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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Funcrusher Plus

Nominated for VfD by an anon who forgot to list it here. About 3000 Google hits, but whoever wrote this took one too many hits himself. Might be salvageable, but there seemingly isn't much to save. - Lucky 6.9 22:53, 27 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * when creating new pages, there should be a little dropdown menu entitled "please indicate whether you are currently under the influence of controlled substances, and if yes, which". Unfortunately I'm not a rap cat so not actually in tune with the fat beats, so to speak, but I suspect this is a rewrite-or-delete job. Ianb 23:02, 27 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, unless someone deems the album in question noteworthy enough to rewrite the article. Spectatrix 23:41, 2004 Jul 27 (UTC)
 * Delete: It's stuff like this that gives massive LSD overdoses a bad name! (Nonsense.) Geogre 23:54, 27 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * "a cultural milestone is this album." ... OMG, Yoda wrote this! Save this and its "messed up martian jazz rhythms" in BJAODN. If it can get a rewrite soon then reconsider, but until then delete (let someone more coherent re-add it in the future). - Eisnel 19:08, 28 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete - not an article. -- Cyrius|✎ 03:15, 30 Jul 2004 (UTC)


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Creativity and mental health

Links between creativity and mental health have been extensively discussed and studied by psychologists and other researchers for centuries. Parallels can be drawn to connect creativity to major mental disorders including bipolar disorder, autism, schizophrenia, major depressive disorder, anxiety disorder, OCD and ADHD. For example, studies have demonstrated correlations between creative occupations and people living with mental illness. There are cases that support the idea that mental illness can aid in creativity, but it is also generally agreed that mental illness does not have to be present for creativity to exist.

History
It has been proposed that there is a link between creativity and mental illness. Major depressive disorder appears among playwrights, novelists, biographers, and artists at a higher rate than the general population. Association between mental illness and creativity first appeared in academic literature in the 1970s, but speculation about a link between "madness" and "genius" dates back at least to the time of Aristotle, to whom Seneca attributes the aphorism "No great mind has ever existed without a touch of madness." The word "genius" may refer to literary genius, creative genius, scholarly genius, "all around" genius, etc. The Ancient Greeks believed that creativity came from the gods, in particular the Muses (the mythical personifications of the arts and sciences, the nine daughters of Zeus). In the Aristotelian tradition, genius was viewed from a physiological standpoint, and it was believed that the same human quality was perhaps responsible for both extraordinary achievement and melancholy. On this topic, Romantic writers had similar ideals, with Lord Byron having pleasantly expressed, "We of the craft are all crazy. Some are affected by gaiety, others by melancholy, but all are more or less touched".

Individuals with mental illness are said to display a capacity to see the world in a novel and original way; literally, to see things that others cannot. However, people do not require a mental illness to do so.

Studies
For many years, the creative arts, from visual arts and writing to music and drama, have been used in therapy for those recovering from mental illness or addiction.

Another study found that increased levels of creativity were more common amongst those with schizotypal personality disorder than in people with either schizophrenia or people without mental health diagnoses. While divergent thinking was associated with bilateral activation of the prefrontal cortex, schizotypal individuals were found to have much greater activation of their right prefrontal cortex. This study hypothesized that such individuals are better at accessing both hemispheres, allowing them to make novel associations at a faster rate. Consistent with this hypothesis, ambidexterity is also more common in people with schizotypal personality disorder as well as people with schizophrenia.

Three studies by Mark Batey and Adrian Furnham have demonstrated the relationships between schizotypal and hypomanic personality and several different measures of creativity. Specifically, Divergent Thinking Fluency, the Biographical Inventory of Creative Behaviors, as well as Self-rated Creativity.

Particularly strong links have been identified between creativity and mood disorders, particularly manic-depressive disorder (a.k.a. bipolar disorder) and depressive disorder (a.k.a. unipolar disorder). In Touched with Fire: Manic-Depressive Illness and the Artistic Temperament, Kay Redfield Jamison summarizes studies of mood-disorder rates in writers, poets and artists. She also explores research that identifies mood disorders in such famous writers and artists as Ernest Hemingway (who shot himself after electroconvulsive treatment), Virginia Woolf (who drowned herself when she felt a depressive episode coming on), composer Robert Schumann (who died in a mental institution), and famed visual artist Michelangelo.

A study by Simon Kyaga and others looked at 300,000 people with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder or unipolar depression, and their relatives, and found overrepresentation in creative professions for those with bipolar disorder as well as for undiagnosed siblings of those with schizophrenia or bipolar disorder. There was no overall overrepresentation, but overrepresentation for artistic occupations, among those diagnosed with schizophrenia. There was no association for those with unipolar depression or their relatives.

A study involving more than one million people, conducted by Swedish researchers at the Karolinska Institute, reported a number of correlations between creative occupations and mental illnesses. Writers had a higher risk of anxiety and bipolar disorders, schizophrenia, unipolar depression, and substance abuse, and were almost twice as likely as the general population to kill themselves. Dancers and photographers were also more likely to have bipolar disorder.

However, as a broader group, those in the creative professions (defined as "scientific and artistic occupations") were no more likely to experience psychiatric disorders than other people, although they were more likely to have a close relative with a disorder, including anorexia and, to some extent, autism, the Journal of Psychiatric Research reports.

Research in this area is usually constrained to cross-section data-sets. One of the few exceptions is an economic study of the well-being and creative output of three famous music composers over their entire lifetime. The emotional indicators are obtained from letters written by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven and Franz Liszt, and the results indicate that negative emotions had a causal impact on the creative production of the artists studied.

Psychological stress has also been found to impede spontaneous creativity. In fact, Robert Epstein describes it as a creativity killer. Instead, people must work to cultivate creativity like any other skill. He found that capturing your ideas, seeking out challenges, increasing your knowledge, and surrounding yourself with others who do the same help creativity grow rather than focusing on your stress.

A 2005 study at the Stanford University School of Medicine measured creativity by showing children figures of varying complexity and symmetry and asking whether they like or dislike them. The study showed for the first time that a sample of children who either have or are at high risk for bipolar disorder tend to dislike simple or symmetric symbols more. Children with bipolar parents who were not bipolar themselves also scored higher dislike scores.

A study by Sally Anne Gross and George Musgrave suggested that high levels of self-reported anxiety and depression amongst musicians might be explained, at least in part, by the nature of their working conditions.

Mood and creativity
There have been many studies on the correlation between mood and creativity with very different results. Some studies seem to show a correlation between positive mood (affect) and heightened creativity. Other studies show that negative moods seem to be correlated with heightened creativity. One such research paper concludes, "Negative moods signal that the status quo is problematic and that additional effort needs to be exerted to come up with new and useful ideas." The debate is not binary, with some studies saying that both positive and negative emotions play a role in creativity. Additionally, the connection between mood and creativity is rarely direct; rather, being in certain moods forces or fosters people into certain actions that make them more creative at the moment. For instance, negative emotions have been shown to increase the amount a person will reflect and ruminate, which then can cause a person to be more creative.

Bipolar disorder
Bipolar disorder may stimulate creativity, as manic episodes can include prolonged periods of elevated energy. The first empirical study about this topic was done by Nancy Andreasen in the 1970s. She expected for the correlation to be between Creativity and Schizophrenia. She instead discovered that the correlation was actually between creativity and those with mood disorders. Specifically, that 80% of her sample had experienced at least one major episode. In her follow-up study 15 years later, she found that 43% had been diagnosed with bipolar disorder and 2 had committed suicide. In her book Touched with Fire, American clinical psychologist Kay Redfield Jamison wrote that 38% of writers and poets had been treated for a type of mood disorder, and 89% of creative writers and artists had experienced "intense, highly productive, and creative episodes". These were characterized by "pronounced increases in enthusiasm, energy, self-confidence, speed of mental association, fluency of thought and elevated mood". Although mania is characterized by reckless and possibly self-destructive behavior, in milder forms, the energy and free-flowing thinking of mania can fuel creativity.

There is a range of types of bipolar disorder. Individuals with Bipolar I Disorder experience severe episodes of mania and depression with periods of wellness between episodes. The severity of the manic episodes can mean that the person is seriously disabled and unable to express the heightened perceptions and flight of thoughts and ideas in a practical way. Individuals with Bipolar II Disorder experience milder periods of hypomania during which the flight of ideas, faster thought processes and ability to take in more information can be converted to art, poetry or design. In a study done by Shapiro and Weisberg, they found that it was not the depressive episodes, but rather coming out of them that sparked the creativity. Specifically, the self-image that one has during hypomania causing them to be more self-confident and allows them to have the confidence to create.

