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National Grid (Great Britain)

The National Grid is the high-voltage electric power transmission network serving Great Britain, connecting power stations and major substations, and ensuring that electricity generated anywhere on the grid can be used to satisfy demand elsewhere. The network serves the majority of Great Britain and some of the surrounding islands. It does not cover Northern Ireland, which is part of the Irish single electricity market.

The National Grid is a wide area synchronous grid operating at 50 hertz. Most of the physical HV parts of the grid consists of 400 kV lines as well as some 275 kV lines that collectively form a supergrid. It has several undersea interconnectors: an AC connector to the Isle of Man, and DC connectors to Northern Ireland, the Republic of Ireland, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Norway, and Denmark.

Since the privatisation of the Central Electricity Generating Board in 1990, the National Grid in England and Wales is owned by National Grid plc. In Scotland the grid is owned by ScottishPower Transmission in the south, and by SSE in the north. Infrastructure connecting offshore wind farms to the grid is owned by offshore transmission owners. National Grid plc is the transmission system operator for the whole GB grid.

History
At the end of the 19th century, Nikola Tesla established the principles of three-phase high-voltage electric power distribution while he was working for Westinghouse in the United States. The first use of this system in the United Kingdom was by Charles Merz, of the Merz & McLellan consulting partnership, at his Neptune Bank Power Station near Newcastle upon Tyne. This opened in 1901, and by 1912 had developed into the largest integrated power system in Europe. The rest of the country, however, continued to use a patchwork of small supply networks.

In 1925, the British government asked Lord Weir, a Glaswegian industrialist, to solve the problem of Britain's inefficient and fragmented electricity supply industry. Weir consulted Merz, and the result was the Electricity (Supply) Act 1926, which recommended that a "national gridiron" supply system be created. The 1926 Act created the Central Electricity Board, which set up the UK's first synchronised, nationwide AC grid, running at 132 kV, 50 Hz.

The grid was created with 4000 mile of cables – mostly overhead – linking the 122 most efficient power stations. The first "grid tower" was erected near Edinburgh on 14 July 1928, and work was completed in September 1933, ahead of schedule and on budget. It began operating in 1933 as a series of regional grids with auxiliary interconnections for emergency use. Following the unauthorised but successful short term parallelling of all regional grids by the night-time engineers on 29 October 1937, by 1938 the grid was operating as a national system. The growth by then in the number of electricity users was the fastest in the world, rising from three quarters of a million in 1920 to nine million in 1938. The grid proved its worth during the Blitz, when South Wales provided power to replace lost output from Battersea and Fulham power stations. The grid was nationalised by the Electricity Act 1947, which also created the British Electricity Authority. In 1949, the British Electricity Authority decided to upgrade the grid by adding 275 kV links.

At its inception in 1950, the 275 kV Transmission System was designed to form part of a national supply system with an anticipated total demand of 30,000 MW by 1970. The predicted demand was already exceeded by 1960. This rapid growth led the Central Electricity Generating Board (created in 1958) to carry out a study in 1960 of future transmission needs.

Considered in the study, together with the increased demand, was the effect on the transmission system of the rapid advances in generator design resulting in projected power stations of 2,000–3,000 MW installed capacity. These new stations were mostly to be sited where advantage could be taken of a surplus of cheap low-grade fuel and adequate supplies of cooling water, but these sites did not coincide with the load centres. West Burton's 4 × 500 MW machines, in the Nottinghamshire coalfield near the River Trent, is an example. These developments shifted the emphasis on the transmission system from interconnection to bulk power transfers from the generation areas to the load centres, such as the anticipated transfer in 1970 of some 6,000 MW from the Midlands to the home counties.

Continued reinforcement and extension of the 275 kV systems was examined as a possible solution. However, in addition to the technical problem of high fault levels, many more lines would have been required to obtain the estimated transfers at 275 kV. As this was not consistent with the Central Electricity Generating Board's policy of preservation of amenities, a better solution was sought. Consideration was given to 400 kV and 500 kV schemes: both gave a sufficient margin for future expansion. The decision in favour of a 400 kV system was made for two main reasons. Firstly the majority of the 275 kV lines could be uprated to 400 kV, and secondly it was envisaged that operation at 400 kV could begin in 1965 compared with 1968 for a 500 kV scheme. Design work was started and in order to meet the programme for 1965 it was necessary for the contract engineering for the first projects to run concurrently with the design. One of these projects was the West Burton 400 kV Indoor Substation, the first section of which was commissioned in June 1965. From 1965, the grid was partly upgraded to 400 kV, beginning with a 150 mi line from Sundon to West Burton, to become the Supergrid.

In the 2010 issue of the code that governs the National Grid, the Grid Code, the Supergrid is defined as those parts of the British electricity transmission system that are connected at voltages in excess of 200 kV.

The 2.2 GW undersea Western HVDC Link from Scotland to North Wales was built in 2013–2018. This was the first major non-alternating current grid link within Great Britain, although interconnectors to foreign grids already used HVDC.

In 2021 a new non-lattice design of electricity pylon, the T-pylon, was built near East Huntspill, Somerset for the new 35 mile Hinkley Point C to Avonmouth connection.

In 2023, the National Grid began removing equipment from China's NARI Technology over national security concerns.

Characteristics of the grid

The contiguous synchronous grid covers England (including the Isle of Wight), Scotland (including some of the Scottish islands such as Orkney, Skye and the Western Isles which have limited connectivity ), Wales, and the Isle of Man.

Network size
The following figures are taken from the 2005 Seven Year Statement.
 * Maximum demand (2005/6): 63 GW (approx.) (81.39% of capacity)
 * Minimum demand (2020 May): 15.3 GW
 * Annual electrical energy used in the UK is around 360 TWh
 * Capacity (2005/6): 79.9 GW (or 80 GW per the 2008 Seven Year Statement)
 * Number of large power stations connected to it: 181
 * Length of 400 kV grid: 11,500 km (circuit)
 * Length of 275 kV grid: 9,800 km (circuit)
 * Length of 132 kV (or lower) grid; 5,250 km (circuit)

Total generating capacity is supplied roughly equally by renewable, gas fired, nuclear, coal fired power stations. Annual energy transmitted in the UK grid is around 300-360 TWh, with an average load factor of 72% (i.e. 3.6×1011/(8,760 × 57×106).

Decarbonisation
The National Grid has a stretch target to be carbon neutral or negative by 2033, well ahead of the UK's national target to achieve this by 2050. It also aims to have the capability to be 'zero carbon' as early as 2025, meaning that if energy suppliers are able to produce sufficient green power, the grid could theoretically run without any greenhouse gas emissions at all (i.e. no carbon capture or offsetting would be needed as is the case with 'net zero'). In 2020 about 40% of the grid's energy came from burning natural gas, and it is not expected that anywhere close to sufficient green power will be available to run the grid on zero carbon in 2025, except perhaps on the very windiest days. Analysts such as Hartree Solutions considered in 2020 that getting to 'net zero' by 2050 would be challenging, even more so to reach 'net zero' by 2033. There has, however, been sustained progress towards carbon neutrality, with carbon intensity falling by 53% in the five years to 2020. The phase out of coal is progressing rapidly with only 1.6% of the UK's electricity coming from coal in 2020, compared with about 25% in 2015. 2020 saw the UK go more than two months without needing to burn any coal for electricity, the longest period since the industrial revolution.

Losses
Figures are again from the 2005 Seven Year Statement.
 * Joule heating in cables: 857.8 MW
 * Fixed losses: 266 MW (consists of corona and iron loss; can be 100 MW higher in adverse weather)
 * Substation transformer heating losses: 142.4 MW
 * Generator transformer heating losses: 157.3 MW
 * Total losses: 1,423.5 MW (2.29% of peak demand)

Although overall losses in the National Grid are low, there are significant further losses in onward electricity distribution to the consumer, causing a total distribution loss of about 7.7%. Losses differ significantly for customers connected at different voltages; connected at high voltage the total losses are about 2.6%, at medium voltage 6.4% and at low voltage 12.2%.

Generated power entering the grid is metered at the high-voltage side of the generator transformer. Any power losses in the generator transformer are therefore accounted to the generating company, not to the grid system. The power loss in the generator transformer does not contribute to the grid losses.

Power flow
In 2009–10 there was an average power flow of about 11 GW from the north of the UK, particularly from Scotland and northern England, to the south of the UK across the grid. This flow was anticipated to grow to about 12 GW by 2014. Completion of the Western HVDC Link in 2018 added capacity for a flow of 2.2 GW between Western Scotland and North Wales.

Because of the power loss associated with this north to south flow, the effectiveness and efficiency of new generation capacity is significantly affected by its location. For example, new generating capacity on the south coast has about 12% greater effectiveness due to reduced transmission system power losses compared to new generating capacity in north England, and about 20% greater effectiveness than in northern Scotland.

Interconnectors
[[Image:HVDC Europe.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.6|

{{legend|#F80E34|Existing links}} {{legend|#10BF45|Under construction}} {{legend|#0E25F8|Proposed}} Some of these HVDC lines transfer power from renewable sources such as hydro and wind. For names, see also the annotated version.]] There is a 40 MW AC cable to the Isle of Man, the Isle of Man to England Interconnector.

The UK grid is connected to adjacent European electrical grids by submarine power cables.

In 2014, the UK's electricity interconnection level (off-island transmission capacity relative to production capacity) was 6%.

, the total capacity of these connectors is over 9 GW. They include direct-current cables to northern France (2 GW HVDC Cross-Channel, 1 GW HVDC IFA-2, 1 GW ElecLink via the Channel Tunnel ); Belgium (1 GW HVDC Nemo Link); the Netherlands (1 GW HVDC BritNed); Norway (1.4 GW HDVC North Sea Link); Northern Ireland (500 MW HVDC Moyle Interconnector); the Republic of Ireland (500 MW HVDC East–West Interconnector), and Denmark (1.4 GW Viking Link).

A further 500 MW link with the Republic of Ireland (Greenlink) is scheduled for 2024. Further potential schemes include links with Germany (NeuConnect, 1.4 GW); Iceland (Icelink, around 1 GW) and Morocco (3.6 GW from new battery-backed solar generation).

