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Age of the universe

In physical cosmology, the age of the universe is the time elapsed since the Big Bang. Astronomers have derived two different measurements of the age of the universe: a measurement based on direct observations of an early state of the universe, which indicate an age of $13.787$ billion years as interpreted with the Lambda-CDM concordance model as of 2021; and a measurement based on the observations of the local, modern universe, which suggest a younger age. The uncertainty of the first kind of measurement has been narrowed down to 20 million years, based on a number of studies that all show similar figures for the age. These studies include researches of the microwave background radiation by the Planck spacecraft, the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe and other space probes. Measurements of the cosmic background radiation give the cooling time of the universe since the Big Bang, and measurements of the expansion rate of the universe can be used to calculate its approximate age by extrapolating backwards in time. The range of the estimate is also within the range of the estimate for the oldest observed star in the universe.

History
In the 18th century, the concept that the age of Earth was millions, if not billions, of years began to appear. Nonetheless, most scientists throughout the 19th century and into the first decades of the 20th century presumed that the universe itself was steady state and eternal, possibly with stars coming and going but no changes occurring at the largest scale known at the time.

The first scientific theories indicating that the age of the universe might be finite were the studies of thermodynamics, formalized in the mid-19th century. The concept of entropy dictates that if the universe (or any other closed system) were infinitely old, then everything inside would be at the same temperature, and thus there would be no stars and no life. No scientific explanation for this contradiction was put forth at the time.

In 1915 Albert Einstein published the theory of general relativity and in 1917 constructed the first cosmological model based on his theory. In order to remain consistent with a steady-state universe, Einstein added what was later called a cosmological constant to his equations. Einstein's model of a static universe was proved unstable by Arthur Eddington.

The first direct observational hint that the universe was not static but expanding came from the observations of 'recession velocities', mostly by Vesto M. Slipher, combined with distances to the 'nebulae' (galaxies) by Edwin Hubble in a work published in 1929. Earlier in the 20th century, Hubble and others resolved individual stars within certain nebulae, thus determining that they were galaxies, similar to, but external to, the Milky Way Galaxy. In addition, these galaxies were very large and very far away. Spectra taken of these distant galaxies showed a red shift in their spectral lines presumably caused by the Doppler effect, thus indicating that these galaxies were moving away from the Earth. In addition, the farther away these galaxies seemed to be (the dimmer they appeared) the greater was their redshift, and thus the faster they seemed to be moving away. This was the first direct evidence that the universe is not static but expanding. The first estimate of the age of the universe came from the calculation of when all of the objects must have started speeding out from the same point. Hubble's initial value for the universe's age was very low, as the galaxies were assumed to be much closer than later observations found them to be.

The first reasonably accurate measurement of the rate of expansion of the universe, a numerical value now known as the Hubble constant, was made in 1958 by astronomer Allan Sandage. His measured value for the Hubble constant came very close to the value range generally accepted today.

Sandage, like Einstein, did not believe his own results at the time of discovery. Sandage proposed new theories of cosmogony to explain this discrepancy. This issue was more or less resolved by improvements in the theoretical models used for estimating the ages of stars. As of 2013, using the latest models for stellar evolution, the estimated age of the oldest known star is $14.46$ billion years.

The discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation announced in 1965 finally brought an effective end to the remaining scientific uncertainty over the expanding universe. It was a chance result from work by two teams less than 60 miles apart. In 1964, Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson were trying to detect radio wave echoes with a supersensitive antenna. The antenna persistently detected a low, steady, mysterious noise in the microwave region that was evenly spread over the sky, and was present day and night. After testing, they became certain that the signal did not come from the Earth, the Sun, or the Milky Way galaxy, but from outside the Milky Way, but could not explain it. At the same time another team, Robert H. Dicke, Jim Peebles, and David Wilkinson, were attempting to detect low level noise that might be left over from the Big Bang and could prove whether the Big Bang theory was correct. The two teams realized that the detected noise was in fact radiation left over from the Big Bang, and that this was strong evidence that the theory was correct. Since then, a great deal of other evidence has strengthened and confirmed this conclusion, and refined the estimated age of the universe to its current figure.

The space probes WMAP, launched in 2001, and Planck, launched in 2009, produced data that determines the Hubble constant and the age of the universe independent of galaxy distances, removing the largest source of error.

Explanation

The Lambda-CDM concordance model describes the evolution of the universe from a very uniform, hot, dense primordial state to its present state over a span of about 13.77 billion years of cosmological time. This model is well understood theoretically and strongly supported by recent high-precision astronomical observations such as WMAP. In contrast, theories of the origin of the primordial state remain very speculative.

If one extrapolates the Lambda-CDM model backward from the earliest well-understood state, it quickly (within a small fraction of a second) reaches a singularity. This is known as the "initial singularity" or the "Big Bang singularity". This singularity is not understood as having a physical significance in the usual sense, but it is convenient to quote times measured "since the Big Bang" even though they do not correspond to a time that can actually be physically measured.

Though the universe might in theory have a longer history, the International Astronomical Union presently uses the term "age of the universe" to mean the duration of the Lambda-CDM expansion, or equivalently, the time elapsed within the currently observable universe since the Big Bang.

In July 2023, a study published in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society journal put the age of the Universe as 26.7 billion years. The author Rajendra Gupta shows a new model that stretches the galaxy formation time by several billion years, leading to the conclusion that the age of the universe is roughly twice as long as thought. Using Zwicky's tired light theory and "coupling constants" as described by  Paul Dirac, Gupta writes that the recent James Webb Space Telescope observations are in strong tension with existing cosmological models. Gupta says about his new theory: "It thus resolves the 'impossible early galaxy' problem without requiring the existence of primordial black hole seeds or modified power spectrum."

Observational limits
Since the universe must be at least as old as the oldest things in it, there are a number of observations that put a lower limit on the age of the universe; these include
 * the temperature of the coolest white dwarfs, which gradually cool as they age, and
 * the dimmest turnoff point of main sequence stars in clusters (lower-mass stars spend a greater amount of time on the main sequence, so the lowest-mass stars that have evolved away from the main sequence set a minimum age).

Cosmological parameters
The problem of determining the age of the universe is closely tied to the problem of determining the values of the cosmological parameters. Today this is largely carried out in the context of the ΛCDM model, where the universe is assumed to contain normal (baryonic) matter, cold dark matter, radiation (including both photons and neutrinos), and a cosmological constant.

The fractional contribution of each to the current energy density of the universe is given by the density parameters $$~\Omega_\text{m}~,$$ $$~\Omega_\text{r}~,$$ and $$~\Omega_\Lambda~.$$ The full ΛCDM model is described by a number of other parameters, but for the purpose of computing its age these three, along with the Hubble parameter $$~H_0~$$, are the most important.

If one has accurate measurements of these parameters, then the age of the universe can be determined by using the Friedmann equation. This equation relates the rate of change in the scale factor $$~a(t)~$$ to the matter content of the universe. Turning this relation around, we can calculate the change in time per change in scale factor and thus calculate the total age of the universe by integrating this formula. The age $$~t_0~$$ is then given by an expression of the form
 * $$t_0 = \frac{1}{H_0} \, F (\,\Omega_\text{r},\,\Omega_\text{m},\,\Omega_\Lambda,\,\dots\,)~$$

where $$~H_0~$$ is the Hubble parameter and the function $$~F~$$ depends only on the fractional contribution to the universe's energy content that comes from various components. The first observation that one can make from this formula is that it is the Hubble parameter that controls that age of the universe, with a correction arising from the matter and energy content. So a rough estimate of the age of the universe comes from the Hubble time, the inverse of the Hubble parameter. With a value for $$~H_0~$$ around $69 km/s/Mpc$, the Hubble time evaluates to $$~1/H_0 =~$$$14.5$ billion years.

To get a more accurate number, the correction function $$~F~$$ must be computed. In general this must be done numerically, and the results for a range of cosmological parameter values are shown in the figure. For the Planck values $$~(\Omega_\text{m}, \Omega_\Lambda) =~$$(0.3086, 0.6914), shown by the box in the upper left corner of the figure, this correction factor is about $$~F = 0.956 ~.$$ For a flat universe without any cosmological constant, shown by the star in the lower right corner, $$~F = {2}/{3}~$$ is much smaller and thus the universe is younger for a fixed value of the Hubble parameter. To make this figure, $$~\Omega_\text{r}~$$ is held constant (roughly equivalent to holding the cosmic microwave background temperature constant) and the curvature density parameter is fixed by the value of the other three.

Apart from the Planck satellite, the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) was instrumental in establishing an accurate age of the universe, though other measurements must be folded in to gain an accurate number. CMB measurements are very good at constraining the matter content $$~\Omega_\text{m}~,$$ and curvature parameter $$~\Omega_\text{k}~.$$ It is not as sensitive to $$~\Omega_\Lambda~$$ directly, partly because the cosmological constant becomes important only at low redshift. The most accurate determinations of the Hubble parameter $$~H_0~$$ are currently believed to come from measured brightnesses and redshifts of distant Type Ia supernovae. Combining these measurements leads to the generally accepted value for the age of the universe quoted above.

