text:
James Bovard

James Bovard (born 1956) is an American libertarian author and lecturer whose political commentary targets examples of waste, failures, corruption, cronyism and abuses of power in government. He is a USA Today columnist and is a frequent contributor to The Hill. He is the author of Attention Deficit Democracy and nine other books. He has written for the New York Times, Wall Street Journal, Washington Post, New Republic, Reader's Digest, The American Conservative, and many other publications. His books have been translated into Spanish, Arabic, Japanese, and Korean.

Early life
He has written Wall Street Journal articles about his experiences as a shiftless highway worker and a one-season Santa Claus. His early career was summarized in a 1988 National Journal profile headlined, "A Free-Lance Crab Apple Shaking the Federal Tree".

Views
In 2017, Bovard criticized President Donald Trump for the missile strike in Syria and referred to it as his "biggest foreign folly." Bovard writes, "Four years ago, Trump warned in a tweet: 'If the U.S. attacks Syria and hits the wrong targets, killing civilians, there will be worldwide hell to pay.' But the Trump administration has sharply increased U.S. bombing while curtailing restrictions that sought to protect innocents. A British-based human rights monitoring group estimated Friday that U.S.-led coalition strikes had killed almost 500 civilians in the past month—more than any month since U.S. bombing began. A United Nations commission of inquiry concluded that coalition airstrikes have caused a 'staggering loss of civilian life.'" He also stated that "Trump's most dangerous innovation involves direct attacks on Syrian government forces."

In 2018, Bovard was critical of Trump, saying that he "has said and done many things to appall the friends of freedom. From Trump's pro-torture comments to his praise of police brutality to his cruise-missile barrage against Syria to his threat to annihilate North Korea, there are ample signs that he scorns a freedom-and-peace posture."

Bovard is a critic of the Transportation Security Administration, writing that "the TSA has a long history of intimidation. In 2002, it created a system of fines to penalize travelers with bad attitudes, charging up to $1,500 for any alleged 'nonphysical interference.' This included any 'situation that in any way would interfere with the screener and his or her ability to continue to work or interfere with their ability to do their jobs,' according to a spokeswoman. The TSA failed to specify exactly how much groveling was necessary and eventually abandoned the regime of fines." He also criticized the TSA's watchlist and concluded that "the TSA's latest anti-privacy charade is yet more evidence that the agency should be done away with. After pointlessly groping countless Americans, the TSA has no excuse for groping more."

Media mentions
George Will, writing in The Washington Post, called Bovard "a one-man truth squad". A 1999 book review in the Wall Street Journal called him "the roving inspector general of the modern state". The New York Times in 2007 called Bovard "an anti-czar czar." A Washington Post columnist on criminal justice referred in 2017 to the "great writer and civil liberties advocate James Bovard". He discussed the War on Terror in a one-hour interview on CSPAN's Washington Journal in 2016.

title: James Bovard


text:
MEKO

The MEKO family of warships was developed by the German company Blohm+Voss. MEKO is a registered trademark. The portmanteau stands for "Mehrzweck-Kombination" (English: multi-purpose-combination). It is a concept in modern naval shipbuilding based on modularity of armament, electronics and other equipment, aiming at ease of maintenance and cost reduction.

MEKO ships include families of frigates, corvettes and ocean-going patrol boats. Construction of MEKO ships began in the late 1970s with the design and later building of Nigeria's MEKO 360 H1. Vessels of similar classes use different weapons systems. For example, for the main gun, some MEKO 200s use the Mk 45 Mod 2 gun, others use the French 100 mm naval gun or Otobreda 76 mm gun.

The latest variant is the "Combat Ship for the Littorals" or MEKO CSL. It has also been called a "Littoral Combatant Ship", but it is much smaller than the American Littoral Combat Ship (LCS). There was speculation that this design would be of interest to Israel,  but it was not. Ultimately however, Israel opted for four modified K130 Braunschweig-class corvettes, the first of which is expected to enter service in 2019. The new variant is dubbed the Sa'ar 6-class corvette. Four extended versions of MEKO A-100 light frigate vessels are planned to be supplied for the Brazilian Navy between 2025 and 2028. The consortium is formed by Germany's Thyssenkrupp Marine Systems, Embraer Defense & Security and Atech, a subsidiary of the Embraer Group. The construction of the vessels, which are more than 100 meters long, are planned for the Oceana shipyard in Itajaí.

Models
The following MEKO models are known to have been built, organized by lineage and delivery dates:
 * MEKO 360 (1981) is the earliest MEKO ship.
 * MEKO 140 (1985) is designed as a companion ship of MEKO 360, developed from the Portuguese João Coutinho class corvettes.
 * MEKO 200 (1987) is a frigate design. It evolved into the MEKO A-200 (2001) and the larger MEKO A-300 (planned for Greece and Poland).
 * F123 (1994), F124 (2002), and F125 (2016) are a line of MEKO frigates developed for the German Navy.
 * K130 (2008) is a corvette designed for the German Navy using some F124 technology.
 * Isreli Sa'ar 6 (2021) is a heavily modified descendant.
 * MEKO A-100 (2019) is a current design.
 * The 2012 A-100 is a single corvette developed from the A-200. It is occasionally quoted as the same as the MEKO 100 RMN (2004).
 * The current design is a family of three sizes (all heavier and longer than the 2012 A-100): corvette, light frigate, patrol corvette.

, the MEKO website showcases A-200, F125, and A-100 models. The following models were once mentioned on the website, but no examples are known to have been built:

 * MEKO CSL (2012 website).
 * MEKO D Corvette (2012 website).
 * MEKO 100 patrol corvette (2012 website). Based on both K130 and MEKO 100 patrol vessel.
 * MEKO A-300 frigate based on A-200 and F-125 offered to Greece and Poland
 * MEKO A-400 AMD

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: MEKO


text:
At the Beeb (Queen album)

At the Beeb is a live album by the British rock band Queen, released on vinyl, cassette tape, and CD in 1989. It was released by Hollywood Records in 1995 in the United States and Canada under the title At the BBC on CD and as limited edition picture disc vinyl.

The album comprises tracks recorded in two sessions for the BBC Radio 1 Sound of the 70s programme. The first four tracks were recorded on 5 February 1973; the rest were recorded on 3 December 1973.

All but one track appeared on the album Queen; the exception is "Ogre Battle" which appeared on Queen II. All these tracks would later be released on the 2016 album On Air along with other session recordings.

Chart performance
In 1989, At the Beeb debuted at #67 in the United Kingdom.

title: At the Beeb (Queen album)


text: Category:Army groups

title: Category:Army groups


text:
Talk:Early western influence in Fujian

Untitled
This article needs to be split up and merged with other articles. I would suggest taking the Fujian/Fuzhou related parts and putting them in there.

Also, a lot of the historical facts in there are just wrong. Very badly wrong. For example Jesuit missionaries to the Yuan has the problem that the Yuan dynasty ended in 1368 while the Jesuits were founded in 1540. Now the Jesuits were active with the Ming and Qing, but that kills the notion that China shut itself off for five hundred years.

The perspective and language sounds very mid-20th or even mid-19th century. For example there is the astonishment that there were actually Jews in China, while completely ignore the quite active cultural interchange with Arabs.

Roadrunner 08:29, 17 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Eight years and the article is about the same... --75.139.102.221 (talk) 02:37, 8 September 2012 (UTC)

 * Seems to still be mostly the same 18 years later. Pizzasausse1 (talk) 06:10, 10 September 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Early western influence in Fujian


text: Category:Field armies

title: Category:Field armies


text: Category:Corps

title: Category:Corps


text: Category:Brigades

title: Category:Brigades


text: Category:Regiments

title: Category:Regiments


text:
An American in Canada

An American in Canada is a Canadian television sitcom that aired on CBC Television in 2003 and 2004.

The show starred Rick Roberts as Jake Crewe, an American television news host who was forced, after beating up his station manager, to accept a job in Calgary, Alberta as co-host of the lowest-rated morning news program in the city. The show found its comedy in Crewe's attempts to adapt to Canadian culture, as well as his interactions with coworkers such as producer and love interest Judy Surgick (Hélène Joy) and egotistical host Dennis McIlvane (Stewart Francis).

An American in Canada was loosely based on the real-life experiences of Jebb Fink, an American comedian who moved to Canada after marrying a Canadian woman, and did become a morning television host on CKAL-TV, Calgary's A-Channel station. It was created by Fink and Howard Busgang.

The show's pilot aired as a special in January 2002 as part of the CBC's early-2000s strategy of airing comedy pilots to test viewer reaction before ordering the production of a full series. Viewer reaction was overwhelmingly positive, and the series went into production and premiered in 2003. The show produced 16 episodes over two seasons before being cancelled in 2004.

The program won the Gemini Award for Best Comedy Program or Series at the 17th Gemini Awards.

It has also aired on Australia's The Comedy Channel with the title Frostbite, and in syndication on Showcase in Canada and HDNet in the USA.

Cast

 * Rick Roberts - Jake Crewe
 * Hélène Joy - Judy Surgick
 * Stewart Francis - Dennis Macilvane
 * Timm Zemanek - Bill Robinson
 * Matthew Ferguson - Derrick
 * Robin Brûlé - Mara
 * Sugith Varughese - Aftab

title: An American in Canada


text: Category:Battalions

title: Category:Battalions


text: Category:Squadrons

title: Category:Squadrons


text: Category:Flights (military unit)

title: Category:Flights (military unit)


text:
Miguel Trovoada

Miguel dos Anjos da Cunha Lisboa Trovoada (born 27 December 1936) was the prime minister from 1975 to 1979 and second president of São Tomé and Príncipe 1991 to 2001. On 16 July 2014, he was appointed the Special Representative of the United Nations Secretary-General and Head of the United Nations Integrated Peacebuilding Office in Guinea-Bissau (UNIOGBIS). Prior to this, he was the executive secretary of the Gulf of Guinea Commission.

Background
Born in the city of São Tomé, Trovoada attended secondary school in Angola before studying law at the University of Lisbon in Portugal. In 1960 he cofounded, with former classmate Manuel Pinto da Costa, the Committee for the Liberation of São Tomé and Príncipe (CLSTP) - which was renamed the Movement for the Liberation of São Tomé and Príncipe in 1972. Operating out of its headquarters in Gabon, Trovoada served as the movement's foreign affairs director from 1961 to 1975 and was instrumental in gaining Organization of African Unity (OAU) recognition for the MLSTP in 1972.

After the fall of the Estado Novo regime in Portugal due to the Carnation Revolution, Trovoada served as the São Tomé and Príncipe first Prime Minister (12 July 1975 - March 1979). However, relations between the President and Prime Minister soon deteriorated, culminating in 1979 when President da Costa abolished the post of Prime Minister. Several months later, Trovoada was charged with plotting against the government. After being arrested and detained for 21 months, Trovoada went into exile in France. In May 1990, following the adoption of a democratic constitution, he returned to his country and campaigned for president.

In 1991, Trovoada was elected President in the country's first multiparty presidential election; he was re-elected in 1996. When he first ran for President, he was not a member of any political party, but by the end of his first term he had formed a new political party - Independent Democratic Action (ADI).

