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Anarchist symbolism

Anarchists have employed certain symbols for their cause since the 19th century, including most prominently the circle-A and the black flag. Anarchist cultural symbols have become more prevalent in popular culture since around the turn of the 21st century, concurrent with the anti-globalization movement and with the punk subculture.

Red flag

The red flag was one of first anarchist symbols and it was widely used in late 19th century by anarchists worldwide. Peter Kropotkin wrote that he preferred the use of the red flag. Anarchist Louise Michel wrote that the flag "frightens the executioners because it is so red with our blood. [...] Those red and black banners wave over us mourning our dead and wave over our hopes for the dawn that is breaking."

Use of the red flag by anarchists largely disappeared after the October Revolution, when red flags started to be associated only with Bolshevism and communist parties and authoritarian, bureaucratic and reformist social democracy, or authoritarian socialism.

Black flag

The black flag has been associated with anarchism since the 1880s, when several anarchist organizations and journals adopted the name Black Flag.

Howard J. Ehrlich writes in Reinventing Anarchy, Again:

"The black flag is the negation of all flags. It is a negation of nationhood ... Black is a mood of anger and outrage at all the hideous crimes against humanity perpetrated in the name of allegiance to one state or another ... But black is also beautiful. It is a colour of determination, of resolve, of strength, a colour by which all others are clarified and defined ... So black is negation, is anger, is outrage, is mourning, is beauty, is hope, is the fostering and sheltering of new forms of human life and relationship on and with this earth."

The origins of the black flag are uncertain. Modern anarchism has a shared ancestry with—amongst other ideologies—socialism, a movement strongly associated with the red flag. As anarchism became more and more distinct from socialism in the 1880s, it adopted the black flag in an attempt to differentiate itself. It was flown in the 1831 Canut revolt, in which the black represented the mourning of liberty lost.

The French anarchist paper, Le Drapeau Noir (The Black Flag), which printed its first issue in August 1883, is one of the first published references to use black as an anarchist color. Black International was the name of a London anarchist group founded in July 1881.One of the first known anarchist uses of the black flag was by Louise Michel, participant in the Paris Commune in 1871. Michel flew the black flag during a demonstration of the unemployed which took place in Paris on March 9, 1883. With Michel at the front carrying a black flag and shouting "Bread, work, or lead!", the crowd of 500 protesters soon marched off towards the boulevard Saint-Germain and pillaged three baker's shops before the police arrested them. Michel was arrested and sentenced to six years solitary confinement. Public pressure soon forced the granting of an amnesty. She wrote, "the black flag is the flag of strikes and the flag of those who are hungry".

The black flag soon made its way to the United States. The black flag was displayed in Chicago at an anarchist demonstration in November 1884. According to the English language newspaper of the Chicago anarchists, it was "the fearful symbol of hunger, misery and death". Thousands of anarchists attended Kropotkin's 1921 funeral behind the black flag.

Bisected flag

The colors black and red have been used by anarchists since at least the late 1800s when they were used on cockades by Italian anarchists in the 1874 Bologna insurrection and in 1877 when anarchists entered the Italian town Letino carrying red and black flags to promote the First International. Diagonally divided red and black flags were used by anarcho-syndicalists in Spain such as the labor union CNT during the Spanish Civil War. George Woodcock writes that the bisected black-and-red flag symbolized a uniting of "the spirit of later anarchism with the mass appeal of the [First] International".

Circle-A
The symbol composed of the capital letter A surrounded by a circle is universally recognized as a symbol of anarchism and has been established in global youth culture since the 1970s. An interpretation held by anarchists such as Cindy Milstein is that the A represents the Greek anarkhia ('without ruler/authority'), and the circle can be read as the letter O, standing for order or organization, a reference to Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's definition of anarchism from his 1840 book What Is Property?: "as man seeks justice in equality, so society seeks order in anarchy" (la société cherche l'ordre dans l'anarchie).

In the 1970s, anarcho-punk and punk rock bands such as Crass began using the circle-A symbol in red, thereby introducing it to non-anarchists. Crass founder Penny Rimbaud would later say that the band probably first saw the symbol while traveling through France.

Black cat

The origin of the black cat symbol is unclear, but according to one story it came from an Industrial Workers of the World strike that was going badly. Several members had been beaten up and were put in a hospital. At that time a skinny, black cat walked into the striker's camp. The cat was fed by the striking workers and as the cat regained its health the strike took a turn for the better. Eventually the striking workers got some of their demands and they adopted the cat as their mascot.

The Swiss anarchist Théophile Steinlen made use of the black cat (Le Chat Noir) in a number of his paintings. In an 1890 oil-painting, he depicted a black cat raising a red banner emblazoned with the word "Gaudeamus" (Rejoice). And in the large landscape painting Apotheosis of the Cats of Montmartre, he showed a clowder of cats on the rooftops of a working-class Parisian neighbourhood, beneath the moon. Francophone anarchists like Steilein and Zo d'Axa were inspired by the independent and undomesticated nature of the cat.

The name Black Cat has been used for numerous anarchist-affiliated collectives and cooperatives, including a music venue in Austin (which was closed following a July 6, 2002 fire) and a now-defunct "collective kitchen" in the University District of Seattle.

Slogans
"Do as you wish! Do what you want!" is a slogan of Errico Malatesta's Anarchist Program. It is explained in his pamphlet Anarchy. The freedom we want, for ourselves and for others, is not an absolute metaphysical, abstract freedom which in practice is inevitably translated into the oppression of the wealthy; but it is real freedom, possible freedom, which is the conscious community of interests, voluntary solidarity. We proclaim the maxim DO AS YOU WISH, and with it we almost summarize our program, for we maintain—and it doesn't take much to understand why—that in a harmonious society, in a society without government and without property, each one will WANT WHAT HE MUST DO.

No gods, no masters

"No gods, no masters" is a phrase associated with anarchist philosophy and the leftist labor movement. Likely dating back to a 15th-century German proverb, it appeared in an 1870 pamphlet by a disciple of Auguste Blanqui and became the title of Blanqui's 1880 newspaper Ni Dieu ni maître before it spread throughout the anarchist movement, appearing in Kropotkin's 1885 Words of Rebel and an 1896 Bordeaux anarchist manifesto. Sébastien Faure resuscitated the slogan during World War I, after which Paris's Libertarian Youth adopted the name. It has appeared on tombstones of revolutionaries, as the slogan of birth control activist Margaret Sanger's newspaper The Woman Rebel, and as the title of a Ni Dieu ni Maître (song) against capital punishment by Léo Ferré. In the 21st century, it has featured as a slogan for secularization of Croatia.

title: Anarchist symbolism


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Talk:Anarchist symbolism

Self-published sources
Sources like Green Is the New Red, Left Bank Books, spunk.org, and cia.media.pl are all self-published, and should be replaced with better sources or removed. —Sangdeboeuf (talk) 02:32, 1 November 2020 (UTC)
 * Hello the anarchist library is a reliable source towards anarchism and is an non-profit organization run by anarchists you apear to fail to understand this. Please revert as you are currently edit warring, moreover do not touch the page as there is currently a resolution onto. The anarchist library is a reliable source towards anarchism, it is biased but as an example the united states government website on the flag of the US is reliable. You appear to be unwilling to understand reliable sources. Vallee01 (talk) 06:15, 1 November 2020 (UTC)
 * The Anarchist Library (theanarchistlibrary.org) is not the topic of discussion here. It isn't even cited in the article. —Sangdeboeuf (talk) 06:48, 1 November 2020 (UTC)
 * Yes it does the anarchist FAQ is run by the anarchist library. Vallee01 (talk) 07:02, 1 November 2020 (UTC)
 * When did I remove any citations to The Anarchist FAQ? —Sangdeboeuf (talk) 07:19, 1 November 2020 (UTC)

The nature of anarchist ideology means almost all material on it is self-published. It is very difficult to cite a source on the topic while following this fairly arbitrary rule (in this case). I suggest this is an incidence where WP:IAR would be useful, as the sources cited have no reason to be false and are are written by anarchists about their own symbols. Gexuma (talk) 09:54, 14 April 2021 (UTC)
 * In that case there's very little we can say about anarchism while keeping a neutral point of view. How do we that these self-published sources are representative of anarchism in general? --Sangdeboeuf (talk) 18:12, 1 June 2021 (UTC)
 * there is no one view point anarchists believe in you cant represent them in general, the best you can do is show the variety of beliefs. 2600:6C5E:147F:97B5:8953:B13B:F66D:9479 (talk) 02:26, 3 May 2022 (UTC)

Protected edit request on 2 November 2020
The removal of the Unicode of the circle (A) means that people previewing the page will not see what the circle A represents. Not only that but it needs to be a visualization directly in the text. This gives a more in-dpeth explanation to anarchist symbolism:

From: Anarchists have employed certain symbols for their cause, including most prominently the circle-A and the black flag.

