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List of liberal theorists

Individual contributors to classical liberalism and political liberalism are associated with philosophers of the Enlightenment. Liberalism as a specifically named ideology begins in the late 18th century as a movement towards self-government and away from aristocracy. It included the ideas of self-determination, the primacy of the individual and the nation as opposed to the state and religion as being the fundamental units of law, politics and economy.

Since then liberalism broadened to include a wide range of approaches from Americans Ronald Dworkin, Richard Rorty, John Rawls and Francis Fukuyama as well as the Indian Amartya Sen and the Peruvian Hernando de Soto. Some of these people moved away from liberalism while others espoused other ideologies before turning to liberalism. There are many different views of what constitutes liberalism, and some liberals would feel that some of the people on this list were not true liberals. It is intended to be suggestive rather than exhaustive. Theorists whose ideas were mainly typical for one country should be listed in that country's section of liberalism worldwide. Generally only thinkers are listed whereas politicians are only listed when they also made substantial contributions to liberal theory beside their active political work.

Aristotle
Aristotle (Athens, 384–322 BC) is revered among political theorists for his seminal work Politics. He made invaluable contributions to liberal theory through his observations on different forms of government and the nature of man.

He begins with the idea that the best government provides an active and "happy" life for its people. Aristotle then considers six forms of government: Monarchy, Aristocracy, and Polity on one side as 'good' forms of government, and Tyranny, Oligarchy, and Democracy as 'bad' forms. Considering each in turn, Aristotle rejects Monarchy as infantilizing of citizens, Oligarchy as too profit-motivated, Tyranny as against the will of the people, Democracy as serving only to the poor, and Aristocracy (known today as Meritocracy) as ideal but ultimately impossible. Aristotle finally concludes that a polity—a combination between democracy and oligarchy, where most can vote but must choose among the rich and virtuous for governors—is the best compromise between idealism and realism.

In addition, Aristotle was a firm supporter of private property. He refuted Plato's argument for a collectivist society in which family and property are held in common: Aristotle makes the argument that when one's own son or land is rightfully one's own, one puts much more effort into cultivating that item, to the ultimate betterment of society. He references barbarian tribes of his time in which property was held in common, and the laziest of the bunch would always take away large amounts of food grown by the most diligent.

Cicero
His Stoic, Cato, advocated for Greek Stoicism in Cicero's books. It's a development of Aristotle's ethics and goes further, advocating equal rights for all people. It was found to be scientifically true on inspection in the '90s, by Becker (1998). He was also a major influence to John Locke.

Laozi
Laozi was a Chinese philosopher and writer, considered the founder of Taoism. Arguing that Laozi is a libertarian, James A. Dorn wrote that Laozi, like many 18th-century liberals, "argued that minimizing the role of government and letting individuals develop spontaneously would best achieve social and economic harmony."

Liberal Thinkers of the Muslim Golden Age
The Islamic Golden Age (8th to 14th century) was marked by a flourishing of intellectual activity in the Islamic world. Several scholars and thinkers from this era contributed to ideas that align with certain liberal principles, emphasizing reason, justice, and individual rights.

Al-Farabi (872–950)
Al-Farabi, known as "the Second Teacher," was a philosopher influential in transmitting Greek philosophy to the Islamic world. His political philosophy, seen in works like The Virtuous City, stressed the importance of justice and the common good in governance, influencing both Muslim and European thought.

Averroes (1126–1198)
Ibn Rushd, a Spanish-Arab philosopher, advocated for the compatibility of reason and philosophy with Islamic faith. His commentaries on Aristotle and independent works promoted the separation of reason and revelation, profoundly influencing both Islamic and Western thought.

Avicenna (980–1037)
Ibn Sina, a polymath known for contributions to medicine and metaphysics, delved into political philosophy. In *The Book of Healing*, he discussed the need for a well-ordered state, emphasizing the role of a philosopher-king guided by reason and wisdom.

Ibn Tufayl (1105–1185)
Ibn Tufail, a philosopher and physician, explored individualism and reason in Hayy ibn Yaqdhan. The novel discussed a person raised in isolation, emphasizing themes of individual pursuit of knowledge.

Niccolò Machiavelli
Niccolò Machiavelli (Florence, 1469–1527), best known for his Il Principe was the founder of realist political philosophy, advocated republican government, citizen armies, protection of personal property, and restraint of government expenditure as being necessary to the liberties of a republic. He wrote extensively on the need for individual initiative—virtu—as an essential characteristic of stable government. He argued that liberty was the central good which government should protect, and that "good people" would make good laws, whereas people who had lost their virtue could maintain their liberties only with difficulty. His Discourses on Livy outlined realism as the central idea of political study and favored "Republics" over "Principalities".

Machiavelli differed from true liberal thinking however, in that he still noted the benefits of princely governance. He states that republican leaders need to "act alone" if they want to reform a republic, and offers the example of Romulus, who killed his brother and co-ruler to found a great city. Republics need to refer to arbitrary and violent measures if it is necessary to maintain the structure of the government, as Machiavelli says that they have to ignore thoughts of justice and fairness.

Anti-statist liberals consider Machiavelli's distrust as his main message, noting his call for a strong state under a strong leader, who should use any means to establish his position, whereas liberalism is an ideology of individual freedom and voluntary choices.
 * Contributing literature:
 * Discorsi sopra la prima deca di Tito Livio, 1512–1517 (Discourse on the First Decade of Titus Livius)

Erasmus
Desiderius Erasmus (Netherlands, 1466–1536) was an advocate of humanism, critic of entrenched interests, irrationality and superstition. Erasmusian societies formed across Europe, to some extent in response to the turbulence of the Reformation. In his De libero arbitrio diatribe sive collatio (1524), he analyzes the Lutheran exaggeration of the obvious limitations on human freedom.
 * Contributing literature
 * Stultitiae Laus, 1509 (The Praise of Folly, Internet History Sourcebooks)
 * De libero arbitrio diatribe sive collatio, 1524

Étienne de La Boétie
Étienne de La Boétie (France, 1530–1563) was a French writer, magistrate and political theorist. According to Etienne the chief question of political philosophy was the question of how people come to accept the will of tyrants.
 * Contributing literature
 * Discourse on Voluntary Servitude, 1577

Hugo Grotius
Hugo Grotius (Netherlands 1583–1645)
 * Contributing literature
 * Mare Liberum, 1606
 * De jure belli ac pacis, 1625

Thomas Hobbes
Thomas Hobbes (England, 1588–1679) theorized that government is the result of individual actions and human traits, and that it was motivated primarily by "interest", a term which would become crucial in the development of a liberal theory of government and political economy, since it is the foundation of the idea that individuals can be self-governing and self-regulating. His work Leviathan, did not advocate this viewpoint, but instead that only a strong government could restrain unchecked interest: it did, however, advance a proto-liberal position in arguing for an inalienable "right of nature," the right to defend oneself, even against the state. Though his own ideological position is open to debate, his work influenced Spinoza, Locke, Hamilton, Jefferson, Madison and many other liberals.
 * Contributing literature:
 * Leviathan, 1651 (Theologico-Political Treatise)

Spinoza
Baruch Spinoza (Netherlands, 1632–1677) in his Tractatus Theologico-Politicus (TTP) (1670) and Tractatus Politicus (1678) defends the importance of separation of church and state as well as forms of democracy. In the TTP, Spinoza articulates a strong critique of religious intolerance and a defense of secular government against the power of religious authorities. Spinoza laid the philosophical groundwork for the emancipation of Jews, putting them on an equal footing as other citizens.
 * Contributing literature:
 * Tractatus Theologico-Politicus, 1670 (Theologico-Political Treatise, Theologico-Political Treatise – Part 1)
 * Tractatus Politicus, 1677 (Political Treatise)

John Locke
John Locke's (England, 1632–1704) notion that a "government with the consent of the governed" and man's natural rights—life, liberty, and estate (property) as well on tolerance, as laid down in A letter concerning toleration and Two treatises of government—had an enormous influence on the development of liberalism. Locke developed a theory of property resting on the actions of individuals, rather than on descent or nobility.
 * Some literature:
 * A Letter Concerning Toleration, 1689
 * The Second Treatise of Civil Government, 1689 Gutenberg

John Trenchard
John Trenchard (United Kingdom, 1662–1723) was co-author, with Thomas Gordon of Cato's Letters. These newspaper essays condemned tyranny and advanced principles of freedom of conscience and freedom of speech and were a main vehicle for spreading the concepts that had been developed by John Locke.
 * Some literature:
 * Cato's Letters / John Trenchard & Thomas Gordon, 1720–1723

Charles de Montesquieu
Charles de Montesquieu (France, 1689–1755) In The Spirit of Law, Montesquieu expounded the separation of powers in government and society. In government, Montesquieu encouraged division into the now standard legislative, judicial and executive branches; in society, he perceived a natural organization into king, the people and the aristocracy, with the latter playing a mediating role. "I do not write to censor that which is established in any country whatsoever," Montesquieu disclaimed in the Laws; however, he did pay special attention to what he felt was the positive example of the constitutional system in England, which in spite of its evolution toward a fusion of powers, had moderated the power of the monarch, and divided Parliament along class lines.

Montesquieu's work had a seminal impact on the American and French revolutionaries. Ironically, the least liberal element of his thought—his privileging of the aristocracy—was belied by both revolutions. Montesquieu's system came to fruition in America, a country with no aristocracy; in France, political maneuvering by the aristocracy led to the convocation of the 1789 Estates-General and popular revolt.
 * Some literature:
 * De l'esprit des lois, 1748 (The Spirit of Law) )
 * Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers (together with others), 1751–1772 (Encyclopaedia, or Reasoned Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project)

Thomas Gordon
Thomas Gordon (United Kingdom, 169?–1750) was co-author, with John Trenchard of Cato's Letters. These newspaper essays condemned tyranny and advanced principles of freedom of conscience and freedom of speech and were a main vehicle for spreading the concepts that had been developed by John Locke.
 * Some literature:
 * Cato's Letters / John Trenchard & Thomas Gordon, 1720–1723

François Quesnay
François Quesnay (France, 1694–1774)
 * Some literature:
 * Tableau économique, 1758
 * Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers (together with others), 1751–1772 (Encyclopaedia, or Reasoned Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project)

Voltaire
Voltaire (France, 1694–1778)
 * Some literature:
 * Lettres Philosophiques sur les Anglais, 1734 (Philosophical Letters on the English)
 * Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers (together with others), 1751–1772 (Encyclopaedia, or Reasoned Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project)
 * Essai sur l'histoire génerale et sur les moeurs et l'espirit des nations, 1756 (Essay on the Manner and Spirit of Nations and on the Principal Occurrences in History)
 * Traité sur la Tolérance à l'occasion de la mort de Jean Calas, 1763 (Treatise on Toleration In Connection with the Death of Jean Calas)
 * Dictionnaire Philosophique, 1764 (Philosophical Dictionary)

Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (Switzerland, 1712–1778)
 * Some literature:
 * Discourse on Inequality, 1755
 * On the Social Contract, 1762

Denis Diderot
Denis Diderot (France, 1713–1784)
 * Some literature:
 * Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers (together with others), 1751–1772 (Encyclopaedia, or Reasoned Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project)

Jean le Rond d'Alembert
Jean le Rond d'Alembert (France, 1717–1783)
 * Some literature:
 * Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers (together with others), 1751–1772 (Encyclopaedia, or Reasoned Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project)

Richard Price
Richard Price (United Kingdom, 1723–1791)
 * Some literature:
 * Appeal to the Public on the Subject of the National Debt, 1771
 * Observations on Reversionary Payments, 1771
 * Observations on Civil Liberty and the Justice and Policy of the War with America, 1776

Adam Smith
Adam Smith (Great Britain, 1723–1790), often considered the founder of modern economics, was a key figure in formulating and advancing economic doctrine of free trade and competition. In his Wealth of Nations Adam Smith outlined the key idea that if the economy is basically left to its own devices, limited and finite resources will be put to ultimately their most efficient use through people acting purely in their self-interest. This concept has been quoted out of context by later economists as the invisible hand of the market.