His government was briefly overthrown in a coup d'etat from 15 August 1995 to 21 August 1995.

President Trovoada's term ended on 3 September 2001 when Fradique de Menezes was sworn in as the new head of state.

Trovoada took office as executive secretary of the Gulf of Guinea Commission on 21 January 2009.

Miguel Trovoada's son Patrice Trovoada is also a politician and served as Prime Minister of São Tomé and Príncipe in 2008.

title: Miguel Trovoada


text:
Talk:Necrozoophilia

I have to admit that necrozoophilia is quite possibly the most bizarre sexual practice I've heard of yet.

I second that! Ah yes, the wonders of the human mind O_o -Krftwrk-

title: Talk:Necrozoophilia


text: User talk:70.68.42.72

title: User talk:70.68.42.72


text:
Koshien Stadium

Hanshin Koshien Stadium (阪神甲子園球場), commonly referred to as simply Koshien Stadium, is a baseball park located near Kobe in Nishinomiya, Hyōgo Prefecture, Japan. The stadium was built to host the national high school baseball tournaments, and opened on August 1, 1924. It was the largest stadium in Asia at the time it was completed, with a capacity of 55,000.

The name comes from Wood Rat of the sexagenary cycle system. The year of the stadium's founding, 1924, was the first year in the cycle. The design of the stadium was heavily influenced by the Polo Grounds in New York City. In 1936 it became the home stadium for the Osaka Tigers (current Hanshin Tigers), now with the Central League. On February 14, 1964, Hanshin, the Tigers' owners, was appended to the name of Koshien Stadium.

In addition to the annual National High School Baseball Championship, played in August, the stadium hosts the annual National High School Baseball Invitational Tournament in March, a smaller, invitational tournament. Both tournaments are generally known simply as Kōshien. The high school tournaments are given a higher priority, with any tournament games that need to be rescheduled forcing the Tigers to postpone conflicting home games. It also hosts Japan's American college football national championship game, the Koshien Bowl.

Legendary baseball player Babe Ruth played an exhibition game at Koshien on his Japan tour in 1934. There is a plaque at the stadium commemorating the event.

Repairs
The Great Hanshin earthquake of 1995 affected Kōshien. Cracks appeared and part of the stands collapsed. In July 2004, a concrete plan surfaced for improvement of the complete baseball ground facilities.

Construction began during the off-season of 2008 while the stadium continued to be used for baseball. Later stages followed during the off-season, and the large-scale construction was completed in 2010.

The main points of the plan are as follows:
 * As much as possible, the present conditions of the baseball grounds are to be preserved, including the Wrigley Field-inspired ivy, which has become a symbol of the stadium.
 * The infield continues to be all-dirt.
 * The outfield continues to be natural grass and be open to the air (no roof over the grounds).
 * The Ginsan roof over the grandstand was removed and replaced with a modern Ginsan roof without pillars.
 * The seating capacity was reduced to 47,808 people to help make the stadium barrier-free.

Price ranges
The stadium has four seating price ranges.

The top seats are the green seats (sold in season tickets) directly behind home plate and under the Ginsan roof. These seats are entirely covered and corporate. The seats in the infield are colored green on the first base side and the third base side under the Ginsan roof and called "Ivy Seat". Both sides are ¥4,000. The outfield benches along the lines are called the "Alps" and they are ¥2,500. The outfield seats are ¥1,900.

As with all Japanese stadiums, the home supporters sit in right field and the away supporters in left field. However, even if the opponents are the Yomiuri Giants, the away supporters rarely constitute more than one section high up in left field. On most nights the stadium is jam-packed with cramped seating.

Appearances in fiction
Due to its reputation as the main stage of high school baseball, Koshien plays a big part in many baseball manga series, including Touch, Cross Game and H2 by Mitsuru Adachi and in other author's works like Higuchi Asa's Ōkiku Furikabutte and Rookies by Masanori Morita and Ace of Diamond by Yuji Terajima. It was talked about in Major where Koshien is the aim of all high school baseball teams to play there.

The park plays a part, in name, in the anime Princess Nine. The events of the two-hour Detective Conan special episode "Miracle at Koshien Ball Park! The Defiants Face the Dark Demon" take place in the stadium. In the light novel and anime adaptation of Melancholy of Haruhi Suzumiya (specifically the episode "Melancholy of Haruhi Suzumiya Part 5"), Haruhi's explanation of why she searches for the supernatural involves a baseball game she viewed with her family in Koshien.

The stadium appears as a stage in the fighting game The King of Fighters '97, crowded and adapted for the KOF tournament, with the fighters standing on a catwalk-like structure. In Nodame Cantabile, the heroine Megumi Noda kept a bag of soil from Koshien Stadium. In Angel Beats! Hinata says he was part of a baseball team that was aiming to play in Koshien. In Silver Spoon, Ichiro Komaba is determined to get his baseball team to Koshien to go pro and make money for his family farm.

In an episode of the Netflix anime series Devilman Crybaby it is featured as the arena for a track and field event.

It is the home stadium for Osaka Tempters in Gurazeni.

Access
Koshien Stadium is a two-minute walk from Koshien Station on the Hanshin Main Line. There is no parking lot at the stadium. Regular television commercials during game broadcasts encourage the public to use public transportation.

title: Koshien Stadium


text:
Talk:Hogan's Heroes

Time in the world of the show -- Overview section
The first sentence of the Overview section states "...Colonel Robert Hogan and his staff of experts who are prisoners of war (POW) in 1942." I don't consider myself an expert on the show but in a conversation between Klink and Hogan in the final scene of Season 4, Episode 18 ("My Favorite Prisoner"), Klink references Hogan having been at the camp for 2 years. Also, Season 3, Episode 3 ("D-Day at Stalag 13") obviously must be taking place in June, 1944. So--what I am saying is that perhaps this sentence could be expanded to say that the show starts in 1942 but seems to move forward, at least at times, to other years during the war. Thanks. --Kent Sullivan (talk) 20:50, 5 June 2020 (UTC)
 * Sorry it took over a year for someone to fix that. But it's fixed now. Alden Loveshade (talk) 02:01, 23 October 2021 (UTC)

Motivations of Colonel Klink and Sergeant Schultz
I added a couple of elaborations in the brief explanations of Colonel Klink's and Sergeant Schultz's behaviors. For example, I noted that Schultz's indifference toward the POWs' subversive activities is partly a product of his distaste for Nazism. That is a very significant aspect of how the POWs' activities are not shut down. BilCat undid my changes, claiming that what I wrote is "unsourced. OR - there's. too much of it already." What I wrote is not repetitive, so there is not "too much of it already." I am willing to add footnotes, as long as BilCat will not keep undoing my modest changes. [User:50.96.25.170] — Preceding unsigned comment added by 50.96.25.170 (talk) 23:46, 15 August 2022 (UTC)

 * You are adding opinion and commentary, which is considered original research on Wikipedia, of which there is too much in the article already. Additions need to be based on reliable, published sources, not based on you viewing of the program. If you don't cite your additions properly, they will be removed. By the way, one of Klink's classmates was a major, so it's incorrect to state they were all promoted to General. In addition, taking Schultz's comment on not taking sides as expressing his distaste for Nazism is a stretch, and certainly qualifies as "original research". BilCat (talk) 00:04, 16 August 2022 (UTC)
 * Reply from 50.96.25.170: Perhaps the "original research" already contained in the entry is "grandfathered in."  The statements that I am trying to replace are inaccurate.  The statement that says that Klink "is painfully unaware of Hogan's operation and believes the camp has a perfect escape record under his command" is not sourced and, in any event, could never be proved because it is supposedly based on what Klink "believes."  But Klink knows very well that acts of sabotage are happening all the time in and near Stalag 13, and Major Hochstetter accuses Colonel Hogan of sabotage in numerous episodes.  And that's not to mention the many Nazi visitors to the camp who, as they drive away in their staff cars, are mysteriously blown to bits (and Hogan occasionally suggests that Klink and Schultz hit the deck moments before the explosion occurs).  Also in numerous episodes, Klink points out that he is the last member of his class, among those who are still in the Luftwaffe, to have not been promoted to general.  It is not a stretch to "tak[e] Schultz's comment on not taking sides as expressing his distaste for Nazism":  For him to say that he doesn't want to take sides is a treasonous statement; furthermore, Corporal LeBeau identifies Schultz as a "democratic socialist."  I can offer citations for all of these observations, and will do so if I have reason to believe that you will forgo your opportunity to keep wiping out my edits unilaterally.  I am unclear about your status that makes your opinion about the content of the entry the final authority.  [User:50.96.25.170] 50.96.25.170 (talk) 00:42, 16 August 2022 (UTC)

 * Nothing makes makes my opinion the final authority, nor is yours. But you are required to site sources beyond the episodes themselves, not add your own commentary and opinion. I may restore an earlier version of the article, as a lot of information has been added recently that ought removed as original research. Further, many different of the episodes were contradictory, as you know if you've seen all the episodes. It was a comedy series, not history, and they weren't all that worried about accuracy, even internally. So we have to be careful about making all encompassing statements based on our own interpretation. BilCat (talk) 04:04, 16 August 2022 (UTC)
 * Sourcing TV shows is always difficult because so many are not covered adequately in secondary sources (which are what Wikipedia is supposed to use). Just tracing a comment to an episode isn't enough; you'd need to find an article that goes into these things. And so far none of the removed additions have had any sourcing of this nature. BilCat is quite correct in their removal of much of this content. Intothatdarkness 13:40, 16 August 2022 (UTC)

Before Winter Comes
User:BilCat says: "there's absolutely nothing in the film's article about this influence" Thus User:BilCat is not familiar with or viewed both productions. I support including Before Winter Comes in See also .... 0mtwb9gd5wx (talk) 21:08, 11 September 2022 (UTC)

0mtwb9gd5wx (talk) 21:08, 11 September 2022 (UTC)

 * You claimed there was an influence. Please cite a source for that. If there is a significant influence, it should already be mentioned in the film's article, which, again, has no mention of Hogan's Heroes, beyond the See also link you added there today. Whether or not I've seen either production is irrelevant, as Wikipedia cites reliable published sources, not personal analysis. BilCat (talk) 21:19, 11 September 2022 (UTC)

Very serious contradiction!
I'm in the midst of writing an article about this series and although I never consider Wikipedia to be a "reliable source," it's a great place to begin searching for RS's. While looking up Jewish actors playing Nazis on this show, I found the following information in the article, some of which is glaringly contradictory, but also, the most blatant claim of all is entirely uncited. This is pretty serious and should be fixed:

"In fact, Klemperer, Banner, and Askin had all fled the Nazis during World War II (Caine, whose birth name was Cohen, was an American)." (NO CITATION)

"Banner was born to Jewish parents and was in fact a sergeant during World War II, but in the U.S. Army."

While the apparent contradiction is only with regard to Banner, it seriously calls into question the claim that all three mentioned above fled the Nazis at all. This cannot remain in the article without proper citation. While is it possible Banner may have fled Germany before the war and later served in for the U.S., the former is certainly too bold a claim to NOT be properly cited and sourced with RS. Can someone either fix this soon (I'm too busy working on my article) or I will delete it myself post haste if it's still uncited within a few days.