Dutch artist Vincent Van Gogh is widely theorised to have had bipolar disorder. Other notable creative people with bipolar disorder include Carrie Fisher, Demi Lovato, Kanye West, Stephen Fry (who has cyclothymia, a milder and more chronic form of bipolar disorder), Mariah Carey, Jaco Pastorius, Catherine Zeta-Jones, Jean-Claude Van Damme, Ronald Braunstein, and Patty Duke.

Schizophrenia
People with schizophrenia live with positive, negative, and cognitive symptoms. Positive symptoms (psychotic behaviors that are not present in healthy people) include hallucinations, delusions, thought and movement disorders. Negative symptoms (abnormal functioning of emotions and behavior) include flat affect, anhedonia, among others. Cognitive symptoms include problems with executive functioning, attention, and memory. One artist known for his schizophrenia was the Frenchman Antonin Artaud, founder of the Theatre of Cruelty movement. In Madness and Modernism (1992), clinical psychologist Louis A. Sass noted that many common traits of schizophrenia – especially fragmentation, defiance of authority, and multiple viewpoints – happen to also be defining features of modern art. However, it has been found that those who have it are the most creative either before or after active periods, not during them.

Multiple research studies study a link between reduced latent inhibition, and the psychopathology of acute-phase schizophrenia. This is suggestive of a correlation between psychopathology and creativity, but should not be interpreted as a causal relationship.

Arguments that support link
In a 2002 conversation with Christopher Langan, educational psychologist Arthur Jensen stated that the relationship between creativity and mental disorder "has been well researched and is proven to be a fact", writing that schizothymic characteristics are somewhat more frequent in philosophers, mathematicians, and scientists than in the general population. In a 2015 study, Iceland scientists found that people in creative professions are 25% more likely to have gene variants that increase the risk of bipolar disorder and schizophrenia, with deCODE Genetics co-founder Kári Stefánsson saying, "Often, when people are creating something new, they end up straddling between sanity and insanity. I think these results support the concept of the mad genius."

Bipolar disorder
Many famous historical figures gifted with creative talents may have been affected by bipolar disorder. Ludwig van Beethoven, Kanye West, Virginia Woolf, Ernest Hemingway, Isaac Newton, Judy Garland, Jaco Pastorius and Robert Schumann are some people whose lives have been researched to discover signs of mood disorder. In many instances, creativity and mania – the overwhelming highs that bipolar individuals often experience – share some common traits, such as a tendency for "thinking outside the box," flights of ideas, the speeding up of thoughts and heightened perception of visual, auditory and somatic stimuli.

It has been found that the brains of creative people are more open to environmental stimuli due to smaller amounts of latent inhibition, an individual's unconscious capacity to ignore unimportant stimuli. While the absence of this ability is associated with psychosis, it has also been found to contribute to original thinking.

Emotions
Many people with bipolar disorder may feel powerful emotions during both depressive and manic phases, potentially aiding in creativity. Because mania and hypomania may decrease social inhibition, performers who have bipolar disorder may become more daring and bold during an episode. Other creators may exhibit characteristics often associated with mental illness that are not necessarily equivalent to a full-blown manic episode.

Posthumous diagnosis
Some creative people have been posthumously diagnosed as experiencing bipolar or unipolar disorder based on biographies, letters, correspondence, contemporaneous accounts, or other anecdotal material, most notably in Kay Redfield Jamison's book Touched with Fire: Manic-Depressive Illness and the Artistic Temperament. Touched with Fire presents the argument that bipolar disorder, and affective disorders more generally, may be found in a disproportionate number of people in creative professions such as actors, artists, comedians, musicians, authors, performers and poets.

Scholars have also speculated that the visual artist Michelangelo lived with depression. In the book Famous Depressives: Ten Historical Sketches, MJ Van Lieburg argues that elements of depression are prominent in some of Michelangelo's sculptures and poetry. Van Lieburg also draws additional support from Michelangelo's letters to his father in which he states:

"I lead a miserable existence and reck not of life nor honour – that is of this world; I live wearied by stupendous labours and beset by a thousand anxieties. And thus I lived for some fifteen years now and never an hour's happiness have I had."

Positive correlation
Several recent clinical studies have also suggested that there is a positive correlation between creativity and bipolar disorder, although the relationship between the two is unclear. Temperament may be an intervening variable. Ambition has also been identified as being linked to creative output in people across the bipolar spectrum. ''Can Music Make You Sick? Measuring the Price of Musical Ambition'' by Sally Anne Gross and George Musgrave suggests that high levels of self-reported anxiety and depression amongst musicians can be explained, at least in part, by the nature of musicians' working conditions.

Mental illness and divergent thinking
In 2017, associate professor of psychiatry Gail Saltz stated that the increased production of divergent thoughts in people with mild-to-moderate mental illnesses leads to greater creative capacities. Saltz argued that the "wavering attention and day-dreamy state" of ADHD, for example, "is also a source of highly original thinking... CEOs of companies such as Ikea and Jetblue have ADHD. Their creativity, out-of-the-box thinking, high energy levels, and disinhibited manner could all be a positive result of their [condition]." Mania risk has also been credited with aiding in creative accomplishments because "when speed of thinking increases, word associations form more freely, as do flight of ideas, because the manic mind is less inclined to filtering details that, in a normal state, would be dismissed as irrelevant."

Brain imaging and genetic links
Brain imaging studies have consistently reported that low-latent inhibition is associated with originality, creative personalities, and high levels of creative achievement. There have also been genetic studies conducted to consider genetic links between creativity and psychopathology. Several genes that have been flagged as linking to some forms of psychopathology have also been linked to creativity. These include polymorphisms of the DRD2 and DRD4 genes, the 5HT2a gene, and the NRG1 gene.

Correlation but not causation
Several studies suggest a consistent link between creativity and those with either mild forms of bipolar disorder or family histories of bipolar disorder, but not full-blown Bipolar I Disorder. These findings reiterate that creative individuals are more likely on the mild end of psychosis spectrums, but not repeatedly beyond that point. One study wrote that "only elevated levels of schizotypy and psychosis-proneness found in divergent thinkers or possessing some indicators of schizotypy promotes creative achievement but not full-blown schizophrenia". Another article writes that "it is likely that psychopathology and creativity are closely related; sharing many traits and antecedents but outright psychopathology may be negatively associated with creativity".

These correlations could be due, in part, to shared vulnerability factors between creativity and psychopathology, including neural hyper-connectivity, novelty salience, cognitive disinhibition, and emotional lability. There are also shared environmental factors that can simultaneously increase potential for creativity and vulnerability to psychopathology. These factors continue to drive further research, like the study Anxiety and Adverse Life Events in Professional Creative and Early Psychosis Populations (Crabtree et al. ).

Creativity and mental well-being
There is a popular Indian cultural belief that 'deep pain enhances creativity and creative acts may actually help in healing the wounds'. The healing powers of creativity are seen frequently in everyday life, as artistic outlets are often encouraged as a way to improve well-being. For many people, creativity serves to overcome psychic crises, traumatic events and depression. Creativity can also have an incredible impact on mental health and well-being by not only helping people find meaning and significance, but providing an increased sense of purpose.

Notable individuals
This is a list of individuals whose creative sensibilities have been linked to their mental health.

 * John Nash (1928–2015) was an American economist, noted for his contributions to game theory, who was diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia. After undergoing several different treatments and therapies over the course of several decades, Nash effectively eschewed further psychiatric intervention and gradually adjusted to dealing with his symptoms without the usage of medications; he eventually returned to his field and earned a Nobel Prize in Economics in 1994.
 * Joanne Greenberg (born 1932) is an American author who wrote I Never Promised You a Rose Garden (1964), an autobiographical account of her teenage years in Chestnut Lodge working with Frieda Fromm-Reichmann. At the time she was diagnosed with schizophrenia, although two psychiatrists who examined Greenberg's self-description in the book in 1981 concluded that she did not have schizophrenia, but had extreme depression and somatization disorder. The narrative constantly puts difference between the protagonist's mental illness and her artistic ability. Greenberg is adamant that her creative skills flourished in spite of, not because of, her condition:
 * "I wrote [I Never Promised You a Rose Garden] as a way of describing mental illness without the romanticisation [sic] that it underwent in the sixties and seventies when people were taking LSD to simulate what they thought was a liberating experience. During those days, people often confused creativity with insanity. There is no creativity in madness; madness is the opposite of creativity, although people may be creative in spite of being mentally ill."
 * This statement from Greenberg originally appeared on the page for Rose Garden at amazon.com and has been quoted in many places including Asylum: A Mid-Century Madhouse and Its Lessons About Our Mentally Ill Today, by Enoch Callaway, M.D. (Praeger, 2007), p. 82.

