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Compactly generated space

In topology, a topological space $$X$$ is called a compactly generated space or k-space if its topology is determined by compact spaces in a manner made precise below. There is in fact no commonly agreed upon definition for such spaces, as different authors use variations of the definition that are not exactly equivalent to each other. Also some authors include some separation axiom (like Hausdorff space or weak Hausdorff space) in the definition of one or both terms, and others don't.

In the simplest definition, a compactly generated space is a space that is coherent with the family of its compact subspaces, meaning that for every set $$A \subseteq X,$$ $$A$$ is open in $$X$$ if and only if $$A \cap K$$ is open in $$K$$ for every compact subspace $$K \subseteq X.$$ Other definitions use a family of continuous maps from compact spaces to $$X$$ and declare $$X$$ to be compactly generated if its topology coincides with the final topology with respect to this family of maps. And other variations of the definition replace compact spaces with compact Hausdorff spaces.

Compactly generated spaces were developed to remedy some of the shortcomings of the category of topological spaces. In particular, under some of the definitions, they form a cartesian closed category while still containing the typical spaces of interest, which makes them convenient for use in algebraic topology.

General framework for the definitions
Let $$(X,T)$$ be a topological space, where $$T$$ is the topology, that is, the collection of all open sets in $$X.$$

There are multiple (non-equivalent) definitions of compactly generated space or k-space in the literature. These definitions share a common structure, starting with a suitably specified family $$\mathcal F$$ of continuous maps from some compact spaces to $$X.$$ The various definitions differ in their choice of the family $$\mathcal F,$$ as detailed below.

The final topology $$T_{\mathcal F}$$ on $$X$$ with respect to the family $$\mathcal F$$ is called the k-ification of $$T.$$ Since all the functions in $$\mathcal F$$ were continuous into $$(X,T),$$ the k-ification of $$T$$ is finer than (or equal to) the original topology $$T$$. The open sets in the k-ification are called the ' in $$X;$$ they are the sets $$U\subseteq X$$ such that $$f^{-1}(U)$$ is open in $$K$$ for every $$f:K\to X$$ in $$\mathcal F.$$ Similarly, the ' in $$X$$ are the closed sets in its k-ification, with a corresponding characterization. In the space $$X,$$ every open set is k-open and every closed set is k-closed. The space $$X$$ together with the new topology $$T_{\mathcal F}$$ is usually denoted $$kX.$$

The space $$X$$ is called compactly generated or a k-space (with respect to the family $$\mathcal F$$) if its topology is determined by all maps in $$\mathcal F$$, in the sense that the topology on $$X$$ is equal to its k-ification; equivalently, if every k-open set is open in $$X,$$ or if every k-closed set is closed in $$X;$$ or in short, if $$kX=X.$$

As for the different choices for the family $$\mathcal F$$, one can take all the inclusions maps from certain subspaces of $$X,$$ for example all compact subspaces, or all compact Hausdorff subspaces. This corresponds to choosing a set $$\mathcal C$$ of subspaces of $$X.$$ The space $$X$$ is then compactly generated exactly when its topology is coherent with that family of subspaces; namely, a set $$A\subseteq X$$ is open (resp. closed) in $$X$$ exactly when the intersection $$A\cap K$$ is open (resp. closed) in $$K$$ for every $$K\in\mathcal C.$$  Another choice is to take the family of all continuous maps from arbitrary spaces of a certain type into $$X,$$ for example all such maps from arbitrary compact spaces, or from arbitrary compact Hausdorff spaces.

These different choices for the family of continuous maps into $$X$$ lead to different definitions of compactly generated space. Additionally, some authors require $$X$$ to satisfy a separation axiom (like Hausdorff or weak Hausdorff) as part of the definition, while others don't. The definitions in this article will not comprise any such separation axiom.

As an additional general note, a sufficient condition that can be useful to show that a space $$X$$ is compactly generated (with respect to $$\mathcal F$$) is to find a subfamily $$\mathcal G\subseteq\mathcal F$$ such that $$X$$ is compactly generated with respect to $$\mathcal G.$$ For coherent spaces, that corresponds to showing that the space is coherent with a subfamily of the family of subspaces. For example, this provides one way to show that locally compact spaces are compactly generated.

Below are some of the more commonly used definitions in more detail, in increasing order of specificity.

For Hausdorff spaces, all three definitions are equivalent. So the terminology  is unambiguous and refers to a compactly generated space (in any of the definitions) that is also Hausdorff.

Definition 1
Informally, a space whose topology is determined by its compact subspaces, or equivalently in this case, by all continuous maps from arbitrary compact spaces.

A topological space $$X$$ is called compactly-generated or a k-space if it satisfies any of the following equivalent conditions:

 * (1) The topology on $$X$$ is coherent with the family of its compact subspaces; namely, it satisfies the property:
 * a set $$A\subseteq X$$ is open (resp. closed) in $$X$$ exactly when the intersection $$A\cap K$$ is open (resp. closed) in $$K$$ for every compact subspace $$K\subseteq X.$$
 * (2) The topology on $$X$$ coincides with the final topology with respect to the family of all continuous maps $$f:K\to X$$ from all compact spaces $$K.$$
 * (3) $$X$$ is a quotient space of a topological sum of compact spaces.
 * (4) $$X$$ is a quotient space of a weakly locally compact space.

As explained in the final topology article, condition (2) is well-defined, even though the family of continuous maps from arbitrary compact spaces is not a set but a proper class.

The equivalence between conditions (1) and (2) follows from the fact that every inclusion from a subspace is a continuous map; and on the other hand, every continuous map $$f:K\to X$$ from a compact space $$K$$ has a compact image $$f(K)$$ and thus factors through the inclusion of the compact subspace $$f(K)$$ into $$X.$$

Definition 2
Informally, a space whose topology is determined by all continuous maps from arbitrary compact Hausdorff spaces.

A topological space $$X$$ is called compactly-generated or a k-space if it satisfies any of the following equivalent conditions:

 * (1) The topology on $$X$$ coincides with the final topology with respect to the family of all continuous maps $$f:K\to X$$ from all compact Hausdorff spaces $$K.$$ In other words, it satisfies the condition:
 * a set $$A\subseteq X$$ is open (resp. closed) in $$X$$ exactly when $$f^{-1}(A)$$ is open (resp. closed) in $$K$$ for every compact Hausdorff space $$K$$ and every continuous map $$f:K\to X.$$
 * (2) $$X$$ is a quotient space of a topological sum of compact Hausdorff spaces.
 * (3) $$X$$ is a quotient space of a locally compact Hausdorff space.

As explained in the final topology article, condition (1) is well-defined, even though the family of continuous maps from arbitrary compact Hausdorff spaces is not a set but a proper class.

Every space satisfying Definition 2 also satisfies Definition 1. The converse is not true. For example, the one-point compactification of the Arens-Fort space is compact and hence satisfies Definition 1, but it does not satisfies Definition 2.