In the meantime, I'm doing more research for my article and may return here with anything useful I find but I simply don't have time to edit the article itself. I'm not that great with Wiki code. 2601:19E:8280:3050:D88D:1FF8:7222:B5F3 (talk) 00:33, 14 January 2024 (UTC)

 * I don't see a contradiction. If you read the bios of all of those actors, they fled the Nazi's to avoid persecution and later fought against the same regime that they fled.  I would start with the bios of those actors and read interviews of them as a confirmation of those resources.  Dbroer (talk) 03:30, 14 January 2024 (UTC)
 * There still remains the issue that the first statement is not cited at all. That's a pretty bold claim to make for no less than three pretty famous people with no source. I'd like to see the source but have no idea where it is or even if there is one.2601:19E:8280:3050:927:EB25:3DB5:3B49 (talk) 17:54, 14 January 2024 (UTC)
 * I also perused the Wiki bios of all three (Werner, John and Leo) and the only one that used the term "fled" is Leo's. The other two simply state they emigrated to the U.S. Nothing about fleeing the Nazis. That statement in this article needs to be better sourced or removed. Not everyone leaving Germany or surrounding countries were necessarily "fleeing" the Nazis. Although being Jews may seem to make it obvious it still needs sourcing.2601:19E:8280:3050:927:EB25:3DB5:3B49 (talk) 18:03, 14 January 2024 (UTC)
 * The definition of the word "fled" simply means to get away from. All three did that.  If you can look at the definition of the word and explain where it doesn't describe what those actors did, please expand on your thinking.
 * Stating that they simply "immigrated" (note that emigration is different from immigrating) implies that there was no impetus for them to emigrate from their homelands other than getting away from a toxic environment. Considering they were Jews, they had every reason to flee where they were.
 * I don't have time to find sources for you but here's a 1972 interview with John Banner and they use the word "flee":
 * https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-fresno-bee-john-banner-interview/1005397/
 * Here's an obit on Werner Klemperer that also confirms that his father fled from the Nazi's:
 * https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2000-dec-08-me-62884-story.html
 * There seems to be plenty of consensus that each of these actors "fled" from the Nazi's. I'll let you find and add the citations but there is no evidence that the notion is unsupported and that statement should be deleted.Dbroer (talk) 17:02, 15 January 2024 (UTC)
 * I agree. Suggestions otherwise seem disingenuous. Intothatdarkness 21:26, 15 January 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Hogan's Heroes


text:
MCP

MCP may refer to:

Businesses and organisations

 * Macapá International Airport (IATA airport code: MCP), an airport in Brazil
 * Malawi Congress Party, a political party in Malawi
 * Malayan Communist Party (1930–1989), an insurgent faction in Malaya and Singapore
 * Molycorp (NYSE code: MCP), an American mining corporation
 * Multispecialty community providers, a development within the English National Health Service
 * Mayfield Consumer Products, a family-owned business in Kentucky

Education

 * Master of City Planning, a degree in urban planning education
 * Mission College Preparatory High School, a private Roman Catholic Secondary School in San Luis Obispo, California, USA
 * Molecular & Cellular Proteomics, a journal published by the American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology
 * Monterey Coast Preparatory School, a private school in Santa Cruz, California, USA

Entertainment

 * Marvel Comics Presents, a Marvel Comics comic-book series
 * Master Control Program (Tron), a computer character from the 1982 film Tron
 * Mod Coder Pack, in Minecraft modding

Information technology

 * Burroughs MCP, a Unisys/Burroughs computer operating system
 * Microsoft Certified Partner, an independent company that provides Microsoft-related products or services
 * Microsoft Certified Professional, a certification from Microsoft
 * Macintosh Coprocessor Platform, an expansion card for the Macintosh, see A/ROSE

Medicine and biochemistry

 * CD46, also known as membrane cofactor protein or MCP
 * Metacarpophalangeal joint, the joints at the proximal end of the fingers, commonly called knuckles
 * Methyl-accepting chemotaxis protein, a transmembrane sensor protein of bacteria
 * Modified citrus pectin, a form of pectin
 * Proteasome endopeptidase complex, an enzyme
 * Metoclopramide, a medication to treat nausea and other problems from the digestive system

Science and technology

 * Manual call point, a common device for manual fire alarm activation
 * Micro-channel plate, an electron amplification device used in physics
 * Minimum convex polygon, another name for a convex hull
 * Mixed complementarity problem, a formulation in mathematical programming
 * Mode control panel, an instrument panel in some aircraft cockpits that contains the autopilot controls
 * Monocalcium phosphate, a salt of calcium and phosphoric acid
 * Multi-chip package, term used in semiconductor packaging technology

Other uses

 * Male chauvinist pig
 * Makaa language (ISO 639: mcp), a Bantu language
 * Minho Campus Party, a LAN party organized in Portugal
 * Multi-currency pricing, a financial service allowing goods and services to be priced in multiple currencies

title: MCP


text:
Alan J. Pakula

Alan Jay Pakula (April 7, 1928 – November 19, 1998) was an American film director, screenwriter, and producer. Associated with the New Hollywood movement, his best-known works include his critically-acclaimed "paranoia trilogy": the neo-noir mystery Klute (1971), the conspiracy thriller The Parallax View (1974), and the Watergate scandal drama All the President's Men (1976). His other notable films included Comes a Horseman (1978), Starting Over (1979), Sophie's Choice (1982), Presumed Innocent (1990), and The Pelican Brief (1993).

Pakula received Academy Award nominations for Best Director for All the President's Men and Best Adapted Screenplay for Sophie's Choice. He was also nominated for Best Picture for producing To Kill a Mockingbird (1962). Additionally, he was a BAFTA Award, Golden Globe Award, and Directors Guild of America Award nominee.

Pakula's films often dealt with psychological and political themes. His New York Times obituary stated Pakula made "different kinds of movies, all of them intended to entertain, but the thread connecting many of them was a style that emphasized and explored the psychology and motivations of his characters." He was the subject of the 2023 documentary, Alan Pakula: Going for Truth.

Early life and education
Pakula was born in The Bronx, New York, to Polish Jewish parents, Jeanette (née Goldstein) and Paul Pakula. He was educated at The Hill School in Pottstown, Pennsylvania, and Yale University, where he majored in drama.

Career
Pakula started his Hollywood career as an assistant in the cartoon department at Warner Bros. In 1957, he undertook his first production role for Paramount Pictures. In 1962, he produced To Kill a Mockingbird, for which he was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Picture. Pakula had a successful professional relationship as the producer of movies directed by Mockingbird director Robert Mulligan from 1957 to 1968. In 1969, he directed his first feature, The Sterile Cuckoo, starring Liza Minnelli.

Paranoia trilogy
In 1971, Pakula released the first installment of what would informally come to be known as his "paranoia trilogy." Klute, the story of a relationship between a private eye (played by Donald Sutherland) and a call girl (played by Jane Fonda, who won an Oscar for her performance), was a commercial and critical success. This was followed in 1974 by The Parallax View starring Warren Beatty, a labyrinthine post-Watergate thriller involving political assassinations. The film has been noted for its experimental use of hypnotic imagery in a celebrated film-within-a-film sequence in which the protagonist is inducted into the Parallax Corporation, whose main, although secret, enterprise is domestic terrorism.

Finally, in 1976, Pakula rounded out the "trilogy" with All the President's Men, based on the bestselling account of the Watergate scandal written by Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein, played by Robert Redford and Dustin Hoffman, respectively. It was another commercial hit, considered by many critics and fans to be one of the best thrillers of the 1970s.

Subsequent films
Pakula scored another hit in 1982 with Sophie's Choice, starring Meryl Streep. His screenplay, based on the novel by William Styron, was nominated for an Academy Award. Later commercial successes included Presumed Innocent, based on the bestselling novel by Scott Turow, and The Pelican Brief, an adaptation of John Grisham's bestseller. His final film was the thriller The Devil's Own, where he reunited with Harrison Ford.

Personal life
From October 19, 1963, until 1971, Pakula was married to actress Hope Lange. He was married to his second wife, author Hannah Pakula (formerly Hannah Cohn Boorstin) from 1973 until his death in 1998.

He had two stepchildren from his marriage with Hope Lange, Christopher and Patricia Murray, and three stepchildren from his second marriage. They are Louis, Robert, and Anna Boorstin. He also spoke very openly about his stepson's battle with depression before his death.

Death
On November 19, 1998, Pakula was driving on the Long Island Expressway in Melville, New York, when a driver in front of him hit a metal pipe, causing it to crash through Pakula’s windshield and strike him in the head. His car swerved off the road and into a fence. He was taken to North Shore University Hospital, where he was pronounced dead.

title: Alan J. Pakula


text:
V2 word order

In syntax, verb-second (V2) word order is a sentence structure in which the finite verb of a sentence or a clause is placed in the clause's second position, so that the verb is preceded by a single word or group of words (a single constituent).

Examples of V2 in English include (brackets indicating a single constituent): If English used V2 in all situations, then it would feature such sentences like:
 * "Neither do I", "[Never in my life] have I seen such things"
 * "*[In school] learned I about animals", "*[When she comes home from work] takes she a nap"

V2 word order is common in the Germanic languages and is also found in Northeast Caucasian Ingush, Uto-Aztecan O'odham, and fragmentarily in Romance Sursilvan (a Rhaeto-Romansh variety) and Finno-Ugric Estonian. Of the Germanic family, English is exceptional in having predominantly SVO order instead of V2, although there are vestiges of the V2 phenomenon.

Most Germanic languages do not normally use V2 order in embedded clauses, with a few exceptions. In particular, German, Dutch, and Afrikaans revert to VF (verb final) word order after a complementizer; Yiddish and Icelandic do, however, allow V2 in all declarative clauses: main, embedded, and subordinate. Kashmiri (an Indo-Aryan language) has V2 in 'declarative content clauses' but VF order in relative clauses.

Examples
The example sentences in (1) from German illustrate the V2 principle, which allows any constituent to occupy the first position as long as the second position is occupied by the finite verb. Sentences (1a) through to (1d) have the finite verb spielten 'played' in second position, with various constituents occupying the first position: in (1a) the subject is in first position; in (1b) the object is;  in (1c) the temporal modifier is in first position; and in (1d) the locative modifier is in first position. (1)    (a) Die Kinder       spielten      vor der Schule   im Park          Fußball. The children    played        before  school   in the park      football/soccer (b) Fußball         spielten      die Kinder       vor der Schule   im Park. Soccer/football played        the children     before school    in the park (c) Vor der Schule  spielten      die Kinder       im Park          Fußball. Before school   played        the children     in the park      football/soccer. (d) Im Park         spielten      die Kinder       vor der Schule   Fußball. In the park     played        the children     before school    football/soccer.

Classical accounts
In major theoretical research on V2 properties, researchers discussed that verb-final orders found in German and Dutch embedded clauses suggest an underlying SOV order with specific syntactic movement rules which change the underlying SOV order, deriving a surface form where the finite verb is in the second position of the clause.