 * Brian Wilson (born 1942), founding member of American rock band the Beach Boys, has bipolar and schizoaffective disorder. In 2002, after undergoing treatment, he spoke of how medication affects his creativity, explaining: "I haven't been able to write anything for three years. I think I need the demons in order to write, but the demons have gone. It bothers me a lot. I've tried and tried, but I just can't seem to find a melody."
 * Daniel Johnston (1961–2019) was an American singer-songwriter whose music was often attributed to his psychological issues. In a press release issued by his manager, it was requested that reporters refrain from describing Johnston as a "genius" due to the musician's emotional instabilities. The Guardian's David McNamee argued that "it's almost taboo to say anything critical about Johnston. This is incredibly patronising. For one thing, it makes any honest evaluation of his work impossible."
 * Marij Kogoj was a Slovenian composer with schizophrenia.
 * Terry A. Davis (1969–2018) was an American computer programmer who singlehandedly created and designed an entire operating system, TempleOS, alongside full 2D and 3D graphics libraries, a programming language (HolyC) and a compiler. Although his remarks were often incomprehensible or abrasive, he was known to be exceptionally lucid if the topic of discussion was computers. He refused medication for his schizophrenia because he believed it limited his creativity. In 2017, the OS was shown as a part of an outsider art exhibition in Bourgogne, France.
 * Kanye West (born 1977) is an American record producer, rapper, singer, and fashion designer who has bipolar disorder. The creativity in his art and his outspoken views on different topics are sometimes attributed in part to him being bipolar. West has said on his disorder, "I can just tell you what I'm feeling at the time, and I feel a heightened connection with the universe when I'm ramping up. It is a health issue. This – it's like a sprained brain, like having a sprained ankle. And if someone has a sprained ankle, you're not going to push on him more. With us, once our brain gets to a point of spraining, people do everything to make it worse."

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Creativity and mental health


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The Dark Half

The Dark Half is a horror novel by American writer Stephen King, published in 1989. Publishers Weekly listed The Dark Half as the second-best-selling book of 1989 behind Tom Clancy's Clear and Present Danger. The novel was adapted into a feature film of the same name in 1993.

Stephen King wrote several books under a pseudonym, Richard Bachman, during the 1970s and 1980s. Most of the Bachman novels were darker and more cynical in nature, featuring a far more visceral sense of horror than the psychological, gothic style common in many of King's most famous works. When King was identified as Bachman, he wrote The Dark Half – about an author – in response to his outing.

The book's central villain, George Stark, was named in honor of Richard Stark, the pen name of writer Donald E. Westlake under which he wrote some of his darkest, most violent books. King telephoned Westlake personally to ask permission. King's own "Richard Bachman" pseudonym was also partly named for Stark: King had been reading a Richard Stark novel at the time he chose the pen name.

Plot summary
Thad Beaumont is an author and recovering alcoholic who lives in the town of Ludlow, Maine. Thad's own books – cerebral literary fiction – are not very successful. Under the pen name "George Stark", he writes highly successful crime novels about a psychopathic killer named Alexis Machine. When Thad's authorship of Stark's novels becomes public knowledge, Thad and his wife, Elizabeth, decide to stage a mock burial for his alter ego at the local cemetery, which is featured in a People magazine article. His epitaph reads: "Not a Very Nice Guy."

Stark emerges from the mock grave as a physical entity, complete with the personality traits that Thad exhibited while writing as him, such as alcohol abuse and Pall Mall cigarette smoking. He then goes on a killing spree, gruesomely murdering everyone he perceives as responsible for his "death" – Thad's editor, agent, and the People interviewer, among others. Thad, meanwhile, is plagued by surreal nightmares. Stark's murders are investigated by Alan Pangborn, the sheriff of the neighboring town of Castle Rock, who finds Thad's voice and fingerprints at the crime scenes. This evidence, and Thad's unwillingness to answer his questions, causes Pangborn to believe that Thad – despite having alibis – is responsible for the murders. Later, it is discovered that Stark has the same fingerprints as Thad, a clue to the twinship he and Thad share.

Thad eventually discovers that he and Stark share a mental bond, and begins to find notes from Stark written in his own handwriting. The notes tell Thad what activity Stark has been engaging in. Observing his son and daughter, Thad notes that twins share a unique bond. They can feel each other's pain and at times appear to read the other's mind. Using this as a key to his own situation, he begins to discover the even deeper meaning behind himself and Stark.

Pangborn eventually learns that Thad had an unborn twin brother who was absorbed into Thad in utero and later removed from his brain when he was a child. He had suffered from severe headaches and it was originally thought to be a tumor causing them. The neurosurgeon who removed it found the following inside: part of a nostril, some fingernails, some teeth, and a malformed human eye. This leads to questions about the true nature of Stark, whether he is a malevolent spirit with its own existence, or Thad himself, manifesting an alternate personality. Thad eventually destroys Stark in a showdown where he uses a bird call to bring forth a flock of sparrows that tear Stark's body apart, but the book ends on an unhappy note. It is suggested by Alan Pangborn that Thad's wife may be having serious doubts about the future of their relationship: she is appalled that Thad not only created Stark (if unintentionally), but that a part of him liked Stark.

Adaptations
The novel was adapted as a film, The Dark Half, by George A. Romero in 1990, and was released in 1993. It was filmed in part at Washington and Jefferson College and other locations in southwestern Pennsylvania. It starred Timothy Hutton as Thad/Stark, Michael Rooker as Alan Pangborn, and featured Julie Harris as an eccentric colleague of Thad's who provides some vital information about the supernatural. An adventure video game adaptation was released for DOS in 1992. It was developed by Symtus and published by Capstone Software. In December 2019, it was announced that MGM would develop a film adaptation of the novel, with Alex Ross Perry set to write and direct.

In Bangladesh, the book was adopted as Trityo Noyon (The Third Eye) by Roksana Nazanin, published from Sheba Prokashoni.

title: The Dark Half


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Wide Area Augmentation System

The Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) is an air navigation aid developed by the Federal Aviation Administration to augment the Global Positioning System (GPS), with the goal of improving its accuracy, integrity, and availability. Essentially, WAAS is intended to enable aircraft to rely on GPS for all phases of flight, including precision approaches to any airport within its coverage area. It may be further enhanced with the Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS) also known by the preferred ICAO term Ground-Based Augmentation System (GBAS) in critical areas.

WAAS uses a network of ground-based reference stations, in North America and Hawaii, to measure small variations in the GPS satellites' signals in the western hemisphere. Measurements from the reference stations are routed to master stations, which queue the received Deviation Correction (DC) and send the correction messages to geostationary WAAS satellites in a timely manner (every 5 seconds or better). Those satellites broadcast the correction messages back to Earth, where WAAS-enabled GPS receivers use the corrections while computing their positions to improve accuracy.

The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) calls this type of system a satellite-based augmentation system (SBAS). Europe and Asia are developing their own SBASs: the Indian GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN), the European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS), the Japanese Multi-functional Satellite Augmentation System (MSAS) and the Russian System for Differential Corrections and Monitoring (SDCM), respectively. Commercial systems include StarFire, OmniSTAR, and Atlas.

Accuracy
A primary goal of WAAS was to allow aircraft to make a Category I approach without any equipment being installed at the airport. This would allow new GPS-based instrument landing approaches to be developed for any airport, even ones without any ground equipment. A Category I approach requires an accuracy of 16 m laterally and 4.0 m vertically.

To meet this goal, the WAAS specification requires it to provide a position accuracy of 7.6 m or less (for both lateral and vertical measurements), at least 95% of the time. Actual performance measurements of the system at specific locations have shown it typically provides better than 1.0 m laterally and 1.5 m vertically throughout most of the contiguous United States and large parts of Canada and Alaska.

Integrity
Integrity of a navigation system includes the ability to provide timely warnings when its signal is providing misleading data that could potentially create hazards. The WAAS specification requires the system detect errors in the GPS or WAAS network and notify users within 6.2 seconds. Certifying that WAAS is safe for instrument flight rules (IFR) (i.e. flying in the clouds) requires proving there is only an extremely small probability that an error exceeding the requirements for accuracy will go undetected. Specifically, the probability is stated as 1×10−7, and is equivalent to no more than 3 seconds of bad data per year. This provides integrity information equivalent to or better than Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM).

Availability
Availability is the probability that a navigation system meets the accuracy and integrity requirements. Before the advent of WAAS, GPS specifications allowed for system unavailability for as much as a total time of four days per year (99% availability). The WAAS specification mandates availability as 99.999% (five nines) throughout the service area, equivalent to a downtime of just over 5 minutes per year.

Operation
WAAS is composed of three main segments: the ground segment, space segment, and user segment.