Grid storage
The UK grid has access to large pumped storage systems, notably Dinorwig Power Station which can provide 1.7 GW for 5–6 hours, and the smaller Cruachan and Ffestiniog.

There are also some grid batteries. As of May 2021, 1.3 GW of battery storage was operating in the United Kingdom, with 16 GW of projects in the pipeline potentially deployable over the next few years. A 100 MW power Chinese-financed plant at Minety, Wiltshire was reported to be the largest in Europe when it opened in July 2021; when a 50 MW extension is completed, the site's storage capacity will be 266 MWh.

Reserve services and frequency response
National Grid is responsible for contracting short term generating provision to cover demand prediction errors and sudden failures at power stations. This covers a few hours of operation giving time for market contracts to be established to cover longer term balancing.

Frequency-response reserves act to keep the system's AC frequency within ±1% of 50 Hz, except in exceptional circumstances. These are used on a second by second basis to either lower the demand or to provide extra generation.

Reserve services are a group of services each acting within different response times:
 * Fast Reserve: rapid delivery (within two minutes) of increased generation or reduced demand, sustainable for a minimum of 15 minutes.
 * Fast Start: generation units that start from a standstill and deliver power within five minutes automatically, or within seven minutes of a manual instruction, with generation maintained for a minimum of four hours.
 * Demand Management: reduction in demand of at least 25 MW from large power users, for at least an hour.
 * Short Term Operating Reserve (STOR): generation of at least 3 MW, from a single or aggregation of sites, within four hours of instruction and maintained for at least two hours.
 * BM Start-Up: mainstream major generation units maintained in either an energy readiness or hot standby state.

These reserves are sized according to three factors:
 * The largest credible single generation failure event, which is currently either Sizewell B nuclear power station (1,260 MW) or one cable of the HVDC Cross-Channel interconnector (1,000 MW)
 * The general anticipated availability of all generation plants
 * Anticipated demand prediction errors

Control of the grid
The English and Welsh parts of the National Grid are controlled from the National Grid Control Centre which is located in St Catherine's Lodge, Sindlesham, Wokingham in Berkshire. It is sometimes described as being a 'secret' location. the system is under consistent cyber attack.

Although the transmission network in Scotland is owned by separate companies – SP Transmission plc (part of ScottishPower) in the south, and Scottish Hydro Electric Transmission plc (part of Scottish and Southern Electricity Networks) in the north – overall control rests with National Grid Electricity System Operator.

Transmission costs
The costs of operating the National Grid System are recouped by National Grid Electricity System Operator (NGESO) through levying of Transmission Network Use of System (TNUoS) charges on the users of the system. The costs are split between the generators and the users of electricity.

Tariffs are set annually by NGESO, and the country is divided into zones, each with a different tariff for generation and consumption. In general, tariffs are higher for generators in the north and consumers in the south since there is generally a north–south flow of electricity.

Triad demand
'Triad demand' is a metric of demand which reports retrospectively three numbers about peak demand between November and February (inclusive) each winter. In order to encourage usage of the National Grid to be less 'peaky', the triad is used as the basis for extra charges paid by the users (the licensed electricity suppliers) to the National Grid: the users pay less if they can manage their usage so as to be less peaky.

For each year's calculation, historic system demand metrics are analysed to determine three half-hour periods of high average demand; the three periods are known as triads. The periods are (a) the period of peak system demand, and (b) two other periods of highest demand which are separated from peak system demand and from each other by at least ten days.

For power stations, the chargeable demand is only the net site demand (per CUSC rule 14.17.10), so when the site is net exporting (i.e. total metered generation at that site exceeds total separately metered station demand), that separately metered station demand shall not be liable for demand TNUoS charges in relation to the station demand at triad.

Triad dates in recent years were:

This is the main source of income which National Grid uses to cover its costs for high-voltage long-distance transmission (lower voltage distribution is charged separately). The grid also charges an annual fee to cover the cost of generators, distribution networks and large industrial users connecting.

Triad charges encourage users to cut load at peak periods; this is often achieved by using diesel generators. Such generators are also routinely used by National Grid.

Estimating costs per kW⋅h of transmission
If the total TNUoS or Triad receipts (say £15,000/MW·year × 50,000 MW = £750 million/year) is divided by the total number of units delivered by the UK generating system in a year (the total number of units sold – say 360 TWh. ), then a crude estimate can be made of transmission costs, and one gets the figure of around 0.2p/kW⋅h. Other estimates also give a figure of 0.2p/kW⋅h.

However, Bernard Quigg notes: "According to the 06/07 annual accounts for NGC UK transmission, NGC carried 350TW⋅h for an income of £2012m in 2007, i. e. NGC receives 0.66p per kW hour. With two years inflation to 2008/9, say 0.71p per kW⋅h.", but this also includes generators' connection fees.

Generation charges
In order to be allowed to supply electricity to the transmission system, generators must be licensed (by BEIS) and enter into a connection agreement with NGET which also grants Transmission Entry Capacity (TEC). Generators contribute to the costs of running the system by paying for TEC, at the generation TNUoS tariffs set by NGET. This is charged on a maximum-capacity basis. In other words, a generator with 100 MW of TEC who only generated at a maximum rate of 75 MW during the year would still be charged for the full 100 MW of TEC.

In some cases, there are negative TNUoS tariffs. These generators are paid an amount based on their peak net supply over three proving runs over the course of the year. This represents the reduction in costs caused by having a generator close to the centre of demand of the country.

National Grid uses a grid services market. "Dynamic Containment" started in October 2020, initially priced at £17 per MW per hour, and Dynamic Regulation (DR) started in April 2022.

Demand charges
Consumers of electricity are split into two categories: half-hourly metered (HH) and non-half-hourly metered (NHH). Customers whose peak demand is sufficiently high are obliged to have a HH meter, which, in effect, takes a meter reading every 30 minutes. The rates at which charges are levied on these customers' electricity suppliers therefore varies 17,520 times a (non-leap) year.

The TNUoS charges for a HH metered customer are based on their demand during three half-hour periods of greatest demand between November and February, known as the Triad. Due to the nature of electricity demand in the UK, the three Triad periods always fall in the early evening, and must be separated by at least ten clear working days. The TNUoS charges for a HH customer are simply their average demand during the triad periods multiplied by the tariff for their zone. Therefore, a customer in London with a 1 MW average demand during the three triad periods would pay £19,430 in TNUoS charges.

TNUoS charges levied on NHH metered customers are much simpler. A supplier is charged for the sum of their total consumption between 16:00 and 19:00 every day over a year, multiplied by the relevant tariff.

Constraint payments
Constraint payments are payments to generators above a certain size, where the National Grid gives them dispatch instructions that they are unable to take the electricity that the generators would normally provide. This can be due to a lack of transmission capacity, a shortfall in demand, or unexpected excess generation. A constraint payment is recompense for the reduction in generation.

Major incidents
Power cuts due to faults in the national grid, or lack of generation to supply it with sufficient power, are very rare. The overall performance of the system is published on National Grid's website and includes a simple high-level figure for the transmission system availability. this was 99.999612%.

In 2020–21, issues affecting the low voltage distribution networks – for which National Grid is not responsible – caused almost all the 60 minutes or so per year, on average, of unplanned domestic power cuts.

Since 1990, there have been a small number of prominent power outages which were linked to National Grid:

August 2003
In the early evening of 28 August 2003, a power cut affected 476,000 customers in the south London area, as well as the London Underground and some rail services, for approximately 40 minutes. A total of 724 MW of load was lost.

An oil leak had been left untreated, except for top-ups, for many months, pending a proper fix. This caused an alarm which was misinterpreted by the National Grid control room. While switching the presumed faulty equipment out, an incorrectly sized protection relay installed several years prior caused a circuit breaker to trip, resulting in the loss of supply to two major south London substations.

September 2003
A week after the London blackout, on 5 September 2003, an incident occurred at Hams Hall substation which affected supply to 201,000 customers in east Birmingham. Affected customers included Network Rail, Birmingham International Airport, and the National Exhibition Centre, with a total of 301 MW of load lost.

This was attributed to an error made by National Grid when commissioning protection systems after upgrading components in the substation that August.

May 2008
On 27 May 2008 starting at 11:34, two of Britain's largest power stations, Longannet in Fife and Sizewell B in Suffolk, disconnected from the grid ("tripped") within minutes of each other. The total combined loss of generation caused by these trips was at least 1714 MW — larger than the maximum loss of 1260 MW which the grid was required to support that day.

The system frequency immediately dropped to 49.2 Hz, and subsequent additional trips of generation due to automatic protection caused the frequency to fall further to a low of 48.8 Hz. This caused the distribution networks to automatically disconnect some customers in order to arrest the frequency drop, and over the next few hours National Grid ordered the distribution networks to reduce voltage in order to reduce demand. At least 500,000 customers lost power. Within 40 minutes, distribution networks were allowed to reconnect all customers, although voltage control continued in some areas until 18:07.

The incident was described as a "gigantic coincidence" and was not attributed to lack of investment. Nonetheless, a number of issues were exposed by the event. The behaviour of generation protection during sudden frequency changes caused a number of generators to disconnect from the grid incorrectly. The Low Frequency Demand Disconnection and voltage control schemes also did not deliver as much demand reduction as they were intended to, but this did not have a significant impact on the outage.

August 2019
The third event occurred on 9 August 2019, when around a million customers across Great Britain found themselves without power. Lightning struck a transmission line at 4:52 pm, causing the loss of 500 MW embedded (mostly solar) generation. Almost immediately, Little Barford Power Station and Hornsea Wind Farm tripped within seconds of each other, removing 1.378 GW of generation, which was in excess of the 1 GW of backup power (the size of the largest single expected loss) that the operator was maintaining at the time. The grid frequency fell to 48.8 Hz before automatic load-shedding disconnected 5% of the local distribution networks (1.1 million customers) for 15 to 20 minutes; this action stabilised the remaining 95% of the system and prevented a wider blackout.