We first see a "verb preposing" rule, which moves the finite verb to the left-most position in the sentence, then a "constituent preposing" rule, which moves a constituent in front of the finite verb. Following these two rules will always result with the finite verb in second position. "I like the man" (a) Ich den  Mann  mag          --> Underlying form in Modern German I   the  man   like (b) mag  ich  den  Mann         --> Verb movement to left edge like I    the  man (c) den Mann  mag   ich         --> Constituent moved to left edge the man   like  I

Non-finite verbs
The V2 principle regulates the position of finite verbs only; its influence on non-finite verbs (infinitives, participles, etc.) is indirect. Non-finite verbs in V2 languages appear in varying positions depending on the language. In German and Dutch, for instance, non-finite verbs appear after the object (if one is present) in clause final position in main clauses (OV order). Swedish and Icelandic, in contrast, position non-finite verbs after the finite verb but before the object (if one is present) (VO order). That is, V2 operates on only the finite verb.

Embedded clauses
(In the following examples, finite verb forms are in bold, non-finite verb forms are in italics and subjects are underlined .)

Germanic languages vary in the application of V2 order in embedded clauses. They fall into three groups.

Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Faroese
In these languages, the word order of clauses is generally fixed in two patterns of conventionally numbered positions. Both end with positions for (5) non-finite verb forms, (6) objects, and (7), adverbials.

In main clauses, the V2 constraint holds. The finite verb must be in position (2) and sentence adverbs in position (4). The latter include words with meanings such as 'not' and 'always'. The subject may be position (1), but when a topical expression occupies the position, the subject is in position (3).

In embedded clauses, the V2 constraint is absent. After the conjunction, the subject must immediately follow; it cannot be replaced by a topical expression. Thus, the first four positions are in the fixed order (1) conjunction, (2) subject, (3) sentence adverb, (4) finite verb

The position of the sentence adverbs is important to those theorists who see them as marking the start of a large constituent within the clause. Thus the finite verb is seen as inside that constituent in embedded clauses, but outside that constituent in V2 main clauses.

Swedish
 * {|cellspacing="8"

embedded clause|||||Front — || Finite verb  Conjunction||Subject Subject||Sentence adverb Sentence adverb||—  Finite verb ||Non-finite verb Non-finite verb||Object Object||Adverbial Adverbial Main clause          Front    Finite verb    Subject    Sentence adverb    __            Non-finite verb     Object           Adverbial Embedded clause      __       Conjunction    Subject    Sentence adverb    Finite verb   Non-finite verb     Object           Adverbial Main clause     (a)  I dag    ville          Lotte      inte                             läsa                tidningen today   wanted         Lotte      not                              read                the newspaper "Lotte didn't want to read the paper today." Embedded clause (b)           att            Lotte      inte               ville         koka                kaffe             i dag that          Lotte      not                wanted        brew                coffee            today "that Lotte didn't want to make coffee today." Danish
 * main clause
 * main clause||a.||I dag||ville|| Lotte ||inte||||läsa||tidningen
 * 1||2||3||4||||5||6
 * today||wanted||Lotte||not||||read||the newspaper||||...
 * colspan=7|'Lotte didn't want to read the paper today.'
 * embedded clause||b.||||att|| Lotte ||inte||ville||koka||kaffe|| i dag
 * 1||2||3||4||5||6||7
 * that||Lotte||not||wanted||brew||coffee||today||...||
 * colspan=7|'that Lotte didn't want to make coffee today'
 * }
 * embedded clause||b.||||att|| Lotte ||inte||ville||koka||kaffe|| i dag
 * 1||2||3||4||5||6||7
 * that||Lotte||not||wanted||brew||coffee||today||...||
 * colspan=7|'that Lotte didn't want to make coffee today'
 * }
 * that||Lotte||not||wanted||brew||coffee||today||...||
 * colspan=7|'that Lotte didn't want to make coffee today'
 * }
 * colspan=7|'that Lotte didn't want to make coffee today'
 * }
 * }
 * {|cellspacing="8"

embedded clause|||||Front — ||Finite verb Conjunction||Subject Subject||Sentence adverb Sentence adverb||— Finite verb||Non-finite verb Non-finite verb||Object Object||Adverbial Adverbial So-called Perkerdansk is an example of a variety that does not follow the above.
 * main clause
 * main clause||a.|| Klaus ||er||||ikke||||kommet
 * 1||2||||4||||5
 * Klaus||is|| ||not||||come||||||
 * colspan=7|...'Klaus hasn't come.'
 * embedded clause||b.||||når|| Klaus ||ikke||er||kommet
 * 1||2||3||4||5
 * when||Klaus||not||is||come||||
 * colspan=7|...'when Klaus hasn't come'
 * }
 * embedded clause||b.||||når|| Klaus ||ikke||er||kommet
 * 1||2||3||4||5
 * when||Klaus||not||is||come||||
 * colspan=7|...'when Klaus hasn't come'
 * }
 * when||Klaus||not||is||come||||
 * colspan=7|...'when Klaus hasn't come'
 * }
 * colspan=7|...'when Klaus hasn't come'
 * }
 * }

Norwegian (with multiple adverbials and multiple non-finite forms, in two varieties of the language)
 * {|cellspacing="8"

embedded|||||Front — ||Finite verb Conjunction||Subject Subject||Sentence adverb Sentence adverb||— Finite verb||Non-finite verb Non-finite verb||Object Object||Adverbial Adverbial to send the documents before the meeting.' to send the documents before the meeting.' Faroese
 * main
 * main clause||a.||Den gangen||hadde|| han ||dessverre ikke||||villet sende||sakspapirene||før møtet.|| ||(Bokmål variety)
 * 1||2||3||4||||5||6||7||
 * that time||had||he||unfortunately not||||wanted to send||the documents||before the meeting||...
 * colspan=7|'This time he had unfortunately not wanted
 * 1||2||3||4||||5||6||7||
 * that time||had||he||unfortunately not||||wanted to send||the documents||before the meeting||...
 * colspan=7|'This time he had unfortunately not wanted
 * colspan=7|'This time he had unfortunately not wanted
 * colspan=7|'This time he had unfortunately not wanted
 * colspan=7|'This time he had unfortunately not wanted
 * embedded clause||b.||||av di|| han ||denne gongen diverre ikkje||hadde||vilja senda||sakspapira||føre møtet.|| ||(Nynorsk variety)
 * 1||2||3||4||5||6||7
 * because||he||this time unfortunately not||had||wanted to send||the documents||before the meeting||...
 * colspan=7|'because this time he had unfortunately not wanted
 * because||he||this time unfortunately not||had||wanted to send||the documents||before the meeting||...
 * colspan=7|'because this time he had unfortunately not wanted
 * colspan=7|'because this time he had unfortunately not wanted
 * colspan=7|'because this time he had unfortunately not wanted
 * colspan=7|'because this time he had unfortunately not wanted
 * }
 * }

Unlike continental Scandinavian languages, the sentence adverb may either precede or follow the finite verb in embedded clauses. A (3a) slot is inserted here for the following sentence adverb alternative.
 * {|cellspacing="8"

embedded clause|||||Front — ||Finite verb Conjunction||Subject Subject||Sentence adverb Sentence adverb||— Finite verb||— Sentence adverb||Non-finite verb Non-finite verb||Object Object||Adverbial Adverbial||
 * main clause
 * main clause||a.||Her||man|| fólk ||ongantíð||||||hava fingið||fisk||fyrr
 * 1||2||3||4||||||5||6||7
 * here||must||people||never||||||have caught||fish||before||...
 * colspan=7|'People have surely never caught fish here before.'
 * embedded clause||b.||||hóast|| fólk ||ongantíð ||hevur|||| fingið|| fisk ||her
 * 1||2||3||4||||5||6||7
 * although||people||never||have||||caught||fish||here
 * c.||||hóast|| fólk ||||hevur||ongantíð||fingið|| fisk ||her
 * 1||2||||4||(3a)||5||6||7
 * although||people||||have||never||caught||fish||here||...
 * colspan=7|'although people have never caught fish here'
 * }
 * 1||2||3||4||||5||6||7
 * although||people||never||have||||caught||fish||here
 * c.||||hóast|| fólk ||||hevur||ongantíð||fingið|| fisk ||her
 * 1||2||||4||(3a)||5||6||7
 * although||people||||have||never||caught||fish||here||...
 * colspan=7|'although people have never caught fish here'
 * }
 * 1||2||||4||(3a)||5||6||7
 * although||people||||have||never||caught||fish||here||...
 * colspan=7|'although people have never caught fish here'
 * }
 * colspan=7|'although people have never caught fish here'
 * }
 * }
 * }

German
In main clauses, the V2 constraint holds. As with other Germanic languages, the finite verb must be in the second position. However, any non-finite forms must be in final position. The subject may be in the first position, but when a topical expression occupies the position, the subject follows the finite verb.

In embedded clauses, the V2 constraint does not hold. The finite verb form must be adjacent to any non-finite at the end of the clause.

German grammarians traditionally divide sentences into fields. Subordinate clauses preceding the main clause are said to be in the first field (Vorfeld), clauses following the main clause in the final field (Nachfeld).

The central field (Mittelfeld) contains most or all of a clause, and is bounded by left bracket (Linke Satzklammer) and right bracket (Rechte Satzklammer) positions.

In main clauses, the initial element (subject or topical expression) is said to be located in the first field, the V2 finite verb form in the left bracket, and any non-finite verb forms in the right bracket. In embedded clauses, the conjunction is said to be located in the left bracket, and the verb forms in the right bracket. In German embedded clauses, a finite verb form follows any non-finite forms.

German
 * {|cellspacing="8"

||||| First field ||Left bracket||Central field||||||||Right bracket ||||||Final field
 * Main clause||a.|| Er || hat |||dich ||gestern ||nicht |||| angerufen ||||||weil er dich nicht stören wollte.
 * he || has || you ||yesterday|| not || ||rung|| || ||
 * colspan=10|... 'He didn't ring you yesterday because he didn't want to disturb you.'
 * || b. || Sobald er Zeit hat || wird || er || dich||||||anrufen
 * || || As soon as he has time || will ||he || you||||||ring ||||||
 * colspan=10|...'When he has time he will ring you.'
 * Embedded clause||c.||||dass || er |||dich ||gestern ||nicht || angerufen hat
 * that || he |||you ||yesterday ||not || rung has||||||
 * colspan=10|...'that he didn't ring you yesterday'
 * }
 * || || As soon as he has time || will ||he || you||||||ring ||||||
 * colspan=10|...'When he has time he will ring you.'
 * Embedded clause||c.||||dass || er |||dich ||gestern ||nicht || angerufen hat
 * that || he |||you ||yesterday ||not || rung has||||||
 * colspan=10|...'that he didn't ring you yesterday'
 * }
 * that || he |||you ||yesterday ||not || rung has||||||
 * colspan=10|...'that he didn't ring you yesterday'
 * }
 * colspan=10|...'that he didn't ring you yesterday'
 * }
 * }
 * }

Dutch and Afrikaans
V2 word order is used in main clauses, the finite verb must be in the second position. However, in subordinate clauses two word orders are possible for the verb clusters.