Ground segment
The ground segment is composed of multiple Wide-area Reference Stations (WRS). These precisely surveyed ground stations monitor and collect information on the GPS signals, then send their data to three Wide-area Master Stations (WMS) using a terrestrial communications network. The reference stations also monitor signals from WAAS geostationary satellites, providing integrity information regarding them as well. As of October 2007 there were 38 WRSs: twenty in the contiguous United States (CONUS), seven in Alaska, one in Hawaii, one in Puerto Rico, five in Mexico, and four in Canada.

Using the data from the WRS sites, the WMSs generate two different sets of corrections: fast and slow. The fast corrections are for errors which are changing rapidly and primarily concern the GPS satellites' instantaneous positions and clock errors. These corrections are considered user position-independent, which means they can be applied instantly by any receiver inside the WAAS broadcast footprint. The slow corrections include long-term ephemeric and clock error estimates, as well as ionospheric delay information. WAAS supplies delay corrections for a number of points (organized in a grid pattern) across the WAAS service area (see User Segment, below, to understand how these corrections are used).

Once these correction messages are generated, the WMSs send them to two pairs of Ground Uplink Stations (GUS), which then transmit to satellites in the Space segment for rebroadcast to the User segment.

Reference stations
Each FAA Air Route Traffic Control Center in the 50 states has a WAAS reference station, except for Indianapolis. There are also stations positioned in Canada, Mexico and Puerto Rico. See List of WAAS reference stations for the coordinates of the individual receiving antennas.

Space segment
The space segment consists of multiple communication satellites which broadcast the correction messages generated by the WAAS Master Stations for reception by the user segment. The satellites also broadcast the same type of range information as normal GPS satellites, effectively increasing the number of satellites available for a position fix. The space segment currently consists of three commercial satellites: Eutelsat 117 West B, SES-15, and Galaxy 30.

Satellite History
The original two WAAS satellites, named Pacific Ocean Region (POR) and Atlantic Ocean Region-West (AOR-W), were leased space on Inmarsat III satellites. These satellites ceased WAAS transmissions on July 31, 2007. With the end of the Inmarsat lease approaching, two new satellites (Galaxy 15 and Anik F1R) were launched in late 2005. Galaxy 15 is a PanAmSat and Anik F1R is a Telesat. As with the previous satellites, these are leased services under the FAA's Geostationary Satellite Communications Control Segment contract with Lockheed Martin for WAAS geostationary satellite leased services, who were contracted to provide up to three satellites through the year 2016.

A third satellite was later added to the system. From March to November 2010, the FAA broadcast a WAAS test signal on a leased transponder on the Inmarsat-4 F3 satellite. The test signal was not usable for navigation, but could be received and was reported with the identification numbers PRN 133 (NMEA #46). In November 2010, the signal was certified as operational and made available for navigation. Following in orbit testing, Eutelsat 117 West B, broadcasting signal on PRN 131 (NMEA #44), was certified as operational and made available for navigation on March 27, 2018. The SES 15 satellite was launched on May 18, 2017, and following an in-orbit test of several months, was set operational on July 15, 2019. In 2018, a contract was awarded to place a WAAS L-band payload on the Galaxy 30 satellite. The satellite was successfully launched on August 15, 2020, and the WAAS transmissions were set operational on April 26, 2022, re-using PRN 135 (NMEA #48). After approximately three weeks with four active WAAS satellites, operational WAAS transmissions on Anik F1-R were ended on May 17, 2022.

In the table above, PRN is the satellite's actual Pseudo-Random Number code. NMEA is the satellite number sent by some receivers when outputting satellite information (NMEA = PRN - 87).

User segment
The user segment is the GPS and WAAS receiver, which uses the information broadcast from each GPS satellite to determine its location and the current time, and receives the WAAS corrections from the Space segment. The two types of correction messages received (fast and slow) are used in different ways.

The GPS receiver can immediately apply the fast type of correction data, which includes the corrected satellite position and clock data, and determines its current location using normal GPS calculations. Once an approximate position fix is obtained the receiver begins to use the slow corrections to improve its accuracy. Among the slow correction data is the ionospheric delay. As the GPS signal travels from the satellite to the receiver, it passes through the ionosphere. The receiver calculates the location where the signal pierced the ionosphere and, if it has received an ionospheric delay value for that location, corrects for the error the ionosphere created.

While the slow data can be updated every minute if necessary, ephemeris errors and ionosphere errors do not change this frequently, so they are only updated every two minutes and are considered valid for up to six minutes.

History and development
The WAAS was jointly developed by the United States Department of Transportation (DOT) and the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) as part of the Federal Radionavigation Program (DOT-VNTSC-RSPA-95-1/DOD-4650.5), beginning in 1994, to provide performance comparable to category 1 instrument landing system (ILS) for all aircraft possessing the appropriately certified equipment. Without WAAS, ionospheric disturbances, clock drift, and satellite orbit errors create too much error and uncertainty in the GPS signal to meet the requirements for a precision approach (see GPS sources of error). A precision approach includes altitude information and provides course guidance, distance from the runway, and elevation information at all points along the approach, usually down to lower altitudes and weather minimums than non-precision approaches.

Prior to the WAAS, the U.S. National Airspace System (NAS) did not have the ability to provide lateral and vertical navigation for precision approaches for all users at all locations. The traditional system for precision approaches is the instrument landing system (ILS), which used a series of radio transmitters each broadcasting a single signal to the aircraft. This complex series of radios needs to be installed at every runway end, some offsite, along a line extended from the runway centerline, making the implementation of a precision approach both difficult and very expensive. The ILS system is composed of 180 different transmitting antennas at each point built.

For some time the FAA and NASA developed a much improved system, the microwave landing system (MLS). The entire MLS system for a particular approach was isolated in one or two boxes located beside the runway, dramatically reducing the cost of implementation. MLS also offered a number of practical advantages that eased traffic considerations, both for aircraft and radio channels. Unfortunately, MLS would also require every airport and aircraft to upgrade their equipment.

During the development of MLS, consumer GPS receivers of various quality started appearing. GPS offered a huge number of advantages to the pilot, combining all of an aircraft's long-distance navigation systems into a single easy-to-use system, often small enough to be hand held. Deploying an aircraft navigation system based on GPS was largely a problem of developing new techniques and standards, as opposed to new equipment. The FAA started planning to shut down their existing long-distance systems (VOR and NDBs) in favor of GPS. This left the problem of approaches, however. GPS is simply not accurate enough to replace ILS systems. Typical accuracy is about 15 m, whereas even a "CAT I" approach, the least demanding, requires a vertical accuracy of 4 m.

This inaccuracy in GPS is mostly due to large "billows" in the ionosphere, which slow the radio signal from the satellites by a random amount. Since GPS relies on timing the signals to measure distances, this slowing of the signal makes the satellite appear farther away. The billows move slowly, and can be characterized using a variety of methods from the ground, or by examining the GPS signals themselves. By broadcasting this information to GPS receivers every minute or so, this source of error can be significantly reduced.

This led to the concept of Differential GPS, which used separate radio systems to broadcast the correction signal to receivers. Aircraft could then install a receiver which would be plugged into the GPS unit, the signal being broadcast on a variety of frequencies for different users (FM radio for cars, longwave for ships, etc.). Broadcasters of the required power generally cluster around larger cities, making such DGPS systems less useful for wide-area navigation. Additionally, most radio signals are either line-of-sight, or can be distorted by the ground, which made DGPS difficult to use as a precision approach system or when flying low for other reasons.

The FAA considered systems that could allow the same correction signals to be broadcast over a much wider area, such as from a satellite, leading directly to WAAS. Since a GPS unit already consists of a satellite receiver, it made much more sense to send out the correction signals on the same frequencies used by GPS units, than to use an entirely separate system and thereby double the probability of failure. In addition to lowering implementation costs by "piggybacking" on a planned satellite launch, this also allowed the signal to be broadcast from geostationary orbit, which meant a small number of satellites could cover all of North America.

On July 10, 2003, the WAAS signal was activated for general aviation, covering 95% of the United States, and portions of Alaska offering 350 ft minimums.

On January 17, 2008, Alabama-based Hickok & Associates became the first designer of helicopter WAAS with Localizer Performance (LP) and Localizer Performance with Vertical guidance (LPV) approaches, and the only entity with FAA-approved criteria (which even FAA has yet to develop). This helicopter WAAS criteria offers as low as 250 foot minimums and decreased visibility requirements to enable missions previously not possible. On April 1, 2009, FAA AFS-400 approved the first three helicopter WAAS GPS approach procedures for Hickok & Associates' customer California Shock/Trauma Air Rescue (CALSTAR). Since then they have designed many approved WAAS helicopter approaches for various EMS hospitals and air providers, within the United States as well as in other countries and continents.

