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Fleet admiral (United States)

Fleet admiral (abbreviated FADM) is a five-star flag officer rank in the United States Navy whose rewards uniquely include active duty pay for life. Fleet admiral ranks immediately above admiral and is equivalent to General of the Army and General of the Air Force.

Although it is a current and authorized rank, no U.S. Navy officer holds it presently. Only four World War II era officers have ever held the rank: William D. Leahy, Ernest J. King, Chester W. Nimitz, and William Halsey Jr. Leahy, King, and Nimitz were promoted to the rank in December 1944, followed by Halsey in December 1945. While all four men effectively retired in the late 1940s, the rank of fleet admiral is for life. The last active fleet admiral was Nimitz, who died in 1966.

Post Spanish–American War
The Navy originally had an established precursor 5-star rank of Admiral of the Navy, that was superior to Admiral. The rank used the 1867 regulation Admiral insignia. This rank was established and given only to Admiral George Dewey, in recognition of his victory at Manila Bay in 1898. On March 2, 1899, Congress passed approving the creation of the rank. The Senate confirmed Dewey's promotion to that rank on March 14, 1903, and he was officially promoted to Admiral of the Navy on March 24, 1903, with a retroactive date-of-rank of March 2, 1899. The congressional act also stipulated that upon Dewey's death, the rank would cease to exist. Dewey died on January 16, 1917, ending the Navy's use of the rank.

World War II
A proper five-star rank of fleet admiral was created in 1944 in order to give United States military officers comparable rank to five-star officers of allied nations. The rank of fleet admiral was created by an Act of Congress for four officers to hold on a temporary basis under Pub.L. 78-482 on December 14, 1944. The rank was made permanent for the four individual holders by on March 23, 1946. Although Congress authorized the promotion of Omar Bradley to the five-star rank of General of the Army in 1950 while serving as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff so that he would be of the same rank as General of the Army Douglas MacArthur, the theater commander in Korea, there has been no new legislation authorizing the use of the rank of fleet admiral since 1946.

It was held during and after World War II by the following officers:

The timing of the first three appointments was carefully planned, such that a clear order of seniority and a near-equivalence between the services was established for the Generals of the Army promoted at the same time.

Admiral Leahy acted as an executive Chief of Staff over Admiral King and General Marshall and briefed President Franklin D. Roosevelt. King coordinated all naval operations. Nimitz commanded all naval operations in the Pacific Ocean area. Halsey received his promotion based on his successes.

George C. Marshall was promoted to General of the Army on December 16, 1944; General MacArthur was promoted on December 18, 1944; General Eisenhower was promoted on December 20, 1944, and General Arnold was promoted on December 21, 1944. Arnold would later be laterally promoted to General of the Air Force on May 7, 1949, after the Air Force was created as a separate service as part of the National Defense Act of 1947.

The insignia for a fleet admiral is composed of five silver stars in a pentagonal design. Worn on the service dress blue uniform sleeve was a gold stripe two inches wide surrounding the sleeve two inches from the cuff with four half-inch stripes placed at $1/4$ inch intervals. The single gold five-pointed star, one ray down, worn above the top stripe was not part of the rank, but indicated the wearer to be a line officer.

Post–World War II
Another contender to receive the rank of fleet admiral was Admiral Raymond A. Spruance; the choice between him and Halsey was an issue that occupied several months of deliberation, before Admiral King finally chose Halsey. Purportedly U.S. Representative Carl Vinson, chairman of the House Armed Services committee and a strong supporter of Halsey, was responsible for blocking subsequent efforts to promote Spruance to fleet admiral (although his promotion continued to be blocked after Vinson retired). Instead, Spruance's achievements were recognized by the unique honor of a Special Act of Congress awarding him full four-star admiral's salary during the remainder of his life. Spruance expressed the following feelings over the issue:

"So far as my getting five star rank is concerned, if I could have had it along with Bill Halsey, that would have been fine; but, if I had received it instead of Bill Halsey, I would have been very unhappy over it."

The first fleet admiral to leave active duty was Ernest King who retired immediately after the conclusion of World War II. Chester Nimitz and William Halsey both retired two years later while William Leahy was the last fleet admiral to leave active duty in 1949. According to Public Law 78-482, fleet admirals on active duty receive the same pay as a Rear Admiral, Upper Half (two star) plus a $5,000 personal allowance, and upon retirement were to receive 75% of their active duty pay. When Public Law 79-333 made the rank permanent for Leahy, King, Nimitz, and Halsey, it also provided for full pay and allowances once those officers retired. As with a general of the army, a fleet admiral was entitled to an office maintained by the Navy along with an aide (of the Naval rank of Captain), a secretary, and an orderly.

Three of the four fleet admirals died in the late 1950s and, by 1960, Chester Nimitz was the sole surviving U.S. Navy fleet admiral. He held a ceremonial post as Navy adviser to the Western Sea Frontier with his quarters based in San Francisco. Nimitz died in 1966 with no further fleet admirals appointed since.

Modern usage
The President, with consent from the Senate, may award a fifth star to Admirals. In the 1990s, there were proposals in Department of Defense academic circles to bestow a five-star rank on the office of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Military leaders in the Global War on Terrorism can be promoted to a five-star rank.

Ranks senior to fleet admiral
The Navy does not have an established rank senior to fleet admiral. The only officially recognized United States military rank senior to fleet admiral is General of the Armies when Congress passed in 1976, promoting George Washington to that rank and making him senior to all other grades of the Army, past or present.

title: Fleet admiral (United States)


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Earth Alliance

Earth Alliance may refer to:

 * Earth Alliance (Babylon 5), from the Babylon 5 TV series
 * Earth Alliance (Gundam), from the Mobile Suit Gundam SEED anime series

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Earth Alliance


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Helen Sharman

Helen Patricia Sharman, CMG, OBE, HonFRSC (born 30 May 1963) is a British chemist and astronaut who became the first British person, first Western European woman and first privately funded woman in space, as well as the first woman to visit the Mir space station, in May 1991.

Early life and education
Sharman was born in Grenoside, Sheffield, where she attended Grenoside Junior and Infant School, later moving to Greenhill. After studying at Jordanthorpe Comprehensive, she obtained a BSc degree in chemistry at the University of Sheffield in 1984 and a PhD degree from Birkbeck, the University of London in 1987. She worked as a research and development technologist for GEC in London and later as a chemist for Mars dealing with the flavouring properties of chocolate. This later led the UK press to label her "The Girl from Mars".

Project Juno
After responding to a radio advertisement asking for applicants to be the first British space explorer, Sharman was selected for the mission live on ITV, on 25 November 1989, ahead of nearly 13,000 other applicants. She was commuting home from work when she heard the radio advertisement. “Astronaut wanted. No experience necessary.” The programme was known as Project Juno and was a cooperative Soviet–British mission co-sponsored by a group of British companies. Its aim was to enhance the relationship between the UK and the Soviet Union in the twilight years of the Cold War by sending a British astronaut to the Mir space station. Sharman was selected in a process that gave weight to scientific, educational and aerospace backgrounds, as well as the ability to learn a foreign language.

Helen would later recall that she was more excited about the training than the flying itself, stating “It wasn’t so much going to space as the training that appealed, living in Russia, learning the language, doing advanced mechanics. It was a way out of the rat race.” Before flying, Sharman spent 18 months in intensive flight training in Star City, Moscow. She trained alongside her British back-up Major Tim Mace. The Project Juno consortium failed to raise the money expected, and the programme was almost cancelled. With a view toward the flight's impact on international relations, the project proceeded at Soviet expense although as a cost-saving measure, less expensive experiments were substituted for those in the original plans.

The Soyuz TM-12 mission, which included Soviet cosmonauts Anatoly Artsebarsky and Sergei Krikalev, launched on 18 May 1991 and lasted eight days, most of that time spent at the Mir space station. Sharman's tasks included medical and agricultural tests, photographing the British Isles, and participating in a licensed amateur radio hookup with British schoolchildren. She landed aboard Soyuz TM-11 on 26 May 1991, along with Viktor Afanasyev and Musa Manarov. On the launch day, Sharman had a "space passport" with her in case they had to land outside Russia. She had also carried with her a butterfly brooch her father had given her and a photo of the Queen Elizabeth II.

Sharman was 27 years and 11 months old when she went into space, making her the sixth youngest of the 556 individuals who have flown in space. Sharman has not returned to space, although she was one of three British candidates in the 1992 European Space Agency astronaut selection process and was on the shortlist of 25 applicants in 1998.

Since Juno was not an ESA mission, Tim Peake became the first ESA British astronaut more than 20 years later.

For her Project Juno accomplishments, Sharman received a star on the Sheffield Walk of Fame.

Sharman broke several records including;

Later career
Sharman spent the eight years following her mission to Mir self-employed, communicating science to the public. Her autobiography, Seize the Moment, was published in 1993. In 1997 she published a children's book, The Space Place. She has presented radio and television programmes including for BBC Schools.

By 2011, she was working at the National Physical  Laboratory as Group Leader of the Surface and Nanoanalysis  Group. Sharman became Operations Manager for the Department of Chemistry at Imperial College London in 2015. She continues outreach activities related to chemistry and her spaceflight, and in 2015 was awarded an Honorary Fellowship from the British Science Association.

In August 2016, Sharman appeared as herself in an episode of the Channel 4 soap opera Hollyoaks.

In January 2020, Sharman said in an interview that "aliens exist, there are no two ways about it" but that "it's possible ... we simply can't see them", a reference to the idea of a shadow biosphere.

Awards and honours

Sharman was awarded the bronze and silver and gold Medal of the Royal Aero Club, in 1990. Then, in 1991, she was chosen to light the flame at the 1991 Summer Universiade, held in Sheffield. On live international television, she tripped while running through the infield of Don Valley Stadium, sending the burning embers onto the track. Encouraged to continue her run, without any flame from the torch, she proceeded round the track and climbed to the ceremonial flame. Despite the lack of any fire from the torch the ceremonial flame still ignited.