Definition 2 is the one more commonly used in algebraic topology. This definition is often paired with the weak Hausdorff property to form the category CGWH of compactly generated weak Hausdorff spaces.

Definition 3
Informally, a space whose topology is determined by its compact Hausdorff subspaces.

A topological space $$X$$ is called compactly-generated or a k-space if its topology is coherent with the family of its compact Hausdorff subspaces; namely, it satisfies the property:
 * a set $$A\subseteq X$$ is open (resp. closed) in $$X$$ exactly when the intersection $$A\cap K$$ is open (resp. closed) in $$K$$ for every compact Hausdorff subspace $$K\subseteq X.$$

Every space satisfying Definition 3 also satisfies Definition 2. The converse is not true. For example, the Sierpiński space $$X=\{0,1\}$$ with topology $$\{\emptyset,\{1\},X\}$$ does not satisfy Definition 3, because its compact Hausdorff subspaces are the singletons $$\{0\}$$ and $$\{1\}$$, and the coherent topology they induce would be the discrete topology instead. On the other hand, it satisfies Definition 2 because it is homeomorphic to the quotient space of the compact interval $$[0,1]$$ obtained by identifying all the points in $$(0,1].$$

By itself, Definition 3 is not quite as useful as the other two definitions as it lacks some of the properties implied by the others. For example, every quotient space of a space satisfying Definition 1 or Definition 2 is a space of the same kind. But that does not hold for Definition 3.

However, for weak Hausdorff spaces Definitions 2 and 3 are equivalent. Thus the category CGWH can also be defined by pairing the weak Hausdorff property with Definition 3, which may be easier to state and work with than Definition 2.

Motivation
Compactly generated spaces were originally called k-spaces, after the German word kompakt. They were studied by Hurewicz, and can be found in General Topology by Kelley, Topology by Dugundji, Rational Homotopy Theory by Félix, Halperin, and Thomas.

The motivation for their deeper study came in the 1960s from well known deficiencies of the usual category of topological spaces. This fails to be a cartesian closed category, the usual cartesian product of identification maps is not always an identification map, and the usual product of CW-complexes need not be a CW-complex. By contrast, the category of simplicial sets had many convenient properties, including being cartesian closed. The history of the study of repairing this situation is given in the article on the nLab on convenient categories of spaces.

The first suggestion (1962) to remedy this situation was to restrict oneself to the full subcategory of compactly generated Hausdorff spaces, which is in fact cartesian closed. These ideas extend on the de Vries duality theorem. A definition of the exponential object is given below. Another suggestion (1964) was to consider the usual Hausdorff spaces but use functions continuous on compact subsets.

These ideas generalize to the non-Hausdorff case; i.e. with a different definition of compactly generated spaces. This is useful since identification spaces of Hausdorff spaces need not be Hausdorff.

In modern-day algebraic topology, this property is most commonly coupled with the weak Hausdorff property, so that one works in the category CGWH of compactly generated weak Hausdorff spaces.

Examples
As explained in the Definitions section, there is no universally accepted definition in the literature for compactly generated spaces; but Definitions 1, 2, 3 from that section are some of the more commonly used. In order to express results in a more concise way, this section will make use of the abbreviations CG-1, CG-2, CG-3 to denote each of the three definitions unambiguously. This is summarized in the table below (see the Definitions section for other equivalent conditions for each).

For Hausdorff spaces the properties CG-1, CG-2, CG-3 are equivalent. Such spaces can be called compactly generated Hausdorff without ambiguity.

Every CG-3 space is CG-2 and every CG-2 space is CG-1. The converse implications do not hold in general, as shown by some of the examples below.

For weak Hausdorff spaces the properties CG-2 and CG-3 are equivalent.

Sequential spaces are CG-2. This includes first countable spaces, Alexandrov-discrete spaces, finite spaces.

Every CG-3 space is a T1 space (because given a singleton $$\{x\}\subseteq X,$$ its intersection with every compact Hausdorff subspace $$K\subseteq X$$ is the empty set or a single point, which is closed in $$K;$$ hence the singleton is closed in $$X$$). Finite T1 spaces have the discrete topology. So among the finite spaces, which are all CG-2, the CG-3 spaces are the ones with the discrete topology. Any finite non-discrete space, like the Sierpiński space, is an example of CG-2 space that is not CG-3.

Compact spaces and weakly locally compact spaces are CG-1, but not necessarily CG-2 (see examples below).

Compactly generated Hausdorff spaces include the Hausdorff version of the various classes of spaces mentioned above as CG-1 or CG-2, namely Hausdorff sequential spaces, Hausdorff first countable spaces, locally compact Hausdorff spaces, etc. In particular, metric spaces and topological manifolds are compactly generated. CW complexes are also Hausdorff compactly generated.

To provide examples of spaces that are not compactly generated, it is useful to examine anticompact spaces, that is, spaces whose compact subspaces are all finite. If a space $$X$$ is anticompact and T1, every compact subspace of $$X$$ has the discrete topology and the corresponding k-ification of $$X$$ is the discrete topology. Therefore, any anticompact T1 non-discrete space is not CG-1. Examples include:
 * The cocountable topology on an uncountable space.
 * The one-point Lindelöfication of an uncountable discrete space (also called Fortissimo space).
 * The Arens-Fort space.
 * The Appert space.
 * The "Single ultrafilter topology".

Other examples of (Hausdorff) spaces that are not compactly generated include:
 * The product of uncountably many copies of $$\mathbb R$$ (each with the usual Euclidean topology).
 * The product of uncountably many copies of $$\mathbb Z$$ (each with the discrete topology).

For examples of spaces that are CG-1 and not CG-2, one can start with any space $$Y$$ that is not CG-1 (for example the Arens-Fort space or an uncountable product of copies of $$\mathbb R$$) and let $$X$$ be the one-point compactification of $$Y.$$ The space $$X$$ is compact, hence CG-1. But it is not CG-2 because open subspaces inherit the CG-2 property and $$Y$$ is an open subspace of $$X$$ that is not CG-2.

Properties
(See the Examples section for the meaning of the abbreviations CG-1, CG-2, CG-3.)

Subspaces
Subspaces of a compactly generated space are not compactly generated in general, even in the Hausdorff case. For example, the ordinal space $$\omega_1+1=[0,\omega_1]$$ where $$\omega_1$$ is the first uncountable ordinal is compact Hausdorff, hence compactly generated. Its subspace with all limit ordinals except $$\omega_1$$ removed is isomorphic to the Fortissimo space, which is not compactly generated (as mentioned in the Examples section, it is anticompact and non-discrete). Another example is the Arens space, which is sequential Hausdorff, hence compactly generated. It contains as a subspace the Arens-Fort space, which is not compactly generated.