On December 30, 2009, Seattle-based Horizon Air flew the first scheduled-passenger service flight using WAAS with LPV on flight 2014, a Portland to Seattle flight operated by a Bombardier Q400 with a WAAS FMS from Universal Avionics. The airline, in partnership with the FAA, will outfit seven Q400-aircraft with WAAS and share flight data to better determine the suitability of WAAS in scheduled air service applications.

Timeline
Wide-Area Augmentation System (WAAS) Timeline

Benefits
WAAS addresses all of the "navigation problem", providing highly accurate positioning that is extremely easy to use, for the cost of a single receiver installed on the aircraft. Ground- and space-based infrastructure is relatively limited, and no on-airport system is needed. WAAS allows a precision approach to be published for any airport, for the cost of developing the procedures and publishing the new approach plates. This means that almost any airport can have a precision approach and the cost of implementation is drastically reduced.

Additionally WAAS works just as well between airports. This allows the aircraft to fly directly from one airport to another, as opposed to following routes based on ground-based signals. This can cut route distances considerably in some cases, saving both time and fuel. In addition, because of its ability to provide information on the accuracy of each GPS satellite's information, aircraft equipped with WAAS are permitted to fly at lower en-route altitudes than was possible with ground-based systems, which were often blocked by terrain of varying elevation. This enables pilots to safely fly at lower altitudes, not having to rely on ground-based systems. For unpressurized aircraft, this conserves oxygen and enhances safety.

The above benefits create not only convenience, but also have the potential to generate significant cost savings. The cost to provide the WAAS signal, serving all 5,400 public use airports, is just under US$50 million per year. In comparison, the current ground based systems such as the Instrument Landing System (ILS), installed at only 600 airports, cost US$82 million in annual maintenance. Without ground navigation hardware to purchase, the total cost of publishing a runway's WAAS approach is approximately US$50,000; compared to the $1,000,000 to $1,500,000 cost to install an ILS radio system.

Drawbacks and limitations
For all its benefits, WAAS is not without drawbacks and critical limitations:

 * Space weather. All man-made satellite systems are subject to space weather and space debris threats.  For example, a solar super-storm event composed of an extremely large and fast earthbound Coronal Mass Ejection (CME) could disable the geosynchronous or GPS satellite elements of WAAS.
 * The broadcasting satellites are geostationary, which causes them to be less than 10° above the horizon for locations north of 71.4° latitude. This means aircraft in areas of Alaska or northern Canada may have difficulty maintaining a lock on the WAAS signal.
 * To calculate an ionospheric grid point's delay, that point must be located between a satellite and a reference station. The low number of satellites and ground stations limit the number of points which can be calculated.
 * Aircraft conducting WAAS approaches use certified GPS receivers, which are much more expensive than non-certified units. In 2024, Garmin's least expensive certified receiver, the GPS 175, had a suggested retail price of US$5,895.
 * WAAS is not capable of the accuracies required for Category II or III ILS approaches. Thus, WAAS is not a sole-solution and either existing ILS equipment must be maintained or it must be replaced by new systems, such as the Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS).
 * WAAS Localizer Performance with Vertical guidance (LPV) approaches with 200-foot minimums (LPV-200) will not be published for airports without medium intensity lighting, precision runway markings and a parallel taxiway. Smaller airports, which currently may not have these features, would have to upgrade their facilities or require pilots to use higher minimums.
 * As precision increases and error approaches zero, the navigation paradox states that there is an increased collision risk, as the likelihood of two craft occupying the same space on the shortest distance line between two navigational points has increased.

Improvement to aviation operations
In 2007, WAAS vertical guidance was projected to be available nearly all the time (greater than 99%), and its coverage encompasses the full continental U.S., most of Alaska, northern Mexico, and southern Canada. At that time, the accuracy of WAAS would meet or exceed the requirements for Category 1 ILS approaches, namely, three-dimensional position information down to 200 feet (60 m) above touchdown zone elevation.

Software improvements
Software improvements, to be implemented by September 2008, significantly improve signal availability of vertical guidance throughout the CONUS and Alaska. Area covered by the 95% available LPV solution in Alaska improves from 62% to 86%. And in the CONUS, the 100% availability LPV-200 coverage rises from 48% to 84%, with 100% coverage of the LPV solution.

Space segment upgrades
Both Galaxy XV (PRN #135) and Anik F1R (PRN #138) contain an L1 & L5 GPS payload. This means they will potentially be usable with the L5 modernized GPS signals when the new signals and receivers become available. With L5, avionics will be able to use a combination of signals to provide the most accurate service possible, thereby increasing availability of the service. These avionics systems will use ionospheric corrections broadcast by WAAS, or self-generated onboard dual frequency corrections, depending on which one is more accurate.

title: Wide Area Augmentation System


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Whoopsie daisy

Whoopsie daisy was proposed for deletion. This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was ambiguous. After reviewing the votes and the relevant articles, I have made this a redirect to baby talk. This will at least be consistent with Wikipedia's treatment of other phrases such as the list of Latin phrases and military slang. Rossami 21:23, 2 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Nonsense. Funny, but nonsense. RickK 22:58, Jul 27, 2004 (UTC) This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like other '/delete' pages is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion or on the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.
 * recently I have taken to saying "aw phuddi choot" in such circumstances. Merge with Upsidaisium and delete both. Ianb 23:06, 27 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: More phuddi articles like this choot, which belongs in a dictionary, is just OOS.  Actually, it's a harmless dictdef, but it's a dictdef.  Geogre 23:51, 27 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Comment Too short, but not patent nonsense and a legitimate piece of information which is not likely to be found in ordinary dictionaries, as it is basically baby talk. We do not seem to have an article on Baby talk. Baby-talk phrases are very odd in that there are many phrases that are in reasonably wide use—"whoopsie-daisy" is one of them—and others that are specific to a particular family. I guess I'm leaning toward "move and redirect to baby talk." If I can think of or find a few other widely used expressions I may actually do this. Dpbsmith 11:32, 28 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * There are all sorts of infantile euphemisms. Even without getting into sexual euphemism for infants, there are all the scatological ones.  Then there are the nonsense syllables.  One could divide the article into inarticulate noises, the negative particle ("no," "no-no," "a doesn't," etc.), euphemism, which subdivides into scatology, anatomy, and interjections -- of which "whoopsie daisy" is one.  Such an article would be good, since ESL folks in particular will be puzzled by the phenomenon. Geogre 12:32, 28 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Redirect to Baby talk. I have created an article on Baby talk for this very purpose. I'm somewhat concerned because I don't have any expertise in linguistics or child development, and I fear that I may have mixed up two different uses of baby talk (nonverbal noises and "nursery" words), but I guess I will leave it to Wikipedians to clean up any boo-boos, whoopsie-daisies or, in general, Wiki-ickies I may have committed. There is far, far less on the Web about baby talk than I could possibly have imagined, unless I'm searching on the wrong things. Dpbsmith 14:29, 28 Jul 2004 (UTC) P.S. We need something like "superstub" to describe something that's longer than a stub but is still just a placeholder...
 * Good job on the Baby talk article, Dpbsmith. - Eisnel
 * I agree, good job. RickK 21:17, Jul 28, 2004 (UTC)


text:
United States District Court for the Central District of California

The United States District Court for the Central District of California (in case citations, C.D. Cal.; commonly referred to as the CDCA or CACD) is a federal trial court that serves over 19 million people in Southern and Central California, making it the most populous federal judicial district. The district was created on September 18, 1966. Cases from the Central District are appealed to the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit (except for patent claims and claims against the United States government under the Tucker Act, which are appealed to the Federal Circuit). Along with the Central District of Illinois, the court is the only district court referred to by the name "Central" – all other courts with similar geographical names instead use the term "Middle."

History
California was admitted to the union on September 9, 1850, and was divided into two federal trial court districts – Northern and Southern – by Act of Congress on September 28, 1850, 9 Stat. 521. The boundary was at the 37th parallel. The two districts were merged as the United States District Court for the District of California on July 27, 1866, by 14 Stat. 300. On August 5, 1886, Congress re-created the Southern District by 24 Stat. 308, while the northern half was renamed Northern District. The Eastern and Central Districts of California were created on March 18, 1966 from portions of the Northern and Southern Districts by 80 Stat. 75.

Divisions
The U.S. District Court for the Central District of California is divided into three divisions, with jurisdiction over seven counties: Riverside, San Bernardino, Orange, Los Angeles, San Luis Obispo, Santa Barbara, and Ventura.

The Eastern Division covers Riverside and San Bernardino Counties at the Riverside courthouse.

The Southern Division covers Orange County from the Ronald Reagan Federal Building and Courthouse in Santa Ana.