For her determined pioneering efforts, Sharman was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 1992 Birthday Honours, and the following year an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Chemistry (HonFRSC). Sharman was appointed a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George (CMG) in the 2018 New Year Honours for services to Science and Technology Outreach.

On 26 May 1991, by Decree of the President of the USSR No. UP-2010, Helen was awarded the "Order of Friendship of Peoples".

In 1992, she was awarded the Presidents' Medal, by SCI – an award which recognises exemplary leadership aligned with SCI’s purpose.

On 12 April 2011, by Decree of the President of the Russian Federation No. 437, she was awarded the medal "For Merit in Space Exploration".

The British School in Assen, Netherlands is named the Helen Sharman School after her.

Additionally, Sharman has been recognised by multiple schools by having houses named in her honour. There is a house named after her at Wallington High School for Girls, a grammar school in the London Borough of Sutton, where each house is named after a high achieving and influential woman. The science block of Bullers Wood School, Chislehurst, Kent was opened by Sharman in 1994 and is called Sharman House. There is a house named after her at Great Western Academy, in Swindon, where she opened the Sixth Form. She has also been honoured at Rugby High School for Girls a girls' grammar school where houses are named after four influential women, and a Sharman house at Moorlands School, Leeds, where houses are named after inspiring people from Yorkshire. In the 2021/22 academic year, the independent girls' school Notting Hill and Ealing High School is introducing a new fourth house, which will bear Sharman's name in recognition of her as a pioneer for women in STEM.

In addition to this, residential development in Stafford in the West Midlands of England has a street named Helen Sharman Drive after her, and a block of student flats in Sheffield bears her name. The true identity of the fictional comic-book character Steel Bolt was also named partly in homage to her.

She has received several honorary degrees from UK universities, including:

title: Helen Sharman


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Jennings House (Annapolis, Maryland)

Jennings House, located in Annapolis, Maryland, was the residence of the governors of Maryland from 1777 until 1870, when it was replaced by Government House. The building was sold to the United States Naval Academy in 1869 for $25,000. It was demolished in 1901.

Governor George Howard, son of Governor John Eager Howard, was born in Jennings House in 1789.

title: Jennings House (Annapolis, Maryland)


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The Search (novel)

The Search is a novel written and published by Nobel Prize-winning author Naguib Mahfouz in 1964. It was translated from Arabic into English in 1987 by Mohamed Islam, edited by Magdi Wahba, and published by Doubleday in 1991.

Symbolism and comparison with other works
The original Arabic title is الطريق which means "the way" or "the quest" and is very close to the word used by Muslim sufists [called Sufist Ways الطرق الصوفية] for the different "ways" or "schools" by which to approach God. The name of the hero's father in the novel "Sayed Sayed Al-Rehaimi" is reminiscent of an omnipotent supreme being, the name in Arabic means literally "Master Master the Compassionate", his last name being very close to al-Rahim, one of the 99 names of God in the Quran. Saber's search for him seems to be a thinly disguised search for God or Meaning. This theme of search for meaning or way of existence is comparable to other novels by Mahfouz, notably Children of Gebelawi (1959), The Beggar (1965),  Heart of the Night (1975)  and The Harafish (1977).

Release details

 * 1987, Egypt, American University of Cairo Press ISBN 977-424-160-6, Pub date ? ? 1987, paperback (in translation)
 * 1991, US, Anchor Books ISBN 0-385-26460-7, Pub date ? May 1991, paperback (in translation)
 * 1991, US, Doubleday ISBN 0-385-26459-3, Pub date June 1, 1991, hardcover (in translation)

title: The Search (novel)


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2002 South Korean presidential election

Presidential elections were held in South Korea on 19 December 2002. The result was a victory for Roh Moo-Hyun of the ruling Millennium Democratic Party, who defeated Lee Hoi-chang of the Grand National Party by just over half a million votes.

Background
President Kim Dae-jung's National Congress for New Politics (NCNP) re-branded itself to Millennium Democratic Party (MDP) in 2000, but was struggling as it had defeated by the Grand National Party (GNP) both the 2000 parliamentary election and 2002 gubernatorial elections. GNP's then leader and probable presidential nominee Lee Hoi-chang was polling higher than any MDP candidates.

Millennium Democratic Party
For the first time in South Korean history, the Democratic Party nominated its presidential candidate through open primaries.

At the beginning of the primaries, Rhee In-je, the 3-term congressman who ran against President Kim Dae-jung in 1997 but afterwards joined the ruling party, led the other candidates by a considerable margin in every poll. However, fringe candidate Roh Moo-hyun rose to prominence after winning the Gwangju contest, eventually winning his party's nomination and then the presidential election.

Candidates

 * Roh Moo-hyun, former Member of National Assembly from Busan
 * Lee In-je, former Governor of Gyeonggi
 * Chung Dong-young, Member of National Assembly from North Jeolla
 * Kim Joong-kwon, former Member of National Assembly from North Gyeongsang
 * Han Hwa-gap, former Member of National Assembly from South Jeolla
 * Yu Jong-geun, Governor of North Jeolla
 * Kim Geun-tae, Member of National Assembly from Seoul

Candidates

 * Lee Hoi-chang, former Prime Minister
 * Choi Byung-ryul, Member of the National Assembly from Seoul
 * Lee Bu-young, Member of the National Assembly from Seoul
 * Lee Sang-hee, former Minister of Science and Technology

Democratic Labor Party
Labor activist Kwon Young-ghil of the Democratic Labor Party was nominated for president.

Campaign
Although corruption scandals marred the incumbent government, Lee Hoi-chang's campaign suffered from the wave of Anti-American sentiment in Korea generated by the Yangju highway incident. Public opinion of Lee, who was widely seen as being both pro-U.S. and the preferred candidate of the George W. Bush administration in Washington, D.C., suffered. After losing to Roh by 2% in the December 2002 elections, Lee subsequently announced his retirement from politics.

Roh-Chung coalition
Chung Mong-joon, the 3-term independent congressman from Ulsan and son of Hyundai founder Chung Ju-yung, became so popular that he began appearing on polls for presidential election after he, as the president of the Korean Football Association, was credited for winning the right to host 2002 FIFA World Cup in Korea.

Chung officially launched his presidential campaign in September, and in many polls beat Roh and came close to beating Lee. Many Democratic politicians that weren't happy with Roh's nomination joined Chung's campaign. However, when it seemed clear that if both Roh and Chung ran, Lee would win easily. The two sides decided to combine forces, instead of competing against each other.

The two sides agreed on conducting two polls, each by different polling companies, where the winner would run as the unified candidate. The winner had to win both polls, or a second round had to occur.

So the two poll was conducted on 24 November, but only one validated. The other one was invalidated, as the two sides had agreed that any poll with Lee Hoi-chang polling less than 30.4% must be invalidated, since there could be a chance that Lee's supporters were attempting to manipulate the results by responding with an untrue answer.

The only poll that was validated was the one conducted by the Research and Research, and it was won by Roh.

Consequently, Chung withdrew his candidacy and endorsed Roh. However, Chung later broke his pledge on the night before the election, when he felt that Roh broke the promise to include Chung in for policy decisions and surrounded himself only with Democrats. Chung announced less than eight hours before the election that he was withdrawing his support for Roh and urged people to vote their conscience, but Roh won anyway.

Major candidates
Breakdown of votes by region for candidates with at least 1% of the total votes.

Minor candidates
Breakdown of votes by region for candidates with less than 1% of the total votes.

title: 2002 South Korean presidential election


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Musa Manarov

Musa Khiramanovich Manarov (Муса Хираманович Манаров; born 22 March 1951) is a former Soviet cosmonaut who spent 541 days in space.

He was a colonel in the Soviet Air Force and graduated from the Moscow Aviation Institute with an engineering qualification in 1974. Musa was selected as a cosmonaut on 1 December 1978.

From 21 December 1987 to 21 December 1988, he flew as flight engineer on Soyuz TM-4. The flight duration was 365 days, 22 hours, and 38 minutes. From 2 December 1990 to 26 May 1991, he flew again as a flight engineer on Soyuz TM-11. The duration was 175 days, 1 hour, and 50 minutes, the longest continuous time spent in space by anyone at that time. During his 176-day stay, Manarov observed the Earth and worked in space manufacturing. He also performed more than 20 hours of spacewalks. Manarov lives in Russia.

He was a member of the State Duma of the Russian Federation of the 5th convocation (2007-2011) as part of the United Russia faction.

Personal life
Manarov is married and has two children. He is an ethnic Lak. He lives in Moscow, while his mother still lives in Baku.

Awards and honors
Foreign awards:
 * Hero of the Soviet Union
 * Pilot-Cosmonaut of the USSR
 * Order of Lenin
 * Order of the October Revolution
 * Medal "For Merit in Space Exploration"
 * Officer of the Legion of Honour (France)
 * Order of Stara Planina (Republic of Bulgaria)
 * Order of Georgi Dimitrov (Republic of Bulgaria)
 * Order "The Sun of Freedom" (Afghanistan)

title: Musa Manarov


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Axel Heiberg Island

Axel Heiberg Island (ᐅᒥᖕᒪᑦ ᓄᓈᑦ, ) is an uninhabited island in the Qikiqtaaluk Region, Nunavut, Canada. Located in the Arctic Ocean, it is the 32nd largest island in the world and Canada's seventh largest island. According to Statistics Canada, it has an area of 43178 km2. It is named after Axel Heiberg.

One of the larger members of the Arctic Archipelago, it is also a member of the Sverdrup Islands and Queen Elizabeth Islands. It is known for its unusual fossil forests, which date from the Eocene period. Owing to the lack of mineralization in many of the forest specimens, the traditional characterization of "fossilisation" fails for these forests and "mummification" may be a clearer description. The fossil records provide strong evidence that the Axel Heiberg forest was a high-latitude wetland forest. A holotype of the ammonite Otoceras gracile was found in the Griesbachian (Early Triassic) deposits of this island.

