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User talk:Ghitis

SECOND (and LAST) DIALOGUING On FORCE

 * Jacob, it seems that the word "force" is commonly used in two ways. Classically, it is defined as the rate of change of momentum with respect to time. The other is the “Field of Force.”

I posit that force is the use of Energy (kinesis or “energus,” as I call it) to perform an action. This is the opportunity to say that I do not like the definition of Energy as “…that which can do work, and work is moving an object from A to B…” I say that Energy is what can perform an action. Thus, force is the application of energy to perform an action. An action follows the Principle Of Least Action, which is the maximal possible economical way that energy acts. When excessive force is applied for a given action, the superfluous energy is dissipated. I posit that force is the “interface” in the transfer or in the transduction of energy from donor to receptor. The transfer or transduction is absolute in chemical processes, but not so in biochemical processes. In these latter reactions, energy may be dissipated. Biochemical processes have developed enzymes to hasten the molecular changes; therefore, I posit that the enzymes are the “interface” equivalent to force in the world of the living. Evolution, therefore, has decreed how “fast” life “acts,” and it appears to be a million times slower compared to the actions of fast physicochemical actions. ACTION should be considered at the relativity level, because since velocity and gravity affect time, then they affect action. But maybe it is the other way around, and the “change in time” is actually “change in action.” This means that the different rate of “physical” and of “live” (biophysical) actions must be taken in consideration when figuring the respective rate of “aging” of a clock versus an austronaut on a space craft. Thus, at a hight of 20,000 km. a watch acts daily at about 50 microsec. faster than on earth; this is significant in specific cases, yet since the fastest biochemical processes are at a possible minimum some 1,000,000 times slower, the austronaut would age about a million times slower than the watch, still a really negligible figure. This is not idle talk, in the light of the importance of the relativity effects on the atomic clocks of Global Positioning Systems (GPS). I am writing this to stress that the manifestation of energy is action, not “work”.
 * Heron, that ”classical definition” of force is practically incomprehensible. I prefer the definition that force is what changes the acceleration or the shape of an object. But still, such definition is just descriptive; it does not truly gives one a sense of depth of understanding.
 * This might be a place to consider the 3d. Law of Motion, which deals with “reaction.” An example for that phenomenon is having yourself (the donor)  pushing a body (the receptor) while floating in a space vehicle. When you do that, you are actually also pushing yourself as an effect of the receptor body’s inertia, so that there you have the simultaneous reaction.   (You may just ride on a children’s swing and push the sitting neighbor.) Well, this "reaction" is actually a reciprocal action, in which mass (inertia) determines the reciprocal effects.  If yours  and the receptor’s mass are identical, half of the energy applied by the force (pushing) is equally divided.
 * More recently, force has been defined as one of the four interactions - electromagnetism, gravity, weak and strong nuclear interactions. Note that Wikipedia's article on these "forces" is entitled "Fundamental interaction" and not "Fundamental force". This choice of title wisely avoids the confusion between the two uses of the word "force".

As for the Fields of Force: They are the electric and the magnetic; the gravitational field is being is still being debated. These fields have no force in themselves and only act as intermediates, “interfaces,” to allow kinesis (which I deem as being ENERGY, so that I will call it "energus" for the purpose of our dialogue). Kinesis is associated with given electrons, and is transduced (transferred and also changed into a different class of kinesis --i.e., energy, energus) -- to other electrons. When these latter electrons are the specific ones in a conducting metal, the kinesis -energus- is now electric energy (which I call "kinetric"). This effect is obtained when the kinetic energy (not so felicitously named “mechanical”) from a turbine causes the specific, mobile, electrons of a wire coil to disturb the magnetic field of force of the generator: the kinesis is now transduced to them, and they now run with nearly the same kinesis, but now this kinesis will cause an action at specific sites of their route along a wire. Kinetric can act, as all energy does, only when there is partial opposition (resistance) to its undisturbed flow. These disturbers are called “load.”
 * You refer to nuclear forces, which should not create confusion, but still, it is a welcome choice.
 * Yes, Jacob, I understand the distinction between a force and a field of force. The latter is something that, as far as I know, can only be defined by listing its properties, such as its ability to cause the former (mechanical force). Nobody knows what these fields are "made of". I also agree that an electric current, at least in a metal, is a combination of electric charge (held in a material you call electrus) and kinetic energy.

--- Ghitis 15:57, Sep 5, 2004 (UTC)
 * Less known is that an electric field moving in a differnet electric field spawns a magnetic field. This phenomenon is being exploited to make Magnetic RAM, memory that remains after the electric current ceases. But what I wished to stress is the role of fields of force in the transduction of energus (kinesis). Going on into Philosophy of Physics, there appears that motion, the essence of energy, truly is a “disturbance” of the fields of force. I wonder if what is written in Genesis about “…spirit of God moving upon the waters…” should not be interpreted as rather indicating that the spirit’s movement was the actual creator.

First Dialogue on  ELECTRIC WIRING FROM POWER STATION TO CONSUMER

Jacob, the transmission line [from the substation] is a pair of wires, live and neutral. The substation, transmission line and load (the appliances of the consumer) together form a circuit.

 * Heron, to speak of a circuit I need to know how the power lines leave the substation and how they return to it. I think in terms of a simple generator (a dynamo). When a house is constructed, how is the procedure to provide it with electrical current: What steps, one by one, are taken, by whom and what for, in detail, from the transformer on the street, to the house, and back to the transformer. This is asking a lot, but it is essential; no more questions for now. -- Ghitis 09:22, Aug 18, 2004 (UTC)

Second Dialogue on ELECTRIC WIRING

Jacob,...the diagram I drew for you on the Reference Desk page… was a circuit...
 * NOTE for the onlooker: This is a slow ongoing process with deletions and corrections until the whole task is complete.

 * Heron, may I say that all the circuits should be defined: Primary, at the generator level: where is out (only the two wires that carry to the up-transformer, with no phases yet), and where is return to the generator.Ghitis 16:14, Aug 20, 2004 (UTC)

OK, let's stick with the case of a single phase (although I don't know if single-phase transmission lines are actually used). We can widen it to three phases later. The first circuit consists of the winding of a generator linked by two wires to the primary winding of a step-up transformer (tens or hundreds of metres away). The second circuit consists of the secondary winding of a step-up transformer linked by two very long wires (the long-distance transmission line, perhaps hundreds of kilometres long) to the primary winding of a step-down substation transformer. The third circuit consists of the secondary winding of the substation transformer connected by two medium-length wires (perhaps a few tens or hundreds of metres) to the customer's premises, where numerous loads may be connected in parallel. There may also be several customers on the same local line, all connected in parallel with each other. Like this:

(-)||(-)||(-++---...  ||||(         |    |  G( (1) )||( long-distance transmission line )||(   (3)  [L1] [L2]   ||(              (2)                )||(         |    | (-)||(-)||(--+--++---...        SUT                                  SDT   |                                                    |                                                    V                                                  Earth
 * Key: G = generator winding
 * SUT = step-up transformer (near generator)
 * SDT = step-down transformer (near customers)
 * L1,L2 = customers' loads
 * 1,2,3 = first (low-voltage), second (high-voltage), third (low-voltage) circuits

Each of the three circuits has a source, a load and two wires between them. There is no distinction between "out" and "return", since the current is alternating. :--Heron 20:17, 20 Aug 2004 (UTC) ...I hope we can agree on that basic point. There is a continuous loop of wire from the top of the generator, along the live wire to the consumer's premises, through all the consumer's appliances to the neutral wire, and back along the neutral wire to the bottom of the generator. The current then goes through more wires inside the generator, back to where we started, and begins its next journey around the circuit. Let me know if you are happy with this description, and then I will move on to the next point. I think we need to take this slowly to avoid any misunderstandings. Electronic communication has its limitations, and teaching by Wiki is a slow process. -- Heron 08:24, 20

 * Heron, not so clear: 1. Since the current is carried by both wires half of the time, the load gets the energus from both wires, and the consumer pays as he does for water, just what is consumed. But it appears that a lot of energus is lost by the wire connected to earth for "safety reasons."! Where does this wiring occur? 2. What are all the other connections that "ground" the wiring? -- Ghitis 17:37, Sep 7, 2004 (UTC)

-- 1. Jacob, it is not true to say that the current is carried by both wires half the time. In fact it is carried by both wires all the time. The current I in the circuit is a sinusoidal function of time t -
 * $$I(t) = I_p\sin\left( 2\pi ft\right)$$

(where Ip is the amplitude of the current and f is its frequency), and is the same at every point around the circuit (except perhaps in the generator winding where things might be more complicated, but we can ignore this). As you can see from the equation, the current is sometimes positive, sometimes negative, and sometimes zero, but is always the same at every point in the circuit. This is because there are no delay elements (inductors or capacitors) in the circuit which could change the phase of the current.

Incidentally, we can also express the load voltage and power as follows. By Ohm's law, the voltage V across the load R is:
 * $$V(t) = I_p R \sin\left( 2\pi ft\right)$$.

The power P in the load is
 * $$P(t) = I(t)V(t)$$

which is another sinusoidal function, but with frequency 2f.

I have added the earth connection to my earlier diagram above. You will see that, since there is only one earth wire, there is no path for current to flow through the ground. Since there is no current through the ground, no power is lost there.

