to a detention requirement (under Schedule 4, Part 1, Paragraph 2(3) of the Police Reform Act 2002). Section 38 Offences Against the Person Act 1861 also creates the offence of assault with intent to resist arrest, which also covers the "lawful apprehension/detention of himself or another". This is an either-way offence, meaning that the PCSO may also any person arrest for this offence in addition to the original proposed detention.

In September 2018, Section 1 of the Assaults on Emergency Workers (Offences) Act 2018 created an either-way offence of any assault on any emergency worker, which includes PCSOs.

PCSOs may, subject to permission from their force, carry handcuffs and leg restraints which are both governed by the Criminal Law Act 1967 or common law and can be used in the same manner as a constable. They may use them for detaining or arresting a person using reasonable force under the powers listed. There are four forces at present whose PCSOs are currently carrying handcuffs (BTP, Dyfed-Powys Police, North Wales Police, Merseyside Police). PCSOs are also lawfully authorised to carry CS spray and a baton when on duty, although none have yet been provided by any Chief Officer of any Police Force.

PCSOs have a number of other powers and abilities that they may exercise in the course of their duty:

Certain additional powers which may be assigned to PCSOs by the chief constable (or commissioner in London), but which vary from force to force, include:
 * General power of a constable to seize property
 * Issue fixed penalty notices (FPN) for littering, breach of dog control orders and cycling on a footpath
 * Require name and address where they have reason to believe a person has committed a road traffic offence, a 'relevant offence', a licensing offence, an act of anti-social behaviour or is in possession of a controlled drug
 * Confiscate alcohol from persons in designated places and from under 18s, or anyone considered involved in supplying under 18s with alcohol
 * Seize and dispose of tobacco from under 18s
 * Seize (controlled) drugs under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971
 * Enter and search premises to save life or prevent serious damage to property
 * Seize vehicles used to cause alarm, distress or annoyance (s.59 Police Reform Act 2002)
 * Remove abandoned vehicles
 * Stop bicycles
 * Control traffic
 * Carry out road checks
 * Place traffic signs
 * Enforce cordoned areas under the Terrorism Act 2000
 * Photograph people away from a police station
 * Stop and search in an authorised area under the Terrorism Act 2000 if authorised and supervised by a police officer
 * Detain a person suspected to have committed an offence or an act of anti-social behaviour.
 * Detain a person who does not provide their name and address when required
 * Detain a person who fails to provide details or complies with orders of a PCSO.
 * Use reasonable force in relation to a detained person or to prevent a detained person making off. This may involve the use of handcuffs and leg restraints if the PCSO has been issued with and authorised to use them.
 * Issue penalty notices for disorder (PND), truancy, excluded pupils found in public places, dog fouling, graffiti and flyposting
 * Power of a constable to issue an FPN under section 68 of the Anti-social Behaviour, Crime and Policing Act 2014 (fixed penalty notice in respect of failure to comply with public spaces protection order)
 * Power to direct someone to leave a dispersal zone and/or seize property in relation to suspected ASB
 * All the powers of a Traffic Warden
 * Enforce bylaws
 * Deal with begging. This involves requiring the person to stop begging as well as providing their name and address to the PCSO
 * Enforce certain licensing offences
 * Search detained people for dangerous items i.e. weapons and/or items that could effect an escape from the PCSO
 * Disperse groups and remove under 16s to their place of residence
 * Remove children contravening bans imposed by a curfew notice to their place of residence
 * Remove truants to designated premises
 * Search for alcohol and tobacco
 * Enforce park trading offences
 * Enter licensed premises (limited)
 * Stop vehicles for testing
 * Direct traffic for the purposes of escorting abnormal loads
 * Deal with parking offences including giving fines

Individual chief constables or commissioners can increase the discretionary powers their PCSOs use from the existing list.

PCSO powers were further increased by the Anti-social Behaviour, Crime and Policing Act 2014 statute. This provided them with powers such as the power of a constable under Section 19 of PACE to seize any suspected criminal property or property suspected of being used in crime and further traffic FPN powers.

Expansion of powers
The Policing and Crime Act 2017 set out dramatic expansions to the role of PCSO. Section 28(4)(a) states a PCSO will be able to be designated with "any power or duty of a constable (other than a power or duty specified in Part 1 of Schedule 3B excluded powers and duties)". These excluded powers would be:

 * Any power or duty of a constable to make an arrest under s24 PACE 1984 (note: this does not limit the use of s24A PACE powers)
 * Any power or duty of a constable to stop and search an individual or a vehicle or other thing
 * The power of a constable, under section 36(4) of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984, to perform the functions of a custody officer at a designated police station if a custody officer is not readily available to perform them
 * Any power that is exercisable only by a constable of a particular rank
 * Any power of a constable under (a) the Terrorism Act 2000; (b)the Terrorism Act 2006; (c)the Counter-Terrorism Act 2008; (d)the Terrorism Prevention and Investigation Measures Act 2011; (e)the Counter-Terrorism and Security Act 2015
 * Any power of a constable under the Official Secrets Act 1911 to 1989
 * The power of a constable to make an application on behalf of the Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis under section 6 of the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000 (applications for interception warrants)

This bill received Royal Assent on 31 January 2017 and was subsequently passed into law.

Use of force
Under a mix of legislation and common law, a PCSO can use reasonable force to arrest or detain a suspected offender. PCSOs can all use handcuffs (if their force provides them) to detain using their own detention powers or arrest using 'any person' powers when on duty. At present only four forces issue handcuffs officially.

The use of reasonable force is provided by s3 Criminal Law Act 1967, the Common Law and the Human Rights Act 1998. Reasonable force is further provided to PCSOs under Section 38(8) Police Reform Act 2002 when using a power which - in the same circumstances - would also be a power available to a Constable.

Relevant offences
 The following are criminal offences in relation to PCSOs under the Police Reform Act 2002 for which a PCSO can detain, or a police constable can arrest for:

 * Assaulting a PCSO during the course of his/her duty
 * Assaulting an individual assisting a PCSO during the course of his/her duty
 * Wilfully obstructing or resisting a PCSO during the course of his/her duty
 * Failing to provide personal details upon request to a PCSO
 * 'Makes Off' Failing to provide correct personal details upon request to a PCSO
 * 'Makes Off' Having provided false personal details upon request to a PCSO
 * Acting in an anti-social manner - failure to give name/address to PCSO
 * Acting in an anti-social manner - 'makes off' whilst detained
 * Acting in an anti-social manner - 'makes off' whilst detained & fails to provide name/address to a PCSO
 * Acting in an anti-social manner - 'makes off' whilst accompanying PCSO to a police station
 * Contravening a PCSO's requirement to hand over alcohol
 * Contravening a PCSO's requirement to surrender tobacco
 * Failure to stop a vehicle as directed by a PCSO
 * Impersonating a PCSO
 * The common assault (indictable) of an emergency worker (PCSO) under Section 1 Assaults on Emergency Workers (Offences) Act 2018.