In a CG-1 space, every closed set is CG-1. The same does not hold for open sets. For instance, as shown in the Examples section, there are many spaces that are not CG-1, but they are open in their one-point compactification, which is CG-1.

In a CG-2 space $$X,$$ every closed set is CG-2; and so is every open set (because there is a quotient map $$q:Y\to X$$ for some locally compact Hausdorff space $$Y$$ and for an open set $$U\subseteq X$$ the restriction of $$q$$ to $$q^{-1}(U)$$ is also a quotient map on a locally compact Hausdorff space). The same is true more generally for every locally closed set, that is, the intersection of an open set and a closed set.

In a CG-3 space, every closed set is CG-3.

Quotients
The disjoint union $${\coprod}_i X_i$$ of a family $$(X_i)_{i\in I}$$ of topological spaces is CG-1 if and only if each space $$X_i$$ is CG-1. The corresponding statements also hold for CG-2 and CG-3.

A quotient space of a CG-1 space is CG-1. In particular, every quotient space of a weakly locally compact space is CG-1. Conversely, every CG-1 space $$X$$ is the quotient space of a weakly locally compact space, which can be taken as the disjoint union of the compact subspaces of $$X.$$

A quotient space of a CG-2 space is CG-2. In particular, every quotient space of a locally compact Hausdorff space is CG-2. Conversely, every CG-2 space is the quotient space of a locally compact Hausdorff space.

A quotient space of a CG-3 space is not CG-3 in general. In fact, every CG-2 space is a quotient space of a CG-3 space (namely, some locally compact Hausdorff space); but there are CG-2 spaces that are not CG-3. For a concrete example, the Sierpiński space is not CG-3, but is homeomorphic to the quotient of the compact interval $$[0,1]$$ obtained by identifying $$(0,1]$$ to a point.

More generally, any final topology on a set induced by a family of functions from CG-1 spaces is also CG-1. And the same holds for CG-2. This follows by combining the results above for disjoint unions and quotient spaces, together with the behavior of final topologies under composition of functions.

A wedge sum of CG-1 spaces is CG-1. The same holds for CG-2. This is also an application of the results above for disjoint unions and quotient spaces.

Products
The product of two compactly generated spaces need not be compactly generated, even if both spaces are Hausdorff and sequential. For example, the space $$X=\Reals \setminus \{1, 1/2, 1/3, \ldots\}$$ with the subspace topology from the real line is first countable; the space $$Y=\Reals / \{1,2,3,\ldots\}$$ with the quotient topology from the real line with the positive integers identified to a point is sequential. Both spaces are compactly generated Hausdorff, but their product $$X\times Y$$ is not compactly generated.

However, in some cases the product of two compactly generated spaces is compactly generated:
 * The product of two first countable spaces is first countable, hence CG-2.
 * The product of a CG-1 space and a locally compact space is CG-1. (Here, locally compact is in the sense of condition (3) in the corresponding article, namely each point has a local base of compact neighborhoods.)
 * The product of a CG-2 space and a locally compact Hausdorff space is CG-2.

When working in a category of compactly generated spaces (like all CG-1 spaces or all CG-2 spaces), the usual product topology on $$X\times Y$$ is not compactly generated in general, so cannot serve as a categorical product. But its k-ification $$k(X\times Y)$$ does belong to the expected category and is the categorical product.

Continuity of functions
The continuous functions on compactly generated spaces are those that behave well on compact subsets. More precisely, let $$f:X\to Y$$ be a function from a topological space to another and suppose the domain $$X$$ is compactly generated according to one of the definitions in this article. Since compactly generated spaces are defined in terms of a final topology, one can express the continuity of $$f$$ in terms of the continuity of the composition of $$f$$ with the various maps in the family used to define the final topology. The specifics are as follows.

If $$X$$ is CG-1, the function $$f$$ is continuous if and only if the restriction $$f\vert_K:K\to Y$$ is continuous for each compact $$K\subseteq X.$$

If $$X$$ is CG-2, the function $$f$$ is continuous if and only if the composition $$f\circ u:K\to Y$$ is continuous for each compact Hausdorff space $$K$$ and continuous map $$u:K\to X.$$

If $$X$$ is CG-3, the function $$f$$ is continuous if and only if the restriction $$f\vert_K:K\to Y$$ is continuous for each compact Hausdorff $$K\subseteq X.$$

Miscellaneous
For topological spaces $$X$$ and $$Y,$$ let $$C(X,Y)$$ denote the space of all continuous maps from $$X$$ to $$Y$$ topologized by the compact-open topology. If $$X$$ is CG-1, the path components in $$C(X,Y)$$ are precisely the homotopy equivalence classes.

K-ification
Given any topological space $$X$$ we can define a possibly finer topology on $$X$$ that is compactly generated, sometimes called the  of the topology. Let $$\{K_\alpha\}$$ denote the family of compact subsets of $$X.$$ We define the new topology on $$X$$ by declaring a subset $$A$$ to be closed if and only if $$A \cap K_\alpha$$ is closed in $$K_\alpha$$ for each index $$\alpha.$$ Denote this new space by $$kX.$$ One can show that the compact subsets of $$kX$$ and $$X$$ coincide, and the induced topologies on compact subsets are the same. It follows that $$kX$$ is compactly generated. If $$X$$ was compactly generated to start with then $$kX = X.$$ Otherwise the topology on $$kX$$ is strictly finer than $$X$$ (i.e., there are more open sets).

This construction is functorial. We denote $$\mathbf{CGTop}$$ the full subcategory of $\mathbf{Top}$ with objects the compactly generated spaces, and $$\mathbf{CGHaus}$$ the full subcategory of $$\mathbf{CGTop}$$ with objects the Hausdorff spaces. The functor from $$\mathbf{Top}$$ to $$\mathbf{CGTop}$$ that takes $$X$$ to $$kX$$ is right adjoint to the inclusion functor $$\mathbf{CGTop} \to \mathbf{Top}.$$

The exponential object in $$\mathbf{CGHaus}$$ is given by $$k(Y^X)$$ where $$Y^X$$ is the space of continuous maps from $$X$$ to $$Y$$ with the compact-open topology.

These ideas can be generalized to the non-Hausdorff case. This is useful since identification spaces of Hausdorff spaces need not be Hausdorff.

Furher reading

 * Compactly generated spaces - contains an excellent catalog of properties and constructions with compactly generated spaces
 * https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/4646084/unraveling-the-various-definitions-of-k-space-or-compactly-generated-space
 * https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/4646084/unraveling-the-various-definitions-of-k-space-or-compactly-generated-space
 * https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/4646084/unraveling-the-various-definitions-of-k-space-or-compactly-generated-space

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Talk:Houses from A Song of Ice and Fire

To which house are Dondarrian (sp?) and Selmy sworn to? They're missing from this list. I assume it's Baratheon but I'm not adding it unless I'm certain.