2. Ideally, there are no other earth connections. However, in reality, because the earth has a non-zero resistance, there are often multiple earth points for extra safety. This has the effect of sending some currents through the ground and, you are right, some power is wasted because of this, but only a tiny fraction of the power supplied to the load. --Heron 20:21, 7 Sep 2004 (UTC) Let's start with the meaning of "alternating current". Imagine a loop of copper wire. You move a magnet repeatedly backwards and forwards near the wire at one side of the loop, to simulate what happens inside the generator. As the magnet moves in one direction, it causes a pulse of current to flow in the loop - say clockwise. When the magnet stops moving for an instant, the current stops flowing for an instant. When the magnet then moves in the opposite direction, it causes the current to flow in the opposite direction - this time anticlockwise. This is what is meant by alternating current. If you draw a graph of current against time, it looks like this: current ^   |     *               *  + |   *   *           *   *    |  *     *         *     *         *    +-*---*---*---*-> time |         *     *         *     *  - |           *   *           *   *    |             *               * (Positive current corresponds to clockwise in our example, and negative current to anticlockwise.) It doesn't matter where you measure the current in the loop - you always get the same pattern. Now, imagine that you squash the loop into a very long, thin rectangle. You now have two parallel wires (call them AB and CD) joined by short links (AD and BC) at each end, as in the following diagram. A ++ B  |                                    | D ++ C This is an electrical circuit, resembling a power transmission line. If you now repeat the experiment, moving the magnet around near the short piece of wire called AD, the current will alternate as before. This time, however, when the current flows clockwise, it will flow from left to right in wire AB, and from right to left in CD. The reverse is true when the current flows anticlockwise. So, apart from the instant when the current stops as it changes direction, there is always a current flowing in both wires, because they are really just two sections of the same loop. (Note: in a mains power transmission system, the section BC would not be a simple piece of wire, as this would cause a short circuit and blow a fuse. But it serves to illustrate my explanation.) --Heron 20:05, 8 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Heron, this time I got the message sign
 * Positive and negative here are confusing, like positive and negative voltages.
 * Please describe a transmission line.
 * Then in a generator only the end of the coil is under the magnet? In the core, does the coil of copper, isolated by a cover of some material, return to the beginning of the core and go out together with the initiating tip as the two constituents of the transmission line?
 * Ok, the current is flowing, in alternating directions; this is of course true in the two components of the coil, but what about the transmission lines?
 * I disregard this paragraph in the meantime. -- Ghitis 07:22, Sep 9, 2004 (UTC) edit

The complete generator-transmission line-load circuit is like this:

+--+   |__        |                                +--+  _____)       |      Live                      |      | (_____        ++    +---+ _____)             Neutral                        | L | (_____        ++    +---+ _____)      |                                |      | (__G          |                                +--+ |         |    +--+

<- Power > <--- Transmission > <- Customer's -> Station or           Line or                   Premises Generator            Cable

L = load G = generator winding

The whole thing is a single circuit. If you wanted to, you could build the whole circuit out of one continuous loop of copper wire. In practice, there are lots of pieces of wire joined together by plugs and sockets, nuts and bolts, and solder. Notice that I have omitted the step-up and step-down transformers from this example. This is a simple, low-voltage mains supply arrangement that you might get from a portable, single-phase diesel-powered generator. In this case, what I have marked as "transmission line" would just be a length of flex from the generator to the load.

The generator winding is exposed to a rotating magnetic field, which causes the alternating current to flow. I have drawn the coil as a serpentine line, but I did not have space to draw the core, which is just a lump of iron around which the coil is wound. A real coil is a three-dimensional shape, but is topologically equivalent to what I have drawn here.

The transmission line is a pair of wires that could be slung from pylons, buried in the ground, or just wrapped in plastic and made into a cable. At this stage we can ignore the earth connection, which is a safety feature that is not present in all installations.

What I said before about the trivial ABCD circuit still applies to the new circuit that I have just drawn. --Heron 08:30, 9 Sep 2004 (UTC) Not all kinetrics is dissipated into heat: there is some transduction to the steps required to synthesize ozone. Now, is the copper coil wound around, or along the core of the generator? I am still waiting for the "earth" connections. -- Ghitis 00:40, Sep 10, 2004 (UTC)
 * Heron, I actually realized soon after writing the previous, that as you had stressed, kinetric is flowing in both directions simultaneously! thus, although alternating, it uses the wire to transport the kinesis that is transduced at the magnetic field, so that electrons are truly just carriers. Not so in DC in wire or in clouds of water or dust, where friction is the generator of the static field. The electrons move fast to the place where they are lacking, that is, go to positive ions. The resulting electric energy (kinetric) is the energus that the electrons had received from the transducer, the wind that caused the friction. That straight-forward kinetic energy was transduced into ionic potential energy, which is seen as an electric field betwen the + and - ions. But the field is a field of force, which will transduce into kinetric the potential energy of the electrons. The field decreases with each electron traversing it. The electrons will move very fast, because they are really "interested"! In lightning, the flow of electrons is along a bad conducting medium, so that there is intense heating, with resultant incandescence and blast along the electric field "chosen" by the electrons from several alternatives, if available, according to the principle of least action. Thus, I'm not convinced that there is a "discharge," an "arc of energy" jumping. Just the first heating of the air allowing for sufficient ionization to transport electrons, and the self-feeding process starts for lightning to proceed.
 * Heron, I'm thinking that there is no such a thing as a "circuit" except for the group of loads that share the same fuse, for convenience, especially when the refrigerator should not suffer because of a faulty bulb connection along the 'circuit.' You dislike the term 'current,' which is really a one-way path, like from a river to the sea, because the evaporation and subsequent clouds and rain are not part of a circuit.  Ghitis 11:13, Sep 12, 2004 (UTC)
 * There must be a continuous flow (current) in order to renew the electrons or electricons carrying the kinetric. This happens along the two wires connected to the load, say, the bulb. Yet I cannot envision how this energus comes from, if the two wires entering the premises just bring the current from the transformer. I am beginning to think that the wire to earth from the wire that will be called neutral, actually allows for current to flow, by using earth as the "sea" to which the current (electricons, electrons) flows, thus allowing for new one to arrive from the transformer. This means that the generator must have also a connection to earth. Generators that have no connection to earth, i.e., dynamos, have an interconnection between "out" and "in." The danger of not connecting one of the wires (the "neutral") derives, as I see it, from unwittingly becoming the "sea" to which the current flows. Thus, there IS a circuit in AC generation. Not so in DC, because the kinetrics flows for a short time, until all the electrons have moved to corresponding ions. -- Ghitis 07:51, Sep 13, 2004 (UTC)

No, Jacob, it doesn't work like that. Unless there is a fault, no current flows in the earth wire. The current flows round and round in the loop formed by the live and neutral wires (which are connected together at one end by the generator, and at the other end by the load, if there is one). With 50 hertz AC, the current flows round and round in one direction for ten milliseconds, then reverses and flows round and round in the opposite direction for another ten milliseconds, and so on. The electrons spend their whole lives trapped inside that circuit, just moving backwards and forwards. If you break the loop by disconnecting all the loads on that circuit, then no current flows anywhere. Forget about the earth: it does not contribute to the transfer of energy from producer to consumer, regardless of whether the circuit is open or closed. The electrons, or whatever you call the charge carriers, do work in the load by pushing against its resistance. Once they have done their work, they carry on round the circuit, but are never created or destroyed, replenished or depleted. --Heron 09:08, 13 Sep 2004 (UTC) Otherwise, I consider our dialogue on this subject as closed, to my satisfaction, thank you. -- Ghitis 19:02, Sep 13, 2004 (UTC)
 * OK, agreed: The only point to clarify is, how is the other line converted into a "neutral" or "cold" one by grounding it, and still be a conducting wire.

To answer your last point, let me refer back to the ABCD diagram I drew earlier. Replace the short segment AD with a 1-volt battery, and the short segment BC with a 1-ohm load. A current of 1 volt / 1 ohm = 1 ampere will flow. If the positive terminal of the battery is at the top, the conventional current will flow clockwise. The battery causes wire AB to be positive with respect to wire CD by a difference of one volt.

Notice that we have not specified the voltage of either wire with respect to ground. These voltages are unknown, and are irrelevant to the behaviour of the circuit ABCD. It is possible that wire CD is at ground potential, and then wire AB will be one volt above ground potential. It is equally possible that wire CD is one million volts above ground potential, which would make wire AB one million and one volts above ground potential. Whichever is the case, the current around the circuit and through the load will still be one ampere.

So far I have described only direct current. For alternating current, just image that you periodically reverse the battery connections. When the battery is the other way round, the current will be anticlockwise and the voltage across the load will have the opposite polarity.

Now, imagine that you connect wire CD to ground. This will cause the wire to be at ground potential, as in the first of the two possibilities I considered above. With the battery in its first position, wire AB will then be one volt above ground potential. With the battery reversed, wire AB will be one volt below ground potential. So, you now have alternating current with one wire earthed. The one ampere of current in the circuit continues to flow through the load, in alternating directions, and none of it flows to earth. CD is now the neutral wire, and AB the live wire. The current in CD is the same current that is in AB, because both wires are part of the same circuit, even though wire CD is earthed. --Heron 15:55, 18 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Sorry, but I cannot follow. In the mean time, could you explain the principle of the AC tester? How can it light up withouth the "circuit" being "closed"? I think I know the principle, and also the "secret" of the "neutral," but I do not dare expose it yet. Ghitis 10:13, Sep 19, 2004 (UTC)

By "AC tester", do you mean a screwdriver with a neon bulb in the handle? If so, that is a neon lamp, which does close the circuit, causing a small current (a milliampere or so) to flow. --Heron 17:21, 19 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Yes, but how is the "circuit" closed? Why should a current flow? From where? How is it closed? What is the principle? IT IS called Tester. -- Ghitis 12:27, Sep 20, 2004 (UTC)

Sorry. I wasn't clear about which circuit I was talking about. Here is a diagram.