The cosmological constant makes the universe "older" for fixed values of the other parameters. This is significant, since before the cosmological constant became generally accepted, the Big Bang model had difficulty explaining why globular clusters in the Milky Way appeared to be far older than the age of the universe as calculated from the Hubble parameter and a matter-only universe. Introducing the cosmological constant allows the universe to be older than these clusters, as well as explaining other features that the matter-only cosmological model could not.

WMAP
NASA's Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) project's nine-year data release in 2012 estimated the age of the universe to be $13.772$ years (13.772 billion years, with an uncertainty of plus or minus 59 million years).

This age is based on the assumption that the project's underlying model is correct; other methods of estimating the age of the universe could give different ages. Assuming an extra background of relativistic particles, for example, can enlarge the error bars of the WMAP constraint by one order of magnitude.

This measurement is made by using the location of the first acoustic peak in the microwave background power spectrum to determine the size of the decoupling surface (size of the universe at the time of recombination). The light travel time to this surface (depending on the geometry used) yields a reliable age for the universe. Assuming the validity of the models used to determine this age, the residual accuracy yields a margin of error near one per cent.

Planck
In 2015, the Planck Collaboration estimated the age of the universe to be $13.813$ billion years, slightly higher but within the uncertainties of the earlier number derived from the WMAP data.

In the table below, figures are within 68% confidence limits for the base ΛCDM model.

 * {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"

! Parameter !! Symbol !! TT + lowP !! TT + lowP + lensing !! TT + lowP + lensing + ext !! TT, TE, EE + lowP !! TT, TE, EE + lowP + lensing !! TT, TE, EE + lowP + lensing + ext ! Age of the universe (Ga) ! Hubble constant ($13.813$)
 * + Cosmological parameters from 2015 Planck results
 * $$t_0$$ || $13.799$ || $13.796$ || $13.813$ || $13.807$ || $13.799$ || $km/Mpc⋅s$
 * $$H_0$$ || $67.31$ || $67.81$ || $67.9$ || $67.27$ || $67.51$|| $67.74$
 * }

Legend:
 * TT, TE, EE: Planck Cosmic microwave background (CMB) power spectra
 * lowP: Planck polarization data in the low-ℓ likelihood
 * lensing: CMB lensing reconstruction
 * ext: External data (BAO+JLA+H0). BAO: Baryon acoustic oscillations, JLA: Joint Light curve Analysis, H0: Hubble constant

In 2018, the Planck Collaboration updated its estimate for the age of the universe to $13.787$ billion years.

Assumption of strong priors
Calculating the age of the universe is accurate only if the assumptions built into the models being used to estimate it are also accurate. This is referred to as strong priors and essentially involves stripping the potential errors in other parts of the model to render the accuracy of actual observational data directly into the concluded result. This is not a valid procedure in all contexts, as noted in the accompanying caveat: "on the assumption that the project's underlying model is correct". The age given is thus accurate to the specified error, since this represents the error in the instrument used to gather the raw data input into the model.

The age of the universe based on the best fit to Planck 2018 data alone is $13.787$ billion years. This number represents an accurate "direct" measurement of the age of the universe, in contrast to other methods that typically involve Hubble's law and the age of the oldest stars in globular clusters. It is possible to use different methods for determining the same parameter (in this case, the age of the universe) and arrive at different answers with no overlap in the "errors". To best avoid the problem, it is common to show two sets of uncertainties; one related to the actual measurement and the other related to the systematic errors of the model being used.

An important component to the analysis of data used to determine the age of the universe (e.g. from Planck) therefore is to use a Bayesian statistical analysis, which normalizes the results based upon the priors (i.e. the model). This quantifies any uncertainty in the accuracy of a measurement due to a particular model used.

title: Age of the universe


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Tommy Tiernan

Tommy Tiernan is an Irish comedian, actor, and writer. He is best known for his stand-up career, hosting The Tommy Tiernan Show (2017–present) and playing Gerry in the sitcom Derry Girls (2018–2022).

Early life
Tiernan was born in Carndonagh, County Donegal, the son of a mother from County Limerick and a father from County Kerry. He moved with his family as a child; after spells living in London and Zambia, he attended the Catholic ex-junior seminary St Patrick's Classical School in Navan, where his schoolmates included Hector Ó hEochagáin and Dylan Moran.

Career
Tiernan has appeared several times on The Late Late Show. In the United States, he has appeared several times on the Late Show with David Letterman. He has also appeared on Michael McIntyre's Comedy Roadshow, The Lee Mack Show, Dave's One Night Stand, QI, and joined Eddie Izzard and Ross Noble at Laughs in the Park.

In "Going to America", the final episode of the clerical sitcom Father Ted, Tiernan plays a young priest. In the 1999 Channel 4 sitcom Small Potatoes, Tiernan took the lead role of Ed Blewitt, an underachiever who works in an east London video rental shop. It ran for 13 episodes over 2 seasons, ending in 2001.

In 2008, Tiernan and Hector Ó hEochagáin formed as a radio duo on The Tommy and Hector Show on i102-104FM after hinting at a desire to be on the radio, months before on The Late Late Show. Speaking about his role, Tiernan said, "I've always wanted to have loads of craic on the radio. What better way to have a mountain of devilment than to do a show with my best friend." Following the success of their show on iRadio Northwest, the show moved to the nationwide slot of Saturday 10am-12pm on 2FM.

In 2007, some families of people with Down syndrome complained about a routine in Tiernan's act about people with the condition. It had caused some surprise to some of the families as he previously ran a marathon in support of Down Syndrome Ireland.

An appearance on The Late Late Show in 2008 led to complaints about Tiernan's jokes involving a methadone user, Eastern European immigrant accents, buying a motorbike from an injured biker, and a film idea about "gay Traveller spacemen" seeking a cure for gayness, eight of which were upheld by the Broadcasting Complaints Commission. Some of his previous routines which went largely without remark included a comic reference to disproportionate American reaction to 9/11 and the indifferent Israeli attitude to foreign criticism of their occupations of surrounding land.

In September 2009, while being interviewed by Olaf Tyaransen for Hot Press magazine at a pre-performance Q&A session at Electric Picnic in County Laois, Tiernan was asked by an audience member if he had ever been accused of antisemitism. He responded by making remarks about the Holocaust and Jews and the death of Christ. He stated that a comedian should not be looked to for political correctness and said, "These Jews, these fucking Jew cunts come up to me. Fucking Christ-killing bastards. Fucking six million? I would have got 10 or 12 million out of that. No fucking problem! Fuck them." He later suggested in several interviews that his points were intended as a commentary on how somebody's words can easily be taken out of context when a small segment of a dialogue is quoted. The response of the audience was criticised as "disappointing" by Fine Gael's Alan Shatter, who also said, "I would regard it as particularly sad that people found that sort of outburst in any way amusing." Tiernan later released a statement that said he had not meant to cause offence and that his words had been taken out of context. He said that the comments were part of an attempt to explain his belief that comedians have a duty to be "irresponsible and reckless", to allow "whatever lunacy is within you to come out", and that they should never be taken out of context. He added that the statements that had caused controversy had been preceded by a statement not to take the rant seriously.

Catholic Archbishop Diarmuid Martin criticised the remarks, describing them as "offensive to the Jewish community" and "offensive to all who feel revulsion concerning the Holocaust, one of the most horrific events in human history". He said, "I can only decry the comments as insensitive and hurtful to the suffering of the victims and to a memory which is sacred." Holocaust Education Trust Ireland condemned Tiernan's statements as "appalling". Labour's Ruairi Quinn, chairman of the Trust, said that "as someone in the public eye, he has to take responsibility for his racist comments. We are equally concerned about the report of the audience's reaction, which appears to have endorsed, sustained and enjoyed his comments. We would hope that the Irish public will choose to stay away from such racist 'entertainment' in future". The Trust also condemned Tiernan's outburst. Louis Lentin said Tiernan should be denied a visa for his shows in the U.S. in October. Lentin said Tiernan's Electric Picnic comments were "disgraceful", and "extraordinarily racist." "He doesn't realise what he has said. He doesn't realise the seriousness of it. You can't make a joke about the Holocaust and just because you say it is a joke does not make it funny or acceptable".

Rabbi and comedian Bob Alper said that Tiernan's statement on the subject was an attempt to "weasel out" of the situation. Hot Press editor Niall Stokes defended Tiernan: "To interpret it as anti-Semitism is wrongheaded in the extreme. The way I see it, he is satirising anti-Semitism, while making a more general point that we should all be able to laugh at ourselves." Tyaransen, writing later in The Herald, wrote that neither he nor Tiernan had anticipated the response to Tiernan's comments. He said the last question asked from the floor about a "dogged charge of anti-Semitism" led to the comments, and part of Tiernan's response recounted criticism of his routine by a Jewish couple after a show in New York City. Tyaransen said that Tiernan's comments had been taken out of context and that he personally saw the monologue as "very funny".