Smith also advanced property rights and personal civil liberties, including stopping slavery, which today partly form the basic liberal ideology. He was also opposed to stock-holding companies, what today is called a "corporation", because he predicated the self-policing of the free market upon the free association of moral individuals.
 * Some literature:
 * An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, 1776 Wealth of Nations: Table of Contents.
 * The Theory of Moral Sentiments, 1759

Immanuel Kant
Immanuel Kant (Germany, 1724–1804)
 * Some literature:
 * Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten, 1785 (Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals )
 * Kritik der praktischen Vernunft, 1788 (Critique of Practical Reason )
 * Über den Gemeinspruch: Das mag in der Theorie richtig sein, taugt aber nicht für die Praxis, 1793 (On the common saying: this may be true in theory but it does not apply in practice)
 * Zum ewigen Frieden, 1795 (Perpetual Peace Kant Zum ewigen Frieden)
 * Metaphysik der Sitten, 1797 (Metaphysics of Morals )

Anne Robert Jacques Turgot
Anne Robert Jacques Turgot (France, 1727–1781)
 * Some literature:
 * Le Conciliateur, 1754
 * Lettre sur la tolérance civile, 1754
 * Réflexions sur la formation et la distribution des richesses, 1766
 *  Lettres sur la liberté du commerce des grains, 1770

Joseph Priestley
Joseph Priestley (United Kingdom/United States, 1733–1804)
 * Some literature:
 * Essay on the First Principles of Government, 1768
 * The Present State of Liberty in Great Britain and her Colonies, 1769
 * Remarks on Dr Blackstone's Commentaries, 1769
 * Observations on Civil Liberty and the Nature and Justice of the War with America, 1772

August Ludwig von Schlözer
August Ludwig von Schlözer (Germany, 1735–1809)

Patrick Henry
Patrick Henry (United States, 1736–1799)
 * Some literature:
 * Liberty or Death, 1775 Give Me Liberty or Give Me Death

Thomas Paine
Thomas Paine (United Kingdom/United States, 1737–1809) was a Founding Father, political activist, philosopher, political theorist, and revolutionary. His ideas reflected Enlightenment-era ideals of human rights. Following the American Revolution he returned to England then fled to France, to avoid arrest because advocated the right of the people to overthrow their government. In the Age of Reason, he advocated Deism, promoted reason and freethought, and argued against religion in general and Christian doctrine in particular. In Agrarian Justice, opposed to Agrarian Law, and to Agrarian Monopoly sought the origins of poverty, locating them in inequitable distribution of land, "a violation of humankind's natural rights," which could be remedied through an estate tax.
 * Some literature:
 * Common Sense (1776)
 * The American Crisis (1776–1783) pamphlets
 * Rights of Man, 1791–92 The Rights of Man from Project Gutenberg
 * The Age of Reason (1793–1794).
 * Agrarian Justice, 1797

Thomas Jefferson
Thomas Jefferson (United States, 1743–1826) was the third President of the United States and author of the Declaration of Independence. He also wrote Notes on the State of Virginia and the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom. Ideologically, he was a champion of inalienable individual rights, although excluded women from his formulation, and as a Virginia planter, he held many enslaved persons. He advocated the separation of church and state. His ideas were repeated in many other liberal revolutions around the world, including the (early) French Revolution.

Works:
 * Declaration of Independence 1775

Marquis de Condorcet
Marquis de Condorcet (France, 1743–1794) advocated for a liberal economy, free and equal public instruction, constitutional government, and equal rights for women and people of all races, which embody the ideals of the Age of Enlightenment.

Some literature:
 * Esquisse d'un tableau historique des progrés de l'esprit humain, 1795 (Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Mind)

Olympe de Gouges
Olympe de Gouges (French, 1748–1793) is best known as an advocate of women's rights, writing Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen, in response to the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789); she was executed during the French Revolution. Prior to the outbreak of the revolution, she authored Réflexions sur les hommes nègres (1788), calling for better treatment of black slaves. Her most famous quote is “A woman has the right to mount the scaffold. She must possess equally the right to mount the speaker's platform.”

Works:
 * Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen (1791)
 * La Nécessité du divorce (The Necessity of Divorce)’’ 1790

Jeremy Bentham
Jeremy Bentham (United Kingdom, 1748–1832) An early advocate of utilitarianism, animal welfare and women's rights. He had many students all around the world, including John Stuart Mill and several political leaders. Bentham demanded economic and individual freedom, including the separation of the state and church, freedom of expression, completely equal rights for women, the end of slavery and colonialism, uniform democracy, the abolition of physical punishment of adults and children, the right to divorce, free prices, free trade, and no restrictions on interest. Bentham was not a libertarian: he supported an inheritance tax, restrictions on monopoly power, pensions, health insurance, and other social security, but he called for prudence and careful consideration in any such governmental intervention.

Adamantios Korais
Adamantios Korais (Smyrna, 1748–1833) A major figure of the Greek Enlightenment, Korais helped shape the modern Greek state with his theories on classical education, language, religion, secular law and constitutional government, with passionate views on the necessity of democracy. He corresponded with leading figures of the American republic, especially with Thomas Jefferson.
 * Some literature:
 * Report on the Present State of Civilization in Greece, 1803
 * What Should We Greeks Do in the Present Circumstances?, 1805
 * The Library of Greek Literature, 1805–1826
 * Parerga, 1809–1827

Emmanuel Sieyès
Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès '(France, 1748–1836) played an important role in the opening years of the French Revolution, drafting the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, expanding on the theory of national sovereignty, popular sovereignty, and representation implied in his pamphlet What is the Third Estate?.

Charles James Fox
Charles James Fox (United Kingdom, 1749–1806) a Whig politician and member of parliament who spent most of his career in opposition. He opposed tyranny of any sort or the threat of it. For this reason he was a staunch critic of King George III whom he regarded as an aspiring tyrant. He was an abolitionist and supporter of American Patriots and of the French Revolution. He attacked Pitt's wartime legislation and defended the liberty of religious minorities and political radicals. After Pitt's death in January 1806, Fox served briefly as Foreign Secretary in the 'Ministry of All the Talents' of William Grenville.
 * The Speeches of the Right Honourable Charles James Fox in the House of Commons.

Antoine Destutt de Tracy
Antoine Destutt de Tracy (1754–1836)

Stanisław Staszic
Stanisław Staszic (Poland-Lithuania, 1755–1826) was a Catholic priest, philosopher, geologist, writer, poet, translator and statesman. A physiocrat, monist, pan-Slavist (after 1815) and an advocate of laissez-faire, he supported many reforms in Poland. He is particularly remembered for his political writings during the "Great (Four-Year) Sejm" (1788–92) and for his support of the Constitution of 3 May 1791.

Friedrich Schiller
Friedrich Schiller (Germany, 1759–1805)

Mary Wollstonecraft
Mary Wollstonecraft (United Kingdom, 1759–1797) is best known for A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), in which she argues that women are not naturally inferior to men but appear to be only because they lack education. She suggests that both men and women should be treated as rational beings and imagines a social order founded on reason. Works:
 * Thoughts on the Education of Daughters 1787
 * A Vindication of the Rights of Men 1790
 * A Vindication of the Rights of Woman 1792

Anne Louise Germaine de Staël
Anne Louise Germaine de Staël (France, 1766–1817)
 * Some literature:
 * De l'influence des passions sur le bonheur des individus et des nations, 1796
 * Des circonstances actuelles qui peuvent terminer la Révolution et des principes qui doivent fonder la république en France, 1798
 * Considérations sur les principaux événements de la révolution française, 1813
 * Appel aux souverains réunis à Paris pour en obtenir l'abolition de la traite des nègres, 1814

Benjamin Constant
Benjamin Constant (France, 1767–1830) Regarded by some as one of the fathers of modern liberalism, he was initially a republican during the French Revolution, but utterly rejected The Jacobins as an instance of the tyranny of the majority.
 * Some literature:
 * De l'esprit de conquête et l'usurpation (On the spirit of conquest and on usurpation), 1814
 * Principes de Politique (Principles of Politics), 1815
 * "The Liberty of Ancients Compared with that of Moderns," 1819

Jean-Baptiste Say
Jean-Baptiste Say (France, 1767–1832)
 * Some literature:
 * Traité d'économie politique (Treatise on Political Economy), 1803.

Wilhelm von Humboldt
Wilhelm von Humboldt (Germany, 1767–1835)
 * Some literature:
 * Ideen zu einem Versuch, die Grenzen der Wirksamkeit des Staats zu bestimmen (On the Limits of State Action), 1792.

Adam Czartoryski
Adam Czartoryski (Poland-Lithuania 1770–1867) was a statesman, and international politician. He began as a foreign minister to the Russian Tsar Alexander I and built an anti-Napoleon coalition. He became a leader of the Polish government in exile, and an enemy of Russian Tsar Nicholas I. In exile he was an activist on the Polish Question across Europe, and stimulated early Balkan independence.
 * Some literature:
 * Essai sur la diplomatie (Marseilles, 1830);
 * Life of J. U. Niemcewicz (Paris, 1860);
 * Alexander I. et Czartoryski: correspondence ... et conversations (1801–1823)
 * Memoirs of Czartoryski, with documents relating to his negotiations with Pitt, and conversations with Palmerston in 1832

David Ricardo
David Ricardo (United Kingdom, 1772–1823)

James Mill
James Mill (United Kingdom, 1773–1836)
 * Some literature:
 * Elements of Political Economy, 1821

Antoine-Elisée Cherbuliez
Antoine-Elisée Cherbuliez (Switzerland, 1797–1869)

Johan Rudolf Thorbecke
The Dutch statesman Johan Rudolf Thorbecke (Netherlands, 1798–1872) was the main theorist of Dutch liberalism in the nineteenth century, outlining a more democratic alternative to the absolute monarchy, the constitutional monarchy. The constitution of 1848 was mainly his work. His main theoretical article specifically labeled as 'liberal' was 'Over het hedendaagsche staatsburgerschap' (On Modern Citizenship) from 1844. He became prime minister in 1849, thus starting numerous fundamental reforms in Dutch politics.

