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John Grigg

John Edward Poynder Grigg (15 April 1924 – 31 December 2001) was a British writer, historian and politician. He was the 2nd Baron Altrincham from 1955 until he disclaimed that title under the Peerage Act on the day it received Royal Assent in 1963.

Grigg edited the National and English Review (1954–1960) as his father had done. He was a liberal Tory but was defeated at the 1951 and 1955 general elections. In an article for the National and English Review in August 1957, Grigg argued that Queen Elizabeth II's court was too upper-class and British, and instead advocated a more "classless" and Commonwealth court. He also likened the Queen's voice to that of "a priggish schoolgirl". He was slapped across the face by a man in public, and was attacked by the majority of the press, with a minority, including the New Statesman and Ian Gilmour's The Spectator, agreeing with some of Grigg's ideas.

As a historian, his most notable work was an uncompleted four-volume biography of Prime Minister David Lloyd George; he had reached the end of the First World War in 1918 by the time of his death.

Early years
Born in Westminster, Grigg was the son of Edward Grigg, 1st Baron Altrincham and his wife, Joan, daughter of politician John Dickson-Poynder, 1st Baron Islington. Edward Grigg was a Times journalist, Liberal, and later Conservative, MP, Governor of Kenya, and member of Winston Churchill's wartime government. His mother organised nursing and midwifery in Kenya.

From Eton, Grigg joined the British Army and was commissioned as a second lieutenant into his father's regiment, the Grenadier Guards, in 1943 during the Second World War (1939–1945). While in the British Army, Grigg served as an officer of the Guard at St James's Palace and Windsor Castle, Berkshire, and saw action as a platoon commander in the 1st Battalion, Grenadier Guards, part of the 5th Guards Armoured Brigade of the Guards Armoured Division, against the German Army in France and Belgium. Towards the end of the war, he became an intelligence officer.

After the war, Grigg read Modern History at New College, Oxford. While at Oxford University, he gained a reputation for academic excellence, winning the University Gladstone Memorial Prize in 1948. In the same year, after graduating with second-class honours, Grigg joined the National Review, which was owned and edited by his father.

Political career
A liberal Tory, and later a supporter of the Anti-Apartheid Movement, Grigg sought election to the House of Commons. He stood for election for the recently created Oldham West at the 1951 general election, but was defeated by the sitting member Leslie Hale. Grigg contested the seat again in the 1955 general election but was similarly unsuccessful. With his father's death in December 1955, Grigg inherited the title of Baron Altrincham, which seemingly ended any hope of his being able to stand again as a candidate. Nonetheless, Grigg refused to apply for a writ of summons to exercise his right to a seat in the House of Lords.

When Tony Benn (the Viscount Stansgate) succeeded in obtaining passage of the Peerage Act, Grigg was the second person (after Benn himself) to take advantage of the new law and disclaim his peerage. In 1997, he wrote that he was "entirely opposed to hereditary seats in Parliament" and added that at that time in 1963 he "felt honour-bound to disclaim, though it was a bore to have to change my name again". Grigg never achieved his ambition of election to the Commons, and he subsequently left the Conservative Party for the SDP in 1982.

Journalism
As his father's health failed during the first few years of the 1950s, Grigg assumed most of the managerial and editorial duties of the renamed National and English Review. By the time of his father's death in December 1955, Grigg had taken over the editorship formally, and began to edit the Review into a publication more reflective of his views.

In 1956, Grigg attacked Anthony Eden's Conservative government for its handling of the Suez Crisis, and pressed for an immediate withdrawal of British forces from Port Said. He followed his father in championing reform of the House of Lords, although he added that, in lieu of reform, abolition might be the only alternative. He also advocated the introduction of women priests into the Anglican Church.

"The Monarchy Today"
Grigg was a committed monarchist. When talking to the journalist Robert Lacey about his public criticisms of the Royal Family, Grigg defended himself against the idea that he was an anti-monarchist: "That is like saying that an art critic is anti-art. I love the monarchy. Constitutional monarchy is Britain's greatest invention."

In an August 1957 article, "The Monarchy Today", Grigg argued his opinions on the young Queen Elizabeth II and her Court. Of the Royal Family, he said: "They have to perform the seemingly impossible task of being at once ordinary and extraordinary":

"There is much to admire in the Royal Family as we see them today, and they are indeed very widely admired. But it would be a disastrous mistake to feel anything like complacency about their hold upon the allegiance to the mass public... The Coronation induced a mood...which of its very nature was superficial and impermanent. Those who care for the Monarchy as an institution should look beyond the hideous coloured photographs of a glamorous young woman in sparkling attire to the more testing realities of twenty years hence. The Monarchy will not survive, let alone thrive, unless its leading figures exert themselves to the full and with all the imagination they and their advisers can command.

At the same time the Monarchy cannot now rely, as it once could, upon the unquestioning support of those who effectively govern the country. The Whig magnates ignored or despised the Royal Family, but exalted the institution of monarchy. Nowadays the position is reversed. Many influential people, of varying political opinions, are able to combine a high regard for the Royal Family with a fundamental scepticism as to the viability of the institution. This is not the militant republicanism of the young Joseph Chamberlain, but as a state of mind it is more dangerous, because it is so mild and elusive. In Chamberlain’s day monarchies were the rule, republics the exception; it was therefore safe to flirt with republican theory. Today republics are the rule, and monarchies very much the exception.

When she has lost the bloom of youth the Queen's reputation will depend, far more than it does now, upon her personality. It will not then be enough for her to go through the motions; she will have to say things which people can remember, and do things on her own initiative which will make people sit up and take notice. As yet there is little sign that such a personality is emerging. But time, though no longer clearly on her side, is not yet her enemy.

If it is vital that the Monarchy should transcend race, it is hardly less necessary that it should transcend 'class'. The relatively 'class-less' character of George V has been mentioned; unfortunately it is not to be seen in his grand-daughters. The Queen and Princess Margaret still bear the debutante stamp. Why is this? The most likely reason is that they were given a conventional upper-class education. This is, perhaps, the price which had to be paid for the Queen Mother’s many services, and for the matchless charm which she has brought to her high position. 'Crawfie', Sir Henry Marten, the London season, the racecourse, the grouse-moor, Canasta, and the occasional Royal tour – all this would not have been good enough for Queen Elizabeth I! It says much for the Queen that she has not been incapacitated for her job by this woefully inadequate training. She has dignity, a sense of duty and (so far as one can judge) goodness of heart – all precious assets. But will she, above all, see to it that Prince Charles is equipped with all the knowledge he can absorb without injury to his health, and that he mixes during his formative years... not merely with future landowners or stock-brokers?"

Grigg was critical of the Debutantes' Parties: "... a grotesque survival from the Monarchy's 'hierarchical' past": "These Parties should certainly have been quietly discontinued in 1945. They pander to snobbishness and give the Queen the appearance of standing at the apex of an aristocratic and plutocratic pyramid. People have a right to 'bring out' their daughters in whatever way they please, but the Crown's benison should be reserved for those who have qualified for it by public service."

Continuing on with the theme of aristocracy, he wrote: "The present composition of the Court emphasizes the social lopsidedness to which the Monarchy is still prone. The Queen's entourage – those who serve her from day to day, who accompany her when she travels and sit with her when she eats – are almost without exception people of the 'tweedy' sort. Such people may be shrewd, broad-minded and thoroughly suitable for positions at Court, but the same is true of many who are not 'tweedy'; and the fact that the Queen's personal staff represents almost exclusively a single social type creates an unfortunate impression... The Queen should surely now be surrounded by advisers and companions with as many different backgrounds as possible. A truly classless and Commonwealth Court would not only bear eloquent witness to the transformed nature of the Monarchy, but would also give the Queen and her Family the advantage of daily contact with an interesting variety of personalities and points of view."

Grigg was critical of the Queen's style of public speaking, describing it as "frankly 'a pain in the neck:

"Like her mother, she appears to be unable to string even a few sentences together without a written text – a defect which is particularly regrettable when she can be seen by her audience... Phrases such as 'I am deeply moved' sound very hollow when they are read from a typescript. But even if the Queen feels compelled to read all her speeches, great and small, she must at least improve her method of reading them. With practice even a prepared speech can be given an air of spontaneity.

The subject-matter must also be endowed with a more authentic quality. George V, for instance, did not write his own speeches, yet they were always in character; they seemed to be a natural emanation from and expression of the man. Not so the present Queen's. The personality conveyed by the utterances which are put into her mouth is that of a priggish schoolgirl, captain of the hockey team, a prefect, and a recent candidate for Confirmation. It is not thus that she will be enabled to come into her own as an independent and distinctive character."

Reaction and controversy
Grigg's article was featured in the national press, and caused an international furore in which he was criticised by, amongst others, Geoffrey Fisher, the Archbishop of Canterbury. Within the first two days of the controversy that followed its publication, Grigg was invited to discuss his article with Martin Charteris, the Queen's assistant private secretary. During a political meeting at Eton thirty years later, Charteris publicly thanked Grigg for his work: "You did a great service to the monarchy and I'm glad to say so publicly."

At the time in 1957, as Lord Altrincham, Grigg was denounced by Altrincham Town Council for his views. A statement issued by the Council on 6 August stated: "We the elected representatives of the ratepayers of this Ancient Town of Altrincham present at this informal meeting most strongly deplore the article written by Lord Altrincham and wish to completely disassociate this borough from the comments and statements contained in that article. At the same time we desire that it should be known by her Majesty the Queen that no town has a greater sense of loyalty and devotion to the Crown than the borough of Altrincham."

At the start of the controversy, Grigg was invited by Granada Television to be interviewed on their news programme Impact. The interview took place on the evening of 6 August 1957, and was conducted by Robin Day. Grigg defended his article in front of Day, stating that he did not wish to apologise or retract what he had written, but saying that he did regret that anyone should have thought he was hostile to the Queen. He said that his aim had been to bring about a change in the atmosphere which surrounded the Queen and the Monarchy across the whole country.

After the interview, Grigg left Television House in the company of Ludovic Kennedy. As the two of them came out onto the street, Philip Kinghorn Burbidge, a member of the far-right, extreme-nationalist League of Empire Loyalists, came up to them and slapped Grigg's face, saying: "Take that from the League of Empire Loyalists." Burbidge, who was 64 years old, was taken away by the police. Grigg said of the incident: "There was no strength behind the blow. I have not had to have any attention. There were quite a lot of bystanders who saw this happen. They all seemed tremendously friendly towards me."