In 2013, Tiernan performed in Vicar Street, Dublin, for his 200th show, in front of an audience of 1,000 people.

To date Tiernan has eight stand-up comedy DVDs: Tommy Tiernan Live, Cracked, Loose, Jokerman: Tommy Tiernan in America, Ok Baby, Bovinity, Crooked Man and Stray Sod.

On 5 January 2017, Tiernan presented the first episode of The Tommy Tiernan Show on RTÉ One.

Tiernan has starred as Da Gerry in the hit sitcom Derry Girls since 2018.

He was presenter of the Tommy and Hector Podcast with Laurita Blewitt from September 2020 until its closure in April 2024.

Comic style
When Tiernan started out, he wanted to be like Lenny Bruce. However, unlike Bruce, he does not regard himself as being a comedian "with a message". He had admitted that his sense of humour is controversial, but claims that it is based on instinct and denies there is any malice in it.

Personal life
Tiernan has three children with former partner Jayme Street He married Yvonne McMahon, his partner and manager, on 9 August 2009 at St. Patrick Catholic Church in County Monaghan; they had been together since December 2002. They also have 3 children.

Awards
In 1996, Tiernan won the Channel 4 "So You Think You're Funny" award. Two years later he was awarded the Perrier Comedy Award at the 1998 Edinburgh Festival Fringe and won the Best Stand-Up Award at the British Comedy Awards. In 2003, he won the Nokia Best of the Fest Award and the Orange People Choice Award at the Edinburgh Comedy Festival. In 2006, he won Ireland's Funniest Living Person Award at the People of the Year Awards.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Tommy Tiernan


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Macquarie Marshes

The Macquarie Marshes comprise the wetlands associated with the floodplains of the Macquarie River and its tributaries, in northern New South Wales, Australia. The Macquarie River and the marshes eventually drain into the Darling River. The marshes are important as a breeding site for waterbirds, especially in the aftermath of major floods.

Description
The marshes consist of a system of freshwater channels and streams, some of which are permanent following construction of water regulation devices, with semi-permanent and ephemeral swamps and floodplains. The extent of the marshes varies according to the extent of flooding. The historical maximum flooding of 4780 km2 was recorded in the mid-1950s; since then flooding has become both less frequent and less extensive. Most of the area covered by the marshes is used as rangeland or pasture; some 10% is protected in the Macquarie Marshes Nature Reserve. Among the variety of vegetation types supported by the marshes are river red gum forest and woodland, extensive beds of common reed, and meadows of water couch. Daily temperatures in the area vary from about 4 °C in July to 36 °C in January, with an average annual rainfall of 300 mm to 400 mm.

Fauna
The marshes support at least eight native and six introduced mammals, with 56 species of reptile, 15 species of frog and 16 species of freshwater fish.

Birds
The Macquarie Marshes have been identified by BirdLife International as a 2378 km2 Important Bird Area (IBA), defined by the maximum extent of the 1990 floods. Among over 200 species of birds recorded, the marshes have supported over 1% of the world population of the endangered Australasian bittern, as well as white-necked herons, intermediate egrets, nankeen night-herons, Australian white and straw-necked ibises, and sharp-tailed sandpipers. The IBA also supports a population of diamond firetails. Other birds recorded in substantial numbers include glossy ibises, great and little egrets, royal spoonbills, Pacific black ducks and Caspian terns. Australian painted snipes, superb parrots, painted and pied honeyeaters have been recorded in the IBA.

title: Macquarie Marshes


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Bejois (brandy)

Jois is a make of Indian brandy, manufactured by Amrut Distilleries, most popular in the states of Kerala and Karnataka. It is part of Amrut's Indian Made Foreign Liquor (IMFL) portfolio.

title: Bejois (brandy)


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Fermat polygonal number theorem

In additive number theory, the Fermat polygonal number theorem states that every positive integer is a sum of at most $n$ $n$-gonal numbers. That is, every positive integer can be written as the sum of three or fewer triangular numbers, and as the sum of four or fewer square numbers, and as the sum of five or fewer pentagonal numbers, and so on. That is, the $n$-gonal numbers form an additive basis of order $n$.

Examples
Three such representations of the number 17, for example, are shown below:
 * 17 = 10 + 6 + 1 (triangular numbers)
 * 17 = 16 + 1 (square numbers)
 * 17 = 12 + 5 (pentagonal numbers).

History
The theorem is named after Pierre de Fermat, who stated it, in 1638, without proof, promising to write it in a separate work that never appeared. Joseph Louis Lagrange proved the square case in 1770, which states that every positive number can be represented as a sum of four squares, for example, 7 = 4 + 1 + 1 + 1. Gauss proved the triangular case in 1796, commemorating the occasion by writing in his diary the line "ΕΥΡΗΚΑ! num = Δ + Δ + Δ", and published a proof in his book Disquisitiones Arithmeticae. For this reason, Gauss's result is sometimes known as the Eureka theorem. The full polygonal number theorem was not resolved until it was finally proven by Cauchy in 1813. The proof of is based on the following lemma due to Cauchy:

For odd positive integers $a$ and $b$ such that $b^{2} < 4a$ and $3a < b^{2} + 2b + 4$ we can find nonnegative integers $s$, $t$, $u$, and $v$ such that $a = s^{2} + t^{2} + u^{2} + v^{2}$ and $b = s + t + u + v$.

title: Fermat polygonal number theorem


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Liquid Skin

Liquid Skin is the second album by English rock group Gomez, released on 13 September 1999 by Hut Records. Following the release of their debut studio album Bring It On (1998), the band began recording their follow-up between August 1998 and June 1999 at Parr Street Studios in Liverpool, and Abbey Road Studios in London. Gomez were allowed to self-produce the sessions after their label heard the strength of their demos. Described as a blues rock album, Liquid Skin was compared to the work of Beck, the Grateful Dead, and Pearl Jam.

Liquid Skin received generally favourable reviews from critics, many of whom found it to be a retread of Bring It On with improved production. Preceded by a two-month tour of the United States, "Bring It On" was released as the lead single from Liquid Skin on 28 June 1999. Gomez appeared at a number of festivals, prior to the release of the album's second single "Rhythm & Blues Alibi" on 30 August 1999. Coinciding with the release of Liquid Skin, the band embarked on tours of the US and the UK, which were then followed by its third single "We Haven't Turned Around" on 8 November 1999. All three singles reached the top 40 of the UK Singles Chart, with "Rhythm & Blues Alibi" peaking the highest at number 18.

Background
Gomez released their debut studio album Bring It On in April 1998. It peaked at number 11 in the UK, where it won the Mercury Music Prize. All three of its singles charted on the UK Singles Chart, with "Whippin' Piccadilly" reaching the highest at number 35. It was promoted with a tour of the United States supporting Eagle-Eye Cherry.

Based on the strength of the demos the band had made, their label let them self-produce their next album. Sessions for it began at Parr Street Studios in Liverpool in August 1998. By November 1998, the band were working at Abbey Road Studios, where they recorded strings, before moving to a mansion near Hastings. Guitarist Ian Ball said they moved so that they would be able to "recreate the home-recorded sound of the first album, but in grander surroundings". They took a break to play a US tour with Mojave 3 in April and May 1999. Gomez had collectively recorded 32 songs during the recording sessions; they had finished in June 1999.

Composition and lyrics
Musically, the sound of Liquid Skin has been described as blues rock, rooted in American blues and folk, with elements of art rock and psychedelic music. It has been compared to the work of Pearl Jam (specifically their 1996 album No Code), Beck, and the Grateful Dead. Acoustic guitars lead the majority of the songs, which are accompanied by horns, strings, and keyboards. There is a bigger emphasis on vocals and harmonies; in contrast to Bring It On, which typically featured one singer per track, most of the songs on Liquid Skin had all three (Ball, guitarist Tom Gray, and guitarist Ben Ottewell). Ottewell theorised that the band's experience travelling in Australia, Europe and the United States influenced their writing. The album's title went through multiple names – God's Big Spaceship and Touching Up – before settling on Liquid Skin, which was inspired by a product they had found while in the United States. They almost called it Liquid State, though Gray said that as a title it was "not as good as 'Liquid Skin'." Ball described it as a "party record", with the "general theme" being "how many different ways we can play the same song in four minutes".