To: Anarchists have employed certain symbols for their cause, including most prominently the circle-A (Ⓐ) and the black flag (⚑/🏴). Black is most commonly associated with anarchism, and black is numerous anarchist organizations names, such as the anarchist black cross, black international, and anarchist tactics such as the black bloc. The punk movement has had a large effect onto the symbolism of contemporary anarchism. Vallee01 (talk) 14:38, 2 November 2020 (UTC)
 * Oppose as presented here. The Unicode symbols clutter the text without adding any information beyond the existing illustrations. They may also pose difficulty for screen-reader users. Anarchism.net appears to be a self-published source. The second reference looks OK. —Sangdeboeuf (talk) 18:02, 2 November 2020 (UTC)
 * Those who preview the article will not show what this means, not only that those only reading the text will not know what "circle a" means, a circle a could mean a lowercase a in a circle, or it could represent a side ways A, Wikipedia needs to be clear. Here is text the symbols of anarchism displayed extremely clearly in text. Anarchism.net is a reliable source for what anarchists believe, it is biased but being used in this context Anarchism.net is a reliable source. This shows the symbols of anarchism in text, it gives extreme information to the reader and has been present since 2008 there is no good argument for it's removal. Vallee01 (talk) 22:32, 2 November 2020 (UTC)
 * We generally don't expect people to know what's in an article until they read it, nor should we. The article can be perfectly clear without the use of Unicode characters which, once again, make the article clear for some readers. No doubt anarchism.net is reliable for what  anarchists believe, but it's a WP:PRIMARY source for that and doesn't speak for anarchists in general. —Sangdeboeuf (talk) 02:15, 3 November 2020 (UTC)
 * A vast proportion of readers do not scroll past the first paragraph. It is clear the Unicode symbols show clearly the symbols of anarchism immediately to the reader in text, and about a article on the symbolism of anarchism this is extremely important. Vallee01 (talk) 15:22, 3 November 2020 (UTC)
 * Unicode characters are not readable for many screen-reader users and should not be used. See MOS:NOSYMBOLS. —Sangdeboeuf (talk) 03:58, 8 November 2020 (UTC)
 * That's not a valid argument, it's a article about anarchist symbols, it needs to be included. Vallee01 (talk) 19:24, 11 November 2020 (UTC)
 * Full-protection-unlocked.svg Not done: The page's protection level has changed since this request was placed. You should now be able to edit the page yourself. If you still seem to be unable to, please reopen the request with further details. — JJMC89  (T·C) 02:58, 4 November 2020 (UTC)

Anarcho-Capitalist flag / Rothbard book
I don't see a reason for excluding Rothbard's book as a source. His description of anarcho-capitalists using the black and gold flag is all that is relevant. Whether or not Rothhbard advocates a particular position is not relevant because the reference is not being used to support or oppose any particular position he might have. The reference is for the narrow context of anarcho-capitalists using the black and gold flag. As such, in this narrow context, the source seems fine to me. AJPEG (talk) 12:27, 9 February 2021 (UTC)
 * So-called anarcho-capitalists are not anarchists. The term was invented by Rothbard to promote his free-market beliefs. Unless the source used is reputable for facts in this particular subject area, the material is unduly weighted. —Sangdeboeuf (talk) 14:30, 9 February 2021 (UTC)

 * It isn't wikipedia's job to take sides. The controversy can be - and is, ad nauseam - noted on the relevant pages. Personal bias and beliefs should not be part of the consideration. On the subject of the symbolism of, and mid 20th century formation of anarcho-capitalism, in what way has Rothbard been shown to not be reputable? AJPEG (talk) 11:09, 13 February 2021 (UTC)
 * The topic is anarchist symbolism. Anarcho-capitalism is not anarchism. For it to be duly weighted here, we would need an independent source comparing the two. If Rothbard has been shown to not be reputable, it's only because other academics ignored him like any other fringe theorist. —Sangdeboeuf (talk) 14:13, 13 February 2021 (UTC)

 * "The topic is anarchist symbolism. Anarcho-capitalism is not anarchism." I fully understand that traditional anarchists dislike any claim that anarcho-capitalists belong in the anarchist camp, but statements like that make me question your neutrality. You should not be taking sides in that dispute. We do not need sources comparing the types of anarchism in this article - it is only about anarchist symbolism. The only question is whether anarcho-capitalists are anarchists and anarcho-capitalists do claim to be anarchists by virtue of seeking to abolish government. Advocating a political system which abolishes government is one common definition of anarchism. That makes anarcho-capitalists anarchists, even if traditional anarchists don't like it. It isn't wikipedia's job to take sides in that dispute. And Rothbard's questionable reputation has mostly to do with his historical revisionism and some of his criticisms of mainstream economics, not the subject of anarcho-capitalism. Rothbard is a widely recognized expert on the subject of anarcho-capitalism, given that he was a central figure in its formation. Disallowing Murray Rothbard as a source on the subject of anarcho-capitalism would be like disallowing Karl Marx as a source on the subject of Marxism. AJPEG (talk) 03:04, 18 February 2021 (UTC)
 * I think a bisected flag section should be included if you think anarcho-capitalism should be added so should all the others, and it should be clear that its disputed whether or not anarcho-capitalism is anarchism. 2600:6C5E:147F:97B5:8953:B13B:F66D:9479 (talk) 02:40, 3 May 2022 (UTC)
 * It's quite settled: Anarcho-capitalism. czar  17:21, 15 July 2022 (UTC)

Origin of "No gods, no masters"
I went down a bit of a rabbit hole trying to track down the source(s) of the saying. I was not able to verify the assertions made by Guérin, but during my search I stumbled upon a 2022 french article on the origin of the phrase that calls into question both the link between the supposed German proverb and Dom Juan, and the link between Dom Juan and Blanqui's newspaper. Maybe it would be worth revising the section with information from the article, since the 2022 article looks more thoroughly researched than Guérin's foreword. Here's a link. Note that the DOI given on the page is unregistered and does not point to the page.

https://journals.openedition.org/histoirepolitique/2452?lang=en Safar98 (talk) 10:40, 6 September 2023 (UTC)

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Charminar

The Charminar (lit. 'four minarets') is a monument located in Hyderabad, Telangana, India. Constructed in 1591, the landmark is a symbol of Hyderabad and officially incorporated in the emblem of Telangana. The Charminar's long history includes the existence of a mosque on its top floor for more than 425 years. While both historically and religiously significant, it is also known for its popular and busy local markets surrounding the structure, and has become one of the most frequented tourist attractions in Hyderabad. Charminar is also a site of numerous festival celebrations, such as Eid-ul-adha and Eid al-Fitr, as it is adjacent to the city's main mosque, the Makkah Masjid.

The Charminar is situated on the east bank of Musi River. To the west lies the Laad Bazaar, and to the southwest lies the richly ornamented Makkah Masjid. It is listed as an archaeological and architectural treasure on the official list of monuments prepared by the Archaeological Survey of India. The English name is a translation and combination of the Urdu words chār and minar or meenar, translating to "Four Pillars"; the towers are ornate minarets attached and supported by four grand arches.

History
The fifth ruler of the Qutb Shahi dynasty, Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah, built the Charminar in 1591 after shifting his capital from Golconda to the newly formed city of Hyderabad.

The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), the current caretaker of the structure, mentions in its records, "There are various theories regarding the purpose for which Charminar was constructed. However, it is widely accepted that Charminar was built at the centre of the city, to commemorate the eradication of plague", a deadly disease which was wide spread at that time. According to Jean de Thévenot, a French traveller of the 17th century whose narration was complemented with the available Persian texts, the Charminar was constructed in the year 1591 CE, to commemorate the beginning of the second Islamic millennium year (1000 AH). The event was celebrated far and wide in the Islamic world, thus Qutb Shah founded the city of Hyderabad to celebrate the event and commemorate it with the construction of this building.

The construction began in 1589 and was completed in two years with a cost of Rs. 9 lakhs, which was around 2 lakh huns/gold coins in those times. It is said to weigh around 14000 tonnes with a minimum of 30 feet deep foundation. In 1670, a minaret had fallen down after being struck by lightning. It was then repaired at a cost of around Rs. 58000. In 1820, some part of it was renovated by Sikandar Jah at a cost of Rs. 2 lakh.

The Charminar was constructed at the intersection of the historical trade route that connects the city to international markets through the port city of Machilipatnam. The Old City of Hyderabad was designed with Charminar as its centrepiece. The city was spread around the Charminar in four different quadrants and chambers, segregated according to the established settlements. Towards the north of Charminar is the Char Kaman, or four gateways, constructed in the cardinal direction. Additional eminent architects from Persia were also invited to develop the city plan. The structure itself was intended to serve as a mosque and madrasa. It is of Indo-Islamic architecture style, incorporating Persian architectural elements. A sample of Charminar is said to have been created at Dabirpura/Nagaboli graveyard before the actual construction.

Historian Masud Hussain Khan says that the construction of Charminar was completed in the year 1592, and that it is the city of Hyderabad which was actually founded in the year 1591. According to the book "Days of the Beloved", Qutb shah constructed the Charminar in the year 1589, on the very spot where he first glimpsed his future queen Bhagmati, and after her conversion to Islam, Qutb Shah renamed the city as "Hyderabad". Though the story was rejected by the historians and scholars, it became popular folklore among the locals.

Qutb Shah was also among the early poets of Dakhani Urdu. While laying the foundation of Charminar, he performed the prayers in Dakhini couplets, which are recorded as follows:

Mughal rule
Charminar was later captured and became an icon of Mughal Empire, the Asaf Jah I was the custodian of the famous structure.

80,000 Sepoy units loyal to the Mughal Empire lived within the "garrison of the Charminar" and often viewed it as a sister of the Taj Mahal.

Structure
The Charminar masjid is a square structure with each side being 20 m long. Each of the four sides has one of four grand arches, each facing a fundamental point that opens directly onto the street in front of it. At each corner stands an exquisitely shaped 56 m high minaret, with a double balcony. Each minaret is crowned by a bulbous dome with dainty, petal-like designs at the base. Unlike the minarets of Taj Mahal, Charminar's four fluted minarets are built into the main structure. There are 149 winding steps to reach the upper floor. The structure is also known for its profusion of stucco decorations and the arrangement of balustrades and balconies.

The structure is made of granite, limestone, mortar, and pulverised marble, weighing approximately 14,000 tones apiece. Initially the monument was so proportionately planned that when the fort first opened, one could see all four corners of the bustling city of Hyderabad through each of its four grand arches, as each arch faced one of the most active royal ancestral streets.

A mosque is located at the western end of the open roof. The remaining section of the roof served as a royal court during the Qutb Shahi times. The actual mosque occupies the top floor of the four-storey structure. A vault which appears from inside like a dome supports two galleries within the Charminar, one over another. Above those is a terrace that serves as a roof that is bordered with a stone balcony. The main gallery has 45 covered prayer spaces with a large open space in front to accommodate more people for Friday prayers.

The clock on the four cardinal directions was added in 1889. There is a vazu (water cistern) in the middle with a small fountain for ablution before offering prayer in the Charminar mosque.