Main clauses:

Dutch
 * {|cellspacing="8"

||||| First field ||Left bracket||Central field||||||||Right bracket ||||Final field This analysis suggests a close parallel between the V2 finite form in main clauses and the conjunctions in embedded clauses. Each is seen as an introduction to its clause-type, a function which some modern scholars have equated with the notion of specifier. The analysis is supported in spoken Dutch by the placement of clitic pronoun subjects. Forms such as ze cannot stand alone, unlike the full-form equivalent zij. The words to which they may be attached are those same introduction words: the V2 form in a main clause, or the conjunction in an embedded clause.
 * Main clause||a.|| De Māori || hebben |||Nieuw-Zeeland |||||||| ontdekt
 * The Māori || have |||New Zealand |||||||| discovered||||
 * colspan=7|...'The Māori have discovered New Zealand.'
 * b.||Tussen ongeveer 1250 en 1300||ontdekten|| de Māori |||Nieuw-Zeeland ||||||||
 * Between approximately 1250 and 1300||discovered||the Māori |||New Zealand |||||||||||
 * colspan=7|...'Between about 1250 and 1300, the Māori discovered New Zealand.'
 * c.|| Niemand ||had|| |||||||||gedacht ||||dat ook maar iets zou gebeuren.
 * Nobody||had|| |||||||||thought ||||
 * colspan=7|...'Nobody figured that anything would happen.'
 * Embedded clause||d.||||dat || de Māori || Nieuw-Zeeland ||||||| hebben ontdekt
 * that || the Māori ||New Zealand ||||||| have discovered ||||
 * colspan=7|...'that the Māori have discovered New Zealand'
 * }
 * colspan=7|...'Between about 1250 and 1300, the Māori discovered New Zealand.'
 * c.|| Niemand ||had|| |||||||||gedacht ||||dat ook maar iets zou gebeuren.
 * Nobody||had|| |||||||||thought ||||
 * colspan=7|...'Nobody figured that anything would happen.'
 * Embedded clause||d.||||dat || de Māori || Nieuw-Zeeland ||||||| hebben ontdekt
 * that || the Māori ||New Zealand ||||||| have discovered ||||
 * colspan=7|...'that the Māori have discovered New Zealand'
 * }
 * Embedded clause||d.||||dat || de Māori || Nieuw-Zeeland ||||||| hebben ontdekt
 * that || the Māori ||New Zealand ||||||| have discovered ||||
 * colspan=7|...'that the Māori have discovered New Zealand'
 * }
 * colspan=7|...'that the Māori have discovered New Zealand'
 * }
 * colspan=7|...'that the Māori have discovered New Zealand'
 * }
 * }

 * {|cellspacing="8"

||||| First field ||Left bracket||Central field||||||||||Right bracket ||||Final field
 * Main clause||e.||Tussen ongeveer 1250 en 1300||ontdekten- ze |||Nieuw-Zeeland ||||||||
 * between approximately 1250 and 1300||discovered-they||New Zealand |||||||||||||||
 * colspan=5|...'Between about 1250 and 1300, they discovered New Zealand.'
 * Embedded clause||f.||||dat- ze |||tussen ongeveer 1250 en 1300||Nieuw-Zeeland |||||||| hebben ontdekt
 * that-they||between approximately 1250 and 1300||New Zealand ||||||||| have discovered ||||
 * colspan=5|...'that they have discovered New Zealand between about 1250 and 1300'
 * }
 * Embedded clause||f.||||dat- ze |||tussen ongeveer 1250 en 1300||Nieuw-Zeeland |||||||| hebben ontdekt
 * that-they||between approximately 1250 and 1300||New Zealand ||||||||| have discovered ||||
 * colspan=5|...'that they have discovered New Zealand between about 1250 and 1300'
 * }
 * colspan=5|...'that they have discovered New Zealand between about 1250 and 1300'
 * }
 * colspan=5|...'that they have discovered New Zealand between about 1250 and 1300'
 * }
 * }

Subordinate clauses:

In Dutch subordinate clauses two word orders are possible for the verb clusters and are referred to as the "red": omdat ik heb gewerkt, "because I have worked": like in English, where the auxiliary verb precedes the past particle, and the "green": omdat ik gewerkt heb, where the past particle precedes the auxiliary verb, "because I worked have": like in German. In Dutch, the green word order is the most used in speech, and the red is the most used in writing, particularly in journalistic texts, but the green is also used in writing as is the red in speech. Unlike in English however adjectives and adverbs must precede the verb: dat het boek groen is, "that the book green is".

 * {|cellspacing="8"

||||| First field ||Left bracket||Central field||||||||Right bracket ||||Final field
 * Embedded clause||g.||||omdat|| ik |||het|| dan |||| gezien zou hebben |||| most common in the Netherlands
 * because|| I|||it|| then |||| seen would have
 * h.||||omdat|| ik |||het|| dan |||| zou gezien hebben |||| most common in Belgium
 * because|| I|||it|| then |||| would seen have
 * i.||||omdat|| ik |||het|| dan |||| zou hebben gezien |||| often used in writing in both countries, but common in speech as well, most common in Limburg
 * because|| I|||it|| then |||| would have seen
 * j.||||omdat|| ik |||het|| dan |||| gezien hebben zou ||||used in Friesland, Groningen and Drenthe, least common but used as well
 * because|| I|||it|| then |||| seen have would||||
 * colspan=5|...'because then I would have seen it'
 * }
 * because|| I|||it|| then |||| would have seen
 * j.||||omdat|| ik |||het|| dan |||| gezien hebben zou ||||used in Friesland, Groningen and Drenthe, least common but used as well
 * because|| I|||it|| then |||| seen have would||||
 * colspan=5|...'because then I would have seen it'
 * }
 * because|| I|||it|| then |||| seen have would||||
 * colspan=5|...'because then I would have seen it'
 * }
 * colspan=5|...'because then I would have seen it'
 * }
 * }

V2 in Icelandic and Yiddish
These languages freely allow V2 order in embedded clauses.

Icelandic

Two word-order patterns are largely similar to continental Scandinavian. However, in main clauses an extra slot is needed for when the front position is occupied by Það. In these clauses the subject follows any sentence adverbs. In embedded clauses, sentence adverbs follow the finite verb (an optional order in Faroese).
 * {|cellspacing="8"

embedded clause|||||Front — ||Finite verb Conjunction||Subject Subject||— Finite verb||Sentence adverb Sentence adverb||Subject —||Non-finite verb Non-finite verb||Object Object||Adverbial Adverbial In more radical contrast with other Germanic languages, a third pattern exists for embedded clauses with the conjunction followed by the V2 order: front-finite verb-subject.
 * main clause
 * main clause||a.|| Margir ||höfðu||||||aldrei||||lokið||verkefninu.
 * Many||had||||||never||||finished||the assignment ||||...||'Many had never finished the assignment.'
 * b.||Það||höfðu||||||aldrei|| margir ||lokið||verkefninu.
 * there||have||||||never||many||finished||the assignment||||...||'There were never many people who had finished the assignment.'
 * c.||Bókina||hefur|| María ||||ekki||||lesið.
 * the book||has||Mary|||||not||||read||||||...||'Mary hasn't read the book.'
 * embedded clause||d.||||hvort|| María ||hefur||ekki||||lesið||bokina.
 * whether||Mary||has|| |not||||read||the book||||...||'whether Mary hasn't read the book'
 * }
 * c.||Bókina||hefur|| María ||||ekki||||lesið.
 * the book||has||Mary|||||not||||read||||||...||'Mary hasn't read the book.'
 * embedded clause||d.||||hvort|| María ||hefur||ekki||||lesið||bokina.
 * whether||Mary||has|| |not||||read||the book||||...||'whether Mary hasn't read the book'
 * }
 * whether||Mary||has|| |not||||read||the book||||...||'whether Mary hasn't read the book'
 * }
 * }
 * }
 * {|cellspacing="8"

(Topic adverbial)||Finite verb||Subject''' (Object)||Finite verb||Subject'''
 * Conjunction||'''Front
 * e.||Jón||efast||um að||á morgun||fari|| María ||snemma||á fætur.
 * John||doubts||that||tomorrow||get||Mary||early||up||... ||'John doubts that Mary will get up early tomorrow.'
 * Conjunction||'''Front
 * John||doubts||that||tomorrow||get||Mary||early||up||... ||'John doubts that Mary will get up early tomorrow.'
 * Conjunction||'''Front
 * Conjunction||'''Front
 * f.||Jón||harmar||að||þessa bók||skuli|| ég ||hafa||lesið.
 * John||regrets||that||this book||shall||I||have||read||... ||'John regrets that I have read this book.'
 * }
 * John||regrets||that||this book||shall||I||have||read||... ||'John regrets that I have read this book.'
 * }

Yiddish

Unlike Standard German, Yiddish normally has verb forms before Objects (SVO order), and in embedded clauses has conjunction followed by V2 order.
 * {|cellspacing="8"

||||'''Front (Subject)||Finite verb||||||||Conjunction||Front (Subject)||Finite verb'''|| ||||'''Front (Adverbial)||Finite verb||Subject||||||Conjunction||Front (Adverbial)||Finite verb||Subject'''
 * a.|| ikh ||hob||||gezen||mitvokh,||az|| ikh ||vel||nit||kenen||kumen||donershtik
 * I||have||||seen||Wednesday||that||I|||will||not||can||come||Thursday||...||'I saw on Wednesday that I wouldn't be able to come on Thursday.'
 * I||have||||seen||Wednesday||that||I|||will||not||can||come||Thursday||...||'I saw on Wednesday that I wouldn't be able to come on Thursday.'
 * I||have||||seen||Wednesday||that||I|||will||not||can||come||Thursday||...||'I saw on Wednesday that I wouldn't be able to come on Thursday.'
 * b.|| mitvokh||hob|| ikh |||gezen,||||az||donershtik||vel|| ikh ||nit||kenen||kumen
 * Wednesday||have||I||seen||||that||Thursday|||will||I||not||can||come||...||On Wednesday I saw that on Thursday I wouldn't be able to come.'
 * }
 * Wednesday||have||I||seen||||that||Thursday|||will||I||not||can||come||...||On Wednesday I saw that on Thursday I wouldn't be able to come.'
 * }
 * }

Root clauses
One type of embedded clause with V2 following the conjunction is found throughout the Germanic languages, although it is more common in some than it is others. These are termed root clauses. They are declarative content clauses, the direct objects of so-called bridge verbs, which are understood to quote a statement. For that reason, they exhibit the V2 word order of the equivalent direct quotation.