Burbidge later pleaded guilty to a charge of using insulting behaviour. He was fined 20 shillings. The Chief Metropolitan Magistrate, Sir Laurence Dunne, said of him: "I suppose 96 per cent of the population of this country were disgusted and offended by what was written, but I suppose that 99.9 per cent recurring of these would hesitate to select you as their champion. Your action only made a most unsavoury episode more squalid. In a case like this the weapon to be used is the weight of public opinion and not to make it the excuse for a gutter brawl."

Burbidge himself said: "Such actions are foreign to my nature. Due to the scurrilous attack by Lord Altrincham I felt it was up to a decent Briton to show resentment. What I feared most was the overseas repercussions and publication in American newspapers. I thought our fortunes were at a low ebb and such things only made them more deplorable."

Robert Menzies, the Prime Minister of Australia, was publicly critical of Grigg, describing his article as "shocking criticism": "It is a pity that it should have been lifted out of a journal with not a very great circulation and given an audience of many millions in the world Press. I think the Queen performs her duties in the Royal office with perfection, with great poise, great character, and great intelligence. If it is now to be said that she reads a speech I might say that many of the great statesmen of the world will have to face the same charge and had better be criticised for it."

Grigg responded to Menzies' criticism in a front page interview with the Melbourne Herald. "He is stuffily subservient... typical of the worst attitude towards the Crown... he puts the Queen on a pedestal and genuflects. He simply blindly worships the Sovereign as someone above criticism. Far from doing the Queen service he is doing her a disservice. I regard his attitude as disgusting, and if it were accepted by most of the Queen's subjects – ordinary people like you and me – the monarchy would be in grave danger. Please don't think I haven't great respect for Mr. Menzies. In the sort of Commonwealth court I visualize I would like to see men of Mr. Menzies' brilliance around the Queen, but not men of his particular view – by that, I don't mean his political view, but his approach towards the Monarchy."

Grigg also commented on the advice Menzies had given to the Queen during her 1954 tour of Western Australia. He said there had been a mild outbreak of poliomyelitis at the time. Although the risk of the Queen catching polio was minute, especially when compared to that for the thousands of people who crowded into the streets to see her, as a result of Menzies' advice, the Queen did not shake hands with anyone during her entire visit there. Of the Queen, Grigg said: "I feel that if the situation was put to her properly she would have seen that it wasn't the way a Sovereign acts."

Grigg took part in another Granada broadcast, Youth Wants To Know, this time from Granada Studios in Manchester. He stood by his criticism of the Queen spending a whole week watching racing at Goodwood: "She takes quite a lot of holidays as it is... If this were pointed out to her, I'm sure she would be the first to see it." Grigg also stated his belief that "the reason that our monarchy is so strong is that it is subject to comment and criticism." He said that he had not foreseen his article gaining "such very large publicity" and declared: "One can be clumsy and nevertheless have convictions."

Looking back, Grigg was critical of 1950s royal coverage, citing what he called its "blandness and servility": "I was rather worried by the general tone of comment, or the absence of comment really in regards to the monarchy – the way we were sort of drifting into a kind of Japanese Shintoism, at least it seemed to me, in which the monarchy was not so much loved as it should be and cherished, but worshipped in a kind of quasi-religious way. And criticism of the people who were actually embodying it at the time was completely out."

After 1960
The National and English Review closed in June 1960, with its 928th and last issue. At the same time, Grigg started working at The Guardian, which had just relocated to London from its original home in Manchester. For the rest of the decade he wrote a column, entitled A Word in Edgeways, which he shared with Tony Benn.

Work as a biographer and historian
At that same time, in the late 1960s, Grigg turned his attention to the project that would occupy him for the remainder of his life: a multi-volume biography of the British prime minister David Lloyd George. The first volume, The Young Lloyd George, was published in 1973. The second volume, Lloyd George: The People's Champion, which covered Lloyd George's life from 1902 to 1911, was released in 1978 and won the Whitbread Award for biography for that year. In 1985 the third volume, Lloyd George, From Peace To War 1912–1916, was published and subsequently received the Wolfson prize. When he died in 2001 Grigg had nearly completed the fourth volume, Lloyd George: War Leader, 1916–1918; the final chapter was finished by historian Margaret MacMillan (Lloyd George's great-granddaughter) and the book published in 2002. In all the volumes, Grigg showed a remarkable sympathy, and even affinity, for the "Welsh Wizard", despite the fact that their domestic personalities were very different. Historian Robert Blake judged the result to be "a fascinating story and is told with panache, vigour, clarity and impartiality by a great biographer."

Grigg also wrote a number of other books, including: Two Anglican Essays (discussing Anglicanism and changes to the Church of England), Is the Monarchy Perfect? (a compendium of some of his writings on the Monarchy), a biography of Nancy Astor; Volume VI in the official history of The Times covering the Thomson proprietorship; and The Victory that Never Was, in which he argued that the Western Allies prolonged the Second World War for a year by invading Europe in 1944 rather than 1943.

Personal life
Grigg married Patricia Campbell, who worked at National and English Review, on 3 December 1958 at St Mary Magdalene Church, Tormarton, Gloucestershire. They later adopted two boys.

In popular culture
Grigg is portrayed by John Heffernan in the Netflix series The Crown. The show’s historical consultant, Robert Lacey said, “I am very glad we’ve got this whole episode on Lord Altrincham, who is a well-known figure in England, and now will become so around the world."

title: John Grigg


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Vincent Descombes

Vincent Descombes (born 1943) is a French philosopher. His major work has been in the philosophy of language and philosophy of mind.

Philosophical work
Descombes is particularly noted for a lengthy critique in two volumes of the project he calls cognitivism, and which is, roughly, the view current in philosophy of mind that mental and psychological facts can ultimately be treated as, or reduced to, physical facts about the brain.

Descombes has also written an introduction to modern French philosophy (Le même et l'autre) focused on the transition, after 1960, from a focus on the three H's, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger to the "three masters of suspicion", Karl Marx, Friedrich Nietzsche and Sigmund Freud. In the same book, he introduced the term "post-Kojèvian discourse" to designate the period of French philosophy after the 1930s (from 1933 to 1939, Alexandre Kojève delivered in Paris a series of lectures on Hegel's work The Phenomenology of Spirit that had an immense influence on 20th-century French philosophy).

Descombes teaches at the Centre de recherches politiques Raymond Aron, part of the École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales. He holds an appointment in the Committee on Social Thought at the University of Chicago.

Descombes was a member of the French libertarian socialist group Socialisme ou Barbarie.

Works

 * Le platonisme, 1970
 * L'inconscient malgré lui, 1977
 * Le même et l'autre. Quarante-cinq ans de philosophie française (1933–1978), Editions de Minuit, 1979. Trans. Modern French Philosophy, Cambridge University Press, 1980. ISBN 0-521-29672-2.
 * Grammaire d'objets en tous genres, 1983. Trans. Objects of All Sorts: A Philosophical Grammar, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986. ISBN 0-8018-2551-2.
 * Proust: Philosophie du roman, Editions de Minuit, 1987. Trans. Proust: Philosophy of the Novel, Stanford University Press, 1992. ISBN 0-8047-2000-2
 * Philosophie par gros temps, 1989 Trans. The Barometer of Modern Reason: On the Philosophies of Current Events, Oxford University Press, 1993. ISBN 0-19-506681-2.
 * La denrée mentale, 1995. Trans. The Mind's Provisions: A Critique of Cognitivism, Princeton University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-691-00131-6.
 * Les institutions du sens, 1996. Trans. The Institutions of Meaning: A Defense of Anthropological Holism, Harvard University Press, 2014. ISBN 0-674-72878-5.
 * Le complément de sujet, 2004
 * Le raisonnement de l'ours, et d'autres essais de philosophie pratique, 2007
 * Les embarras de l'identité, 2013. Trans. Puzzling Identities, Harvard University Press, 2016. ISBN 978-0-674-73214-8.
 * Exercices d'humanité, 2013
 * Le parler de soi, 2014

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Vincent Descombes


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John Grigg (disambiguation)

John Grigg (1924–2001) was a British writer, historian and politician.

John Grigg may also refer to:

 * John Grigg (astronomer) (1838–1920), New Zealand astronomer
 * John Grigg (New Zealand politician) (1828–1901)

title: John Grigg (disambiguation)


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MS Gabriella

MS Gabriella is a cruiseferry sailing on a route connecting Helsinki, Finland and Stockholm, Sweden for Viking Line. She was built in 1992 in Brodosplit, Croatia as Frans Suell for service with Euroway. Between 1994 and 1997 she sailed as Silja Scandinavia for Silja Line. Gabriella has sister ships Mega Victoria operated by Corsica Ferries, Isabelle operated by Tallink, and a third one, Crown Seaways, operated by DFDS Seaways.

Concept and construction
Euroway was a concept developed during the latter half of the 1980s by the Sweden-based Sea-Link Shipping. The new brand was planned to operate two state-of-the-art cruiseferries between Malmö in Sweden and Lübeck in Germany via Travemünde in Germany, with the service aimed in particular at conference groups. Sea-link decided to order the ships from Brodosplit in Croatia, which at that time still was part of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The ships were based on the same design as the Amorella and Isabella that had been built by the same shipyard for the Finland-based SF Line for Viking Line traffic in 1988 and 1989, respectively. The Euroway sisters were designed with a somewhat different layout of public spaces and cabins, as well as an additional cabin deck.

The order for the first ship, Frans Suell, was placed on 28 September 1989, with the delivery date projected in mid-1991. The ship was launched on 23 January 1991, but due to the Croatian War of Independence her construction was severely delayed, and she was not ready for her first sea trials until January 1992. Following her second sea trials in March 1992 Frans Suell sailed to Rijeka for finalization of her construction and to receive the Euroway livery. The ship was finally delivered to her owners on 4 May 1992 and left Split for Malmö.

1992–1994: Frans Suell
On 16 May 1992 Frans Suell was christened in Malmö by the Swedish opera singer Birgit Nilsson. The following day she set on her maiden voyage from Malmö to Travemünde and Lübeck, with only invited guests on board. On 19 May 1992 she began normal service on the Malmö–Travemünde route, with a daily departure from both ports. The service had a troubled start, as marketing had been difficult due to delays in the construction of the ship. Due to restrictions placed by the city of Malmö on traffic through the city, no trucks could be carried on board, and operating the buffet restaurant on board caused difficulties for the company.

From 1 September 1992 onwards Frans Suell ' s route was extended to Lübeck for the duration of the northern hemisphere winter season. The call at Travemünde was maintained as the city of Lübeck did not allow cars to be unloaded in the city. Due to the longer crossing times the timetable was altered with departures from every second day from Malmö and Lübeck, with overnight crossings.