Surrounding area
The area surrounding Charminar is also known by the same name. It falls under the Charminar constituency.

Makkah Masjid
The monument overlooks another grand mosque called the Makkah Masjid. Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah, the 5th ruler of the Qutb Shahi dynasty, commissioned bricks to be made from the soil brought from Mecca, the holiest site of Islam, and used them in the construction of the central arch of the mosque, hence its name.

Bazaars
A market named Laad Bazaar is around Charminar. It is known for its jewelry, especially bangles. The nearby Pathargatti boulevard is also an important business street known for its pearls. In its heyday, the Charminar market had some 14,000 shops. The Bazaars surrounding Charminar were described in the poem "In the Bazaars of Hyderabad" by Sarojini Naidu.

Char Kaman and Gulzar Houz
Four arches to the north of Charminar are known as Char Kaman. These were built along with the Charminar in the 16th century. These are the Kali Kaman, Machli Kaman, Seher-e-Batil ki Kaman and Charminar Kaman. At the centre of these arches is a fountain called the Gulzar Houz. The Char Kaman are in dire need of restoration, and protection from encroachments.

Influences
In 2007, Hyderabadi Muslims living in Pakistan constructed a small-scaled quasi replica of the Charminar at the main crossing of the Bahadurabad neighbourhood in Karachi.

Lindt chocolatier Adelbert Boucher created a scaled model of the Charminar out of 50 kilograms of chocolate. The model, which required three days' labour, was on display at The Westin, Hyderabad, India on 25 and 26 September 2010.

The Charminar Express is an express train named after the Charminar, which runs between Hyderabad and Chennai.The Charminar also appears on coins and banknotes of the defunct Hyderabadi Rupee, the currency of the erstwhile Hyderabad State.

As an icon of the city of Hyderabad as well as the Telangana State, the structure also appears on the Emblem of Telangana, along with the Kakatiya Kala Thoranam.

Charminar Pedestrianisation Project (CPP)
The Charminar Pedestrianisation Project is an initiative aimed at transforming the area around the iconic Charminar monument in Hyderabad, India into a pedestrian-friendly zone. The project was proposed by the government of Telangana in 2016 and is part of a larger effort to improve the city's urban infrastructure. The Charminar is a historic monument that attracts millions of visitors each year, but the surrounding area is congested with traffic and is not conducive to walking. The Pedestrianisation Project seeks to address this issue by creating a car-free zone around the monument and improving the overall pedestrian experience.

The project involves the construction of wider sidewalks, pedestrian crossings, and improved lighting, as well as the installation of street furniture and landscaping to create a more attractive and welcoming environment for visitors. The plan also includes the development of a dedicated parking area for visitors to the Charminar, which will be located outside the pedestrian zone.

The project has been met with some controversy, as it involves the relocation of several street vendors and businesses that currently operate in the area. However, proponents of the project argue that the benefits of creating a more pedestrian-friendly environment around the Charminar will outweigh any short-term disruptions.

Overall, the Charminar Pedestrianisation Project represents an important effort to improve the urban infrastructure of Hyderabad and create a more attractive and accessible environment for visitors to one of the city's most iconic landmarks. Later during January 2017, the new Government of Telangana introduced a 14-member French Delegation to take over the project to assess the feasibility in developing the monument as an eco-friendly tourism and heritage destination. The team has inspected surrounding areas such as the Gulzar house, Makkah Masjid, Lad Bazar, and Sardar Mahal.

UNESCO World Heritage Site tentative list

Charminar, along with the Qutb Shahi Monuments of Hyderabad: the Golconda Fort, and the Qutb Shahi Tombs, were included in the "tentative list" of UNESCO World Heritage Site. The monument was submitted by the Permanent Delegation of India to UNESCO on September 10, 2010.

Temple structure
A temple named Bhagyalakshmi Temple is located at the base of Charminar. The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) which manages the Charminar has declared the temple structure as an unauthorised construction. Hyderabad High Court has stopped any further expansion of the temple. While the origin of the temple is currently disputed, the current structure that houses the idol was erected in the 1960s. In 2012, The Hindu newspaper published an old photograph showing that the temple structure never existed. The Hindu also released a note asserting the authenticity of the photographs, and clearly stated that there was no temple structure in photos taken in 1957 and 1962. Additionally, it showed photos that provide evidence that the temple is a recent structure - a temple structure can be seen in photos taken in 1990 and 1994. Also, a temple is seen in a photograph taken in 1986 which is kept in the Aga Khan Visual Archive, MIT Libraries' collections, United States, but not in the earlier ones.

title: Charminar


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Hyperbolic discounting

In economics, hyperbolic discounting is a time-inconsistent model of delay discounting. It is one of the cornerstones of behavioral economics and its brain-basis is actively being studied by neuroeconomics researchers.

According to the discounted utility approach, intertemporal choices are no different from other choices, except that some consequences are delayed and hence must be anticipated and discounted (i.e., reweighted to take into account the delay).

Given two similar rewards, humans show a preference for one that arrives in a more prompt timeframe. Humans are said to discount the value of the later reward, by a factor that increases with the length of the delay. In the financial world, this process is normally modeled in the form of exponential discounting, a time-consistent model of discounting. Many psychological studies have since demonstrated deviations in instinctive preference from the constant discount rate assumed in exponential discounting. Hyperbolic discounting is an alternative mathematical model that agrees more closely with these findings.

According to hyperbolic discounting, valuations fall relatively rapidly for earlier delay periods (as in, from now to one week), but then fall more slowly for longer delay periods (for instance, more than a few days). For example, in an early study subjects said they would be indifferent between receiving $15 immediately or $30 after 3 months, $60 after 1 year, or $100 after 3 years. These indifferences reflect annual discount rates that declined from 277% to 139% to 63% as delays got longer. This contrasts with exponential discounting, in which valuation falls by a constant factor per unit delay and the discount rate stays the same.

The standard experiment used to reveal a test subject's hyperbolic discounting curve is to compare short-term preferences with long-term preferences. For instance: "Would you prefer a dollar today or three dollars tomorrow?" or "Would you prefer a dollar in one year or three dollars in one year and one day?" It has been claimed that a significant fraction of subjects will take the lesser amount today, but will gladly wait one extra day in a year in order to receive the higher amount instead. Individuals with such preferences are described as "present-biased".

The most important consequence of hyperbolic discounting is that it creates temporary preferences for small rewards that occur sooner over larger, later ones. Individuals using hyperbolic discounting reveal a strong tendency to make choices that are inconsistent over time – they make choices today that their future self would prefer not to have made, despite knowing the same information. This dynamic inconsistency happens because hyperbolas distort the relative value of options with a fixed difference in delays in proportion to how far the choice-maker is from those options.

Observations
The phenomenon of hyperbolic discounting is implicit in Richard Herrnstein's "matching law", which states that when dividing their time or effort between two non-exclusive, ongoing sources of reward, most subjects allocate in direct proportion to the rate and size of rewards from the two sources, and in inverse proportion to their delays. That is, subjects' choices "match" these parameters.

After the report of this effect in the case of delay, George Ainslie pointed out that in a single choice between a larger, later and a smaller, sooner reward, inverse proportionality to delay would be described by a plot of value by delay that had a hyperbolic shape, and that when the smaller, sooner reward is preferred, this preference can be reversed by increasing both rewards' delays by the same absolute amount. Ainslie's research showed that a substantial number of subjects reported that they would prefer $50 immediately rather than $100 in six months, but would NOT prefer $50 in 3 months rather than $100 in nine months, even though this was the same choice seen at 3 months' greater distance. More significantly, those subjects who said they preferred $50 in 3 months to $100 in 9 months said they would NOT prefer $50 in 12 months to $100 in 18 months—again, the same pair of options at a different distance—showing that the preference-reversal effect did not depend on the excitement of getting an immediate reward. Nor does it depend on human culture; the first preference reversal findings were in rats and pigeons.

Many subsequent experiments have confirmed that spontaneous preferences by both human and nonhuman subjects follow a hyperbolic curve rather than the conventional, exponential curve that would produce consistent choice over time. For instance, when offered the choice between $50 now and $100 a year from now, many people will choose the immediate $50. However, given the choice between $50 in five years or $100 in six years almost everyone will choose $100 in six years, even though that is the same choice seen at five years' greater distance.

Hyperbolic discounting has also been found to relate to real-world examples of self-control. Indeed, a variety of studies have used measures of hyperbolic discounting to find that drug-dependent individuals discount delayed consequences more than matched nondependent controls, suggesting that extreme delay discounting is a fundamental behavioral process in drug dependence. Some evidence suggests pathological gamblers also discount delayed outcomes at higher rates than matched controls. Whether high rates of hyperbolic discounting precede addictions or vice versa is currently unknown, although some studies have reported that high-rate discounters are more likely to consume alcohol and cocaine than lower-rate discounters. Likewise, some have suggested that high-rate hyperbolic discounting makes unpredictable (gambling) outcomes more satisfying.

The degree of discounting is vitally important in describing hyperbolic discounting, especially in the discounting of specific rewards such as money. The discounting of monetary rewards varies across age groups due to the varying discount rate. The rate depends on a variety of factors, including the species being observed, age, experience, and the amount of time needed to consume the reward.