Danish

Items other than the subject are allowed to appear in front position.
 * {|cellspacing="8"

(Subject)||||Finite verb'''|| (Object)||Finite verb||Subject''' Swedish
 * Conjunction||'''Front
 * a.|| Vi ||ved||at|| Bo ||ikke||har||læst||denne bog
 * We||know||that||Bo||not||has||read||this book||...||'We know that Bo has not read this book.'
 * Conjunction||'''Front
 * We||know||that||Bo||not||has||read||this book||...||'We know that Bo has not read this book.'
 * Conjunction||'''Front
 * Conjunction||'''Front
 * b.|| Vi ||ved||at||denne bog||har|| Bo ||ikke||læst
 * We||know||that|| this book ||has|||Bo||not||read||...||'We know that Bo has not read this book.'
 * }
 * We||know||that|| this book ||has|||Bo||not||read||...||'We know that Bo has not read this book.'
 * }
 * }

Items other than the subject are occasionally allowed to appear in front position. Generally, the statement must be one with which the speaker agrees.
 * {|cellspacing="8"

(Adverbial)||Finite verb||Subject''' This order is not possible with a statement with which the speaker does not agree.
 * Conjunction||'''Front
 * d.|| Jag ||tror||att||i det fallet||har|| du ||rätt
 * I||think||that|| in that respect ||have|||you||right||...||'I think that in that respect you are right.'
 * }
 * I||think||that|| in that respect ||have|||you||right||...||'I think that in that respect you are right.'
 * }
 * }
 * {|cellspacing="8"

(Adverbial)||Finite verb||Subject''' Norwegian
 * Conjunction||'''Front
 * e.||* Jag ||tror||inte||att||i det fallet||har|| du ||rätt||||||(The asterisk signals that the sentence is not grammatically acceptable.)
 * I||think||not||that|| in that respect ||have|||you||right||...||'I don't think that in that respect you are right.'
 * }
 * I||think||not||that|| in that respect ||have|||you||right||...||'I don't think that in that respect you are right.'
 * }
 * }

 * {|cellspacing="8"

(Adverbial)||Finite verb||Subject''' German
 * Conjunction||'''Front
 * f.|| hun ||fortalte||at||til fødselsdagen||hadde|| hun ||fått||kunstbok|||| ||(Bokmål variety)
 * she||told||that||for her birthday||had'||she||received||art-book||...||'She said that for her birthday she had been given a book on art.'
 * }
 * she||told||that||for her birthday||had'||she||received||art-book||...||'She said that for her birthday she had been given a book on art.'
 * }
 * }

Root clause V2 order is possible only when the conjunction dass is omitted. In such cases, formal usage also places the finite verb form into the present subjunctive (German Konjunktiv I) if the verb form is clearly distinguishable from the indicative; if not, the past subjunctive (German Konjunktiv II) is used.
 * {|cellspacing="8"

(Subject)||Finite verb''' Compare the normal embed-clause order after dass
 * Conjunction||'''Front
 * g.||* Er ||behauptet,||dass|| er ||hat||es||zur Post||gebracht||||||(The asterisk signals that the sentence is not grammatically acceptable.)
 * h.|| Er ||behauptet,|||| er ||habe||es||zur Post||gebracht
 * he||claims||(that)||he||has||it||to the post office||taken||...||'He claims that he took it to the post office.'
 * } By contrast, a form with an embedded first-person subject would usually use the past subjunctive here, since the present indicative and subjunctive appear identical: Er behauptet, ich hätte (instead of habe) es zur Post gebracht.
 * he||claims||(that)||he||has||it||to the post office||taken||...||'He claims that he took it to the post office.'
 * } By contrast, a form with an embedded first-person subject would usually use the past subjunctive here, since the present indicative and subjunctive appear identical: Er behauptet, ich hätte (instead of habe) es zur Post gebracht.
 * } By contrast, a form with an embedded first-person subject would usually use the past subjunctive here, since the present indicative and subjunctive appear identical: Er behauptet, ich hätte (instead of habe) es zur Post gebracht.
 * } By contrast, a form with an embedded first-person subject would usually use the past subjunctive here, since the present indicative and subjunctive appear identical: Er behauptet, ich hätte (instead of habe) es zur Post gebracht.
 * } By contrast, a form with an embedded first-person subject would usually use the past subjunctive here, since the present indicative and subjunctive appear identical: Er behauptet, ich hätte (instead of habe) es zur Post gebracht.
 * {|cellspacing="8"

||||| ||'''Left bracket (Conjunction)||Central field||Right bracket (Verb forms)'''
 * i.|| Er ||behauptet,||dass|| er es zur Post||gebracht hat
 * he||claims||that||he it to the post office||taken has
 * }
 * he||claims||that||he it to the post office||taken has
 * }
 * }

Perspective effects on embedded V2
There are a limited number of V2 languages that can allow for embedded verb movement for a specific pragmatic effect similar to that of English. This is due to the perspective of the speaker. Languages such as German and Swedish have embedded verb second. The embedded verb second in these kinds of languages usually occur after 'bridge verbs'.

(Bridge verbs are common verbs of speech and thoughts such as "say", "think", and "know", and the word "that" is not needed after these verbs. For example: I think he is coming.)

Jag ska säga dig att jag är inte ett dugg intresserad.

I will say you that I am not a dew interested.

"I tell you that I am not the least bit interested."

→ In this sentence, "tell" is the bridge verb and "am" is an embedded verb second.

Based on an assertion theory, the perspective of a speaker is reaffirmed in embedded V2 clauses. A speaker's sense of commitment to or responsibility for V2 in embedded clauses is greater than a non-V2 in embedded clause. This is the result of V2 characteristics. As shown in the examples below, there is a greater commitment to the truth in the embedded clause when V2 is in place.

Maria denkt, dass Peter glücklich ist.

Maria thinks that Peter happy is

→ In a non-V2 embedded clause, the speaker is only committed to the truth of the statement "Maria thinks ..."

Maria denkt, Peter ist glücklich.

Maria thinks Peter is happy.

→ In a V2 embedded clause, the speaker is committed to the truth of the statement "Maria thinks ..." and also the proposition "Peter is happy".

Variations
Variations of V2 order such as V1 (verb-initial word order), V3 and V4 orders are widely attested in many Early Germanic and Medieval Romance languages. These variations are possible in the languages however it is severely restricted to specific contexts.

V1 word order
V1 (verb-initial word order) is a type of structure that contains the finite verb as the initial clause element. In other words the verb appears before the subject and the object of the sentence. (a) Max y-il   [ s no' tx;i;] [ o naq Lwin]. (Mayan) PFV A3-see CLF dog       CLF Pedro 'The dog saw Pedro.'

V3 word order
V3 (verb-third word order) is a variation of V2 in which the finite verb is in third position with two constituents preceding it. In V3, like in V2 word order, the constituents preceding the finite verb are not categorically restricted, as the constituents can be a DP, a PP, a CP and so on.

[DP Jedes jahr] [Pn ich] kauf mir bei Deichmann

{} every year {} I buy me at Deichmann

"Every year I buy (shoes) at Deichmann's"

[PP ab jetzt] [Pn ich] krieg immer zwanzig Euro

{} from now {} I get always twenty euros

"From now on, I always get twenty euros"

Left edge filling trigger (LEFT)
V2 is fundamentally derived from a morphological obligatory exponence effect at sentence level. The left edge filling trigger (LEFT) effects are usually seen in classical V2 languages such as Germanic languages and Old Romance languages. The left edge filling trigger is independently active in morphology as EPP effects are found in word-internal levels. The obligatory exponence derives from absolute displacement, ergative displacement and ergative doubling in inflectional morphology. In addition, second position rules in clitic second languages demonstrate post-syntactic rules of LEFT movement. Using the language Breton as an example, absence of a pre-tense expletive will allow for the LEFT to occur to avoid tense-first. The LEFT movement is free from syntactic rules which is evidence for a post-syntactic phenomenon. With the LEFT movement, V2 word order can be obtained as seen in the example below.

Bez 'nevo           hennex  traou

EXPL Fin.[will.have] he     things

"He will have goods"

In this Breton example, the finite head is phonetically realized and agrees with the category of the preceding element. The pre-tense "Bez" is used in front of the finite verb to obtain the V2 word order. (finite verb "nevo" is bolded).

Syntactic verb second
It is said that V2 patterns are a syntactic phenomenon and therefore have certain environments where it can and cannot be tolerated. Syntactically, V2 requires a left-peripheral head (usually C) with an occupied specifier and paired with raising the highest verb-auxiliary to that head. V2 is usually analyzed as the co-occurrence of these requirements, which can also be referred to as "triggers". The left-peripheral head, which is a requirement that causes the effect of V2, sets further requirements on a phrase XP that occupies the initial position, so that this phrase XP may always have specific featural characteristics.

English
Modern English differs greatly in word order from other modern Germanic languages, but earlier English shared many similarities. For this reason, some scholars propose a description of Old English with V2 constraint as the norm. The history of English syntax is thus seen as a process of losing the constraint.

Old English
In these examples, finite verb forms are in green, non-finite verb forms are in orange and subjects are blue.

Main clauses
Se mæssepreost sceal manum bodian þone soþan geleafan

the masspriest shall people preach the true faith

'The mass priest shall preach the true faith to the people.'

Hwi wolde God swa lytles þinges him forwyrman

Why would God so small thing him deny

'Why would God deny him such a small thing?'

on twam þingum hæfde God þæs mannes sawle geododod

in two things has God the man's soul endowed

'With two things God had endowed man's soul.'

þa wæs þæt folc þæs micclan welan ungemetlice brucende

then was the people of-the great prosperity excessively partaking

'Then the people were partaking excessively of the great prosperity.'

Ne sceal he naht unaliefedes don

not shall he nothing unlawful do

'He shall not do anything unlawful.'

Ðas ðreo ðing forgifð God he gecorenum

these three things gives God his chosen

'These three things God gives to his chosen

Position of object
In examples b, c and d, the object of the clause precedes a non-finite verb form. Superficially, the structure is verb-subject-object- verb. To capture generalities, scholars of syntax and linguistic typology treat them as basically subject-object-verb (SOV) structure, modified by the V2 constraint. Thus Old English is classified, to some extent, as an SOV language. However, example a represents a number of Old English clauses with object following a non-finite verb form, with the superficial structure verb-subject-verb object. A more substantial number of clauses contain a single finite verb form followed by an object, superficially verb-subject-object. Again, a generalisation is captured by describing these as subject–verb–object (SVO) modified by V2. Thus Old English can be described as intermediate between SOV languages (like German and Dutch) and SVO languages (like Swedish and Icelandic).

Effect of subject pronouns
When the subject of a clause was a personal pronoun, V2 did not always operate.

forðon we sceolan mid ealle mod & mægene to Gode gecyrran

therefore we must with all mind and power to God turn

'Therefore, we must turn to God with all our mind and power

However, V2 verb-subject inversion occurred without exception after a question word or the negative ne, and with few exceptions after þa even with pronominal subjects.

for hwam noldest þu {ðe sylfe} me gecyðan þæt...

for what not-wanted you yourself me make-known that...

'wherefore would you not want to make known to me yourself that...'

Ne sceal he naht unaliefedes don

not shall he nothing unlawful do

'He shall not do anything unlawful.'

þa foron hie mid þrim scipum ut

then sailed they with three ships out

'Then they sailed out with three ships.'

Inversion of a subject pronoun also occurred regularly after a direct quotation.

"Me is," cwæð hēo Þīn cyme on miclum ðonce"

{to me} is said she your coming in much thankfulness

Your coming," she said, "is very gratifying to me".'