Need for this page?
I'm not certain that this page is necessary. The introductory paragraph is general enough that some form of it could go on the main A Song of Ice and Fire page (or we could probably do without it entirely), and the lists of lesser houses could easily be added to the individual great house pages. I'm honestly not sure what content would ever be best suited to a page with this name. Thoughts? Brendan Moody 09:50, 13 April 2006 (UTC)

 * Since there's been no response for a week, I've merged the lists of minor houses into the great house pages, and proposed this article for deletion. If you disagree, please remove the prod tag. Brendan Moody 14:22, 20 April 2006 (UTC)

 * I agree that the best way to present this information is as a listing on the main House Pages. Since you have yet to get ananswer from anyone else I'll make the move and then vote for deletion unless you have an objection. NeoFreak 00:32, 30 May 2006 (UTC)

 * I think that rather than listing it for deletion, we could just change the article into a redirect to A Song of Ice and Fire; it's a much simpler process with the same end result. As mentioned above, I've already moved the lists of minor houses into the Great House articles, so you can just move whatever parts of the first paragraph you think are worth keeping into A Song of Ice and Fire and then one of us can do the redirect. Brendan Moody 00:47, 30 May 2006 (UTC)
 * I see that after you prodded this page a few months back, User:Kappa came in without any regard for the discussion amongst the dedicated ASOIAF editors on wikipedia and removed the tag. The subject of deletion has not come up since.  Is the consensus still that this page is not really necessary?  I personally feel it is unecyclopedic and does not belong.  The houses of any importance already have their own pages, leaving this as just a list of trivia of questionable validity under WP:NOT.  I think a merge or a VfD is in order, but want to hear other opinions first. Indrian 17:39, 17 July 2006 (UTC)
 * I still feel the page isn't particularly necessary, for the reasons you mention. I assume the editors who continue to add information feel differently, and I'd like to see their comments. Brendan Moody 20:59, 18 July 2006 (UTC)
 * Well, it has been a week with only the one response, so I am going to go to VfD with this now to obtain a larger consensus. Indrian 15:04, 24 July 2006 (UTC)

I'm taking off the freys as sworn to house tully and placing them with house tully(per AFFC--AeomMai 20:28, 20 June 2006 (UTC))
 * In A Feast of Crows Emmon claimed being overlord / lord paramount of the Riverlands but he isn´t. Lord Pettyr Baelish was appointed lord paramount. So the sentence ´Now sworn the House Frey´ is not correct--Scafloc 09:21, 21 June 2006 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Houses from A Song of Ice and Fire


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Prosumer

A prosumer is an individual who both consumes and produces. The term is a portmanteau of the words producer and consumer. Research has identified six types of prosumers: DIY prosumers, self-service prosumers, customizing prosumers, collaborative prosumers, monetised prosumers, and economic prosumers.

The terms prosumer and prosumption were coined in 1980 by Alvin Toffler, an American futurist, and were widely used by many technology writers of the time. Technological breakthrough and a rise in user participation blurs the line between production and consumption activities, with the consumer becoming a prosumer.

Definitions and contexts
Prosumers have been defined as "individuals who consume and produce value, either for self-consumption or consumption by others, and can receive implicit or explicit incentives from organizations involved in the exchange."

The term has since come to refer to a person using commons-based peer production.

In the digital and online world, ”prosumer” is used to describe 21st-century online buyers because not only are they consumers of products, but they are able to produce their own products such as, customised handbags, jewellery with initials, jumpers with team logos etc.

In the field of renewable energy, prosumers are households or organisations which at times produce surplus fuel or energy and feed it into a national (or local) distribution network; whilst at other times (when their fuel or energy requirements outstrip their own production of it) they consume that same fuel or energy from that grid. This is widely done by households by means of PV panels on their roofs generating electricity. Such households may additionally make use of battery storage to increase their share of self-consumed PV electricity, referred to as prosumage in the literature. It is also done by businesses which produce biogas and feed it into a gas network while using gas from the same network at other times or in other places. The European Union's Nobel Grid project, which is part of their Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme, uses the term in this way, for example.

The sharing economy is another context where individuals can act as prosumers. For example, in the sharing economy, individuals can be providers (e.g., Airbnb hosts, Uber drivers) and consumers (e.g., Airbnb guests, Uber passengers). Prosumers are one avenue to grow the sharing economy.

Scholars have connected prosumer culture to the concept of McDonaldization, as advanced by sociologist George Ritzer. Referring to the business model of McDonald's, which has emphasized efficiency for management while getting customers to invest more effort and time themselves (such as by cleaning up after themselves in restaurants), McDonaldization gets prosumers to perform more work without paying them for their labor.

Origins and development
The blurring of the roles of consumers and producers has its origins in the cooperative self-help movements that sprang up during various economic crises, e.g. the Great Depression of the 1930s. Marshall McLuhan and Barrington Nevitt suggested in their 1972 book Take Today, (p. 4) that with electric technology, the consumer would become a producer. In the 1980 book, The Third Wave, futurologist Alvin Toffler coined the term "prosumer" when he predicted that the role of producers and consumers would begin to blur and merge (even though he described it in his book Future Shock from 1970). Toffler envisioned a highly saturated marketplace as mass production of standardized products began to satisfy basic consumer demands. To continue growing profit, businesses would initiate a process of mass customization, that is the mass production of highly customized products.

However, to reach a high degree of customization, consumers would have to take part in the production process especially in specifying design requirements. In a sense, this is merely an extension or broadening of the kind of relationship that many affluent clients have had with professionals like architects for many decades. However, in many cases architectural clients are not the only or even primary end-consumers.

Toffler has extended these and many other ideas well into the 21st-century. Along with more recently published works such as Revolutionary Wealth (2006), one can recognize and assess both the concept and fact of the prosumer as it is seen and felt on a worldwide scale. That these concepts are having global impact and reach, however, can be measured in part by noting in particular, Toffler's popularity in China. Discussing some of these issues with Newt Gingrich on C-SPAN's After Words program in June 2006, Toffler mentioned that The Third Wave is the second ranked bestseller of all time in China, just behind a work by Mao Zedong.

Don Tapscott reintroduced the concept in his 1995 book The Digital Economy., and his 2006 book Wikinomics: How Mass Collaboration Changes Everything with Anthony D. Williams. George Ritzer and Nathan Jurgenson, in a widely cited article, claimed that prosumption had become a salient characteristic of Web 2.0. Prosumers create value for companies without receiving wages.

Toffler's Prosumption was well described and expanded in economic terms by Philip Kotler, who saw them as a new challenge for marketers. Kotler anticipated that people will also want to play larger role in designing certain goods and services they consume, furthermore modern computers will permit them to do it. He also described several forces that would lead to more prosumption like activities, and to more sustainable lifestyles, that topic was further developed by Tomasz Szymusiak in 2013 and 2015 in two marketing books.