Step-by-step explanation
Suppose that in a study, participants are offered the choice between taking x dollars immediately or taking y dollars n days later. Suppose further that one participant in that study employs exponential discounting and another employs hyperbolic discounting. Both participants know that they can invest the money they receive today in a savings plan that gives them an interest of r. Both of them realize that they should take x dollars immediately if the future value of the savings plan will yield more than y dollars n days later. Each participant correctly understands the fundamental question being asked: "For any given value of y dollars and n days, what is the minimum amount x of dollars, that I should be willing to accept?  In other words, how many dollars would I need to invest today to get y dollars n days from now?" Each will take x dollars if x is greater than the answer that they calculate, and each will take y dollars n days from now if x is smaller than that answer. However, the methods that they use to calculate that amount and the answers that they get will be different, and only the exponential discounter will use the correct method and get a reliably correct result:

 * The exponential discounter thinks "The savings plan adds to its value, in each day, r percent of the value that it had the previous day. So every day it multiplies its value once by (100% + r%).  So if I hold the investment for n days, its value will have multiplied itself by this amount n times, making that value (100% + r%)n of what it was at the start – that is, (1 + r)n times what it was at the start.  So to figure out how much I would need to start with today to get y dollars n days from now, I need to divide y dollars by [1 + r]n."
 * The hyperbolic discounter, however, thinks "The savings plan adds to its value, in each day, r percent. Therefore, after n days, it adds to its value r×n percent [There lies the hyperbolic discounter's error]. So to figure out how much I would need to start with today to get y dollars n days from now, I need to divide y dollars by [1 + n×r]."

As n becomes very large, the value of (1 + r)n becomes much larger than the value of [1 + n×r], with the effect that the value of y / (1 + r)n becomes much smaller than the value of y/[1 + n×r]. Therefore, the minimum value of x (the number of dollars in the immediate choice) that suffices to be greater than that amount will be much smaller than the hyperbolic discounter thinks, with the result that they will perceive x-values in the range from y/(1 + r )n to y/[1 + n×r] inclusive as being too small and, as a result, irrationally turn those alternatives down when they are in fact the better investment.

Formal model
Hyperbolic discounting is mathematically described as
 * $$g(D)=\frac{1}{1+kD}\,$$

where g(D) is the discount factor that multiplies the value of the reward, D is the delay in the reward, and k is a parameter governing the degree of discounting (for example, the interest rate). This is compared with the formula for exponential discounting:
 * $$f(D)=e^{-kD}\,$$

Comparison
Consider $$f(D)=2^{-D}\,$$ an exponential discounting function with $$k = \ln 2 \approx 0.69$$ and $$g(D)=\frac{1}{1+D}\,$$ a hyperbolic function with $$k = 1$$, and suppose both use units of weeks to measure D, the delay. Then the exponential discounting a week from "now" (D=0) is $$\frac{f(1)}{f(0)}=\frac{1}{2}\,$$, and the exponential discounting from D weeks of delay to $$D+1$$ weeks is $$\frac{f(D+1)}{f(D)}=\frac{1}{2}\,$$, so the incremental discount associated with an additional week of delay is the same. For the hyperbolic model using g(D), the discount for a week from now is $$\frac{g(1)}{g(0)}=\frac{1}{2}\,$$, which is the same as for f in the exponential model, while the incremental discount for an additional week after a delay of D weeks is not the same: $$\frac{g(D+1)}{g(D)}=1-\frac{1}{D+2}\,$$. From this one can see that the two models of discounting are the same "now"; this is the reason for the choice of interest rate parameters k. However, when D is much greater than 1, $$\frac{g(D+1)}{g(D)}\approx 1\,$$ so that the hyperbolic discounting of an additional week after a long delay is almost no discount at all, while the exponential discount factor is still 1/2, so there is still substantial discounting in the far future. Hyperbolic discounting places very little discount on an additional week of delay beyond an already large delay, while exponential discounting places a constant discount on every week of delay, whether it is far in the future or the next week.

Quasi-hyperbolic approximation
The "quasi-hyperbolic" discount function (sometimes called "beta-delta discounting"), proposed by Laibson (1997), approximates the hyperbolic discount function above in discrete time by

 * $$f(D)=\begin{cases}

1 \quad D = 0\\ \beta \delta^D \quad D = 1, 2, 3, ... \end{cases} $$

where β and δ are constants between 0 and 1; and D is the delay in the reward, but now it takes only integer values. The condition f(0) = 1 states that rewards taken at the present time are not discounted.

Quasi-hyperbolic discounting retain much of the analytical tractability of exponential discounting while capturing the key qualitative feature of hyperbolic discounting.

Uncertain risks
Whether discounting future gains is rational or not—and at what rate such gains should be discounted—depends greatly on circumstances. Many examples exist in the financial world, for example, where it is reasonable to assume that there is an implicit risk that the reward will not be available at the future date, and furthermore that this risk increases with time. Consider paying $50 for dinner today or delaying payment for sixty years but paying $100,000. In this case, the restaurateur would be reasonable to discount the promised future value as there is significant risk that it might not be paid (e.g. due to the death of the restaurateur or the diner).

Uncertainty of this type can be quantified with Bayesian analysis. For example, suppose that the probability for the reward to be available after time t is, for known hazard rate λ,
 * $$P(R_t|\lambda) = \exp(-\lambda t),\,$$

but the rate is unknown to the decision maker. If the prior probability distribution of λ is
 * $$p(\lambda) = \exp(-\lambda/k)/k,\,$$

then the decision maker will expect that the probability of the reward after time t is
 * $$P(R_t) = \int_0^\infty P(R_t|\lambda) p(\lambda) d\lambda = \frac{1}{1 + k t},\,$$

which is exactly the hyperbolic discount rate. Similar conclusions can be obtained from other plausible distributions for λ.

Applications
More recently these observations about discount functions have been used to study saving for retirement, personal income to drug addiction., borrowing on credit cards, and procrastination. It has frequently been used to explain addiction. Hyperbolic discounting has also been offered as an explanation of the divergence between privacy attitudes and behaviour.

Present value of a standard annuity
The present value of a series of equal annual cash flows in arrears discounted hyperbolically is

 * $$V = P \frac{\ln(1+kD)}{k},\,$$

where V is the present value, P is the annual cash flow, D is the number of annual payments and k is the factor governing the discounting.

Criticism
Several alternative explanations of non-exponential discounting have been proposed. An article from 2003 noted that this pattern might be better explained by a similarity heuristic than by hyperbolic discounting. Subjects have also reported changing relative preferences as they see more details of what they are choosing—a “temporal construal” effect.

A study by Daniel Read introduces "subadditive discounting": the fact that discounting over a delay increases if the delay is divided into smaller intervals. This hypothesis may explain the main finding of many studies in support of hyperbolic discounting—the observation that impatience declines with time–while also accounting for observations not predicted by hyperbolic discounting. However, although these observations depart from exponential discounting, they do not entail preference reversal as time from the choice to the earlier reward increases.

Arousal of appetite or emotion does sometimes lead to preference reversal, and this has been the most widely accepted alternative to a simply hyperbolic function: hyperboloid or quasi-hyperbolic discounting fuses exponential curves with an arousal bump as a visceral reward becomes imminent. Such cases are obviously important, but still do not account for cases where either both or neither choice is made during arousal.

The most obvious objection to hyperbolic discounting is that many or most people learn to choose consistently over time in most situations. Similarly, a 2014 paper criticized the existing studies for mostly using data collected from university students and being too quick to conclude that the hyperbolic model of discounting is correct. Human experiments have frequently reported wide between-subject variations. If overcoming the tendency to temporary preference takes learning, the next obvious task for experimenters is to test theories of how and when this learning occurs (e.g. Ainslie, 2012).

title: Hyperbolic discounting


text:
Talk:Architecture

Comment
i do not agree with more than king's done architecture in history becase all modern buildings are not architecture and this means this architecture buildings have to fit in correct way to inside living people and not to working people or it fits correct to art people to different music halls or under the architecture law done buildings but new buildings are politics buildings and have no chance to be architecture and new means in most cases build behind ' 1924 ' included — Preceding unsigned comment added by Waldemar Gregor Kaiser (talk • contribs) 13:49, 28 May 2015 (UTC)

 * I believe the "Form follows Function" discussion should be at the very first part of the article.  I would not call anyone an Architect unless their product first and foremost had "Function" (reliability, maintainability, etc. ), but architecture also requires a "Form" that has aesthetic qualities, and sometimes other requirements.   Engineering is good at following Functional Requirements, but Art is considered Non-Functional.   It is Art to make it pleasing. 2600:6C48:7006:200:D84D:5A80:173:901D (talk) 01:38, 18 August 2018 (UTC)

 * Furthermore, Architecture is often not a required activity in product development when Engineering will suffice.   There are many products that require good engineering practices, and ergonomics - but it doesn't need to look pretty or have symbolic attributes.  Prototypes often forgo the artistic attributes, or otherwise minimize the requirements of a product.2600:6C48:7006:200:D84D:5A80:173:901D (talk) 02:05, 18 August 2018 (UTC)

Metaphorical architectures don't belong on this page
This article ought to be about building architecture, but about half of it is about unrelated $Foo Architecture, where the word "architecture" is really just a metaphor. e.g. (real) architecture has no equivalent of data sharding; systems architecture has no equivalent of cornices.

IMO those sections should be replaced by a simple bullet list, like

## "Architecture" in Other Disciplines * Computer architecture is ...   * Enterprise architecture is ...

Instead, let's have some more details about real architecture, especially paradigms and architects outside the anglosphere!

203.7.155.119 (talk) 00:35, 2 August 2017 (UTC)

Architecture and building are 2 different subjects. Reducing architecture to construction, it is like reducing engineering to building or like reducing the art of decorating or painting to construction.

We are living in the 21st Century. Contemporary Architecture cannot be reduced to physical construction; it cannot be reduced to a final building. Architecture is space (in its different states and meanings), forms, organisation, communication, design, nature ... I am renaming the Section "Other terms" to "other categories".

Reducing the term "Architecture" to building or construction would be a narrow minded decision. It would reduce the Wiki article to a superficial and vulgar definition. In my opinion the article is already too focus on construction and building. In the 21st century, construction and building should be a sub-category to define the term "Architecture". The terms "computer architecture" or "cognitive architecture" or "software architecture" and others, are not metaphors, they are true representations of the architectural state. Can we reduce the term "Structure" to building structures? Why should we do so for the term "architecture"? Architectures are meaningful complex structures which are not limited to buildings, gardens, interiors or naval design.