The sitar-driven opening track, "Hangover", deals with love and being drunk, according to Gray. It is a delta blues song that opens with Ken Nelson misquoting the opening line from Pink Floyd's The Wall (1979), followed by a loud bassline. "Revolutionary Kind" sees the band mix country and techno, recalling the work of Alabama 3. Gray wrote the song in a house on Ash Grove in Leeds; when they were recording it, the hall they were tracking in would burn down frequently. "Bring It On", the name of which alludes to the band's debut, includes a reference to that album's opening song, "Get Miles". It ends with a raga rock coda; the song was written around the same time as "Tijuana Lady" (from Bring It On), though was abandoned and left off their debut. Gray wrote "Blue Moon Rising" as a reaction to the death of Princess Diana. "Las Vegas Dealer" begins as a psychedelic piece and vocal harmonies in the vein of the Moody Blues, before incorporating Eastern rhythms. Ball said it was written about a drunken night while in Las Vegas, Nevada, with Nuno Bettencourt's father.

"We Haven't Turned Around" features cellos; it originally began under the title "Canderel" with a different chorus section. "Fill My Cup" transitions over the course of its length from blues to skate metal, with two middle eight sections. "Rhythm & Blues Alibi" was written by Ball while attending university; Ottewell saw it as "taking the piss out of R&B music" and "the band and probably me, particularly!". Ball was playing guitar with a Zoom Sampletrak sampler, when Gray suggested using some of the parts from it as the song's bridge section. Gray described the song as being a dig at a lot of "landfill RnB in the late-90s, but we were also saying that we were dicks appropriating black culture". "California" is a slow-building song that incorporates droning, and switches to a boogie; throughout this, the song details escaping California. The composition of the song was completed while backstage during a show with Mojave 3 at the Troubadour in West Hollywood. The closing track, "Devil Will Ride", uses a vocoder and marching band horns, concluding with a Beatlesque fadeout. Ball said the song was known under the working title of "God's Big Spaceship".

Release
Gomez embarked on a tour of the US in April and May 1999, where they were supported by Mojave 3; they cancelled shows in Europe to focus on the US. On 20 June 1999, Liquid Skin was announced for release in three months' time. "Bring It On" was released as the lead single from the album on 28 June 1999. Two versions were released on CD: the first with "Dire Tribe" and "M57", while the second included "Chicken Bones" and "Step Inside". They then appeared at the Glastonbury, T in the Park and V Festivals over the next two months. "Rhythm & Blues Alibi" was released as a single on 30 August 1999. Two versions were released on CD: the first with "The Best in Town" and "So", while the second included a "pre-mellotron" version of "Rhythm & Blues Alibi", "ZYX", and a live version of "Tijuana Lady" (under the name "Tijuanalaska").

Liquid Skin was released through Hut Records on 13 September 1999; its US release occurred a week later. Coinciding with this, the band went on a tour of the US and then the UK in October and November 1999. "We Haven't Turned Around" was released as a single on 8 November 1999. Two versions were released on CD: the first with "Flight" and "Rosemary", while the second featured an "X-Ray" version of "We Haven't Turned Around", "Gomez in a Bucket (A Seaside Town Made of Ice Cream, Slowly Melting)", and "Emergency Surgery".

"Bring It On" and "We Haven't Turned Around" were included on the band's second compilation album, Five Men in a Hut: A's, B's and Rarities 1998–2004 (2004). Liquid Skin was packaged with Bring It On as a two-CD combo in 2003. The band's first four studio albums and Five Men in a Hut: A's, B's and Rarities 1998–2004, were collected together as 5 Album Set in 2012. Liquid Skin was reissued in 2019 as a two-CD set that included a live show, demos, and alternative versions. Ball had become the band's archivist and helped bring the reissue to fruition. Following this, the band toured across the UK and Australia, where they played the album in its entirety.

Reception
Liquid Skin was met with generally favourable reviews from music critics. Tom Sinclair of Entertainment Weekly noted that the band had been referred to as roots rock, "but one listen to their sophomore CD shows they’re twisting those roots into strange and marvelous shapes". AllMusic reviewer Stephen Thomas Erlewine saw the album as a "cleaner, more streamlined version" of Bring It On, adding that they perform music "that they believe to be experimental or rootsy, but not quite going far enough in either direction". NME Piers Martin also found it to be "very much like" their debut, "only bigger, even more confident and with far better production".

Los Angeles Times writer Richard Cromelin said Gomez had "a free-ranging imagination, twisting and distorting and juxtaposing [their songs] with an exhilarating sense of freedom". PopMatters editor Sarah Zupko wrote that band had "picked up a few new studio tricks or two and rounded out their sound with fuller textures and better-produced mixes". She added that the "back-to-the-country-sounding songs" had a "trippy vibe," and were "just as good as ever". In a review for Rolling Stone, journalist Greg Kot wrote that "the arrangements on Liquid Skin are more substantial, beefed up with strings and horns, and the songs sturdier" than those on Bring It On.

"Bring It On" reached number 21 in singles chart. "Rhythm & Blues Alibi" reached number 18. "We Haven't Turned Around" reached number 38. CMJ New Music Report ranked the album at number 13 on their list of the Top 30 Editorial Picks of 1999. PopMatters included it on their Most Memorable Albums of the year list.

Track listing

 * 1) "Hangover" – 3:27
 * 2) "Revolutionary Kind" – 4:32
 * 3) "Bring It On" – 4:10
 * 4) "Blue Moon Rising" – 4:48
 * 5) "Las Vegas Dealer" – 3:55
 * 6) "We Haven't Turned Around" – 6:29
 * 7) "Fill My Cup" – 4:39
 * 8) "Rhythm & Blues Alibi" – 5:03
 * 9) "Rosalita" – 4:05
 * 10) "California" – 7:24
 * 11) "Devil Will Ride" – 6:56

title: Liquid Skin


text:
Talk:Alaisiagae

Untitled
Changed Norse to Germanic. Whatever the Alaisiagae were, they were not specifically Norse. Io 18:57, 21 Jul 2004 (UTC)

No, they were Celtic according to this site: http://www.timelessmyths.com/celtic/british.html. The info is probably taken from an Internet site: http://www.pantheon.org/articles/a/alaisiagae.html The ungermanic form is proof enough for me that they were neither Norse nor Germanic --Wiglaf 09:43, 22 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Changed Germanic to Celtic. Io 10:11, 22 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Hardly. I'm doing research on them now and the academic sources only ever talk about a Germanic origin, or Celto-Germanic according to one source. Haven't found anything pointing to a Celtic origin yet. I hope to find the time to do some editing here. (Gislertha (talk) 15:02, 21 June 2020 (UTC))

Reference l'Année Épigraphique for 1973
Geoffrey M. Gleadall talked about two inscriptions in Greek recorded in L'Annee Epigraphique for the year 1973. Alas I couldn't find these inscriptions there, neither other persons I asked about this problem. Who can tell me where I can find these inscriptions en what is exactly mentioned in it ? Geoffrey can you perhaps help me ? send 3 Feb 2007.

The only other reference I can find on the internet for this says "AE 1973 265/266." The items in this journal are numbered. In this particular journal, these items are on the first page for the Sicily section. These say nothing at all about the Alaisiagae or any of the deities mentioned. Propose we remove this? Cloudtoad (talk) 17:11, 16 January 2020 (UTC)

I take it back. After looking at the inscription in the journal, I believe Geoffrey is referring to Άλαισίγοι Álaisígoi. I lack Greek abilities in my skill tree, so I'm not sure if this is a common word for something else. Cloudtoad (talk) 17:51, 16 January 2020 (UTC)

Ok, this appears to be a misreading on Geoffrey's part. It's actually Άλαισίνοι / Álaisínoi. This is a reference to the people of Halaesa in Sicily, which has it's own wiki page. Will remove the reference. Cloudtoad (talk) 18:01, 16 January 2020 (UTC)

Phonemic Alaisiagae
Seeing as I am finding it rather impossible to know for sure how this is to be pronounced is anyone out there that could give us the phonemic script for it? Mephisteus (talk) 18:19, 3 April 2008 (UTC)

Valkyries
HR Ellis Davidson interprets the Alaisiagae as Valkyries with their connection to war. Alaisiagae is translated as 'all conquering' and there is the connection with Mars Thincsus which seems to be a version of Tiw, god of the Thing -which again links them with war. Beda/BAVDIHILLIE is according to her the same as Beadohild/Bodvild in the Wayland saga. Bunnyman78 (talk) 16:00, 7 November 2010 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Alaisiagae


text:
Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Judaism/Archive 1

Pronunciation
There are many different ways of pronouncing Hebrew words. It seems that most people want to standardize on the Sefardi pronunciation. There is a reason not to use that pronunciation and that is because most of the people using it are really ashkenazim and they switched to a sefardi pronunciation for reasons that were not necessarily in accordance with Halacha.