Technological breakthrough has fastened the development of prosumption. With the help of additive manufacturing techniques, for example, co-creation takes place at different production stages: design, manufacturing and distribution stages. It also takes place between individual customers, leading to co-design communities. Similarly, mass customisation is often associated with the production of tailored goods or services on a large scale production. This increase in participation has flourished following the increasing popularity of Web 2.0 technologies, such as Instagram, Facebook, Twitter and Flickr.

In July 2020, an academic description reported on the nature and rise of the "robot prosumer", derived from modern-day technology and related participatory culture, that, in turn, was substantially predicted earlier by science fiction writers.

Criticism
Prosumer capitalism has been criticized as promoting "new forms of exploitation through unpaid work gamified as fun".

Examples
Identifiable trends and movements outside of the mainstream economy which have adopted prosumer terminology and techniques include:
 * a Do It Yourself (DIY) approach as a means of economic self-sufficiency or simply as a way to survive on diminished income
 * the open source software movement creates software on their own, prime example is the successful operating system Linux which now dominates the server domain
 * Fablab movement, self-fabrication capabilities especially 3D printing
 * the voluntary simplicity movement that seeks personal, social, and environmental goals through prosumer activities such as:
 * growing one's own food
 * repairing clothing and appliances rather than buying new items
 * playing musical instruments rather than listening to recorded music
 * use of new media-creation and distribution technologies to foster independent, open, non-profit, "consumer-to-consumer" media and cultures (see Wikipedia, Indymedia, most of Creative Commons); many involved in independent media reject mass culture generated by concentrated corporate media

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Afro

The afro is a hair style created by combing out natural growth of afro-textured hair, or specifically styled with chemical curling products by individuals with naturally curly or straight hair. The hairstyle can be created by combing the hair away from the scalp, dispersing a distinctive curl pattern, and forming the hair into a rounded shape, much like a cloud or puff ball.

For people with wavy or straight hair, the hair style is created with the help of permanent hair structure-changing creams or gels and/or other solidifying liquids to temporarily hold the hair in place. Particularly popular in the African community of the late 1960s and early 1970s, the hairstyle is often shaped and maintained with the assistance of a wide-toothed comb colloquially known as an Afro pick.

Etymology
"Afro" is derived from the term "Afro-American". The hairstyle is also referred to by some as a "natural hairstyle". In most cases the hair is left untreated by relaxers or straightening chemicals and is instead allowed to express its natural curl or kinkiness.

Circassian beauties
In the 1860s, a hairstyle similar to the afro was worn by the Circassian beauties. Sometimes known as "Moss-haired girls", they were a group of women exhibited in sideshow attractions in the United States by P. T. Barnum and others. These women claimed to be descendants of the Circassian people in the North Caucasus region, and were marketed to White audiences captivated by the "exotic East" as pure examples of the Caucasian race who were kept as sexual slaves in Turkish harems. It has been argued that this portrayal of a Caucasian woman as a rescued slave during the American Civil War played on the racial connotations of slavery at the time so that the distinctive hairstyle affiliates the side-show white Circassian with African-American identity, and thus: "... resonates oddly yet resoundingly with the rest of her identifying significations: her racial purity, her sexual enslavement, her position as colonial subject; her beauty. The Circassian blended elements of white Victorian True Womanhood with traits of the enslaved black woman in one curiosity."

African-American hairstyles prior to the 1960s
During the history of slavery in the United States, most African Americans styled their hair in an attempt to mimic the styles of the predominantly white society in which they lived. Afro-textured hair, characterized by its tight kinks, has been described as being kinky, coarse, cottony, nappy, or woolly. These characteristics represented the antithesis of the European American standard of beauty, and led to a negative view of kinky hair. As a result, the practice of straightening gained popularity among African Americans.

The process of straightening the hair often involved applying caustic substances, such as relaxers containing lye, which needed to be applied by an experienced hairstylist so as to avoid burning the scalp and ears. Those who chose not to artificially treat their hair would often opt to style it into tight braids or cornrows. With all of these hairstyling methods, one ran the risk of damaging the hair shaft, sometimes resulting in hair loss.

1960s and 1970s
The effect of the Civil Rights Movement brought a renewed sense of identity to the African–American community, which also resulted in a redefinition of personal style that included an appreciation of black beauty and aesthetics, as embodied by the "Black is beautiful" movement. This cultural movement marked a return to more natural, untreated hairstyles. The afro became a powerful political symbol which reflected black pride and a rejection of notions of assimilation and integration—not unlike the long and untreated hair sported by the mainly White hippies.

To some African Americans, the afro also represented a reconstitutive link to West Africa and Central Africa. However, some critics have suggested that the afro hairstyle is not particularly African: In his book Welcome to the Jungle: New Positions in Black Cultural Studies, cultural critic Kobena Mercer argued that the contemporary African society of the mid-20th century did not consider either hairstyle to denote any particular "Africanness"; conversely, some Africans felt that these styles signified "First-worldness".

Similarly, Brackette F. Williams stated in her book Stains on My Name, War in My Veins: Guyana and the Politics of Cultural Struggle that African nationalists were irritated by the afro's adoption by African Americans as a symbol of their African heritage; they saw this trend as an example of Western arrogance.

The afro was adopted by both men and women and was a hairstyle that was easier to maintain by oneself, without requiring frequent and sometimes costly visits to the hairstylist as was often experienced by people who chose to braid, straighten or relax their hair. Due to the kinky pattern prominent in Afro-textured hair, as it grows longer it has a tendency to extend outward from the head, resulting in a domelike hairstyle which is easily molded and sculpted into the desired shape. While the afro was a much less invasive and time-consuming hairstyle choice for many African Americans, some chose to achieve a more voluminous version of the afro by backcombing or teasing the hair, a practice that can result in damage to the hair and scalp.

In the mid-1960s, the afro hairstyle began in a fairly tightly coiffed form, such as the hairstyle that became popular among members of the Black Panther Party. As the 1960s progressed towards the 1970s, popular hairstyles, both within and outside of the African-American community, became longer and longer. As a result, the late 1960s/early 1970s saw an expansion in the overall size of afros. Some of the entertainers and sociopolitical figures of the time known for wearing larger afros include political activist Angela Davis, actress Pam Grier, rock musician Jimi Hendrix, singer Miriam Makeba, and the members of the musical groups the Jackson 5 and the Supremes.

In contrast, the afro's popularity among African Americans had already started to wane by the early 1970s; the introduction of the afro to the mainstream and its adoption by people of non-African descent caused the afro to lose its radical, political edge. The 1970s saw an increase in the popularity of braided hairstyles such as cornrows among both sexes of African Americans.

1990s and 2000s
The afro saw some resurgence in both the 1990s and the 2000s. These afros would take varied forms, some incorporating elements such as braids, beads or twists, as well as various sizes, from close-cropped natural hairstyles all the way to expansive afro wigs.