Although power was maintained at all times to the railway network (but not to the signalling system), the reduction in frequency caused 60 Thameslink Class 700 and 717 trains to fail. Half were restarted by the drivers but the others required a technician to come out to the train to restart it. This led to substantial travel disruption for several hours on the East Coast Main Line and Thameslink services. The supply to Newcastle Airport was also disrupted, and a weakness was exposed in backup power arrangements at Ipswich Hospital.

An investigation by Ofgem concluded in January 2020. It found that Little Barford and Hornsea One had failed to remain connected to the grid following the lightning strike, and their operators – RWE and Ørsted respectively – agreed to each pay £4.5 million to Ofgem's redress fund. Additionally, Ofgem fined distribution network operator UK Power Networks £1.5M for beginning to reconnect customers before being cleared to do so, although this breach of procedure did not affect the recovery of the system.

November 2015
On 4 November 2015 National Grid issued an emergency notice asking for voluntary power cuts because of "multiple plant breakdowns". No power cuts occurred but wholesale electricity prices rose dramatically, with the grid paying up to £2,500 per megawatt-hour.

title: National Grid (Great Britain)


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Crest (heraldry)

A crest is a component of a heraldic display, consisting of the device borne on top of the helm. Originating in the decorative sculptures worn by knights in tournaments and, to a lesser extent, battles, crests became solely pictorial after the 16th century (the era referred to by heraldists as that of "paper heraldry").

A normal heraldic achievement consists of the shield, above which is set the helm, on which sits the crest, its base encircled by a circlet of twisted cloth known as a torse. The use of the crest and torse independently from the rest of the achievement, a practice which became common in the era of paper heraldry, has led the term "crest" to be frequently but erroneously used to refer to the arms displayed on the shield, or to the achievement as a whole.

Origin
The word "crest" derives from the Latin crista, meaning "tuft" or "plume", perhaps related to crinis, "hair". Crests had existed in various forms since ancient times: Roman officers wore fans of feathers or horsehair, which were placed longitudinally or transversely depending on the wearer's rank, and Viking helmets were often adorned with wings and animal heads. They first appeared in a heraldic context in the form of the metal fans worn by knights in the 12th and 13th centuries. These were primarily decorative, but may also have served a practical purpose by lessening or deflecting the blows of opponents' weapons (perhaps why their edges came to be serrated). These fans were generally of one colour, later evolving to repeat all or part of the arms displayed on the shield.

The fan crest was later developed by cutting out the figure displayed on it, to form a metal outline; this evolved in the late 13th and early 14th centuries into a three-dimensional sculpture. These were usually made of cloth, leather or paper over a wooden or wire framework, and were typically in the form of an animal; also popular were wings, horns, human figures, and panaches of feathers. These were probably worn only in tournaments, not battle: not only did they add to the already considerable weight of the helm, they could also have been used by opponents as a handle to pull the wearer's head down.

Laces, straps, or rivets were used to affix the crest to the helm, with the join being covered by a circlet of twisted cloth known as a torse or wreath, or by a coronet in the case of high-ranking nobles. Torses did not come into regular use in Britain until the 15th century, and are still uncommon on the Continent, where crests are usually depicted as continuing into the mantling. Crests were also sometimes mounted on a furred cap known as a chapeau, as in the royal crest of England.

Later development
By the 16th century, the age of tournaments had ended, and physical crests largely disappeared. Their illustrated equivalents consequently began to be treated as simply two-dimensional pictures. Many crests from this period are physically impossible to bear on a helm, e.g. the crest granted to Sir Francis Drake in 1581, which consisted of a disembodied hand issuing from clouds and leading a ship around the globe (representing God's guidance).

In the same period, different helms began to be used for different ranks: sovereigns' and knights' helms faced forwards (affronté), whereas those of peers and gentlemen faced to the right (dexter). In the medieval period crests would always have faced the same way as the helm, but as a result of these rules, the directions of the crest and the helm might be at variance: a knight whose crest was a lion statant, would have the lion depicted as looking over the side of the helm, rather than towards the viewer. Torses also suffered artistically, being treated not as silken circlets, but as horizontal bars.

Heraldry in general underwent something of a renaissance in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and many of the illogicalities of previous centuries were discarded. Crests are now generally not granted unless they could actually be used on a physical helm, and the rules about directions of helms are no longer rigidly observed.

Usage
The use of crests was once restricted to those of 'tournament rank', i.e. knights and above, but in modern times nearly all personal arms include crests. They are not generally used by women (with the exception of reigning queens) and clergymen, as they did not participate in war or tournaments and thus would not have helms on which to wear them. Some heraldists are also of the opinion that crests, as personal devices, are not suited for use by corporate bodies, but this is not widely observed.

In continental Europe, particularly Germany, crests have a far greater significance than in Britain, and it is common for one person to display multiple crests with his arms; certain high-ranking noblemen are entitled to as many as seventeen. This practice did not exist in Britain until the modern era, and arms with more than one crest are still rare. In contrast to Continental practice, where a crest is never detached from its helm, a Briton with more than one crest may choose to display only one crested helm, and have the other crests simply floating in space. Though usually adopted through marriage to an heiress, examples exist of secondary crests being granted as augmentations: after defeating the Americans at the Battle of Bladensburg, Robert Ross was granted, in addition to his original crest, the crest of an arm holding the US flag with a broken flagstaff. After the 16th century, it became common for armigers to detach the crest and wreath from the helm, and use them in the manner of a badge, displayed on crockery, carriage doors, stationery, etc. This led to the erroneous use of the term "crest" to mean "arms", which has become widespread in recent years. In Scotland, a member of a clan or house is entitled to use a prescribed form of crest badge, which consists of the chief's crest encircled by a strap and buckle inscribed with the chiefly motto. Unlike such a badge, which can be used by any number of relatives and retainers, the crest itself is personal to the armiger, and its use by others is considered usurpation.

It is widely observed in English heraldry that no two families may use the same crest. This is in contrast to Scottish practice, in which crests are less significant, and are often borne in the same form by unrelated people. As a result of this lack of need for differentiation, Scottish crests tend to be less ornamental than their English counterparts. Marks of cadency are generally not used with crests, though it is not incorrect to do so, and the British royal family continue this practice.

The usual torse around the crest is frequently replaced by some kind of coronet, known as a "crest-coronet". The standard form is a simplified ducal coronet, consisting of three fleurons on a golden circlet; these are not, however, indications of rank, though they are not generally granted nowadays except in special circumstances. In some modern examples, the crest features both a crest-coronet and a torse, though this practice is deprecated by purists.

Orders of chivalry
Perhaps the only places physical crests are still seen are the chapels of Britain's orders of chivalry: the Order of the Garter's St George's Chapel, the Order of the Thistle's Thistle Chapel, and the Order of the Bath's Henry VII Chapel. Within each chapel are rows of stalls for use by the knights; above these stalls are placed each knight's sword and crested helm. These are carved out of lime wood and painted and gilded by Ian Brennan, the official sculptor to the royal household.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Crest (heraldry)


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Trillian

Trillian may refer to:

 * Trillian (character), a fictional character in The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy
 * Trillian (software), an instant messaging application
 * Project Trillian, an effort to port the Linux kernel to the Itanium processor

title: Trillian


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Crazywell Pool

Crazywell Pool or Crazy Well Pool is a large pond situated about 3 km south of Princetown just off the path between Burrator and Whiteworks on the western side of Dartmoor, Devon, England at. It is about 100 m long and has a surface area of about 3500 sqm.

The pool is thought to be the result of excavations by tin miners, and is either a flooded mine shaft, or a reservoir. The presence of tin workings downhill from the pool support this view. The valley of Newleycombe Lake has been extensively worked with many mining remains along its short length. The level of the pool never varies much from its mean—it is maintained by a hidden spring and by subterranean drainage at its lower end. Near to the pool is Crazywell Cross, one of the line of crosses that marked the ancient track between Buckfast Abbey and Tavistock Abbey.

In 1998, Nathaniel Burton, a sixteen-year-old recruit in the Royal Marines, died in Crazywell Pool. He was taking part in a routine training exercise and drowned while crossing the icy waters of the pool.

Legends
There are no natural lakes on Dartmoor, which may be one reason why Crazywell Pool has attracted more than its share of local legends. It was once believed to be bottomless, and according to local legend the parishioners of Walkhampton (or Sheepstor) brought up the bell ropes from the parish church to test its depth. Even after tying the ropes together—a total length of over 500 feet —and weighting the end, it was claimed they were still unable to reach the bottom. This legend was disproved in the dry summer of 1844 when the pool was almost completely pumped out by the Plymouth Dock Water Company to supplement the water supply of Devonport Leat which runs along the hillside not far above the pool. The reality is that the pool is about 16 ft deep at the western end and considerably less at the eastern end.

Crazywell Pool is the subject of other Dartmoor superstitions. The water level was said to rise and fall with the tides at sea, and it was claimed that at dusk the waters call out the name of the next parishioner to die and that their face can be seen in the surface of the pool at midnight on Midsummer's Eve.

The pool was also said to be haunted during the Middle Ages by the Witch of Sheepstor, who gave people bad advice. Legend says she advised Piers Gaveston, who owned the Forest of Dartmoor from 1308, and who was in hiding here after being banished from the king's court, telling him to return to court, predicting that "his humbled head shall soon be high". Instead, he was captured by the king's enemies and beheaded and his head was set up on high battlements.