On 1 June 1993 Sea-Link Shipping entered an agreement with Silja Line, with the latter assuming marketing and operational responsibility of the Euroway service and ships. The service now became marketed as Silja Line Euroway, with Silja Festival joining Frans Suell as the second ship on the service (the original planned second ship, Frans Kockum, had been even more severely delayed than Frans Suell, and eventually Sea-Link cancelled the order). From the beginning of June 1993 Frans Suell (and Silja Festival)'s route was again shortened to Malmö–Travemünde, with two daily departures from both ports.

With hopes of attracting more passengers, for the 1993–1994 winter season the route was extended into Copenhagen–Malmö–Travemünde–Lübeck from 1 September 1993 onwards, with daily departures from Copenhagen and Lübeck. Due to the low passenger figures on the service and the poor financial situation of Silja Line, the decision was made to terminate the Euroway service on 12 March 1994. Silja Line wished to charter Frans Suell for use on their Turku–Stockholm service, and already on 2 March 1994 she had been chartered to Silja.

1994–1997: Silja Scandinavia
Following the closure of Euroway Frans Suell sailed to the Vuosaari shipyard in Helsinki, Finland, where she was fitted with rear sponsons, refurbished, painted in Silja Line livery and renamed Silja Scandinavia. On 31 March 1994 she entered service on the Turku–Stockholm route. Silja Line's main rivals Viking Line, who owned two of the ship's sisters, were also interested in chartering the ship but thought the price was too high.

As Silja Line's charter agreement for Silja Scandinavia was drawing to a close in 1996, the main funders of Sea-Link demanded that instead of continuing the charter the ship should be sold to the highest bidder. Although Silja Line would have wanted to continue operating the ship, the company was in such a poor financial condition that it could not pay the price asked for the ship. Instead, she was sold to Viking Line on 11 November 1996, with the delivery date planned in April 1997. On 4 April 1997 Silja Scandinavia arrived for the last time in Turku in Silja Line colours.

1997 onwards: Gabriella
After ending her service with Silja Line, Silja Scandinavia again sailed to the Vuosaari shipyard in Helsinki, where she was delivered to Viking Line, refurbished, repainted and renamed Gabriella (the name having been chosen by a public naming competition). On 17 April 1997, Gabriella entered service for her new owners on the Helsinki–Stockholm route. On 30 June 1999 the a call at Mariehamn was added to the service to maintain tax free sales on board. In 1999, 2002, 2003, 2004 and 2005 the ship spent brief periods sailing on Turku–Mariehamn–Stockholm route, in place of the ship normally used in the service. On 23 January 2004 she collided with the harbour ferry Ehrensvärd in the Helsinki harbour, resulting in minor damage to both ships.

Between 5 May 2008 and 27 May 2008, Gabriella was rebuilt at Öresundsvarvet in Landskrona, Sweden, as a part of Viking Line's fleet rebuilding programme. The refit included the removal of the original cafeteria from deck 7 in favour of expanding the tax-free shop, the addition of a games room on deck 7, the addition of a Tapas & Wine restaurant on deck 8, the conversion of the former BBQ-restaurant into an Ella's restaurant, the conversion of the two-storey discothèque on decks 9 and 10 into a new cafeteria, the addition of new cabins in place of the former conference rooms on deck 11, and redecoration of the majority of passenger cabins.

Decks

 * Deck 12 : Bridge and sun deck.
 * Deck 11 : Captain's deck - Cabins of classes SUM, LUX and B2X.
 * Deck 10 : Conference deck - Conference rooms ("Adventure Island" play room in summertime, "Kid's playroom" play room outside summertime), Upstairs Pub (upper floor), crew cabins.
 * Deck 9 : Compass deck - Cabins of classes Suite, LXA, LYX, B4F, B2T and B2P, youths' room, Upstairs Pub (lower floor), sun deck.
 * Deck 8 : Restaurant deck - Restaurants The Buffet, Bistrotek, Wine Bar, Grill, No Name and À la Carte & Sea, smoking room, casino, Club Mar nightclub, Living Room.
 * Deck 7 : Info & Shopping deck - Cabins of classes Suite, B4, B2P, B2T, B4F, LYX and LXA, tax-free shopping, information, play room, Pop Up Shop, café Coffee & Joy, deposit boxes, embarkation and disembarkation.
 * Deck 6 : Sextant deck - Cabins of classes A4, B4L, B2L, B4 and B2P, video game room for youths, sauna and swimming pool.
 * Deck 5 : Bell deck - Cabins of classes A4, A4R, HA3/HB3, B2P and B4, embarkation and disembarkation.
 * Deck 4 : Car platform deck - Car deck for personal cars (can be lifted up).
 * Deck 3 : Car deck - Car deck.
 * Deck 2 : Anchor deck - Cabins of class C4, upper engine room, machinery surveillance.
 * Deck 1 : Primary and secondary engine room, boiler room and other technical facilities.

Restaurants and cafés

 * The Buffet, self-service restaurant, deck 8.
 * À la Carte & Seafood Bar, traditional à la carte restaurant and bar, deck 8.
 * Grill, hamburger and steak restaurant, deck 8.
 * Bistrotek, "street food" restaurant with varying themes, deck 8.
 * No Name, restaurant offering dishes from all around the world, deck 8.
 * Coffee & Joy, café, deck 7.

Bars

 * Club Mar, largest nightclub on the ship, featuring various artists and Ville Viking, deck 8.
 * Upstairs Pub, pub, decks 9 and 10.
 * Wine Bar, wine and aperitif bar, piano music, deck 8.

Shops

 * Taxfree Shop, large tax-free shop, deck 7.
 * Pop Up Shop, small shop with varying themes, deck 7.
 * Wine Shop, small speciality shop for wines next to the Wine Bar, deck 8.

Other services

 * Information, open around the clock, deck 7.
 * Conference rooms, deck 10.
 * Children's playfroom, deck 7.

Cabins
Starting from Viking Grace, Viking Line has changed the names of cabin classes from traditional letter and number combinations into more descriptive names. The names have gradually been changed on other Viking Line ships as well. All cabins have private toilets and showers.

 * Suite : Cabin for four persons, with double bed and convertible sofa. Breakfast is included. Surface area 28.5 m² (deck 7) or 33.5 m² (deck 9).
 * Junior Suite, balcony (SUM) : Cabin for two persons with balcony. Double bed and convertible sofa. Surface area 27 m².
 * Seaside Premium, balcony (LUX) : Cabin for two persons with balcony. Double bed and convertible sofa. Surface area 22–25 m².
 * Seaside Premium Large (LXA) : Cabin for two persons without balcony. Double bed and convertible sofa. Surface area 20 m².
 * Seaside Premium (LYX) : Cabin for two persons without balcony. Double bed. Surface area 11.5 m².
 * Inside Premium (B2X) : Spacious cabin for two persons without window. Double bed. Surface area 14.8-16.5 m².
 * Inside Comfort Plus (B2T) : Spacious cabin for two persons without window. Double bed. Surface area 11 m².
 * Inside Comfort Family (B4F) : Spacious cabin for four persons without window. Double bed, bunk bed with one upper bed and one lower bed. Surface area 13 m².
 * Inside Large (B4L) : Spacious cabin for four persons without window. Double bed, bunk bed with one upper bed and one lower bed. Surface area 13 m².
 * Inside Large (B2L) : Spacious cabin for two persons without window. Double bed. Surface area 11 m².
 * Seaside Standard (A4) : Cabin for four persons with window. Two bunk beds with one upper bed and one lower bed each. Surface area 8.5 m².
 * Seaside Standard Allergy (A4R) : Cabin for four persons with window, without fitted carpet. Two bunk beds with one upper bed and one lower bed each. Surface area 8.5 m².
 * Inside Standard (B4) : Cabin for four persons without window. Two bunk beds with one upper bed and one lower bed each. Surface area 8.5 m².
 * Inside Standard Allergy (B4R) : Cabin for four persons without window, without fitted carpet. Two bunk beds with one upper bed and one lower bed each. Surface area 8.5 m².
 * Seaside/Inside Handicap (HA3/HB3) : Cabin for three persons, with or without window. Designed for handicapped people. Two lower beds and one upper bed. Surface area 14.5 m².
 * Inside Piccolo (B2P) : Small cabin for two people without window. Bunk bed with one upper bed and one lower bed. Surface area 7 m².
 * Economy (C4) : Small economy cabin for four persons without window. Two bunk beds with one upper bed and one lower bed each. Surface area 8.5 m².

Accidents

 * On 23 January 2004 Gabriella collided with the Suomenlinna island ferry Ehrensvärd. Gabriella got a small hole under the waterline.
 * On 12 January 2022 Gabriella underwent a blackout and collided into a pier in Helsinki in front of the Allas Sea Pool. The ship got large scratches and notches into its hull and the bow was slightly damaged above the waterline and at the bulbous bow. The Allas Sea Pool sauna building was split into two in the middle and part of the structure moved tens of centimetres towards the Market Square. The ship was moved to the Turku repairs shipyard in Naantali for repairs. Viking Cinderella replaced the ship for the duration of repairs. Gabriella returned to traffic in late February.

title: MS Gabriella


text:
Talk:Cognitivism (psychology)

Untitled
This is a very tidy little page. The section on criticisms needs elaboration, in the light of a lot of recent work both by cognitive scientists and by philosophers (John Haugeland, e.g., or Vincent Descombes, or Charles Taylor). To be fair to cognitivism, of course, the section on the project itself should be elaborated a good deal.

Right, I'm sorry but i had to change bits. Cognitivism is NOT differentiated from Behaviorism by its assumptions of positivism (behaviorism was just as positivistic in this sense). Cognitivism is the theory that thought is the use of internal rules or algorithms on internal symbols and that's what i've written. BScotland.

 * Hi there,
 * Actually, the article never claimed this. It simply said that positivism was one of the central tenants of cognitivism and that cognitivism replaced behaviourism as the most popular paradigm for understanding mental function.

 * I've reverted the article back to the last edit by APH and will re-incorporate some of the recent changes powing to the following issues:

 * "mental function can be best described via the analogy of the digital computer"

 * Cognitivism has never made the claim that the digital computation is the best description of mental function, simply that computation (information processing) is the best description, however it might be instatiated. Many cognitivist theories posit purely analog information processing functions (e.g. most of psychophysics)

 * "Theoretically cognitivism assumes that mental functioning is best seen as being the operation of 'rules' (algorithms) on internal 'symbols' (i.e. the mind/brain is a digital computer (see representationalism)"

 * Again, many cognitivist theories are decidely anti-symbolic, particularly connectionism. Paul Smolenky (ref below) explicitly calls connectionism 'sub-symbolic'. Connectionism is however, rule bound, although the rules simply describe how the nodes should pass information between them (hence the phrase 'parallel distributed processing'), rather than to complete any particular high-level task. The rules to complete the high-level task are an emergent property of the rules for sub-symbolic processing (e.g. delta rule, back propagation etc)

 * Smolensky, P. (1989). Connectionist modeling: Neural computation/mental connections. In L. Nadel (Ed.), P. Culicover, L. A. Cooper, R. M. Harnish (Assoc. Eds.), Neural connections, mental computation. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press/Bradford. 49-67. [Reprinted in J. Haugeland, (Ed.). (1997). Mind Design II: Philosophy, Psychology, Artificial Intelligence, MIT Press/Bradford Books.]