 * Yet, this dialect is now the most commonly used, and most outside readers will get increasingly confused if multiple spellings are given. Also, many people will pray in an older dialect while using "Israeli" pronunciation in daily parlance for ease of understanding. I vote to retain the status quo, and certainly to not start making long lists of dialectical alternatives. JFW | T@lk  20:19, 8 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * The spelling is also not what most Jews would use, but seems to have been pushed towards some sort of quasi-scholarly spelling, in particular in the use of "kh" for "chaf" and "h" for "chet". This too is abandoned in a pinch; see for example the article on what Jews would term the "Shulchan Aruch", as you yourself have pointed out. What should the standard be? Jayjg 17:45, 9 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Mesorah Publications had the encountered the same dilemna, and decided to use a mixture, IIRC. --Josiah 02:09, 11 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Yes. I've read about it in one of their introductions. I would like their rendering to be the default. --Ezra Wax 17:22, 14 Jul 2004 (UTC)

I must disagree with Ezra Wax! The Artscroll and Mesorah Publications form of pronunciation is horrible; they have been pushing this confusing hybrid for 30 years, and it has been overwhelmingly rejected by the rest of the Jewish community. Scholars of Judaism do not use this form of transliteration; neither do most other Orthodox Jews, neither do any non-Orthodox Jews. We should generally use the Sephardic transliteration, as this is what most Hebrew speakers use. Even ultra-Orthodox Jews who normally use the Ashkenazi pronunciation while praying can and do switch to the more commonly used Sephardi pronunciation on other occasions. RK 21:42, Jul 14, 2004 (UTC)

 * I'm not sure if you think only "ultra-Orthodox" Jews use Ashkenazi pronunciations, but that idea is nowhere near reality. And I must point out again, Modern Israeli and Sephardi are different pronunciations. Jayjg 07:04, 16 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * I agree with RK in this regard. The ArtScroll is too much of a "mishgabibel" especially now with their interliniar transliterations driving people crazy. I vote we stick with "standard" Israeli Hebrew as it is basically the spoken language of close to half the world's Jews, even the Charedim in Israel speak Israeli (and NOT "Ashkenazi" Hebrew). What people do when they pray, whether they confuse themselves with Artscroll, mumble in English, fly in Ashkenazik, Sefardik or Chasidik is a personal matter relating to worship and has nothing to do with Hebrew as a SPOKEN and written i.e. LIVING language today. Your avergae (Jewish) person wants to know Israeli Hebrew and not be confused with other variants. So let's not add to that confusion on Wikipedia. IZAK 07:08, 15 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * I'm just saying that if people, as a whole, can't agree to go with Artscroll's mess. Personally, I'd say sephardic also.--Josiah 06:11, 16 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * At this point in time User Gilgamesh and User Mustafaa are on a spree creating massive havoc as they have undertaken to edit any Hebrew/Jewish/Israeli article and insert (at least) four varieties of "Hebrew", often including "Tiberian", "Yemenite", with "Ashkenazi", and anything else they can squeeze in. Why does Hebrew suffer from this on Wikipedia? Does, say, every article in English start of with the "American", "British", "Australian", ad nauseum way of pronouncing words??? Is Wikipedia the place for emphasis on phonetics, accents, pronounciations etc of words??? They should be encouraged to stop before they cause immense chaos and confusion. They even attempted to down-grade modern Israeli (Sephardic) Hebrew (spoken by almost half of world Jewry today), as just another "POV" brand of Hebrew no different to mysterious and defunct "Moabite, Edomite and Ammonite". This is what you call "chutzpah". IZAK 15:33, 14 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * I find what they are doing to be quite odd. However, I must point out that modern Israeli Hebrew is not Sepharadi. Jayjg 17:06, 14 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Ok then, be pedantic, it's "sorta Sefardi" then, my point is that its "Baruch" for example, is closer to Sefardi than the Chasidik "Booreech" or Ashkenazi "Bawrooch". But I do not mean to be pedantic. I will tell you what they are up to: They are "shechting" the "Lashon HaKodesh" and making it into "Hebrew" alphabet "fruit soup" of no use to anyone really, and thereby stop the inroads of standard Israeli Hebrew as a common user-friendly Hebrew language. IZAK 17:14, 14 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Actually, on the request of Jdfwolff (on the issue of page style) and Jallan (on the issue of scientific transliteration), I went through hundreds of pages I had previously edited for Hebrew linguistics, and in nearly all cases eliminated all but two transliterations: Tiberian Hebrew and Standard Hebrew. Jallan had issue to exact scientific transliterations, so I started using scientific Unicode standards for both.  Additional entries for Samaritan Hebrew, Arabic and Septuagint Greek are only added if the topic is relevant to Samaritans, Arabs, Muslims, Christian scholars, etc.  The most affected article by far is List of Hebrew names — it has been given a magnificent overhaul in these regards.  No more millions of alternate spellings unless they represent true variants with true phonemic differences in the same language.  I've only done my best to respect and accommodate every POV on this very complex subject.  I have already long since restored Standard Hebrew to the Hebrew language article.  But the truth of the matter is, although Hebrew need not be presented as an unending soup in the articles, it is a soup in real life, and historically.  And trailing off to categories and other articles, every flavor of soup has the right to be represented in parity with other flavors. - Gilgamesh 23:42, 14 July 2004 (UTC)

 * Gilgamesh, I'm personally very happy with the present arrangement. There is, indeed, a very big Shabbos chicken soup of Hebrew dialects, and I feel we should settle for an "Israeli Modern Hebrew" transcription, augmented by Tiberian Hebrew if you feel this adds anything.
 * As for other transcriptions, as long as Shabbos, Shabbes and Shabbas redirect to Shabbat there is no real problem at all. The vast majority of readers will not expect to see their dialect represented.
 * I'm a Dutch Ashkenazi, and (as I told you before) I use a dialect that is a hybrid between Western Ashkenazi and Portugese Hebrew. The word Olam (world) becomes [Ngaulom]. Yet it is - IMHO - completely irrelevant to have a fringe dialect represented here. JFW | T@lk  17:30, 15 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * My question is, why "Tiberian Hebrew" relevant? Who speaks this language, or uses it in any meaningful way? Jayjg 17:35, 15 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * It's relevant to linguistic scholars and historians. Tiberian Hebrew is an especially important historical linguistic study because the vast majority of Hebrew liturgical dialects (including the Sephardic dialect from which Standard Hebrew arose) evolved from the standardized form of Hebrew drafted at Tiberias in the 8th century C.E.  It's also been a basis from which the Hebrew Bible has been translated into various other languages, particularly during the Reformation when some Christians lost faith in the Latin Vulgate Bible, and questioned the wisdom of depending on a translation of a translation of a translation at all when they could use the original.  Hebrew has a great many students of history as well, as it has been one of the single most influential languages shaping Jewry and Christendom, and both Western Civilization and Islamic Civilization.  And Hebrew studies — while I think they deserve to be and will always be a part of Jewish study — will also always be a part of non-Jewish study of linguistics, history, culture and theology.  As such, everyone in Abrahamic religion has a stake in Hebrew linguistic scholarship, whether it be practicing Jews like the respected company here, or Christians like me, or Muslims like Mustafaa, or even the Druze or the Baha'i.  It's something we can all share, together. :) - Gilgamesh 22:44, 15 July 2004 (UTC)

 * But why is the pronunciation of various words )(e.g. Kabbalah) relevant in "Tiberian Hebrew", particularly as those words might not have ever even been used in "Tiberian Hebrew"? Jayjg 05:46, 16 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * One important thing I forgot to mention - Tiberian Hebrew is the oldest standard of Hebrew to have its vowels and consonants completely distinguished and standardized. It is of significant importance to linguistic study and comparative Canaanite linguistics and Semitic linguistics as a whole.  Hebrew isn't the monopoly of a single religious group or ethnicity.  It belongs to everyone.  This really has nothing to do with how Hebrew is used in Judaism nor Jewry.  Wikipedia is a place of dispassionate secular science without endorsement of a single culture nor religion.  And I am here as a scientist in the field of linguistics. - Gilgamesh 06:17 July 2004 (UTC)

 * Um, ok, but could you please answer my question now? Is it your intention to insert into Wikipedia articles the "Tiberian Hebrew" pronunciation for words which never existed in "Tiberian Hebrew" to begin with? Jayjg 06:54, 16 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Ohhhhhh, I misunderstood the question. Well, I suppose it doesn't have anything to do with Tiberian Hebrew, except perhaps that Tiberian represents the origin of the liturgical dialects.  The relevant question here would be, did non-Sephardi Qabbalists pronounce the word in Sephardic Hebrew or in their own dialects?  For example, did any Ashkenazim pronounce it Kabboloh?  If the answer is no, then I suppose Tiberian is not relevant to that issue.  But if the answer is yes, then Tiberian would be a good older phonemic representation of Hebrew that unites the etymological differences between the dialects, which are, afterall, dialects of Tiberian Hebrew.  Jdfwolff told me, afterall, that there are simply too many dialects to represent them all, so representing the keystone standard and the modern standard at the same time seems like an equitable compromise. - Gilgamesh 07:06, 16 July 2004 (UTC)