Embedded clauses
Embedded clauses with pronoun subjects were not subject to V2. Even with noun subjects, V2 inversion did not occur.

...þa ða his leorningcnichtas hine axodon for hwæs synnum se man wurde swa blind acenned

...when his disciples him asked for whose sins the man became thus blind {}

'...when his disciples asked him for whose sins the man was thus born blind'

Yes–no questions
In a similar clause pattern, the finite verb form of a yes–no question occupied the first position

Truwast ðu nu þe selfum and þinum geferum bet þonne ðam apostolum...?

trust you now you self and your companions better than the apostles

'Do you now trust yourself and your companions better than the apostles...?'

Continuity
Early Middle English generally preserved V2 structure in clauses with nominal subjects.

On þis gær wolde þe king Stephne tæcen Rodbert

in this year wanted the king Stephen seize Robert

'During this year King Stephen wanted to seize Robert.'

Nu loke euerich man toward himseleun

now look every man to himself

'Now it's for every man to look to himself.' As in Old English, V2 inversion did not apply to clauses with pronoun subjects.

bi þis ȝe mahen seon ant witen...

by this you may see and know

alle ðese bebodes ic habbe ihealde fram childhade

all those commandments I have kept from childhood

Change
Late Middle English texts of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries show increasing incidence of clauses without the inversion associated with V2.

sothely se ryghtwyse sekys þe loye and...

Truly the righteous seeks the joy and...

And by þis same skyle hop and sore shulle jugen us

And by this same skill hope and sorrow shall judge us

Negative clauses were no longer formed with ne (or na) as the first element. Inversion in negative clauses was attributable to other causes.

why ordeyned God not such ordre

why ordained God not such order

'Why did God not ordain such an order?' (not follows noun phrase subject)

why shulde he not...

why should he not

Ther nys nat oon kan war by other be

there not-is not one can aware by other be

'There is not a single person who learns from the mistakes of others'

He was despeyred; {no thyng} dorste he seye

He was {in despair}; nothing dared he say

Vestiges in Modern English
As in earlier periods, Modern English normally has subject-verb order in declarative clauses and inverted verb-subject order in interrogative clauses. However these norms are observed irrespective of the number of clause elements preceding the verb.

Classes of verbs in Modern English: auxiliary and lexical
Inversion in Old English sentences with a combination of two verbs could be described in terms of their finite and non-finite forms. The word which participated in inversion was the finite verb; the verb which retained its position relative to the object was the non-finite verb. In most types of Modern English clause, there are two verb forms, but the verbs are considered to belong to different syntactic classes. The verbs which participated in inversion have evolved to form a class of auxiliary verbs which may mark tense, aspect and mood; the remaining majority of verbs with full semantic value are said to constitute the class of lexical verbs. The exceptional type of clause is that of declarative clause with a lexical verb in a present simple or past simple form.

Questions
Like Yes/No questions, interrogative Wh- questions are regularly formed with inversion of subject and auxiliary. Present Simple and Past Simple questions are formed with the auxiliary do, a process known as do-support.
 * {|cellspacing="8"

 * a. Which game is Sam watching?
 * b. Where does she live?
 * }
 * (see subject-auxiliary inversion in questions)
 * (see subject-auxiliary inversion in questions)

With topic adverbs and adverbial phrases
In certain patterns similar to Old and Middle English, inversion is possible. However, this is a matter of stylistic choice, unlike the constraint on interrogative clauses.

negative or restrictive adverbial first
 * {|cellspacing="8"

 * c. At no point will he drink Schnapps.
 * d. No sooner had she arrived than she started to make demands.
 * }
 * (see negative inversion)
 * (see negative inversion)

comparative adverb or adjective first
 * {|cellspacing="8"

After the preceding classes of adverbial, only auxiliary verbs, not lexical verbs, participate in inversion
 * e. So keenly did the children miss their parents, they cried themselves to sleep.
 * f. Such was their sadness, they could never enjoy going out.
 * }
 * }

locative or temporal adverb first
 * {|cellspacing="8"

prepositional phrase first
 * g. Here comes the bus.
 * h. Now is the hour when we must say goodbye.
 * }
 * }
 * {|cellspacing="8"

 * i. Behind the goal sat many photographers.
 * j. Down the road came the person we were waiting for.
 * }
 * (see locative inversion, directive inversion)
 * (see locative inversion, directive inversion)

After the two latter types of adverbial, only one-word lexical verb forms (Present Simple or Past Simple), not auxiliary verbs, participate in inversion, and only with noun-phrase subjects, not pronominal subjects.

Direct quotations
When the object of a verb is a verbatim quotation, it may precede the verb, with a result similar to Old English V2. Such clauses are found in storytelling and in news reports.
 * {|cellspacing="8"

 * k. "Wolf! Wolf!" cried the boy.
 * l. "The unrest is spreading throughout the country," writes our Jakarta correspondent.
 * }
 * (see quotative inversion)
 * (see quotative inversion)

Declarative clauses without inversion
Corresponding to the above examples, the following clauses show the normal Modern English subject-verb order.

Declarative equivalents
 * {|cellspacing="8"

Equivalents without topic fronting
 * a′. Sam is watching the Cup games.
 * b′. She lives in the country.
 * }
 * }
 * {|cellspacing="8"

 * c′. He will at no point drink Schnapps.
 * d′. She had no sooner arrived than she started to make demands.
 * e′. The children missed their parents so keenly that they cried themselves to sleep.
 * -f′. Their sadness was such that they could never enjoy going out.
 * g′. The bus is coming here.
 * h′. The hour when we must say goodbye is now.
 * i′. Many photographers sat behind the goal.
 * j′. The person we were waiting for came down the road.
 * k′. The boy cried "Wolf! Wolf!"
 * l′. Our Jakarta correspondent writes, "The unrest is spreading throughout the country".
 * }
 * i′. Many photographers sat behind the goal.
 * j′. The person we were waiting for came down the road.
 * k′. The boy cried "Wolf! Wolf!"
 * l′. Our Jakarta correspondent writes, "The unrest is spreading throughout the country".
 * }
 * k′. The boy cried "Wolf! Wolf!"
 * l′. Our Jakarta correspondent writes, "The unrest is spreading throughout the country".
 * }
 * }

French
Modern French is a subject-verb-object (SVO) language like other Romance languages (though Latin was a subject-object-verb language). However, V2 constructions existed in Old French and were more common than in other early Romance language texts. It has been suggested that this may be due to influence from the Germanic Frankish language. Modern French has vestiges of the V2 system similar to those found in modern English.

The following sentences have been identified as possible examples of V2 syntax in Old French:

 * {|cellspacing="3"

 * a. || Old French ||Longetemps||fu||ly||roys||Elinas||en||la||montaigne
 *  Modern French ||Longtemps||fut||le||roi||Elinas||dans||la||montagne||....||'Pendant longtemps le roi Elinas a été dans les montagnes.'
 *  English ||For a long time||was||the||king||Elinas||in||the||mountain||...||'King Elinas was in the mountains for a long time.'
 * }
 * {|cellspacing="1"
 * }
 * {|cellspacing="1"
 * {|cellspacing="1"

 * b. || Old French ||Iteuses||paroles||distrent||li||frere||de||Lancelot
 *  Modern French ||Telles||paroles||dirent||les||frères||de||Lancelot||....||'Les frères de Lancelot ont dit ces paroles'
 *  English ||Such||words||uttered||the||brothers||of||Lancelot||....||'Lancelot's brothers spoke these words.'
 * }
 * {|cellspacing="1"
 * }
 * {|cellspacing="1"
 * {|cellspacing="1"

 * c.||  Old French ||Atant||regarda||contreval||la ||mer
 *  Modern French ||Alors||regarda||en bas||la||mer||....||'Alors Il a regardé la mer plus bas.'
 *  English ||Then||looked at||downward||the||sea||....||'Then he looked down at the sea.' (Elision of subject pronoun, contrary to the general rule in other Old French clause structures.)
 * }
 *  English ||Then||looked at||downward||the||sea||....||'Then he looked down at the sea.' (Elision of subject pronoun, contrary to the general rule in other Old French clause structures.)
 * }
 * }

Old French
Similarly to Modern French, Old French allows a range of constituents to precede the finite verb in the V2 position.

Il oste ses armes

He removes.3sg his weapons

'He removes his weapons'

Old Occitan
A language that is compared to Old French is Old Occitan, which is said to be the sister of Old French. Although the two languages are thought to be sister languages, Old Occitan exhibits a relaxed V2 whereas Old French has a much more strict V2. However, the differences between the two languages extend past V2 and also differ in a variation of V2, which is V3. In both language varieties, occurrence of V3 can be triggered by the presence of an initial frame-setting clause or adverbial (1).

Car s'il ne me garde de pres, je ne dout mie

'Since he watches me so closely, I do not doubt'

Kotgarhi and Kochi
In his 1976 three-volume study of two languages of Himachal Pradesh, Hendriksen reports on two intermediate cases: Kotgarhi and Kochi. Although neither language shows a regular V-2 pattern, they have evolved to the point that main and subordinate clauses differ in word order and auxiliaries may separate from other parts of the verb:

hyunda-baassie jaa    gõrmi   hõ-i

winter-after   goes   summer  become-GER

"After winter comes summer." (Hendriksen III:186)

Hendriksen reports that relative clauses in Kochi show a greater tendency to have the finite verbal element in clause-final position than matrix clauses do (III:188).

Ingush
In Ingush, "for main clauses, other than episode-initial and other all-new ones, verb-second order is most common. The verb, or the finite part of a compound verb or analytic tense form (i.e. the light verb or the auxiliary), follows the first word or phrase in the clause."

muusaa vy      hwuona    telefon    jettazh

Musa   V.PROG  2sg.DAT   telephone  striking

'Musa is telephoning you.'

O'odham
O'odham has relatively free V2 word order within clauses; for example, all of the following sentences mean "the boy brands the pig": ceoj ʼo g ko:jĭ ceposid ko:jĭ ʼo g ceoj ceposid ceoj ʼo ceposid g ko:jĭ ko:jĭ ʼo ceposid g ceoj ceposid ʼo g ceoj g ko:jĭ ceposid ʼo g ko:jĭ g ceoj

The finite verb is " 'o" which appears after a constituent, in second position.

Despite the general freedom of sentence word order, O'odham is fairly strictly verb-second in its placement of the auxiliary verb (in the above sentences, it is ʼo; in the following it is ʼañ): Affirmative: cipkan ʼañ = "I am working" Negative: pi ʼañ cipkan = "I am not working" [not *pi cipkan ʼañ]

Sursilvan
Among dialects of the Romansh, V2 word order is limited to Sursilvan, the insertion of entire phrases between auxiliary verbs and participles occurs, as in 'Cun Mariano Tschuor ha Augustin Beeli discurriu ' ('Mariano Tschuor has spoken with Augustin Beeli'), as compared to Engadinese 'Cun Rudolf Gasser ha discurrü Gion Peider Mischol' ('Rudolf Gasser has spoken with Gion Peider Mischol'.)