Frédéric Bastiat
Frédéric Bastiat (France, 1801–1850)

Claude Frédéric Bastiat was a French classical liberal theorist, political economist, and member of the French assembly.
 * Some literature:
 * La Loi (The Law), 1849
 * Harmonies économiques (Economic Harmonies), 1850
 * Ce qu'on voit et ce qu'on ne voit pas (What is Seen and What is Not Seen), 1850

Rifa'a al-Tahtawi
Rifa'a al-Tahtawi (Egypt, 1801–1873)

Rifa'a al-Tahtawi (also spelt Tahtawy) was an Egyptian writer, teacher, translator, Egyptologist, renaissance intellectual and one of the early adapters to Islamic Modernism. In 1831, Tahtawi was part of the statewide effort to modernize the Egyptian infrastructure and education. Three of his published volumes were works of political and moral philosophy. They introduced his Egyptian audience to Enlightenment ideas such as secular authority and political rights and liberty; his ideas regarding how a modern civilized society ought to be and what constituted by extension a civilized or "good Egyptian"; and his ideas on public interest and public good. Tahtawi's work was the first effort in what became an Egyptian renaissance (nahda) that flourished in the years between 1860 and 1940.
 * Works:
 * A Paris Profile, written during Tahtawi's stay in France.
 * The methodology of Egyptians minds with regard to the marvels of modern literature, published in 1869 crystallizing Tahtawi's opinions on modernization.
 * The honest guide for education of girls and boys, published in 1873 and reflecting the main precepts of Tahtawi's educational thoughts.
 * Tawfik al-Galil insights into Egypt's and Ismail descendants' history, the first part of the History Encyclopedia published in 1868 and tracing the history of ancient Egypt till the dawn of Islam.
 * A thorough summary of the biography of Mohammed published after Tahtawi's death, recording a comprehensive account of the life of Prophet Mohammed and the political, legal and administrative foundations of the first Islamic state.
 * Towards a simpler Arabic grammar, published in 1869.
 * Grammatical sentences, published in 1863.
 * Egyptian patriotic lyrics, written in praise of Khedive Said and published in 1855.
 * The luminous stars in the moonlit nights of al-Aziz, a collection of congratulatory writings to some princes, published in 1872.

Harriet Martineau
Harriet Martineau (United Kingdom, 1802–1876)

 * Some literature:
 * Illustrations of Political Economy, 1832–1834
 * Theory and Practice of Society in America, 1837
 * The Martyr Age of the United States, 1839

Alexis de Tocqueville
Alexis de Tocqueville (France, 1805–1859)
 * Some literature:
 * De La Démocratie en Amérique, 1831–1840 (Democracy in America, )
 * L'Ancien Régime et la Révolution, 1856

John Stuart Mill
John Stuart Mill (United Kingdom, 1806–1873) is one of the first champions of modern "liberalism." As such, his work on political economy and logic helped lay the foundation for advancements in empirical science and public policy based on verifiable improvements. Strongly influenced by Bentham's utilitarianism, he disagrees with Kant's intuitive notion of right and formulates the "highest normative principle" of morals as: Actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness; wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness.

Some consider Mill as the founder of Social liberalism. Although Mill was mainly for free markets, he accepted interventions in the economy, such as a tax on alcohol, if there were sufficient utilitarian grounds. Mill was also a champion of women's rights.
 * Some literature:
 * Considerations On Representative Government, 1862
 * On Liberty, 1868
 * Socialism, 1879

José María Luis Mora
José María Luis Mora (New Spain/Mexico 1794 – 1850) was a priest, lawyer, historian, politician and liberal ideologist. Considered one of the first supporters of liberalism in Mexico, he fought for the separation of church and state. Mora has been deemed "the most significant liberal spokesman for his generation [and] his thought epitomizes the structure and the predominant orientation of Mexican liberalism." Some works:
 * Catecismo político de la federación mexicana. Mexico 1831
 * Disertación sobre la naturaleza y aplicación de las rentas y bienes eclesiásticas, y sobre la autoridad a que se hallan sujetos en cuanto a su creación, aumento, sustencia o supresión. Mexico 1833.

Ralph Waldo Emerson
Ralph Waldo Emerson (United States, 1803–1882) was an American philosopher who argued that the basic principles of government were mutable, and that government is required only insofar as people are not self-governing. Proponent of Democracy, and of the idea that a democratic people must have a democratic ethics.
 * Some literature:
 * Self-Reliance
 * Circles
 * Politics
 * The Nominalist and the Realist

William Lloyd Garrison
William Lloyd Garrison (United States, 1805–1879)
 * Some literature:
 * Articles advocating abolition of slavery in the newspaper The Liberator, 1831–1866

Juan Bautista Alberdi
Juan Bautista Alberdi (Argentina, 1810–1884)
 * Some literature:
 * Bases y puntos de partida para la organización política de la República Argentina (Bases and Points of Departure for the Political Organization of the Argentine Republic), 1852
 * Sistema económico y rentistico de la Confederación Argentina, según su Constitución de 1853 (Economic and rentistic system of the Argentine Confederation, according to its 1853 Constitution), 1854

Henry David Thoreau
Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862)
 * Some literature:
 * Civil Disobedience
 * Walden

Jacob Burckhardt
Jacob Burckhardt (Switzerland, 1818–1897) State as derived from cultural and economic life.
 * Some literature:
 * The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy

Herbert Spencer
Herbert Spencer (United Kingdom, 1820–1903), philosopher, psychologist, and sociologist, advanced what he called the "Law of equal liberty" and argued against liberal theory promoting more activist government, which he dubbed "a new form of Toryism." He supported a state limited in its duties to the defense of persons and their property. For Spencer, voluntary cooperation was the hallmark of the most vibrant form of society, accommodating the widest diversity of members and the greatest diversity of goals. Spencer's evolutionary approach has been characterized as an extension of Adam Smith's "invisible hand" explanation of economic order; his extensive work on sympathy (in psychology as well as the foundation of ethics, particularly in The Data of Ethics) explicitly carried on Smith's approach in The Theory of Moral Sentiments. Spencer is frequently characterized as a leading Social Darwinist.
 * Some literature:
 * Social Statics, 1851
 * Principles of Ethics, 1879, 1892
 * The Man versus the State, 1884
 * Essays, Scientific, Political and Speculative, 1892

İbrahim Şinasi
İbrahim Şinasi (Ottoman Empire, 1826–1871), author, journalist, translator, and newspaper editor. He was the innovator of several fields: he wrote one of the earliest examples of an Ottoman play, he encouraged the trend of translating poetry from French into Turkish, he simplified the script used for writing the Ottoman Turkish language, and he was one of the first of the Ottoman writers to write specifically for the broader public. Şinasi used his newspapers, Tercüman-ı Ahvâl and Tasvîr-i Efkâr, to promote the proliferation of European Enlightenment ideals during the Tanzimat period, and he made the education of the literate Ottoman public his personal vocation. Though many of Şinasi's projects were incomplete at the time of his death, "he was at the forefront of a number of fields and put his stamp on the development of each field so long as it contained unsolved problems." Şinasi, influenced by Enlightenment thought, saw freedom of expression as a fundamental right and used journalism in order to engage, communicate with, and educate the public. By speaking directly to the public about government affairs, Şinasi declared that state actions were not solely the interest of the government.
 * Works:
 * Tercüme-i Manzume (1859, translation of poems from the French of La Fontaine, Lamartine, Gilbert, and Racine)
 * Şair Evlenmesi (1859, the first Ottoman play, "The Wedding of a Poet")
 * Durub-i Emsal-i Osmaniye (1863, the first book of Turkish proverbs)
 * Müntahabat-ı Eş'ar (1863, collection of poems)

Thomas Hill Green
Thomas Hill Green (United Kingdom, 1836–1882)

Auberon Herbert
Auberon Herbert (United Kingdom, 1838–1906)

Carl Menger
Carl Menger (Austria, 1840–1921)
 * Some literature:
 * Grundsätze der Volkswirtschaftslehre (Principles of Economics), 1871
 * Untersuchungen über die Methode der Sozialwissenschaften und der Politischen Ökonomie insbesondere (Investigations into the Method of the Social Sciences: with special reference to economics), 1883
 * Irrthumer des Historismus in der deutschen Nationalokonomie (The Errors of Historicism in German Economics), 1884
 * Zur Theorie des Kapitals (The Theory of Capital), 1888

William Graham Sumner
William Graham Sumner (United States, 1840–1910)
 * Some literature:
 * Socialism, 1878
 * The Argument Against Protective Tariffs, 1881
 * Protective Taxes and Wages, 1883
 * The Absurd Effort to Make the World Over, 1883
 * State Interference, 1887
 * Protectionism: the -ism which teaches that waste makes wealth, 1887
 * The Forgotten Man, and Other Essays, 1917

Lester Frank Ward
Lester Frank Ward (United States, 1841–1913) Lester Ward was a botanist, paleontologist, and sociologist. He served as the first president of the American Sociological Association. Ward was a fierce and unrelenting critic of the laissez-faire policies advocated by Herbert Spencer and William Graham Sumner.
 * Some literature:
 * (1883) Dynamic Sociology: Or Applied social science as based upon statical sociology and the less complex sciences.
 * (1893) The Psychic Factors of Civilization, 1893.
 * (1903) Pure Sociology. A Treatise on the Origin and Spontaneous Development of Society.
 * (1906) Applied Sociology. A Treatise on the Conscious Improvement of Society by Society.

Ward's major works can be found here:

Lujo Brentano
Ludwig Joseph Brentano (Germany, 1844–1931)

Tomáš Masaryk
Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk (Czechoslovakia, 1850–1937)

Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk
Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk (Austria, 1851–1914)
 * Some literature:
 * Kapital und Kapitalzins (Capital and Interest), in three volumes, 1884, 1889 and 1909
 * Die Positive Theorie des Kapitals (The positive theory of capital and its critics), in three volumes, 1895 and 1896
 * Zum Abschluss des Marxschen Systems (Karl Marx and the Close of his system),1898

Louis Brandeis
Louis Brandeis (1856–1941)

Thorstein Veblen
Thorstein Veblen (1857–1926) is best known as the author of Theory of the Leisure Class. Veblen was influential to a generation of American liberalism searching for a rational basis for the economy beyond corporate consolidation and "cut throat competition". Veblen's central argument was that individuals require sufficient non-economic time to become educated citizens. He caustically attacked pure material consumption for its own sake, and the idea that utility equalled conspicuous consumption.

John Dewey
John Dewey (United States, 1859–1952)
 * Some literature:
 * Liberalism and Social Action, 1935
 * Democracy and Education

Friedrich Naumann
Friedrich Naumann (Germany, 1860–1919)

Santeri Alkio
Santeri Alkio (Finland, 1862–1930)

Max Weber
Max Weber (Germany, 1864–1920) was a theorist of state power and the relationship of culture to economics. Argued that there was a moral component to capitalism rooted in "Protestant" values. Weber was along with Friedrich Naumann active in the National Social Union and later in the German Democratic Party.
 * Some literature:
 * Die protestantische Ethik und der 'Geist' des Kapitalismus, 1904 (The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism )

Leonard Hobhouse
Leonard Trelawny Hobhouse (United Kingdom, 1864–1929)
 * Some literature:
 * Liberalism, 1911

Benedetto Croce
Benedetto Croce (Italy, 1866–1952)
 * Some literature:
 * Che cosa è il liberalismo, 1943

Walther Rathenau
Walther Rathenau (Germany, 1867–1922)

Sir Leo Chiozza Money
Leo Chiozza Money (Britain, 1870–1944) An Italian-born economic theorist who moved to Britain in the 1890s, where he made his name as a politician, journalist and author. In the early years of the 20th century his views attracted the interest of two future Prime Ministers, David Lloyd George and Winston Churchill. After a spell as Lloyd George's parliamentary private secretary, he was a Government minister in the latter stages of the First World War.

Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed
Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed Pasha (Egypt, 1872–1963) An Egyptian intellectual, anti-colonial activist and the first director of Cairo University. He was an influential person in the Egyptian nationalist movement and used his position in the media to strive and gain an independent Egypt from British rule. He was also one of the architects of modern Egyptian nationalism as well as the architect of Egyptian secularism and liberalism. He was fondly known as the "Professor of the Generation". Lutfi was one of the fiercest opponents of pan-Arabism, insisting that Egyptians are Egyptians and not Arabs. He is considered one of the most influential scholars and intellectuals in the history of Egypt.

William Beveridge
William Beveridge (United Kingdom, 1879–1963)
 * Some literature:
 * Full Employment in a Free Society, 1944
 * Why I am a liberal, 1945

Ludwig von Mises
Ludwig von Mises (Austria/United States, 1881–1973)
 * Some literature:
 * Socialism, 1922
 * Liberalism, 1927
 * Omnipotent Government, 1944
 * Human Action, 1949

José Ortega y Gasset
José Ortega y Gasset (Spain, 1883–1955)
 * Some literature:
 * La rebelión de las masas (The Rebellion of the Masses), 1930

Salvador de Madariaga
Salvador de Madariaga (Spain, 1886–1978). One of the principal authors of the Oxford Manifesto in 1947.

Adolf Berle
Adolf Berle (United States, 1895–1971) was author of The Modern Corporation and Private Property, detailing the importance of differentiating between the management of corporations and the share holders who are the owners. Influential in the theory of New Deal policy.
 * Some literature with Gardiner Means:
 * The Modern Corporation and Private Property

Wilhelm Röpke
Wilhelm Röpke (Germany, 1899–1966)
 * Some literature:
 * International Economic Disintegration, 1942
 * The Social Crisis of Our Time, 1942
 * Civitas Humana, 1944
 * International Order and Economic Integration, 1945
 * The Solution of the German Problem, 1946

Bertil Ohlin
Bertil Ohlin (Sweden, 1899–1979)
 * Some literature:
 * Interregional and International Trade, 1933

Friedrich von Hayek
Friedrich Hayek (Austria/United Kingdom/United States/Germany, 1899–1992) In Hayek's view, the central role of the state should be to maintain the rule of law, with as little arbitrary intervention as possible. Also a Nobel Prize winner in economics and predicter of the Great Depression like fellow Austrian School economist and mentor Ludwig von Mises.
 * Some literature:
 * The Road to Serfdom, 1944
 * The Constitution of Liberty, 1960
 * Law, Legislation and Liberty, in three volumes, 1973, 1976 and 1979

Karl Popper
Karl Raimund Popper (Austria/United Kingdom, 1902–1994) developed the idea of the open society, characterized by respect for a wide variety of opinions and behaviors and a preference for audacious but piecemeal political reform over either conservative stasis or revolutionary utopianism. In his view, all simplistic and grandiose theories of history and society shared a common feature he called historicism, which he traces back to Plato, while the open society mirrors the methodological fallibilism pioneered by Popper in his earlier works on philosophy of science.
 * Some literature:
 * The Open Society and Its Enemies, 1945
 * The Poverty of Historicism, 1961

Alan Paton
Alan Paton (South Africa, 1903–1988) contributed with his book Cry, The Beloved Country to a clear anti-apartheid stand of South African liberalism. His party, the Liberal Party of South Africa was banned by the apartheid government.
 * Some literature:
 * Cry, The Beloved Country, 1948
 * Ah, but Your Land is Beautiful, 1983

Ayn Rand
Ayn Rand (United States, 1905–1982) was a radical and influential moral and political philosopher. Her advocacy of strong self-interest in ethics was influenced, she claimed, by the thinkers Aristotle, Aquinas, and Locke. Her advocacy of pure laissez-faire capitalism was influenced by the classical liberal economists Mises and Hayek.
 * Some literature:
 * The Virtue of Selfishness, 1963
 * Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal, 1966

Raymond Aron
Raymond Aron (France, 1905–1983)
 * Some literature:
 * Essais sur les libertés, 1965
 * Démocratie et totalitarisme, 1965

Donald Barkly Molteno
Donald Barkly Molteno (South Africa, 1908–1972), known as Dilizintaba ("He who removes mountains"), was a constitutional lawyer and a parliamentarian but above all, an academic. His work on constitutional law centered on civil rights and his fierce opposition to the segregationalist policies of Apartheid.

John Kenneth Galbraith
John Kenneth Galbraith (Canadian-born economist who worked in the United States, 1908–2006)
 * Some literature:
 * The Affluent Society, 1958
 * The Liberal Hour, 1960

Isaiah Berlin
Isaiah Berlin (Latvia/United Kingdom, 1909–1997) is most famous for his attempt to distinguish 'two conceptions of liberty'. Berlin argued that what he called 'positive' and 'negative' liberty were mutually opposing concepts. Positive conceptions assumed that liberty could only be achieved when collective power (in the form of church or state) acted to 'liberate' mankind from its worst aspects. These, Berlin felt, tended towards totalitarianism. Negative conceptions, by contrast, argued that liberty was achieved when individuals were given maximal freedom from external constraints (so long as these did not infringe on the freedom of others to achieve the same condition). Berlin was also a critic of dogmatic Enlightenment rationalism on the grounds that it was unable to accommodate value pluralism.
 * Some literature:
 * Two Concepts of Liberty, 1958
 * Four Essays on Liberty, 1969
 * From Hope and Fear Set Free, 1978

Milton Friedman
Milton Friedman (United States, 1912–2006), winner of a Nobel Prize in Economics and a self-identified Classical Liberal and libertarian, was known for the Friedman rule, Friedman's k-percent rule, and the Friedman test.
 * Some literature:
 * Capitalism and Freedom, 1962
 * A Monetary History of the United States, 1963
 * Free to Choose, 1980

James Buchanan
James Buchanan (United States, 1919–2013) is known for his economic theories of the political process, which were among the first to take seriously the concept of politicians as rational actors that respond to incentives.
 * Some literature:
 * The Calculus of Consent / James Buchanan & Gordon Tullock, 1962
 * The Limits of Liberty, 1975
 * Democracy in Deficit / James Buchanan & Richard E. Wagner, 1977
 * The Power to Tax / James Buchanan & Geoffrey Brennan, 1980
 * The Reason of Rules / James Buchanan & Geoffrey Brennan, 1985

John Rawls
John Rawls (United States, 1921–2022) One of the most influential political philosophers of the 20th century, largely responsible for the rebirth of normative political philosophy. He argues for equal basic liberties, equality of opportunity, and facilitating the maximum benefit to the least advantaged members of society in any case where inequalities may occur. Rawls's argument for these principles of social justice uses a thought experiment called the "original position", in which people deliberately select what kind of society they would choose to live in if they did not know which social position they would personally occupy.
 * Some Literature:
 * A Theory of Justice, 1971
 * Political Liberalism, 1993
 * Justice as Fairness: A Restatement,2001

Murray Newton Rothbard
Murray Rothbard (United States, 1926–1995) was the originator of modern anarcho-capitalism and an economist and economic historian of the Austrian school. He is widely considered one of the foremost advocates of liberty and freedom in the late 20th century. He was involved with various political movements throughout his life, notably with Ayn Rand and, later, the Libertarian Party of United States. His influence is lasting in the libertarian and anarcho-capitalist movements.

 * Man, Economy, and State, 1962
 * For a New Liberty: The Libertarian Manifesto, 1973
 * Conceived in Liberty, 1975–1979
 * The Ethics of Liberty, 1982
 * An Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic Thought, 1995

Leszek Kołakowski
Leszek Kołakowski (Poland, 1927–2009), philosopher and historian of ideas. He was a leading inspiration behind Poland's Solidarity movement.
 * Some literature:
 * Jednostka i nieskończoność. Wolność i antynomie wolności w filozofii Spinozy (The Individual and the Infinite: Freedom and Antinomies of Freedom in Spinoza's Philosophy), 1958
 * Rozmowy z diabłem (US title: Conversations with the Devil / UK title: Talk of the Devil; reissued with The Key to Heaven under the title The Devil and Scripture, 1973)
 * Od Hume'a do Koła Wiedeńskiego (the 1st edition:The Alienation of Reason, then Positivist Philosophy from Hume to the Vienna Circle)

Ralf Dahrendorf
Ralf Dahrendorf (Germany/United Kingdom, 1929–2009 )
 * Some literature:
 * Die Chancen der Krise: über die Zukunft des Liberalismus, 1983
 * Fragmente eines neuen Liberalismus, 1987

Karl-Hermann Flach
The journalist Karl-Hermann Flach (Germany, 1929–1973) was in his book Noch eine Chance für die Liberalen one of the main theorist of the new social liberal principles of the Free Democratic Party (Germany). He places liberalism clearly as the opposite of conservatism and opened the road for a government coalition with the social democrats.

Joseph Raz
Joseph Raz (Israel/United Kingdom, 1939–2022)
 * Some literature:
 * The Morality of Freedom

Ronald Dworkin
Ronald Dworkin (United States, 1931–2013)
 * Some literature:
 * Sovereign Virtue: The Theory and Practice of Equality
 * Justice for Hedgehogs

Bryan Magee
The British politician Bryan Magee wrote some books of political philosophy. Although he was a member of the Labour Party and then the Social Democrats, he wrote in his autobiography that he considered himself a liberal. He saw his book The New Radicalism as an attempt to convert the Labour Party to a tradition of radical liberalism, in which he included Karl Popper. He later followed this with The Democratic Revolution, which was very critical of Communism in Eastern Europe.

Richard Rorty
Richard Rorty (United States, 1931–2007) was one of the leading contemporary philosophers of liberalism. His fundamental claims, among others, are that liberalism is best defined as the attempt to avoid cruelty to others; that liberals need to accept the historical 'irony' that there is no metaphysical justification for their belief that not being cruel is a virtue; that literature plays a crucial role in developing the empathy necessary to promote solidarity (and therefore lack of cruelty) between humans; and that private philosophising and public political discourse are separate practices and should remain so.

Amartya Sen
Amartya Sen (India, 1933– ) is an economist whose early work was based on Kenneth Arrow's General Possibility Theorem, and on the impossibility of both complete pareto optimality and solely procedural based rights. He won the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for his work on famine, welfare economics and social choice theory. And is an advocate of rationality as the fundamental safe guard of freedom and justice.
 * Some literature:
 * Development as Freedom
 * The Argumentative Indian

Robert Nozick
Robert Nozick (United States, 1938–2002) was a libertarian (or minarchist). He advocated an unapologetically reductionist political philosophy characterized by meticulous analysis of the moral aspects of each social interaction, and did not shy away from addressing hard philosophical issues such as the original appropriation of property. Nozick is best known for providing the justification of a minimal state by showing that it can be established without any unjust steps.
 * Some literature:
 * Anarchy, State, and Utopia, 1974

Hernando de Soto
The economist Hernando de Soto (Peru, 1941– ) is an advocate of transparency and private property rights, arguing that intransparent government leads to property not being given proper title, and therefore being "dead capital" which cannot be used as the basis of credit. Argues that laws which allocate property to those most able to use them for economic growth, so called "squatter's rights", are an important innovation.
 * Some literature:
 * The Other Path, 1986.
 * The Mystery of Capital, 2000.