 * - Vaughan 13:53, 17 Sep 2004 (UTC)

Well, your call, man. However, I was under the impression that connectionism was NOT a kind of cognitivism, although it IS an information processing theory (ie. it posits the idea that cognition is computation). Chomsky's own work is about as un-empirical as you can get, but is undeniably cognitivist, hence the reason i felt that the first section on methodology was misleading.

'Connectionism is however, rule bound, although the rules simply describe how the nodes should pass information between them (hence the phrase 'parallel distributed processing'), rather than to complete any particular high-level task. The rules to complete the high-level task are an emergent property of the rules for sub-symbolic processing (e.g. delta rule, back propagation etc)'

This is a highly controversial statement. Many connectionists are absolutely explicit and clear that their connectionist models are NOT rule bound. Psychophysics predates cognitivist theories, and when people talk about cognitivism, it is not generally psychophysics to which they refer (although, to repeat, psychophysics probably IS an information processing view of cognition).

One more thing. The use of the word 'demonstrated' sounds as if Chomsky actually carried out experiments which proved the existence of 'mental states'. He did not. Instead, he posited various thought experiments which proved this to his own satisfaction. Many others in other traditions (for example, the tradition of Wittgenstein) would very much deny that Chomsky proved his point, so if it was ok with everyone i would prefer if it that word was changed to 'claim'. BScotland

 * Hi there, some replies to your points...

 * >"However, I was under the impression that connectionism was NOT a kind of cognitivism,
 * >although it IS an information processing theory (ie. it posits the idea that cognition is
 * >computation)."

 * I would disagree and there's plenty of examples where connectionist authors explicity align themselves with cognitive explanations. e.g "[connectionist models] hold out the hope of offering computationally sufficient and psychologically accurate mechanistic accounts of the phenomena of human cognition" from p11 of Rumelhart and McClelland's Parallel Distributed Processing ISBN 026268053X. Incidentally, the book is subtitled Explorations in the Microstructure of Cognition. See also ISBN 0198524269.

 * >"Chomsky's own work is about as un-empirical as you can get, but is undeniably cognitivist,
 * >hence the reason i felt that the first section on methodology was misleading."

 * As Chomsky's work is based on observation, it is indeed empirical. However, I presume you mean experimental, which much of it is not. The article doesn't claim that all cognitivist theories must be derived from experimental work (this would discount much of the philosophy of mind work in this area for example) but that mental processes are for the most part amenable to experimental investigation (note the 'in principle' qualification in 2nd sentence of 'Theoretical approach' section).

 * >>'Connectionism is however, rule bound, although the rules simply describe how the nodes should
 * >>pass information between them (hence the phrase 'parallel distributed processing'), rather than to
 * >>complete any particular high-level task. The rules to complete the high-level task are an emergent
 * >>property of the rules for sub-symbolic processing (e.g. delta rule, back propagation etc)'

 * >This is a highly controversial statement. Many connectionists are absolutely explicit and clear
 * >that their connectionist models are NOT rule bound."

 * Connectionist models would not work without being rule bound. They are explicity rule bound on the node level - e.g. "Learning is implemented in connectionist models by rules which determine how the weights of the connections between units are changed." (from p15, McLeod, Plunkett and Rolls Introduction to Connectionist Modelling of Cognitive Processes ISBN 0198524269) and on the behavioural level - e.g. "Rule-following behaviour may be realised in connectionist networks without any need to have the rules represented explicitly in the network" (p14 of Ellis and Humphreys Connectionist Psychology ISBN 0863777872). The important point is that the rules developed at the behavioural level are not set a priori, they are developed by the network as a response to its training or execution. If you can cite any connectionists that specifically deny that connectionist models are rule-bound I would be very surprised.

 * >"One more thing. The use of the word 'demonstrated' sounds as if Chomsky actually carried out
 * >experiments which proved the existence of 'mental states'. He did not. Instead, he posited various
 * >thought experiments which proved this to his own satisfaction. Many others in other traditions
 * >(for example, the tradition of Wittgenstein) would very much deny that Chomsky proved his point
 * >so if it was ok with everyone i would prefer if it that word was changed to 'claim'."

 * Fair point and I agree it 'claimed' is more appropriate than 'demonstrated' in this context.

- Vaughan 17:23, 18 Sep 2004 (UTC)

With respect you are eliding between 'cognitive science' (which is nowadays merely a synonmym for 'psychology that is not openly behaviorist') to 'cognitivism', which is, as i've said, the belief that cognition is the algorithmic manipulation of internal symbols (cognitivist themselves like to do this, to make it seem as if cognitivism is more popular than it actually is). To assume that all cognition is algorithmic manipulation (etc. etc.) is to merely assume that cognitivism is correct. So your quote: '[connectionist models] hold out the hope of offering computationally sufficient and psychologically accurate mechanistic accounts of the phenomena of human cognition"' merely confirms that connectionists believe in cognition and that this is computational in nature (ie the information processing hypothesis), which i never denied (i.e. i never denied they said it). Again, quoting the title: Explorations in the Microstructure of Cognition merely proves, again, that connectionists believe in cognition (who doesn't?) not what the mechanism of that cognition is.

'If you can cite any connectionists that specifically deny that connectionist models are rule-bound I would be very surprised.'

Yeah I can and I'm amazed (genuinely flabbergasted) that you haven't come across them. However you'll have to wait until i can get into the office on monday for quotes. However as well as this you have to remember that cognitivists tend to play with words in this respect (and i mean, a lot). As John Searle never fails to point out, cognitivists invariable leap from the statement that cognition is describable as algorithmic, to the belief that cognition is IN ACTUAL FACT the product of internal rules/algorithms.

Also some connectionists have attempted to build bridges between connectionism and cognitivism and posit a 'rule following' superstructure on a connectionist 'base' (Stephen Pinker tries this trick). So the quotes you have don't surprise me: i knew that SOME connectionists stated such things (my own personal feeling is that they are deluding themselves but that's just me). BScotland.

Incidentally, just put 'rule' and 'connectionism' into google: and came up with : 'Carl Bereiter describes connectionism as the notion that cognition IS NOT GOVERNED BY RULES, but rather, that approximations to rule-based behavior can be achieved through processes that do not involve rules as agents in the process.' http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~lsherry/cognition/connectionism.html

Not of course a proper academic reference, but nevertheless indicative of how the word 'connectionism' is generally understood. Generally connectionism is used to describe (in 'ordinary language' that is, as the way it is usually used) models of cognition are not rule bound. I am genuinely astounded that you haven't come across these definitions (although, as you point out, and i never denied, some people DO think rule based cognitive models can be produced on connectionist networks' BScotland

'Both connectionist and symbolic systems can be viewed as computational systems. But they advance quite different views of what computation involves. In the symbolic approach computation involves the transformation of symbols according to rules. ...The connectionist view of computation is quite different....it focuses on causal processes by which units excite and inhibit one another and does not provide either for stored symbols or rules that govern their manipulations.' (Bechtel and Abrahamsen, 'Connectionism and the Mind', Blackwell, 2002, p2).

'The rise of cognitivism in psychology....has been characterised as a Kuhnian revolution....as (its) paradigm developed, the idea that cognition involved the manipulation of symbols became increasingly central...These symbols....were entities which could be stored in and retrieved from memory and transformed according to rules. In the 1980s however, an alternative framework for understanding cognition emerged....connectionist...models. ' Bechtel and Abrahamsen, 'Connectionism and the Mind', Blackwell, 2002, p1).

<:Hi there,
 * Of course, Bechtel is by no means an unbiased source (see 'The Case for Connectionism', Philosophical Studies, Vol 71). Incidentally, in that very same article he argues that connectionism is a cognitivist theory (see section 'Expanding the Conception of Cognition') and has also argued that connectionism is not incompatible with the representation of symbol-like propositional states such as beliefs (see Bechtel, 1988, Connectionism and the Philosophy of Mind: An overview, reprinted in ISBN 0631167633) Just because he argues it's an alternative theory for understanding cognition, doesn't mean it's not cognitivist.>

I knew that: to quote Bechtel again: 'Some connectionists agree with Fodor [...]'s contention that humans carry out explicit symbol processing [...] and hence have directed their efforts to implementing systems of rules and representations in networks' (Bechtel and Abrahamson op cit p163). As I said I think these people are deluding themselves, but I'm aware that the distinction between 'symbolic' and 'connectionist' is a lot more analogue than some digital theorist might think (and there's a lesson there).

 * <Rule bound nature of connectionist models.
 * This is certainly a complex issue as it depends on exactly at what level we're talking about. Bechtel is arguing for the lack of a priori rules governing the manipulation of pre-speficied internal symbols. There are many examples of connectionist models that learn rule based behaviour (for example Joanisse and Seidenberg's recent model that they taught to map sequences of words to meanings) however they do not rely on strict, internal symbolic representations to complete the rule-governed behaviour. The representations are distributed throughout the network.>   Again, it depends what you mean by a 'rule'. If you gloss is as 'algorithm' as I usually do, then this makes the sense clearer. There's a book (which i have now lost the reference for but which i could find again easily enough) which argues that connectionist 'rules' aren't rules as symbolists would interpret them (i.e. aren't digital algorithms) but are closer to 'heuristics' or guidelines: as you say, which emerge from the context and situation, rather than being pre-programmed. It was this distinction i was discussing. (on the other hand 'Rumelhart and McClelland's classic anti-rule, connectionist theory...' (http://www.americanscientist.org/template/BookReviewTypeDetail/assetid/26506;jsessionid=baa51x4nz7ba1Z)).

I should note that McClelland himself states that: 'One view of language, originating with Chomsky, championed by Fodor and Pylyshyn and widely pursued by Pinker, holds that abstract symbolic rules play a central role in the human language processing. This claim is part of a broader view that human cognitive mechanisms are symbolic, modular, innate, and domain-specific. An alternative view, from Rumelhart and McClelland, challenges the need for the use of rules....' (he defines as rule as) 'We address a specific notion of rules held by Pinker and his collaborators, in which rules are discrete, categorical, and symbolic objects used in a specialized, innate language module.' (i.e. what i meant by an 'algorithm' ...I assume that by 'discrete and categorical' he means what i meant by 'digital') ((http://www.cnbc.cmu.edu/~jlm/papers/RulesOrConnections.pdf)

I really do think that connectionism as that word is used in ordinary language (well by psychologists) usuall means 'not using rules' even apart from my own personal prejudices.