It is also an offence for a PCSO to imply that they have a power that they are not designated by their chief constable or commissioner.

This list is not exhaustive.

This list comes from definitions provided under paragraph 2(3) of Schedule 5 of the Police Reform Act 2002.

Rank structure
PCSOs do not normally have a rank system; however, South Yorkshire and Kent Police employ PCSO supervisors. The South Yorkshire epaulettes have a 'bar' above the wording "Police Community Support Officer Supervisor - Traffic" with the shoulder number beneath. PCSO supervisors only supervise PCSOs and normally work under a police sergeant.

Avon and Somerset Police currently utilise a PCSO Support role, which is an administration position allowing PCSOs to continue to meet the criteria; primarily subsection three of The Policing Pledge of 2009; to conduct high visibility patrols and spend at least eighty per cent of their tour of duty on patrol within the community. PCSOs are a civilianised non-uniform role, who deal mainly with the administration side of the Neighbourhood Policing Team (NPT).

Although not a rank in itself, most forces have an official system of putting newly trained PCSOs on their probation with a PCSO tutor. A PCSO tutor is normally an experienced PCSO, sometimes with additional training, who will patrol with the new PCSO until he or she is ready to patrol alone. Whilst being tutored like a probationary police constable the new PCSO may have a number of tasks to complete whilst on patrol and will complete such tasks whilst being mentored by the PCSO tutor.

Roles in the Metropolitan Police
PCSO duties can vary from force to force. Many forces may officially have different roles for PCSOs in which special training and sometimes equipment is given. Within the Metropolitan Police, which is responsible for law enforcement in Greater London, several different types of PCSO exist

 * Safer Neighbourhoods PCSO — Provides a uniformed presence in Safer Neighbourhood Teams, which police London's boroughs and other areas within the MPS district.
 * Safer Transport PCSO — Provides a uniformed presence on buses (policing on the railways and London Underground being provided by the British Transport Police.)
 * Traffic PCSO — Provides a uniformed presence by assisting the Traffic OCU in roads policing, along with issuing penalty notices.
 * Counter Terrorism PCSO (known prior to 2010 as a Security PCSO) provide a uniformed presence in well known areas in London, safeguarding against terrorism.
 * Royal Parks PCSO — Provides a uniformed presence within the Royal Parks in the MPS District.
 * Aviation Security PCSO — Provides a uniformed presence, assisting the Aviation Security OCU in policing of London airports.
 * Station PCSO — Acts as front counter liaison with members of the public.
 * Victim PCSO — Responsible for updating victims of crime about police investigations.
 * Safer Schools PCSO — Provides a visible familiar police presence in local schools, tackling local school and student issues. This role was disbanded in 2012 leaving only Safer Schools police officers (SSOs)in the role.

Vehicles
Most forces allow their PCSOs, commonly those assigned to duties managing traffic, to drive marked police vehicles. PCSOs may only use blue lights when they come across an accident to indicate the danger present to members of the public, to alert the public to a road hazard and when asked to by a Senior Officer.

PCSOs also regularly use mountain bikes or other bicycles. Since 2007, PCSOs and police constables have had to take a training course before being allowed to use bicycles whilst on duty, after a trainee PCSO died after being hit by a truck in Wigan.

In 2007, Segways were reported to be used by Metropolitan Police Safer Neighbourhood Teams (SNT) in Sutton. These teams consist mostly of PCSOs.

Underage PCSOs
In 2007, it was revealed that some forces recruited a large number of PCSOs under the legal recruitment age for police constables, which was 18 years and 6 months. The criterion seemed to be that such recruits must be at least 16 and their appointment must have been authorised by the chief constable of the force being applied to. One such officer of the Thames Valley Police Force, 17-year-old PCSO Nadia Naeem made news. The decision to appoint her and other 16- and 17-year-olds has been the subject of much debate.

On 26 November 2007, the then Home Secretary Jacqui Smith made the decision that from December 2007, all PCSOs must be 18 before they can be appointed. PCSOs under 18 years who were already appointed, or had applied prior to this ruling were allowed to hold their positions.

A few police forces including West Midlands Police, Cumbria Constabulary and the British Transport Police are accepting applications from candidates below 18 years due to the lengthy recruitment process. Candidates will therefore be able to begin training upon reaching the required age.

Deaths on duty
Since their introduction in 2002, three PCSOs have died on duty:

 * 31 January 2006, PCSO Adrian Martin, aged 45 – Metropolitan Police: Collapsed and died of heart failure while on a police cycle training course at Hendon Police College. He was the first PCSO to die on duty.
 * 10 September 2007, PCSO Chris Maclure, aged 21 – Greater Manchester Police (GMP): Died whilst on cycle patrol in Hindley Green Wigan when he was accidentally struck by a lorry. As a result of his death, safety was improved nationally for officers deployed on cycles. An award for GMP PCSOs the 'PCSO Christopher McClure Memorial Award for Outstanding Contribution to the Community' was made in his honour.
 * 28 April 2009, PCSO David Leslie Adams, aged 59 – Avon and Somerset Constabulary: Died of a suspected heart attack whilst attending a road traffic collision whilst on duty in Woolverton near Frome. PCSO Adams had previously been a Traffic Warden with his Force before becoming one of the constabularies first PCSOs. During his service he won an award in 2007 for outstanding customer service in the Somerset East District at the Avon and Somerset Community Police Awards.

The Police Roll of Honour Trust includes PCSOs in its roll of fallen officers alongside constables providing they die in operational circumstances (i.e. in the performance of a law enforcement role, including patrol).

Union and Police Federation membership status
PCSOs cannot by law be members of the Police Federation, the staff association to which, by statute, all regular police officers from the rank of Police Constable to that of Chief Inspector belong. Police officers cannot by law join any trade union, but as designated, unsworn, unwarranted officers, PCSOs can, despite being employed by the Police. Most PCSOs belong to UNISON. But other PCSOs are represented by PCS - Public and Commercial Services Union for PCSOs in the Metropolitan Police and TSSA - Transport Salaried Staffs' Association who represent PCSOs in the British Transport Police (BTP).

Unlike police constables, PCSOs can strike. This has occurred during the 2011 Public Sector Workers strike, which was partaken in by some PCSOs. Police constables, on the other hand, cannot legally strike as a result of the Police Act 1996, although they have not been able to strike since 1919 when it was first outlawed. Police Acts do not apply to PCSOs.