B   A +-+---+ T      |                         |       | |                       +-+      |      ~                        |L|     -+- |                       +-+      N      |                         |      -+- D +-+ C    | |                               +-+      |                                |R| |                               +-+      |                                 |      |                                +-+      |                                |H| |                               +-+      |            Earth                | ...+.................................+...     V                                 U There are two circuits. The first is ABCD, consisting of a generator and a load. The second is ABTUVD.

T is the tip of the mains tester. N is the neon bulb inside the tester. (There is also a resistor R inside the tester, to reduce the amount of current that flows through you.) H is the human being, who acts as another resistor. U is the point at which the human being is earthed, usually his feet. The dotted line is the earth, which acts as another resistor allowing a small current to flow from U to V. V is the point at which the supply company's neutral wire is earthed (by the link DV). If the neon lamp glows, it means that point B is live.

Actually the load L does not need to be present for the tester to work. I just put that in so that you could relate this diagram to the earlier one. Also, the tester is not specific to AC. It would also work with DC.

I suspect that you are now going to ask me why the power company makes the link from D to V. This will take a long time to explain. Can I ask that you read Wikipedia's article about safety earthing - see Ground (electricity) - before asking me? Also, I fear that electricity companies in different parts of the world use different earthing systems, so what I can tell you about electrical safety in damp old Britain might not apply in dry countries. --Heron 12:58, 20 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Heron, thanks for your patience. But... I don't think you agree with the explanations, which seem to be standard, and which I just cannot accept. For instance, I don't accept that there is a "circuit" in a battery (the voltaic thing). I consider that the electrons from the negative run to the positive because there is an attraction. The electrons carry the kinetric equivalent to that which resulted in the separation of the two ionic moities. The kinetric causes heating of the wire and the battery if there is no load in the wire connecting the ions; this load determines the amount of kinetric flowing, which is expended on the electrons of the thing called load. By the same token, the person testing with a tester does not close a "circuit." In fact, his feet are not grounded! I think that the current just flows into the body of the person touching the tester; it is very weak, and it flows with no harm caused, and is converted into heat. I think there is a basic ignorance in this regard. Can you disabuse me? -- Ghitis 16:36, Sep 21, 2004 (UTC)

Because I am an engineer and not a physicist, I use the word "circuit" in a conventional sense. I do not mean a continuous metallic loop: I just mean any path through which a current can flow, or for practical purposes appears to flow. I realise that I am being philosophically lazy, and I can understand why you, a scientist, object to my terminology.

In the case of a battery, anions are chemically attracted to the anode, where they release electrons into the circuit. (That word circuit again. Here, I mean the network of wires and other components that is attached to the battery.)  The electrons travel through the circuit, doing work, eventually arriving back at the battery's cathode where cations are waiting to absorb them. It is the chemistry inside the battery that provides the energy to move the electrons. As you say, that energy, in the form of ions, was put inside the battery by the manufacturer. I agree with you that the inside of the battery is not a "circuit" in the strictest sense, because the electrons that go into the cathode are not the same ones as those that come out of the anode, but it is convenient to think of it as a circuit for the purposes of electrical calculations.

In the case of the mains tester, your feet are indeed grounded. Why do you say they aren't? You may be thinking that the rubber soles of your shoes are insulators, but this is not true: they are not perfectly insulating, and they allow a small current to flow through your body to ground - enough to light up the neon bulb. There really is a circuit here. Try standing on a thick sheet of glass: this is a very good insulator, and will stop the mains tester from working. Or try hovering above the ground in a helicopter - again, the mains tester held in your hand won't work. All the time, I am talking about damp European ground - I doubt that these testers work in sandy deserts. --Heron 20:43, 21 Sep 2004 (UTC)

Israeli Wikipedians
You were listed on the Wikipedians/Israel page as living in or being associated with Israel. As part of the User categorisation project, these lists are being replaced with user categories. If you would like to add yourself to the category that is replacing the page, please visit Category:Israeli Wikipedians for instructions. —Simetrical (talk) 19:03, 6 November 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Ghitis


text:
User talk:Gnrlotto

Nomination of Dingoes Ate My Baby (band) for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether the article Dingoes Ate My Baby (band) is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.

The article will be discussed at Articles for deletion/Dingoes Ate My Baby (band) until a consensus is reached, and anyone is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on high-quality evidence and our policies and guidelines.

Users may edit the article during the discussion, including to improve the article to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the article-for-deletion template from the top of the article. D O N D E groovily  Talk to me  06:52, 16 June 2012 (UTC)

ArbCom elections are now open!
MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 12:48, 23 November 2015 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Gnrlotto


text:
Overwatch (military tactic)

Overwatch is a force protection tactic in modern warfare where one small military unit, vehicle, or aircraft supports another friendly unit while the latter executes fire and movement tactics. The term was coined in U.S. military doctrine in the 1950s.

An overwatching unit typically takes a vantage position (usually a high ground or tall structure with good defilade) where it can observe the terrain far ahead, especially likely enemy positions and movements. This allows it to act as a warning system against hostile aggression and provide effective covering fire for advancing friendly units.

title: Overwatch (military tactic)


text:
Talk:Termination shock

"what does all this stuff mean"- while the best way is for everyone is to draw a conclusion from the facts many people myself included wont understand what any of this stuff means or represents, 1+1=2 has no meaning if you cant in some way relate it to yourself(having one penny and finding another as an example) what does this termination shock do? is it going to annhilate anything that crosses it? is it sonic energy or electromagnetic energy etc, as far as i know theres not enough matter in space to rip a new one like passing the sonic barrier might do on earth.

"supersonic" means faster than "sound", but in astronomy the sound speed is a generic term for one way to calculate particle velocity. In terms of this article the partilces under consideration are the ejecta from the sun. Not very dense, but a medium nonetheless. - Ian

"Supersonic" is a term that only has meaning within a medium, doesn't it? By supersonic, does this article mean the speed at which sound travels in Earth's atmosphere, or some other, cosmic definition? --Golbez 20:22, 9 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * Supersonic == faster than the speed at which sound travels through the solar wind plasma.
 * The problem would seem to be that the term links to an article (supersonic) that doesn't address this cosmic scenario; thus, the use of the term in the article is, by extension, misleading (a scientifically-naive reader, after reading this article and the linked article, would come away assuming the speed at the shock is the speed of sound). Jgm 00:20, 22 August 2005 (UTC)

"The Voyager I spacecraft is believed to have passed termination shock in February 2004." ... and ... "The Voyager I spacecraft is believed to have passed termination shock in December 2004." They can't both be right. -- Cooper (I should really register and all)

 * We welcome all newcomers :) →Raul654 06:18, May 25, 2005 (UTC)
 * Seems like December 2004 . I'll correct the Voyager 1 article now, as it has Feb 2003 as the date, and I'll trust NASA on this. :-) Forget about it, I did no changes as one date was given for "entering", another thing is for "passing". - Jugalator 06:30, May 25, 2005 (UTC)
 * If we believe the Voyager 1 article, its travelling at 3.2AU/year. Exactly how wide is it if it takes this long to pass it? jdh41 10:50, May 25, 2005 (UTC) (needs to register at some stage)
 * I'd say December 2004 - Slashdot Article --jacksonj04 09:12, 25 May 2005 (UTC)
 * Given the way the shock moves back and forth, it's entirely possible that they are both right. Still, someone should check up on it. Maybe I'll do it later, I'm supposed to be at work right now... -- Grey Knight 2005-05-25T10:20:00+01:00

Slashdot
This page has been linked to from Slashdot and is getting a lot of vandalism so I've protected it. I'm going to bed, so if someone else wants to unprotect it later that's fine. CryptoDerk 06:59, May 25, 2005 (UTC)
 * As soon as the article is off the Slashdot front page, it should be relatively safe to unprotect it. I will either do it myself or someone else will come along, but as of current time, the article is still on the front page. Please check this before you unprotect. Inter\Echo 11:10, 25 May 2005 (UTC)

So its the point where the medium (Solar particles) in which the space craft is traveling is itself traveling at less than supersonic speed. There's two questions arising from this:

1. supersonic speed in respect of what? Earth? The spacecraft?
 * Answer: Supersonic means faster than the speed of an Alfvén wave in the local plasma.