Michael Meadowcroft
A biography described the British politician Michael Meadowcroft as "the main, indeed very nearly the only, philosopher of applied Liberalism within the old Liberal Party from the late 1960s onwards". On the merger of the Liberal Party and the Social Democratic Party in the UK to form the Liberal Democrats, Meadowcroft initially reconstituted a new Liberal Party with others who did not want to compromise the philosophy of liberalism. However, the new Liberal Party became increasingly Eurosceptic under the leadership of Steve Radford and Meadowcroft joined the Liberal Democrats in 2007. He has regularly argued for the importance of political philosophy and that members of the Liberal Democrats require more conviction in their beliefs.
 * Some literature:

Carlos Santiago Nino
Carlos Santiago Nino (Argentina, 1943–1993)
 * Some literature:
 * The Ethics of Human Rights

Bruce Ackerman
Bruce Ackerman (United States, 1943– )
 * Some literature:
 * We, The People

Martha Nussbaum
Martha Nussbaum (United States, 1947– ) is a philosopher and the current Ernst Freund Distinguished Service Professor of Law and Ethics at the University of Chicago. She specializes in ancient Greek and Roman philosophy, political philosophy, existentialism, feminism, and ethics, including animal rights. She received the 2016 Kyoto Prize in Arts and Philosophy, the 2018 Berggruen Prize, and the 2021 Holberg Prize.
 * Some literature:
 * The Fragility of Goodness (1986)
 * Cultivating Humanity: A Classical Defense of Reform in Liberal Education (1997)
 * Sex and Social Justice (1998)
 * Hiding from Humanity: Disgust, Shame, and the Law (2004)
 * Frontiers of Justice: Disability, Nationality, Species Membership (2006)
 * From Disgust to Humanity: Sexual Orientation and Constitutional Law (2010)

Will Kymlicka
Will Kymlicka (Canada, 1962– ) tries in his philosophy to determine if forms of ethnic or minority nationalism are compatible with liberal-democratic principles of individual freedom, social equality and political democracy. In his book ''Multicultural Citizenship. A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights'' he argues that certain "group-differentiated rights" of minority cultures can be consistent with these liberal-democratic principles.

title: List of liberal theorists


text:
Miroslav Ouzký

Miroslav Ouzký (born 18 August 1958 in Chlumec nad Cidlinou) is a retired Czech politician and former Member of the European Parliament for the Civic Democratic Party (European Conservatives and Reformists group).

Biography
He studied medicine at Charles University of Prague. He worked as a surgeon and director of a hospital in Kadaň. Thereafter, he served in a city council. In 1998 he was elected as a member of the Czech Parliament until 2004. Since then he has been a member of the European Parliament. On 20 July 2004 he was elected one of the 14 Vice-Presidents of the European Parliament. In February 2007, he became the Chair of the Environmental Committee of the European Parliament, succeeding Karl-Heinz Florenz.

He is married, and has a son and daughter.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Miroslav Ouzký


text:
De Havilland Canada DHC-2 Beaver

The de Havilland Canada DHC-2 Beaver is a single-engined high-wing propeller-driven short takeoff and landing (STOL) aircraft developed and manufactured by de Havilland Canada. It has been primarily operated as a bush plane and has been used for a wide variety of utility roles, such as cargo and passenger hauling, aerial application (crop dusting and aerial topdressing), and civil aviation duties.

Shortly after the end of the Second World War, de Havilland Canada decided to orient itself towards civilian operators. Based on feedback from pilots, the company decided that the envisioned aircraft should have excellent STOL performance, all-metal construction, and accommodate many features sought by the operators of bush planes. On 16 August 1947, the maiden flight of the aircraft, which had received the designation DHC-2 Beaver, took place. In April 1948, the first production aircraft was delivered to the Ontario Department of Lands and Forests. A Royal New Zealand Air Force (RNZAF) Beaver played a supporting role in Sir Edmund Hillary's famous 1958 Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition to the South Pole.

In addition to its use in civilian operations, the Beaver has been widely adopted by armed forces as a utility aircraft. The United States Army purchased several hundred aircraft; nine DHC-2s are still in service with the U.S. Air Force Auxiliary (Civil Air Patrol) for search and rescue. By 1967, over 1,600 Beavers had been constructed prior to the closure of the original assembly line. Various aircraft have been remanufactured and upgraded. Additionally, various proposals have been made to return the Beaver to production.

The Beaver's versatility and performance led to it being the preferred aircraft of bush pilots servicing remote locations in the Canadian north, and it is considered by aviation historians to be a Canadian icon. In 1987, the Canadian Engineering Centennial Board named the DHC-2 one of the top ten Canadian engineering achievements of the 20th century. The Royal Canadian Mint honoured the aircraft on a special edition Canadian quarter in November 1999, and on a 50-cent commemorative gold coin in 2008. Large numbers continue to be operational into the 21st century, while the tooling and type certificate for the Beaver have been acquired by Viking Air who continue to produce replacement components and refurbish examples of the type.

Origins

Following the end of the Second World War, de Havilland Canada's management team, recognising that there would be a corresponding downturn in military orders in the immediate post-war climate, decided to focus the company's energies upon finding work within the civilian sector. The company had recently hired Punch Dickins as Director of Sales; Dickins carried out an extensive market research program in the form of requesting and collecting feedback from other pilots, to understand what they needed in a new aircraft. It was on the basis of this information from the prospective operators themselves, as opposed to aerodynamic research or fiscal data, that the future aircraft has its origins.

In response, almost without exception, these pilots specified their desire for tremendous extra power and STOL performance, in a design that could be easily fitted with wheels, skis or floats. When de Havilland engineers noted this would result in poor cruise performance, one pilot replied, "You only have to be faster than a dog sled to be a winner". Other suggestions that were seemingly mundane, but important in the bush plane world, included the installation of full-sized doors on both sides of the aircraft, which meant that it could be readily loaded no matter which side of a dock it tied up on; the doors were also made wide enough to allow for a 44 Imperial gallon drum to be rolled up into the aircraft.

On 17 September 1946, de Havilland officially put together a design team consisting of Fred Buller, Dick Hiscocks, Jim Houston and Wsiewołod Jakimiuk, led by Phil Garratt. The new aircraft was designed to be all-metal (unlike older designs, like the famous Noorduyn Norseman), using "steel from the engine to the firewall, heavy aluminium truss frames with panels and doors throughout the front seat area, lighter trusses toward the rear and all monocoque construction aft". At the time, de Havilland Canada was still a British-owned company and there were plans to fit the evolving design with the British de Havilland Gipsy engine. As a result of its comparatively limited power, the wing area was greatly increased in order to maintain STOL performance. When Pratt & Whitney Canada offered to supply war-surplus 450 hp Wasp Junior radial engines at a low price, the aircraft ended up with extra power as well as the original long wing. The result was unbeatable STOL performance for an aircraft of its size.

In line with the convention for aircraft produced by de Havilland Canada being named after animals, it was decided that the new bush plane would be named after the beaver, which was known for its hard-working nature. On 16 August 1947, the maiden flight of the DHC-2 Beaver was in Downsview, Ontario; it was flown by Second World War flying ace Russell Bannock. After completing its flight test programme, the prototype received several adjustments and improvements in order for it to serve as a flying demonstration model ready for the sales circuit. The prototype was ultimately sold to Central British Columbia Airways, as a routine day-to-day working air-taxi airplane and continued to fly as such with various air-taxi operators until 1980, after which it was retired and preserved. In April 1948, the first production aircraft was delivered to the Ontario Department of Lands and Forests, who had been a design partner.

Production
Initial sales were slow, perhaps two or three a month but as the plane was demonstrated sales started to improve. A key event in the Beaver's history occurred the next year when the US Army commenced its search for a new utility aircraft to replace their fleet of Cessnas. The competition quickly boiled down to the Beaver and the Cessna 195. The Beaver won and during the Korean War, the US Army ordered 970, more than half of the overall production run for the type.

Soon, the Beaver grew to become an export success as orders for the type increased from customers around the world. Individual military services of more than 30 different nations would ultimately be included amongst its operators. In later life, as the type was gradually phased out of military service, many examples underwent conversion work so that they could continue to be operated as civilian aircraft instead. During the 1960s, de Havilland developed an improved model of the Beaver, the Mk.III Turbo Beaver, which was equipped with a Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6 turboprop engine. A total of sixty aircraft were built during the late 1960s. In 1967, when production of the type finally ceased, a total of 1,657 DHC-2 Beavers had been constructed.

The Beaver was designed for flight in rugged and remote areas of the world. Its STOL capability made it ideal for areas normally only accessible by canoe or foot. Because the aircraft often flies to remote locations and in cold climates, its oil reservoir filler is located in the cockpit and oil can be filled in flight. A series of upgrades to the basic design were incorporated. One major customer introduced the use of flat steps replacing the earlier tubes, a feature now almost universal. In 1987, the Canadian Engineering Centennial Board named the DHC-2 as one of the top ten Canadian engineering achievements of the 20th century.

1995 to 2019

At one point in its production, plans to license-build the Beaver in New Zealand were proposed. The remaining tooling was purchased by Viking Air of Victoria, British Columbia, Canada, which manufactures replacement parts for most of the early de Havilland line. The company markets and sells the remanufactured DHC-2T Turbo Beaver, an improved variant of the aircraft which has been upgraded with a 680 shp PT6A-34, which enables an increased maximum gross takeoff weight of 6000 lb and the carriage of up to 2450 lb of freight, a roughly 25 per cent increase in usable payload. By August 1995, Viking completed its 30th Turbo Beaver conversion. The firm has also developed and marketed other improvements for the type, such as an advanced wing and modified floats. Other manufacturers have also offered aftermarket upgrades and modifications for the type, such as re-engining programmes by Orenda Aerospace and Wipaire.

On 24 February 2006, Viking purchased the type certificates from Bombardier Aerospace for all the original de Havilland designs, including the Beaver. The ownership of the certificates gives the company the exclusive right to manufacture new aircraft. Viking has stated its interest in the potential restart of production of the Beaver, and commented that, dependent upon market demand, the firm may offer two separate models of the Beaver, one intended to be close to the design of the original batch, and another incorporating various improvements such as new avionics, engines, and doors, as well as likely being stretched to provide increased internal space.

Stolairus Aviation of Kelowna, British Columbia has developed several modifications for the DHC-2 including a STOL Kit which modifies the wing with a contoured leading edge, flap-gap seals, wing fences and drooped wingtips for increased performance. Stolairus has also developed a Wing Angle Kit which changes the incidence of the wing.

Advanced Wing Technologies of Vancouver, British Columbia has developed and certified a new wing for the DHC-2. The FAA Supplemental Type Certificate also raises the aircraft's gross weight to 6000 lbs. So far, at least two Beavers have been modified in such a manner.

In September 2017 the Transportation Safety Board of Canada recommended stall warning devices be mandated for commercial Beaver operators.

In March 2019, Harbour Air announced plans to convert a DHC-2 Beaver to an electric aircraft and eventually to convert its entire fleet. The first test flight of the aircraft took place in Vancouver in December 2019.