Special constable membership status
Unlike other civilians employed by the police, PCSOs are usually not Special Constables, as this may cause confusion with their PCSO role, since Specials have the same powers as paid police constables. Any PCSO wishing to become a Special Constable would usually be required to resign and the same would apply for any Special Constable wanting to be a PCSO.

Future
It was expected that the Conservative Party might remove PCSOs in early 2010. It has been reported by the Daily Telegraph that under the Conservatives, police chiefs will no longer be given a fixed amount of money to spend only on PCSOs. Before the 2010 General Election the then Shadow Home Secretary Chris Grayling was understood to be doubtful of the effectiveness of PCSOs and was concerned that a disproportionate number of them were disciplined in 2009. He stated he would leave it up to individual chief constables to decide whether their particular police force needs PCSOs. However, when interviewed by the Yorkshire Post in May 2009 he suggested that the Conservative Party may well scrap PCSOs altogether.

Since the 2010 general election held on 6 May 2010, which resulted in a Conservative Party led coalition government coming to power, no police force has disbanded or announced the disbanding of its PCSOs, and many forces have continued to recruit PCSOs after the 2010 election. Such forces include Durham Constabulary in December 2011 and British Transport Police (BTP) in June 2011. BTP in 2012 have decided to increase their overall numbers of PCSOs. The Metropolitan Police in February 2012 undertook a recruitment campaign to employ around 1000 additional PCSOs.

Chris Grayling, who was possibly considering reducing or disbanding PCSOs, was not made Home Secretary after the 2010 general election. Instead, he was appointed Minister of State at the Department for Work and Pensions.

In April 2012 Home Secretary Theresa May told a Home Affairs Select Committee she would leave PCSO funding and numbers to individual police forces although she did not announce any all-out plans to disband them.

During the England and Wales Police and Crime Commissioner elections, 2012 the UK Independence Party (UKIP) Candidate for the post of police and crime commissioner (PCC) for Norfolk Constabulary Matthew Smith stated he was doubtful of the effectiveness of PCSOs and wanted to reduce their numbers claiming during a debate on BBC Radio Norfolk in the run up to the election that the public in his opinion were not happy with PCSOs seeing them as "Plastic Policemen" During his campaign to be the PCC he stated he would prioritise recruitment to have more Police Constables and Special Constables rather than PCSOs.

All other PCC candidates for Norfolk Constabulary defended PCSOs and their role in the debate. The election for PCCs Matthew Smith is the only known candidate during the England and Wales Police and Crime Commissioner elections, 2012 who planned to reduce PCSO numbers. Although later in 2018 Norfolk Constabulary abolished its use of PCSOs and made all of its remaining PCSOs redundant.

Similar programmes in other countries
Several countries have copied or already have law enforcement positions that are similar to PCSOs in England and Wales. In some cases they take the form or are employed by Municipal Police. Municipal police are forces under the control of localised municipalities, which are other countries' versions of British local authorities or councils.

Australia
In Australia, most police forces have an equivalent role known as a PSO, standing variously for Protective Services Officer (Victoria Police ), Protective Service Officer (Western Australia Police and Australian Federal Police ) or Protective Security Officer (Queensland Police and South Australia Police ). Except in Victoria, they are not sworn constables and have limited powers. At a federal level, the Australian Protective Service operated from 1984 until 2004, when it was re-integrated into the AFP and currently serves a primary role in policing Parliament House in Canberra, major airports, and certain diplomatic and defence installations.

In the state of Victoria, Protective Services Officers are sworn members of Victoria Police. PSOs attached to the Protective Services Unit (PSU) perform duties as guards at state Parliament, at the Shrine of Remembrance and at court premises throughout the state. PSOs attached to the Transit Safety Division (Transit PSOs) perform policing duties at all metropolitan and some regional railway premises throughout Victoria. Unlike PSOs assigned to the PSU, Transit PSOs possess almost full police powers while on duty and within the vicinity of railway premises. They are identified by the use of blue-and-gold Sillitoe tartan rather than blue-and-white and the text "PROTECTIVE SERVICES" on badges. All PSOs carry a firearm, ballistic body armour and all other personal equipment issued to police officers throughout Victoria. and pepper spray.

Queensland Police have Police Liaison Officers, members of staff employed by the police to keep links between the police and the local ethnic minority groups normally distant from the police such as Australia's Aboriginal peoples, Asian groups and African communities. They wear the same blue uniform as Queensland Police officers, but have features on them to distinguish them such as yellow or blue/green epaulettes. They have no police powers and do not carry any weapons or accoutrements.

The Western Australia Police have Police Auxiliary Officers, members of staff who are employed to support WA Police Officers through the admission, custody and release of detainees in the Perth Watch House and other station based lock-ups. Other duties include managing and handling drugs and firearms, processing property and exhibits and a range of station support tasks. They wear maroon epaulettes and are not authorised to carry or use firearms however do carry telescopic batons, handcuffs, Oleoresin Capsicum (OC) Spray and Tasers. They have limited police powers and training lasts only 12 weeks.

Belgium
In Belgium, Police Agents (Aspirant-Agents) serve at both the federal and local level. These uniformed Police Agents who have limited police powers to enforce traffic, parking and public nuisance laws.

Unlike Belgian Police Officers, Police Agents are unarmed but are equipped with handcuffs. They were originally known as "Auxiliary Officers".

Canada
The Royal Canadian Mounted Police launched a Community Safety Officer (CSO) (Agent de Sécurité Communautaire, (ASC)) programme based on the model in England and Wales. CSOs are given the title "Special Constable". The first seventeen CSOs were sworn in on 16 June 2008 as part of a pilot programme, which lasted eighteen months. They did not carry pistols like fully powered officers in the RCMP, but they did carry handcuffs, pepper sprays and batons to protect themselves. The programmed disbanded in 2014 with a new program known as "Community Constables".

In addition, many municipalities across Canada also employ a Municipal Bylaw Enforcement Officer or a number of them, to enforce municipal by-laws and some provincial laws regulating dangerous canines, tobacco use and motor vehicle traffic. Many Municipal Bylaw Enforcement Officers wear uniforms and some are issued batons and handcuffs. Municipal Bylaw Enforcement Officers are employed by the Municipality, however, some are directly by employed by police departments such as in Medicine Hat, Alberta and Toronto, Ontario.

France
French municipalities utilise officers called ASVP or Public Roads Control Officer (Agents De Surveillance De La Voie Publique), who are not armed but carry handcuffs and utilise powers of arrest.