The Western Division covers Los Angeles, San Luis Obispo, Santa Barbara, and Ventura Counties. Cases are heard in two courthouses in downtown Los Angeles. All but two district judges are located in the new First Street Courthouse, whereas magistrate judges and two district judges maintain chambers in the Edward R. Roybal Courthouse.

United States attorney for the Central District of California
The United States attorney for the Central District of California represents the United States government in civil and criminal cases before the court. , the United States attorney is E. Martin Estrada.

List of U.S. attorneys

 * George J. Denis (1888–1889)
 * Aurelus H. Hutton (1889–1890)
 * Matthew T. Allen (1892–1893)
 * George J. Denis (1893–1897)
 * Frank P. Flint (1897–1901)
 * Louis H. Valentine (1901–1905)
 * Oscar Lawler (1905–1909)
 * Albert Schoonover (1913–1917)
 * J. Robert O’Conner (1917–1921)
 * Joseph C. Burke (1921–1925)
 * Samuel W. McNabb (1925–1933)
 * John Rose Laying (1933)
 * Peirson M. Hall (1933–1937)
 * Ben Harrison (1937–1940)
 * William Fleet Palmer (1940–1942)
 * Leo V. Silverstein (1942–1943)
 * Charles H. Carr (1943–1946)
 * James M. Carter (1946–1949)
 * Ernest A. Tolin (1949–1951)
 * Walter Binns (1951–1953)
 * Laughlin Edward Waters Sr. (1953–1961)
 * Francis C. Whelan (1961–1964)
 * Thomas R. Sheridan (1962–1964)
 * Manuel L. Real (1964–1966)
 * John K. Van de Kamp (1966–1967)
 * William Matthew Byrne Jr. (1967–1970)
 * Robert L. Meyer (1970–1972)
 * William D. Keller (1972–1977)
 * Robert L. Brosio (1977) (Acting)
 * Andrea S. Ordin (1977–1981)
 * Alexander H. Williams, III (1981) (Acting)
 * Stephen S. Trott (1981–1983)
 * Alexander H. Williams, III (1983–1984)
 * Robert C. Bonner (1984–1989)
 * Gary Allen Feess (1989)
 * Robert L. Brosio (1989–1990)
 * Lourdes Baird (1990–1992)
 * Terree Bowers (1992–1994)
 * Nora Margaret Manella (1994–1998)
 * Alejandro Mayorkas (1998–2001)
 * John S. Gordon (2001–2002)
 * Debra Wong Yang (2002–2006)
 * George S. Cardona (2006–2007)
 * Thomas P. O'Brien (2007–2009)
 * George S. Cardona (2009–2010) (Acting)
 * André Birotte Jr. (2010–2014)
 * Stephanie Yonekura (2014–2015) (Acting)
 * Eileen M. Decker (2015–2017)
 * Sandra R. Brown (2017–2018) (Acting)
 * Nicola T. Hanna (2018–2021)
 * Tracy L. Wilkison (2021–2022) (Acting)
 * E. Martin Estrada (2022–present)


text:
Winkie

Winkie may refer to:

Arts and entertainment

 * Winkie Country, a place in the Wizard of Oz novels by L. Frank Baum, and its residents (Winkies)
 * the title character of Wee Willie Winkie, an 1841 Scottish nursery rhyme
 * Winkie (novel), a 2006 novel by Clifford Chase about a teddy bear accused of terrorism
 * "Winkie", a 2006 short story by Margo Lanagan
 * The Winkies, a British rock group
 * A Chinese name, representing the meaning of "flower."

People

 * Winkie Direko (1929–2012), South African politician
 * Nickname of Winkie Dodds (born 1958), Northern Irish loyalist activist
 * Nickname of Winifred Griffin (1932–2018), New Zealand swimmer
 * Nickname of Winkie Wilkins (born 1941), American politician

Other uses

 * Winkie, South Australia, a locality
 * Winkie (pigeon), a Dickin Medal-winning pigeon

 * "Winkies", a nickname of Winchester College football

title: Winkie


text:
Audibert & Lavirotte

The Audibert & Lavirotte was a French automobile, manufactured in Lyon from 1894 to 1901. The company, the oldest maker of automobiles in the city, was set up by Maurice Audibert and Emile Lavirotte built cars that were generally similar to the Benz. These were up to 6 horsepower, and featured belt drive and rear-mounted engines. In 1900, the company built three 36 hp racers, which were entered in the Nice-Salon-Nice race on 25 March 1901. They were the heaviest vehicles in the race, weighing over 1600 kilograms each. They manufactured a so-called Berline de Voyage, which may have been the first saloon car as early as 1898. The company ceased production in November 1901, after financiers did not pay and the factory was forced to shut down. The plant was taken over by Marius Berliet in 1902. Lavirotte helped finance this action and was employed by the Berliet company until his retirement in 1927. Audibert went to Rochet-Schneider. He died in 1931.

title: Audibert & Lavirotte


text:
Meranti

Meranti may refer to:
 * Shorea or meranti, a plant genus
 * Typhoon Meranti, a 2016 super typhoon that struck Taiwan and China
 * Typhoon Meranti (2004)
 * Tropical Storm Meranti (2010)
 * Meranti, Indonesia, a district in Asahan Regency, North Sumatra Province, Indonesia
 * Meranti (state constituency)

title: Meranti


text:
Aultman

The Aultman was a 1901 American automobile manufactured in Canton, Ohio; the light steam carriage, whose makers also built a four-wheel-drive steam truck, was built for only a few years.

History
By 1904, the Aultman Road Locomotive was advertised nationally in Dun's Review and was described as "specially designed for heavy hauling at mines, lumber camps, smelters, quarries, etc., and for contractors, road and irrigation work." It was also noted that it was suitable for freight lines from towns "off the railroads."

title: Aultman


text:
List of former United States district courts

The following are former United States district courts, which ceased to exist because they were subdivided into smaller units. With the exception of California, each of these courts initially covered an entire U.S. state, and was subdivided as the jurisdictions which they covered increased in population. Two of the district courts—those of South Carolina and New Jersey—were subdivided but later recreated. Every change to the divisions and boundaries of these courts is effected by an act of the United States Congress, and for each such action, the statutory reference is identified.

Alabama
The United States District Court for the District of Alabama was created on April 21, 1820, by. It was subdivided into Northern and Southern Districts on March 10, 1824, by. The Middle District was subsequently formed from parts of these two districts on February 6, 1839, by, with legislation specifying that the Middle District Court was to be held at Tuscaloosa, the Northern District Court at Huntsville, and the Southern District Court at Mobile. The Districts were reorganized on August 7, 1848. Only one judge was ever appointed to the District of Alabama.

Arkansas
Arkansas, originally part of the Louisiana Purchase, became part of the Missouri Territory in 1812, when Louisiana became a state. When Missouri became a state in 1819, a territorial government, including a territorial court, was organized for Arkansas, taking effect on July 4, 1819. The United States District Court for the District of Arkansas was established with a single judge when Arkansas became a state, on June 15, 1836, by, 51. The court was subdivided into Eastern and the Western Districts on March 3, 1851, by.

California
The United States District Court for the District of California existed from 1866 to 1886. California was admitted as a state on September 9, 1850, and was initially divided into two districts, the Northern and the Southern, by Act of Congress approved September 28. The boundary line was at the 37th parallel north. The creating act provided that:

 * In addition to the ordinary jurisdiction and powers of a District Court of the United States, with which the Southern District Court of New York has been invested, the said Courts be and hereby are invested respectively within the limits of its district with the exercise of concurrent jurisdiction and power in all civil cases now exercised by the Circuit Courts of the United States; and that in all cases where said Courts shall exercise such jurisdiction, appeals may be taken from the judgments, orders or decrees of said Courts to the Supreme Court of the United States.

On February 27, 1851, President Millard Fillmore appointed Ogden Hoffman Jr., as the judge presiding over the Northern District. The Act of August 31, 1852, made the Judge of the Northern District be Judge of the Southern District as well until otherwise provided, by, 84, effectively creating a single District in all but name until an Act of January 18, 1854 provided for the appointment of a Judge for the Southern District. The Southern District of California was abolished and the State made to constitute one district by Act of Congress approved July 27, 1866,.

Twenty years later, on August 5, 1886, Congress re-created the Southern District of California (and, by extension, the Northern District) by. Hoffman, who had continued serving as the sole district judge, again became judge of the Northern district only, there continuing in service for five more years. Erskine Mayo Ross was appointed Judge of the new Southern District and served until his promotion to the Circuit Judgeship, when he was succeeded by Olin Wellborn.

On March 18, 1966, the Eastern and Central Districts were created from portions of the Northern and Southern Districts by.