2. what is supersonic speed in a solar particles medium? we know at sea level supersonic is greater than 1087 ft/sec, in room temp water its 4724 ft/sec, which means the less dense the medium, the lower the supersonic speed is?
 * Answer: I haven't got the exact figures to hand, but ScienceWorld has a page with the relevant equations. The square of the speed is proportional to the ambient pressure and a quantity called the heat capacity ratio, and inversely proportional to the density. ie: $$v_{sound} = \sqrt{\frac{\gamma p}{\rho}}$$.
 * Alternatively, if you know the temperature T (in Kelvins) and molar mass m, you can compute it as $$v_{sound} = \sqrt{\frac{\gamma R T}{m}}$$, where R is the universal gas constant -- Grey Knight 2005-05-27

please make a link to de:Termination Shock, thx --84.153.168.84 13:56, 25 May 2005 (UTC)

Bow shock vs. Termination shock
I'm posting this in both talk pages because there must be a problem. Both articles mention that their "shock" is the boundery where the solar wind particles slow from supersonic to subsonic speed. Now they can't both be right so at least one of them must be corrected. I am no expert on this so I'll let the experts fix it. 32.97.110.142 13:51, 27 September 2005 (UTC)

Busted link
"Evidence" |Evidence seems to be 404'ed. teh TK 00:32, 25 February 2006 (UTC)

Link to google video of precussion solo
Impressive though it is, I really don't think that the link is relevant to this article - I've removed the Trivia section.

ahpook 14:25, 18 June 2006 (UTC)

percussion solo is not relevant
The Andrew Denis percussion solo is not relevant and not particularly notable (since it is not yet commercially released). If Andrew Denis is a notable musician, he should have his own page, and the solo could be discussed there. zowie 16:58, 19 July 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Termination shock


text:
User talk:Collins7

— Ilγαηερ   (Tαlκ)  20:22, 9 Aug 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Collins7


text: User talk:65.213.114.8

title: User talk:65.213.114.8


text:
Sprinter (cycling)

A sprinter is a road bicycle racer or track racer who can finish a race very explosively by accelerating quickly to a high speed, often using the slipstream of another cyclist or group of cyclists tactically to conserve energy.

Apart from using sprinting as a racing tactic, sprinters can also compete for intermediate sprints (sometimes called primes), often to provide additional excitement in cities along the route of a race. In stage races, intermediate sprints and final stage placings may be combined in a points classification. For example, in the points classification in the Tour de France, the maillot vert (green jersey) is won by the race's most consistent sprinter. At the Tour de France, the most successful recipient of this honor is Slovak sprinter Peter Sagan, who has won seven Tour de France green jerseys (2012–2016, 2018–2019).

The road sprinter
Sprinters have a higher ratio of fast-twitch muscle fibers than non-sprinters. Road cycling sprinters sometimes tend to have a larger build than the average road racing cyclist, combining the strength of their legs with their upper body to produce a short burst of speed necessary in a closely contested finish. Some sprinters have a high top speed but may take a longer distance to achieve it, while others can produce short and sharp accelerations. Aerodynamics plays a key role in sprints.

A sprinter is usually heavier, limiting their speed advantage to relatively flat sections. It is therefore not uncommon for sprinters to be dropped by the peloton (also known as the 'bunch' or 'pack') if a race is through hilly terrain.

Sprinters may have different preferences. Some prefer a longer "launch" while others prefer to 'draft' or slipstream behind their teammates or opponents before accelerating in the final meters. Some prefer slight uphill finishes, while others prefer downhill finishes.

Sprinter tactics
In conventional road races, sprinters may bide their time waiting until the last few hundred metres before putting on a burst of speed to win the race. Many races will finish with a large group sprinting for the win; some sprinters may have team-mates, so-called domestiques 'leading them out' (i.e., keeping pace high and sheltering the sprinter) so that they have a greater chance of finishing in the leading positions. These teammates tend to "peel off" one by one as they tire; the last teammate is known as the "lead-out sprinter" and the best of them are excellent sprinters in their own right.

Several of the Classic one day races, for example Milan–San Remo or Paris–Tours, tend to favour sprinters because of their long distance and relatively flat terrain. A long day of racing does not benefit a sprinter per se, but very long stages or one day races tend to preclude successful breakaways and otherwise aggressive racing, ensuring the race will come down to a bunch sprint. Most editions of these races end in a bunch sprint, often won by racers also successful in the points classification at stage races. Stronger sprinters with abilities in hilly terrain or on cobblestones also have good prospects of winning the Ardennes classics or the Cobbled classics respectively.

Famous sprinters
The first great pure sprinter in the Tour de France was Frenchman Charles Pélissier who won eight stages in the 1930 Tour de France, still a record (shared with Eddy Merckx and Freddy Maertens). A year later, Pélissier battled with Italian sprinter Raffaele di Paco in one of the first major sprinter clashes. Both won five stages. In the 1941 Vuelta a España, Delio Rodríguez won 12 stages, followed by 8 the next year. He even managed to win the Overall Classification a few years later.

Another successful sprinter of the interbellum was French allrounder André Leducq. Although he could do more than sprint alone, including winning stage races (winning the Tour de France twice) and classics, 15 of his total 25 stage victories in the Tour were in bunch sprints.

André Darrigade is considered as the greatest French sprinter of all time. He won 22 stages in the Tour de France and twice the Points classification. He also built his legend by winning titles ahead of major cyclists, as the 1955 French National Championship ahead of Louison Bobet and the 1956 Giro di Lombardia ahead of Fausto Coppi. He finished on the podium of the World Championship 4 times in a row and won the title in 1959.

Freddy Maertens only participated in six grand tours but took home the Points Jersey on four occasions, winning 12 of his 15 Tour de France stage wins in a bunch sprint. His only participation in Vuelta a España in 1977 resulted not only in a record 13 stage wins, but also in the win of the general classification. Just five days after finishing the Vuelta, he went on race the Giro d'Italia, where he won 7 stages before having to abandon the race after a crash halfway through the race.

As the sport of cycling progressed into one of more specialized riders in the 1980s, bunch sprints became the arena of specialists – pure sprinters like Guido Bontempi, Jean-Paul van Poppel and Mario Cipollini, all focusing primarily on sprint stages, with other riders (classics specialists, time trialists, climbers etc.) aiming for victories in other types of stages. Cipollini holds the record for most stage wins in the Grand Tours as a sprinter; 57, of which 42 were in the Giro d'Italia. Fellow Italian sprinter Alessandro Petacchi (48 stage wins) won stages and the Points Classification in all three grand tours, including 20 stage wins in the Vuelta. The record for stage wins in the Vuelta belongs to Delio Rodríguez, with 39 wins. Mark Cavendish was named the Tour de France's best sprinter of all time by French paper L'Équipe on July 15, 2012. His tally currently stands on 52 individual stage wins in Grand Tours, 35 of which have been bunch sprints in the Tour de France.

Erik Zabel won a record nine points classifications: six in the Tour de France and three in the Vuelta a España. Of the five riders to win the Points classification in all three Grand Tours, three were pure sprinters: Djamolidine Abdoujaparov, Alessandro Petacchi and Mark Cavendish. The other two were all-rounders Eddy Merckx and Laurent Jalabert.

Peter Sagan won a record seven Points classification in the Tour de France. He won three consecutive World Championship, one European Championship, two Monument races Paris–Roubaix and Tour of Flanders.

The only three riders in cycling's history to win stages at all three grand tours in the same calendar year were all sprinters: Miguel Poblet in 1956, Pierino Baffi in 1958 and Alessandro Petacchi in 2003.

A good sprint can also secure several victories for other specialists, such as Classics riders and GC-contenders. Seán Kelly won 21 stages in the Tour and Vuelta, and the Points Classifications of both races four times each, in addition to his nine major Classics wins. Likewise, Belgian classics specialists Rik Van Steenbergen, Rik Van Looy and Roger De Vlaeminck were very successful due to a good final sprint, as were Italian Giro d'Italia-winners Bepe Saronni and Francesco Moser and their compatriot and two-time World Champion, Paolo Bettini.

Conversely, many sprinters use their abilities to win more than just stages, and were successful in classics such as the Tour of Flanders (like Rudi Altig and Jan Raas), Paris–Roubaix (Eddy Planckaert) and the Giro di Lombardia (like André Darrigade) or even stage races (in addition to the aforementioned Leducq, Rodríguez, Maertens, Saronni and Moser, they include Rudi Altig, Sean Kelly and Laurent Jalabert who all won the Vuelta, as did 1968 Tour de France winner and all-rounder Jan Janssen.

The ultimate sprinter classic due to its relatively flat course is Milan–San Remo, won four times by Zabel and three times by three-time World Champion Óscar Freire. Other "flat" one day races considered important sprinter classics include Gent–Wevelgem, Scheldeprijs, Vattenfall Cyclassics, Paris-Brussels and Paris–Tours.

List of successful sprinters

 * Men

 * 🇺🇿 Djamolidine Abdoujaparov
 * Rudi Altig
 * 🇮🇹 Pierino Baffi
 * 🇮🇹 Marino Basso
 * 🇮🇹 Guido Bontempi
 * 🇧🇪 Tom Boonen
 * Mark Cavendish
 * 🇮🇹 Mario Cipollini
 * 🇫🇷 André Darrigade
 * 🇫🇷 Arnaud Démare
 * 🇮🇹 Raffaele di Paco
 * 🇦🇺 Caleb Ewan
 * 🇨🇭 Urs Freuler
 * 🇨🇴 Fernando Gaviria
 * 🇩🇪 André Greipel
 * 🇫🇷 René Le Grevès
 * 🇳🇱 Dylan Groenewegen
 * 🇳🇴 Thor Hushovd
 * 🇳🇱 Fabio Jakobsen
 * 🇳🇱 Gerben Karstens
 * 🇮🇪 Sean Kelly
 * 🇩🇪 Marcel Kittel
 * 🇳🇴 Alexander Kristoff
 * 🇧🇪 Rik van Linden
 * Olaf Ludwig
 * 🇧🇪 Freddy Maertens
 * 🇦🇺 Robbie McEwen
 * 🇧🇪 Tim Merlier
 * 🇫🇷 Charles Pélissier
 * 🇮🇹 Alessandro Petacchi
 * 🇧🇪 Jasper Philipsen
 * 🇪🇸 Miguel Poblet
 * 🇧🇪 Guido Reybrouck
 * 🇸🇰 Peter Sagan
 * 🇧🇪 Patrick Sercu
 * 🇧🇪 Tom Steels
 * 🇧🇪 Wout van Aert
 * 🇧🇪 Rik van Looy
 * 🇳🇱 Jean-Paul van Poppel
 * 🇧🇪 Rik van Steenbergen
 * 🇮🇹 Elia Viviani
 * 🇩🇪 Erik Zabel
 * 🇮🇹 Dino Zandegù

 * Women

 * 🇦🇺 Anna Meares
 * Victoria Pendleton
 * 🇩🇪 Kristina Vogel
 * 🇮🇹 Giorgia Bronzini
 * 🇳🇱 Lorena Wiebes

The track sprinter
Sprinting on a cycle track or velodrome ranges from the highly specialised sprint event (where two or more riders slowly circle the track looking to gain a tactical advantage before launching a finishing burst over the final 200 metres, which is timed), to massed-start events decided by the first across the line after a certain number of laps (similar to road racing). The sprint specialist may also ride short track time trials over 1000 metres, the team sprint and Keirin events.