Gibraltar
In the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar, Highways Enforcement Officers are employed by Gibraltar Car Parks Limited a wholly owned Government Company of Her Majesty's Government of Gibraltar. Like mainland British PCSOs they undertake uniformed patrols. They perform a very similar role to that of mainland British Traffic PCSO that various forces used to replace their Traffic Wardens notably the Metropolitan Police. Unlike British PCSOs they are not staff employees of the Royal Gibraltar Police. As well as performing parking enforcement including the issuing of fines they also look after government owned car parks, look out for deficiencies in the public highways and enforce litter control laws including giving fines or summoning offenders. They are paid £20,325 rising to £24,345 per year subject to satisfactory performance, plus a 12.5% shift disturbance allowance and weekend premium.

Germany
In Germany, several agencies provide similar services like the PCSO:
 * Auxiliary police: some states established auxiliary police units as Voluntary Police Force (Freiwilliger Polizeidienst), Security Watch (Sicherheitswacht) or Security Partner (Sicherheitspartner). These services are intended to maintain or establish public security and order throughout their assigned territories.

 * City police forces: (Stadtpolizei, Kommunalpolizei or Polizeibehörde) exist in few states like Bremen, Saarland, Baden-Württemberg and Hesse. Those municipal police officers do have the same rights, powers and obligations like their counterparts in the state police, but are employed by German municipalities.

 * Municipal order enforcement agencies: depending on state laws and municipal regulations, they are named Kommunaler Ordnungsdienst (KOD) or Ordnungsamt. These city employees mainly wear police-like uniforms but some wear labelled jackets and plain clothes. They are the municipal administration's eyes and ears on the street. Depending on each state's laws, these local employees could be armed or unarmed. Mostly they are charged with monitoring municipal by-laws and laws that fall under the responsibility of municipalities, which include monitoring the conduct of shop owners, sanitation inspections, veterinary inspections and minor infractions and misdemeanors such as illegal parking, littering, state and local dog regulations etc. They usually only hand out warnings and fines and can only perform a citizen's arrest as any other citizen can. If they see any major crimes they are required to call the state police. They usually hand out warnings and fines. Like British PCSOs, they have special powers of detention and can perform arrests.

Poland
Straż Miejska (City guard) are municipal police officers who like British PCSOs have limited powers and are not as well armed as fully powered officers but are known to be equipped with batons, handcuffs, tear gas launchers and more recently tasers. There are also plans to allow them to carry handguns of a lesser calibre that the Polish National Police carry.

In the event of a major incident, they must request the aid of an officer of the National Police.

Spain
In some areas of Spain that are unable to have a local municipal police, their function is performed by the Guardia Civil or autonomous Community force who are assisted by officers known as "Vigilantes Municipales" who are uniformed municipal employees with limited powers.

Sri Lanka
The Government of Sri Lanka has proposed the formation of a Community Police Service (CPS) of 28,000 members to be deployed alongside Grama Niladhari (village officers) to resolve minor disputes and youth offenders. Mirroring the role of old Police Vidane in villages, two CPS members would allocated to each Grama Niladhari division and operate out of the village Grama Niladhari office instead of the local Police Station. Reporting to the State Minister for Community Police Services, this force would have local members serving in their own residential areas acting as intelligence officers for the state and work closely with local civil defence committees. The new recruits will have the same powers as a police constable, and have a similar rank structure up to the grate of Sergeant. Once promoted to the rank of Sub Inspector, they will be assigned other duties in the Sri Lanka Police.

Thailand
The Royal Thai Police formed the Phuket Tourist Police Department, staffed by Tourist Police Volunteers to deal with growing crime problems related to tourism in Thailand. Their role is to support police officers, helping tourists and patrolling mostly by foot.

They wear a different uniform but unlike British PCSOs, they carry pepper spray and batons in addition to handcuffs. They do not carry firearms as Thai police officers do.

A lot of their recruits are foreigners, to make relations easier between the police and tourists.

The Tourist Police Volunteers and their work were featured in the TV documentary Big Trouble in Thailand.

The Netherlands
In The Netherlands, there are municipal SEOs (Special enforcement officers). These assist the police on certain pieces of the law. They could be working in cities as municipal code inspectors, parking enforcement, public transport or in environmental departments. These officers have police powers like detaining people, issue fines and use force when arresting a person. Most municipalities issue handcuffs to the officers, in some cities also police batons are a part of the officers equipment. In a few cities officers are allowed to carry and use pepper spray. Only a few cities have SEOs with additional schooling carrying a firearm, these officers a mostly employed in dense areas like forests. A SEO (or BOA in Dutch) has the status of civil servant and is not a uniformed civilian unlike security guards. Until 2014 every municipality could use a uniform of their choice, some wear exact police uniforms with peaked caps and blue trousers with black striping. From 2015 the justice ministry created a uniform specially for municipal enforcement. This consists of a polo shirt, worker trousers, baseball cap and soft-shell jackets and were inspired by the Spanish municipal police uniforms with checkers bands on shirts and hats.

The Dutch police also knows police volunteers, these are divided in two categories; administrative and operational. Operational officers have the same rank, uniform and weapons as regular police officers. There is practically no difference between them, besides their payment.

United States
Community Service Officers (CSO) have been used in the US since the 1970s by several police departments. These are unsworn uniformed civilians who provide support in crime prevention, investigation, and response where full police powers are unnecessary and assists sworn police officers in upholding law and order. They are not provided with any legal powers above and beyond a normal citizen. A major difference between this role and the UK equivalent is that the US counterparts are not dispatched to ongoing incidents.

Depending on the police department they work for they may be equipped with handcuffs, batons, pepper spray and tasers as possession of these items in the US is usually not considered being 'armed'.

The term is also occasionally used for contractor hired individuals dealing with inebriated homeless individuals, as in Anchorage, Alaska They are dispatched via the central dispatch. Anchorage requires them to have EMT training.

In fiction
Despite being in recent years the more visible aspect of British policing, PCSOs have rarely been featured in fictional television programmes or films, but there are some examples that are the exception:

The 2008 British drama film Adulthood directed by Noel Clarke starred David Ajala as PCSO Desmond "Buds".

The popular long-running British police drama The Bill featured two Metropolitan Police PCSO characters; PCSO Colin Fairfax played by Tim Steed and PCSO Laura Bryant played by Melanie Kilburn. Both started at the same time in episode 278. PCSO Bryant is shown eventually becoming a police constable, accurately portraying the fact that many PCSOs go on to become constables. After both PCSOs left neither was replaced and The Bill never again portrayed PCSOs despite their common presence in real life.

Paul Abbott's long-running drama series Shameless occasionally features police community support officers. For example, in series 8 episode 19, a PCSO is seen getting out of a police vehicle and chasing Aidan Croker.