 * Also, I've removed the addition "specifically as a kind of Turing machine", as I think this is a controversial point in itself and not widely accepted among cognitive scientists. Even Pylyshyn (see ISBN 026266058X) does no go this far and many see computation purely as a metaphor (e.g. Parkin, ISBN 0863776736). I've not been able to find this claim in either the Oxford Dictionary of Psychology, or any number of books on cognitive or neural information processing. Although I would be glad to hear about other sources. P.S. Enjoyable debate on an interesting topic, many thanks.
 * - Vaughan 11:07, 21 Sep 2004 (UTC)

http://www.ecs.soton.ac.uk/~harnad/Papers/Py104/searle.comp.html

'The question is, "Is the brain a digital computer?" And for purposes of this discussion I am taking that question as equivalent to: "Are brain processes computational?"...Just to keep the terminology straight, I call the view that all there is to having a mind is having a program, Strong AI, the view that brain processes (and mental processes) can be simulated computationally, Weak AI. and the view that the brain is a digital computer, Cognitivism....This paper is about Cognitivism...I want to begin the discussion by trying to state as strongly as I can why cognitivism has seemed intuitively appealing. There is a story about the relation of human intelligence to computation that goes back at least to Turing's classic paper (1950), and I believe it is the foundation of the Cognitivist view. I will call it the Primal Story: We begin with two results in mathematical logic, the Church-Turing thesis (or equivalently, the Churchs's thesis) and Turing's theorem. For our purposes, the Church-Turing thesis states that for any algorithm there is some Turing machine that can implement that algorithm. Turing's thesis says that there is a Universal Turing Machine which can simulate any Turing Machine. Now if we put these two together we have the result that a Universal Turing Machine can implement any algorithm whatever. But now, what made this result so exciting? What made it send shivers up and down the spines of a whole generation of young workers in artificial intelligence is the following thought: Suppose the brain is a Universal Turing Machine. ....Since there is no universal agreement on the fundamental questions, I believe it is best to go back to the sources, back to the original definitions given by Alan Turing. According to Turing, a Turing machine can carry out certain elementary operations: It can rewrite a 0 on its tape as a 1, it can rewrite a 1 on its tape as a 0, it can shift the tape 1 square to the left, or it can shift the tape 1 square to the right. It is controlled by a program of instruction and each instruction specifies a condition and an action to be carried out if the condition is satisfied.' (note: by 'instruction' i understand that Turing (and Searle) mean 'algorithm' or what i have described as a 'rule').

Searle's article has been criticised (sometimes vehemently) but to the best of my knowledge, no one has ever denied his statement that cognitivism is the belief that the brain is a digital computer (as that phrase was defined in Turing's original papers). On the contrary: most cognitivists seem to act as if the mind/brain is so obviously a digital computer that it is not necessary to offer any evidence that this is the case.

'and many see computation purely as a metaphor'. Well they SAY that, but that's obviously (well obvious to me anyway) simply a rhetorical get out. When challenged on the fact that they have produced no evidence (whatsoever) that the brain/mind is a digital computer they tend to respond 'well of course this is only a METAPHOR...we don't really MEAN it.' Then they go off and happily start to talk as if the brain was a digital computer again.

I can only add that if it is a metaphor it's not a very good one. It doesn't illuminate anything or make anything clearer. On the contrary: as the brain/mind is NOT a digital computer it makes things more confusing.

As you may have noticed, I don't think much of cognitivism, so I am biased, but I do think that many psychologists attempt to muddy the waters and blur the distinction between connectionism and cognitivism because this makes it less obvious that they have been working on a fundamentally flawed and misleading paradigm for the last forty years. BScotland.

Incidentally, i think the article is still misleading: connectionism may or may not be the same as cognitivism, but i think it is undeniably an information processing model: i.e. connectionists undeniably state that cognition is computation. It is the kind of computation they are discussing that matters.

BScotland.

Hi everyone. Separated out Searle's views from Penrose's as they are quite different as can now be seen in the Criticism section. Still need some tidy up on these and better references. More importantly cognitivism and cognitive psychology are being confused here as somewhat noted above. Cogntivism was (is?) the dominant paradigm (hate that word) in cognitive psychology but there are (now) a number of alternatives. I think the intro and body need to be totally redone. When I have time I can make an attempt here? martinu 15:24, 4 Mar 2005 (UTC) martinu

Given that I'm not a cognitivist people might be surprised that I'm making this criticism, but, looking through the article now, I wonder if it isn't too biased AGAINST cognitivism. The section in which it is actually stated what it 'is' seems very short, and the 'criticism' section very long. Perhaps someone might want to write an piece on (for example) the history of the concept? (starting with Chomsky and Herbert Simon etc.). BScotland 14:32, 11 January 2006 (UTC)

Gorman...

I had to stop reading about 10 paragraphs ago so please excuse if this doesn't address your particular argument. The major problem with cognitivism is ontological; i.e., chicken and egg. Where do your rules come from? Where do your "knowledge stores" come from? From whence does reasoning proceed?

These are issues raised in the Wiki article from the start. Any "cognitive architecture" that you folks put forth seems to be computational, and computations require a priori input (here is were Kant and Chomsky come into play). As a programmer (interested in thought) I don't see a practical backbone for cognitivism as an explanatory mechanism for human thought because you require "rules" "architectures" and the like.

I rather prefer that rules are the result of human ingenuity rather than vice versa.

Gorman...

Are you all sure about this here?
I suppose the original authors of this article are long gone, but anyway, here's what I've found. A quick internet search of "cognitivism" doesn't turn up any sources that remotely resemble the material in this article. Several points: This is not really a field I know a lot about, so I would really rather that an expert take a crack at this article. If no one appears to fix it, I will knock it down to stub size based on internet sources in a month or two. CharlesGillingham (talk) 03:20, 23 June 2008 (UTC)
 * 1) The majority of source come from educational psychology, i.e. learning theory. This is where the term has currency.
 * 2) Cognitivism is almost always defined as a reaction against behaviorism (which is mentioned in this article, but buried beneath some other material).
 * 3) Most sources mention Jean Piaget as an important inspiration of the movement. Noam Chomsky and the founders of cognitive psychology are also sometimes mentioned.
 * 4) Few sources mentioned information processing at all. No sources mention positivism.
 * 5) This articles defines cognitivism in a way that sounds suspiciously similar to computationalism (and while I agree that there are lot's of people who were both cognitivist and computationalist at the same time, these are still slightly different positions -- I think you can be cognitivist without committing yourself to an information processing model. Am I wrong?)
 * 6) The primary criticism of cognitivism (in learning theory) is constructivism.
 * 7) I can't see how phenomenology (in general) can critique cogntivism, since it precedes it historically. Hubert Dreyfus is a stretch.
 * 8) Roger Penrose is way off topic, as a critic. Even John Searle and Hubert Dreyfus are off topic. These people are refuting computationalism, not cognitivism, for the most part.

 * I decided to remove the first paragraph of the criticisms sub-section as per some of the above users statements. That paragraph has been recreated below so that it can be easily accessed should a set of sources be found for it.

 * "Phenomenologists and hermeneutic philosophers have criticised the positivist approach of cognitivism for reducing individual meaning to what they perceive as measurements stripped of all significance. They argue that by representing experiences and mental functions as measurements, cognitivism is ignoring the context (cf contextualism) and, therefore, the meaning of these measurements. They believe that it is this personal meaning of experience gained from the phenomenon as it is experienced by a person (what Heidegger called being in the world) which is the fundamental aspect of our psychology that needs to be understood: therefore they argue that a context-free psychology is a contradiction in terms. They also argue in favour of holism: that positivist methods cannot be meaningfully used on something which is inherently irreducible to component parts. Hubert Dreyfus has been the most notable critic of cognitivism from this point of view. Humanistic psychology draws heavily on this philosophy, and practitioners have been among the most critical of cognitivism."

 * Travza (talk) 00:09, 7 April 2011 (UTC)

Am I the only one to find the section on theoretical approach immensely biased? http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivism#Positivism_in_science_today explicitly describes how Positivism is still an accepted framework. Saying that "Cognitivism becomes ever more specious once the collapse of positivism as a theory of meaning is acknowledged" assumes a fact that is not in any way self evident. The sentence before it is also a blatant and pointless attack. Maybe, if sourced, these points could be put in the criticism section. Placing them in theoretical approach seems extremely non neutral. Penultimate sentence read: "All of these assumptions come from a school of metaphysics known as naturalism and have been severely criticized as they have not been able to provide any adequate support for their claims and assumptions." Removing the two unsourced attack sentences.
 * Keller Scholl (talk) 18:12, 14 January 2012 (UTC)

"Positivism" is an irrelevant putdown
The wiki article on positivism states, and I agree, that positivism is the philosophical (i.e. not scientific) belief that scientific knowledge is the only valid knowledge. More specifically, "positivist" is a term used in epistemology. Hence it not logically possible to describe a scientific field as either positivist or not positivist. Obviously, within a scientific field you have to assume that the only valid knowledge WITHIN THAT FIELD is scientific knowledge, but calling this assumption "positivist" distorts the language. No claim is being made about nonexistence of nonscientific knowledge OUTSIDE the field. I feel quite certain that, whatever "cognitivism" might reasonably be defined as, its practitioners view it as part of science and not part of philosophy. Hence describing it as "positivist" is at best anachronistic.

Now admittedly there are a very few cases where "positivism" has an accepted and useful meaning within a scientific or quasi-scientific field, but this is not one of them.

One case where the term "positivist" is meaningful is "positivist sociology." That is an older term that actually depended on Comte's earlier usage of the term, which is not the same as modern usage (see e.g. ). In effect, "positivist sociology" merely means "the historically first stab at a fully scientific sociology." Similar terms were used in related fields such as criminology. However using this term for cognitivism cannot possible be correct, because cognitivism split off from the already fully scientific approach of behaviorism.

A second case is in the theory of legal interpretation, where legal positivists claim that validity of a law is unrelated to its merits--rather far afield from this discussion.

It seems to me that when philosophers like Searle apply the term "positivist" in cases like this, they may be claiming that cognitive studies has not yet made a full split from philosophy. This is a confusing question, because philosophers do in fact continue to make contributions to cognitive science as well as to several other scientific fields. However when they do so, to the extent that they make successful contributions they are  doing science rather then traditional philosophy. In any case they are certainly not doing epistemology.