In Madison racing, a team may comprise a specialist sprinter, for when sudden bursts of speed are required, and another rider able to ride at a more consistent high tempo.

title: Sprinter (cycling)


text:
Journey to the Ants

Journey to the Ants: a Story of Scientific Exploration is a 1994 book by the evolutionary biologist Bert Hölldobler and the biologist Edward O. Wilson. The book was written as a popularized account for the layman of the science earlier presented in their book The Ants (1990), which won the Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction in 1991.

Editions

 * Paperback, on The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press: ISBN 0-674-48526-2

title: Journey to the Ants


text:
Golden age of arcade video games

The golden age of arcade video games was the period of rapid growth, technological development, and cultural influence of arcade video games from the late 1970s to the early 1980s. The release of Space Invaders in 1978 led to a wave of shoot-'em-up games such as Galaxian and the vector graphics-based Asteroids in 1979, made possible by new computing technology that had greater power and lower costs. Arcade video games switched from black-and-white to color, with titles such as Frogger and Centipede taking advantage of the visual opportunities of bright palettes.

Video game arcades became a part of popular culture and a primary channel for new games. Video game genres were still being established, but included space-themed shooter games such as Defender and Galaga, maze chase games that followed the design established by Pac-Man, driving and racing games which more frequently used 3D perspectives such as Turbo and Pole Position, character action games such as Pac-Man and Frogger, and the beginning of what would later be called platform games touched off by Donkey Kong. Games began starring named player characters, such as Pac-Man, Mario, and Q*bert, and some of these characters crossed over into other media including songs, cartoons, and movies. The 1982 film Tron was closely tied to an arcade game of the same name.

The golden age of arcade games began to wane in 1983 due to a plethora of clones of popular titles that saturated arcades, the rise of home video game consoles, both coupled with a moral panic on the influence of arcades and video games on children. This fall occurred during the same time as the video game crash of 1983 but for different reasons, though both marred revenues within the North American video game industry for several years. The arcade game sector revitalized later during the early 1990s particularly with the mainstream success of fighting games.

Time period
Although the exact years differ, most sources agree the period lasted from about the late 1970s to early 1980s.

Technology journalist Jason Whittaker, in The Cyberspace Handbook, places the beginning of the golden age in 1978, with the release of Space Invaders. Video game journalist Steven L. Kent argues in his book The Ultimate History of Video Games that it began the following year, when Space Invaders gained popularity in the United States and when vector display technology, first seen in arcades in 1977's Space Wars, rose to prominence via Atari's Asteroids. Kent says the period ended in 1983, which saw "a fairly steady decline" in the coin-operated video game business and arcades.

Walter Day of Twin Galaxies places this period's beginning in the late 1970s, when color arcade games became more prevalent and arcade video games started appearing outside of their traditional bowling alley and bar locales, through to its ending in the mid-1980s. RePlay magazine in 1985 dated the arcade industry's "video boom" years from 1979 to 1982. The golden age of arcade games largely coincided with, and partly fueled, the second generation of game consoles and the microcomputer revolution.

One outlier is the History of Computing Project website, which says the era began in 1971, when the creator of Pong filed a pivotal patent regarding video game technology and when the first arcade video game machine, Computer Space, was released. It defines the era as covering the "mainstream appearance of video games as a consumer market" and "the rise of dedicated hardware systems and the origin of multi-game cartridge based systems".

Business
The golden age was a time of great technical and design creativity in arcade games. The era saw the rapid spread of video arcades across North America, Europe, and Asia. The number of video game arcades in North America was doubled between 1980 and 1982; reaching a peak of 10,000 video game arcades across the region (compared to 4,000 as of 1998). Beginning with Space Invaders, video arcade games also started to appear in supermarkets, restaurants, liquor stores, gas stations, and many other retail establishments looking for extra income. Video game arcades at the time became as common as convenience stores, while arcade games like Pac-Man and Space Invaders appeared in most locations across the United States, including even funeral homes. The sales of arcade video game machines increased during this period from $50 million in 1978 to $900 million in 1981, with 500,000 arcade machines sold in the United States at prices ranging as high as $3,000 in 1982 alone. By 1982, there were 24,000 full arcades, 400,000 arcade street locations and 1.5 million arcade machines active in North America. The market was very competitive; the average life span of an arcade game was four to six months. Some games like Robby Roto failed because they were too complex to learn quickly. Qix was briefly very popular but, Taito's Keith Egging later said, "too mystifying for gamers...impossible to master and when the novelty wore off, the game faded". Around this time, the home video game industry (second-generation video game consoles and early home computer games) emerged as "an outgrowth of the widespread success of video arcades".

In 1980, the U.S. arcade video game industry's revenue generated from quarters tripled to $2.8 billion. By 1981, the arcade video game industry in the United States was generating more than $5 billion a year with some estimates as high as $10.5 billion for all video games (arcade and home) in the U.S. that year, which was three times the amount spent on movie tickets in 1981. The total revenue for the U.S. arcade video game industry in 1981 was estimated at more than $7 billion though some analysts estimated the real amount may have been much higher. By 1982, video games accounted for 87% of the $8.9 billion in commercial games sales in the United States. In 1982, the arcade video game industry's revenue in quarters was estimated at $8 billion surpassing the annual gross revenue of both pop music ($4 billion) and Hollywood films ($3 billion) combined that year. It also exceeded the revenues of all major sports combined at the time, earning three times the combined ticket and television revenues of Major League Baseball, basketball, and American football, as well as earning twice as much as all the casinos in Nevada combined. This was also more than twice as much revenue as the $3.8 billion generated by the home video game industry (during the second generation of consoles) that same year; both the arcade and home markets combined added up to a total revenue between $11.8 billion and $12.8 billion for the U.S. video game industry in 1982. In comparison, the U.S. video game industry in 2011 generated total revenues between $16.3 billion and $16.6 billion.

Prior to the golden age, pinball machines were more popular than video games. The pinball industry reached a peak of 200,000 machine sales and $2.3 billion revenue in 1979, which had declined to 33,000 machines and $464 million in 1982. In comparison, the best-selling arcade games of the golden age, Space Invaders and Pac-Man, had each sold over 360,000 and 400,000 cabinets, respectively, with each machine costing between $2000 and $3000 (specifically $2400 in Pac-Man's case). In addition, Space Invaders had grossed $2 billion in quarters by 1982, while Pac-Man had grossed over $1 billion by 1981 and $2.5 billion by the late 1990s. In 1982, Space Invaders was considered the highest-grossing entertainment product of its time, with comparisons made to the then highest-grossing film Star Wars, which had grossed $486 million, while Pac-Man is today considered the highest-grossing arcade game of all time. Many other arcade games during the golden age also had hardware unit sales at least in the tens of thousands, including Ms. Pac-Man with over 115,000 units, Asteroids with 70,000, Donkey Kong with over 60,000, Defender with 55,000, Galaxian with 40,000, Donkey Kong Junior with 35,000, Mr. Do! with 30,000, and Tempest with 29,000 units. A number of arcade games also generated revenues (from quarters) in the hundreds of millions, including Defender with more than $100 million in addition to many more with revenues in the tens of millions, including Dragon's Lair with $48 million and Space Ace with $13 million.

The most successful arcade game companies of this era included Taito (which ushered in the golden age with the shooter game Space Invaders and produced other successful arcade action games such as Gun Fight and Jungle King), Namco (the Japanese company that created Galaxian, Pac-Man, Pole Position and Dig Dug) and Atari (the company that introduced video games into arcades with Computer Space and Pong, and later produced Asteroids). Other companies such as Sega (who later entered the home console market against its former arch rival, Nintendo), Nintendo (whose mascot, Mario, was introduced in 1981's Donkey Kong as "Jumpman"), Bally Midway Manufacturing Company (which was later purchased by Williams), Cinematronics, Konami, Centuri, Williams and SNK also gained popularity around this era.

During this period, Japanese video game manufacturers became increasingly influential in North America. By 1980, they had become very influential through licensing their games to American manufacturers. Japanese companies eventually moved beyond licensing their games to American companies such as Midway, and by 1981 instead began directly importing machines to the North American market as well as building manufacturing facilities in the United States. By 1982–1983, Japanese manufacturers had more directly captured a large share of the North American arcade market, which Gene Lipkin of Data East USA partly attributed to Japanese companies having more finances to invest in new ideas.