Hollyoaks the long-running British television soap opera, on Channel 4 featured for many years Carmel McQueen played by Gemma Merna who was portrayed as being a PCSO between 2009 and 2010.

PCSOs have also featured in a few comedy sketch programmes including Season 3, Episode 1 of That Mitchell and Webb Look.

PCSOs were featured in the BBC Radio 4 sitcom by Dave Lamb Hobby Bobbies.

In 2009 the long running children's British comedy television series ChuckleVision featured PCSOs in Season 21, Episode 2 "Top of the Cops" where the shows main characters the Chuckle Brothers Paul & Barry Chuckle are depicted as PCSOs fresh out of training sent out on patrol for the first time.

In 2015, a PCSO is shown guarding a crime scene on No Offence, episode 6, where he has a brief conversation with a Detective Inspector and Detective Constable.

In 2016, season 2 of the BBC series Happy Valley featured Ann Gallagher, played by Charlie Murphy, becoming a PCSO following the events of her kidnapping in the first season.

title: Police community support officer


text:
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Keith Waldrop

Bernard Keith Waldrop (December 11, 1932 – July 27, 2023) was an American poet, translator, publisher, and academic. He won the National Book Award for Poetry for his 2009 collection Transcendental Studies: A Trilogy.

Early life and education
Bernard Keith Waldrop was born in Emporia, Kansas, to Arthur Waldrop, a railroad worker, and Opal (née Mohler), a piano teacher. He received his bachelor's degree from the Kansas State Teachers College (now Emporia State University) and his M.A. and Ph.D. in comparative literature from the University of Michigan (1958, 1964).

From 1953 to 1955, he served in the United States Army. He was stationed in West Germany, where he met Rosmarie Sebald. She emigrated to the United States and they were married in 1959.

Academic career
From 1963 to 1964, while finishing his Ph.D., Waldrop worked as an instructor at Wayne State University, following which he was hired as a visiting assistant professor at Wesleyan University, where he taught between 1966-1967. He was hired as a professor of English by Brown University in 1968, where he taught for the remainder of his career for both the English and Literary Arts departments. After forty-three years of teaching he retired in 2011.

Burning Deck Press
In 1961, Waldrop and his wife, Rosmarie Waldrop, founded Burning Deck, a small press specializing in the publication of experimental poetry and prose. The press was named after a line from the poem "Casabianca," by nineteenth-century poet Felicia Hemans. The poem starts:

 * The boy stood on the burning deck
 * Whence all but he had fled;
 * The flame that lit the battle's wreck
 * Shone round him o'er the dead.

Death
Keith Waldrop died in Providence, Rhode Island on July 27, 2023, at the age of 90.

Awards and honors

 * Chevalier des arts et des lettres by the French government.
 * 2009 National Book Award for Poetry for Transcendental Studies: A Trilogy.
 * 2014 Best Translated Book Award, Poetry, one of two runners-up for Four Elemental Bodies by Claude Royet-Journoud, translated from the French.

Dissertation

 * Aesthetic Uses of Obscenity in Literature (University of Michigan, 1964).

Writings

 * The Antichrist and Other Foundlings, Burning Deck (Providence, RI), 1970.
 * Songs from the Decline of the West (song-texts), Perishable Press (Notre Dame, IN), 1970.
 * (With wife, Rosmarie Waldrop) Since Volume One, Burning Deck (Providence, RI), 1975.
 * (With James Camp and X.J. Kennedy) Three Tenors, One Vehicle: A Book of Songs, Open Places (Columbia, MO), 1975.
 * Wind Scales (fiction), Treacle Press, 1976.
 * (Editor, with Rosmarie Waldrop) A Century in Two Decades: A Burning Deck Anthology, Burning Deck (Providence, RI), 1982.
 * The Quest for Mount Misery and Other Studies (fiction), Turkey Press (Isla Vista, CA), 1983.
 * Hegel's Family: Serious Variations, Station Hill Press (Barrytown, NY), 1989.
 * Light While There Is Light: An American History, Sun & Moon Press (Los Angeles, CA), 1993. Reissued by Dalkey Archive Press, 2013.
 * Locality Principle, Avec Books (Berkeley, CA), 1995.
 * The Silhouette of the Bridge: Memory Stand-Ins (prose and poetry), Avec Books (Berkeley, CA), 1997.
 * Analogies of Escape, Burning Deck (Providence, RI), 1997.
 * (With Rosmarie Waldrop) Well Well Reality, Post-Apollo Press (Sausalito, CA), 1997.
 * (Illustrator) Clark Coolidge, Bomb, Granary Books (New York, NY), 2000.
 * Semiramis If I Remember: Self Portraits as Mask, Avec Books (Berkeley, CA), 2001.
 * (With Rosmarie Waldrop) Ceci n'est pas Keith; and, Ceci n'est pas Rosmarie: Autobiographies, Burning Deck (Providence, RI), 2002.
 * (Editor, with Rosmarie Waldrop, and Allison Bundy) One Score More: The Second 20 Years of Burning Deck, 1982-2002, Burning Deck (Providence RI), 2002.
 * (Editor, with James Camp and X.J. Kennedy) Pegasus Descending: A Book of the Best Bad Verse, Burning Deck (Providence, RI), 2003.
 * (With Rosmarie Waldrop) Flat with No Key, Burning Deck (Providence, RI), 2008.
 * Several Gravities (prose, poetry, and artwork), edited by Robert Seydel, Siglio (Los Angeles, CA), 2009.

Poetry

 * A Windmill Near Calvary, University of Michigan Press (Ann Arbor, MI), 1968.
 * Poem from Memory, Treacle Press (Providence RI), 1975.
 * The Garden of Effort, Burning Deck (Providence, RI), 1975.
 * Windfall Losses, Pourboire Press, 1977.
 * The Space of Half an Hour, Burning Deck (Providence, RI), 1983.
 * The Ruins of Providence (poems and a story), Copper Beech (Providence, RI), 1983.
 * A Ceremony Somewhere Else, Awede, 1984.
 * The Opposite of Letting the Mind Wander: Selected Poems and a Few Songs, Lost Roads, 1990.
 * Haunt: No Boundaries Proposal, Instance Press, 2000.
 * The Real Subject: Queries and Conjectures of Jacob Delafon: With Sample Poems, Omnidawn (Richmond, CA), 2004.
 * Transcendental Studies: A Trilogy, University of California Press (Berkeley, CA), 2009.
 * Selected Poems, Omnidawn, 2016.