 * Regarding using a "keystone" standard, you seem to be saying that because Ashkenazi Jews pronounce it Kabboloh and Sepharadi Jews pronounce it Qabala that we therefore need to present instead its "Tiberian Hebrew" pronunciation, even though the word might never have been used in "Tiberian Hebrew", and indeed the language (and in particular its pronunciation) is only a linguistic hypothesis to begin with. I recognize that there are a large number of Hebrew accents/dialects, but there are only 4 or 5 in common use today, and of those 1 or perhaps 2 are dominant in everyday usage.  To say that we cannot present the dominant, or even common Hebrew pronunciations of words, but instead must present a hypothetical construct which no-one in real life uses, and which may never have been used, seems, at best, to be absurd to me. Jayjg 07:15, 16 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Well, I don't disagree, Jayjg. I did try to include several dialects before, but Jdfwolff as an administrator admonished me not to. I trimmed it down to just two, and he told me it was acceptable to his recommended conventions. I guess we need to strike a bargain between detail and formatting, and Jdfwolff is okay with this, and so am I. Besides, merely the exact IPA pronunciation of Tiberian is subject to guessing; its phonemes are well-documented and not a source of conjecture in this case. That's why there's such a well-established scientific transliteration for the Tiberian form. This standard transliteration is provided in academic textbooks for scholarly Biblical Hebrew study, at least in universities. So, the main purpose of Tiberian Hebrew is not a description of pronunciation, but of phonemic detail. It has five clear short vowels and seven clear long vowels, and a separate transliterative form for every Hebrew consonant, including sāmeḵ and śîn. It is an elegant approach to presenting the phonemes of Hebrew words in the most detailed way available to scholars. Gilgamesh 7:49, 16 July 2004 (UTC)

 * I'm fine with just two, but "Tiberian Hebrew" simply doesn't make sense for most of these articles; in fact, it's a bizarre anachronism to write the "Tiberian Hebrew" pronunciations of words and concepts that were never spoken in "Tiberian Hebrew". Modern Israeli and Ashkenazi are the two most widely used dialects today; Sepharadi Hebrew is usually quite close to Modern Israeli, but where it differs from Modern Israeli it could be included as well.  "Tiberian Hebrew" might be relevant for articles dealing with subjects upon which "Tiberian Jews" had something to say, but it doesn't belong anywhere else. And, to be frank, "Tiberian Hebrew" is in reality a dialect invented and used by a few hundred academics, and is not "mainstream" in any meaningful sense. It doesn't really belong anywhere except those academic publications, but regardless, in no articles does it make sense for "Tiberian Hebrew" to come first. Jayjg 15:23, 16 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Well, alright. You bring up one good point:  Maybe Tiberian should come second after the modern Standard.  That'll be easy work for me.  I'll swap their positions immediately.  But my point for Tiberian Hebrew remains. :) - Gilgamesh 22:53, 16 July 2004 (UTC)

As for fonts and white boxes that we've been seeing around lately, that's actual a separate issue dealing with a separate POV debate still going on over the forced use of specific fonts in Wikipedia's CSS. It's received many complaints precisely for the reason that it makes many Unicode characters undisplayable for normal visitors using Internet Explorer. I for one, when providing academic detail, consider this not to be my problem, and I continue to use mandated Unicode characters when it is the standard for an orthography. (Jallan threatened POV dispute if I didn't adhere to this. :P) Since it appears that popular opinion over the style sheets issue is resoundingly against forcing specific typefaces, I hope simply that common sense will prevail and that Wikipedia's style designers will yield control back to individual web browsers. I'm not going to compromise the Unicode. - Gilgamesh 7:49, 16 July 2004 (UTC)

 * Gilgamesh: With all due respect, I think you are holding up or inserting the proverbial "red herring" by latching on to this "Tiberian Hebrew" gobbledigook, and thereby in effect sowing confusion and sadly NOT creating enlightenment. No-one but you and some obscure pedantic liguists know and care about the existence of "Tiberian" Hebrew, and we don't need it spreading itself like measles onto the faces of all Wikipedia articles with Hebrew words. I agree with User Jayjg, it is COMPLETELY UNnecessary to insert a reference to "Tiberian" Hebrew every time a Wikipedia article has Hebrew words in its introductions. To what lengths will this go... will an article on the Israel Defence Forces or the name of Ariel Sharon be subjected to Gilgamesh's obsession with pasting in "Tiberian" Hebrew? What a joke that will be and make Wikipedia look plain idiotic as no Israeli and modern Hebrew speakers, who just happen to account for close to half of present-day world Jewry, would take it seriously. (Unless of course Gilgamesh is on a "crusade" to re-indoctrinate the Jews with far-fetched theories that mean nothing in practical terms to Jews or anyone else.) In any case, the whole notion of having a few Hebrew words SPRINKLED into an ENGLISH language article is to give it some authenticity and relevancy which is best done by following the "KISS" ("Keep It Simple Stupid" ) rule, especially when Hebrew is an alien language to planet Earth's six billion inhabitants. So let's get rid of Gilgamesh's pedantic insertions and intrusions into the area of Hebraica on Wikipedia (his fonts are also messy and don't work a lot of the time, leaving gaps in words), unless they are within normal bounds of PRESENT-DAY modern Israeli Hebrew usage. If anything, it would make more sense to insert references to the still widely used (in prayers and Torah and Talmud learning) Ashkenazic Hebrew, but that too would be much too confusing were it to be done en masse if plastered and pasted every time a Hebrew word pops up in Wikipedia. So let's get a handle on this soon, before the mess will be too big to clean up quickly. IZAK 04:49, 16 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * IZAK, if you're going to disagree with him, fine. I don't see a need for Tiberian either. But QUIT THE AD HOMINEM ATTACKS.--Josiah 06:16, 16 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * I know I am really behind and that this is an archieve, but I want to point out something that I pointed out in another talk page. There was a Takonoh, a decree, from Chossidic Rebbes in E. Yisroel, The land of Israel, That said "Anyone who changes they're Havoroh, they're pronounciation of Loshon Kodesh, Borders on Apikorsus, on heresey. I propose that The transliteration of hebrew be by whichever Nusach The editor is. For me as a mix of Nusachim, I follow my Father's. My Father is Ashkenazic, so I follow The Ashkenazic havoroh. --Shaul avrom 16:40, 28 August 2006 (UTC)

See Talk:Hebrew name
For article on Hebrew name User Gilgamesh and User Mustafaa are having a ball tearing up the turf. Using fonts and systems that just come up as "little boxes". It's a case of a "little knowledge is a dangerous thing" as they "decide" on their own the meanings of Hebrew language words from the Torah and Tanakh sometimes using little more than guess-work. IZAK 16:51, 14 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Outline of articles
Most articles seem to have the following parts:
 * Introduction
 * Various synonyms of the title of the article
 * Domain of the term i.e. In Judaism ...
 * Short definition of term
 * History
 * Ancient History
 * Recent History
 * Current Practice
 * Treat according to denomination
 * Orthodox
 * Conservative
 * Reform
 * Other

Problems with this outline: Treatment according to history tends to emphasize that current practice is different than present practice. This emphasis tends to be an effort to promote the idea that laws change and therefore more conservative viewpoints are too conservative.

 * No, it doesn't promote the idea that more conservative ideas are too conservative. That is your interpretation of the facts. All it does is prove that history exists. Some Ultra-Orthodox Jews, however, wish to replace the historical point of view with their distorted view of Jewish history, one in which Abraha, wore a kipa, and Cain and Abel studied in a yeshiva. Wikipedia's NPOV policy demands that we study a religion's development in its historical context, which shows us that all religions and develop and change over time. Anyone who denies the existence of such change is probably so ignorant as to be useless to our project, and so biased as to be unable to conform to NPOV requirements. RK

 * On the other hand, it confirms the historicity of certain laws and customs when these are continued into daily practice. For example, mikvah mentions that "Orthodox Jews still use a mikvah". Etc. JFW | T@lk

 * Saying that "Orthodox Jews still use a mikvah" is problematic. Better would be to say, "Unfortunately many Jews have abandoned halacha and have stopped using a mikva."

 * Perhaps "While Orthodox Jews still use a mikvah, many Jews due to to laxity in observance, or rebellion against rabbinical authority, have ceased to do so." --Ezra Wax 17:29, 14 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * "Unfortunately"? "Abandoned"? It is highly unlikely that these amazingly POV and normative words would last long on Wikipedia. Jayjg 02:57, 12 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * I agree with Jayjg. It is also a serious violation of Wikipedia NPOV policy to promote any religions practices or beliefs. However, we can write that According to Orthodox and most Conservative rabbis it is unfortunate that many Jews have abandoned halacha and have stopped using the mikvah. Such a statement is in accord with the Wikipedia NPOV policy. RK

Treatment according to denomination emphasizes that there are denominations and legitimizes them. This tends to be contrary to the view that denominations are mostly irrelevant and that there are those who are more particular about observance and those who are less so.