Technology
Arcades catering to video games began to gain momentum in the late 1970s, with Space Invaders (1978) followed by games such as Asteroids (1979) and Galaxian (1979). Arcades became more widespread in 1980 with Pac-Man, Missile Command and Berzerk, and in 1981 with Defender, Donkey Kong, Frogger and others. The central processing unit (CPU) microprocessors in these games allowed for more complexity than earlier transistor-transistor logic (TTL) discrete circuitry games such as Atari's Pong (1972). The arcade boom that began in the late 1970s is credited with establishing the basic techniques of interactive entertainment and for driving down hardware prices to the extent of allowing the personal computer (PC) to become a technological and economic reality.

While color monitors had been used by several racing video games before (such as Indy 800 and Speed Race Twin ), it was during this period that RGB color graphics became widespread, following the release of Galaxian in 1979. Galaxian introduced a tile-based video game graphics system, which reduced processing and memory requirements by up to 64 times compared to the previous framebuffer system used by Space Invaders. This allowed Galaxian to render multi-color sprites, which were animated atop a scrolling starfield backdrop, providing the basis for the hardware developed by Nintendo for arcade games such as Radar Scope (1980) and Donkey Kong followed by the Nintendo Entertainment System console.

The golden age also saw developers experimenting with vector displays, which produce crisp lines that can't be duplicated by raster displays. A few of these vector games became great hits, such as 1979's Asteroids, 1980's Battlezone, 1981's Tempest and 1983's Star Wars from Atari. However, vector technology fell out of favor with arcade game companies due to the high cost of repairing vector displays.

Several developers at the time were also experimenting with pseudo-3D and stereoscopic 3D using 2D sprites on raster displays. In 1979, Nintendo's Radar Scope introduced a three-dimensional third-person perspective to the shoot 'em up genre, later imitated by shooters such as Konami's Juno First and Activision's Beamrider in 1983. In 1981, Sega's Turbo was the first racing game to feature a third-person rear view format, and use sprite scaling with full-colour graphics. Namco's Pole Position featured an improved rear-view racer format in 1982 that remained the standard for the genre; the game provided a perspective view of the track, with its vanishing point swaying side to side as the player approaches corners, accurately simulating forward movement into the distance. That same year, Sega released Zaxxon, which introduced the use of isometric graphics and shadows; and SubRoc-3D, which introduced the use of stereoscopic 3D through a special eyepiece.

This period also saw significant advances in digital audio technology. Space Invaders in 1978 was the first game to use a continuous background soundtrack, with four simple chromatic descending bass notes repeating in a loop, though it was dynamic and changed tempo during stages. Rally-X in 1980 was the first game to feature continuous background music, which was generated using a dedicated sound chip, a Namco 3-channel PSG. That same year saw the introduction of speech synthesis, which was first used in Stratovox, released by Sun Electronics in 1980, followed soon after by Namco's King & Balloon.

Developers also experimented with laserdisc players for delivering full motion video based games with movie-quality animation. The first laserdisc video game to exploit this technology was 1983's Astron Belt from Sega, soon followed by Dragon's Lair from Cinematronics; the latter was a sensation when it was released (and, in fact, the laserdisc players in many machines broke due to overuse). While laserdisc games were usually either shooter games with full-motion video backdrops like Astron Belt or interactive movies like Dragon's Lair, Data East's 1983 game Bega's Battle introduced a new form of video game storytelling: using brief full-motion video cutscenes to develop a story between the game's shooting stages, which years later became the standard approach to video game storytelling. By the mid-1980s, the genre dwindled in popularity, as laserdiscs were losing out to the VHS format and the laserdisc games themselves were losing their novelty.

16-bit processors began appearing in several arcade games during this era. Universal's Get A Way (1978) was a sit-down racing game that used a 16-bit CPU, for which it was advertised as the first game to use a 16-bit microcomputer. Another racing game, Namco's Pole Position (1982), used the 16-bit Zilog Z8000 processor. Atari's Food Fight (1983) was one of the earliest games to use the Motorola 68000 processor.

3D computer graphics began appearing in several arcade games towards the end of the golden age. Funai's Interstellar, a laserdisc game introduced at Tokyo's Amusement Machine Show (AM Show) in September 1983, demonstrated pre-rendered 3D computer graphics. Simutrek's Cube Quest, another laserdisc game introduced at the same Tokyo AM Show in September 1983, combined laserdisc animation with 3D real-time computer graphics. Star Rider, introduced by Williams Electronics at the Amusement & Music Operators Association (AMOA) in October 1983, also demonstrated pre-rendered 3D graphics. Atari's I, Robot, developed and released in 1984, was the first arcade game to be rendered entirely with real-time 3D computer graphics.

Gameplay
Space Invaders (1978) established the "multiple life, progressively difficult level paradigm" used by many classic arcade games. Designed by Tomohiro Nishikado at Taito, he drew inspiration from Atari's block-breaker game Breakout (1976) and several science fiction works. Nishikado added several interactive elements to Space Invaders that he found lacking in earlier video games, such as the ability for enemies to react to the player's movement and fire back, with a game over triggered by enemies killing the player (either by getting hit or enemies reaching the bottom of the screen) rather than a timer running out. In contrast to earlier arcade games which often had a timer, Space Invaders introduced the "concept of going round after round." It also gave the player multiple lives before the game ends, and saved the high score. It also had a basic story with animated characters along with a "crescendo of action and climax" which laid the groundwork for later video games, according to Eugene Jarvis.

With the enormous success of Space Invaders, dozens of developers jumped into the development and manufacturing of arcade video games. Some simply copied the "invading alien hordes" idea of Space Invaders and turned out successful imitators like Namco's Galaxian and Galaga, which extended the fixed shooter genre with new gameplay mechanics, more complex enemy patterns, and richer graphics. Galaxian introduced a "risk-reward" concept, while Galaga was one of the first games with a bonus stage. Sega's 1980 release Space Tactics was an early first-person space combat game with multi-directional scrolling as the player moved the cross-hairs on the screen.

Others tried new concepts and defined new genres. Rapidly evolving hardware allowed new kinds of games which allowed for different styles of gameplay. The term "action games" began being used in the early 1980s, in reference to a new genre of character action games that emerged from Japanese arcade developers, drawing inspiration from manga and anime culture. According to Eugene Jarvis, these new character-driven Japanese action games emphasized "character development, hand-drawn animation and backgrounds, and a more deterministic, scripted, pattern-type" of play. Terms such as "action games" or "character games" began being used to distinguish these new character-driven action games from the space shooters that had previously dominated the video game industry. The emphasis on character-driven gameplay in turn enabled a wider variety of subgenres. In 1980, Namco released Pac-Man, which popularized the maze chase genre, and Rally-X, which featured a radar tracking the player position on the map. Games such as the pioneering 1981 games Donkey Kong and Qix introduced new types of games where skill and timing are more important than shooting as fast as possible, with Nintendo's Donkey Kong in particular setting the template for the platform game genre.

The two most popular genres during the golden age were space shooters and character action games. While Japanese developers were creating a character-driven action game genre in the early 1980s, American developers largely adopted a different approach to game design at the time. According to Eugene Jarvis, American arcade developers focused mainly on space shooters during the late 1970s to early 1980s, greatly influenced by Japanese space shooters but taking the genre in a different direction from the "more deterministic, scripted, pattern-type" gameplay of Japanese games, towards a more "programmer-centric design culture, emphasizing algorithmic generation of backgrounds and enemy dispatch" and "an emphasis on random-event generation, particle-effect explosions and physics" as seen in arcade games such as his own Defender (1981) and Robotron: 2084 (1982) as well as Atari's Asteroids (1979).

Namco's Bosconian in 1981 introduced a free-roaming style of gameplay where the player's ship freely moves across open space, while also including a radar tracking player & enemy positions. Bega's Battle in 1983 introduced a new form of video game storytelling: using brief full-motion video cutscenes to develop a story between the game's shooting stages. Other examples of innovative games are Atari Games' Paperboy in 1984 where the goal is to successfully deliver newspapers to customers, and Namco's Phozon where the object is to duplicate a shape shown in the middle of the screen. The theme of Exidy's Venture is dungeon exploration and treasure-gathering. Q*bert plays upon the user's sense of depth perception to deliver a novel experience.

Popular culture
Some games of this era were so widely played that they entered popular culture. The first was Space Invaders, released in 1978. A widely believed, yet false, urban legend held that its popularity caused a national shortage of 100 yen coins in Japan. Its release in North America led to hundreds of favorable articles and stories about the emerging medium of video games printed in newspapers and magazines and aired on television. The Space Invaders Tournament held by Atari in 1980 was the first video game competition and attracted more than 10,000 participants, establishing video gaming as a mainstream hobby. By 1980, 86% of the 13–20 year old population in the United States had played arcade video games, and by 1981, there were more than 35 million gamers visiting video game arcades in the United States.

The game that most affected popular culture in North America was Pac-Man. Its release in 1980 caused such a sensation that it initiated what is now referred to as "Pac-Mania" (which later became the title of the last coin-operated game in the series, released in 1987). Released by Namco, the game featured a yellow, circle-shaped creature trying to eat dots through a maze while avoiding pursuing enemies. Though no one could agree what the "hero" or enemies represented (they were variously referred to as ghosts, goblins or monsters), the game was extremely popular. The game spawned an animated television series, numerous clones, Pac-Man-branded foods, toys, and a hit pop song, "Pac-Man Fever". The game's popularity was such that President Ronald Reagan congratulated a player for setting a record score in Pac-Man. Pac-Man was also responsible for expanding the arcade game market to involve large numbers of female audiences across all age groups. Though many popular games quickly entered the lexicon of popular culture, most have since left, and Pac-Man is unusual in remaining a recognized term in popular culture, along with Space Invaders, Donkey Kong, Mario and Q*bert.