Translations

 * Claude Royet-Journoud, Reversal, Hellcoal, 1973.
 * Claude Royet-Journoud, The Notion of Obstacle, Awede, 1985.
 * If There Were Anywhere But Desert: The Selected Poems of Edmond Jabes, Station Hill Press (Barrytown, NY), 1988.
 * Claude Royet-Journoud, A Descriptive Method, Post-Apollo Press (Sausalito, CA), 1995.
 * Dominique Fourcade, Click-Rose, Sun & Moon Press (Los Angeles, CA), 1996.
 * Pascal Quignard, Sarx, 1997.
 * (With Rosmarie Waldrop) Anne Marie Albiach, A Geometry, Burning Deck (Providence, RI), 1998.
 * Xue Di, Heart Into Soil, Burning Deck (Providence, RI), 1998.
 * Xue Di, An Ordinary Day, Alice James Books (Farmington, ME), 2002.
 * Esther Tellermann, Mental Ground, Burning Deck (Providence, RI) 2002.
 * Marie Bore l, Close Quote, Burning Deck (Providence, RI), 2003.
 * Xue Di, Another Kind of Tenderness, with Forrest Gander, Litmus (New York, NY) 2004.
 * (With Rosmarie Waldrop) Jacques Roubaud, The Form of a City Changes Faster, Alas, than the Human Heart, Dalkey Archive Press (Normal, IL), 2006.
 * Claude Royet-Journoud, Theory of Prepositions, Fence, 2006
 * Jean Grosjean, An Earth of Time, Burning Deck (Providence, RI), 2006.
 * Charles Baudelaire, The Flowers of Evil, Wesleyan University Press (Middletown, CT), 2006.
 * Anne-Marie Albiach, Figured Image, Post-Apollo Press (Sausalito, CA), 2006.
 * Charles Baudelaire, Paris Spleen: Little Poems in Prose, Wesleyan University Press (Middletown, CT), 2009.

title: Keith Waldrop


text:
PCSO

PCSO may refer to:

 * Police community support officer, a police staff role in England and Wales
 * Police custody and security officer, a police staff role in Scotland
 * Pinellas County Sheriff's Office, a law enforcement agency in Florida
 * Philippine Charity Sweepstakes Office, a government-controlled corporation for fundraising

title: PCSO


text:
Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) is an analytical method that combines the features of gas-chromatography and mass spectrometry to identify different substances within a test sample. Applications of GC–MS include drug detection, fire investigation, environmental analysis, explosives investigation, food and flavor analysis, and identification of unknown samples, including that of material samples obtained from planet Mars during probe missions as early as the 1970s. GC–MS can also be used in airport security to detect substances in luggage or on human beings. Additionally, it can identify trace elements in materials that were previously thought to have disintegrated beyond identification. Like liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry, it allows analysis and detection even of tiny amounts of a substance.

GC–MS has been regarded as a "gold standard" for forensic substance identification because it is used to perform a 100% specific test, which positively identifies the presence of a particular substance. A nonspecific test merely indicates that any of several in a category of substances is present. Although a nonspecific test could statistically suggest the identity of the substance, this could lead to false positive identification. However, the high temperatures (300°C) used in the GC–MS injection port (and oven) can result in thermal degradation of injected molecules, thus resulting in the measurement of degradation products instead of the actual molecule(s) of interest.

History
The first on-line coupling of gas chromatography to a mass spectrometer was reported in the late 1950s. An interest in coupling the methods had been suggested as early as December 1954. The development of affordable and miniaturized computers has helped in the simplification of the use of this instrument, as well as allowed great improvements in the amount of time it takes to analyze a sample. In 1964, Electronic Associates, Inc. (EAI), a leading U.S. supplier of analog computers, began development of a computer controlled quadrupole mass spectrometer under the direction of Robert E. Finnigan. By 1966 Finnigan and collaborator Mike Uthe's EAI division had sold over 500 quadrupole residual gas-analyzer instruments. In 1967, Finnigan left EAI to form the Finnigan Instrument Corporation along with Roger Sant, T. Z. Chou, Michael Story, Lloyd Friedman, and William Fies. In early 1968, they delivered the first prototype quadrupole GC/MS instruments to Stanford and Purdue University. When Finnigan Instrument Corporation was acquired by Thermo Instrument Systems (later Thermo Fisher Scientific) in 1990, it was considered "the world's leading manufacturer of mass spectrometers".

Instrumentation
The GC–MS is composed of two major building blocks: the gas chromatograph and the mass spectrometer. The gas chromatograph utilizes a capillary column whose properties regarding molecule separation depend on the column's dimensions (length, diameter, film thickness) as well as the phase properties (e.g. 5% phenyl polysiloxane). The difference in the chemical properties between different molecules in a mixture and their relative affinity for the stationary phase of the column will promote separation of the molecules as the sample travels the length of the column. The molecules are retained by the column and then elute (come off) from the column at different times (called the retention time), and this allows the mass spectrometer downstream to capture, ionize, accelerate, deflect, and detect the ionized molecules separately. The mass spectrometer does this by breaking each molecule into ionized fragments and detecting these fragments using their mass-to-charge ratio.

These two components, used together, allow a much finer degree of substance identification than either unit used separately. It is not possible to make an accurate identification of a particular molecule by gas chromatography or mass spectrometry alone. The mass spectrometry process normally requires a very pure sample while gas chromatography using a traditional detector (e.g. Flame ionization detector) cannot differentiate between multiple molecules that happen to take the same amount of time to travel through the column (i.e. have the same retention time), which results in two or more molecules that co-elute. Sometimes two different molecules can also have a similar pattern of ionized fragments in a mass spectrometer (mass spectrum). Combining the two processes reduces the possibility of error, as it is extremely unlikely that two different molecules will behave in the same way in both a gas chromatograph and a mass spectrometer. Therefore, when an identifying mass spectrum appears at a characteristic retention time in a GC–MS analysis, it typically increases certainty that the analyte of interest is in the sample.

Purge and trap GC–MS
For the analysis of volatile compounds, a purge and trap (P&T) concentrator system may be used to introduce samples. The target analytes are extracted by mixing the sample with water and purge with inert gas (e.g. Nitrogen gas) into an airtight chamber, this is known as purging or sparging. The volatile compounds move into the headspace above the water and are drawn along a pressure gradient (caused by the introduction of the purge gas) out of the chamber. The volatile compounds are drawn along a heated line onto a 'trap'. The trap is a column of adsorbent material at ambient temperature that holds the compounds by returning them to the liquid phase. The trap is then heated and the sample compounds are introduced to the GC–MS column via a volatiles interface, which is a split inlet system. P&T GC–MS is particularly suited to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and BTEX compounds (aromatic compounds associated with petroleum).