 * Yet, apart from Orthodoxy, the denominations seem to be quite comfortable in this split. Recognising the existance of these movements and their policies is troublesome from an Orthodox POV, but for the purposes of Wikipedia it seems to be the only tenable solution. JFW | T@lk

 * The point is that Orthodoxy is not a movement in the sense that it moved away from what was before. It was using established principles to react to a changing situation. As such it is not a movement. The other denominations might be movements, but they are not Judaism. The point is that the non-Orthodox want to legitimize themselves by calling themselves denominations.

 * See this is the problem. I totally disagree. Many historians have proved that Orthodox Judaism is a movement, and that it has moved away from what was once before. I can provide numerous references. It would be more accurate to say that Most Orthodox Jews believe that their beliefs and practices are the same as the beliefs and practices of previous generations, while some Orthodox Jews and most non-Orthodox Jews believe that even Orthodoxy has changed significantly in the last 200 years.  RK 13:45, Jul 14, 2004 (UTC)

 * 2 points to consider 1)On the opposite perspective, one could say that Orthodoxy wants to legitimize itself by saying that the Non-Orthodox are not denominations. 2) When some of the early Reform Jews classified themselves as "of Mosaic Persuasion" or "the religion of Moses", they were criticized even more for abandoning the use of "Judaism". 3) The entire issue of whether or not denominations are, or are not, legitimate is a theological one. I suggest the issue be dropped, since Wikipedia is not a place to debate theology. --Josiah 01:53, 11 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * The non-Orthodox movements would, in fact, state categorically that Orthodoxy today has indeed moved away from what it was before. I doubt you'll get any agreement on this outside of the Orthodox world. Jayjg 19:56, 13 Jul 2004 (UTC)


text:
User talk:Mrclarke

Hello and welcome to Wikipedia! Hope you like it here, and stick around.

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Guardian Berliner Launch
Hi, I just read the Guardian article... I was wondering where you got the september date for the Berliner launch from. dpen2000 22:44, 29 Dec 2004 (UTC) (please notify me of your response on my talk page) Request Answered --Mrclarke 09:31, 2 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Guardian to be more moderate?
"I can show many articles which say exactly this hence I have rv the bit on the Guardian." - Please do! :P (ps: you can reply on your talk page, it's watched.) -- Joolz 10:36, 2 May 2005 (UTC)

Here are some, the main one is from the FT by John Lloyd. Perhaps when I said 'many' I should have said 'several' but nevertheless it's being talked about a lot. --Mrclarke 14:04, 2 May 2005 (UTC)

FT John Lloyd:

This one is from the Evening Standard and it is very appropriate as it talks directly about a 'lurch to the centre'

From the Evening Standard:

We have this, from the Spectator by Stephen Glover: (subscription required, but the first few free lines say something):

From the Sindy, on the change, but not so much on the politics:

From the Evening Standard:

Copyright of FT logo
Rather than going ahead and changing the copying on the FT logo graphic from to  I thought I should ask you if you know if it  has been released into the public domain (which seems unlikely but maybe it has lapsed or something). If it is not known to be in the public domain, someone should change it to. Robertbyrne 03:29, 25 August 2005 (UTC)

I agree, change it to. --Mrclarke 18:24, 25 August 2005 (UTC)

OK, done. I assume that since Wikipedia is stored in the US that US copyright law applies, rather than Briitish law. I'm not a legal expert. It's probably an improvement now anyway. Robertbyrne 23:06, 25 August 2005 (UTC)

The Times to Featured article?
Greetings, Mrclarke. I am wondering whether or not you would be interested in collaborating in an effort to push The Times to Featured article status. You had already submitted as a Featured article candidate, but it was rejected, hence we may use given objections in order to rectify it. Are you interested in doing so? Grumpy Troll (talk) 19:02, 25 August 2005 (UTC).

Yes, I would like to. I will support such an effort. --Mrclarke 10:17, 27 August 2005 (UTC)
 * Thank you for your support, it is much appreciated. Grumpy Troll (talk) 19:29, 27 August 2005 (UTC).

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82.69.74.59 on WP:RFI
The edits were made a couple of days ago, and have stopped since, therefore there is little point blocking. I've added it to the CVU IRC blacklist for now to watch for return. As it is an IP address old warnings might not mean very much, so if they return, warn again and then report to WP:AIV. Feel free to get back to me with any questions. Petros471 20:12, 15 April 2006 (UTC)

Hey, is that Fisher?
Hey, is that Fisher?

The 'ACF' gave it all away...

I do think we should have a seperate article for the Bolton School Paper, the Bolton School article is getting very full and it needs to branch off somewhere. Besides, we can add editiorial information there. I don't think it's self promotion really. Jordanhatch 20:55, 15 July 2006 (UTC)

 * We can try and promote it to an article worthy of it's own page if you can think of all the relevant information -- maybe?? Jordanhatch 20:59, 15 July 2006 (UTC)

 * Hmmmm....I just don't see why...no other schools have a page for their paper. Once we're as big as the Harvard Crimson then yes, but for now, I'd say no. The Bolton school article is much shorter then many comparable ones - i.e. Manchester Grammar School.

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Unreferenced BLPs
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Thanks!--DASHBot (talk) 05:36, 16 January 2010 (UTC)
 * 1) Stephen Glover -

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title: User talk:Mrclarke


text:
Conchology

Conchology is the study of mollusc shells. Conchology is one aspect of malacology, the study of molluscs; however, malacology is the study of molluscs as whole organisms, whereas conchology is confined to the study of their shells. It includes the study of land and freshwater mollusc shells as well as seashells and extends to the study of a gastropod's operculum.

Conchology is now sometimes seen as an archaic study, because relying on only one aspect of an organism's morphology can be misleading. However, a shell often gives at least some insight into molluscan taxonomy, and historically the shell was often the only part of exotic species that was available for study. Even in current museum collections it is common for the dry material (shells) to greatly exceed the amount of material that is preserved whole in alcohol.

Conchologists mainly deal with four molluscan orders: the gastropods (snails), bivalves (clams), Polyplacophora (chitons) and Scaphopoda (tusk shells). Cephalopods only have small internal shells, with the exception of the Nautiloidea. Some groups, such as the sea slug nudibranchs, have lost their shells altogether, while in others it has been replaced by a protein support structure.

Versus shell collecting

The terms shell collector and conchologist can be regarded as two distinct categories. Not all shell collectors are conchologists; some are primarily concerned with the aesthetic value of shells instead of their scientific study. It is also true that not all conchologists are shell collectors; this type of research only requires access to private or institutional shell collections. There is some debate in the conchological community, with some people regarding all shell collectors (regardless of motivation) as conchologists.

History
Shell collecting, the precursor of conchology, dates back thousands of years. Archaeologists have sometimes uncovered Stone Age oceanic seashell necklaces in areas far from the ocean, indicating that they were traded, and shell jewellery has been found at archaeological sites around the world.

During the Renaissance people began collecting natural objects of beauty for private cabinets of curiosities. Because of their attractiveness, variety, durability and ubiquity, shells frequently became a large part of such collections. Scientific interest began to develop towards the end of the 17th century, and in 1681 The Jesuit priest Filippo Bonanni published the two-volume atlas Ricreazione dell'occhio et della mente nell'osservazione delle chiocciole ("Recreation of the eye and of the mind in the observation of molluscs"), the first treatise devoted entirely to mollusc shells. In 1692 Martin Lister published Historia Conchyliorum, a comprehensive conchological text with more than 1,000 engraved plates. George Rumpf, or "Rumphius", (1627–1702) published the first genuine mollusc taxonomy. He suggested the categories "single shelled ones" (modern Polyplacophora, limpets, and abalone), "snails or whelks" (Gastropoda), and "two-shelled ones" (Bivalvia). He did not include the tusk shells or the internal shells of the cephalopods.

Many of Rumpf's terms were later adopted by Carl Linnaeus. The study of zoology, including conchology, was revolutionized by Linnaeus and his system of binomial nomenclature. Six hundred eighty three of the approximately 4,000 animal species Linnaeus described are now considered to be molluscs, although Linnaeus placed them in several different phyla at the time. The English word "conchology" was coined in the 1770s by the British Sephardi naturalist Emanuel Mendes da Costa, who published The Elements of Conchology: or, an Introduction to the Knowledge of Shells in London in 1776.

Since 1700 a number of prominent conchologists have published their studies of shells. John Mawe (1764–1829) produced arguably the first conchology guidebook, The Voyager's Companion or Shell-Collector's Pilot, as well as The Linnæan System of Conchology. Hugh Cuming (1791–1865) is famous for his huge collection and numerous discoveries of new species. Thomas Say wrote the fundamental work American Conchology, or Descriptions of the Shells of North America, Illustrated From Coloured Figures From Original Drawings, Executed from Nature in six volumes (1830–1834).