The constituent that is bounded by the auxiliary, ha, and the participle, discurriu, is known as a Satzklammer or 'verbal bracket'.

Estonian
In Estonian, V2 word order is very frequent in the literate register, but less frequent in the spoken register. When V2 order does occur, it is found in main clauses, as illustrated in (1).

Kiiresti lahku-s-id õpilase-d koolimaja-st.

quickly leave-PST-3PL student-NOM.PL schoolhouse-ELA

'The students departed quickly from the schoolhouse.'

Unlike Germanic V2 languages, Estonian has several instances where V2 word order is not attested in embedded clauses, such as wh-interrogatives (2), exclamatives (3), and non-subject-initial clauses (4).

Kes    mei-le täna  külla          tule-b?

who.NOM. we-ALL today village/visit.ILL come-PRS.3SG

'Who will visit us today?'

Küll ta     täna  tule-b.

ADV s/he.NOM today come-PRS.3SG

'S/he's sure to come today!'

Täna ta      mei-le külla             ei  tule.

today s/he.NOM we-ALL village/visit.ILL not come

'Today s/he won't come to visit us.'

Welsh
In Welsh, V2 word order is found in Middle Welsh, but not in Old and Modern Welsh which only has verb-initial order. Middle Welsh displays three characteristics of V2 grammar: (1)	A finite verb in the C-domain (2)	The constituent preceding the verb can be any constituent (often driven by pragmatic features). (3)	Only one constituent preceding the verb in subject position

As we can see in the examples of V2 in Welsh below, there is only one constituent preceding the finite verb, but any kind of constituent (such as a noun phrase NP, adverb phrase AP and preposition phrase PP) can occur in this position.

[DP 'r guyrda a] doethant {y gyt}.

{} the nobles PRT came together.

"The nobles came together"

→ This sentence has a constituent with a subject, followed by the verb in second position. [DP deu drws a] welynt yn agoret.

{} two door PRT saw PRED open.

"They saw two doors that were open"

→ This sentence has a constituent with a object, followed by the verb in second position.

[AdvP yn diannot y] doeth tan o r nef.

{} PRED immediate PRT came fire from the heaven.

"Immediately there came fire from the heavens"

→ This sentence has a constituent that is an adverb phrase, followed by the verb in second position.

[PP y r neuad y] kyrchyssant.

{} to the hall PRT went.

"They made for the hall"

→ This sentence has a constituent that is a preposition phrase, followed by the verb in second position.

Middle Welsh can also exhibit variations of V2 such as cases of V1 (verb-initial word order) and V3 orders. However, these variations are restricted to specific contexts such as in sentences that has impersonal verbs, imperatives, answers or direct responses to questions or commands and idiomatic sayings. It is also possible to have a preverbal particle preceding the verb in V2, however these kind of sentences are limited as well.

Wymysorys
Wymysory is classified as a West-Germanic language, however it can exhibit various Slavonic characteristics. It is argued that Wymysorys enables its speaker to operate between two word order system that represent two forces driving the grammar of this language Germanic and Slavonic. The Germanic system is not as flexible and allows for V2 order to exist in it form while the Slavonic system is relatively free. Due to the rigid word order in the Germanic system, the placement of the verb is determines by syntactic rules in which V2 word order is commonly respected.

Wymysory, like with other languages that exhibit V2 word order, the finite verb is in second position with a constituent of any category preceding the verb such as DP, PP, AP and so on.

[DP Der klop] kuzt wymyioerys.

{} The man speaks Wymysorys.

"The man speaks Wymysorys"

→ This sentence has a constituent with a subject, followed by the verb in second position.

[DP Dos bihɫa] hot yh gyśrejwa.

{} This book had I written.

"I had written that book"

→ This sentence has a constituent with an object, followed by the verb in second position.

[PP Fjyr ejn] ej do.

{} For him is this.

"This is for him"

→ This sentence has a preposition phrase, followed by the verb in second position.

Classical Portuguese
Compared to other Romance languages, the V2 word order has existed in Classical Portuguese a lot longer. Although Classical Portuguese is a V2 language, V1 occurred more frequently and as a result of this, it is argued whether or not Classical Portuguese really is a V2-like language. However, Classical Portuguese is a relaxed V2 language, meaning V2 patterns coexist with its variations, which are V1 and/or V3. In the case of Classical Portuguese, there is a strong relationship between V1 and V2 due to V2 clauses being derived from V1 clauses. In languages, such as Classical Portuguese, where both V1 and V2 exist, both patterns depend on the movement of the verb to a high position of the CP layer, with the difference being whether or not a phrase is moved to a preverbal position.

Although V1 occurred more frequently in Classical Portuguese, V2 is the more frequent order found in matrix clauses. Post-verbal subjects may also occupy a high position in the clause and can precede VP adverbs. In (1) and (2), we can see that the adverb 'bem' can precede or proceed the post-verbal subject.

E nos    gasalhados e   abraços   mostraram os   cardeais legados

and in-the welcome  and greetings showed    the cardinals delegates

'In the welcome and greetings the cardinal delegates showed this satisfaction well.'

E quadra-lhe    bem  o  nome  de Piemonte...

and fits-CL.3.DAT well the name of Piemonte

'And the name of Piemonte fits it well...'

In (2), the post-verbal subject is understood as an informational focus, but the same cannot be said for (1) because the difference of the positions determine how the subject is interpreted.

Structural analysis
Various structural analyses of V2 have been developed, including within the model of dependency grammar and generative grammar.

Dependency grammar
Dependency grammar (DG) can accommodate the V2 phenomenon simply by stipulating that one and only one constituent can be a predependent of the finite verb (i.e. a dependent which precedes its head) in declarative (matrix) clauses (in this, Dependency Grammar assumes only one clausal level and one position of the verb, instead of a distinction between a VP-internal and a higher clausal position of the verb as in Generative Grammar, cf. the next section). On this account, the V2 principle is violated if the finite verb has more than one predependent or no predependent at all. The following DG structures of the first four German sentences above illustrate the analysis (the sentence means 'The kids play soccer in the park before school'):

 * V2 trees 1.png

The finite verb spielen is the root of all clause structure. The V2 principle requires that this root have a single predependent, which it does in each of the four sentences.

The four English sentences above involving the V2 phenomenon receive the following analyses:

 * V2 trees 2.png

Generative grammar
In the theory of Generative Grammar, the verb second phenomenon has been described as an application of X-bar theory. The combination of a first position for a phrase and a second position for a single verb has been identified as the combination of specifier and head of a phrase. The part after the finite verb is then the complement. While the sentence structure of English is usually analysed in terms of three levels, CP, IP, and VP, in German linguistics the consensus has emerged that there is no IP in German. The VP (verb phrase) structure assigns position and functions to the arguments of the verb. Hence, this structure is shaped by the grammatical properties of the V (verb) which heads the structure. The CP (complementizer phrase) structure incorporates the grammatical information which identifies the clause as declarative or interrogative, main or embedded. The structure is shaped by the abstract C (complementiser) which is considered the head of the structure. In embedded clauses the C position accommodates complementizers. In German declarative main clauses, C hosts the finite verb. Thus the V2 structure is analysed as
 * 1 Topic element (specifier of CP)
 * 2 Finite-verb form (C=head of CP) i.e. verb-second
 * 3 Remainder of the clause

In embedded clauses, the C position is occupied by a complementizer. In most Germanic languages (but not in Icelandic or Yiddish), this generally prevents the finite verb from moving to C.
 * The structure is analysed as
 * 1 Complementizer (C=head of CP)
 * 2 Bulk of clause (VP), including, in German, the subject.
 * 3 Finite verb (V position)

This analysis does not provide a structure for the instances in some language of root clauses after bridge verbs.
 * Example: Danish Vi ved at denne bog har Bo ikke læst with the object of the embedded clause fronted.
 * (Literally 'We know that this book has Bo not read')

The solution is to allow verbs such as ved to accept a clause with a second (recursive) CP.
 * The complementizer occupies C position in the upper CP.
 * The finite verb moves to the C position in the lower CP.

Literature

 * Adger, D. 2003. Core syntax: A minimalist approach. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
 * Ágel, V., L. Eichinger, H.-W. Eroms, P. Hellwig, H. Heringer, and H. Lobin (eds.) 2003/6. Dependency and valency: An international handbook of contemporary research. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
 * Andrason, A. (2020). Verb second in Wymysorys. Oxford University Press.
 * Borsley, R. 1996. Modern phrase structure grammar. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishers.
 * Carnie, A. 2007. Syntax: A generative introduction, 2nd edition. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
 * Emonds, J. 1976. A transformational approach to English syntax: Root, structure-preserving, and local transformations. New York: Academic Press.
 * Fagan, S. M. B. 2009. German: A linguistic introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
 * Fischer, O., A. van Kermenade, W. Koopman, and W. van der Wurff. 2000. The Syntax of Early English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 * Fromkin, V. et al. 2000. Linguistics: An introduction to linguistic theory. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers.
 * Harbert, Wayne. 2007. The Germanic Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 * Hook, P. E. 1976. Is Kashmiri an SVO Language? Indian Linguistics 37: 133–142.
 * Jouitteau, M. (2020). Verb second and the left edge filling trigger. Oxford University
 * Liver, Ricarda. 2009. Deutsche Einflüsse im Bündnerromanischen. In Elmentaler, Michael (Hrsg.) Deutsch und seine Nachbarn. Peter Lang. ISBN 978-3-631-58885-7
 * König, E. and J. van der Auwera (eds.). 1994. The Germanic Languages. London and New York: Routledge.
 * Liver, Ricarda. 2009. Deutsche Einflüsse im Bündnerromanischen. In Elmentaler, Michael (Hrsg.) Deutsch und seine Nachbarn. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang.
 * Meelen, M. (2020). Reconstructing the rise of verb second in Welsh. Oxford University Press.
 * Nichols, Johanna. 2011. Ingush Grammar. Berkeley: University of California Press.
 * Osborne T. 2005. Coherence: A dependency grammar analysis. SKY Journal of Linguistics 18, 223–286.
 * Ouhalla, J. 1994. Transformational grammar: From rules to principles and parameters. London: Edward Arnold.
 * Peters, P. 2013. The Cambridge Dictionary of English Grammar. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 * Posner, R. 1996. The Romance languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 * Rowlett, P. 2007. The Syntax of French. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 * van Riemsdijk, H. and E. Williams. 1986. Introduction to the theory of grammar. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
 * Tesnière, L. 1959. Éleménts de syntaxe structurale. Paris: Klincksieck.
 * Thráinsson, H. 2007. The Syntax of Icelandic. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 * Walkden, G. (2017). Language contact and V3 in germanic varieties new and old. The Journal of Comparative Germanic Linguistics, 20(1), 49-81.
 * Woods, R. (2020). A different perspective on embedded verb second. Oxford University Press.
 * Woods, R., Wolfe, s., & UPSO eCollections. (2020). Rethinking verb second (First ed.). Oxford University Press.
 * Zwart, J-W. 2011. The Syntax of Dutch. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

title: V2 word order


text: Category:Universities and colleges in Wisconsin