History
Axel Heiberg Island has been inhabited in the past by the Inuit, but was uninhabited by the time it was named by Otto Sverdrup, who explored it in 1900–01. He named it after Axel Heiberg, financial director of the Norwegian Ringnes brewery which sponsored the expedition. Other explorers visited the island during the early 20th century, during which time it was claimed by Norway until 1930. It is now part of Nunavut Territory, Canada. It was not until the late 1940s that the island was aerially photographed by the United States Army Air Forces' Operation Polaris. In 1955 two geologists of the Geological Survey of Canada, N.J. McMillan and Souther traversed the interior as part of Operation Franklin. McMillan's observations of Bunde Glacier, in northwest Axel Heiberg Island, are the earliest glaciological observations on the ground to have found their way into a scientific publication.

In 1959, scientists from McGill University explored Expedition Fiord (previously Sør Fjord or South Fiord) in central Axel Heiberg Island. This resulted in the establishment of the McGill Arctic Research Station (79.43333°N, -90.76667°W), constructed 8 km inland from Expedition Fjord in 1960. It consists of a small research hut, a cookhouse and two temporary structures that can comfortably accommodate 8–12 persons. The station was initially heavily utilized during the early 1960s, during which a population of 20 was present. The McGill Arctic Research Station is active from March to August with research currently focused on polar geomorphology, geology, glaciology, permafrost, climate change, and polar microbiology. Over the last 10–15 years, it has served as a significant Mars analogue for astrobiology investigations studying life and habitability of polar cryoenvironments and field-testing planetary exploration instrumentation platforms.

In the summer of 1972, a British Army Mountaineering Association expedition resulted in the naming of Scaife Glacier, following the accidental death of Sergeant Kenneth Scaife.

During the summer of 1986, a Canadian expedition headed by Dr. James Basinger set out to investigate a very unusual fossil forest on Axel Heiberg. The findings of these and subsequent expeditions have since been popularly reported in Canada. Over 40 million years ago during the Eocene epoch, a forest of tall trees flourished on Axel Heiberg Island. The trees reached up to 35 m in height; some may have grown for 500 to 1,000 years. At the time, the polar climate was warm, but the winters were still continuously dark for three months. As the trees fell, the fine sediment in which the forest grew protected the plants. Instead of turning into petrified "stone" fossils, they were ultimately mummified by the cold, dry Arctic climate, and only recently exposed by erosion. Scientists from the Komarov Botanical Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences in Saint Petersburg provided a few grams of Metasequoia conifer wood from the site to genetics researchers at the National University of Altai, who compared the DNA sequences of the ancient wood with DNA of modern woody plants and found them to be almost identical. Komarov Institute scientists also discovered double strand DNA molecules in Metasequoia fossil leaves from Axel Heiberg Island.

As late as 1999, the preservation of this unique site was a concern, as the fossil wood was easily damaged and eroded once exposed. There were concerns that wood was being taken by Arctic cruise ship tourists, and that the site was being disturbed by Canadian military helicopters from a nearby base, and even by scientists themselves in their studies. There were calls for more protection for the area. It currently has no official status, in part because land claims had to be settled. But now Nunavut is looking at how best to protect the fossil forest, possibly by setting up a territorial park to be called Napaaqtulik, "where there are trees".

Interesting animal fossils have been discovered on the island, including a remarkably preserved specimen of an ancient Aurorachelys turtle and, identified in 2016, the humerus of a Tingmiatornis bird.

Glaciation
White Glacier is a valley glacier occupying 38.7 km2 in the Expedition Fiord area of Axel Heiberg Island (79.5°N, -90.83333°W). It extends in elevation from 56 to 1782 m above sea level, a range which, as noted by Dyurgerov (2002), is exceeded only by Devon Ice Cap in the world list of glaciers with measured mass balance. Ice thickness reaches or exceeds 400 m. Its maximum extension in recent history, marking the advance of the glacier in response to the cooling of the Little Ice Age, was reached not earlier than the late 18th century, and more probably at the beginning of the 20th century. There is evidence that the retreat of the terminus, previously at about 5 m per year, is decelerating (Cogley et al. 1996a; Cogley and Adams 2000). White Glacier has been the subject of many papers in the glaciological literature since 1960, e.g. Müller (1962) was the source of a now-classical diagram elaborating and illustrating the concept of "glacier facies".

Population
The island is uninhabited except for the seasonal McGill Arctic Research Station operated by McGill University.

Lost Hammer Spring
The Lost Hammer Spring, located in the central west region of the island (79.11667°N, -90.35°W) is the coldest and saltiest of all Arctic springs described to date. It is characterized by a perennial hypersaline (24%) discharge at subzero temperatures (~-5 C) flowing to the surface through a hollow, 2 m high cone-shaped salt tufa structure. Continuous gas emissions from the spring indicate an underlying thermogenic methane source. On the basis of these properties, this spring is considered a significant astrobiology analogue site for possible habitats currently present on Mars and the cold moons Europa and Enceladus.

Microbes have been found at this site which do not depend on organic material or oxygen, but only on simple inorganic compounds. These inorganic compounds are present on Mars.

title: Axel Heiberg Island


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Presidio of Monterey, California

The Presidio of Monterey (POM), located in Monterey, California, is an active US Army installation with historic ties to the Spanish colonial era. Currently, it is the home of the Defense Language Institute Foreign Language Center (DLI-FLC). It is the last and only presidio in California to have an active military installation.

History
The Spanish explorer Sebastián Vizcaíno visited, named and charted Monterey Bay (especially the southern end) in 1602. In his official report, Vizcaíno recommended the natural harbor he found as an appropriate site for a seaport, military fortification and colonization. It would be over 150 years, until news of Pacific Coast moves by Spain's European rivals brought the remote area back to the attention of the leaders of New Spain.

José de Gálvez's grand plan
In 1768, José de Gálvez, special deputy (visitador) of King Carlos III in New Spain (Mexico), received this order: "Occupy and fortify San Diego and Monterey for God and the King of Spain." Gálvez organized a series of land and sea expeditions from the port of San Blas, today in the state of Nayarit, México, to establish a military post and Catholic mission in Monterey. Spain's rulers had long feared that other European powers would encroach from the north on American territories Spain claimed along the Pacific coast. Gálvez himself spread rumors of schemes by the British and Dutch rulers to add California to their own empires. Then, when a report arrived from the Spanish ambassador in Russia that Catherine the Great planned to establish settlements down the California coast towards Monterey, Gálvez—already planning a northward expansion of New Spain's dominion—trumpeted the threat from Russia. King Carlos gave Gálvez the go-ahead. Spain moved to occupy regions along the Pacific coast of North America that its sailors and soldiers had only seen and claimed from previous maritime explorations.

Portolá expeditions to Monterey
From March through June 1769, Gaspar de Portolá, appointed "governor of the Californias" (Baja and Alta California), led an overland party—joined by Franciscan friar Junípero Serra—from Loreto to San Diego. Then in July, Portolá mustered a new party—including lieutenant Pedro Fages, cartographer Miguel Costansó, and friars Juan Crespí and Francisco Gómez—to trek north from San Diego to rediscover the port of Monterey by land. They reached Monterey Bay on 1 October, but failed to recognize it as the port described by Vizcaíno 167 years earlier —and continued north, eventually reaching San Francisco Bay. On their return trek to San Diego, they planted two large crosses on the coast of Monterey, whose geographical identity they could not yet confirm. (see Timeline of the Portolá expedition).

In April 1770, Portolá gathered a new and smaller party for another overland journey from San Diego to Monterey. This party included Pedro Fages with twelve Catalan volunteers, seven leather-jacket soldiers, two muleteers, five Christian Indians from Baja California, and friar Juan Crespí. They arrived at Monterey Bay on 24 May. That afternoon, Portolá and Crespí revisited the large wooden cross their party had planted five months earlier on a hill just south of Point Pinos near the northern tip of the Monterey peninsula. "This is the port of Monterey without the slightest doubt," wrote Crespí in his diary.

Strict discipline to build Spanish presidio
Miguel Costansó selected the site of the presidio and drew the first plans and maps. Pedro Fages, left in command of the Monterey soldiers after Portolá sailed back to Mexico, imposed strict discipline on his soldiers to construct the presidio. He set the work they had to do in a certain time, harshly punishing soldiers caught resting or rolling a cigarette. Heavy rains punctuated the spring and winter of 1770–1771, but Fages permitted no let-up in the work. His soldiers had to trudge through mud to the forest to chop wood, then drag their mules out of the mud and head home. They had no chance to wash or mend their clothes during the six-day work week; Fages told them to do that on Sundays. This work regime lasted a year and a half, until complaints by the soldiers persuaded padre president Junípero Serra to intervene: Serra told Fages that, as a Christian, he had to observe the sabbath and let men rest on Sundays. In late June 1771, Fages wrote to viceroy Carlos de Croix in Mexico to inform him that the Monterey presidio had been built, sending along a simplified map.

Spanish Fort
While Fages established El Presidio Real de San Carlos de Monterrey (the Royal Presidio of Saint Charles of Monterey), Junípero Serra founded Mission San Carlos Borromeo de Carmelo, with the original location occupying the present day (remaining) chapel Cathedral of San Carlos Borromeo.

Monterey became one of a series of presidios, or "royal forts," built by Spain in what is now the western United States. In 1792, the El Castillo de Monterey was established to protect the port and persido of Monterey. Other California-based installations were founded in San Diego (El Presidio Real de San Diego) in 1769, in San Francisco (El Presidio Real de San Francisco ) in 1776, and in Santa Barbara (El Presidio Real de Santa Bárbara) in 1782.

On 20 November 1818, Argentine privateer Hipólito Bouchard, known thereafter as "California's only pirate", raided the El Castillo de Monterey defended by José Bandini. Its population took refuge in the Presidio's Rancho del Rey San Pedro (King's Farm), in the vicinity of Salinas. The fortunes of the Presidio at Monterey rose and fell with the times: it has been moved, abandoned and reactivated time and time again. The only surviving building from the original compound is the Royal Presidio Chapel. At least three times, it has been submerged by the tide of history, only to appear years later with a new face, a new master, and a new mission – first under the Spanish, then the Mexicans, and ultimately the Americans.