Design
The de Havilland Canada DHC-2 Beaver is a single-engined high-wing propeller-driven STOL aircraft, principally operated as a bush plane and other utility roles, such as cargo and passenger hauling, aerial application (crop dusting and aerial topdressing), and general civil aviation purposes; aviation publication Plane & Pilot described the type as being "arguably the best bush plane ever built". The Beaver was designed to operate in all seasons and the majority of weather conditions; a large proportion were also equipped with floats for buoyancy in water; it reportedly possesses favourable performance characteristics for a floatplane. As a result of its favourable characteristics as a hard working and productive aircraft, the Beaver has had a lengthy service life and many examples have been remanufactured or have otherwise received life extension modifications.

The Beaver is typically powered by a single 450 hp Pratt & Whitney R-985 Wasp Junior radial engine. In order to provide the necessary weight balance for optimal loading flexibility, the engine was mounted as far rearwards as possible, resulting in elements intruding into the cockpit space, such as the oil tank being positioned within the center console between the pilot and copilot's feet and the main fuel tank within the forward belly of the aircraft, which also improves accessibility for replenishment. Many Beavers have had wingtip tanks also installed; careful fuel management between the various fuel tanks is required throughout flights in order to maintain the aircraft's center of gravity. The remanufactured DHC-2T Turbo Beaver is equipped with a 680 shp PT6A-34 turboprop engine.

The Beaver is functionally shaped in order to accommodate a useful and sizable payload, typically close to 2000 lb, even when equipped with floats. While the front doors are narrow, the aft doors are wider, having been designed to facilitate the loading of 45 imperial gallon barrels, either upright or on their sides. The Beaver is considered a 'working' aircraft, which was designed for vigorous use. In addition to cargo, passengers can also be carried; when appropriately fitted out, the Beaver Mk.I can accommodate up to seven passengers while the more spacious Beaver Mk.III can hold a maximum of 11. Various alterations have been approved, including alternative seating arrangements, enlarged cargo doors, larger windows and smaller batteries have been approved for use.

During takeoff, both the ailerons and flaps are lowered, which is a relatively uncommon design approach but results in substantially elevated STOL performance. The flaps can be deployed to an extreme range, extending out at full to a 58-degree position; the flight manual notes that the full setting is recommended only for performing emergency landings. In the skies, the Beaver is relatively easy to handle, having been described as possessing light and comfortable controls. Effective application of the rudder is necessary to counteract adverse yaw. It should be flown with a relatively nose-low pitch attitude to maintain airspeed. It is very easy to land, even in moderately rough water.

Operational history
Despite the fact that production ceased in 1967, hundreds of Beavers are still flying—many of them heavily modified to adapt to changes in technology and needs. Kenmore Air of Kenmore, Washington, provides Beaver and Otter airframes with zero-hour fatigue-life ratings, and owns dozens of supplemental type certificates (STCs) for aircraft modifications. These modifications are so well known and desirable in the aviation community, rebuilt Beavers are often called "Kenmore Beavers" or listed as having "Kenmore mods" installed. The original Wasp Jr radial engine of the Beaver is long out of production, so repair parts are getting harder to find. Some aircraft conversion stations have addressed this problem by replacing the piston engine with a turboprop engine such as the PT6. The added power and lighter installed weight, together with greater availability of kerosene fuel instead of high-octane aviation gasoline, make this a desirable modification, but at a high cost.

The Beaver was deployed by the British Army Air Corps during the Troubles, at least until 1979, for photo-reconnaissance missions. One of them was hit seven times by machine gun fire in South County Armagh, near the border with the Republic of Ireland in November 1979, while taking photos of an IRA checkpoint. The border crossing where the action took place became known to the British Army as "Beaver Junction".

Operators of significant numbers of piston-Beavers in early 2008 include Air Saguenay and Harbour Air in Canada and Kenmore Air in the US.

American actor Harrison Ford owns a DHC-2 Beaver; he is known for referring to it as being his favourite among his entire fleet of private aircraft. The Civil Air Patrol operated many of the DHC-2 Beaver, where it was commonly used for conducting search and rescue missions. For some decades, the United States Navy has operated a pair of DHC-2s at the United States Naval Test Pilot School, where they are used to instruct students in the evaluation of lateral-directional flying qualities and for the towing of gliders.

In recent years, growing numbers of the type have been used within the leisure industry, being used for pleasure flight and as lifting platforms for skydiving and aerial film activities. The DHC-2 Beaver has been used by skydiving operators due to its good climb rate. When fitted with a roller door that can be opened in flight, it can quickly ferry eight skydivers to 13000 ft.

Variants

 * Single-engined STOL utility transport aircraft.
 * Beaver AL Mk 1: STOL utility transport aircraft for the British Army.
 * C-127: original designation for DHC-2 aircraft used by the U.S. military, redesignated L-20.
 * YL-20: Test and evaluation aircraft for the US military.
 * L-20A Beaver: STOL utility transport aircraft for the U.S. Army, later redesignated U-6A in 1962, 968 built.
 * L-20B Beaver: Basically similar to the L-20A, but with minor equipment changes. Six were sold to the US Army. Later redesignated U-6B in 1962.
 * U-6A:US Army L-20A aircraft re-designated
 * U-6B:US Army L-20B aircraft re-designated
 * Beaver II: One aircraft was fitted with an Alvis Leonides radial piston engine.
 * Wipaire Super Beaver: Conversion of surplus US Army and USAF L-20 Beavers.
 * Wipaire Boss Turbo-Beaver: Turbo conversion fitted with PT-6 but retaining the original lower curved fin shape
 * Powered by a 431 kW (578 ehp) Pratt & Whitney PT6A-6 or -20 turboprop engine.
 * Airtech Canada DHC-2/PZL-3S: After-market conversion by Airtech Canada in the 1980s, using current-production PZL-3S radial engines of 600 hp (450 kW).
 * Volpar Model 4000: A 1970s conversion by Volpar, first flown in April 1972 with a modified nose fitted with an AiResearch TPE331-2U-203 turboprop with a three-bladed propeller. Other changes included a new fin and rudder.
 * Turbo Beaver: Remanufactured Beavers by Viking Air, upgraded with a Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6A-34 680 hp turboprop engine.

Civil
The DHC-2 is popular with air charter companies, police forces and small air taxi operators as well as private individuals and companies. Both the Royal Canadian Mounted Police and Finnish Border Guard operate the aircraft.

Military operators

 * Argentine Air Force
 * Argentine Naval Aviation
 * Royal Australian Air Force – Five in service 1955–1964.
 * Antarctic Flight RAAF
 * No. 1 Air Trials Unit
 * Austrian Air Force
 * Burma
 * Burma Air Force
 * Royal Cambodian Air Force – received three L-20s from the United States in the late 1950s.
 * Chilean Air Force
 * Republic of China Air Force
 * Colombian Air Force
 * Fuezas Aéreas Ejército de Cuba (pre Cuban Revolution) operated at least eight.
 * Cuban Air Force (post Cuban Revolution)
 * Dominican Air Force
 * Finnish Air Force
 * Finnish Border Guard
 * French Air Force
 * Ghana Air Force - acquired 14 Beavers, in service 1960–1984.
 * Greek Air Force
 * Greek Army
 * Haiti Air Corps
 * Indonesian Air Force
 * Indonesian Army
 * Pahlavi Iran
 * Imperial Iranian Air Force
 * Kenya Air Force (in operation 1964–1983)
 * Laos
 * Royal Lao Air Force
 * Royal Netherlands Air Force
 * Royal New Zealand Air Force
 * Royal Air Force of Oman
 * 🇵🇦 Panama
 * Panamanian Public Forces
 * Paraguayan Air Force 4 U-6A donated by MAP in 1975
 * Peruvian Air Force
 * 🇵🇭 Philippines
 * Philippine Air Force
 * Philippine Navy
 * Federation of South Arabia
 * Federation of South Arabian Air Force
 * 🇰🇷 South Korea
 * Kenya Air Force (in operation 1964–1983)
 * Laos
 * Royal Lao Air Force
 * Royal Netherlands Air Force
 * Royal New Zealand Air Force
 * Royal Air Force of Oman
 * 🇵🇦 Panama
 * Panamanian Public Forces
 * Paraguayan Air Force 4 U-6A donated by MAP in 1975
 * Peruvian Air Force
 * 🇵🇭 Philippines
 * Philippine Air Force
 * Philippine Navy
 * Federation of South Arabia
 * Federation of South Arabian Air Force
 * 🇰🇷 South Korea
 * Philippine Air Force
 * Philippine Navy
 * Federation of South Arabia
 * Federation of South Arabian Air Force
 * 🇰🇷 South Korea
 * Republic of Korea Air Force
 * South Vietnam
 * Republic of Vietnam Air Force
 * South Yemen
 * South Yemen Air Force
 * Royal Thai Army
 * Turkish Army
 * Army Air Corps - 46 x Beaver AL.1.
 * Civil Air Patrol
 * United States Army
 * United States Air Force
 * United States Navy
 * SFR Yugoslav Air Force
 * Zambian Air Force
 * United States Army
 * United States Air Force
 * United States Navy
 * SFR Yugoslav Air Force
 * Zambian Air Force
 * Zambian Air Force
 * Zambian Air Force

Accidents and incidents
, there have been 351 incidents involving the DHC-2 and 739 deaths. A select few are listed:
 * 22 November 1962 - Five United States Air Force missile crew members and the pilot died when their U-6A (DHC-2) crashed and burned near Nebraska City, NE. The plane, flying a routine support mission, had just delivered the relief crew to Atlas Site Number 4 of the 551st Strategic Missile Squadron and was returning the off-going crew to Lincoln AFB, NE. Crash of 52-6108 | Aviation in Nebraska (wordpress.com)
 * 31 December 2017 – High-profile UK business leader Richard Cousins, four members of his family and a Canadian pilot died in the 2017 Sydney Seaplanes crash.
 * 13 May 2019 – In the 2019 Alaska mid-air collision, a Mountain Air Service DHC-2 and a Taquan Air de Havilland DHC-3 Turbine Otter collided over George Inlet, killing all 5 aboard the DHC-2 and 1 aboard the DHC-3.
 * 20 May 2019 – Taquan Air Flight 20 overturned in the harbor in Metlakatla, Alaska, United States one week after the George Inlet crash, killing the pilot and single passenger. Taquan Air suspended all flights the following day.
 * 31 July 2020 – A DHC-2 carrying 6 people collided with a Piper PA-12 Super Cruiser piloted by Alaska State Representative Gary Knopp (the only one aboard) over Alaska's Kenai Peninsula. All 7 people died.

Argentina

 * P-05 – DHC-2 on static display at Museo Nacional de Aeronáutica de Argentina in Morón, Buenos Aires.

Bangladesh

 * S2-ABR – DHC-2 preserved outside the National Museum of Science and Technology in Dhaka.
 * S2-ABV – DHC-2 preserved outside the National Museum of Science and Technology in Dhaka.