Seen as an additional source of revenue, arcade games began popping up outside of dedicated arcades, including bars, restaurants, movie theaters, bowling alleys, convenience stores, laundromats, gas stations, supermarkets, airports, even dentist and doctor offices. Showbiz Pizza and Chuck E. Cheese were founded specifically as restaurants focused on featuring the latest arcade titles.

In 1982, the game show Starcade premiered. The program focused on players competing to achieve high scores on the latest arcade titles, with the chance to win the grand prize of their own arcade machine if they could hit a target score within a specific time frame. The show ran until 1984 on TBS and syndication.

In 1983, an animated television series produced for Saturday mornings called Saturday Supercade featured video game characters from the era, such as Frogger, Donkey Kong, Q*bert, Donkey Kong Jr., Kangaroo, Space Ace, and Pitfall Harry.

Arcade games at the time affected the music industry, revenues for which had declined by $400 million between 1978 and 1981 (from $4.1 billion to $3.7 billion), a decrease that was directly credited to the rise of arcade games at the time. Successful songs based on video games also began appearing. The pioneering electronic music band Yellow Magic Orchestra (YMO) sampled Space Invaders sounds in their 1978 self-titled album and the hit single "Computer Game" from the same album, the latter selling over 400,000 copies in the United States. In turn, YMO had a major influence on much of the video game music produced during the 8-bit and 16-bit eras. Other pop songs based on Space Invaders soon followed, including "Disco Space Invaders" (1979) by Funny Stuff, "Space Invaders" (1980) by Player One (known as Playback in the US), and the hit songs "Space Invader" (1980) by The Pretenders and "Space Invaders" (1980) by Uncle Vic. The game was also the basis for Player One's "Space Invaders" (1979), which in turn provided the baseline for Jesse Saunders's "On and On" (1984), the first Chicago house music track. The song "Pac-Man Fever" reached No. 9 on the Billboard Hot 100 and sold over a million singles in 1982, while the album Pac-Man Fever sold over a million records, with both receiving Gold certifications. That same year, R. Cade and the Video Victims also produced an arcade-inspired album, Get Victimized, featuring songs such as "Donkey Kong". In 1984, former YMO member Haruomi Hosono produced an album entirely from Namco arcade game samples entitled Video Game Music, an early example of a chiptune record and the first video game music album. Arcade game sounds also had a strong influence on the hip hop, pop music (particularly synthpop) and electro music genres during the early 1980s. The booming success of video games at the time led to music magazine Billboard listing the 15 top-selling video games alongside their record charts by 1982. More than a decade later, the first electroclash record, I-F's "Space Invaders Are Smoking Grass" (1997), has been described as "burbling electro in a vocodered homage to Atari-era hi-jinks", particularly Space Invaders which it was named after.

Arcade games also influenced the film industry; beginning with Space Invaders, arcade games began appearing at many movie theaters. Early films based on video games were also produced, most notably Tron, which grossed over $33 million in 1982 which began the Tron franchise which included a video game adaptation that grossed more than the film. Other films based on video games included the 1983 films WarGames (where Matthew Broderick plays Galaga at an arcade), Nightmares, and Joysticks, the 1984 films The Last Starfighter, as well as Cloak & Dagger (in which an Atari 5200 cartridge implausibly containing the eponymous arcade game becomes the film's MacGuffin). Arcades also appeared in many other films at the time, such as Dawn of the Dead (where they play Gun Fight and F-1) in 1978, and Midnight Madness in 1980, Take This Job and Shove It and Puberty Blues in 1981, the 1982 releases Rocky III, Fast Times At Ridgemont High, Koyaanisqatsi and The Toy, the 1983 releases Psycho II, Spring Break, Strange Brew, Terms of Endearment and Never Say Never Again, the 1984 releases Footloose, The Karate Kid (where Elisabeth Shue plays Pac-Man), The Terminator, Night of the Comet and The Adventures of Buckaroo Banzai Across the 8th Dimension, the 1985 releases The Goonies, The Heavenly Kid, Pee Wee's Big Adventure, The Boys Next Door and Ferris Bueller's Day Off as well as the 1986 films Something Wild, The Color of Money, River's Edge and Psycho III (where Norman Bates stands next to a Berzerk cabinet). Over the Top, Can't Buy Me Love, Light of Day and Project X showcase arcade game cabinets as well. Coin-operated games (both video and mechanical) are central to the plots of the 1988 films Big and Kung-Fu Master and also appear in Miracle Mile.

In more recent years, there have been critically acclaimed documentaries based on the golden age of arcade games, such as The King of Kong: A Fistful of Quarters (2007) and Chasing Ghosts: Beyond the Arcade (2007). Since 2010, many arcade-related features or films incorporating 1980's nostalgia have been released including Tron: Legacy (2010), Wreck-It Ralph (2012), Ping Pong Summer (2014), Pixels (2015), Everybody Wants Some!! (2016), Summer of 84 (2018) and Ready Player One (2018) which is based upon the novel by Ernest Cline and directed by Steven Spielberg. Television shows have exhibited arcade games including The Goldbergs and Stranger Things (both of which feature Dragon's Lair among other games).

Strategy guides
The period saw the emergence of a gaming media, publications dedicated to video games, in the form of video game journalism and strategy guides. The enormous popularity of video arcade games led to the very first video game strategy guides; these guides (rare to find today) discussed in detail the patterns and strategies of each game, including variations, to a degree that few guides seen since can match. "Turning the machine over" - making the score counter overflow and reset to zero - was often the final challenge of a game for those who mastered it, and the last obstacle to getting the highest score.

Some of these strategy guides sold hundreds of thousands of copies at prices ranging from $1.95 to $3.95 in 1982 (equivalent to between $ and $ in 2024). That year, Ken Uston's Mastering Pac-Man sold 750,000 copies, reaching No. 5 on B. Dalton's mass-market bestseller list, while Bantam's How to Master the Video Games sold 600,000 copies, appearing on The New York Times mass-market paperback list. By 1983, 1.7 million copies of Mastering Pac-Man had been printed.

List of popular arcade games
The games below are some of the most popular and/or influential games of the era.

List of best-selling arcade games
For arcade games, success was usually judged by either the number of arcade hardware units sold to operators, or the amount of revenue generated, from the number of coins (such as quarters or 100 yen coins) inserted into machines, and/or the hardware sales (with arcade hardware prices often ranging from $1000 to $4000). This list only includes arcade games that have sold more than 10,000 hardware units.

 * Space Invaders (750,000)
 * Pac-Man (400,000)
 * Donkey Kong (132,000)Donkey Kong sales:
 * Japan: 65,000 of Donkey Kong
 * United States: 67,000 of Donkey Kong
 * United States: 30,000 of Donkey Kong Jr.
 * Ms. Pac-Man (125,000)
 * Asteroids (100,000)
 * Defender (70,000)
 * Centipede (55,988)
 * Galaxian (50,000 in the US)
 * Hyper Olympic (Track & Field) (38,000 in Japan)
 * Donkey Kong Jr. (30,000 in the US)
 * Karate Champ (30,000 in the US)
 * Mr. Do! (30,000 in the US)
 * Tempest (29,000)
 * Q*bert (25,000)
 * Robotron: 2084 (23,000)
 * Dig Dug (22,228 in the US)
 * Pole Position (21,000 in the US)
 * Popeye (20,000 in the US)
 * Missile Command (20,000)
 * Jungle Hunt (18,000 in the US)
 * Dragon's Lair (16,000)
 * Berzerk (15,780)
 * Scramble (15,136 in the US)
 * Battlezone (15,122)
 * Champion Baseball (15,000 in Japan)
 * Stargate (15,000)
 * Star Wars (12,695)
 * Super Cobra (12,337 in the US)
 * Space Duel (12,038)
 * Atari Football (11,306)
 * Gee Bee (10,000)
 * Space Duel (12,038)
 * Atari Football (11,306)
 * Gee Bee (10,000)

Decline and aftermath
The golden age cooled around the mid-1980s as copies of popular games began to saturate the arcades. Arcade video game revenues in the United States had declined from $8 billion in 1981 to $5 billion in 1983, reaching a low of $4 billion in 1984. The arcade market had recovered by 1986, with the help of software conversion kits, the arrival of popular beat 'em up games (such as Kung-Fu Master and Renegade), and advanced motion simulator games (such as Sega's "taikan" games including Hang-On, Space Harrier, Out Run and After Burner).

Arcades remained commonplace through to the 1990s as there were still new genres being explored. In 1987, arcades experienced a short resurgence with Double Dragon, which started the golden age of beat 'em up games, a genre that peaked in popularity with Final Fight two years later. In 1988, arcade game revenues in the United States rose back to $6.4 billion, largely due to the rising popularity of violent action games in the beat 'em up and run and gun shooter genres. However, the growth of home video game systems such as the Nintendo Entertainment System led to another brief arcade decline toward the end of the 1980s. In the early 1990s, the Genesis (Mega Drive outside most of North America) and Super NES (Super Famicom in Japan) greatly improved home play and some of their technology was even integrated into a few video arcade machines.