Some African Americans who have been known for wearing afros or afro wigs during these two decades include NBA basketball players Ben Wallace, Kobe Bryant, and Michael Beasley, as well as musicians Lauryn Hill, Erykah Badu, Macy Gray, Ludacris, Questlove, Cindy Blackman, Wiz Khalifa, and Lenny Kravitz. Beyoncé also donned a large afro wig for her role as Foxxy Cleopatra in the 2002 film Austin Powers in Goldmember.

On July 3, 2019, California became the first U.S. state to prohibit discrimination over natural hair. Governor Gavin Newsom signed the CROWN Act into law, banning employers and schools from discriminating against hairstyles such as afros, braids, twists, and dreadlocks. Likewise, later in 2019 Assembly Bill 07797 became law in New York state; it "prohibits race discrimination based on natural hair or hairstyles."

Aevin Dugas from Gonzales, Louisiana, USA, set a new Guinness World Record on 11 September 2022, for the largest female afro, which measures 165 cm (5.41 ft) in circumference, 25 cm (9.84 in) in height, and 26 cm (10.24 in) in width. She has broken the Guinness World Record for the largest afro three times, including in 2010 and 2021. Dugas says she began growing her afro in 1999 and learned how to style and cut it herself after an unsuccessful trip to a professional hairstylist. She states that she broke the record to personally advocate for the beauty of natural hair and to encourage self-love.

Similar styles internationally
A "Jewfro" (portmanteau of the words Jew and afro) or (rarely) "Isro" (portmanteau of the words Israel and afro) refers to an afro when worn by Jews. The term has its roots in the 1960s and 1970s when many prominent figures were described as sporting the hairstyle. In 1970, the Los Angeles Times called college football star Scott Marcus a flower child with "golden brown hair ... in ringlets around his head in what he calls a Jewish afro style". The New York Times in a 1971 article on Harvard University's "hairy" basketball team, wrote that Captain Brian Newmark "hasn't had a haircut since last May, and his friends have suggested his hairdo is a first cousin to the Afro, the style that is popular with blacks. In the case of the Jewish junior from Brooklyn, though, the bushy dark hair, that is piled high on his head has been called an "Isro"." Novelist Judith Rossner was described in a Chicago Tribune profile as the "grown-up Wunderkind with an open, oval face framed by a Jewish Afro."

The Hadendoa Beja of northeastern Africa were nicknamed "Fuzzy-Wuzzies" by British troops during the Mahdist War due to their large and mop-like hairstyles, which they shaped by applying butter or mutton fat. In Somalia, some young men of the nomadic and sedentary communities would grow their hair long and carefully comb it into rather large bushes, which they would then hold in place with ghee. This elaborate hairstyle was quite distinct from another coiffure found among other Somalis, who would instead grow long and fluff out their fine, straight hair and place a chewing stick and comb in the center.

Variations of the afro have been worn by one or both sexes in the many disparate cultures of the African continent. Due to the hairstyle's links to members of the civil rights and Black Power movements, the afro was seen by several outside cultures as a dangerous symbol of political unrest, including Tanzania where the Afro was banned in the 1970s because it was seen as a symbol of neocolonialism and as part of a "cultural invasion" from the United States. In the 1950s and 1960s, South African women were also known to wear their hair in an afro-type style.

The afro did not rise to the same level of popularity among the Afro-Caribbean community as it did in the United States, in part because of the popularity of dreadlocks, which played an important role in the Rastafari movement. Not unlike the afro's significance among the members of the American Black Power movement, dreadlocks symbolized black pride and empowerment among the Rastafari of the Caribbean.

Tools
The long, wide teeth of the "afro pick" or afro comb were designed to dig down to the scalp, allowing the hair to be stretched out from the roots into a desired style or shape using a picking motion.

title: Afro


text:
Talk:Worcestershire sauce

Intro
The intro says the sauce is "usually shortened to worcester" sauce. I have never seen it thus shortened. Is there reference for this? Misterjosh (talk) 20:49, 25 March 2014 (UTC)
 * "usually shortened" has been removed at some point in time -- User:D A Patriarche

 * I've typically only heard it called "worcester sauce" in conversation (because "worcestershire" is a bit of a mouthful) but it seems some food manufacturers do also use it on their packaging, eg: [//www.tyrrellscrisps.co.uk/potato/worcester-sauce-sundried-tomato Tyrrells "Worcester and Sundried Tomato" flavour crisps] and Walkers "Worcester Sauce" flavour crisps – Zarino (talk) 13:05, 9 August 2014 (UTC)
 * So they're calling two things by the wrong name, worchestershire AND chips.21:59, 18 October 2017 (UTC)~ — Preceding unsigned comment added by 73.18.173.40 (talk)
 * No. Andy Mabbett ( Pigsonthewing ); Talk to Andy; Andy's edits 18:06, 31 August 2020 (UTC)
 * Worcestershire sauce and Worcester sauce both exist and are not the same thing. 31.52.253.68 (talk) 17:54, 20 February 2016 (UTC)
 * Oh really? citation needed. Andy Mabbett ( Pigsonthewing ); Talk to Andy; Andy's edits 18:06, 31 August 2020 (UTC)
 * What if you can not speak English? 2600:1700:772:A0:3050:1A70:B56A:D297 (talk) 00:56, 14 November 2023 (UTC)

The English say "wooster" sauce because that's how they pronounce Worcestershire. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 108.190.159.204 (talk) 15:55, 25 March 2016 (UTC)
 * I'm native English speaker, live a few miles from Worcestershire and have worked in the county. And I have never heard a single person pronounce "Worcestershire" as "Worcester". Andy Mabbett ( Pigsonthewing ); Talk to Andy; Andy's edits 18:06, 31 August 2020 (UTC)
 * Andy's correct. Whatever it says on the label, it came from Worcester, as you say, and we know it as Worcester sauce. The addition of the -shire came from Americans of non-British origins simply reading it off the label and massively overcomplicating things.
 * Worcester has a truly large castle, from the high days of knights in armour, and is about the southern edge of the Midlands industrial region which was the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution. As a result, the locals are rarely minded to use four syllables when two will do. 5.70.112.105 (talk) 04:43, 14 August 2022 (UTC)