United States fort
United States control of the area began in 1846 during the Mexican–American War when Commodore John D. Sloat, commander of the U.S. Navy's Pacific Squadron, landed unopposed a small force in Monterey and claimed the territory and the Presidio for the United States. He left a small garrison of Marines who moved the fort up to its current location on the hill overlooking the harbor, combining in one location the previously separated functions of military headquarters and fortress. The Presidio was renamed Fort Mervine in honor of Captain William Mervine, who commanded one of the ships in Sloat's squadron.

The original Presidio comprised a square of adobe buildings located in the vicinity of what is now downtown Monterey. The fort's original mission, the Royal Presidio Chapel, has remained in constant use since its founding in 1770 by Junípero Serra, who arrived with Portola's party. On a hill overlooking the Monterey harbor is an earthwork—the only lingering connection between the original and present sites of the Presidio. That earthwork was part of the Spanish-built artillery battery defending the harbor.

The 1846 US occupation of Monterey put an end to any Mexican military presence at the Presidio. In 1865, in the closing months of the American Civil War, the fort was returned to temporary life by the arrival of six officers and 156 enlisted men, but was abandoned again in 1866.

In 1902, an infantry regiment arrived at Monterey with the mission to construct a post to house an infantry regiment and a squadron of cavalry. Troops moved into the new wooden barracks, officially named Ord Barracks, in June 1903. It was named for former American Civil War general, Edward Ord. However, in order to perpetuate the name of the old Spanish military installation that Portolà had established 134 years earlier, the War Department redesignated the post as the Presidio of Monterey. The barracks and training facilities for enlisted men, along with General Ord's name, were moved a short way up the coast to Fort Ord in 1940.

Presidio of Monterey
A school of musketry was located at the Presidio from 1907 to 1913, and a school for cooks and bakers from 1914 to 1917. In 1917, the Army purchased an additional 15,809 acres (64 km2) across the bay as a maneuver area. This new acquisition eventually was designated as Camp Ord in 1939 and became Fort Ord in 1940.

Between 1919 and 1940, the Presidio housed principally cavalry and field artillery units. However, the outbreak of World War II ended the days of horse cavalry, and those troops left Monterey. The Presidio, subsequently, served as reception center and temporary headquarters of the III Corps until it was deactivated in late 1944.

Civil Affairs Staging Area
The Presidio of Monterey was reactivated, under considerable difficulty, in January 1945 to accommodate the Civil Affairs Staging Area (CASA). The Civil Affairs Staging Area was a brigade sized Army / Navy formation created by a joint chiefs of staff directive for military government theater planning, training and provision of military government personnel to liberated areas of the Far East. CASA provided comprehensive training and planning in civil affairs administration to officers coming from six schools of military government established at various universities throughout the country.

Defense Language Institute

In 1946, the Military Intelligence Service Language School (MISLS) was moved to the Presidio of Monterey and was renamed the Army Language School (ALS). In June 1963, the Army Language School was renamed the Defense Language Institute (DLI). In 1976, the Defense Language Institute became the Defense Language Institute Foreign Language Center (DLI-FLC), the Defense Department's primary center for foreign language instruction. The center constitutes the principal activity at the Presidio. The Presidio serves all branches of the Department of Defense as well as other select government agencies.

Closure of Fort Ord
From 1946 onward, the Presidio itself was a sub-installation of the nearby Fort Ord. On 1 October 1994, this situation changed when Fort Ord closed and the Presidio of Monterey became a separate installation again, with the continued military areas of Fort Ord becoming known as the Presidio Annex.

Tenants

 * Installation Management Command
 * Defense Language Institute Foreign Language Center
 * 229th Military Intelligence Battalion, United States Army Training and Doctrine Command
 * MARDET Presidio of Monterey, Marine Corps Communication Electronics School
 * Information Warfare Training Command Monterey, Center for Information Warfare Training
 * 517th Training Group, 17th Training Wing
 * 902nd Monterey Field Office, C Company 308th Military Intelligence (MI) Battalion, 902nd MI Group
 * California Medical Detachment, Madigan Army Medical Center
 * Presidio of Monterey Dental Clinic
 * Criminal Investigation Command
 * Logistics Readiness Center, Army Materiel Command
 * Mission Installation Contracting Command
 * Network Enterprise Center, Army Network Enterprise Technology Command

Camp Roberts
US Army Signal Activity (USASA) Camp Roberts, California is a subinstallation of the Presidio of Monterey.

title: Presidio of Monterey, California


text:
Toyohiro Akiyama

Toyohiro Akiyama (秋山 豊寛) is a retired Japanese TV journalist and professor at Kyoto University of Art and Design. In December 1990, he spent seven days aboard the Mir space station. He became the first person of Japanese nationality to fly in space, and his space mission was the second spaceflight to be commercially sponsored and funded. Akiyama was also the first civilian to fly aboard a commercial space flight and the first journalist to report from outer space.

Education and career
Akiyama attended and earned his bachelor's degree at the International Christian University located in Mitaka, Tokyo. He then joined the Tokyo Broadcasting System (TBS) as a journalist in 1966. He worked for the BBC World Service from 1967–1971 before becoming a correspondent for the TBS Division of Foreign News. From 1984 to 1988, he served as TBS chief correspondent in Washington D.C.

Space training
On 17 August 1989, Akiyama was selected for a commercial Soviet-Japanese flight. The flight was sponsored by the TBS Corporation to celebrate its fortieth anniversary. The amount that the corporation paid for the flight of its employee differs significantly from one source to another (US$28 million, US$25 million, 5 billion yen or US$37 million ). Akiyama started training at the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center in October 1989.

Spaceflight
TBS wanted to send the first Japanese person to space in order to boost their TV ratings. 163 TBS employees applied for the opportunity to fly to space. Eventually, Akiyama and camerawoman Ryoko Kikuchi were selected as the two final candidates. When Kikuchi developed a case of appendicitis a week before launch, Akiyama was selected for cosmonaut training and he was the primary crew member, with no backup in place. Akiyama began cosmonaut training in August 1989 in a deal between TBS and the Soviet Union. The commercialization of space flight was evident by the Soyuz TM-11 covered with advertising of TBS and other Japanese companies.

Akiyama's mission would mark the first flight of a person of Japanese nationality in space as well as the first commercially sponsored and funded spaceflight of an individual in history. Akiyama would also be the first journalist to give live reports from space. After successfully completing a Research Cosmonaut training course at the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center in present-day Russia, Akiyama launched aboard the Soyuz TM-11 mission to the Mir space station on 2 December 1990 along with mission commander Viktor Afanasyev and flight engineer Musa Manarov.

Akiyama was not a trained astronaut, scientist nor engineer. During his time aboard Mir, Akiyama gave live reports each day documenting life aboard the station, but his seeming reluctance and discomfort led him being described as the first "antihero in space" as a result. He described his struggles such as space sickness and craving for cigarettes: During training, he quit smoking cigarettes, having previously smoked four packs a day. Before liftoff, when asked what he looked forward to most upon his return to Earth, he said "I can't wait to have a smoke". His fellow cosmonauts would later report on his nausea that they've "hadn't ever seen a man vomit that much."

Initially, the TBS TV viewership was high, but by midweek, it declined to slightly above normal. Various reports have cited a flight cost paid by TBS as between US$12 million and US$37 million. The company reportedly lost US$7.4 million on the deal. Akiyama eventually returned to Earth just over a week later aboard Soyuz TM-10 along with Gennadi Manakov and Gennadi Strekalov on 10 December. While onboard the space station, Akiyama made nightly live broadcasts.

Later career
Akiyama returned to TBS after completing his spaceflight and became deputy director of the TBS News Division. He retired from TBS in 1995, because he disagreed with the active commercialization of television.

In April 1991, he shot a film, with a group of Japanese journalists, about the state of the Aral Sea in Kazakhstan.

From January 1996, he engaged in organic farming with rice and mushrooms in the Abukuma mountains in the town Takine, near Tamura, Fukushima, Fukushima Prefecture. He also wrote books and gave lectures focusing on environmental issues. In March 2011, he was personally affected by the Fukushima disaster and was forced to abandon his farm.

On 1 November 2011, he became a professor of agriculture at the Faculty of Arts, Kyoto University of Art and Design.

Personal life
Akiyama was married to Kyoko Akiyama, and the couple had a son and a daughter. He left his family in Tokyo to go farm. They divorced in 1995 due to his plans for organic farming in Fukushima Prefecture. He was forced off his farm due to the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in 2011. Akiyama moved to Kyoto to teach after losing his farm in Fukushima.

Awards and decorations
Akiyama received multiple awards and decorations, including:

 * 1990 – Order of Friendship of Peoples (10 December 1990, Soviet Union), "for the successful implementation of space flight on the orbital research complex Mir"
 * 1991 – Tokyo Metropolitan Cultural Honor award
 * 2000 – Japanese Society for Biological Sciences in Space Achievement Award
 * 2011 – Medal "For Merit in Space Exploration" (12 April 2011, Russia), "for a great contribution to the development of international cooperation in the field of manned space exploration"

Publications
He made reports in Japanese, which were published later, dedicated to his space flight. He also co-authored articles on the development of space tourism and farming.

 * The Pleasure of Spaceflight, Journal of Space Technology and Science – Vol.9 No.1'93.
 * Journey around agriculture – 1 Mar 1998
 * Japanese astronaut official photographic record collection (1991) ISBN 4096805912
 * Farmer's Diary (1998) ISBN 4104248010
 * Space – 1 Aug 1992
 * Space (above) (Bungei Bunko) – 1 Aug 1995
 * Space (below) (Bungei Bunko) – 1 Aug 1995
 * To living with agriculture – earth and space (1999) ISBN 4000001809
 * Space Specialist 9 Days-First Japanese Astronaut Experience All Records – 1 Feb 1991
 * This is a space correspondent! I went to space! – 1 Feb 1991
 * Hoe and Spacecraft – 30 Nov 2007

title: Toyohiro Akiyama


text: Category:Existentialists

title: Category:Existentialists


text:
Hermann von Ihering

Hermann Friedrich Albert von Ihering (9 October 1850 – 24 February 1930) was a German-Brazilian zoologist. He was the oldest son of Rudolf von Jhering.