--Christophe Krief (talk) 10:20, 17 March 2018 (UTC)

 * I agree that Architecture is and can be used in various other contexts. But I feel that this article is focused on building/design/construction. There is ample space on the page Architecture_(disambiguation) for listing other uses of the term. There it also reads "Architecture is the art and science of designing and constructing buildings and other structure for human use and shelter." with a link to this page. It is very inconsistent and confusing for the reader to then list again other uses of the term (which are also not contributing to the article but rather are extended links to other wiki-pages). In my opinion all these should be deleted and moved to the disamibuation page, maybe with the exception of landscape architecture and interior architecture.
 * If "Architecture" is understood as a very abstract process of composing various elements into a spatial order, with buidling being only one expression of it, the entire article would need to be rewritten in this direction. I would not support such a change because it pushes the understanding of architecture too far away from the mainstream. I would agree to a section on how the term has been used in other disciplines, but that should not be longer than a paragraph or two.
 * Christoph Michels (talk) 09:22, 12 July 2020 (UTC)
 * Agreed - unless anyone objects I will remove these soon. Johnbod (talk) 15:39, 12 July 2020 (UTC)

 * Would it be possible to discuss this issue further? Architecture is not only a building or the building resulting of a design. The term is not used as a metaphor to define the functioning of the brain or elaboration of a thought or an abstract organisation. Architecture is not a material form. It is a principle, a process or a concept leading to an organisation or a system. I would like you to consider the "structure" article on Wikipedia which is not focused on the materialistic definition of the term but extends in a modern and informative way. Why should it be different for "Architecture"?--Christophe Krief (talk) 00:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)
 * Actually it is used for all sorts of things. I did this edit to reflect the discussion above. Would you want all that stuff back? Johnbod (talk) 11:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

 * Sorry for the late reply. I do not want to start a dispute, so I was hoping that this issue would be opened for discussion. Why should we limit this article to the material aspect of architecture? We could have an article titled Architecture (building) in the same way than Architecture (computer) or Architecture (business), Architecture (software) and so on. In the disambiguation page, Architecture should not be defined as "the art and science of designing and constructing buildings and other structure for human use and shelter" because this is only a partial definition of the term. Architecture relates to much more than this. Yes I would like to see the other architectures re-integrated in this article; but most of all, I would like to see this article and the disambiguation page modernised to reflect the use of the term today. The main page should include proportionally for all the definition of the term. A page should be created with the title "Architecture (building)" because it is the only way for Wikipedia to provide a contemporary definition of the term as it is already done for the article "structure". I believe that if this is done in the English Wikipedia, the other languages will soon follow. --Christophe Krief (talk) 22:59, 12 January 2021 (UTC)

 * I think the most common understanding of the term architecture (when not qualifying it with another word such as in "business architecture", "architecture of the brain", etc) is that is about buildings. Examples of usage: "I am employing an architect", "I am studying architecture", "Royal Institute of British Architects": I think that the usual assumption would these were all to do with buildings.
 * Is architecture as a general concept actually notable WP:N? I have tried searching on "architecture as a concept" and "the concept of architecture" but I can only find things like "architectural concepts", which are to do with buildings.
 * I think that the case of structure is different. For one thing, just using "structure" on its own does not bring to mind any particular type of structure. Also, structure might not itself be notable.
 * FrankSier (talk) 13:31, 22 June 2022 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 6 April 2018
In "Definitions and etymology" Put a period after the line "A unifying or coherent form or structure" Zfriend101 (talk) 04:49, 6 April 2018 (UTC)
 * Yes check.svg Done DRAGON BOOSTER   ★  07:13, 6 April 2018 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 5 April 2019
Hello there, I wish to offer a suggestion to the following edit because it is important to state the true essence of the word. As a native Greek, I can offer some insight on the following...

 * Chief in Greek is Αρχηγος, it comes from the Αρχη and Ηγώ which literally means First to rule. Architect though is not a ruler-chief literally. I understand how this mistake can be made but as a professional and mature artist, I believe we should make this more clear for the new ones.

 * Τέκτων is not the Creator, but a Craftsman which in modern Greek is Τεχνήτης. They all derive from the word Art (Τέχνη) which literally means the result which comes from practical mastery. The difference is that a creator is someone who conceptualizes something, and this does not mean that it can ever be functional or practical. A Craftsman or a real Artist is one who masters a practical deployment through observation which is complimented with repetition, replication, and coherent coverage over what is possible. It would be great if you could also say something about this, but for now, I would just want to say that the etymology could easily change as the following.

please change: Architecture (Latin architectura, from the Greek ἀρχιτέκτων arkhitekton "architect", from ἀρχι- "chief" and τέκτων "creator") is both the process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing buildings and other physical structures.

to: Architecture (Latin architectura, from the Greek ἀρχιτέκτων arkhitekton "architect", from ἀρχι- "first" and τέκτων "craftsman" or "artist") is both the process and the result of mastering a practical function (skill). Although its roots lay over the planning, designing, and building of physical structures, its branches truly expand to all arts and sciences. ____________________________________

In my notes I made the following synthesis which includes references from the above suggestions which other people made: Architecture, the art of forming coherent structures is the highest form of arts. Even if it has been long associated with the act of designing and building physical constructions, its roots lay in the Mastery of Practicality. It got its name from the ancient Greeks who called ἀρχιτέκτων (arkhitekton-architect) those who were Masters at their Craft (from ἀρχι- "first" and τέκτων "craftsman").

Contemporary Architecture cannot be reduced to physical construction. Architecture is space (in its different states and meanings), forms, organization, communication, design, nature. The use of the term architecture also has applications in information technology, in the science of reasoning (logic), as well as in landscapes and naval design. In philosophy, we may speak of the architecture of thought, the architecture of a concept. In neuroscience of the architecture of the brain or the architecture of a nervous system. The term is used in many other professions to define a unifying or coherent form or structure which follows function.

Thank you. Adamapricot (talk) 18:03, 5 April 2019 (UTC)
 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done: please establish a consensus for this alteration before using the template. Synthesis is a harder sell to make here, as this is frowned upon in most articles. The sources you have used to reach these conclusions should be provided, in order to double check that this is not the case here.  Spintendo  16:55, 3 May 2019 (UTC)

 * I fully agree with Adamapricot (talk) and his etymological research confirm my understanding of architecture. Architecture is not only a building or the building resulting of a design. The term is not used as a metaphor to define the functioning of the brain or elaboration of a thought or an abstract organisation. Architecture is not a material form. It is a principle, a process or a concept leading to an organisation or a system. --Christophe Krief (talk) 21:59, 4 February 2021 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 6 April 2019
The external link Glossary of Architecture Terms (with dictionary definitions)is broken. Please remove it. You could replace it with https://architecturaltrust.org/outreach/education/glossary-of-architectural-terms/ Pearlharperinfamoushistorian (talk) 15:10, 6 April 2019 (UTC)
 * ✅. Thanks for pointing that out. Station1 (talk) 18:41, 6 April 2019 (UTC)

Nomination of Portal:Architecture for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether Portal:Architecture is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.

The page will be discussed at Wikipedia:Miscellany for deletion/Portal:Architecture until a consensus is reached, and anyone is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on high-quality evidence and our policies and guidelines.

Users may edit the page during the discussion, including to improve the page to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the deletion notice from the top of the page. North America1000 23:56, 12 April 2019 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 28 October 2020
"Add to Historic treatises"

In the mid to late 16th century Italian Mannerist architect, painter and theorist, Sebastiano Serlio, wrote the influential architecture treatise Tutte L’Opere D’Architettura et Prospetiva (1537-75) - “Complete Works on Architecture and Perspective”). The treatise exerted immense influence throughout Europe being the first architectural handbook that emphasized the practical rather than the theoretical aspects of architecture, and it was the first to catalog the five orders. DianaVS2 (talk) 16:12, 28 October 2020 (UTC)
 * Fair enough - reference & link please (of course we have an article). Johnbod (talk) 16:18, 28 October 2020 (UTC)
 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done: please provide reliable sources that support the change you want to be made. P,TO 19104 (talk) (contribs) 14:11, 1 November 2020 (UTC)
 * ✅. Plenty of refs at Serlio article or by quick google. Thanks for the suggestion. Station1 (talk) 07:07, 5 February 2021 (UTC)

Aesthetics in architecture
I've looked at architecture-related articles and this article has the most information about the aesthetics in architecture. I think it would be good to have a dedicated article about it covering both prescriptive (what the relationship should be per Vitruvius, Sullivan and others) and descriptive (what has been considered aesthetically pleasing). I can give it a try but wanted to get some feedback first - maybe it's been covered somewhere already. Alaexis¿question? 18:37, 23 February 2022 (UTC)

Adding a section about indigenous architecture in the Americas
I am probing and gathering support to add a section on native American architecture (e.g. Mesoamerican architecture, Andean architecture and elsewhere). The article in general is too biased towards European architecture. For instance, Indian and Chinese architectures are grouped into "Asian", despite being completely separate cradles of civilization. isacdaavid 00:03, 31 October 2022 (UTC)

Edit request
Could someone with edit permission consider deleting "In fact" in the below sentence?

"In fact, During the European Middle Ages, pan-European styles of Romanesque and Gothic cathedrals and abbeys emerged while the Renaissance favored Classical forms implemented by architects known by name."

This sentence isn't an intensification or illustration of the point in the prior sentence, so "In fact" doesn't fit. 131.191.89.1 (talk) 05:02, 14 July 2023 (UTC)
 * ✅. Station1 (talk) 06:37, 14 July 2023 (UTC)
 * Done thanks for the use 105.112.16.231 (talk) 20:23, 19 July 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Architecture


text:
Kaʻula

Kaʻula Island, also called Kaʻula Rock, is a small, crescent-shaped island in the Hawaiian Islands.

Mythology
In the legend of Papa and Wākea, Kaula is the seventh-born child.