Adding to the confusion, cognitive studies does in fact deal with the practical question of how people arrive at what they think they know (or act as if they know), which almost sounds like epistemology but isn't. Epistemology deals with the logical validity of knowledge, not necessarily directly with its acquisition process. And in any case, cognitive scientists as such are not making claims about the validity of, for example, divine revelation. Some of them do go too far and make such claims, but they are acting out of their element. Burressd (talk) 22:04, 7 January 2013 (UTC)

Merger proposal
The very recently created article Cognitivism (philosophy of education) overlaps significantly with this article, and has little new to offer. I propose to merge it into this one. hgilbert (talk) 03:40, 16 July 2013 (UTC)

 * Oppose - I disagree with the merger and your opinion. The educational perspective is significantly different from the psychology perspective or even the philosophy perspective and the less overlap the better. Stmullin (talk) 15:12, 16 July 2013 (UTC)

 * Oppose - In general, I would love for there to be single comprehensive articles. However, the political reality is that people from different academic areas don't respect each other on Wikipedia the same way they might in a university setting. This leads to edit warring, and wrongful deletion of good material. So, the best way to accomodate this situation is to have separate articles, and in the main article, have sections with a summary for each of the others. Greg Bard (talk) 17:17, 19 July 2013 (UTC)

 * Agree/Oppose - I agree there should be a merger, but I believe Cognitivism (philosophy of education) should be merged with educational psychology, which already has a section on cognitivism in education.

Ertmer & Newby (1993) should be cited
I use Ertmer and Newby (1993) whenever I need a refresh on behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism. I was just reading that chapter, then looking for additional cognitivism roots and citations, and opened this article. The format is REALLY similar, and the titles "How does learning occur" and "What is the role of memory" are exact copies of the subtitles used in each section (behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism) of Ertmer and Newby's chapter. Unless there is a more seminal source, the format is clearly copied from that work. In addition, one can see how the content was summarized from that work; simpler words, but same progression of thoughts. They should receive credit:

title: Talk:Cognitivism (psychology)


text:
User:Lachatdelarue/Archive 2

Archive 1

Kraut
Thanks for correcting my poor English in Kraut. ;-) --Abe Lincoln 15:35, 29 Oct 2004 (UTC)

KFA
Hi. I'm not sure the more recent edits are that NPOV any more - the most blatant stuff has been replaced with titles which seem to more accurately sum up the allegations in the pages linked to. -- BW 02:44, Oct 30, 2004 (UTC)

Catweazle
Thanks! -- de:Benutzer:Simplicius

lists of dog breeds

 * Halló La chat de la rue! So far I spend most of my time to read documentation and search in Wikipedias in other languages. I did not read many articles. Newertheless I would like to let you know, that I posted a message at Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Dog breeds and would be happy to know your opinion.
 * I have not looked at cat breeds so far. Is there an InterWiki coordination? Best regards Gangleri 03:51, 2004 Nov 2 (UTC)

Paediatrics
Concerning WP:CFD - I was not for one moment trying to sound denigrating. "Bound to try" includes myself (I added various articles to the Pediatrics category before I found Paediatrics much more filled and active). In fact, I usually try to name categories by their US spelling. However, Wikipedia works by precedent, and someone created Category:Paediatrics first. There are various other examples (e.g. Haematology or Category:Hematology). The category system is inflexible in this respect. JFW | T@lk  09:28, 2 Nov 2004 (UTC)

songs with a group/singer in the title
Hi, Thanks for backing me up on this ... don't know why people can't just leave it alone. BladeSteve

admin
I have nominated you for adminship over at Requests for adminship/Lachatdelarue, so you'll need to accept or decline the nomination and fill out a brief survey. BTW, I've started a Dog Care Guide over at Wikibooks, if you're interested. Tuf-Kat 05:11, Nov 4, 2004 (UTC)

Welch
Thanks for the note. Joseph Welch article already existed, I just made it a stub, I don't see what you think is wrong with it.

Okay, question. I thought the article existed because when I clicked on it it took me to an edit page... but did it? You are right that I did edit it to just a stub and left it that way for a short while, is that generally not good etiquette? Thanks in advance for the etiquette advice. Pdbailey 18:16, 7 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * you got it, as you say, I, "clicked on the article title (from another page) it took you straight to 'edit this page'". Thanks for the information. Pdbailey 00:13, 8 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Thanks!
Thanks for the deletion tip, your a great help. --Amerika

Promentalshitbackwashpsychosis Enema Squad (The Doo-Doo Chasers)
I found the page Promentalshitbackwashpsychosis Enema Squad (The Doo-Doo Chasers) and I was trying to put it on the "votes to delete" list. But the attempt failed, perhaps because the page's name is so long that the code line

was longer than a text line and therefore displayed folded.

After all that, the reason was:

What the expletive-deleted is this? Is this a genuine song? Anthony Appleyard 22:09, 7 Nov 2004 (UTC)

If it is a real song, and if it is worth including in Wikipedia, then leave it in. Else, does Wikipedia need to record every little-known scatological pop music song? Anthony Appleyard 22:36, 7 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Oh. I am sorry to have taken up your time. Anthony Appleyard 22:37, 7 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Cornish Rex photo
The cat belongs to a friend of mine. I'll ask him. -phma 01:22, 9 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Downtown (Song)
Hello! Earlier today I created an entry for the above. You sent me a message explaining that you had corrected the format and thanked me for my contribution. I responded thanking you for your assistance. Soon after that, I accessed the entry, and when I clicked on "Discussion," I got a message stating that I was "banned" from the page by a user named MEELAR, who referred to me as a "recurring vandal." Could you please explain what this means, and why that individual might have done that? I E-mailed him or her directly but received no answer. Since I'm not familiar with the way Wikipedia works, I have no idea why this person would have gotten involved with an entry you had approved. Thanks in advance for any information you can provide. User:SFTVLGUY2 20:17 9 NOVEMBER 2004 (UTC)

Congratulations!
Congratulations! It's my pleasure to let you know that, consensus being reached, you are now an administrator. You should read the relevant policies and other pages linked to from the administrators' reading list before carrying out tasks like deletion, protection, banning users, and editing protected pages such as the Main Page. Most of what you do is easily reversible by other sysops, apart from page history merges and image deletion, so please be especially careful with those. You might find the new administrators' how-to guide helpful. Cheers! -- Cecropia | explains it all ® 05:17, 11 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Thanks
Thanks for the warm welcome and I sorry for the other language links repetition... I was looking for then on the top of the page and since I couldn´t produce then in a way, I tryed the other way around. I am translating the cat page to portuguese before I start on the cat breed articles. From this experience I found that is not possible to use the image from one wikipedia on another but, following your adivice, I checked the Village pump and found out that the images could be shared if they were stored on Commons. I already tested this on my Userpage in portuguese Wikipedia. It works fine. I am now reading the help files on format and style before I start doing some serious writing. I am having a bit of problems to use the templetes on the portuguese Wikipedia, as I still don´t understand why somethings work on one side and not in the other. But I doing my homework using the portuguese page as a starting point. I hope to become a useful member of the community. Warm regards --Svasti 20:02, 2004 Nov 15 (UTC)

Bag On Line Adventures--Thanks
Thanks for the prompt categorization of Bag On Line Adventures. I cat and edit random pages so I often hit something outside my very limited range of knowledge. I knew it should be categorized but couldn't decided what to add it to. So I guess even an incorrect cat is good because it prompts someone to fix an article he might not have noticed before.--Minority Report 21:46, 17 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Damn you're fast
not even a chance to fix my own spelling mistakes :), Thanks.

Duk 02:24, 21 Nov 2004 (UTC)

List of movies
I doubt anyone would mind too much if you put a list of movies on a subpage. It takes a negligible amount of bandwidth and disc space, but it's technically against policy (damn cabal!). Of course, if you called it a list of movies that you'd like to see articles on, then you could use the list to monitor the color of the links and it would conveniently no longer be against policy. Tuf-Kat 03:45, Nov 22, 2004 (UTC)

Siamese Cat Pics (Responce)
Well, one of the cats, the example of a "traditional" siamese cat was actually my cat, the other one was just one I found on Google. So theres no real copyright, since the show pic was from an editoral who was just using a public pic. Tails623 00:36, Nov 26, 2004 (UTC)

Space subset
I'm a little confused about what happened to 'space subset' -- it has a copyvio notice, but it's not listed on Copyright problems. Anyway, it's a reasonable candidate for speedy deletion. The information on the page just looks like a random cut and paste; it doesn't have anything to do with space subsets. -- Walt Pohl 06:52, 1 Dec 2004 (UTC)

title: User:Lachatdelarue/Archive 2


text:
User:Centroyd

Hi My name is Steve. I am a teacher of senior chemistry, physics, mathematics and science. I also study philosophy, in particular metaphysics. I am a twice published author in areas far distant from the above.

I believe that Descartes was on the right path, as was Parmenides and Zeno. I think Hume was a nice and persuasive guy, but a bit clueless.

I am at present trying to finish a book, tentatively titled, 'The Armchair Universe.' This book argues from an endpoint rationalist stance (one step past Descartes) how our world comes to be at all, and comes to be as it is. Serious stuff. My motivation is that when one delves deeply into mathematics, physics and philosophy, one finds a straw man in each. All the problems in mathematics, physics and philosophy can be traced to this straw man. My solution is to begin from the very beginning, for one cannot begin in the middle, as the core disciplines tend to do.

title: User:Centroyd


text:
Talk:Vodafonturm

From VfD:

 * I'm not sure about this one. Is there any particular reason why this radio tower is in any way significant?  (posted by: Robert Merkel 14:52, 2004 Jul 27)

 * Comment: To begin with, its correct name is "Vodafone-Turm". That's where it should be moved, if there's concensus to keep. The only significant details about this communication tower might be that (1) it is built in form of a tripod (conventional ones have a simple cylindrical base) and (2) it was raised within a few days... --Palapala 16:59, 2004 Jul 27 (UTC)

 * The tower has an unconventional design and should so be placed in the Wikipedia! (posted by: 80.185.98.130 16:35, 2004 Jul 27)

 * Thank you, O Talking Hosiery. There's nothing notable about this tower that I can ascertain.  The only notable towers that come to mind are Mount Sutro in San Francisco, the NHK tower in Tokyo and that 1200' monster out in South Dakota.  Delete. - Lucky 6.9 16:49, 27 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Keep. But redirect to its correct name ofc. bbx 17:27, 27 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: It's a tower.  "How is this tower unlike all others?"  Well, it's a tower.  I agree that it's a marginal case.  Some towers are quite notable, shadow their communities, are celebrated, etc., but, if such is the case here, it's not clear from the article.  A photo of said tower might help explain its unusual structure. Geogre 18:53, 27 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * comment: see http://www.structurae.net/en/photos/index.cfm?JS=18340
 * this is marginally technically notable, mainly due to the short construction period. It would probably feature in any potted history of German broadcasting towers. On the other hand there doesn't seem to be a corresponding article in the German Wikipedia. Tentative keep. Ianb 21:32, 27 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Cribcage 03:17, 28 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. We have articles on less important things. Gzornenplatz 23:58, Jul 28, 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep ("...not paper..."). We have a lot of other articles on tall structures, especially in and near Germany, probably because someone active in the German Wikipedia has a fascination with them. Unless we wish to do something systematic about them, this should be kept like the others. -- Jmabel 01:22, Jul 30, 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. [Insert usual digression about trying to avoid systematic bias on borderline cases such as this]. Pcb21| Pete 23:48, 29 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. It is an interesting design. Carter 02:49, 31 Jul 2004 (UTC)

end moved dicussion

title: Talk:Vodafonturm


text:
Adam A700

The Adam A700 AdamJet was a proposed six-seat civil utility aircraft developed by Adam Aircraft Industries starting in 2003. The aircraft was developed in parallel with the generally similar Adam A500, although while that aircraft is piston-engined, the A700 is powered by two Williams FJ33 turbofans. The two models have about 80% commonality.