Biography
Hermann Friedrich Albert von Ihering was born in 1850 in Kiel, Germany, the oldest son of Rudolf von Jhering.

Under the advice of Rudolf Leuckart, Ihering studied medicine at the Giessen, Leipzig, Berlin, and Göttingen universities, working as an assistant at the zoological institute in Göttingen. He concluded his doctoral thesis in Göttingen, with the title Ueber das Wesen der Prognathie und ihr Verlhaeltniss zur Schaedelbasis (On the essence of prognathism and its effect on the base of the skull). He later worked as a Privatdozent for zoology at the Erlangen and Leipzig.

On 26 April 1880, Ihering married a widow, Anna Maria Clara Wolff (born von Bezel), who had a 10-year-old boy, Sebastian Wolff, from her first marriage. The marriage was not approved by Ihering's family and, as a result, he travelled to Brazil soon after. He got his first work at the National Museum of Rio de Janeiro, in Rio de Janeiro. However, as he found the climate of Rio de Janeiro too hot, he eventually moved to the city of Taquara, Rio Grande do Sul, where he started to collect specimens to send to museums in Germany and to the British Museum. At this time he had two children, Clara and Rodolpho. Later, he had other two, Wilhelm and Ida, but the latter died as a child.

In 1883, Ihering was nominated travelling naturalist of the National Museum of Rio de Janeiro and lived in several cities by the Lagoa dos Patos. He eventually bought an island at the delta of the Camaquã River, which started to be called Ilha do Doutor (Doctor's Island) and lived there for some years. He was naturalized Brazilian in 1885.

Between 1893 and 1894, Ihering helped to found the Museu Paulista, in São Paulo, and became its first director.

In 1901, his son Rodolpho was sent to Europe to study in Heidelberg. However, his other son, Wilhelm, died soon after, being only 16 years old, and his wife Anna became too shaken by the event and died later in the same year. Rodolpho then abandoned his studies and returned to Brazil to help his father.

During a trip to Europe to visit some colleagues in 1907, Ihering met again his first love, Meta Buff, from Gießen, and married her that same year. Later, during World War I, he was accused of nepotism and of selling to the state a stone that was donated to the Museu Paulista. This forced him to leave his job as director of the museum in 1916. He returned to southern Brazil and continued his studies in Santa Catarina, and in 1918 he was invited to occupy the chair of zoology at the University of Córdoba, Argentina. However, he refused the offer and remained in Brazil in order to organize a small museum in Florianópolis. One year after the museum opened, the government reduced his wage to one third, and three months later it was announced that he would not be paid anymore for his job.

In 1920, Ihering returned to Europe, living first in Naples and later returning to Germany. In 1921, he settled with Meta in Büdingen. Meta died in 1928 and Ihering died in 1930, at Gießen, Germany.

Homage
Several species were named in honor of Ihering, including the following.
 * Anisolepis iheringii Boulenger, 1885 (lizard), type species of the genus Anisolepis Boulenger, 1885, but a junior synonym of Anisolepis undulatus (Wiegmann, 1834)
 * Brucepattersonius iheringi (Thomas, 1896) (rodent)
 * Cetopsorhamdia iheringi Schubart & Gomes, 1959 (catfish)
 * Choeradoplana iheringi Graff, 1899 (land planarian)
 * Enyalius iheringii Boulenger 1885 (lizard)
 * Fusconaia iheringi Wright 1898 (freshwater mussel)
 * Gastrocopta iheringi (Suter, 1900) (gastropod)
 * Grammostola iheringi Keyserling, 1891 (tarantula)
 * Myrmotherula iheringi Snethlage, 1914 (antbird)
 * Phyllomedusa iheringii Boulenger, 1885 (frog)
 * Trinomys iheringi (Thomas, 1911) (Ihering's Atlantic spiny rat)
 * Unionicola iheringi (Koenike, 1890) (water mite)

The peer-reviewed scientific journal Iheringia was also named after him.

title: Hermann von Ihering


text:
Fluxys

Fluxys is a Belgium-based company, mainly acting as a natural gas transmission system operator. In 2004, it employed around 850 people and its infrastructure comprised about 3,700 km of pipelines and a terminal in Zeebrugge, Belgium. The company is listed on Euronext Brussels market.

History
The company was created in 2001 from the breakup of Distrigas into two entities (the other entity has kept the name Distrigas). Suez held as much as 57.25% of Fluxys shares prior to its 2008 merger with Gaz de France to form GDF Suez (now Engie), but was obligated to reduce its stake to satisfy the concerns of the European Commissioner for Competition. Engie still retains 44.75% of Fluxys as of July 2008.

As of 7 April 2014, when ice precludes the LNG shipments from Yamal LNG at Sabetta along the Northern Sea Route, the Fluxys terminal at Zeebrugge will serve Russia as its LNG port for the Asia-Pacific region.

Ukrainian National Agency on Corruption Prevention included Fluxys in the list of International Sponsors of War in November 2023 because the company was promoting the export of Russian LNG using the Fluxys terminal facilities.

title: Fluxys


text:
Saint Malachy

Malachy ({{IPAc-en|"|m|{|l|@|k|i}}; Máel Máedóc Ua Morgair; Modern Maelmhaedhoc Ó Morgair; Malachias) (1094 – 2 November 1148) is an Irish saint who was Archbishop of Armagh, to whom were attributed several miracles and an alleged vision of 112 popes later attributed to the apocryphal (i.e. of doubtful authenticity) Prophecy of the Popes.

Malachy was the first native-born Irish saint to be formally canonised. His brother was Gilla Críst Ua Morgair, who was Bishop Christian of Clogher from 1126 to 1138.

Life
Máel Máedóc, whose surname was Ua Morgair, was born in Armagh in 1094. Bernard of Clairvaux describes him as having noble birth. He was baptised Máel Máedóc, meaning 'devotee or servant' of Máedóc (Máedóc of Ferns) which was rendered Malachus in Latin (and subsequently as Malachy in English) and was trained under the famous recluse Imhar O'Hagan, subsequently Abbot of Armagh. Imhar was in sympathy with the aims of those who sought to reform the Irish church, and it was probably through his influence that Malachy became imbued with their principles. After a long course of studies, Malachy was ordained priest by Cellach of Armagh (Celsus) in 1119.

Shortly afterwards Cellach made the young priest his vicar. For the next year or two it was Malachy's duty to administer the diocese of Armagh. He established in all the churches the apostolic sanctions and the decrees of the holy fathers, and the customs and practices of the Roman Church. With the consent of Cellach and Imar, he went to study under Máel Ísu Ua hAinmere (Malchus, first Bishop of the Norse city of Waterford), who had by this time retired from the archbishopric of Cashel and was settled at Lismore. He spent three years there.

Abbot of Bangor
In 1123 the coarb of Bangor Abbey died. Bangor was the principal religious site in the north-east of Ireland. Since he ended his days at Lismore, it may be assumed that he was a friend of Malchus, and of the movement with which he was identified. His successor, who was Malachy's uncle, expressed his willingness to surrender his office and the site of the monastery to his nephew. Malachy became Abbot of Bangor Abbey.

This became an opportunity to implement one of the canons of the Synod of Rathbreasail, by establishing the diocese of Connor. Cellach, as coarb of Patrick, and consecrated bishop, had been able to organize the diocese of Armagh in accordance with the Rathbreasail plan. With the prestige which belonged to the coarb of Comgall, Malachy, if consecrated bishop, could probably succeed in organizing the diocese of Connor. In 1124 Malachy journeyed to Bangor, was installed as abbot, and was made bishop by Cellach.

In 1132, he was promoted to the primacy of Armagh.

Bernard provides many interesting anecdotes regarding Malachy and highly praises Malachy's zeal for religion both in Connor and Armagh. In 1127, Malachy paid a second visit to Lismore and acted for a time as confessor to Cormac MacCarthy, Prince of Desmond. While Bishop of Down and Connor, Malachy continued to reside at Bangor, and when some of the native princes sacked the two dioceses of Down and Connor, Malachy brought the Bangor monks to Iveragh, County Kerry, where they were welcomed by now King Cormac. On the death of Celsus (who was buried at Lismore in 1129), Malachy was appointed Archbishop of Armagh, in 1132, which dignity he accepted with great reluctance. Owing to intrigues, he was unable to take possession of his See for two years; even then he had to purchase the Bachal Isu (Staff of Jesus) from Niall, the usurping lay-primate.

Malachy's influence in Irish ecclesiastical affairs has been compared with that of Boniface in Germany. During three years at Armagh, as Bernard of Clairvaux writes, Malachy restored the discipline of the church, grown lax during the intruded rule of a series of lay-abbots, and had the Roman Liturgy adopted. Malachy worked zealously to restore ecclesiastical discipline, restored marriage, renewed the practices of confession and confirmation, and introduced Roman chants in the liturgy. He was also known for his care to the needy as a miracle worker and healer. In his lifetime, he planted apple trees throughout Ireland during times of famine.

Bernard continues: Having extirpated barbarism and re-established Christian morals, and seeing all things tranquil, Malachy began to think of his own peace. He, therefore, resigned the Sees of Armagh and Connor, in 1136 or 1137, but retained as Bishop of Down. He founded a priory of Austin Canons at Downpatrick, and was unceasing in his episcopal labours. Early in 1139 he journeyed to Rome, via Scotland, England, and France, visiting Bernard at Clairvaux, Champagne. He petitioned Pope Innocent II for pallia for the Sees of Armagh and Cashel, and was appointed legate for Ireland. On his return visit to Clairvaux, he obtained five monks for a foundation in Ireland, under Christian, an Irishman, as superior: thus arose the great Abbey of Mellifont in 1142. Malachy set out on a second journey to Rome in 1148, but on arriving at Clairvaux, he fell sick and died in the arms of Bernard, on 2 November 1148.