Geography
It is located 23 mi west-southwest of Kawaihoa Point on Niihau, and about 150 nmi west of Honolulu. The island is the top of a volcanic tuff cone that rests on top of a larger, submerged shield volcano. At its highest point, the island reaches a height of 548 ft. The ocean has carved large sea cliffs on the sides of the island. There is a large cave on the northwest side of the island called Kahalauaola (Shark Cave).

The United States Census Bureau defines Kaula as Census Tract 411 of Kauai County, Hawaii. The 2000 census showed that the uninhabited island had a land area of 158.2 acre. Because of erosion, the island is slowly shrinking.

Kaʻula, which he spelled as "Tahoora", was one of the first five islands sighted by Captain James Cook in 1778.

Lighthouse
A lighthouse was completed on the island in 1932 by the United States Lighthouse Service, which became part of the United States Coast Guard in 1939. The lighthouse remained in operation through 1947.

Military use
The island has been used as a bombing range by the United States Navy since at least 1952. Inert ordnance is currently used, although live explosive ordnance has been used in the past. There is a risk of unexploded ordnance on the island. Permission from the U.S. Navy is required to land on the island. In 1978, over the objection of the U.S. Navy, the state of Hawaii claimed ownership of Kaula and named the island a State Seabird Sanctuary. A final determination of ownership has not yet been made, and the Navy still uses the southeast point of the island as an aerial bombing and strafing target.

Diving
Kaula is uninhabited, but fishermen and scuba divers frequently visit the island. Five Fathom Pinnacle, 3 mi west-northwest of Kaula, is also a noted dive spot.

title: Kaʻula


text:
The Kubert School

The Kubert School, formerly the Joe Kubert School of Cartoon and Graphic Art and Joe Kubert School, is a private for-profit art school focused on cartooning and located in Dover, New Jersey. It teaches the principles of sequential art and the particular craft of the comics industry as well as commercial illustration. It is the only accredited school devoted entirely to cartooning.

The school's instructors are full-time professionals working in the industry, many of them graduates of the school themselves, and the instruction is hands-on and practical. The school has a reputation for demanding and intensive coursework. Its alumni include Amanda Conner, Lee Weeks, Andy Price, Ed Piskor, and Alex Maleev, as well as many other comics pencilers and inkers.

History
The Joe Kubert School of Cartoon and Graphic Art was founded in September 1976 by cartoonist Joe Kubert and his wife Muriel in the old Baker mansion on 45 Lehigh Street in Dover; then, from 1984 onwards, Dover's former high school, whose tall windows offered optimal lighting. Its first graduating class of 1978 included Stephen R. Bissette, Thomas Yeates, and Rick Veitch.

By 1984, the school offered a three-year program in Cartoon Illustration, Graphic Arts, and Cinematic Animation, accredited by the National Association of Trade and Technical Schools. Approved by the New Jersey Department of Education, the Kubert School advertised itself to veterans and "non-resident alien" students.

In 1993, Dark Horse Comics announced it would begin funding the "Jack Kirby Scholarship" at the school.

Founder and teacher Kubert kept his own studio in the school, later joined by his sons Adam and Andy, who are also comic book professionals and who teach at the school. (In addition to The Kubert School, in the late 1990s, Joe Kubert was offering "Joe Kubert's World of Cartooning" correspondence courses to prospective students.)

Campus and student body
The school houses the Kubert Art Store, which sells art supplies needed for assignments, such as books and drafting tables.

There are usually no more than 150 students attending the school at any time. As well as regular weekday classes, the school also holds a weekly class every Saturday, which is available for people who are not enrolled in the main program. The class is on basic lessons in cartooning, and is taught by various alumni.

The school attracts students from countries such as Japan and Malaysia, in addition to students from the local area. Kubert expressed the school's philosophy in a 2003 profile: There's no other way to learn this stuff, except through other people in the business. ... 80 to 90 percent of the students get jobs in related fields, but they really have to work. The average student is drawing 8 to 10 hours a day, 6 to 7 days a week. ... You get a complete and total dedication from these students. ... This is their lifeline out. A chance to make a livelihood at something they love to do.

Criticism
A 2003 article in The Comics Journal criticized the school for turning out "hack" artists with no individual character. Similarly, Kubert alum Ed Piskor (who only attended the school for one year) criticized the school for its hackneyed approach and outmoded techniques.

title: The Kubert School


text: User talk:68.35.235.66

title: User talk:68.35.235.66


text:
Shrek the Third

Shrek the Third (also known as Shrek 3) is a 2007 American animated fantasy comedy film loosely based on the 1990 children's picture book Shrek! by William Steig. Directed by Chris Miller (in his feature directorial debut) and co-directed by Raman Hui from a screenplay by Jeffrey Price, Peter S. Seaman, Miller, and producer Aron Warner, and a story conceived by Andrew Adamson, co-director of the previous two installments, it is the sequel to Shrek 2 (2004) and the third installment in the Shrek film series. The film features Mike Myers, Eddie Murphy, Cameron Diaz, Antonio Banderas, Rupert Everett, Julie Andrews, and John Cleese reprising their voice roles from the previous films, along with new additions Justin Timberlake as Arthur Pendragon and Eric Idle as Merlin. In the film, Prince Charming is plotting to overthrow Shrek and Fiona, who have inherited the throne following King Harold's death. Shrek has no interest in ruling the kingdom and attempts to convince Fiona's underachieving 16-year-old cousin Artie to reign instead.

Shrek the Third premiered at the Mann Village Theatre, Westwood in Los Angeles on May 6, 2007, and was theatrically released in the United States by Paramount Pictures on May 18, 2007. Despite mixed reviews, the film was a commercial success, grossing $813 million worldwide on a budget of $160 million, becoming the fourth-highest-grossing film of 2007. It was nominated for the Best Animated Film at the 61st British Academy Film Awards. The sequel, Shrek Forever After, was released in May 2010.

Plot
Shrek and Princess Fiona are to succeed King Harold, but Shrek's attempts to serve as the Regent during Harold's medical absence end in disaster, since he has no interest in being king of Far Far Away. With his dying breath, Harold tells Shrek of another heir: his nephew and Fiona's cousin, Arthur "Artie" Pendragon. Meanwhile, Prince Charming, vowing to avenge the death of his mother, the Fairy Godmother, and become king, goes to the Poison Apple tavern and persuades the fairy tale villains to fight for their "happily ever after".

Shrek and his friends, Donkey, and Puss in Boots set out to retrieve Artie. As they sail away, Fiona reveals to Shrek that she is pregnant, much to Shrek's horror, because he believes he is incapable of raising children. The trio journey to Worcestershire Academy, an elite magical boarding school, where they discover Artie is a scrawny, 16-year-old outcast. At the school pep rally, Shrek tells Artie he has been chosen to be king of Far Far Away. Artie is excited until Donkey and Puss inadvertently frighten him by discussing the king's responsibilities. Losing confidence, Artie tries to take control of the ship and steer it back to Worcestershire. Following a scuffle with Shrek, the ship crashes on a remote island where they encounter Artie's retired magic teacher, Merlin.

Fiona and Queen Lillian host a baby shower when Charming and the villains attack the castle. Gingy, Pinocchio, the Big Bad Wolf, and the Three Little Pigs stall Charming's group long enough for the ladies to escape. When one of the pigs accidentally reveals that Shrek has gone to retrieve Artie, Charming sends Captain Hook and his pirates to track them down. Rapunzel, having fallen in love with Charming, betrays Fiona, and the ladies are locked in a tower.

Hook and his pirates catch up to Shrek on Merlin's island. Shrek avoids capture, and Hook reveals Charming's takeover of Far Far Away. Shrek urges Artie to return to Worcestershire, but Artie cons Merlin into using his magic to send them to Far Far Away, and the spell causes Puss and Donkey to accidentally switch bodies. They find Pinocchio and learn that Charming plans to kill Shrek as part of a play. After breaking into the castle, they are caught and taken captive.

Charming prepares to kill Artie to retain the crown. To save Artie's life, Shrek lies, claiming that he was just using Artie to replace him as the next king. Charming believes Shrek and allows a disheartened Artie to leave. Donkey and Puss are imprisoned with Fiona and the ladies, where Fiona grows frustrated with their lack of initiative. Lillian smashes an opening in the stone wall of the prison with a headbutt. While the princesses launch a rescue mission for Shrek, Donkey and Puss free Gingy, Pinocchio, and the others along with Dragon and Donkey's children. Puss and Donkey calm Artie by explaining that Shrek lied to save his life.

Charming stages a showdown in a musical theater in front of the kingdom. Just as Charming is about to kill Shrek, Fiona, Puss, and Donkey, the princesses and other fairy tale characters confront the villains but are quickly subdued. Artie shows up and gives a speech to the villains, convincing them that they can be accepted into society instead of being outcasts. Inspired by Artie's speech, the villains agree to give up their evil ways, while Charming refuses to listen and lunges at Artie with his sword. Shrek blocks the blow, and it appears that he has been stabbed. Charming decrees himself the new king, but Shrek reveals that the former misaimed his sword and pushes Charming aside, while Dragon knocks the tower down onto Charming, thus killing him.

With Charming gone, Artie is crowned the new king of Far Far Away. While the kingdom celebrates, Merlin appears and reverts Puss and Donkey's body swap. Meanwhile, back at the swamp, Shrek and Fiona begin raising their new triplets, coping with parenthood with help from Donkey, Puss, Lillian, and Dragon.

Production
Following the success of Shrek 2, the third and fourth Shrek films, along with plans for a final, fifth film, were announced in May 2004 by DreamWorks Animation CEO Jeffrey Katzenberg: "Shrek 3 and 4 are going to reveal other unanswered questions and, finally, in the last chapter, we will understand how Shrek came to be in that swamp, when we meet him in the first movie."

DreamWorks hired screenwriters Jeffrey Price and Peter S. Seaman (of both Who Framed Roger Rabbit, Doc Hollywood and How the Grinch Stole Christmas fame) to write the screenplay of the film and Jon Zack, who wrote The Perfect Score, came on board as a consultant. Unlike the first two films, the film was not directed by Andrew Adamson due to his occupation with The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe. Adamson was still involved as an executive producer, and was giving advice approximately every four months on the state of the film. Shrek the Third was instead directed by Chris Miller, a story artist on the first film and a head of story on the second, and co-directed by Raman Hui, a supervising animator on the first two films.