The prototype A700 first flew on July 28, 2003. Two conforming prototypes were built.

Development
Adam Aircraft ceased operations on 11 February 2008 and filed for Chapter 7 bankruptcy liquidation on 19 February 2008, prior to the certification or delivery of any production A700s.

In April 2008 Adam Aircraft was purchased from bankruptcy by AAI Acquisition Inc who have indicated their intention to continue with certification of the aircraft.

Industrial Investments, the Russian company that purchased Adam Aircraft, restarted work on the A700 and in May 2008 had 60 employees back at work. Industrial Investments reportedly ordered 75 A700s prior to Adam Aircraft's bankruptcy. AAI had initially intended to certify the A700 in the first quarter of 2010, but citing the economic crisis of 2008 President and CEO Jack Braly announced on 28 October 2008 that "Flight test and other development activity have been suspended". Braly indicated that the company's investment team and board of directors are reviewing the economic and market conditions and will decide on a new schedule for certifying the A700.

The Federal Aviation Administration accepted the previous certification data that Adam Aircraft recorded, which would have greatly simplified certification efforts by the new company, however in April 2009 Adam Aircraft ceased operations and laid off all its staff, ending development of the A700.

In April 2011 Triton Aerospace, the new holder of the type certificate, indicated that they would concentrate on the A500 and had no plans to continue development of the A700, even though they had two disassembled examples.

Design

As with the earlier-designed A500 piston-engined model, the A700 featured a straight tapered wing, a central fuselage, and twin wing-mounted booms which supported aft twin rudders linked by a high horizontal stabilizer. Unlike on the A500, the A700's two engines were mounted on the sides of the fuselage, in a non-centerline thrust arrangement, eliminating one of the design advantages of the A500 configuration.

In order to balance the twin rear-mounted engines properly, the forward fuselage was lengthened by 4 feet. In the A500, the front engine is balanced by the rear engine and empennage. In the A700, the longer front fuselage balances the rear engines and empennage.

title: Adam A700


text:
Shiozawa, Niigata

Shiozawa (塩沢町) was a town located in Minamiuonuma District, Niigata Prefecture, Japan.

As of 2003, the town had an estimated population of 20,142 and a density of 105.94 persons per km2. The total area was 190.12 km2.

On October 1, 2005, Shiozawa was merged into the expanded city of Minamiuonuma.

title: Shiozawa, Niigata


text:
Muikamachi, Niigata

Muikamachi (六日町) was a town located in Minamiuonuma District, Niigata Prefecture, Japan.

As of 2003, the town had an estimated population of 28,687 and a density of 108.75 persons per km2. The total area was 263.79 km2.

Muikamachi was a popular destination for skiers.

On November 1, 2004, Muikamachi, along with the town of Yamato (also from Minamiuonuma District), was merged to create the city of Minamiuonuma.

title: Muikamachi, Niigata


text:
Galway Races

The Galway Races (Irish: Rásaí na Gaillimhe) is an Irish horse-racing festival that starts on the last Monday of July every year. Held at Ballybrit Racecourse in Galway, Ireland over seven days, it is one of the longest of all the race meets that occur in Ireland.

The busiest days of the festival are Wednesday, when the Galway Plate is held, and Thursday, when the Galway Hurdle and Ladies' Day take place.

Festival history
The first racing festival held in Ballybrit was a two-day event with the first race meeting on Tuesday, 17 August 1869. The summer festival was extended to a 3-day meeting in 1959, 4 days in 1971, 5 days in 1974, 6 days in 1982 and, most recently to, 7 days in 1999. The summer festival is the highlight of the business year for most local businesses as crowds and horses flock from all over the world to attend one of the world's biggest race meetings.

The pub underneath the Corrib Stand, built in 1955, was for many years the longest bar in the world. It was replaced by the Millennium Stand which opened in 1999. The Killanin Stand opened in 2007 replacing the old Corrib (west) Stand.

On the 4th day of the Galway races there was a race meeting held in Tuam. The last race meeting held at Tuam racecourse was in 1973.

Additional race meetings also take place in September and October, but these are not as popular as the summer festival, which draws more than 150,000 spectators.

On 21 April 2020, the Galway Race Committee announced that the 2020 summer festival—scheduled for 27 July to 2 August—was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic and would be held behind closed doors for the first time since 1869.

The 2021 festival was held with a maximum of 1,000 people allowed to attend each day.

The festival returned to full capacity in 2022 with over 130,000 people expected to attend over the week.

In culture
The Galway Races are the subject of At Galway Races, a poem by W. B. Yeats. They are also the subject of an eponymous folk song, popularized by The Clancy Brothers, The Chieftains, and The Dubliners. The Celtic rock band, JSD Band played it on their album, Travelling Days. The song also appears on The Kreellers 2008 release, Sixth and Porter. Further, it constitutes the last third of the track Medley on the 1988 album If I Should Fall from Grace with God by The Pogues (the two first parts being The Recruiting Sergeant and an instrumental version of Rocky Road to Dublin).

In 2009, TG4 broadcast a comedy TV series, Rásaí na Gaillimhe, that unfolds during Galway Race Week.

title: Galway Races


text:
Wonder Girl

Wonder Girl is the alias of multiple superheroines featured in comic books published by DC Comics. Donna Troy, the original Wonder Girl, was created by Bob Haney and Bruno Premiani and first appeared in The Brave and the Bold #60 (June/July 1965). The second Wonder Girl, Cassie Sandsmark, was created by John Byrne and first appeared in Wonder Woman (vol. 2) #105 (January 1996). Both are protégées of Wonder Woman and members of different incarnations of the Teen Titans. The alias has also been used in reference to a younger version of Wonder Woman as a teenager. In the 2020s, DC introduced a third Wonder Girl in Yara Flor, who hails from a Brazilian tribe of Amazons and was shown in a flashforward to one day succeed Diana as Wonder Woman.

An original version of Wonder Girl named Drusilla appeared in the Wonder Woman television series, played by Debra Winger. Donna Troy makes her live adaptation debut in the DC Universe series Titans, played by Conor Leslie.

Diana
A teen-aged Princess Diana of the Amazons first appeared in a backstory in Wonder Woman #23 (May/June 1947), written by William Moulton Marston and designed by H.G. Peter.

Wonder Girl first appeared in The Secret Origin of Wonder Woman, written and edited by Robert Kanigher, in Wonder Woman #105 (April 1959). In this revised Silver Age origin, it is established that Diana had in fact not been created from clay, but had been born before the Amazons settled on Paradise Island. Following this issue were several Wonder Girl adventures, and years later an additional character, Wonder Tot—Wonder Woman as a toddler—was also featured. Kanigher restored the character's made-from-clay origin in 1966.

From Wonder Woman #124 (August 1961) onward, Wonder Woman, Wonder Girl, and Wonder Tot frequently appeared together in stories that were labeled "impossible tales", presented as films made by Wonder Woman's mother, Queen Hippolyta, who had the power to splice together films of herself and Diana at different ages. The characters of Wonder Girl and Wonder Woman then began to diverge, as Bob Haney wrote Wonder Girl stories that took place in the same time period as those of Wonder Woman.

The last significant appearance of Wonder Woman as a child Wonder Girl was in November 1965. In the tongue-in-cheek Wonder Woman #158, Kanigher broke the fourth wall by having Wonder Girl and the rest of the supporting cast he had created (Wonder Tot, the Glop, Bird-Boy, Mer-Boy, Birdman, and Manno) come to the office of a "certain" editor. Protested by fans for ruining the character, Kanigher tells Wonder Girl that he does love her, along with all of his other daughters, such as Black Canary, Star Sapphire, and the Harlequin. Even so, with mounting pressure, he has no choice but to declare her retconned. Wonder Girl stoically accepts her fate as she and the others turn into drawings on Kanigher's desk. Soon after, Wonder Woman enters and is shocked to see her younger self "killed".

Regardless, Diana as a child Wonder Girl was never completely rejected. Reprints of Wonder Girl stories were occasionally included in the comic book. In issue #200, Wonder Woman, in her Diana Prince identity, is shown walking past children at play whereon she flashes back to when she was a fourteen-year-old Wonder Girl with a crush on Mer-Boy.

Donna Troy
While the characters of Wonder Girl and Wonder Woman were diverging, Haney was developing a new group of junior superheroes, whose first informal appearance featured a team-up of Robin (Dick Grayson), Kid Flash (Wally West), and Aqualad (Garth). During their next appearance in The Brave and the Bold #60 (July 1965), they were dubbed the Teen Titans and joined by Wonder Girl, pictured in the same frame as Wonder Woman and calling Hippolyta "mother".

Wonder Girl and the other Teen Titans were then featured in Showcase #59 (December 1965) before being spun off into their own series with Teen Titans #1 (February 1966). With the character called only Wonder Girl, or "Wonder Chick" by her teammates, her status as either the younger Wonder Woman displaced in the timeline or another character altogether is not explained until Teen Titans #22 (August 1969). In a story by Marv Wolfman and Gil Kane it is established that Wonder Girl is a non-Amazon orphan, rescued by Wonder Woman from an apartment building fire. Unable to find any parents or family, Wonder Woman brings the child to Paradise Island, where she is eventually given Amazon powers by the Purple Ray. The story ends with Wonder Girl wearing a new costume and hairstyle, adopting the secret identity Donna Troy.