More recently, two young men were said to have gone to the pool at midnight one Midsummer's Eve on a motorbike for a dare, but they never returned because on their way back the motorbike came off the road, killing them both.

title: Crazywell Pool


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title: Template:Heraldry


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User:Danny B-)

visit danny's site!

title: User:Danny B-)


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Talk:Larissa (moon)

Untitled
Sources seem to be fairly evenly divided on the placement of the accent in English, with dictionaries and mythological & theatrical sources favoring [luh-RISS-uh], and astronomical sources favoring [LAR-ee-suh]. The difference may be an attempt to recapture the Greek accent by astronomers, but since our Greek mythology was filtered through Latin, the original accents were lost. If we were to keep the Greek accent on Titan, Tethys, and Janus, we'd have [tee-TAN], [teh-THEES], and [ja-NOS]. The Greek city Larissa likewise has two pronunciations: and Anglicized [luh-RISS-uh], and a pseudo-Greek [LAR-ee-suh]. If we're going to use the Anglicized pronunciations [TYE-tun] etc, then it would be consistent to say [luh-RISS-uh].
 * The penult has a long vowel, so it takes the stress in Latin and therefore in English. The Greek script is defective in showing vowel length, but Liddel & Scott's Greek lexicon marks the iota with a macron, Λάρῑσα, to show it's long. kwami 21:03, 2005 May 27 (UTC)

L&S also provides the English adjectival form, Larissaean (which would be Larissean or maybe even Larissian in modern orthography). kwami 2005 June 30 08:24 (UTC)

Untitled
The image of Larissa is too small. –anon.
 * Too bad, because it is the only existing image which shows any surface details on Larissa. Still it's far better than nothing or a crude simulated image.--Jyril 00:41, 6 January 2006 (UTC)

Front and back?
The image of Larissa says front and back. Judging from the two images this has to be false. Voyager never had the opportunity to take images of both hemispheres and both pictures look almost identical (same features, just taken at slightly different moments and distances). — Preceding unsigned comment added by 87.222.201.190 (talk) 14:41, 20 January 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Larissa (moon)


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NES Four Score

The NES Four Score is a multitap accessory created by Nintendo in 1990 for the Nintendo Entertainment System. Select games can utilize it to enable up to four-player gameplay. The NES Four Score is similar to the previously introduced NES Satellite, a device that allows four players to connect to the NES and extends the range using infrared wireless communication.

Prior to the advent of NES multitap support, the NES games supporting more than two players required the players to pair up and then alternate turns while sharing the same pair of NES controllers. Some games that originally featured support for more than two players, such as some arcade titles, support only two simultaneous players in their NES versions.

The NES Four Score plugs into both controller ports on the NES console and allows input of up to four NES controllers. On the NES Four Score, there is an option to switch between two-player and four-player modes, and there are turbo A and B buttons that give any of the connected controllers a rapid-fire boost. The NES Four Score can also be used as a controller extension cable because the wire which leads from the accessory to the NES is several feet in length.

Games
These licensed games are compatible with the NES Four Score, for more than two concurrent players:

 * Bomberman II (3-players)
 * Danny Sullivan's Indy Heat
 * Exploding Fist (unreleased)
 * Gauntlet II
 * Greg Norman's Golf Power
 * Harlem Globetrotters
 * Kings of the Beach
 * Magic Johnson's Fast Break
 * Monopoly
 * Monster Truck Rally
 * M.U.L.E.
 * NES Play Action Football
 * A Nightmare on Elm Street
 * Nintendo World Cup
 * R.C. Pro-Am II
 * Rackets & Rivals
 * Rock 'n Ball
 * Roundball: 2 on 2 Challenge
 * Spot: The Video Game
 * Smash TV (two players with two controllers each)
 * Super Off Road
 * Super Jeopardy!
 * Super Spike V'Ball
 * Swords and Serpents
 * Top Players' Tennis

These homebrew games are also compatible:

 * Justice Duel
 * Micro Mages

4-Players Adaptor
The 4-Players Adaptor (4人プレイヤーズアダプタ) is a licensed peripheral released for the Famicom in Japan by Hori. It is the Famicom's equivalent to the NES Four Score. Its purpose is to allow up to four players to play simultaneously in compatible games by allowing for additional controllers to be connected through the console's expansion port. The adapter also features a switch that allows the first two players to use external controllers in lieu of the standard Famicom controllers, giving each player the choice to use an external controller. Many of the titles in Technōs Japan's Kunio-kun series support the adapter.

Games

 * Bible Buffet
 * Downtown Nekketsu Kōshinkyoku: Soreyuke Daiundōkai
 * Ike Ike! Nekketsu Hockey Bu: Subette Koronde Dai Rantō
 * Kunio-kun no Nekketsu Soccer League
 * Moero TwinBee: Cinnamon-hakase o Sukue! (3-players)
 * Nekketsu Kakutō Densetsu
 * Nintendo World Cup
 * Nekketsu Kōkō Dodge Ball Bu
 * Nekketsu Street Basket: Ganbare Dunk Heroes
 * Spot: The Video Game
 * Super Spike V'ball
 * U.S. Championship V'Ball
 * Wit's

title: NES Four Score


text:
Dartmeet

Dartmeet is a popular tourist spot in the centre of Dartmoor, Devon, England at.

It lies at the end of the B3357 road, about 4.5 mi east of Two Bridges. From here, the road continues eastwards as a minor road with restrictions on the size of vehicles, past Poundsgate and over Holne Bridge and New Bridge to Ashburton on the edge of the moor. Immediately east of the river crossing, this road ascends Dartmeet Hill, a long steep hill that climbs 130 m up the valley side.

As the name suggests, Dartmeet is the meeting point of the two major tributaries of the River Dart: the East Dart and West Dart. The road bridge, built in 1792, spans the East Dart; just above it, at the side of the large carpark is an earlier, possibly medieval, clapper bridge, now partially collapsed. The actual confluence of the two rivers is just downstream of the bridge. Dartmeet is the official put in for the Upper Dart section of the River Dart for whitewater kayakers and canoeists.

History
Dartmeet is at the centre of an internationally important archaeological landscape mainly due to its prehistoric field systems, delineated by reaves, which are among the best preserved in north west Europe.

Dartmeet was one of the boundary points mentioned (though not by name) in the 1240 Perambulation of the Forest of Dartmoor, the boundary coming down the East Dart from the Wallabrook, and continuing up the West Dart to the foot of the O Brook. The first documentary reference to the name (as Dartameet) was in a Duchy of Cornwall document dated 1616.

Halfway up Dartmeet Hill, close to the road, lies the Coffin Stone on which coffins would be placed to allow the bearers to take a rest on the way to taking bodies for burial at Widecombe-in-the-Moor. The rock is split in two, along its length. Local legend has it that the body of a particularly wicked man was laid there. God took exception to this, and struck the stone with a thunderbolt, destroying the coffin and splitting the stone in two.

title: Dartmeet


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Talk:Galatea (moon)

Pronunciation
Sources agree on an English pronunciation of [GAL-a-TEE-uh], as suggested by the Greek and the Latin Galatēa. Adj. form would be Galatean (gal'-a-tee'-un). kwami 2005 June 30 08:30 (UTC)

Displayed image
The simulated view of Galatea could be misleading, as the model used for Galatea is a generic asteroid mesh rather than a model of Galatea. Chaos syndrome 15:11, 29 August 2005 (UTC)

Geological activity
The article says "...shows no sign of any geological modification..." AFAIK the best images of Galatea are only a few pixels wide, so that statement sounds absurd. Of course, the moon is tiny that any (internal) geological activity is impossible.--Jyril 20:34, 21 December 2005 (UTC)
 * Same applies to other small Neptunian satellite articles expect for Larissa and Proteus, which have better images.--Jyril 20:36, 21 December 2005 (UTC)
 * They all appear to be headed for destruction too, which seems pretty unusual. Could Triton be slowing them down as well as their sub-synchronous orbits? 209.93.141.17 (talk) 00:23, 25 September 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Galatea (moon)


text:
Talk:Despina (moon)

Untitled
Original spelling is Despoena. Two pronunciations common: [des-PEE-nuh] and [des-PYE-nuh].

External links modified
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title: Talk:Despina (moon)


text:
Talk:Thalassa (moon)

Untitled
English pronunciation [thuh-LASS-uh].

OED gives adjectival form 'Thalassian' (tha-las'-ee-un). kwami 2005 June 30 08:37 (UTC)

Debris after crossing the Roche limit

 * Relatively soon after, the overlapping debris will enter into Despina's orbit

Interesting, but is it true? Why would this happen, since Despina's orbit is about 2000 km outide of Thalassa's? Are impacts between the fragments expected to be sufficiently energetic to shift the orbits of a significant portion ub by this amount? Deuar 16:14, 17 June 2006 (UTC)

Image Correction
I posted this here and at Naiad. I saw the image at NASA and contacted them, and they (Stphen Edberg) sent me an email reply with " IAU Name Discovery

III Naiad S/1989 N6 IV Thalassa S/1989 N5 V Despina S/1989 N3 "

They intend to fix it, and when the do the image here should be updated. TeigeRyan (talk) 02:51, 15 February 2015 (UTC)

External links modified (January 2018)
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified one external link on Thalassa (moon). Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20081221181025/http://www.dtm.ciw.edu/sheppard/satellites/nepsatdata.html to http://www.dtm.ciw.edu/sheppard/satellites/nepsatdata.html

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title: Talk:Thalassa (moon)


text:
Talk:Samut Prakan province

July 2004
Hello SP users, Was wondering if there was any info available, or common knowledge regarding migrant workers/ children. Especially in regards to Samut Chedi and Phra Pradaeng, but other amphoes intersting as well. Population figures, birth rates, school enrollment etc. cheers

Hello Andreas, we have a problem. I just read this in today's nation:

''Construction of Studio International will begin on a 200-rai plot of land in Samut Prakan's Bang Krajao district in January, Pimol said. The plot is adjacent to the Chao Phya River.''

see: link

I cannot find that district! Maybe they reformed the districts again?? Waerth 10:33, 30 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Relax :-) Bang Krajao is the peninsula opposite of Bangkok harbour, which now becomes a public park with orchards belonging to local people . Thus hardly enough population to make it a new Amphoe. And Samutprakan.go.th still has a small map with the original 6 Amphoe at the bottom. Thus probably a sloppy translation, maybe they better translated it by "Bang Krajao area". andy 22:08, 31 Jul 2004 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the nomination page. —Community Tech bot (talk) 18:13, 3 October 2021 (UTC)
 * พิพิธภัณฑ์ช้างเอราวัณ Erawan Museum - panoramio.jpg

title: Talk:Samut Prakan province


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Rip-off Britain

Rip-off Britain is an expression used by some to refer to the phenomenon in which some products and services cost significantly more in the United Kingdom than in other countries, especially member states of the European Union and the United States, than a basic currency conversion would permit.

Origin
In 1999, the Consumers' Association hired a stand at the British International Motor Show, only revealing on press day its true purpose in doing so—to highlight high British car prices. The organizers of the show, the Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders, decided not to fan the media flames by ejecting the Consumers' Association.