The film was developed under the working title of Shrek 3. By March 2006, the title of the film was changed to Shrek the Third. According to Miller, the reason behind the title change was because they "didn't want to just sort of title it like it was just a sequel," instead they wanted "something to make it stand on its own, give it its own personality and really try to treat it as a chapter in Shrek's life." Hui also remarked: "It's about Shrek becoming the new king of Far Far Away; the title sounds kind of royal as well."

The film was originally going to be released in November 2006; however, in December 2004, the date was changed to May 2007; "The sheer magnitude of the Shrek franchise has led us to conclude that a May release date, with a DVD release around the holiday season, will enable us to best maximize performance and increase profitability, thereby generating enhanced asset value and better returns for our shareholders." Katzenberg explained. Flushed Away, another film from DreamWorks Animation, was instead given the slot of November 2006. The release date change was also the day after Disney/Pixar changed the release date of Cars, from November 2005 to June 2006.

Box office
Shrek the Third opened in 4,122 North American cinemas on May 18, 2007, grossing $38 million on its first day, which was the biggest opening day for an animated film at the time. It grossed a total of $121.6 million in its first weekend, the best opening weekend ever for an animated film, and the second-highest opening for a film in the United States in 2007, behind Spider-Man 3. It held the animated opening weekend record for nine years until it was surpassed by Finding Dory's $135.1 million debut. At the time, its opening weekend was the third-highest of all time in these regions.

Shrek the Third grossed $322.7 million in the United States, and $490.7 million overseas, bringing its cumulative total to $813.4 million. The film was the fourth-highest-grossing film worldwide of 2007, and the second-highest-grossing film in the United States that year. In addition, it was the highest-grossing animated film of 2007, and the third-highest-grossing animated film ever, trailing only behind Finding Nemo and Shrek 2. The film sold an estimated 46,907,000 tickets in North America.

The film was released in the United Kingdom on June 29, 2007, and topped the country's box office for the next two weekends, before being dethroned by Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix.

Critical response
Shrek the Third received mixed reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, Shrek the Third has an approval rating of based on  reviews, with an average rating of, making it the lowest-rated film in the Shrek franchise by the website to date. The site's critical consensus reads, "Shrek the Third has pop culture potshots galore, but at the expense of the heart, charm, and wit that made the first two Shreks classics." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 58 out of 100, based on 35 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale, a step down from the first two films' "A".

Some critics were confused as to the film's target demographic. Carina Chocano of the Los Angeles Times felt themes about career and parenting anxieties, the lifestyle of celebrities, as well as its humor, would be above children: "Does a kids' movie really need, among other similar touches, a Hooters joke? I, for one, wouldn't want to have to explain it." Nonetheless, she also found certain moments to be funny: "Shrek's anxiety dream about procreating is fabulously surreal, and King Harold's deathbed scene, with its grimaces and false alarms, is pure kiddie comedy at its best." David Ansen of Newsweek wrote that the film's "slightly snarky wit is aimed almost entirely at parents... this one never touched my heart or got under my skin. It's a movie at war with itself: a kiddie movie that doesn't really want to be one."

Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian gave the film 2 out of 5 stars, saying the film "wasn't awful, but it's bland, with a barrel-scraping averageness. There are no new ideas, no very funny new characters..." He called the character Merlin a "frankly unfunny new character" and considered the character to be a "rip-off of Albus Dumbledore from the Harry Potter franchise". He stated that the film contained "no decent musical numbers, incidentally, and the one cover version is bizarrely chosen. For Harold's funeral, we get a rendering of ... Paul McCartney's "Live and Let Die". Er ... huh? Because it's kind of sad and it has "die" in the title?"

The Times of London rated it 2 out of 5.

A. O. Scott from The New York Times described the film as "at once more energetic and more relaxed [than its predecessors], less desperate to prove its cleverness and therefore to some extent, smarter."

Home media
The film was released on both DVD and HD DVD on November 13, 2007. The DVD was released in separate pan and scan and widescreen formats. The film and special features on the HD DVD version were presented in 1.78:1 widescreen high-definition 1080p and feature a Dolby Digital Plus 5.1 audio soundtrack, and special features for both formats include several deleted scenes, features, trailers, commentary, music videos, and exclusively on the HD DVD version, some web-enabled and HDi Interactive Format features such as a special trivia track, a film guide, and an interactive coloring book which can be downloaded as of street date.

Following Paramount's decision to discontinue HD DVD production (making Shrek the Third the only DreamWorks Animation film to be released on that format), the film was subsequently released on Blu-ray Disc on September 16, 2008. It was re-released on Blu-ray as part of the Shrek: The Whole Story boxset on December 7, 2010 before receiving another separate release on August 30, 2011, and on Blu-ray 3D on November 1, 2011 as a Best Buy exclusive. Shrek the Third was released on Ultra HD Blu-ray on September 12, 2023, by Universal Pictures Home Entertainment.

DVD and Blu-ray sales gathered revenue of $179.1 million.

Marketing
Shrek the Third was widely anticipated and DreamWorks backed the film with a large marketing campaign, with toys, books, games, clothes, and many other items becoming available throughout 2007. A video game based on the film has been released for the Wii, PlayStation 2, Xbox 360, Game Boy Advance, PlayStation Portable, PC, and Nintendo DS.

In May 2007, Shrek the Third was made into a mobile video game, developed by Gameloft. Shrek n' Roll, an action puzzle game based on the film, was released for the Xbox 360 via Xbox Live Arcade on November 14, 2007. A pinball machine based on the film has also been produced by Stern Pinball.

Satirical marketing effort
Adult Swim comedy team Tim and Eric, annoyed by the amount of advertisement they had witnessed in the months approaching the release of the film, decided to independently "promote" Shrek the Third in a series of internet videos as well as appearances on television and radio to encourage people to see the film.

Controversy
In the beginning of the film, in Prince Charming's dinner theater, coconuts are revealed to be the source of the sound effect for horses' hoof beats. This same joke was used in Monty Python and the Holy Grail, which also starred John Cleese and Eric Idle. Idle walked out of the premiere (though later reentered after calming himself down) and claimed to be considering suing the producers of Shrek for the unauthorized use of this gag, while the producers claim they were honoring Idle and Cleese by putting the part in.

Sequels
The film was followed by a sequel, Shrek Forever After, which was released in theaters on May 21, 2010, and will be followed by Shrek 5, which is in development and set for July 1, 2026.

title: Shrek the Third


text:
U.S. Route 280

U.S. Route 280 (US 280) is a spur of U.S. Highway 80. It currently runs for 392 miles (631 km) from Blitchton, Georgia, at US 80 to Birmingham, Alabama at I-20/I-59. For much of its route, US 280 travels through rural areas and smaller cities in southern Georgia and east central Alabama. Once the highway approaches Birmingham, it is a major suburban route. Numerous shopping centers are located on US 280 throughout northern Shelby County and southern Jefferson County.

US 280 is the main connector between Birmingham, AL and Auburn, AL.

Through Talladega County, Alabama, US 280 is known as the Jim Nabors Highway, in honor of the Sylacauga, Alabama, native known for portraying the television character Gomer Pyle. The historical designation of US-280 and Alabama SR 38 is the Florida Short Route.

For many years, US 280 and SR 38 was considered one of the more dangerous routes in Alabama, due to the number of large stretches of narrow two-lane roadway leading southeastwardly from Birmingham. Work was completed in 2006 making US 280 a four-lane highway throughout the entire state of Alabama. This project began in the 1970s. As a result, US 280 now bypasses numerous small towns in east Alabama, including Goodwater, Jackson's Gap, Camp Hill and Waverly.

In Georgia, US 280 from Columbus to I-16 is also a Governor's Road Improvement Program (GRIP) corridor known as "Power Alley".

Alabama
US 280 terminates concurrently with U.S. 31 at I-20/I-59. US 31 continues onward at this point. The route continues through downtown Birmingham with US 31. They junction with US 11 and US 78 and climb over Red Mountain into Mtn. Brook as a section of highway called the Red Mountain Expressway. Here, US 280 splits off of US 31 at a highly complex interchange with elements of a Directional-T and a Parclo.

It continues on somewhat of a freeway through Mtn. Brook, eventually reaching The Summit, a huge outdoor mall. It also junctions with I-459 at this point, at a Parclo-like interchange which is being modified to better suit traffic.

The route continues through one of the more developed areas of east Birmingham and eventually climbs over Double Oak Mountain into Shelby County and Chelsea. It continues east to Harpersville, which is home to its junction with US 231 north and SR 25. US 280 continues with US 231 until it reaches the Coosa River, which it crosses into Talladega County. It eventually reaches Sylacauga, which is home to its junction with US 231 south and SR 21. This specific junction is a diamond interchange, commonly used on freeways.

The route continues south-east through northern Coosa County until it has another diamond interchange with SR 9. It then passes through Kellyton, which is home to its minor junction with SR 115.

It crosses into Tallapoosa County just before entering Alexander City, which is home to Russell Athletic. US 280 junctions with SR 22 and SR 63 in the city. It then proceeds through slightly hilly terrain to Dadeville. It junctions with SR 49, which connects the route to the Talladega National Forest/Cheaha State Park. It leaves Dadeville, promptly enters Camp Hill, junctions with SR 50, and enters the southwestern corner of Chambers County, and then crosses into Lee County.

The route then reaches The Bottle, which is named for the bright orange wooden replica of a Nehi soda bottle which stood in the location from 1924 to 1936. It crosses into Auburn, which is barely skimmed by US 280 as it then crosses into nearby Opelika. The route junctions with US 29/I-85. It joins the freeway with them and continues through I-85's junction with SR 51. It then splits off of the road with US 431. It continues on a heavily traveled road into Russell County, and eventually to Phenix City, which is actually in the Eastern Time Zone due to its close proximity with Columbus, Georgia across the Chattahoochee River. It junctions with US 80. The route then leaves US 431 behind and crosses the Chattahoochee River, leaving Alabama and entering Georgia in Columbus. US 280 has a length of 141.356 mi in Alabama.