Florida
On the same day that Florida was admitted as a state, March 3, 1845, Congress enacted legislation creating the United States District Court for the District of Florida,. On February 23, 1847,  divided the jurisdiction of this court between the Northern District and a Southern District Courts with the boundary between as:

 * [T]hat part of the State of Florida lying south of a line drawn due east and west from the northern point of Charlotte Harbor, including the islands, keys, reefs, shoals, harbors, bays and inlets, south of said line, shall be erected into a new judicial district, to be called the Southern District of Florida; a District Court shall be held in said Southern District, to consist of one judge, who shall reside at Key West, in said district...

The same statute directed the Northern District to hold court at Apalachicola, Florida, and Pensacola, Florida.

On July 30, 1962, the Middle District was created from portions of the other districts by.

Georgia
The United States District Court for the District of Georgia was one of the original 13 courts established by the Judiciary Act of 1789,, on September 24, 1789. The District was subdivided into Northern and Southern Districts on August 11, 1848, by. The Middle District was formed from portions of those two Districts on May 28, 1926, by.

Illinois
The United States District Court for the District of Illinois was established by a statute passed by the United States Congress on March 3, 1819,. The act established a single office for a judge to preside over the court. Initially, the court was not within any existing judicial circuit, and appeals from the court were taken directly to the United States Supreme Court. In 1837, Congress created the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit, placing it in Chicago, Illinois and giving it jurisdiction over the District of Illinois,. The District itself was eliminated by a statute passed on February 13, 1855,, under which it was subdivided into the Northern and the Southern Districts. The boundaries of the District and the seats of the courts were set forth in the statute:

 * The counties of Hancock, McDonough, Peoria, Woodford, Livingston, and Iroquois, and all the counties in the said State north of them, shall compose one district, to be called the northern district of Illinois, and courts shall be held for the said district at the city of Chicago; and the residue of the counties of the said State shall compose another district, to be called the southern district of Illinois, and courts shall be held for the same at the city of Springfield.

The district has since been re-organized several times. The United States District Court for the Eastern District of Illinois was created on March 3, 1905, by, by splitting counties out of the Northern and Southern Districts. It was later eliminated in a reorganization on October 2, 1978, which replaced it with a Central District,, also formed from parts of the Northern and Southern Districts.

Indiana
The United States District Court for the District of Indiana was established on March 3, 1817, by. The District was subdivided into Northern and Southern Districts on April 21, 1928, by. Of all district courts that have been subdivided, Indiana existed for the longest time as a single court, 111 years.

Iowa
The United States District Court for the District of Iowa was established on March 3, 1845, by. The District was subdivided into Northern and Southern Districts on July 20, 1882, by.

Kentucky
The United States District Court for the District of Kentucky was part of one of the original 13 courts established by the Judiciary Act of 1789,, on September 24, 1789. At the time, Kentucky was not yet a state, but was within the territory of the state of Virginia. The District was unchanged when Kentucky became a state on June 1, 1792. On February 13, 1801, the Judiciary Act of 1801,, abolished the U.S. district court in Kentucky, but the repeal of this Act restored the District on March 8, 1802,. The District was subdivided into Eastern and Western Districts on February 12, 1901, by.

Louisiana
On March 26, 1804, Congress organized the Territory of Orleans and created the United States District Court for the District of Orleans – the first time Congress provided a territory with a district court equal in its authority and jurisdiction to those of the states. The United States District Court for the District of Louisiana was established on April 8, 1812, by, several weeks before Louisiana was formally admitted as a state of the union. The District was thereafter subdivided and reformed several times. It was first subdivided into Eastern and Western Districts on March 3, 1823, by.

On February 13, 1845, Louisiana was reorganized into a single District with one judgeship, by, but was again divided into Eastern and the Western Districts on March 3, 1849, by. Congress again abolished the Western District of Louisiana and reorganized Louisiana as a single judicial district on July 27, 1866, by. On March 3, 1881, by, Louisiana was for a third time divided into Eastern and the Western Districts, with one judgeship authorized for each. The Middle District was formed from portions of those two Districts on December 18, 1971, by.

During the course of its frequent subdivisions and reunifications, four judges served as judge of the District of Louisiana: Dominic Augustin Hall, (1812–1820), John Dick, (1821–1823), Theodore Howard McCaleb (1845–1849), and Edward Henry Durell (1866–1874). Hall was appointed to the District of Louisiana twice. He briefly resigned from the District Court to serve as a Justice of the Louisiana Supreme Court. He was shortly thereafter reappointed to the same seat on the District Court, which had remained vacant in his absence.

Michigan
The United States District Court for the District of Michigan was established on July 1, 1836, by, with a single judgeship. The district court was not assigned to a judicial circuit, but was granted the same jurisdiction as United States circuit courts, except in appeals and writs of error, which were the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. Due to the so-called "Toledo War", a boundary dispute with Ohio, Michigan did not become a state of the Union until January 26, 1837. On March 3, 1837, Congress passed an act that repealed the circuit court jurisdiction of the U.S. District Court for the District of Michigan, assigned the District of Michigan to the Seventh Circuit, and established a U.S. circuit court for the district,.

On July 15, 1862, Congress reorganized the circuits and assigned Michigan to the Eighth Circuit by, and on January 28, 1863, the Congress again reorganized the Seventh and Eight Circuits and assigned Michigan to the Seventh Circuit, by. On February 24, 1863, Congress divided the District of Michigan into the Eastern and the Western Districts, with one judgeship authorized for each district, by.

Ross Wilkins was the only district judge to serve the District of Michigan. He was nominated by President Andrew Jackson on July 2, 1836, to the newly created seat, and was confirmed by the United States Senate on July 2, 1836. He received his commission on January 26, 1837. Upon termination of the District of Michigan, Wilkins was reassigned to the Eastern District of Michigan.

Mississippi
The United States District Court for the District of Mississippi was established on April 3, 1818, by. It existed for over twenty years, and was subdivided into Northern and Southern Districts on June 18, 1838, by :

 * The State of Mississippi, at the date of the act of March 3, 1837... constituted one district, in which the District Court was invested with the powers of a Circuit Court. By that act the extraordinary jurisdiction of the District Court was abrogated. But by the acts of June 18, 1838, and of February 16, 1839, the district of Mississippi was divided into two districts, the Northern and Southern; and by the latter act the powers of a Circuit Court were conferred on the District Court for the Northern District.

Missouri
The United States District Court for the District of Missouri was established on March 16, 1822, by. However, an act of Congress passed in 1845 and upheld by the United States Supreme Court in 1851, extending federal admiralty jurisdiction to inland waterways, resulted in a substantial increase in the number of admiralty cases arising from traffic on the Mississippi River. These disputes involved "contracts of affreightment, collisions, mariners' wages, and other causes of admiralty jurisdiction", and litigants of matters arising in the port city of St. Louis found it inconvenient to travel far inland to Jefferson City for their cases to be tried. The District was therefore subdivided into Eastern and Western Districts on March 3, 1857, by.

New Jersey
The United States District Court for the District of New Jersey was one of the original 13 courts established by the Judiciary Act of 1789,, on September 24, 1789. The District was subdivided into the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New Jersey and the United States District Court for the Western District of New Jersey on February 13, 1801, by the Judiciary Act of 1801,, with the judicial districts being headquartered in New Brunswick and Burlington, respectively. The repeal of the 1801 Act on March 8, 1802, by, restored New Jersey as a single judicial district. The only judge to serve on the briefly subdivided courts was Robert Morris, who had begun serving as a recess appointment to the District of New Jersey on August 28, 1790 and continued serving after the restoration of the single court, until June 2, 1815.

New York
The United States District Court for the District of New York was one of the original 13 courts established by the Judiciary Act of 1789,, on September 24, 1789. It existed for nearly twenty-five years before, on April 9, 1814, New York was divided into Northern and Southern Districts by. These Districts were later further subdivided with the creation of Eastern District on February 25, 1865 by, and the Western District on May 12, 1900, by.

North Carolina
The United States District Court for the District of North Carolina has a unique history among defunct district courts. It was established on June 4, 1790, by. On June 9, 1794 it was subdivided into three districts by, but on March 3, 1797, the three districts were abolished and the single District restored by , until April 29, 1802, when the state was again subdivided into three different districts by.

In both instances, these districts, unlike those with geographic designations that existed in other states, were titled by the names of the cities in which the courts sat. After the first division, they were styled the District of Edenton, the District of New Bern, and the District of Wilmington; after the second division, they were styled the District of Albemarle, the District of Cape Fear, and the District of Pamptico. However, in both instances, only one judge was authorized to serve all three districts, causing them to effectively operate as a single district. The latter combination was occasionally referred to by the cumbersome title of the United States District Court for the Albemarle, Cape Fear & Pamptico Districts of North Carolina. Judge Henry Potter's 55 years of service on this court during the period in which the state contained a single district, from April 1802 to December 1857, represents one of the longest terms ever held by a United States federal judge.