By this point, the phrase had already taken hold in the mass media, and it became a term in frequent use to describe anything that was wrong with Britain. It also proved to be one of the elements leading to a tipping point in the harmonisation of car prices within the EU. The campaign was devised by UK advertising agency Claydon Heeley, who are known for such "guerrilla marketing" work.

Taxation
The level of indirect taxation applied to some products such as alcoholic drinks, tobacco, and petroleum may serve to disguise high profit margins by the retailer, but it may also work in the opposite direction, squeezing profits when there are other legal markets with lower taxation.

While the standard UK rate of Value Added Tax (VAT) of 20 per cent is generally triple or more that of US sales taxes, differences in prices can be far greater than this could account for.. The Crown Dependencies of Jersey and Guernsey are not part of the EU and Low Value Consignment Relief applied to imports. Retailers such as Play.com and Specsavers operated from Jersey or Guernsey specifically as a means of avoiding VAT.

In the UK, imported commercial goods valued up to £15 are exempt from VAT; for personal gifts, the exemption rises to £36. As of July 2014, imports up to the value of £135 are not liable for UK customs duty.

Business costs
Companies sometimes argue that some of their fixed costs are higher in the United Kingdom than elsewhere, such as for storage and distribution. The truthfulness of this defence varies from case to case. For example, the UK has around the fiftieth-highest population density of any country in the world, eight times that of the US and over twice that of France, so transportation distances are unlikely to be a factor, and a parliamentary report concluded there was no great difference across EU states.

Differences in storage costs are difficult to quantify, since many goods are shipped just in time directly from the manufacturer to the consumer, or in the case of electronic goods and services, they may not be physically shipped at all, but delivered via the Internet.

Easy conversion
Simply converting $1 to £1 is one reason for the price increase. For example, Wikipedia donations page asking for donations gives the following options,

US customers: "This year, please consider making a donation of $5, $20, $50 or whatever you can to protect and sustain Wikipedia."

UK customers: "This year, please consider making a donation of £5, £20, £50 or whatever you can to protect and sustain Wikipedia."

Discussing why personal computers cost more in the UK than in the US, New Scientist stated in 1977 that "the price of an American kit in dollars rapidly translates into the same figure in pounds sterling by the time it has reached the shores of Britain". This also applies to digital downloads where the price is not a round number and where the costs are the same. "The ever popular method of simply swapping the $ sign for a £ sign sees a monthly subscription to Spotify priced at $9.99 in the US and £9.99 in the UK", Which? magazine stated in 2013.

At its launch, Microsoft Windows Vista had a suggested retail price of $249 (£127) in the United States and £249 ($487) in the United Kingdom. This made it almost twice as expensive to buy in the UK than in the U.S.

Shipping from abroad
Higher prices in the UK often have the effect of encouraging British consumers to order goods from the Internet, whether from UK businesses claiming to break a price cartel or directly from abroad, including via eBay and other online auction sites.

Most American Internet retailers ship directly to consumers in the UK which, assuming customs provisions are met, can provide a worthwhile alternative to higher UK prices. Many believe that competition from the Internet and the Eurozone general free trade will tend to normalize retail prices and put an end the UK being known as "Treasure Island". However, "customer not present" transactions can generally not be made for legally controlled products such as alcohol, tobacco, solvents, fuels, or medication.

Electrical and electronic products designed for the North American market may have to be converted to run on EU voltage and TV systems, annulling any benefit in reduced prices. Other products may also differ in specification, or they may not come with the same warranties or guarantees, making returning faulty goods difficult, or at least not cost effective. Furthermore, products for sale in the European Union should carry the CE mark for safety, but products purchased in the United States or designed for the US market are often supplied with other safety designations such as the UL listing.

Internet delivery
Products and services delivered over the Internet do not face physical barriers for shipping the goods, so one might expect Internet-based markets to normalize across free trading countries.

Apple's iTunes Store formerly operated a model in which purchases can only be made in a domain where the users' means of payment is registered. UK customers were therefore tied to the offerings in the UK iTunes Store, proving a disadvantage both in price and selection. On 9 January 2008, however, Apple conceded that this was unfair practice and promised to harmonise prices with Europe within six months, citing record labels' wholesale music prices as the reason.

title: Rip-off Britain


text:
Leonid Govorov

Leonid Aleksandrovich Govorov (Леони́д Алекса́ндрович Го́воров; 22 February 1897 – 19 March 1955) was a Soviet military commander. Trained as an artillery officer, he joined the Red Army in 1920. He graduated from several Soviet military academies, including the Military Academy of Red Army General Staff. He participated in the Winter War of 1939–1940 against Finland as a senior artillery officer.

In World War II, Govorov rose to command an army in November 1941 during the Battle of Moscow. He commanded the Leningrad Front from April 1942 to the end of the war. He reached the rank of Marshal of the Soviet Union in 1944, and was awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union and many other awards. He was the father of Soviet General Vladimir Govorov.

Early years and Russian Revolution
Leonid Aleksandrovich Govorov was born into a peasant family of Russian ethnicity in the village of Butyrki in Vyatka Governorate (now in Kirov Oblast). He attended a technical high school in Yelabuga and enrolled in the shipbuilding department of Petrograd Polytechnical Institute. In December 1916, however, he was mobilized and was sent to the Konstantinovskye Artillery School, from which he graduated in 1917. He became an artillery officer with the rank of podporuchik.

When the Russian Revolution broke out and the Russian Army disintegrated, Govorov returned home, but was conscripted into the White Guard army of Aleksandr Kolchak in October 1918, serving in an artillery battery with the 8th Kama Rifle Division of the 2nd Ufa Army Corps in the Western Army, fighting in the Russian Civil War. Govorov fought in the Spring Offensive of the Russian Army, a general drive westwards by White forces in the east. He deserted in November 1919, fleeing to Tomsk, where he took part in an uprising against White authorities as part of a fighting squad. Govorov joined the Red Army in January 1920, serving in the 51st Rifle Division as an artillery battalion commander. With the division, he fought in the Siege of Perekop in November, during which Soviet forces drove Pyotr Wrangel's White Army out of Crimea. Govorov was wounded twice during the year and was awarded the Order of the Red Banner in 1921 for his actions in Crimea.

Interwar years

In 1923 he met in Odessa, and later married Lydia Izdebska, the daughter of a former manager of a Polish estate. In 1924 their son Vladimir was born.

Govorov obtained further military education, graduating from the Artillery course in 1926, the Higher Academy course in 1930, and the Frunze Military Academy in 1933. In 1936, Govorov was among the first officers who attended the newly founded Military Academy of Red Army General Staff, from which he graduated in 1938.

From 1936, he was head of artillery in the Kiev Military District. In 1938 he was appointed as lecturer in tactics at the Dzerzhinsky Artillery Academy. In 1939, he finished his first research publication. This was the period of Joseph Stalin's Great Purge. Govorov was close to being arrested, but in the end survived thanks to the intervention of Mikhail Kalinin and continued to rise in rank.

World War II
In 1939 the Soviet Union invaded Finland, and Govorov was appointed chief of artillery of the 7th Army, as his research while at Dzerzhinsky Artillery Academy was about assaulting and penetrating fortified enemy positions. He commanded the massive artillery assault that allowed the Soviet breakthrough along the Mannerheim Line in 1940. For this he was awarded the Order of the Red Star and promoted to the rank of division commander. He was then appointed Deputy Inspector-General of Artillery of the Red Army.

After Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, Govorov commanded the Artillery on the Western Front in Belarus from August to October 1941. During the Battle of Moscow, he was appointed Chief of Artillery of the 5th Army, under the command of Major General Dmitri Danilovich Lelyushenko. After Lelyushenko was wounded on 18 October Govorov assumed command of the army. During the Soviet counter-offensives in the winter of 1941–42, his army liberated Mozhaisk. As a result, he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-general of artillery.

Defense of Leningrad
In April 1942 Govorov was appointed commander of the Leningrad Group of Forces of the Leningrad Front, which combined the former Leningrad and Volkhov Fronts. In July, the Volkhov Front was re-established, and Govorov became the head of the entire Leningrad Front, replacing Lieutenant General M.S. Khosin. Leningrad had been cut off from the rest of the country since September 1941, and the Soviet forces were trying to lift the siege of Leningrad, which was causing colossal damage to the city and suffering to the civilian population. The Road of Life, which was the only means of supply to the city, was frequently cut by regular German and Finnish air strikes. Despite several German requests Mannerheim decided that Finnish forces would not attack Leningrad. Soviet forces launched several offensives in the region in 1942, but these failed to lift the siege. The Lyuban Offensive Operation resulted in the encirclement and destruction of most of the Soviet 2nd Shock Army. In this situation, Govorov's background as an artilleryman was considered most valuable, since the city was under constant shelling, and one of Govorov's tasks was to launch an artillery counter-offensive against the German guns. As soon as he became the commander of the Leningrad Front in July 1942, Govorov mounted local attacks in several sectors of the front, while preparing a much larger offensive. Together with the Volkhov Front, the Leningrad Front would break the blockade of the city by eliminating the German positions south of Ladoga Lake, where only 16 km separated the Leningrad and Volkhov Fronts. This position was called "the bottleneck". At the same time, German forces were planning Operation Northern Light (Nordlicht) to capture the city and link up with Finnish forces. To achieve that, heavy reinforcements arrived from Sevastopol, which the German forces had captured in July 1942. Both sides were unaware of the other's preparations. As a result, the Soviet Sinyavino Offensive failed and the 2nd Shock army was decimated for the second time in a year, but the German forces suffered heavy casualties and canceled Operation Northern Light.

In late November 1942, Govorov began planning the next operation to break the blockade of Leningrad. In December, the plan was approved by the Stavka and received the codename Operation Iskra (Spark). Operation Iskra began on 13 January 1943, and on 18 January Soviet forces linked up, breaking the blockade. By 22 January the front line stabilized. The operation successfully opened a land corridor 8–10 km wide to the city. A railroad was swiftly built through the corridor that allowed far more supplies to reach the city than the "Road of Life", eliminating the possibility of the capture of the city and a German-Finnish link up. Govorov was promoted to Colonel General on 15 January and was awarded the Order of Suvorov 1st Class on 28 January.