US 280 has the unsigned designation of State Route 38 (SR 38) throughout its length in Alabama.

Georgia
US 280 begins in Georgia at the state's border with Alabama in Columbus. There it is paired with State Route 520 and U.S. Route 27. It maintains this designation as it passes through Fort Benning. Upon arriving in Cusseta, US 280/GA 520 diverge from US 27 and continue southeast to Richland, where US 280 splits off from GA 520. From here, US 280 continues on its own east, passing through Plains (the boyhood home of Jimmy Carter) and becomes cosigned with State Route 30 in Americus. US 280/SR 30 then continue east-southeast, crossing I-75 in Cordele, still continuing east through mainly rural areas of the southern portion of the state, passing through smaller towns such as McRae–Helena, Mount Vernon, Vidalia, and Pembroke. The highway then turns to the northeast as it leaves Pembroke, crossing I-16 at exit 143. Still continuing northeast, the highway then terminates in Blichton at U.S. Route 80.

National Highway System
Except for the easternmost portion between I-16 and the eastern terminus, the entire length of US 280 is part of the National Highway System, a system of routes determined to be the most important for the nation's economy, mobility, and defense.

History
Prior to the completion of the Elton B. Stephens Expressway in Birmingham, US 31, US 78, and US 280 traveled concurrently until they intersected US 11 at the intersection of 1st Avenue North and 24th Street.

title: U.S. Route 280


text:
Social Text

Social Text is a non-peer-reviewed academic journal published by Duke University Press. Since its inception by an independent editorial collective in 1979, Social Text has addressed a wide range of social and cultural phenomena, covering questions of gender, sexuality, race, and the environment. Each issue covers subjects in the debates around feminism, Marxism, neoliberalism, postcolonialism, postmodernism, queer theory, and popular culture. The journal has since been run by different collectives over the years, mostly based at New York City universities. It has maintained an avowedly progressive political orientation and scholarship over these years, if also a less Marxist one. Since 1992, it is published by Duke University Press.

The journal gained notoriety in 1996 for the Sokal affair, when it published a nonsensical article that physicist Alan Sokal had deliberately written as a hoax. The editors of the journal were awarded the 1996 Ig Nobel Prize for literature by "eagerly publishing research that they could not understand, that the author said was meaningless, and which claimed that reality does not exist". The journal does not practice academic peer review, and it did not submit the article for outside expert review by a physicist. The Sokal article was not retracted by the journal.

title: Social Text


text: User talk:68.21.160.16

title: User talk:68.21.160.16


text:
OPM

OPM may refer to:

Organizations

 * Office of Production Management, United States government agency that existed before the U.S. entry into World War II
 * United States Office of Personnel Management, the manager of the federal civil service in the United States
 * Oklahoma Office of Personnel Management, the state equivalent of the federal agency
 * Free Papua Movement (Organisasi Papua Merdeka), a separatist movement in Indonesia
 * Political Military Organization (Organización Político Militar), Paraguayan clandestine movement

Science and technology

 * Object Process Methodology
 * Optical performance monitoring, used for managing high capacity optical transmission and switching systems
 * Orientations of Proteins in Membranes database
 * Opportunistic Mesh, a wireless networking technology
 * Yamaha YM2151, an FM sound chip used in the late 1980s, also known as OPM (FM Operator Type-M)

Entertainment

 * Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine, a former US gaming magazine
 * PlayStation Official Magazine – UK, a British gaming magazine

Music

 * OPM (band), an American band, who formed in 1999 from Los Angeles
 * OPM (album), a 2008 album by Sarah Geronimo
 * Original Pilipino Music, a genre of contemporary Philippine music

Other uses

 * Oak processionary, a moth
 * Organizational Project Management
 * Online program manager, an online platform for teaching, learning and educational course management
 * O.P.M. Leasing Services, a defunct American computer leasing company
 * Outsourced program management or Outsourced program manager, see Affiliate marketing
 * Owner President Management Program, see Harvard Business School

title: OPM


text:
Talk:Bossa nova (disambiguation)

Okay, so you would like to disambiguate Bossa Nova between musical style and dance. Is there any reason why Bossa Nova with capitals should be the disambig, and lowercase should be the music style? Please explain. PS How do you like the Deodato article? JFW | T@lk  22:43, 15 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * I wasn't specifically thinking about the way of disambiguation, and you are right, it is not OK now. The only thing I wanted is to keep the diambig page. As a rule of thumb, I've often seen a general agreement is to capitalize the names of dances, since they are proper nouns (unless they are generic names for a group of related dances, e.g., waltz & tango) and do not capitalize the names of styles (swing, bop, jazz, etc.).

 * BTW, quite some time ago I noticed there is a pretty frequent problem how to disambiguate music vs. dance names. Let's figure out what is the best page to discuss this issue. Mikkalai 02:43, 16 Aug 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Bossa nova (disambiguation)


text:
U.S. Route 283

U.S. Route 283 is a spur of U.S. Route 83. It currently runs for 731 miles (1,175 km) from Brady, Texas at U.S. Route 87 to Lexington, Nebraska at U.S. Route 30. It passes through the states of Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska.

Oklahoma
US-283 enters Oklahoma from Texas in rural Jackson County at a crossing of the Red River. It runs concurrently with State Highway 5 for several miles past Elmer and continues north to Altus, the largest Oklahoma town on the route. At the intersection of U.S. Highway 62 in Altus, SH-5 splits off and 283 joins with State Highway 6 for the next 12 mi before it takes a western bend to the town of Mangum. The route continues northwesterly until it crosses I-40 at Sayre.

Through northwestern Oklahoma, US-283 passes through very sparsely populated areas and is the main north–south traffic corridor. After passing through Cheyenne, 283 meanders through Black Kettle National Grassland then crosses the Canadian River. It continues north to Arnett where it joins with State Highway 51 west for 7 mi then turns north again passing through Shattuck and Laverne following part of State Highway 15 along the way. North of Laverne, 283 turns west for 2 mi to visit the town of Rosston then turns north again to cross the Cimarron River shortly before leaving the state for Kansas.

Some points of interest along US-283 in Oklahoma include the Museum of the Western Prairie in Altus; the Old Greer County Museum in Mangum; Black Kettle National Grassland and the Washita Battlefield National Historic Site near Cheyenne and the Shattuck Windmill Museum.

Kansas
US-283 enters from Oklahoma south of Englewood in Clark County, and passes through largely unpopulated areas of the county until joining up for a brief concurrency with U.S. Route 160. Following the split, US-283 continues north through Minneola before making its way into Dodge City, the only town with a population of more than 3,300 the highway passes through in the Sunflower State.

At Dodge City, US-283 jogs east. It meets with U.S. Route 400, but the two highways do not stay joined for long; US-400 splits and heads southeast towards Greensburg, while US-283 continues eastbound past the Dodge City Regional Airport. After passing the airport, the route then bends northeast before joining U.S. Route 50 and U.S. Route 56 for a brief stint.

US-50 and US-56 split east towards Kinsley, and US-283 resumes a due northerly course through open fields before reaching Jetmore, where K-156 crosses in an east–west direction. K-156 heads to Garden City westbound and Great Bend eastbound. The highway continues on another stretch through sparsely populated farmland before reaching Ness City and K-96, the first of two junctions in Ness County. The other junction in the county is at K-4 near Ransom.

The highway reaches Interstate 70 in WaKeeney, and makes a brief jog east through downtown WaKeeney before turning back to the north. US-283 between Ransom and I-70 was closed for much of 2006 as part of a major reconstruction program.

The highway continues north to Hill City, where it crosses U.S. Route 24. The route stays on course until it reaches southern Norton County, where it has a brief concurrency with K-9. At the split, K-9 continues west to Lenora, and US-283 resumes a straight northerly direction until the city of Norton, where after crossing U.S. Route 36, it reaches Nebraska 11 mi later.

With the exception of small sections in Dodge City, all portions of US-283 in Kansas are two-laned.

Nebraska
U.S. Highway 283 enters Nebraska south of Arapahoe. At Arapahoe, US 283 meets U.S. Highway 6 and U.S. Highway 34. It continues north through Elwood, then turns northeast. Near Lexington, US 283 crosses the Platte River and intersects Interstate 80. It continues north into Lexington as a divided highway, turns back to a 2 lane road, crosses the Union Pacific railroad tracks via an overpass, and after taking 2 right turns on city streets, it ends at an intersection with U.S. Highway 30.

Major intersections

 * Texas
 * northwest of Brady
 * in Santa Anna. US 67/US 283 travels concurrently through Santa Anna. US 84/US 283 travels concurrently to Coleman.
 * in Baird
 * in Albany. The highways travel concurrently through Albany.
 * south of Throckmorton. The highways travel concurrently to Vernon.
 * in Throckmorton
 * south-southwest of Seymour. The highways travel concurrently to Mabelle.
 * north-northeast of Seymour. The highways travel concurrently to Mabelle.
 * in Vernon

 * Oklahoma
 * in Altus
 * in Sayre
 * east of Arnett. The highways travel concurrently to west of Arnett.
 * south-southeast of Laverne
 * east of Rosston. The highways travel concurrently to northwest of Rosston.

 * Kansas
 * north of Englewood. The highways travel concurrently to south-southeast of Minneola.
 * in Minneola
 * south of Dodge City. US 56/US 283 travels concurrently to . US 283/US 400 travels concurrently to Dodge City.
 * east-northeast of Dodge City. The highways travel concurrently to west-southwest of Wright.
 * in WaKeeney
 * in Hill City
 * in Norton

 * Nebraska
 * in Arapahoe
 * south of Lexington
 * in Lexington

title: U.S. Route 283