R. Tucker Abbott was arguably the most prominent conchologist of the 20th century, authoring dozens of books and working as museum director of the Bailey-Matthews Shell Museum. His most best-known works are American Seashells, Seashells of the World, and The Kingdom of the Seashell. John DuPont is also known for his extensive collection which he donated to the Delaware Museum of Natural History in 1984. The Japanese emperor Hirohito also amassed a huge collection, and was a competent and respected amateur conchologist.

In 1950, Joyce Allan, an Australian conchologist working as curator of shells at the Australian Museum, authored Australian Shells. This was the first book to catalogue the majority of Australian molluscs in detail and was highly regarded within the scientific community and mollusc collectors.

Museums
Many museums worldwide contain very large and scientifically important shell collections. However, in most cases these are research collections not as readily accessible to the general public as exhibits.

the world's largest assemblage of mollusc shells was held by the Smithsonian Institution, which has c. 1 million lots representing perhaps 50,000 species. The Burke Museum of Natural History and Culture also has a large collection which was donated by Dr. Phil Nudelman in 2013. It includes about 100,000 specimens and 24,000 species, mostly from the Indo-Pacific region, the Caribbean, and the Mediterranean.

United States

 * Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia
 * American Museum of Natural History, New York City
 * Bailey-Matthews Shell Museum in Sanibel Island, Florida: the only museum in the world dedicated entirely to shells.
 * Charleston Marine Life Center, Oregon Institute of Marine Biology in Charleston Oregon
 * Denver Museum of Nature & Science, Denver, Colorado: approximately 17,500 shell lots.
 * Museum of Comparative Zoology at Cambridge, Massachusetts
 * National Museum of Natural History, Washington D.C. – The Smithsonian has c. 1 million lots, the largest worldwide

Europe

 * Austria, Vienna – Naturhistorisches Museum
 * Belgium, Brussels – Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, one of the three largest collections
 * France, Paris – Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle 900,000 lots, 5 million specimens
 * Germany
 * Frankfurt – Naturmuseum Senckenberg, 700,000 lots (33,000 living taxa, 12,000 fossil taxa)
 * Berlin – Berlin's Natural History Museum
 * Netherlands, Leiden – Natural History Museum, Leiden
 * Sweden, Stockholm – Swedish Museum of Natural History

United Kingdom
Source:

 * London – Natural History Museum 8 million specimens, 60,000 type specimens
 * Cardiff – National Museum Cardiff, second largest UK collection, over 2 million specimens
 * Manchester – Manchester Museum, fourth largest UK collection; 166,000 lots.
 * Cambridge – Cambridge University Museum of Zoology, over 100,000 lots

Organizations
Like other scientific fields, conchologists have a number of local, national, and international organizations. There are also many organizations specializing in specific subareas.

 * Association Française de Conchyliologie
 * Belgian Society for Conchology
 * Club Conchylia, the German/Austrian Society for Shell Collecting
 * Conchological Society of Great Britain and Ireland
 * Conchologists of America
 * Conquiliologistas do Brasil
 * Nederlandse Malacologische Vereniging
 * Unitas Malacologica

Depictions of shells on stamps and coins
Shells have been featured on over 5,000 postage stamps worldwide, and have been featured on many coins including the Bahamian dollar (1974), the Cuban peso (1981), the Haitian gourde (1973), the Nepalese rupee (1989) and Philippine peso (1993).

Conchological organizations

 * Association Française de Conchyliologie
 * Conchologists of America
 * Conchological Society of Great Britain and Ireland
 * Club Conchylia, the German/Austrian Society for Shell Collecting
 * Belgian Society for Conchology
 * Conquiliologistas do Brasil

title: Conchology


text:
That Peter Kay Thing

That Peter Kay Thing is a British mockumentary series which was first shown on Channel 4 in 2000. It was written by Peter Kay, Dave Spikey, Neil Fitzmaurice and Gareth Hughes, and was directed by Andrew Gillman. The series was narrated by Andrew Sachs. Set in and around Bolton, each episode functions as a self-contained documentary following a different set of characters, many of them played by Kay. The pilot episode, "The Services", was shown in 1998 as an episode of Comedy Lab, a series which showcased pilots of experimental comedy shows. Many of the characters went on to appear in the successful spin-off series Phoenix Nights.

Characters

 * Brian Potter (Kay) – Notoriously selfish social secretary of the working men's club The Neptune. He lost the use of his legs when his former club flooded. It is suggested that he can actually walk, as at the end of the episode he is seen to stand whilst remonstrating with a group of firefighters.
 * Max and Paddy (Kay and Paddy McGuinness) – Two inept bouncers at the Neptune.
 * Jerry St. Clair (Dave Spikey) – Part-time builder and compère at the Neptune Club, and a previous winner of Talent Trek.
 * Les Alanos – The Neptune's house band, Les (Toby Foster) and Alan (Steve Edge). Les originally worked with Alan's father before he left to form the tribute band Right Said Frank.
 * Paul le Roy (Kay) – A local disc jockey for the radio station Chorley FM. He is obsessed with the music of the 1980s. He sports a mullet and has a long-suffering wife.
 * Keith Lard (Kay) – An overly zealous local fire safety inspector who, it is alleged, interferes with dogs.
 * Patrick O'Neil (Kay) – A cheeky employee at the Apollo Bingo Hall, who along with his friend "Sparky" (Alex Lowe), causes havoc in the Apollo.
 * Tom Dale (Kay) – A Liverpudlian bingo caller known for his bizarre pre-show preparations and his catchphrase "Let's tickle those balls".
 * Rose and Theresa (Kay and Beatrice Kelley) – Two middle-aged bingo fans who assume anyone who wins is sleeping with Tom Dale.
 * Mr. Softy Top, aka Robert Edge (Kay) – A third generation ice cream man who hates children.

 * Signór Whippee (Kay) – An ice cream man and Mr. Softy Top's rival.
 * Darren Bramwell (Kristian Tiffany) – A college student who works for Mr. Softy Top on weekends.
 * Matthew Kelly (Kay) – An aspiring Irish actor who is unhappily stuck in several part-time jobs.
 * Johnny Utah, aka Craig (Kay) – A surly Wild West obsessive, who works as a coach driver.
 * Duncan Beach (Daniel Kitson) – A St. John Ambulance volunteer who is devoted to his job, but treated with contempt by those he treats.
 * Chris Choi (Neil Fitzmaurice) – One half of the security group Live Sec.
 * Shaun Ballen (Kay) – The other half of the security group Live Sec.
 * Leonard de Tomkinson (Kay) – An elderly, kindly local eccentric. Due to angina he is unable to work, but has a paper round and is, therefore, Britain's oldest paperboy.
 * Marc Park (Kay) – An aspiring pop star, and former greengrocer, who looks like Mick Hucknall. He has a dog called Lady.
 * Cheryl Avenue (Claire Rhodes) – An aspiring pop star, and former member of Park Avenue, she is the former long suffering partner of Marc Park and mother to his child. She later gained a pop career in her own right while also making her ex look bad much to Marc's chagrin.
 * Pearl Hardman (Kay) – A would-be career woman who manages a Bolton service station.
 * Alan McClarty (Kay) – An emotionally unstable Scottish mechanic who has worked for the RAC before his wife left him and he had a nervous breakdown. He now runs his own breakdown company, "ARC".

Reception
That Peter Kay Thing won the Best New TV Comedy award at the British Comedy Awards.

Legacy
A number of the characters in That Peter Kay Thing, including Brian Potter, Max and Paddy, and Jerry St Clair went on to become central characters in the highly successful spinoff series Phoenix Nights and Max and Paddy's Road to Nowhere.

In Episode 1, it was claimed Brian joined the Neptune club as a new member of staff, however this is inaccurate as his former club before, the Aquarius, as seen in Max and Paddy's Road to Nowhere, still features all the Neptune's staff and committee.

title: That Peter Kay Thing


text:
Pantyliner

A pantyliner (also pantiliner, panty liner or panty shield, vaginal cover) is an absorbent piece of material used for feminine hygiene. It is worn in the gusset of a woman's panties. Some uses include: absorbency for daily vaginal discharge, light menstrual flow, tampon and menstrual cup backup, spotting, post-intercourse discharge, and urinary incontinence. Panty liners can also help with girls who are having discharges and about to start their cycle. Pantyliners are related to sanitary napkins in their basic construction—but are usually much thinner and often narrower than pads. As a result, they absorb much less liquid than pads—making them suitable for light discharge and everyday cleanliness. They are generally unsuitable for menstruation with medium to heavy flow, which requires them to be changed more often.

Pantyliners are found in an assortment of sizes, shapes, and portability options, ranging from tiny, compact liners to long, protective liners designed for heavy vaginal discharge and light days (light menstrual flow). There are also styles designed to fit with thong underwear.

Disposable pantyliners are made with a sticky adhesive on the back of the pad to hold them in place in the panties, and some styles have "wings" which wrap around the panties, providing additional stability.

title: Pantyliner


text:
User:Prisonblues/Colleges/Girton College, Cambridge

Girton College, Cambridge