The Leningrad and Volkhov Fronts tried to follow up their success with a much more ambitious offensive operation named Operation Polyarnaya Zvezda (Polar Star). This operation had the aim of decisively defeating the German Army Group North, but achieved very modest gains. Several other offensives were conducted by Govorov in the area in 1943, slowly expanding the corridor into Leningrad, and making other small gains. In November 1943, Govorov began planning the Leningrad-Novgorod Offensive which would drive Army Group North out of the Leningrad region. On 17 November he was promoted to army general.

Soviet Counter Offensive
The Soviet offensive started on 14 January 1944. By 1 March the Leningrad, Volkhov and 2nd Baltic Fronts had driven Army Group North back up to 300 km on a 400 km front, liberating the southern Leningrad region and part of the Kalinin region. By that time, the reinforced Germans forces were at the "Panther Line", stretching from Narva to Pskov using Lake Pskov as a barrier, where the offensive was stopped in several heavy battles around Narva. On 18 April the Soviet forces were ordered to the defense, a new 3rd Baltic Front was created to coordinate operations near Narva and Govorov's Leningrad Front turned attention to the north. In June 1944, during the Vyborg–Petrozavodsk Offensive, which led to Soviet recapture of Vyborg, Govorov was promoted to the rank of marshal of the Soviet Union. Later his forces recaptured the Baltic states, and in autumn 1944 his forces blocked Army Group North in what became known as Courland Pocket. On 27 January 1945, Govorov was awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union.

Post-war career
In the postwar years Govorov was commander of the Leningrad Military District, and then Chief Inspector of Ground Forces. In 1948 he was appointed Commander of National Air Defence Forces, and in 1952 he also became Deputy Minister of Defence. In these posts he oversaw the modernization of the Soviet air defence system for the age of the jet aircraft and the atomic bomb. But Govorov was by this time suffering from chronic heart disease, and died in March 1955. He was cremated and his ashes in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis. A street in St Petersburg is named after him.

Honours and awards

 * Soviet Awards

 * Foreign Awards

title: Leonid Govorov


text:
User:Veila

Construction site

 * Hard hats mandatory
 * CD Everton

WPF: Importance scale
The importance scale used in the assessment department is, at present, highly generic. This makes it somewhat more difficult to use than perhaps should be the case.

Using a loose taxonomy with a principle of importance, I think we can make things far more approachable without requiring a substantial set of re-classifications. The current system is:

 * Top importance articles are identified as those forming the basis of all information. My interpretation of this is that it includes rules, all regional and dominant national FAs, global tournaments and dominant leagues globally. I can see no way that a player or club could form such a base.

 * High importance articles cover a general area of knowledge. FAs and leagues that fail to reach the level of notariety required for Top would spill into this category, along with the dominant clubs, such as those competing in the top-flight of a Top rated league, historically significant clubs, very important stadia and regional tournaments. Putting highly notable players into this category, while appropriate in the spirit of categorisation by importance, is a dangerous idea. It would lead to inevitable disagreement about merit.

 * Mid importance articles would hold any other club that is deemed notable enough to be on Wikipedia, players notable enough to be on Wikipedia, other stadia and smaller tournaments.

 * Finally, Low importance articles would remain about the specific or trivial.

In general, a player is less important than a club, is less important than a league, is less important than an association, is less important than any global tournament/organisation/rule definition. Likewise, a stadium or other dependent article would normally be one rank lower than the club who own/use it. ⁂veila# 07:16, 19 January 2007 (UTC)

title: User:Veila


text:
Wood's metal

Wood's metal, also known as Lipowitz's alloy or by the commercial names Cerrobend, Bendalloy, Pewtalloy and MCP 158, is a metal alloy that is useful for soldering and making custom metal parts, but its vapor is toxic to touch or breathe. The alloy is named for Barnabas Wood, who invented and patented the alloy in 1860. It is a eutectic, fusible alloy of 50% bismuth, 26.7% lead, 13.3% tin, and 10% cadmium by mass. It has a melting point of approximately 70 °C.

Applications

Other uses include making custom-shaped apertures and blocks (for example, electron-beam cutouts and lung blocks) for medical radiation treatment, and making casts of keys that are hard to otherwise duplicate.

Like other fusible alloys, e.g. Rose's metal, Wood's metal can be used as a heat-transfer medium in hot baths. Hot baths with Rose's and Wood's metals are not used routinely but are employed at temperatures above 220 °C.

Wood's metal has a modulus of elasticity of 12.7 GPa and a yield strength of 26.2 MPa.

title: Wood's metal


text:
Brazeau

Brazeau may refer to:

Canada

 * Brazeau, an obsolete alternative name for Nordegg, a hamlet in Alberta
 * Brazeau County, a municipal district in Alberta
 * Brazeau River, a river in Alberta
 * Brazeau Reservoir, a man-made lake in Alberta
 * Mount Brazeau, a mountain in the Canadian Rockies of Alberta

United States

 * Brazeau, Wisconsin, a town in Oconto County, Wisconsin, United States
 * Brazeau, Missouri, an unincorporated community in southeastern Perry County, Missouri, United States
 * Brazeau Township, Perry County, Missouri, a township in Perry County, Missouri
 * Brazeau Bottom, an alluvial floodplain in Perry County, Missouri
 * Brazeau Creek, a stream in Perry County, Missouri

Geography

 * Brazeau Bottom, an alluvial floodplain in Perry County, Missouri
 * Brazeau Creek, a stream in Perry County, Missouri

People

 * Alexander Brazeau, American politician
 * Jim Brazeau (born 1968), American soccer goalkeeper
 * Patrick Brazeau (born 1974), Canadian aboriginal activist and senator
 * Theodore W. Brazeau (1873–1965), American politician
 * Justin Brazeau (born 1998), Canadian ice hockey player

title: Brazeau


text:
Armagh (UK Parliament constituency)

Armagh or County Armagh is a former county constituency in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom. It was a two-member constituency in Ireland from 1801 to 1885 and a single-member constituency in Northern Ireland from 1922 to 1950. It was replaced in boundary changes in 1983.

History and boundaries
County Armagh had been represented by two seats in the Irish House of Commons. From 1 January 1801, when the Acts of Union 1800 came into effect, it was represented by a county constituency with two MPs in the United Kingdom House of Commons. It consisted of County Armagh, except the parts in the parliamentary borough constituencies of Armagh City and Newry. The borough of Charlemont was disfranchised in 1801. The First Parliament of the United Kingdom in 1801 was composed all members of the parliament of Great Britain and members continuing from areas which were enfranchised in Ireland.

Catholics were excluded from taking seats until the enactment of the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829. Under the Parliamentary Elections (Ireland) Act 1829, the traditional county 40 shilling freehold landowning qualification was changed to a £10 qualification (which was an increase to five times the previous level). Before the Representation of the People Act 1884, there was a restrictive property-based franchise. It was not until the householder franchise was introduced for county elections, in the electoral reforms which took effect in 1885, that most (but not all) adult males became voters. In these circumstances, most members of parliament came from a limited number of Protestant aristocratic and gentry families. There were few contested elections.

In the first half-century or so after the union, the constituency was fairly evenly balanced between Whig/Liberal and Tory/Conservative parties. Thereafter the area became more Conservative.

In 1885, under the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885, it was split into Mid Armagh, North Armagh and South Armagh.

In 1922, following the establishment of the Parliament of Northern Ireland, the number of seats in Northern Ireland at Westminster was cut from 30 to 13 under the Government of Ireland Act 1920. The single-seat constituency of Armagh consisted of the entirety of County Armagh. From its inception, Armagh had a unionist majority, though by the 1970s the nationalist vote was in the mid-30s%. In 1951, it was one of the last four seats to be uncontested in a UK general election, and in 1954 it saw the last uncontested by-election in the UK. In 1974 the Ulster Unionist Party repudiated the Sunningdale Agreement and so did not reselect the pro-Sunningdale MP, John Maginnis. Instead, they ran Harold McCusker, who held the seat until 1983. He was then elected for Upper Bann, which contained part of Armagh.

In 1983 most of the constituency became part of the Newry and Armagh constituency, with part going to Upper Bann.

Elections
In two-member elections, the bloc voting system was used. Voters could cast a vote for one or two candidates, as they chose. The two candidates with the largest number of votes were elected.

In by-elections to fill a single seat, the first past the post system applied.

After 1832, when registration of voters was introduced, a turnout figure is given for contested elections. In two-member elections, when the exact number of participating voters is unknown, this is calculated by dividing the number of votes by two. To the extent that voters did not use both their votes this will be an underestimate of turnout. If the electorate figure is unknown the last known electorate figure is used to provide an estimate of turnout.

Where a party had more than one candidate in one or both of a pair of successive elections change is calculated for each individual candidate, otherwise change is based on the party vote.

Elections in the 19th century

 * Archibald Acheson and Robert Camden Cope were co-opted as non-partisans in 1801.
 * At the 1802 and 1806 general elections, Archibald Acheson and Henry Caulfeild were elected unopposed.
 * At the 1807 Armagh by-election, Brownlow was elected unopposed.
 * At the 1807 general election, Richardson and Brownlow were elected unopposed.
 * At the 1812 general election, Richardson and William Brownlow were elected unopposed.
 * At the 1815 Armagh by-election, Henry Caulfeild was elected unopposed.

Elections in the 1820s

 * At the 1820 general election, Charles Brownlow and Henry Caulfeild were elected unopposed.

Elections in the 1860s

 * Caused by Close's resignation.