Veneration
In the book Life of Saint Malachy, his biographer Bernard of Clairvaux says Malachy was distinguished by his meekness, humility, obedience, modesty, and true diligence in his studies. Charles Borromeo praised Malachy for attending to the needy, bringing the holy sacraments to all alike and renewing the fervour of the people in receiving them.

Malachy's feast is celebrated on 3 November, so as not to clash with All Souls Day.

Visio Tnugdali
The Visio Tnugdali written c.1149 refers to Malachy as follows- "When Saint Ruadan had fallen silent, Tundale looked happily about him and saw Saint Patrick of Ireland, dressed in shining robes alongside many bishops decked out in their finest regalia. They were all joyful and there was no sound of any sighing! Among that blessed company Tundale could see four bishops whom he recognised. They were all good men; one of them was Saint Cellach, a former archbishop of Armagh, who did much good for the sake of Our Lord. Another was Malachias O'Moore, who had become archbishop of Armagh after him and gave everything that he had to the poor. He founded a large number of churches and colleges, as many as forty-four in all, endowed them with land and rents and so allowed many men of religion to serve God devotedly, although he hardly retained enough for himself to live on."

Relics
Malachy's body remained at Clairvaux Abbey and eventually was placed in a tomb near Bernard of Clairvaux's, after the abbot's own death. The tomb was moved several times with the rebuilding of the church. Portions of his remains were sent to Ireland in 1194 and deposited at Mellifont Abbey and other abbeys of the Cistercians. At some point at Clairvaux, part of Malachy's arm and part of his skull were removed and placed in special reliquaries in the abbey's treasury. His arm was kept in a silver case decorated with precious stones. A portion of his skull was kept in a bust reliquary of gilt silver, also decorated with precious stones and topped by a mitre. These reliquaries may have been enamelled or painted. During the French Revolution, the reliquaries themselves were destroyed, although the relics were preserved. Malachy's head is now preserved in a reliquary in the treasury of Troyes Cathedral, not far from the site of Clairvaux. The tombs of the two friends were destroyed in the aftermath of the revolution, and the bones were commingled and distributed to various parishes in the district of Clairvaux. Ph. Guignard published an account of the relics in the Patrologia Latina.

Patronage
Malachy is patron saint of the Archdiocese of Armagh and the Diocese of Down and Connor. The Dominican Abbey at Carlingford (est. 1305) was dedicated to him and his legacy. Saint Malachy's Church, Belfast was intended to be the Cathedral Church of Down and Connor dedicated in honour of the Diocesan Patron. However, the Irish Famine broke out and the grand plans for Saint Malachy's Cathedral were shelved to divert funds to the needy.

A number of parishes are dedicated to Malachy, including those in Tehachapi, California; Brownsburg, Indiana; Burlington, Massachusetts; Kennedy Township, New York City (The Actors' Chapel); Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Geneseo, Illinois and Rantoul, Illinois.

Prophecy of the Popes
A "Prophecy of the Popes" is attributed to Malachy, which is claimed to predict that there would be only 112 more popes before the Last Judgment. Benedictine Arnold de Wyon discovered and published the so-called "Doomsday Prophecy" in 1590. Most scholars consider the document a 16th-century elaborate hoax. James Weiss, a professor of church history at Boston College, has stated: "It is widely thought ... given who the author was and his relationship, [that the prophecies] were published to establish the case for election of one particular cardinal." Thomas Groome, chair of the Department of Religious Education and Pastoral Ministry at Boston College, has a similar notion: "For myself – and even as a native Irishman – the 'Prophecies of St. Malachy' are a grand old fun tale that have about as much reliability as the morning horoscope". Thomas J. Reese of Georgetown University, had only this to say: "St. Malachy's prophecy is nonsense."

In popular culture
Malachy, his "Doomsday Prophecy", and the conflicts between the Christians and pagans are important plot points in James Rollins' sixth Sigma Force novel, The Doomsday Key (2009), particularly in Chapter 21.

title: Saint Malachy


text:
Category:Ontology

Ontology is the philosophical study of the nature of being, becoming, existence, or reality, as well as the basic categories of being and their relations. Traditionally listed as a part of the major branch of philosophy known as metaphysics, ontology often deals with questions concerning what entities exist or may be said to exist and how such entities may be grouped, related within a hierarchy, and subdivided according to similarities and differences. A very simple definition of ontology is that it is the examination of what is meant, in context, by the word 'thing'.

title: Category:Ontology


text:
Poorhouse

A poorhouse or workhouse is a government-run (usually by a county or municipality) facility to support and provide housing for the dependent or needy.

Workhouses
In England, Wales and Ireland (but not in Scotland), "workhouse" has been the more common term. Before the introduction of the Poor Laws, each parish would maintain its own workhouse; often these would be simple farms with the occupants dividing their time between working the farm and being employed on maintaining local roads and other parish works. An example of one such is Strand House in East Sussex. In the early Victorian era (see Poor Law), poverty was seen as a dishonourable state. As depicted by Charles Dickens, a workhouse could resemble a reformatory, often housing whole families, or a penal labour regime giving manual work to the indigent and subjecting them to physical punishment. At many workhouses, men and women were split up with no communication between them. Furthermore, these workhouse systems were instituted under the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834: The United Kingdom passed this act to attempt to cut expenditure on those in poverty, reduce the number of beggars on the street, and inspire lower-class people to work harder in order to better provide for themselves.

United States
In the United States, poorhouses were most common during the 19th and early 20th centuries. They were often situated on the grounds of a poor farm on which able-bodied residents were required to work. A poorhouse could even be part of the same economic complex as a prison farm and other penal or charitable public institutions. Poor farms were county- or town-run residences where paupers (mainly elderly and disabled people) were supported at public expense. They were generally under the direction of one or more elected or appointed "Superintendent[s] of the Poor."

Most were working farms that produced at least some of the produce, grain, and livestock they consumed. Residents were expected to provide labor to the extent that their health would allow, both in the fields and in providing housekeeping and care for other residents. Rules were strict and accommodations minimal.

Poor farms were based on the U.S. tradition of county governments (rather than cities, townships, or state or federal governments) providing social services for the needy within their borders. Following the 1854 veto of the Bill for the Benefit of the Indigent Insane by Franklin Pierce, the federal government did not participate in social welfare for over 70 years.

The poor farms declined in the U.S. after the Social Security Act took effect in 1935, with most disappearing completely by about 1950. Since the 1970s, funding for the care, well-being and safety of the poor and indigent is now split among county, state and federal resources. Poor farms have been replaced by subsidized housing such as public housing projects, Section 8 housing and homeless shelters.

Canada
In Canada, the poorhouse, with an attached farm, was the favoured model. According to a 2009 report by the Toronto Star, "pauperism was considered a moral failing that could be erased through order and hard work". The oldest government-supported facility of this type that is still standing (now a museum), is located in the Southwestern-Ontarian hamlet of Aboyne between the larger, nearby communities of Fergus and Elora. The Wellington County House of Industry and Refuge was opened in 1877 and, over the years, housed approximately 1500 deserving poor, including those who were destitute, old and infirm, or disabled. The 60-bed house for inmates was surrounded by a 30-acre industrial farm with a barn for livestock that produced some of the food for the 70 residents and the staff and also provided work for them. Others worked in the House itself. A hospital was added in 1892. The nearby cemetery has 271 plots. In 1947, the House was converted into a home for the aged and in 1975 the building reopened as the Wellington County Museum and Archives, one of the National Historic Sites of Canada.

title: Poorhouse


text:
Aleksandr Nikolayevich Balandin

Aleksandr Nikolayevich Balandin (Александр Николаевич Баландин; born July 30, 1953) is a Russian cosmonaut. He is married with two children. He was selected as a cosmonaut on December 1, 1978, and retired on October 17, 1994.

He flew as a flight engineer on Soyuz TM-9.

He worked at NPO Energia until 1994, and was then President of Lendint-Association until 2000.

Biography
He was born on July 30, 1953, in Fryazino. In 1970, he graduated from high school in Fryazino, and in 1976, the Bauman Moscow State Technical University, with specialty - Flight Dynamics and Control. He worked as an engineer in the Moscow region at the Scientific Production Association (SPA) "Energy".

On December 8, 1978, he was enrolled in the cosmonaut detachment (the 5th recruitment of civilian specialists from SPA Energia), and was prepared for flying at the Buran reusable spacecraft (1979-1984), Soyuz-TM spacecraft and Mir space station. In September 1989 - flight engineer of the backup crew of the Soyuz TM-8. On September 5, 1989, Soyuz TM-8 Union reached the orbit with the main crew (Aleksandr Serebrov and Aleksandr Viktorenko).

Awards

 * Hero of the Soviet Union
 * Pilot-Cosmonaut of the USSR
 * Order of Lenin
 * Medal "For Merit in Space Exploration"
 * Order of Bernardo O'Higgins

title: Aleksandr Nikolayevich Balandin


text:
John Stoughton Newberry

John Stoughton Newberry (November 18, 1826 – January 2, 1887) was an American industrialist and politician. He served as the first provost marshal for the State of Michigan and as a U.S. Representative from the state of Michigan.

Early life
Newberry was born in Waterville, New York, the son of Elihu Newberry and Rhoda (Phelps) Newberry. He moved with his parents to Michigan when a child, residing in Detroit, Ann Arbor, and Romeo. He completed preparatory studies at Romeo Academy and graduated from the University of Michigan in 1848 as head of his class. Under the influence of his uncle, Oliver Newberry, he spent two years in civil engineering working with the Michigan Central Railroad building the line from Kalamazoo to New Buffalo. Then he takes a year off traveling mostly by steamboat throughout the Midwest including the Great Lakes, The Ohio, Missouri and Mississippi rivers. While traveling, he is shocked by the number of boat accidents due to the lack of established standards and regulations. Consequently there are a number of expensive, extensive and complicated liability suits.