A faster alternative is the "purge-closed loop" system. In this system the inert gas is bubbled through the water until the concentrations of organic compounds in the vapor phase are at equilibrium with concentrations in the aqueous phase. The gas phase is then analysed directly.

Types of mass spectrometer detectors
The most common type of mass spectrometer (MS) associated with a gas chromatograph (GC) is the quadrupole mass spectrometer, sometimes referred to by the Hewlett-Packard (now Agilent) trade name "Mass Selective Detector" (MSD). Another relatively common detector is the ion trap mass spectrometer. Additionally one may find a magnetic sector mass spectrometer, however these particular instruments are expensive and bulky and not typically found in high-throughput service laboratories. Other detectors may be encountered such as time of flight (TOF), tandem quadrupoles (MS-MS) (see below), or in the case of an ion trap MSn where n indicates the number mass spectrometry stages.

GC–tandem MS
When a second phase of mass fragmentation is added, for example using a second quadrupole in a quadrupole instrument, it is called tandem MS (MS/MS). MS/MS can sometimes be used to quantitate low levels of target compounds in the presence of a high sample matrix background.

The first quadrupole (Q1) is connected with a collision cell (Q2) and another quadrupole (Q3). Both quadrupoles can be used in scanning or static mode, depending on the type of MS/MS analysis being performed. Types of analysis include product ion scan, precursor ion scan, selected reaction monitoring (SRM) (sometimes referred to as multiple reaction monitoring (MRM)) and neutral loss scan. For example: When Q1 is in static mode (looking at one mass only as in SIM), and Q3 is in scanning mode, one obtains a so-called product ion spectrum (also called "daughter spectrum"). From this spectrum, one can select a prominent product ion which can be the product ion for the chosen precursor ion. The pair is called a "transition" and forms the basis for SRM. SRM is highly specific and virtually eliminates matrix background.

Ionization
After the molecules travel the length of the column, pass through the transfer line and enter into the mass spectrometer they are ionized by various methods with typically only one method being used at any given time. Once the sample is fragmented it will then be detected, usually by an electron multiplier, which essentially turns the ionized mass fragment into an electrical signal that is then detected.

The ionization technique chosen is independent of using full scan or SIM.

Electron ionization
By far the most common and perhaps standard form of ionization is electron ionization (EI). The molecules enter into the MS (the source is a quadrupole or the ion trap itself in an ion trap MS) where they are bombarded with free electrons emitted from a filament, not unlike the filament one would find in a standard light bulb. The electrons bombard the molecules, causing the molecule to fragment in a characteristic and reproducible way. This "hard ionization" technique results in the creation of more fragments of low mass-to-charge ratio (m/z) and few, if any, molecules approaching the molecular mass unit. Hard ionization is considered by mass spectrometrists as the employ of molecular electron bombardment, whereas "soft ionization" is charge by molecular collision with an introduced gas. The molecular fragmentation pattern is dependent upon the electron energy applied to the system, typically 70 eV (electronvolts). The use of 70 eV facilitates comparison of generated spectra with library spectra using manufacturer-supplied software or software developed by the National Institute of Standards (NIST-USA). Spectral library searches employ matching algorithms such as Probability Based Matching and dot-product matching that are used with methods of analysis written by many method standardization agencies. Sources of libraries include NIST, Wiley, the AAFS, and instrument manufacturers.

Cold electron ionization
The "hard ionization" process of electron ionization can be softened by the cooling of the molecules before their ionization, resulting in mass spectra that are richer in information. In this method named cold electron ionization (cold-EI) the molecules exit the GC column, mixed with added helium make up gas and expand into vacuum through a specially designed supersonic nozzle, forming a supersonic molecular beam (SMB). Collisions with the make up gas at the expanding supersonic jet reduce the internal vibrational (and rotational) energy of the analyte molecules, hence reducing the degree of fragmentation caused by the electrons during the ionization process. Cold-EI mass spectra are characterized by an abundant molecular ion while the usual fragmentation pattern is retained, thus making cold-EI mass spectra compatible with library search identification techniques. The enhanced molecular ions increase the identification probabilities of both known and unknown compounds, amplify isomer mass spectral effects and enable the use of isotope abundance analysis for the elucidation of elemental formulas.

Chemical ionization
In chemical ionization (CI) a reagent gas, typically methane or ammonia is introduced into the mass spectrometer. Depending on the technique (positive CI or negative CI) chosen, this reagent gas will interact with the electrons and analyte and cause a 'soft' ionization of the molecule of interest. A softer ionization fragments the molecule to a lower degree than the hard ionization of EI. One of the main benefits of using chemical ionization is that a mass fragment closely corresponding to the molecular weight of the analyte of interest is produced.

In positive chemical ionization (PCI) the reagent gas interacts with the target molecule, most often with a proton exchange. This produces the species in relatively high amounts.

In negative chemical ionization (NCI) the reagent gas decreases the impact of the free electrons on the target analyte. This decreased energy typically leaves the fragment in great supply.

Analysis
A mass spectrometer is typically utilized in one of two ways: full scan or selective ion monitoring (SIM). The typical GC–MS instrument is capable of performing both functions either individually or concomitantly, depending on the setup of the particular instrument.

The primary goal of instrument analysis is to quantify an amount of substance. This is done by comparing the relative concentrations among the atomic masses in the generated spectrum. Two kinds of analysis are possible, comparative and original. Comparative analysis essentially compares the given spectrum to a spectrum library to see if its characteristics are present for some sample in the library. This is best performed by a computer because there are a myriad of visual distortions that can take place due to variations in scale. Computers can also simultaneously correlate more data (such as the retention times identified by GC), to more accurately relate certain data. Deep learning was shown to lead to promising results in the identification of VOCs from raw GC–MS data.

Another method of analysis measures the peaks in relation to one another. In this method, the tallest peak is assigned 100% of the value, and the other peaks being assigned proportionate values. All values above 3% are assigned. The total mass of the unknown compound is normally indicated by the parent peak. The value of this parent peak can be used to fit with a chemical formula containing the various elements which are believed to be in the compound. The isotope pattern in the spectrum, which is unique for elements that have many natural isotopes, can also be used to identify the various elements present. Once a chemical formula has been matched to the spectrum, the molecular structure and bonding can be identified, and must be consistent with the characteristics recorded by GC–MS. Typically, this identification is done automatically by programs which come with the instrument, given a list of the elements which could be present in the sample.

A "full spectrum" analysis considers all the "peaks" within a spectrum. Conversely, selective ion monitoring (SIM) only monitors selected ions associated with a specific substance. This is done on the assumption that at a given retention time, a set of ions is characteristic of a certain compound. This is a fast and efficient analysis, especially if the analyst has previous information about a sample or is only looking for a few specific substances. When the amount of information collected about the ions in a given gas chromatographic peak decreases, the sensitivity of the analysis increases. So, SIM analysis allows for a smaller quantity of a compound to be detected and measured, but the degree of certainty about the identity of that compound is reduced.