Elections in the 1870s

 * Caused by Verner's death.

title: Armagh (UK Parliament constituency)


text:
Brenda Hale

Brenda Hale may refer to:

 * Brenda Hale (Northern Ireland politician) (born 1968), Democratic Unionist Party MLA
 * Brenda Hale, Baroness Hale of Richmond (born 1945), judge and President of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom

title: Brenda Hale


text:
Braxton

Braxton may refer to:

Places in the United States

 * Braxton, Mississippi, a village
 * Braxton County, West Virginia

People

 * Braxton (given name), a list of people with the given name
 * Braxton (surname), a list of people with the surname

Other uses

 * The Braxtons, an American R&B girl group
 * USS Braxton (APA-138), a World War II attack transport

title: Braxton


text:
Brawley

Brawley may refer to:

Places

 * Brawley, California, a city in Imperial County, California, United States
 * Brawley, Missouri, an unincorporated community
 * Brawley Peaks, a mountain range in Mono County, California
 * Brawley Seismic Zone, at the south end of the San Andreas Fault

Other uses

 * Brawley (surname)
 * Brawley Guitars, a short-lived company that made electric guitars
 * Brawley Municipal Airport, public airport in Brawley, California, United States
 * Brawley Union High School, a high school in Brawley, California, United States

title: Brawley


text:
Eugene Jarvis

Eugene Peyton Jarvis is an American game designer and video game programmer, known for producing pinball machines for Williams Electronics and video games for Atari. Most notable among his works are the seminal arcade video games Defender and Robotron: 2084 in the early 1980s, and the Cruis'n series of driving games for Midway Games in the 1990s. He co-founded Vid Kidz in the early 1980s and currently leads his own development studio, Raw Thrills Inc. In 2008, Eugene Jarvis was named the first Game Designer in Residence by DePaul University's Game Development program. His family owns the Jarvis Wines company in Napa, California.

In 2009, he was chosen by IGN as one of the top 100 game creators of all time.

Early life and education
Jarvis was born in Palo Alto, California and grew up in Menlo Park. He has an older sister, Diane, and a younger sister, Helen. His first game was chess, which he played as a young child; he was one of the best players at Bellarmine College Preparatory in San Jose. Jarvis's first encounter with computers came while he was in high school attending a one-day course on FORTRAN programming given by IBM. Jarvis originally intended to become a biochemist but decided on studying computers instead. At the University of California, Berkeley, Jarvis did FORTRAN programming on mainframes. At Berkeley he got his first taste of computer gaming, playing Spacewar! in the basement of the physics lab. He received his B.S. in EECS in 1976 from Berkeley. In his last days before graduation, he interviewed with Atari, but did not receive a call back.

Career
Having an interest in natural language processing, Jarvis was hired by Hewlett-Packard to help create a COBOL compiler. He disliked the boring HP culture and quit after only three days into the six-year project. A few days later, three months after his interview, Atari finally called him back, interested in hiring him. He joined them and started programming some of the first pinball games that used microprocessors. Atari's pinball development branch failed a few years later, so he moved to Chicago to continue programming pinball games for Williams Electronics.

Video arcade games
As Jarvis worked on pinball games at Williams in the late 1970s, Space Invaders was released, sparking great interest in microprocessor-based video games. Jarvis wanted to try making a video game. When thinking of design ideas with famed pinball designer Steve Ritchie, they developed the concept for Defender – a side-scroller with the player flying over the surface of a planet. Defender (1980) was Jarvis's first video game and turned out to be a huge hit, becoming one of the highest grossing video games from the golden age of arcade games. Williams expanded greatly with the success of Defender, but Jarvis left to found an independent game development firm called Vid Kidz with Larry DeMar in February 1981. After four months of tag-team programming between DeMar and Jarvis, they produced Vid Kidz's first game: Stargate (1981), an enhanced sequel to Defender that they sold to Williams.

Jarvis's next hit with Vid Kidz was the high-action game Robotron, which was produced by Williams in 1982. It took 6 months to develop. He then designed Blaster, a sort-of Robotron sequel set in 2085 — after the robots destroyed humanity — but with different, 3D gameplay. Though a marvel to look at, Blaster was not quite as successful or remembered as his previous video games. The video game crash of 1983 hit Williams hard, forcing them to cut back and reverting to much of their pre-Defender business. Jarvis left Vid Kidz in 1984 to attend Stanford University, where he gained an MBA in 1986. He continued making games, designing Narc (1989) and helping develop Smash TV (1990), which drew comparisons to Robotron.

The next big leap for Jarvis was 3D. He had been interested in virtual reality since attending Berkeley in the 1970s. He and a group of others left Midway (which Williams had purchased in 1988) to experiment with VR, but disappointingly came to the realization that VR headsets were not catching on. They did find potential in multi-screen cockpit simulators though. He helped create 3D texture mapping hardware which ended up being used in his Cruis'n series of games.

Next Generation listed Jarvis in their "75 Most Important People in the Games Industry of 1995", both for the massive success of Defender and for Cruis'n USA, which they said is "arguably neck-and-neck with Daytona USA as the most popular driving game of 1994."

He works for his own studio, Raw Thrills Inc., and his more recent work has returned him to the coin-op arcade game world with Target: Terror, a first-person perspective shooting game based on the "war on terror", introduced in spring 2004. The second game from his studio, The Fast and the Furious debuted that fall along with the Target: Terror update kit. Since the release of Target Terror, the company has experienced strong growth, developing or releasing titles including Nicktoons Nitro, Guitar Hero Arcade, H2Overdrive, the Big Buck series of games and Jurassic Park Arcade among others.

In 2006, Raw Thrills purchased game developer Play Mechanix which is led by his friend George Petro. Together the two companies have developed arcade and video redemption games for ICE and Bandai Namco Amusements America.

In 2008, Jarvis was named DePaul University's first Game Designer in Residence. His involvement at DePaul's Game Development program includes lectures, supervision of game projects, and input on curriculum. He was recognized as the NY-AMOA Man of the Year in 2009 and he received the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences Pioneer Award in 2013.

Jarvis is the only video game designer to have his work featured on a U.S. postage stamp — two 1980's era children are depicted playing Defender on the video games stamp for the "Celebrate the Century" series. He also appeared in a cameo on the TV series NewsRadio (in the 3rd season episode "Arcade") as "Delivery Man #3", a character who delivers a distracting arcade video game machine to the office. That arcade game is his own creation Stargate, which within the episode is called Stargate Defender and is described as being about "saving the humanoids" while avoiding the "Yllabian Space Guppies".

In 2018, Defender was included in the Chicago New Media 1973-1992 exhibition, that was curated by Jon Cates.

In 2022, Jarvis and his wife, Sasha Gerritson, gifted DePaul the university's largest ever gift, in support of the institution's College of Computing and Digital Media. In recognition of the couple’s generosity and dedicated leadership, the college has been renamed the Eugene P. Jarvis College of Computing and Digital Media.

Atari

 * Time 2000
 * Airborne Avenger
 * Superman

Williams

 * Laser Ball
 * Firepower
 * Space Shuttle
 * High Speed
 * F-14 Tomcat

Video games

 * Defender
 * Stargate
 * Robotron: 2084
 * Blaster
 * NARC
 * Smash TV
 * Total Carnage
 * Cruis'n series
 * Target: Terror
 * ''The Fast and the Furious
 * ''The Fast and the Furious: Drift
 * Nex Machina

title: Eugene Jarvis


text:
Braswell

Braswell may refer to:

Places

 * Braswell, Georgia, a city in the US
 * Braswell, Missouri, an unincorporated community in the US

People

 * Almon Glenn Braswell (1943–2006), American business owner
 * Arnold W. Braswell (1925–2022), United States Air Force general
 * Bobby Braswell (born 1962), American college basketball coach
 * Christian Braswell (born 1999), American football player
 * Elizabeth J. Braswell, American novelist
 * Jerry Braswell Jr. (born 1975), American basketball player
 * Kevin Braswell (born 1979), American basketball player
 * Natalie Braswell, American lawyer and public servant
 * Tony Braswell (1944/5–2024), American politician and businessman
 * Braswell Deen Jr. (1925–2020), American politician and judge
 * Braswell Deen (1893–1981), U.S. Representative from Georgia

Other uses

 * Braswell (SOC), an Intel microprocessor

title: Braswell


text:
Talk:Naiad (moon)

Untitled
Sources generally give dual pronunciations, [NAY-ad] and [NYE-ad]. Several (US) astronomical sources give only [NAY-ud]. This is consistent with pronouncing Aitne as [ET-nee] rather than [ITE-nee]. However, there was originally a dieresis over the i, which forces the diphthong, and therefore several mythological sources (such as Robert Fagles) give only [NYE-ad]. The Oxford English Dictionary gives [NYE-ad] as the pronunciation in both the UK and US, but [NAY-ad] for the US only.

orbit decay

 * Since its orbit is below Neptune's synchronous orbit radius it is slowly decaying due to tidal forces

Ok, but this doesn't look very significant since it relies on the pull from tidal bulges in Neptune's atmosphere induced by Naiad itself, which are small. Than again, does anyone have any quantitative data - like how fast is the decay, or maybe just how the decay rate scales with the satellite's mass and orbital radius? Deuar 14:04, 10 June 2006 (UTC)

Gone missing
Is it possible that it has crossed the Roche limit? Lanthanum-138 (talk) 06:31, 24 July 2011 (UTC)
 * It's now been rediscovered: see . Also, it's not very likely IMHO that it would have done so and broken apart within just the 22 years between its discovery in 1989 and my comment here. Double sharp (talk) 11:32, 19 May 2014 (UTC) (Lanthanum-138 with a new username)
 * I do wonder however whether its distinctly elongated shape is not so much due to being a rubble pile that hasn't undergone any kind of settling into a quasi-spherical shape, but more that it's already on its way to destruction, and we're seeing it in the intial stages where it becomes ever more stretched-out but hasn't yet begun to actually disintegrate (see the diagrams on the Roche limit page). Then again, it may already be partly broken up, and only losing significant mass intermittently, maybe on the order of lumps fracturing off and floating away every few decades, maybe in sync with closer approaches as its orbit varies - how could we properly tell, without keeping a steady watch from fairly close up or dedicating a good bit of hubble/etc time to look for changes to the moon itself and any debris pulling away from it? 209.93.141.17 (talk) 00:15, 25 September 2017 (UTC)

Image correction
I will post this here and at Thlassa. I saw the image at NASA and contacted them, and they (Stphen Edberg) sent me an email reply with " IAU       Name                    Discovery

III           Naiad                    S/1989 N6 IV            Thalassa               S/1989 N5 V             Despina                S/1989 N3 "

They intend to fix it, and wen the do the image should be updated. TeigeRyan (talk) 02:33, 15 February 2015 (UTC)

Looks like this is the photo they now use for Naiad and not for Thalassia. Check these two links: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/naiad http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/thalassa 216.113.170.72 (talk) 23:26, 1 January 2017 (UTC)
 * I updated articles. Ruslik_ Zero 20:28, 3 January 2017 (UTC)

External links modified (January 2018)
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title: Talk:Naiad (moon)


text:
Galinstan

Galinstan is a brand name for an alloy composed of gallium, indium, and tin which melts at -19 °C and is thus liquid at room temperature. In scientific literature, galinstan is also used to denote the eutectic alloy of gallium, indium, and tin, which melts at around +11 °C. The commercial product Galinstan is not a eutectic alloy, but a near eutectic alloy. Additionally, it likely has added flux to improve flowability, to reduce melting temperature, and to reduce surface tension.