On June 4, 1872, North Carolina was re-divided into two Districts, Eastern and Western, by. The Middle District was created from portions of the Eastern and Western Districts on March 2, 1927, by.

Ohio
The United States District Court for the District of Ohio was established on February 19, 1803, by. The District was subdivided into Northern and Southern Districts on February 10, 1855, by.

Pennsylvania
The United States District Court for the District of Pennsylvania was one of the original 13 courts established by the Judiciary Act of 1789,, on September 24, 1789. It was subdivided on April 20, 1818, by, into the Eastern and Western Districts, to be headquartered in Philadelphia and Pittsburgh, respectively. Portions of these districts were subsequently subdivided into the Middle District on March 2, 1901, by.

South Carolina
The United States District Court for the District of South Carolina was one of the original 13 courts established by the Judiciary Act of 1789,, on September 24, 1789. It was subdivided into the United States District Court for the Eastern District of South Carolina and the United States District Court for the Western District of South Carolina Districts on February 21, 1823 by. The Eastern District was headquartered at Florence, and the Western District was headquartered in Greenville. The division was solely for the purposes of holding court – a single judge presided over both districts, and the act authorized no additional court staff.

In 1898 the United States Supreme Court held in Barrett v. United States that South Carolina legally constituted a single judicial district. Congress made a more explicit effort to subdivide the District on March 3, 1911, by,. South Carolina was again Eastern and the Western Districts, with one judgeship authorized to serve both districts, effective January 1, 1912. Congress finally authorized an additional judgeship for the Western District, and assigned the sitting judge exclusively to the Eastern District, on March 3, 1915, by. However, on October 7, 1965, by, South Carolina was reorganized as a single judicial district with four judgeships authorized for the district court, and it has since remained a single District.

Judges of the Eastern District of South Carolina:

Judges of the Western District of South Carolina:

Tennessee
The United States District Court for the District of Tennessee was established with one judgeship on January 31, 1797, by. The judgeship was filled by President George Washington's appointment of John McNairy. Since Congress failed to assign the district to a circuit, the court had the jurisdiction of both a district court and a circuit court. Appeals from this one district court went directly to the United States Supreme Court.

On February 13, 1801, in the famous "Midnight Judges" Act of 1801,, Congress abolished the U.S. district court in Tennessee, and expanded the number of circuits to six, provided for independent circuit court judgeships, and abolished the necessity of Supreme Court Justices riding the circuits. It was this legislation which created the grandfather of the present Sixth Circuit. The act provided for a "Sixth Circuit" comprising two districts in the State of Tennessee, one district in the State of Kentucky and one district, called the Ohio District, composed of the Ohio and Indiana territories (the latter including the present State of Michigan). The new Sixth Circuit Court was to be held at "Bairdstown" in the District of Kentucky, at Knoxville in the District of East Tennessee, at Nashville in the District of West Tennessee, and at Cincinnati in the District of Ohio. Unlike the other circuits which were provided with three circuit judges, the Sixth Circuit was to have only one circuit judge with district judges from Kentucky and Tennessee comprising the rest of the court. Any two judges constituted a quorum. New circuit judgeships were to be created as district judgeships in Kentucky and Tennessee became vacant.

The repeal of this Act restored the District on March 8, 1802,. The District was divided into the Eastern and Western Districts on April 29, 1802. On February 24, 1807, Congress again abolished the two districts and created the United States Circuit for the District of Tennessee. On March 3, 1837, Congress assigned the judicial district of Tennessee to the Eighth Circuit. On June 18, 1839, by, Congress divided Tennessee into three districts, Eastern, Middle, and Western. Again, only one judgeship was allotted for all three districts. On July 15, 1862, Congress reassigned appellate jurisdiction to the Sixth Circuit. Finally, on June 14, 1878, Congress authorized a separate judgeship for each district of Tennessee.

Texas
The United States District Court for the District of Texas was established on December 29, 1845, by. and based in Galveston, then the largest city in the state. John Charles Watrous, appointed to the court by President James K. Polk in May 1846, was the only federal judge to sit for the district. The District was subdivided into Eastern and Western Districts on February 21, 1857, by. When the District was subdivided, Watrous continued as judge for the Eastern District only, while Thomas Howard DuVal was appointed to the Western District. Watrous continued serving in the Eastern District until 1870. From these Districts, Texas was further subdivided with the creation of a Northern District on February 24, 1879, by. The new Southern District was created on March 11, 1902, by.

Virginia
The United States District Court for the District of Virginia was one of the original 13 courts established by the Judiciary Act of 1789,, on September 24, 1789.

On February 13, 1801, the Judiciary Act of 1801,, divided Virginia into three judicial districts: the District of Virginia, which included the counties west of the Tidewater and south of the Rappahannock River; the District of Norfolk, which included the Tidewater counties south of the Rappahannock; and the District of Potomac, which included the counties north and east of the Rappahannock as well as Maryland counties along the Potomac. Just over a year later, on March 8, 1802, the Judiciary Act of 1801 was repealed and Virginia became a single District again,, effective July 1, 1802.

The District of Virginia was subdivided into Eastern and Western Districts on February 4, 1819, by. At that time, West Virginia was still part of Virginia, and was encompassed in Virginia's Western District. With the division of West Virginia from Virginia during the American Civil War, the Western District of Virginia became the District of West Virginia, and those parts of the Western District that were not part of West Virginia were combined with the Eastern District to again form a single District of Virginia on June 11, 1864, by. Congress again divided Virginia into Eastern and the Western Districts on February 3, 1871, by.

Washington
The United States District Court for the District of Washington was established on April 5, 1890, by. The District was subdivided into Eastern and Western Districts on March 2, 1905, by. Only one judge was ever appointed to the District of Washington.

West Virginia
West Virginia split from the state of Virginia during the American Civil War. At that time, Virginia was already divided into an Eastern and Western District. Congress reorganized the Western District of Virginia to conform to the boundaries of the new state of West Virginia, renaming it the United States District Court for the District of West Virginia on June 11, 1864, by. This District was subdivided into Northern and Southern Districts on January 22, 1901, by.

John Jay Jackson Jr., who had been appointed by Abraham Lincoln to what was then the Western District of Virginia, became the first judge of the District of West Virginia. He remained the only judge on that court until its subdivision.

Wisconsin
The United States District Court for the District of Wisconsin was established on May 29, 1848, by. It was subdivided into Eastern and Western Districts on June 30, 1870, by. Only one judge was ever appointed to the District of Wisconsin.


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William Robson (Canadian politician)

William Robson (October 3, 1864 – c. July 1941) was a Manitoba politician, and the leader of that province's Independent-Farmers in 1921 and 1922.

Life
Born in Scarborough, Yorkshire, England, Robson arrived in Canada with his parents at the age of two. He worked as a farmer, and was a shareholder in the Grain Grower's Guide (a popular farmer's newspaper in Canada). Robson served as both a councillor and reeve during the 1910s.

In 1920, Robson was one of 12 "farmer's candidates" elected to the legislature of Manitoba (he defeated future Liberal leader James Breakey in Glenwood, by four votes). Robson was subsequently chosen as leader of the Independent-Farmers, which was the name chosen by the victorious candidates for their parliamentary caucus.

The Independent-Farmers were a diverse group, and did not continue beyond the dissolution of parliamentary in 1922. Subsequently, the United Farmers of Manitoba would represent the province's farming community in a more organized way.

Robson did not run for re-election in 1922, and did not serve in the government of UFM Premier John Bracken.

title: William Robson (Canadian politician)


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Aurea (car)

Aurea, Societa Italiana Ferrotaie (Turin 1920-1922), Fabbrica Anonima Torinese Automobili (Turin 1922-1933). Aurea was an Italian automobile manufactured in Turin from 1921 to 1930.

History
Aurea built sidevalve and overhead valve four-cylinder cars with engines that started at 1460 cc in the S.V. version engine, but later were increased to 1479 cc in both S.V. and O.H.V. engine configurations. Only the "S" type MONZA factory racing version contained the overhead valve engine type engine. The cars were well-made, but fairly heavy. Regular production of Aureas stopped around 1926, but the company produced a few more cars from existing parts and maintained parts supply under for the vehicles under Ceirano's new ownership and management from late 1926 onwards. After the last Aurea vehicle assembly, the same factory was used to manufacture Ceirano commercial vehicles, particularly trucks.

title: Aurea (car)