Upon his return Newberry abandons any more immediate railroad work in favor of studying maritime law in the Detroit law offices of Emmons and Van Dyke. In no time he becomes the acknowledged Midwestern maritime expert, publishing Reports of Admiralty Cases in the Several District Courts of the United States. Newberry wins his first important case, defending Captain Sam Ward, owner of the Ogdenburg, in his case against the Atlantic. He proves himself as the paramount admiralty law litigator in the Midwest and establishes his own law practice in Detroit. While in Buffalo on legal matters, he meets Harriet Newell Robinson, whom he weds in 1856. A son, Harrie, is born the same year. Tragically, ten days later, his wife of less than a year dies. He moved to a downtown hotel and played with the Detroit Base Ball Club for a short time. Three years later while on business in Cleveland, Newberry meets Helen Parmelee Handy, the daughter of prominent banker, Truman Handy. Marrying in 1859, they return to Detroit. Two sons, Truman Handy and John Stoughton Jr., and one daughter, Helen Hall, are born to that union.

Career
He published the first volume of admiralty reports of decisions of cases arising on western lakes and rivers. In the early 1860s, Newberry joined the railroad car manufacturing firm of Dean and Eaton, renaming it Newberry, Dean and Eaton Manufacturing Co. When James McMillan joined the firm in 1864, the company was reorganized as the Michigan Car Company. With McMillan, Newberry also established the Detroit Car Wheel Company. He was appointed the first provost marshal for the State of Michigan by U.S. President Abraham Lincoln in 1862 with the rank of captain of Cavalry. Newberry resigned in 1864 and engaged in several large manufacturing and railroad enterprises.

Newberry was elected as a Republican candidate to the 46th United States Congress, serving Michigan's 1st congressional district from March 4, 1879, to March 3, 1881. He declined to be a candidate for reelection in 1880. He served as director of The Detroit and Cleveland Steam Navigation Company, Detroit, Bay City and Alpena Railroad and the Detroit National Bank.

Death and legacy
Newberry died in Detroit on January 2, 1887, and was interred in Elmwood Cemetery. His funeral was the occasion for many tributes, but the one offered by his old Romeo friend and university classmate was probably the best. Judge J. Logan Chipman eulogized, "With Mr. Newberry, as with all great men, there was indomitable will, energy, the great iron power that characterized his whole life." His estate was worth approximately $4.5 million, with investments in more than fifty different companies. To charitable organizations, he left $650,000.

The village of Newberry, Michigan, is named after Newberry, as a consequence of the congressman's business interest in the Detroit, Mackinac and Marquette Railroad. Several streets within the Village were named after members of Newberry's family.

An impressive Romanesque building was built from native fieldstone on the campus of the University of Michigan between 1888 and 1891. Nearly half of the building's cost was covered by a gift from Helen H. Newberry, and in recognition the building was named Newberry Hall in honor of her husband. The landmark Newberry Memorial Organ was constructed in his honor at Yale University, where his son Truman graduated in 1885.

Family life
Newberry was the nephew of Walter Loomis Newberry and Oliver Newberry.

Newberry was married in 1855 to Harriet N. Robinson. She died the following year, 10 days after giving birth to their son Harrie R. Newberry. On October 6, 1859, he married Helen P. Handy, the daughter of Truman P. Handy, a well-known financier and banker in Cleveland. They had three children, Truman Handy Newberry, John S. Newberry and Helen H. Newberry. His daughter was married to Henry Bourne Joy, President of the Packard Motor Car Company.

title: John Stoughton Newberry


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Scoubidou

Scoubidou (Craftlace, scoobies, lanyard, or gimp) is material used in knotting craft. It originated in France, where it became a fad in the late 1950s and has remained popular. It is named after the 1958 song of the same name by the French singer Sacha Distel.

Scoubidou returned to fashion in various countries, including United Kingdom countries, in 2004 and 2005. It uses commercially supplied plastic strips or tubes.

Thread
The most common kind of thread used for the craft is flat and comes in many colors, sometimes called "lanyard" or "gimp thread," often depending on region. Another kind of scoubidou thread is supple, round, and hollow plasticized PVC tubes usually about 80 centimetres in length. They are sold in various colors, sizes, and types, and are used to make items by binding them together with knots. On account of their elasticity and hollow cross-section — which enables them to collapse and deform when pulled — they form tight and stable knots. Key chains, friendship bands and other trinkets are most commonly woven, although more complicated shapes and figures can also be created.

Most of the knots used in scoubidou were already used in bast fibre, while the creations possible with scoubidou are similar to traditional corn dollies and macrame.

Square stitch
Also known as a box stitch, the square stitch is the most common knot used in making keychains. It uses two strands of gimp. The square stitch is made by taking the end and crossing opposite ends, then taking one of the other ends and going over the first string and going under the second string. To finish, the last end is woven over the first strand and under the second strand.

More complex stitches can be made by using more strands and incorporating them adjacent to one another while sharing the same cross strand. Thus, one can have double, triple, quadruple and more, with the number of boxes being n-1, with n being the number of strands used (because one of the strands is used as the cross stitch). An endless variety of stitching can be made in this way, incorporating multiple rows, adding rows in the middle of the stitch, forming windows, switching to barrel, etc. Strands can also be added in perpendicular formation.

Barrel knot
By crossing the stitch, box can be made into a helical arrangement, often referred to as barrel or spiral, and the formed stitching becomes cylindrical as single barrel, but can take on quite interesting patterns when the stitch is a larger one, such as double, triple, or quadruple barrel.

Other numbers of strands
The square stitch uses four strands (resulting from the two ends of each of two scoubidous). Other numbers of strands may be used for the simple woven scoubidou chain, although with more than six the structure becomes difficult to support. Using even numbers of strands enables one end of the construction to be neatly terminated in the middle of a strand (as in the example of the square stitch).

As with the square stitch, each layer may be constructed either with the same direction of weave (leading to a chiral spiral structure) or as a mirror image of the previous layer (leading to a more angular appearance).

Double spiral
The double spiral, or twist, is the same concept as the spiral knot however the number of strings is doubled.

Cobra twist
The cobra stitch (or snake) involves tying two strands around two other strands back and forth. A super cobra (or king cobra) is created when the strands are tied around the cobra itself, making it wider and larger.

The Chinese staircase
One strand is tied around one or more other strands. The more strands that are used in the middle the fatter the Chinese staircase is. This is made with different colour strings.

The butterfly stitch
One loop strand is put through another and the latter loop pulled. The loops are then twisted together to resemble a butterfly.

Large stitches
Many scoubidou stitches which are commonly done with small numbers of strands can be generalized to use any number of strands. The Super-16 is a large scoubidou consisting of sixteen strands woven together. The Super-16 can be compared to the Square stitch but on a much larger scale.

Making objects
Creations such as dragons, Eiffel towers, bridges, and birds can be made by putting wires inside the stitch to keep it stable, and to enable bending the stitch and keeping it bent.

title: Scoubidou


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The Ground Beneath Her Feet

The Ground Beneath Her Feet is Salman Rushdie's sixth novel. Published in 1999, it is a variation on the Orpheus/Eurydice myth, with rock music replacing Orpheus's lyre. The myth works as a red thread from which the author sometimes strays, but to which he attaches an endless series of references.

The book, while at its core detailing the love of two men, Ormus Cama and Umeed "Rai" Merchant (the narrator of the story), for the same woman, Vina Apsara, provides a background and alternate history to the entire 1950s–1990s period of the growth of rock music. Defined by Toni Morrison as "a global novel", the book sets itself in the wide frame of Western and post-colonial culture, through the multilingualism of its characters, the mixture of East and West and the great number of references that span from Greek mythology, European philosophy and contemporaries such as Milan Kundera and the stars of rock'n roll.

The title is taken from a song in the novel, composed by Ormus Cama after Vina's death. The lyrics to the song, with minor changes, were adapted and recorded by U2. The song was used in the 2000 film The Million Dollar Hotel, and the promotional music video featured Rushdie in a cameo appearance. Rushdie re-introduces characters from his previous novels, including Homi Catrack and William Methwold from Midnight's Children (1981), S.S. Sisodia from The Satanic Verses (1988), and Aurora Zogoiby from The Moor's Last Sigh (1995), as well as settings such as Warden Road and Everest Villas.

The novel is set in a parallel universe, as revealed in the second half of the book. Thus, there are several historic events that are altered in the setting of the novel. In the novel, American president John F. Kennedy survives the Dallas assassination but is shot alongside his brother Robert F. Kennedy later on; the Watergate scandal is represented as a novel starring a fictional president Richard Nixon. Rushdie also deliberately miscredits some classic rock songs, such as The Rolling Stones' "(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction", which he credits to John Lennon, or Roy Orbison's "Pretty Woman", which he credits to The Kinks. The character named Jesse Garon Parker represents Elvis Presley in every way, while The Who are presented under their original name The High Numbers. In his description of the contribution of Vina's voice to the duet, he compares that of Guinevere Garfunkel to Carly Simon's Bridge over Troubled Waters, where the names of the singers hint at Art Garfunkel and Paul Simon.

The novel has been turned into a major performance work combining music and film that premiered at the inaugural Manchester International Festival in England on 29 June 2007. Composed by Victoria Borisova-Ollas and featuring a film directed by Mike Figgis (Leaving Las Vegas, Internal Affairs), the tale of two star-crossed lovers was performed by the Hallé orchestra, conducted by its music director Mark Elder and Alan Rickman as the narrator, with Tehmina Sunny in the role of Vina.

title: The Ground Beneath Her Feet


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Talk:History of the Russian Federation/Archive 1

Untitled section
Post-Communist Russia is a very contentious topic, especially among economists, sociologists, and political scientists in both Russia and the West. The most heated debates center on the reform strategies, and are often argued with great personal bitterness. However, it can't seem to arouse much interest on Wikipedia; it seems that most are just interested in rehashing the atrocities on the Stalin era.