Eutectic galinstan is composed of 68.5%Ga, 21.5%In, and 10.0%Sn (by weight).

Due to the low toxicity and low reactivity of its component metals, galinstan has replaced the toxic liquid mercury or the reactive alloy NaK in many applications.

Name
The name "galinstan" is a portmanteau of gallium, indium, and stannum (Latin for "tin"). The brand name "Galinstan" is a registered trademark of the German company Geratherm.

Physical properties

 * Boiling point: >1300°C
 * Vapour pressure: <10−8Torr (at 500°C)
 * Solubility: Insoluble in water or organic solvents
 * Viscosity: 0.0024Pa·s (at 20°C)
 * Thermal conductivity: 16.5W·m−1·K−1
 * Electrical conductivity: 3.46×106 S/m (at 20°C)
 * Surface tension: s = 0.535–0.718 N/m (at 20°C, dependent on producer)

In the presence of oxygen at concentrations above 1 ppm, the surface of bulk galinstan oxidizes to Ga2O3. Unlike mercury, galinstan tends to wet and adheres to many materials, including glass, due to its surface oxide. This can limit its use as a direct replacement material in some situations, but can also be utilized in some situations.

Uses
Galinstan can replace mercury in thermometers at moderate temperatures.

Galinstan has higher reflectivity and lower density than mercury. In astronomy, it can replace mercury in liquid-mirror telescopes.

Metals or alloys like galinstan that are liquids at room temperature are often used by overclockers and enthusiasts as a thermal interface for computer hardware cooling, where their higher thermal conductivity compared to thermal pastes and thermal epoxies can allow slightly higher clock speeds and CPU processing power achieved in demonstrations and competitive overclocking. Two examples are Thermal Grizzly Conductonaut and Coolaboratory Liquid Ultra, with thermal conductivities of 73 and 38.4 W/mK respectively. Unlike ordinary thermal compounds which are easy to apply and present a low risk of damaging hardware, galinstan is electrically conductive and causes liquid metal embrittlement in many metals including aluminum which is commonly used in heatsinks. Despite these challenges the users who are successful with their application do report good results. In August 2020, Sony Interactive Entertainment patented a galinstan-based thermal interface solution suitable for mass production, for use on the PlayStation 5.

Galinstan is difficult to use for cooling fission-based nuclear reactors, because indium has a high absorption cross section for thermal neutrons, efficiently absorbing them and inhibiting the fission reaction. Conversely, it is being investigated as a possible coolant for fusion reactors. Its nonreactivity makes it safer than other liquid metals, such as lithium and mercury.

The wetting characteristics of galinstan can be utilized to fabricate conductive patterns, allowing it to be used as a liquid, deformable conductor in soft robotics and stretchable electronics. Galinstan can be used to replace wires, interconnects, and electrodes as well as the conductive element in inductor coils and dielectric composites for soft capacitors.

X-ray equipment
Extremely high-intensity sources may be obtained with an X-ray source that uses a liquid-metal galinstan anode of 9.25 keV X-rays (gallium K-alpha line) for X-ray phase microscopy of fixed tissue (such as mouse brain), from a focal spot about 10 μm × 10 μm, and 3-D voxels of about one cubic micrometer. The metal flows from a nozzle downward at a high speed, and the high-intensity electron source is focused upon it. The rapid flow of metal carries current, but the physical flow prevents a great deal of anode heating (due to forced-convective heat removal), and the high boiling point of galinstan inhibits vaporization of the anode.

title: Galinstan


text:
James Birney

James Birney may refer to:
 * James G. Birney (1792–1857), abolitionist, candidate for the U.S. presidency on the Liberty Party ticket
 * James M. Birney (1817–1888), Michigan politician, son of James G. Birney

title: James Birney


text: User talk:139.80.61.49

title: User talk:139.80.61.49


text:
Brasher

Brasher can refer to:
 * Brasher (surname), people and fictional characters with the name
 * Brasher, New York, a town
 * Brasher, a UK boot manufacturer owned by the Pentland Group

title: Brasher


text:
Brashear

Brashear may refer to:

People

 * Brashear (surname)

Places

 * Brashear, Missouri, town in Missouri
 * Brashear, Texas, unincorporated community in Texas
 * Brashear City, former name of Morgan City, Louisiana

Other uses

 * Brashear High School, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
 * Brashear (lunar crater), crater on the Moon
 * Brashear (Martian crater), crater on Mars
 * 5502 Brashear, asteroid

title: Brashear


text:
Joachim Kroll

Joachim Georg Kroll (17 April 1933 – 1 July 1991) was a German serial killer, child molester, necrophile and cannibal who murdered a minimum of eight women and young girls in the Ruhr metropolitan region from 1955 until his arrest on 3 July 1976. He was convicted of eight murders and one attempted murder, but confessed to a total of 14. He was sentenced to life imprisonment on 8 April 1982.

Early life
Born on 17 April 1933 as the son of a miner in Hindenburg (Zabrze), Upper Silesia, Kroll was the sixth of nine children. After the end of World War II, during which his father was a prisoner of war, Kroll's family moved to North Rhine-Westphalia.

Crimes
He began killing in 1955, after his mother died. Around 1960, Kroll went to Duisburg and found work as a toilet attendant for Mannesmann. Afterwards, he worked for Thyssen Industries and moved to Friesenstrasse 24, Laar, a district of Duisburg. At that time he resumed killing people.

List of victims

 * 8 February 1955 – Irmgard Strehl, 19, raped and stabbed to death. Her disembowelled body was found in a barn in Lüdinghausen.
 * 1956 – Erika Schuletter, 12, raped and strangled in Kirchhellen which is now part of Bottrop.
 * 16 June 1959 – Klara Frieda Tesmer, 24, murdered in the meadows of the Rhine, near Rheinhausen. A mechanic, Heinrich Ott, was arrested for the crime. He hanged himself in jail.
 * 26 July 1959 – Manuela Knodt, 16, raped and strangled in the City Park of Essen. Slices of flesh were carved from her buttocks and thighs.
 * 23 April 1962 – Petra Giese, 13, raped and strangled in Dinslaken-Bruckhausen. Vinzenz Kuehn was arrested and convicted.
 * 4 June 1962 – Monika Tafel, 12, killed in Walsum, slices of flesh carved from her buttocks. Walter Quicker was arrested for the crime. He was later released but was driven by neighbours to suicide in October.
 * 3 September 1962 – Barbara Bruder, 12, abducted in Burscheid. Her body was never found.
 * 22 August 1965 – Hermann Schmitz, 25, and his girlfriend Marion Veen were attacked as they sat in a car in a lover's lane in Duisburg-Großenbaum. Hermann—Kroll's only male victim—was killed, but Veen escaped.
 * 13 September 1966 – Ursula Rohling, 20, strangled in Foersterbusch Park near Marl. Her boyfriend Adolf Schickel committed suicide after being falsely accused of the crime.
 * 22 December 1966 – Ilona Harke, aged 5, raped and drowned in a ditch in Wuppertal.
 * 12 July 1969 – Maria Hettgen, 61, raped and strangled at Hückeswagen.
 * 21 May 1970 – Jutta Rahn, 13, strangled while walking home from a train station. Peter Schay was arrested and eventually released. He confessed to the crime in 1976 after being hounded by his neighbours.
 * 8 May 1976 – Karin Toepfer, 10, raped and strangled in Voerde.
 * 3 July 1976 – Marion Ketter, 4. Parts of her body were in the process of being simmered when Kroll was arrested.

Method
Kroll was very particular about where he killed, only killing in the same place on a few occasions years apart. This, and the fact that there were a number of other killers operating in the area at the time, helped him to evade capture. Kroll would surprise his victims and strangle them quickly. Afterwards, he would strip the body and have intercourse with it, often masturbating over it again. He would then mutilate and cut off pieces to be eaten later. Upon returning home, he would have intercourse again with a rubber sex doll he had for this purpose.

Arrest
On 3 July 1976, Kroll was arrested for kidnapping and killing a four-year-old girl named Marion Ketter. As police went from home to home, a neighbour approached a policeman and told him that the waste pipe in his apartment building had been blocked up, and when he had asked his neighbour, Kroll, whether he knew what had been blocking the pipe, Kroll had simply replied, "guts". Upon this report, the police went up to Kroll's apartment and found the body of Marion Ketter cut up: some parts were in the refrigerator, a small hand was cooking in a pan of boiling water and the entrails were found stuck in the waste pipe. Kroll was immediately arrested.

Trial and death
He admitted killing Marion Ketter and gave details of 13 other murders and one attempted murder over the previous two decades.

Kroll said that he often sliced portions of flesh from his victims to cook and eat them, claiming that he did this to save on his grocery bills. In custody, he believed that he was going to get a simple operation to cure him of his homicidal urges and would then be released from prison. Instead, he was charged with eight murders and one attempted murder. In April 1982, after a 151-day trial, he was convicted on all counts and was given a life sentence.

He died of a heart attack in 1991 in the prison of Rheinbach.

Books

 * Stephan Harbort, "Ich musste sie kaputtmachen". Anatomie eines Jahrhundertmörders; Düsseldorf (Droste) 2004 (ISBN 3-7700-1174-0)

title: Joachim Kroll