In the early 1990s, the release of Capcom's Street Fighter II established the modern style of fighting games and led to a number of similar games, resulting in a renaissance for the arcades. Another factor was realism, including the "3D Revolution" from 2D and pseudo-3D graphics to true real-time 3D polygon graphics. This was largely driven by a technological arms race between Sega and Namco.

By the early 2000s, the sales of arcade machines in North America had declined, with 4,000 unit sales being considered a hit by the time. One of the causes of decline was new generations of video game consoles and personal computers that sapped interest from arcades.

Since the 2000s, arcade games have taken different routes globally. In the United States, arcades have become niche markets as they compete with the home console market, and they adapted other business models, such as providing other entertainment options or adding prize redemptions. In Japan, some arcades continue to survive in the early 21st century, with games like Dance Dance Revolution and The House of the Dead tailored to experiences that players cannot easily have at home.

Legacy
The Golden Age of Video Arcade Games spawned numerous cultural icons and even gave some companies their identity. Elements from games such as Space Invaders, Pac-Man, Donkey Kong, Frogger, and Centipede are still recognized in today's popular culture, and new entries in the franchises for some golden age games continued to be released decades later.

Pac-Man and Dragon's Lair joined Pong for permanent display at the Smithsonian in Washington, D.C. for their cultural impact in the United States. No other video game has been inducted since.

Emulators such as the Internet Archive Virtual Arcade are able to run these classic games inside a web browser window on a modern computer. Computers have gotten faster per Moore's Law. JavaScript emulators can now run copies of the original console ROMs without porting the code to the new systems.

title: Golden age of arcade video games


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Ward–Belmont College

Ward–Belmont College was a women's college located in Nashville, Tennessee. It formed from the merger of the Ward Seminary for Young Ladies and Belmont College for Young Women in 1913. The college was located on the grounds of the Belmont Mansion, the antebellum estate of Adelicia Hayes Franklin Acklen Cheatham. It was the first junior college in the South to receive full accreditation by the Southern Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools. The college was sold for financial reasons in 1951. Its grounds were used to create Belmont College (now Belmont University).

History
In 1865, William E. Ward and his wife, Eliza Hudson Ward, opened the Ward Seminary for Young Ladies in Nashville, Tennessee. The Education Bureau in Washington, DC, ranked Ward Seminary among the top three educational institutions for women in the nation. The school also emphasized athletics, organizing the first girls' varsity basketball team in the South and one of the first in the nation.

Belmont College for Young Women, founded by Susan L. Heron and Ida E. Hood, opened on September 4, 1890. Modeled on the women’s colleges of the Northeast, the school was established on a 15 acre site centered on Belmont, the former home of Adelicia Hayes Franklin Acklen Cheatham, which was built in 1850.

Ward Seminary and Belmont College for Young Women merged in 1913 to form Ward-Belmont, the first junior college in the South to receive full accreditation by the Southern Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools. Dr. John Diell Blanton was the first president of Ward-Belmont; he was previously the president of Ward Seminary since 1883. In 1914, an academic building was dedicated to Dr. Blanton; however, it burned down in 1972. By the 1920s, it had an enrollment of more than 1,200 women. The Preparatory School was a four-year secondary high school program.

Entrance to the College and its Conservatory of Music was for students who had completed high school. The College and Conservatory of Music were two-year junior college programs that prepared students for senior universities. To accommodate the large number of students, three new dormitory buildings were built: Pembroke (1913), Heron (1916), and Hail (1923). These dormitories are still in use at Belmont University.

In 1951, under financial constraints, Ward-Belmont's campus was sold to the Tennessee Baptist Convention. The campus was used to establish Belmont College (now Belmont University). A new, modern, nonresidential girls' high school, Harpeth Hall School, was established on the Estes estate in the affluent Green Hills section of Nashville to take the place of Ward-Belmont.

The original campus remained under the aegis of the Tennessee Baptist Convention until 2007 when Belmont University became independent of its control.

Social activities
Club Village was a collection of ten houses that were made for Ward-Belmont's social clubs. The social clubs included Anti-Pandora, Twentieth Century, Del Vers, Tri K, Penta Tau, X. L., Osiron, Agora, A.K., and F.F. Each of the houses included a formal club room, kitchen, game room, and music room. At the start of the academic year, students would engage in a "rushing" period in which they would learn about the different clubs. Every student who participated in this period was accepted into one of the clubs.

May Day Festival was one of the outstanding social events of the spring. This marks the culmination of the Physical Education Program, in which every student participates. The grand parade, picturesque costumes of the dancers, and the May Queen with her Court add a dramatic touch to the celebration, which is viewed by several thousand friends, parents, and alumnae.

It had a chapter of Alpha Sigma Alpha from December 15, 1905 to 1909.

Alumnae

 * Sophia Alcorn, educator who invented the Tadoma method of communication with people who are deaf and blind
 * Birdie Alexander, musician and educator
 * Carman Barnes, writer
 * Elizabeth Lee Bloomstein, a history professor and club woman
 * Sara Ward Conley, artist
 * Nancy Cox-McCormack, sculptor
 * Lura Harris Craighead, author, parliamentarian, civic worker, and club woman
 * Jean Faircloth, philanthropist
 * Cornelia Fort, aviator
 * Elizabeth P. Farrington, publisher of the Honolulu Star-Bulletin and Congressional Delegate
 * Iris Kelso, newspaper journalist and television news correspondent
 * Clare Boothe Luce, editor and playwright
 * Mary Martin, actress
 * Olive Stokes Mix, actress
 * Grace Moore, singer
 * Minnie Pearl (Sarah Colley Cannon), country music comedian
 * Mary U. Rothrock, librarian and president of the American Library Association
 * Daisy Elizabeth McQuigg Sewell, religious leader and dean of women for Abilene Christian College
 * Mildred T. Stahlman, neonatologist
 * Lila Acheson Wallace, co-founder of Reader's Digest
 * Amelia Worthington Williams, historian

Faculty and staff

 * Ira Landrith, college president and Presbyterian minister

title: Ward–Belmont College


text:
1960s in comics

See also: 1950s in comics, other events of the 1960s, 1970s in comics and the list of years in comics

July

 * House of Mystery #100, edited by Jack Schiff. (DC Comics)

1961

 * Amazing Adventures #1 - Marvel Comics
 * Fantastic Four #1 - Marvel Comics

1962

 * Amazing Fantasy #15 renamed from Amazing Adult Fantasy - Marvel Comics (last issue)
 * First appearance of Spider-Man
 * Incredible Hulk #1 - Marvel Comics
 * Strange Tales Annual #1 - Marvel Comics

1963

 * The Amazing Spider-Man #1 - Marvel Comics
 * Avengers #1 - Marvel Comics
 * Fantastic Four Annual #1 - Marvel Comics
 * Sgt. Fury and his Howling Commandos #1 - Marvel Comics
 * Uncanny X-Men #1 -[Marvel Comics

1964

 * The Amazing Spider-Man Annual #1 - Marvel Comics
 * Daredevil #1 - Marvel Comics
 * Marine War Heroes #1-18 - Charlton
 * Marines Attack #1-9 - Charlton
 * Marvel Tales Annual #1 - Marvel Comics

1965

 * Journey into Mystery Annual #1 - Marvel Comics
 * Marvel Collector's Item Classics #1 - Marvel Comics
 * Sgt. Fury and his Howling Commandos Annual #1 - Marvel Comics

1966

 * Sally the Witch, by Mitsuteru Yokoyama, is first serialized on Ribon.

March

 * Tales to Astonish #77: "Bruce Banner is the Hulk," drawn by John Romita (Marvel Comics)
 * Black Fury, with issue #57 (March /April cover-date), canceled by Charlton.

April

 * April 28: Tarzan artist Jesse Marsh passes away at age 58.

May

 * Daredevil #16 (Marvel Comics): "Enter Spider-Man," drawn by John Romita
 * Ghostly Tales #1 (Charlton)

June

 * First appearance of Poison Ivy in Batman #181 (DC Comics).

July

 * Marvel Tales #3 renamed from Marvel Tales Annual (Marvel Comics)

August

 * The Amazing Spider-Man #39 (Marvel Comics): "How Green Was My Goblin"

September

 * The Amazing Spider-Man #40 (Marvel Comics): "Spidey Saves The Day"
 * Thor Annual #2 renamed from Journey into Mystery Annual (Marvel Comics)
 * With issue #110, DC Comics suspends publication of Mystery in Space (1951 series); the title is temporarily revived in 1980.

November

 * The Flash #165: Barry Allen marries Iris West (DC Comics).

January

 * Batgirl debuts in Detective Comics #359. The issue was titled "The Million Dollar Debut of Batgirl" and was written by Gardner Fox and illustrated by Carmine Infantino (DC Comics)

December

 * Mac Raboy dies at age 53.

1968

 * Zap Comix #1 self-published; begins the underground comix movement

1969

 * The Golden Age character Phantom Stranger makes his first Silver Age appearance in Showcase #80.

July

 * Long-time DC Comics logo designer and letterer Ira Schnapp dies at age 76.

September

 * Classics Illustrated cartoonist Alex Blum dies at age 80.

title: 1960s in comics


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User:Monsta coty scott

my name is monsta coty scott. you can learn more about me here.

below is a list of articles i have contributed to, almost all of which will involve illustrations or photographs.

if you would like to request an image for your article please feel free to contact me.

--- Pony Express

Utah

West Virginia

The Avenues (Salt Lake City)

title: User:Monsta coty scott


text: User talk:66.80.0.10

title: User talk:66.80.0.10


text:
User talk:Brianyee0

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