Canada

 * CF-FHB – DHC-2 on static display at the Canada Aviation and Space Museum in Ottawa, Ontario.
 * CF-OBS – DHC-2 on display at the Canadian Bushplane Heritage Centre in Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario.
 * AP-AKB – DHC-2 in storage at Canada Aviation and Space Museum in Ottawa.
 * CF-PSM-X – Turbo-Beaver III on display at the Canadian Bushplane Heritage Centre in Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario.
 * Composite – DHC-2 on static display at Bass Pro Shops at Vaughan Mills in Vaughan, Ontario. It is a composite airframe consisting of parts from construction number 1579.
 * CF-MAA - DHC-2 on display at the Royal Aviation Museum of Western Canada in Winnipeg, Manitoba

China

 * 54-1725 (United States Army) U-6A on static display at the Military Museum of the Chinese People's Revolution in Beijing.
 * 1619 (Unmarked) – DHC-2 on static display at the Chinese Aviation Museum in Datangshan, Beijing.

Colombia

 * 408 – DHC-2 on static display at the Colombian Aerospace Museum near Tocancipá, Cundinamarca.

Finland

 * OH-MVL – DHC-2 on static display at the Finnish Aviation Museum in Vantaa, Uusimaa.
 * OH-MVM – DHC-2 on static display at the Maritime Centre Vellamo in Kotka, Kymenlaakso, Finland.

Indonesia

 * U-3033 (Indonesian Army Aviation) – DHC-2 on static display at SMK Penerbangan Wira Aqasa Bhakti, Semarang, Central Java.

Iran

 * 6-9701 – L-20B on static display at The Military Museum, Sa'dabad Complex in Tehran.
 * 6-9704 – L-20B on static display at Tehran Aviation Exhibition near Mehrabad International Airport.

Japan

 * JA3097 – DHC-2 on static display at Chunichi Shimbun Headquarters in Nagoya.

Netherlands

 * S-6 – L-20 in storage at the Militaire Luchtvaart Museum in Soesterberg, Utrecht, Netherlands.
 * JZ-PAD – DHC-2 on display at Aviodrome in Lelystad, Flevoland. Only front part of the fuselage is displayed.

New Zealand

 * ZK-CMW – DHC-2 on static display at the Air Force Museum of New Zealand in Wigram, Canterbury. It is painted as NZ6001, an airframe that took part in the Trans-Antarctic Expedition.

Oman

 * 213 – Beaver AL.1 on static display at the Sultan's Armed Forces Museum near Muscat.

Serbia

 * 70101 – DHC-2 on static display at the Belgrade Aviation Museum in Surčin, Belgrade.

South Korea

 * 116772 – U-6A on static display at a museum in Imjingak, Gyeonggi Province.
 * 116837 – U-6A on static display at War Memorial of Korea, Seoul.
 * 82073 (painted as "58600") – U-6A on static display at Daejeon National Cemetery, Daejeon.

Taiwan

 * 8025 – U-6A on static display at Kueijen Army Airfield, Taoyuan City.
 * 8011 – U-6A on static display at Aviation Education Exhibition Hall near Republic of China Air Force Academy in Kaohsiung City.

Thailand

 * 26157 – L-20A on static display at Royal Thai Army Aircraft Maintenance Centre, Lopburi.

United Kingdom

 * 58-2062 (United States Army) – U-6A on static display at the Midland Air Museum in Baginton, Warwickshire.
 * XP821 – Beaver AL.1 on static display at the Museum of Army Flying at AAC Middle Wallop in Middle Wallop, Hampshire. It has the British military serial number XP821.
 * XP822 – Beaver AL.1 on static display at the Museum of Army Flying at AAC Middle Wallop in Middle Wallop, Hampshire. It has the British military serial number XP822.

United States

 * 51-6263 – U-6A on static display at the United States Army Aviation Museum at Fort Novosel near Daleville, Alabama.
 * 51-16501– U-6A on static display at the National Museum of the U.S. Air Force at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in Dayton, Ohio.
 * 52-6087 – U-6A on static display at the Museum of Aviation at Robins Air Force Base near Warner Robins, Georgia.
 * 53-2817 – U-6A on static display at Camp San Luis Obispo in San Luis Obispo County, California.
 * 53-0367 – U-6A on static display at the 45th Infantry Division Museum in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma.
 * N754 – Volpar Model 4000 on display at Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport, Alaska.
 * 57-2570 – U-6A in storage at the New England Air Museum in Windsor Locks, Connecticut.
 * 58-1997 – U-6 on static display at the U.S. Army Transportation Museum at Joint Base Langley–Eustis near Newport News, Virginia. It has the USAF serial number 58-1997.
 * 58-2064 – U-6 in storage at the National Infantry Museum in Columbus, Georgia.

Pilot Manuals

 * https://fortlangleyair.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/DHC2-Manual.pdf
 * https://washingtonseaplanepilots.org/resources/Seaplane%20POHs/DHC-2-Beaver-POH.pdf
 * https://milviz.com/Online_products/Manuals/MilViz_DHC2_Pilot%27s_Manual_v1.02.pdf
 * https://www.skyraccoon.com/assets/pdf/DHC-2-Beaver_351.pdf
 * https://www.docdroid.com/file/download/cKl8neX/dhc-2-beaver-flight-manual-pdf.pdf
 * https://www.wipaire.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/1002544.pdf

title: De Havilland Canada DHC-2 Beaver


text:
User:Chameleon/Contributions

This is known as a brag sheet. If you don't have one, well done for resisting the temptation.

I'm leaving this here just for the heck of it. It should be protected against defacement. Bear in mind that it is very out of date.

Links to contributions
Note: these links are broken.

Credentials on linguistic matters

 * Sometimes people like to know this.

 * I have taught myself several languages to a high level.
 * I have a BA in Modern Languages (French & Spanish) from the University of Bradford.
 * I have the Trinity College London certificate in TESOL.
 * I have a certificate in teaching Spanish as a foreign language, from International House Barcelona / University of Barcelona.
 * I know a huge amount about linguistics.
 * I am a professional translator (French/Italian/Spanish/Catalan → English)
 * I also studied for a degree in Chinese at Bordeaux University, but unfortunately had to drop out for work reasons.
 * I have lived and worked in London, Paris, Milan, Bordeaux and Saragossa. I currently live in Valencia.  I shall be moving to Australia soon, and to China in a year or so.

Text contributions

 * One featured article: Domestic AC power plugs & sockets.
 * Several great articles written almost entirely by me: Spanish grammar, Names given to the Spanish language, Spanish verbs, Romance copula...
 * Other edits to pages, often giving Wikipedia an international edge and avoiding systemic bias: Falles...
 * Great work battling against POV-pushers (by engaging them in debate whenever possible, and ignoring them when necessary)
 * Quest to eliminate systemic bias: User:Chamaeleon/National bias research, User:Chameleon/NPOV (abandoned beta draft)
 * Plenty of corrections of spelling, grammar and Wiki-code.
 * Created Template:Ruby, which improves display of Chinese on Wikipedia. (Used at House_of_Flying_Daggers)
 * Created Category:Featured desktop backgrounds
 * Extra info on image pages, e.g. Image:Page of Lay of the Cid.jpg, Image:Joël Bellassen.jpg…

Some of the thousands of articles I have edited
A tick means I started it; A star means I made it a Featured Article; Bold text means it has been featured on the Main Page. A speaker means I recorded it; A smiley means I added images to it.

 * Domestic AC power plugs & sockets ✓ ☺
 * Triquetra ✓ ☺
 * Spanish verbs ✓
 * Spanish grammar
 * Copula
 * Romance copula ✓
 * Cojones
 * Text of the GNU Free Documentation License
 * Chinese measure word
 * Names given to the Spanish language ✓
 * Vulgar Latin ☺
 * Beaucaire ☺
 * Szechuan pepper
 * Noam Chomsky ☺ (audio soon!)
 * Tarascon ☺
 * Tarasque ☺
 * Apple pie
 * Joël Bellassen ✓ ☺
 * IPA2 ✓
 * Lipsum ✓
 * Ruby ✓
 * Ruby-big ✓
 * FeaturedWallpaper ✓ ☺
 * Spanish ✓ ☺
 * Spoken Wikipedia request ✓

Images
I believe Wikipedia should have more illustrations.

I also don't like crappy little pictures. I like to be able to click on an interesting thumbnail and see a gloriously detailed image complete with extra information.

I'm not happy with the number and quality of my images, but there is not much I can do about it because I don't actually have a camera. All the pictures taken by me were made with my crappy little webcam or borrowed cameras. Feel free to contribute to the Chameleon camera fund. I take PayPal.

These images have various copyright notices for practical reasons, however I don't actually believe in intellectual or any other kind of property per se, so feel free to use them and everything else in this world for any purpose that does not harm others.

Feel free to nominate them at Featured picture candidates, or to leave a comment saying that they are a load of crap.

This is a complete list of all the images that I have uploaded, except for other people's images that I have downloaded and then re-uploaded after optimising or cropping them, and perhaps renaming them. I've lost track of all those. I've also lost track of the images I've had deleted.

Audio
See WP:SPOKEN.

Video
None as yet. Can anyone help me convert video files to Ogg Theora?

title: User:Chameleon/Contributions


text:
Christopher Franke

Christopher Franke (born 6 April 1953) is a German musician and composer. From 1971 to 1987, he was a member of the electronic group Tangerine Dream. Initially a drummer with The Agitation, later renamed Agitation Free, his primary focus eventually shifted to keyboards and synthesizers as the group moved away from its psychedelic rock origins. While he was not the first musician to use an analog sequencer, he was probably the first to turn it into a live performance instrument, thus laying the rhythmic foundation for classic Tangerine Dream pieces and indeed for the whole Berlin school sound.

After his departure from the group, he founded the Sonic Images record label, a new-age music label called Earthtone and the Berlin Symphonic Film Orchestra, and produced a number of solo music works. After leaving Tangerine Dream, his only live concert was on 9 October 1991 at the Astoria Theatre in London. He performed on stage with Edgar Rothermich (a.k.a. Richard E. Roth) who is also his producer and engineer on all his solo projects and film music after 1990.

Franke moved to Los Angeles in 1991 to pursue film work. In 1995 he scored the AFI short Requiem. He may be best known for composing the music for the science fiction television series Babylon 5, as well as the score of the anime movie Tenchi Muyo! in Love and in 2005 the music for German musical Ludwig² (with Konstantin Wecker).