Full scan MS
When collecting data in the full scan mode, a target range of mass fragments is determined and put into the instrument's method. An example of a typical broad range of mass fragments to monitor would be m/z 50 to m/z 400. The determination of what range to use is largely dictated by what one anticipates being in the sample while being cognizant of the solvent and other possible interferences. A MS should not be set to look for mass fragments too low or else one may detect air (found as m/z 28 due to nitrogen), carbon dioxide (m/z 44) or other possible interference. Additionally if one is to use a large scan range then sensitivity of the instrument is decreased due to performing fewer scans per second since each scan will have to detect a wide range of mass fragments.

Full scan is useful in determining unknown compounds in a sample. It provides more information than SIM when it comes to confirming or resolving compounds in a sample. During instrument method development it may be common to first analyze test solutions in full scan mode to determine the retention time and the mass fragment fingerprint before moving to a SIM instrument method.

Selective ion monitoring
In selective ion monitoring (SIM) certain ion fragments are entered into the instrument method and only those mass fragments are detected by the mass spectrometer. The advantages of SIM are that the detection limit is lower since the instrument is only looking at a small number of fragments (e.g. three fragments) during each scan. More scans can take place each second. Since only a few mass fragments of interest are being monitored, matrix interferences are typically lower. To additionally confirm the likelihood of a potentially positive result, it is relatively important to be sure that the ion ratios of the various mass fragments are comparable to a known reference standard.

Environmental monitoring and cleanup
GC–MS is becoming the tool of choice for tracking organic pollutants in the environment. The cost of GC–MS equipment has decreased significantly, and the reliability has increased at the same time, which has contributed to its increased adoption in environmental studies.

Criminal forensics
GC–MS can analyze the particles from a human body in order to help link a criminal to a crime. The analysis of fire debris using GC–MS is well established, and there is even an established American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standard for fire debris analysis. GCMS/MS is especially useful here as samples often contain very complex matrices and results, used in court, need to be highly accurate.

Law enforcement
GC–MS is increasingly used for detection of illegal narcotics, and may eventually supplant drug-sniffing dogs.[1] A simple and selective GC–MS method for detecting marijuana usage was recently developed by the Robert Koch Institute in Germany. It involves identifying an acid metabolite of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the active ingredient in marijuana, in urine samples by employing derivatization in the sample preparation. GC–MS is also commonly used in forensic toxicology to find drugs and/or poisons in biological specimens of suspects, victims, or the deceased. In drug screening, GC–MS methods frequently utilize liquid-liquid extraction as a part of sample preparation, in which target compounds are extracted from blood plasma.

Sports anti-doping analysis
GC–MS is the main tool used in sports anti-doping laboratories to test athletes' urine samples for prohibited performance-enhancing drugs, for example anabolic steroids.

Security
A post–September 11 development, explosive detection systems have become a part of all US airports. These systems run on a host of technologies, many of them based on GC–MS. There are only three manufacturers certified by the FAA to provide these systems, one of which is Thermo Detection (formerly Thermedics), which produces the EGIS, a GC–MS-based line of explosives detectors. The other two manufacturers are Barringer Technologies, now owned by Smith's Detection Systems, and Ion Track Instruments, part of General Electric Infrastructure Security Systems.

Chemical warfare agent detection
As part of the post-September 11 drive towards increased capability in homeland security and public health preparedness, traditional GC–MS units with transmission quadrupole mass spectrometers, as well as those with cylindrical ion trap (CIT-MS) and toroidal ion trap (T-ITMS) mass spectrometers have been modified for field portability and near real-time detection of chemical warfare agents (CWA) such as sarin, soman, and VX. These complex and large GC–MS systems have been modified and configured with resistively heated low thermal mass (LTM) gas chromatographs that reduce analysis time to less than ten percent of the time required in traditional laboratory systems. Additionally, the systems are smaller, and more mobile, including units that are mounted in mobile analytical laboratories (MAL), such as those used by the United States Marine Corps Chemical and Biological Incident Response Force MAL and other similar laboratories, and systems that are hand-carried by two-person teams or individuals, much ado to the smaller mass detectors. Depending on the system, the analytes can be introduced via liquid injection, desorbed from sorbent tubes through a thermal desorption process, or with solid-phase micro extraction (SPME).

Chemical engineering
GC–MS is used for the analysis of unknown organic compound mixtures. One critical use of this technology is the use of GC–MS to determine the composition of bio-oils processed from raw biomass. GC–MS is also utilized in the identification of continuous phase component in a smart material, magnetorheological (MR) fluid.

Food, beverage and perfume analysis
Foods and beverages contain numerous aromatic compounds, some naturally present in the raw materials and some forming during processing. GC–MS is extensively used for the analysis of these compounds which include esters, fatty acids, alcohols, aldehydes, terpenes etc. It is also used to detect and measure contaminants from spoilage or adulteration which may be harmful and which is often controlled by governmental agencies, for example pesticides.

Astrochemistry
Several GC–MS systems have left earth. Two were brought to Mars by the Viking program. Venera 11 and 12 and Pioneer Venus analysed the atmosphere of Venus with GC–MS. The Huygens probe of the Cassini–Huygens mission landed one GC–MS on Saturn's largest moon, Titan. The MSL Curiosity rover's Sample analysis at Mars (SAM) instrument contains both a gas chromatograph and quadrupole mass spectrometer that can be used in tandem as a GC–MS. The material in the comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko was analysed by the Rosetta mission with a chiral GC–MS in 2014.

Medicine
Dozens of congenital metabolic diseases also known as inborn errors of metabolism (IEM) are now detectable by newborn screening tests, especially the testing using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. GC–MS can determine compounds in urine even in minor concentration. These compounds are normally not present but appear in individuals suffering with metabolic disorders. This is increasingly becoming a common way to diagnose IEM for earlier diagnosis and institution of treatment eventually leading to a better outcome. It is now possible to test a newborn for over 100 genetic metabolic disorders by a urine test at birth based on GC–MS.

In combination with isotopic labeling of metabolic compounds, the GC–MS is used for determining metabolic activity. Most applications are based on the use of 13C as the labeling and the measurement of 13C-12C ratios with an isotope ratio mass spectrometer (IRMS); an MS with a detector designed to measure a few select ions and return values as ratios.

title: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry


text: Category:Mille Lacs County, Minnesota

title: Category:Mille Lacs County, Minnesota