Worcestershire Sauce is trademarked, competitors call their sauce Worcester sauce to avoid licencing issues - see Tyrrells & Walkers crisps as examples. Worcestershire sauce is the genuine, but everyone calls it Worcester sauce as it is easier to say. Ianmurray5 (talk) 00:31, 23 June 2016 (UTC) from Worcester, England
 * "Worcestershire sauce" was originally trademarked but trademark was overturned in the US in 1874 and in the UK by their high court in 1876. http://www.todayifoundout.com/index.php/2013/10/worcestershire-sauce-called/  — Preceding unsigned comment added by 99.68.140.13 (talk) 06:23, 10 January 2017 (UTC)
 * Pronunciation: The text does not agree with the OGG (Listen) sound file. The OGG file does have "woostə" (as the primary pronunciation in fact), so I think we should include it in the written text. The second pronunciation in the OGG file is Woost-ə-shə; the OGG rendition I believe covers the main British (RP, non-rhotic) pronunciations. I don't believe the variant Woost-er-sheer is often heard for the sauce, so I am deleting it from the text in the interest of simplicity & clarity. If another editor wants the Standard American pronunciation(s) included I suggest adding a corresponding Listen file, as this is one of the most talked-about pronunciations I have encountered ;-) BTW, I have added most of the many (!) other variants to the Worcestershire article; in this article I'll confine myself to matching the text to the sound file. --D Anthony Patriarche (talk) 11:44, 30 July 2019 (UTC)
 * The Cambridge dictionary shows non-rhotic /r/ as superscript 'r' in the IPA but WP IPAc template does not permit this; a pity, it's non-standard but intuitively clear. I've put "—(r)" in the Respell as a compromise. --D Anthony Patriarche (talk) 12:30, 30 July 2019 (UTC)

I've just been reading this page and I'm baffled by the fact that the common usage "Worcester sauce" is not mentioned anywhere. That was the search term I used to reach the page, and as a British reader it's the only term I've ever heard spoken, other than "Lea & Perrins". Yes, the correct written term is Worcestershire sauce. No, nobody pronounces Worcestershire and Worcester the same (one is the county and the other is the county town, and they sound exactly as different as Yorkshire and York). Are there two different things called Worcester sauce and Worcestershire sauce? No, not that anyone on here has given any evidence for. But have I ever heard anyone (even my grandparents born before the first world war) say "Worcestershire sauce"? Absolutely not. Almost everything on the internet is in written form, so it's unsurprisingly difficult to find references acceptable Wikipedia standards. But if we need an authority on the subject, refer to Nigella's tweet of 25 March 2016 where she says in answer to this very question "Well, Worcester sauce for me, for all that it's written Worcestershire". If you're not happy with that, Delia uses both versions in the same (written) recipe. Probably the two most famous British cookery writers, both universally known by just their first names. (OK, Heston gets close). It just doesn't make sense that this page doesn't even mention a term that's so universally known in spoken English. Arcman (talk) 20:21, 2 December 2020 (UTC)

 * yank here. i have never heard it called worcester sauce, so add my vote to those who think there is a US/UK divide on this.  moreover, on Woost-ə-shə vs Woost-er-sheer i'd say most of us actually say "Woost-ə-sheer".  or at least "Woost-ə-shər".  even in the quickest of speech, i don't hear people dropping the final r.  but that is not to say we'd put one on the "worcester" part.  2601:19C:527F:7890:C88E:3250:E49:8B7E (talk) 11:34, 7 September 2023 (UTC)

 * Our personal experience is irrelevant (WP:OR). The OED records the usage "Worcester sauce" as an alternative, and Google ngrams shows that it was the majority form from 1870 to 1970 in the UK, whereas in the US, it has only been 10-20% of usage. Nowadays, Worcestershire is almost 90% of usage in the UK, and almost 100% in the US.
 * Of course, as Arcman pointed out, written sources (as used by Google ngrams) don't tell us how it's pronounced in practice. I get the impression that a lot of people around here (Boston area) call it Worcester sauce in speech, but I'm afraid I don't have a WP:RS for that. --Macrakis (talk) 21:20, 7 September 2023 (UTC)
 * Listen to Delia on this video of her making gravy, at 3:37. Video is titled "Delia's Techniques - How to make Perfect Gravy", for some reason i cannot link to youtube from here. She uses the pronunciation of the town, dropping the 'shire' (as do all UK foodies I know). 82.18.36.40 (talk) 13:35, 10 May 2024 (UTC)

This is worth a listen if you're interested, although I've no idea what this person's credentials are. Summary: When referring to the sauce rather than the county, "Worcestershire" is pronounced as "Worcester". So the spelling is "Worcestershire sauce", but the pronunciation is "woostuh sauce". H Remster (talk) 17:41, 5 April 2024 (UTC)

Oriental sauces
User:Artoria2e5 reverted my edit, in which I deleted material about various oriental sauces.

My changes removed discussion of oriental "worcestershire sauce" variants that share little with Worcestershire Sauce, other than they are savoury.

Maybe we could simply mention that there are sauces made in the Far East, that call themselves worcestershire, but neither taste like Worcestershire Sauce, nor contain similar ingredients. Perhaps a separate page could be made for detailed discussion of these sauces. Maybe even a disambiguation page is appropriate. At the moment, this article discusses various sauces that are not similar, which means the term is ambiguous.

MrDemeanour (talk) 14:47, 28 February 2022 (UTC)

 * I believe that singling these divergent version out in a subsection "Non-fish variations" is sufficient to distinguish these from more "proper" ones. They do taste like the W-sauce and contain similar ingredients in that they are generally sour and armoatic, with some being umami. I further argue that there is a continuum of "Worcestershire sauces" from the British original, to Western industrial imitations using some soy, to dietary-speciality (kosher-pareve, vegetarian/vegan) sauces with little or no fish, to Asian sauces; it would be messy if not impossible under OR to try and draw a line. Artoria2e5 🌉 01:39, 1 March 2022 (UTC)

 * I take your point about the veggie/vegan products. I contend that these are no more Worcestershire Sauce than vegetarian parmigiano is parmigiano; but they have a place in the article.

 * I'd be OK with a "non-fish variations" subsection. I'd prefer a separate article, because I'm concerned that these oriental variations will attract brand-promoters, so that the descriptions of the variants will grow to challenge the anchovy-based original, with pictures, links to manufacturers and so on. But rolling them into their own subsection is a reasonable compromise.

 * I'm willing to help build this subsection, but I'm not motivated to do the heavy lifting, because my preference is deletion. I don't think it's right for me to do major work on content describing products that I think don't belong. Basically I regard all these products as WS substitutes. I mean, Soy Sauce itself is a credible substitute for WS in cooking; but we don't list that as a type of WS.

 * Thanks for collaborating!

 * MrDemeanour (talk) 10:32, 1 March 2022 (UTC)

 * oriental sauces?!

 * geesh. i don't want be "that guy" here, but could we pls say "asian sauces"?  "oriental" went out around 1975....

US version
i have rarely seen the paper-wrapped version; is this info still current?