Solo

 * 1991 – Pacific Coast Highway
 * 1992 – Universal Soldier
 * 1992 – London Concert
 * 1993 – New Music for Films Vol. 1
 * 1993 – The Tommyknockers
 * 1993 – Klemania
 * 1993 – Journey to the Center of the Earth
 * 1994 – Raven
 * 1995 – Night of the Running Man
 * 1995 – Babylon 5
 * 1996 – Perry Rhodan – Pax Terra
 * 1996 – The Celestine Prophecy
 * 1996 – Tenchi the Movie: Tenchi Muyo! in Love (rereleased in 2002)
 * 1996 – Enchanting Nature
 * 1997 – Babylon 5, volume 2: Messages from Earth
 * 1997 – Babylon 5: In the Beginning
 * 1997 – Babylon 5: Thirdspace
 * 1997 – Pacific Blue
 * 1997 – Transformation of Mind
 * 1997 – Babylon 5: River of Souls
 * 1999 – Epic
 * 2000 – Babylon 5: Episodic CDs – 24 CDs x 30 minutes per CD (1997–2000)
 * 2000 – New Music for Films Vol. 2
 * 2000 – The Calling
 * 2001 – The Best of Babylon 5
 * 2003 – Music for Films Vol. 3 (2003) CD-R
 * 2004 – What the Bleep Do We Know!?
 * 2005 – Ludwig² – Das Musical
 * 2007 – Babylon 5: The Lost Tales

with Tangerine Dream

 * Major releases
 * 1971: Alpha Centauri
 * 1972: Zeit
 * 1973: Atem
 * 1974: Phaedra
 * 1975: Rubycon
 * 1975: Ricochet (Live)
 * 1976: Stratosfear
 * 1977: Sorcerer (Soundtrack)
 * 1977: Encore (Live)
 * 1978: Cyclone
 * 1979: Force Majeure
 * 1980: Tangram
 * 1980: Quichotte (Live)
 * 1981: Thief (Soundtrack)
 * 1981: Exit
 * 1982: White Eagle
 * 1982: Logos (Live)
 * 1983: Hyperborea
 * 1984: Poland (Live)
 * 1983–1985: Multiple film soundtracks
 * 1985: Le Parc
 * 1986: Legend (Soundtrack)
 * 1986: Green Desert (Recorded 1973)
 * 1986: Underwater Sunlight
 * 1987: Three O'Clock High (Soundtrack)
 * 1987: Tyger
 * 1988: Near Dark (Soundtrack)
 * 1988: Shy People (Soundtrack)
 * 1988: Livemiles (Live)
 * 1991: Canyon Dreams (Recorded 1986)

title: Christopher Franke


text:
Dagmar Roth-Behrendt

Dagmar Roth-Behrendt (born 21 February 1953, in Frankfurt am Main) is a German lawyer who served as Member of the European Parliament. She was elected on the SPD ticket and sat with the Party of European Socialists group.

Political career
Roth-Behrendt was a member of the European Parliament from 1989 to 2014. From 2004 until 2007 and from 2009 to 2012 she served as one of the 14 Vice-Presidents of the European Parliament, first under the leadership of President Josep Borrell and later Jerzy Buzek.

Throughout her time in parliament, Roth-Behrendt served on the Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety. In 1997, she chaired the temporary committee of inquiry into the European Commission's dealing with a BSE outbreak. She later served as rapporteur on the EU medical device regulation.

In addition to her committee assignments, Roth-Behrendt was part of the Parliament's delegation for relations with Australia and New Zealand from 1994 until 2004. In 2013, she was one of six candidates for the post of European Ombudsman; the role eventually went to Emily O’Reilly instead.

Life after politics
Since 2015, Roth-Behrendt has been serving as Special Adviser to Development Cooperation to European Commissioner for Health and Food Safety Vytenis Andriukaitis on reforming the Directorate-General for Health and Food Safety (DG SANTE). From 2016 to 2022, she also served on the Commission's Independent Ethical Committee.

Recognition

 * 2009 – Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany

Personal life
Roht-Behrendt is married to former European Commission official Horst Reichenbach.

title: Dagmar Roth-Behrendt


text:
Category:Television evangelists

This category comprises articles about television evangelism or televangelism, in which a Christian evangelist, often a priest or minister, produces or appears on television broadcasts aimed at a regular viewing audience.

title: Category:Television evangelists


text:
Ray Tanner

Donald Ray Tanner Jr. (born March 25, 1958) is an American college athletics administrator and former baseball coach who is the athletic director at the University of South Carolina, a position he took on July 13, 2012, after 16 seasons as head coach of the university's baseball program.

His record at South Carolina was 738-316 (.700). He led USC to three consecutive College World Series appearances in 2002, 2003, and 2004; three consecutive College World Series Finals appearances in 2010, 2011, and 2012; two College World Series Championships in 2010 and 2011; and coached the USA Baseball National Team during the 2003 summer. On April 11, 2010, Tanner recorded the 1,000th win of his career with a 2–0 victory over Vanderbilt, becoming the 44th Division I coach to reach the milestone.

Playing career
After graduating from South Johnston High School near his home in Benson, North Carolina, Ray Tanner attended North Carolina State University, in Raleigh from 1977 to 1980. He played for Sam Esposito, starting four seasons at shortstop and third base.

NC State
Tanner became an assistant coach to NCSU coach Sam Esposito immediately after his playing days were over. He remained in that position from 1980 to 1987, when Esposito retired and Tanner was named his successor. At age 28, he was one of the youngest head coaches in the country. During his first season the Wolfpack reached the NCAA tournament, playing in the East Regional. His teams earned bids to the NCAA tournament during seven of his nine seasons as head coach at NCSU, including five straight from 1990 to 1994. He was named ACC Coach of the Year in 1990.

His nine-year record at NC State was 395–173–3.

South Carolina
Tanner arrived at South Carolina prior to the start of the 1997 season. Tanner guided the Gamecocks to a 33–24 record in his first season in 1997 and finished fourth in the competitive SEC. The Gamecocks were greatly improved in 1998 and finished with 44 wins and a berth in the NCAA tournament. In 1999, Tanner led the Gamecocks to the SEC East Division title for the school's first division crown. Starting in 2000, Tanner help guide South Carolina to one of the most successful stretches in program history. The Gamecocks made the College World Series in 2002, 2003, and 2004. The 2002 team finished runner-up after losing to the Texas Longhorns in the championship game. The South Carolina baseball team has made the NCAA tournament every year since 2000, and they currently have the longest streak of NCAA tournament appearances in the Southeastern Conference. The 2010 South Carolina Gamecocks baseball team won the College World Series championship after taking the series 2-0 over the UCLA Bruins. The championship was the first men's NCAA championship in school history. The 2011 South Carolina Gamecocks baseball team completed the season 55-14 and won the program's second national title after sweeping the championship series against the Florida Gators 2-0. This marked the first time that a team repeated as national champion since 2006-2007. On the way to the second championship, the Gamecocks went 10-0 in the NCAA tournament and set new records by winning 16 straight NCAA tournament games and 11 straight College World Series games. Both streaks were started in the 2010 season.

In his 16 seasons, through 2012, Tanner has posted a 738–316 overall record with six College World Series appearances. Under Tanner, the Gamecocks have made 14 NCAA tournament appearances, advanced to the Super Regionals ten times, and have posted fourteen 40-win and five 50-win seasons. Tanner led the Gamecocks to the 2010 and 2011 NCAA College World Series Championship. In addition, South Carolina won the 2000, 2002 and 2011 SEC regular season championships and the 2004 SEC Tournament championship. The Gamecocks claimed six Southeastern Conference Eastern Division titles (1999, 2000, 2002, 2003, 2011, 2012) with Tanner as head coach. He was named SEC Coach of the Year in 1998, 2000, and 2011. Tanner was also named National Coach of the Year in 2000 after the Gamecocks finished the season with a 56–10 record, in 2010 after the team finished 54–16, and in 2011 after a 55-14 campaign.

On July 13, 2012, Tanner was named director of athletics at South Carolina.

Team USA
Ray Tanner has a longstanding commitment to USA Baseball. He served as an assistant coach in 1993 and again in 1995 and 1996, coaching at the Olympics in Atlanta, Georgia. During these stints he coached together with college baseball legends such as Skip Bertman and Ron Polk. During the summer of 2002, Tanner served as the head coach of the USA Baseball National Team, composed of some of the top college players. The team went undefeated during the regular season, including a sweep of its biggest rival, Japan. The only two losses came at the Pan American Games to Nicaragua and Cuba. The team finished the tournament as the runner-up. The win total of 27 is the highest in team history.

Personal
Tanner grew up in Benson, North Carolina. He received a bachelor of science degree in recreational administration from NC State in 1980 and is married to the former Karen Donald, a native of Charleston, South Carolina. The couple has three children. On November 10, 2010, Tanner was initiated into the Chi Omega chapter of the Kappa Sigma fraternity at South Carolina. According to the University of South Carolina's website, "Coach Tanner's involvement with Kappa Sigma comes from the chapter's commitment to the Ray Tanner Foundation, which is dedicated to bettering the lives of economically and medically disadvantaged children. "

Achievements

 * Career record of 1133–489–3 (.699)
 * National Coach of the Year in 2000, 2010, and 2011
 * 21 NCAA tournament appearances
 * 10 Super Regional appearances, including 5 consecutive from 2000 to 2004
 * 6 College World Series appearances, including three consecutive from 2002 to 2004 and 2010 to 2012
 * 2002, 2012 national runner-up
 * 2010, 2011 national championship
 * 2000, 2002 & 2011 SEC Championships
 * 1999, 2000, 2002, 2003, 2011 & 2012 SEC East Championships
 * 1992 ACC Tournament Title
 * 2004 SEC Tournament Title
 * Five 50-win seasons
 * Second-highest winning percentage among college baseball coaches in SEC history, trailing only Skip Bertman of LSU
 * Eight first-round draft picks at South Carolina

title: Ray Tanner


text:
Water Temple

Water Temple may refer to:
 * Sunol Water Temple
 * Pulgas Water Temple
 * Water Temple (Ocarina of Time), a dungeon in the video game The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time
 * A building by Tadao Ando

title: Water Temple


text: User talk:67.52.70.242

title: User talk:67.52.70.242


text:
German historical school

 * This is an article about a school of thought in the area of law. For economics, see historical school of economics.

The German historical school of jurisprudence is a 19th-century intellectual movement in the study of German law. With Romanticism as its background, it conceived of law as the organic expression of a national consciousness (Volksgeist). It stood in opposition to an earlier movement called Vernunftrecht ('rational law').

Overview
The historical school is based on the writings and teachings of Gustav von Hugo and especially Friedrich Carl von Savigny. Natural lawyers held that law could be discovered only by rational deduction from the nature of man.

The basic premise of the German historical school is that law is not to be regarded as an arbitrary grouping of regulations laid down by some authority. Rather, those regulations are to be seen as the expression of the convictions of the people, in the same manner as language, customs and practices are expressions of the people. The law is grounded in a form of popular consciousness called the Volksgeist.

Laws can stem from regulations by the authorities, but more commonly they evolve in an organic manner over time without interference from the authorities. The ever-changing practical needs of the people play a very important role in this continual organic development.

In the development of a legal system, is it the professional duty of lawyers – in the sense of the division of labor in society – to base their academic work on law on ascertaining the will of the people. In this way, lawyers embody the popular will.

The German historical school was divided into Romanists and the Germanists. The Romanists, to whom Savigny also belonged, held that the Volksgeist springs from the reception of the Roman law. While the Germanists (Karl Friedrich Eichhorn, Jakob Grimm, Georg Beseler, Otto von Gierke) saw medieval German law as the expression of the German Volksgeist.

The German historical school has had considerable influence on the academic study of law in Germany. Georg Friedrich Puchta and Bernhard Windscheid continued the Romanist vein founded by Savigny, leading to the so-called Pandektenwissenschaft which is seen as Begriffsjurisprudenz ('conceptual jurisprudence').

Criticism
Karl Marx devoted an 1842 essay "The philosophical manifesto of the historical school of law" to criticizing the historical school of law, calling it the "sole frivolous product" of the eighteenth century. "Hugo misinterprets his teacher Kant by supposing that because we cannot know what is true, we consequently allow the untrue, if it exists at all, to pass as fully valid. He is a sceptic as regards the necessary essence of things, so as to be a courtier as regards their accidental appearance. ... Everything existing serves him as an authority, every authority serves him as an argument."

title: German historical school