Multiple origins
As special event comics like the Crisis on Infinite Earths and Infinite Crisis miniseries have rewritten character histories, the origin of Donna Troy has been revised several times. In brief, those origins are as follows:

 * 1) Rescued orphan: Donna Troy was rescued from an apartment building fire by Wonder Woman, who took her to Paradise Island to be raised as an Amazon by Queen Hippolyta.
 * 2) Titan Seed: The Titan Rhea had rescued a young Donna from a fire, adding her to a group of 12 orphans from around the universe who had been raised on New Cronus by these Titans as "Titan Seeds", their eventual saviors. The Seeds had been given superhuman powers and named after ancient Greek cities. Called "Troy", Donna (like the others) had eventually been stripped of her memories of her time with the Titans of Myth, and reintroduced into humankind to await her destiny. In this version, Donna was not an Amazon and had no connection to Wonder Woman.
 * 3) Infinite Lives of Donna Troy: In a revision that incorporated the Titan Seed continuity while reattaching Donna Troy to Wonder Woman, it is revealed that the Amazon sorceress Magala had animated a mirror image of young Princess Diana to create for her a mystical, "identical twin" playmate. This twin is soon mistaken for Diana and kidnapped by Dark Angel (revealed in the Return of Donna Troy mini-series to be the Donna Troy of Earth 7). Dark Angel disperses the girl's spirit across the multiverse, condemning her to live multiple lives, each one cut short by the Dark Angel at a moment of tragedy. In at least one of these variant lives, Donna would become a superhero and encounter her grown sister, now Wonder Woman, and their mother Queen Hippolyta, without realizing who she really was or how she was related to them. After that timeline ends with the death of Donna's son, Diana and Hippolyta intervene to find what happened to Donna. Donna finally defeats Dark Angel, destroying the evil entity and regaining her original Amazon powers. She returns to reality to continue her life from that point.
 * 4) Pre Flashpoint version: Wonder Woman (vol. 3) Annual #1 gives Donna a new origin that combines elements of her three variant origins. Donna was born as Princess Diana's mystic twin through the help of Amazon sorceress Magala. Months later, an old enemy of Queen Hippolyta, called Dark Angel, kidnapped Donna thinking she was Diana. Donna was placed in suspended animation by Dark Angel for years but was eventually rescued and returned to the Amazons' home, where she received training from both the Amazons and the Titans of Myth and was raised as Queen Hippolyta's second daughter. Years later, she followed Wonder Woman into the outside world as Wonder Girl and helped form the Teen Titans.
 * 5) New 52/Rebirth: Donna was created out of clay as part of a plan to destroy Wonder Woman. The Amazons later gave her false memories of being an orphan rescued by Wonder Woman allowing her to live a normal life.

Cassandra Sandsmark
Cassie Sandsmark is the granddaughter of Zeus. She has been a member of both Young Justice and the Teen Titans. Initially, her powers were derived from ancient Greek magical artifacts. Later, Zeus granted her the boon of actual powers. Her powers are similar to Wonder Woman's, though she carries a lasso that expels Zeus's lightning, which was given to her by her father, Ares, the Greek god of war. When the Greek gods left the mortal plane during Infinite Crisis, Zeus stripped Cassie of her powers. However, she was granted powers by Ares in exchange for becoming his champion.

After Superboy's death, she quit the Titans for a time to be an independent vigilante. She was mourning the loss of her lover, Superboy, and bitter from the abandonment by Robin and Wonder Woman over the following year. She later rejoined the group after a battle with the Brotherhood of Evil and the return of Cyborg. She is close friends with fellow hero Supergirl. She later didn't need anyone to empower her as she grew stronger herself.

Yara Flor
Yara Flor is the daughter of an Amazon and a Brazilian river god, who becomes the defender of the Esquecida Amazon tribe. The character debuted in January 2021 as part of DC Comic's "Future State" storyline, in which she is shown to be the Wonder Woman of the future. In the present day DC Comics narrative, Yara is introduced as part of the Infinite Frontier publishing event. She is unaware of her Amazon heritage, but, responding to a prophecy, the Olympian Gods and the Amazons of Themiscyra, Bana-Mighdall, and a third tribe in the Amazon rainforest separately begin to converge on her location as she makes a trip from the US to Brazil, the country of her birth. Queen Hippolyta sends Wonder Girl Cassie Sandsmark to protect Yara, where she encounters Artemis of Bana-Mighdall.

As an Amazon-Guarani demigoddess, Yara inherits abilities the average Amazon does not. Yara has superhuman strength, speed, reflexes, durability, agility and senses. Yara also has the ability of hydrokinesis (manipulating water), which she discovers after she gets her golden bolas. Yara also rides a white winged horse from Olympus named Jerry.

According to the character's creator, Joëlle Jones, Yara's appearance was inspired by the Brazilian model Suyane Moreira.

Tiny Titans
Both Donna and Cassie have a recurring roles in the Tiny Titans comic by Art Baltazar and Franco Aureliani. The two are depicted as cousins, with the Wonder Girl alias given to Donna and Cassie being referred to by her first name.

Superman & Batman: Generations
In Superman & Batman: Generations #2, Wonder Girl first appears in 1953 as a "mystic projection" to take Wonder Woman's place while Diana gives birth. She finds a wounded Steve Trevor and takes him back to Paradise Island, but despite being subjected to the Purple Power Ray, he dies of his wounds, leaving Diana to raise their daughter, Stephanie, alone.

In 1964, Stephanie (or "Stevie") decides to go out on her own as Wonder Girl. She shares a link with Supergirl (Kara Kent), as they were born at the same time. Years later, she becomes the new Wonder Woman. Her outfit is pretty much the same as her mother's, except that she does not possess either the tiara or the Magic Lasso of Aphrodite, instead possessing the winged sandals of Hermes. She also wears a mask. When she becomes the new Wonder Woman, she adds a cape to the ensemble. In Superman & Batman: Generations #3, she is killed by Darkseid.

Earth-2
Another version of Donna exists in the New 52 on the alternate Earth-2. In Earth-2: Society, the character, Fury, reveals her name is Donna. This character is the daughter of the late Earth-2 Wonder Woman and the New God, Steppenwolf. This is the first time Fury is used as a doppelganger of Donna Troy and not just an analogue.

DC Comics Bombshells
In the DC Comics Bombshells universe, Wonder Girl is not a single person, but rather a team of young Asian-American girls who are empowered by the mystical artifacts formerly used by Wonder Woman. The Wonder Girls consist of Donna Troy (a Nisei Japanese-American), Cassie Sandsmark (a mixed-race girl of partial Japanese heritage), Yuki and Yuri Katsura, and Emily Sung.

Animation

 * The Donna Troy incarnation of Wonder Girl appears in the "Teen Titans" segment of The Superman/Aquaman Hour of Adventure, voiced by Julie Bennett.
 * The Donna Troy incarnation of Wonder Girl appears in the "New Teen Titans Say No to Drugs" public service announcement, produced by Hanna-Barbera.
 * An unnamed girl resembling Donna Troy makes non-speaking appearances in the fifth season of Teen Titans.
 * The Donna Troy incarnation of Wonder Girl appears in DC Nation Shorts, voiced by Grey DeLisle.
 * The Cassie Sandsmark incarnation of Wonder Girl and Donna Troy / Troia appear in Young Justice, voiced by Mae Whitman and again by Grey DeLisle respectively.
 * The Donna Troy incarnation of Wonder Girl appears in the Teen Titans Go! (2013) episode "The Bergerac", voiced by Hynden Walch.

Live-action

 * An original incarnation of Wonder Girl named Drusilla appears in Wonder Woman, portrayed by Debra Winger. This version is an Amazon and younger sister of Wonder Woman. In the two-part episode "The Feminum Mystique", Hippolyta sends her to bring Wonder Woman back to Paradise Island to resume her duties as princess, but Drusilla inadvertently becomes involved in a Nazi plot to discover the secret of Wonder Woman's magical bracelets and her transformation capability. Drusilla adopts the alias of Wonder Girl to combat them, but Nazi forces believe her to be Wonder Woman and capture her. Nonetheless, Drusilla breaks free and joins forces with Wonder Woman to foil the Nazis. In the episode "Wonder Woman in Hollywood", Drusilla joins forces with Wonder Woman to stop the Nazis from kidnapping American soldiers and forcing them to take part in a Nazi propaganda film. Following her appearances, a Wonder Girl spin-off series was put into development until Winger broke her contract and left the main series.
 * The Donna Troy incarnation of Wonder Girl appears in Titans, portrayed by Conor Leslie.
 * The CW, Greg Berlanti, and Dailyn Rodriguez intended to develop a Wonder Girl TV series focusing on Yara Flor, but The CW later decided not to move forward with the series as of February 2021.

Film

 * The Donna Troy incarnation of Wonder Girl makes a non-speaking cameo appearance in the epilogue of Justice League: The New Frontier.
 * An evil, alternate universe incarnation of Wonder Girl named Olympia appears in Justice League: Crisis on Two Earths as a minor member of the Crime Syndicate.
 * Cassie Sandsmark makes a non-speaking cameo appearance in Justice League: Throne of Atlantis.
 * The Young Justice incarnation of Cassie Sandsmark makes a non-speaking cameo appearance in Scooby-Doo! WrestleMania Mystery.
 * The Donna Troy incarnation of Wonder Girl makes a non-speaking cameo appearance in the ending of Teen Titans: The Judas Contract.
 * The Donna Troy incarnation of Wonder Girl makes a non-speaking cameo appearance in Teen Titans Go! To the Movies.
 * The Donna Troy incarnation of Wonder Girl makes a non-speaking cameo appearance in Justice League Dark: Apokolips War.
 * The Cassie Sandsmark incarnation of Wonder Girl appears in Batman and Superman: Battle of the Super Sons, voiced by Myrna Velasco.

Video games

 * The Donna Troy incarnation of Wonder Girl appears in DC Universe Online, voiced by Deena Hyatt.
 * The Cassie Sandsmark incarnation of Wonder Girl appears in Young Justice: Legacy, voiced again by Mae Whitman.
 * The Cassie Sandsmark incarnation of Wonder Girl appears in Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham, voiced by Kari Wahlgren.
 * The Cassie Sandsmark incarnation of Wonder Girl makes a cameo appearance in Cyborg's ending in Injustice 2.
 * The Cassie Sandsmark incarnation of Wonder Girl appears as a playable character in DC Legends.
 * Donna Troy and Cassie Sandsmark both appear as playable characters in Lego DC Super-Villains.

Miscellaneous

 * The Donna Troy incarnation of Wonder Girl and Cassie Sandsmark appear in Teen Titans Go! (2004).
 * The Cassie Sandsmark incarnation of Wonder Girl appears in the Injustice: Gods Among Us and Injustice 2 prequel comics.

title: Wonder Girl