"UK" version depicted looks pretty much like what we get here in our (US) supermarkets. 2601:19C:527F:7890:C88E:3250:E49:8B7E (talk) 11:37, 7 September 2023 (UTC)

 * I've only ever seen the paper-wrapped bottle in the US. 57.135.233.22 (talk) 09:28, 15 October 2023 (UTC)

ketchup?
ketchup or catsup originally referred to some watery BLACK sauce, the details of which i am unsure about. i figure either soy or worcestershire.

i thought this was all lost to the ages, but then i SAW a bottle so labeled in an asian market! i regret that i did not purchase it on the spot, b/c i've never seen one again.

any experts have insight as to which sauce "original ketchup" equates to? 2601:19C:527F:7890:C88E:3250:E49:8B7E (talk) 20:33, 7 September 2023 (UTC)

Modified Origins
I have deleted most of the text under "Origins" which goes on about garum and then claims sauces similar to Worcestershire went back to the 17th century - only to cite an NPR item about garum which says nothing about anchovies. I left the claim about such sauces going back to the 17th century, but it needs an actual source, not a misleading one. 2600:1700:8D40:9B60:E94E:8370:27DD:A402 (talk) 05:27, 25 January 2024 (UTC)

 * I have
 * Moved newest post on this talk page (the one above by user:2600:1700:8D40:9B60:E94E:8370:27DD:A402) to the bottom, as is customary
 * Re-added a brief mention of Garum to the Origis section 8after all, anchovies are fish!)
 * Nø (talk) 09:00, 25 January 2024 (UTC)
 * Thanks. That was a graceful solution. Need to be more careful about where I put my Talk comments.
 * Hopefully someone will source the 17th century claim. Will look around when I can.
 * 2600:1700:8D40:9B60:7497:B896:960C:5442 (talk) 17:20, 25 January 2024 (UTC)
 * I have added a note to clarify that there is no direct link with garum to modern fish sauces. Also, I see no evidence of a commercial fish sauce in the seventeenth century, but added a note about homemade sauces using anchovies.
 * 2600:1700:8D40:9B60:7497:B896:960C:5442 (talk) 18:54, 25 January 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Worcestershire sauce


title: User:Hemanshu/b2


text:
List of television stations in the United States by call sign (initial letter K)

This is a list of full-power television stations in the United States having call signs which begin with the letter K. Stations licensed to transmit under low-power specifications—ex., KAJN-CD, K35OY-D and KXJB-LD—have not been included. This also pertains to low-power licenses transmitting over the spectrum of a full-power license. (KAZA-TV transmits over low-power KHTV-CD's spectrum, but is included as it is classified as a full-power license.)

A blue background indicates a station transmitting in the ATSC 3.0 format over-the-air; details about the station's alternate availability in the original ATSC format are contained in its article. Television networks listed with each respective station are the primary affiliation listed; details about other network affiliations with these channels are contained in their respective articles.

See also the list of TV stations beginning with W and the list of TV stations beginning with C.


text:
List of television stations in the United States by call sign (initial letter W)

This is a list of full-service television stations in the United States having call signs which begin with the letter W. Stations licensed to transmit under low-power specifications—ex., WOCV-CD, W16DQ-D and WIFR-LD—have not been included. This also pertains to low-power licenses transmitting over the spectrum of a full-power license. (WBTS-CD transmits over full-power WGBX-TV's spectrum, but is excluded as it is classified as a low-power license).

A blue background indicates a station transmitting in the ATSC 3.0 format over-the-air; details about the station's alternate availability in the original ATSC format are contained in its article. Television networks listed with each respective station are the primary affiliation listed; details about other network affiliations with these channels are contained in their respective articles.

See also the list of TV stations beginning with K and the list of TV stations beginning with C.


text:
Noel Estrada

Noel Epinanio Estrada Suárez (June 4, 1918 – December 1, 1979) was a Puerto Rican composer. He was the author of "En mi Viejo San Juan", a song "widely known around the world".

Early years
Estrada was born in the town of Isabela, Puerto Rico where he received his primary education. During the Great Depression, many Puerto Ricans either emigrated to the mainland United States (mainly to the northeastern coast area) or joined the armed forces, with the hope of improving their economic situation. At the outbreak of World War II, Estrada joined and served in the United States Army. Being away from his homeland for the first time in his life would in the future serve him as inspiration when composing the bolero "En mi viejo San Juan". In his youth, he joined Fi Sigma Alfa fraternity. He also completed a Bachelor in Business Administration from the University of Puerto Rico.

Musical compositions
Estrada became a government employee after being honorably discharged from the Army. He was a protocol official for the State Department. It was during the 1940s and 1950s that he wrote and interpreted his songs in Puerto Rico and in the U.S.

Among the many songs which he wrote were the following: "El Romance del Cafetal" (Romance of the coffee field); "Verde Navidad" (Green Christmas); "El Amor del Jíbaro" (The poor farmers Love); "Pobre Amor" (Poor Love); "Pedacito de Borinquen" (A piece of Puerto Rico); "Amor del Alma" (Love of the Soul); "Lo Nuestro Termino" (Our love is Finished); "Llévame a Ver a Jesús" (Take Me to see Jesus"); etcetera. However, it was "En mi Viejo San Juan" (In my Old San Juan) that would bring Estrada international acclaim.

"En Mi Viejo San Juan"
Estrada composed "En mi Viejo San Juan" in the 1940s, in New York City. It is Estrada's most popular composition, and is considered a second national anthem by many Puerto Ricans, especially those who live abroad. The City of San Juan honored Estrada as an adopted citizen and would later adopt the song as its official city anthem.

Later years
Estrada's composition "Mi romantico San Juan" (My romantic San Juan) won a first prize in the "Festival of the Puerto Rican Composer". In 1966, the City of San Juan honored Estrada by declaring him its adopted son.

Noel Estrada died in the City of San Juan in 1979. He was buried at Santa María Magdalena de Pazzis Cemetery. San Juan and the town of Isabela have honored Estrada's memory by naming streets and a school after him.

title: Noel Estrada


text:
Talk:Jagex

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 1 one external link on Jagex. Please take a moment to review my edit. You may add after the link to keep me from modifying it, if I keep adding bad data, but formatting bugs should be reported instead. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether, but should be used as a last resort. I made the following changes:
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 * Marked as failed since the bot tried to mark http://www.jagex.com as dead, even though it's very much alive (and a much newer website than the archived link.) 1ForTheMoney (talk) 17:45, 31 March 2016 (UTC)

"Andrew Gower" listed at Redirects for discussion
A discussion is taking place to address the redirect Andrew Gower. The discussion will occur at Redirects for discussion/Log/2021 April 29 until a consensus is reached, and readers of this page are welcome to contribute to the discussion. Minkerbelle (talk) 17:24, 29 April 2021 (UTC)

Jagex as a name.
In the article it's mentioned (without reference) that the name came from their OG slogan "Java Gaming Experts", however they have had their old logo with the description "Java Audio+Graphics eXtension" see https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tZlj694lcxA&t=1529s They seem to have called their company after their own game engine/technology ("created with jagex")? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 88.90.81.14 (talk) 23:57, 27 February 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Jagex