I hope that this statement will help arouse that interest. I suggest that some read the article (just note, however, that my proofreading is nowhere near finished!). Moreover, they should take a look at the very though provoking links that I've added, which cover almost every spectrum of the debate. 172

I suggest to move the page to a more accurate title, kind of "History of post-Soviet Russia". ("communist" is kind of slangish here IMO) Mikkalai 17:37, 18 Feb 2004 (UTC)

The article is not consistent with other acticles on the similar topics. The title is incorretct. Drbug 10:58, 9 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * A claim without reason is not a legitimate claim. Be more specific. --Jiang 11:00, 9 Jun 2004 (UTC)

I don't know about consistency, but the title was not very good. I moved the article to History of post-Soviet Russia. The reason is that post-Soviet is traditionally used in regards to the xUSSR, post-comminism more rarely so. The second reason is that historically the dissolution of the Soviet Union is a more important event than the transition from socialism (not communism, actually) to market economy. Only people like Ronald Reagan (if he wasn't dead) would probably use post-communist, because they were preoccupied with communism. :) The third reason is that post-Soviet is a wider term, covering not only the economy/politics, but the geopolitics - the emergence of the new state - as well. Paranoid 06:41, 28 Jun 2004 (UTC)
 * "Postcommunism" gets thrown around a lot in academic jargon in Western political science too. At any rate, I'm glad that this title has finally been changed. 172 06:45, 28 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Questions
"The question of how well Russia's fragile democratic and federal institutions will fare in the meantime is in doubt, with recent signs of the presidency under Yeltsin's successor, Vladimir Putin, increasing its already tight control over parliament, regional officeholders, all mass media, courts, and civil society."

-- Why this paragraph in this article? How this question is relevant to the history? If author wants make the point then it is better create another topic like "Democracy in Russia".

Questions
Paranoid, Mikkalai, and anyone else following this page:

I removed these two sections. I think that these sections are now redundant, given the sections that have been added recently. If I'm wrong, please go ahead and revert my changes. 172 05:40, 1 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Also, does footnote #4 belong somewhere in the text, as opposed to where it is right now in the footnotes? 172 05:43, 1 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * A third question, in what category does this article belong? Russian history? Is there a category for post-Soviet history? 172 05:59, 1 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Oh my, maybe this isn't my best day-- I have yet another question. What's the proper format for the pictures? I sure as hell don't know. 172 06:01, 1 Jul 2004 (UTC)


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Fresca

Fresca is a grapefruit-flavored citrus soft drink created by The Coca-Cola Company. Borrowing the word Fresca (meaning "fresh") from Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese, it was introduced in the United States in 1966. Originally a bottled sugar-free diet soda, sugar sweetened versions were introduced in some markets.

Currently, Fresca has been rebranded as "Fresca Sparkling Soda Water", reformulated in four flavors – Grapefruit Citrus, Black Cherry Citrus, Peach Citrus, and Blackberry Citrus – and described as "The original no sugar, no calorie sparkling beverage". In the US, Fresca is currently sold in plastic bottles and aluminum cans.

Trademarks
According to the United States Patent and Trademark Office, "Fresca" was first trademarked by The Coca-Cola Company in July 1962 as a trade name for "frozen concentrated orange juice" and "frozen concentrated tangerine juice". The company also applied for a trademark for "Fresca" in 1962 as a "Non-alcoholic Maltless Soft Drinks and the Syrups for Preparing Soft Drinks". In 1969, the company applied for a trademark for "Fresca" as a trade name for "soft drinks and syrups and concentrates for making same".

Fresca as a soft drink
The Coca-Cola Company described the original Fresca soft drink formula as "a citrus-based, sugar free product - a soft drink, a low-calorie beverage, a mixer, all in one" and said the Fresca name was picked because the word is "short, memorable and distinctive". Fresca was the second artificially sweetened, low-calorie product launched by The Coca-Cola Company. Coca-Cola's Tab, an artificially sweetened, low-calorie cola made its debut in 1963.

Fresca competes primarily against Keurig Dr Pepper's Squirt.

Test marketing
Coca-Cola began limited test marketing of Fresca in 1964. 1965 saw expanded test marketing in Providence, Rhode Island and Seattle-Tacoma, Washington. It was also advertised for sale in Michigan and Ohio in late 1965.

Introduction
Fresca was introduced across the United States and in international markets in 1966.

Since its introduction, Fresca has been marketed in the United States as a sugar-free, citrus (lime and grapefruit) flavored diet soft drink. In 1966 then Coca-Cola Company president J. Paul Austin announced the company's profits had doubled since 1959 and said "Other developments, notably the introduction of Fresca, now underway, promise further advancement in the refreshment industry".

Multiple references in contemporary newspapers and Coca-Cola corporate websites refer to a wide 1966 US and international rollout of the Fresca soft drink brand.

In 1967 Larrie L. Isenring, general manager of the Coca-Cola Bottling Company of Madison (Wisconsin) said the "newly introduced Fresca and pre-brewed coffee were the company's fastest growing products".

Sales of Fresca quickly exploded. By March 1967, Merrill Lynch, Pierce, Fenner & Smith Inc. forecast increasing profits for Coca-Cola, saying "we believe Fresca... may be the nation's number three soft drink by the end of the year".

In 1968, it was introduced into the Australian market under the name Tresca, where it was solidly marketed as a diet drink.

By 1969, Fresca had the highest market share of all artificially sweetened soft drinks in America.

Original bottle design
Fresca was originally sold in 10 ounce bottles designed by the industrial design firm Hodgman-Bourke of New York, New York. The green glass bottle featured a groove under the logo panel designed to catch condensation from the top half of the bottle. Dimples on the bottle's lower half were meant to represent bubbles from the soda's carbonation.

"Blizzard of Flavor"
F. William Free, creative director of the Marschalk Company advertising agency, created the initial marketing campaign for Fresca, branding the soda "the 'Blizzard of Flavor'. Free had earlier orchestrated the introduction of Sprite and Tab for Coca-Cola.

The agency's unifying theme for the brand's marketing centered around Fresca having a "blizzard" of "frosty taste". The soda was said to be "cool, crisp, frosty and refreshing". A 1966 newspaper ad headline read "Here. The frosty taste of Fresca. It's a blizzard". The ad copy used 25 adjectives to describe Fresca's "blizzard taste".

National newspaper introduction advertising
The "Blizzard" campaign included a major market, full color pre-print newspaper advertising program reported to have cost "over a million dollars" which launched in the spring of 1967. The campaign consisted of three successive themes. The first was "Blizzard Kickoff", aimed at supporting the local introduction of Fresca by regional bottlers, the second was "Fresca and Sherbet" which explained how to use Fresca and other food ingredients for snacks and drinks. The third was named "Blizzard Girls" which featured "The Fresca Girls", models dressed in fur-trimmed parkas with hoods, photographed drinking Fresca in falling snow while riding a zebra, a miniature car, a Vespa scooter and walking a Saint Bernard. The campaign achieved some of the highest levels of consumer awareness for any consumer product at that time.

Musical theme song
The marketing campaign included a theme song "The Blizzard Song", written by Gary McFarland which was recorded by Mitch Miller and Trini Lopez. Both versions were used in TV ads for Fresca and were also issued as a four-song 45 rpm record.

The Miller record "Mitch Miller – Singin' Up A Blizzard", featured a sleeve printed with the slogan "Hey gang, sing up a blizzard with us! Mitch". The reverse of the sleeve featured a headline "Have a Singing, Swing Blizzard of a Party With Fresca" and included recipes of food and mixed drinks that used Fresca as an ingredient. The Miller record was used in a promotion campaign which encouraged consumers to save Fresca bottle caps and redeem them for a copy of the record.

The Lopez record "Trini Lopez – Sings His Greatest Hits" featured three songs from Lopez' repertoire as well as his version of McFarland's "The Blizzard Song". This record was issued with a printed sleeve with an ad on the back that said "The frosty taste of Fresca. It's a blizzard!" The sleeve had a flap with a die-cut hole and was hung from a bottle in six and eight-pack bottle cartons of Fresca. The record was included at no charge.

New York City marketing launch and blizzard
F. William Free orchestrated an elaborate formal marketing debut on February 7, 1967, held at the Four Seasons Restaurant in New York city's Seagram's building. The fountain in the middle of the restaurant was frozen, and six "Fresca bottles", women who wore replicas of the top half of Fresca bottles covering their head to their waists skated and danced through the night while the Mitch Miller Orchestra entertained guests with the Fresca "Blizzard Theme" and other hits.

The "Blizzard" campaign took advantage of an incredible, unplanned marketing opportunity. The day after the Four Seasons premiere, New York City received a foot of snow. Free took advantage of the snow storm and created memorable marketing for the new brand. Free was photographed holding a bottle of Fresca in the middle of the snow storm. His photograph appeared in full-page Fresca New York newspaper ads the next day with the headline "New York – We're Sorry".

Notable Fresca fans
U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson was known to greatly enjoy Fresca, which was introduced late in his term. Most days Johnson would push his "Fresca button" to order a bottle of Fresca, often accompanied by his favorite chicken fried steak and mashed potatoes.

Bravo network television host Andy Cohen often drinks a "Frequila" during his show. The cocktail is a mixture of Fresca and tequila.

David Plotz, former editor of online magazine Slate and founder and CEO of the local-news podcast network, City Cast is said to be "a hard-core addict of the citrus-flavored soft drink" Fresca.

Fresca is prominently featured in the superhero television series The Boys, where it is the favored drink of the cultish Church of the Collective, leading to fan speculation as to its potential meaning. It was eventually revealed that the show's writers found it "hilarious" that cult members would drink Fresca, and it just became a running gag with no deeper meaning.

Formula changes
Fresca was originally marketed in the United States as a sugar-free, citrus (lime and grapefruit) flavored diet soft drink.

Fresca has undergone several major ingredient and formula changes since its introduction. Fresca was originally sweetened with cyclamates which were banned by the FDA in 1969. They were replaced with saccharin and in turn, they were replaced by NutraSweet-brand aspartame.

According to The Coca-Cola Company, in 1980 an improved Fresca formulation, supported by new packaging, brand graphics and advertising, reached full national availability. The brand refresh was supported by "the most extensive sampling program ever conducted for a soft drink product". Around the time of the 2005 Fresca redesign, acesulfame potassium was added as a secondary sweetener.

Coca-Cola marketed a sugar sweetened version of Fresca in Latin America. In 1997, The Coca-Cola Company responded to requests for this product from immigrant communities by launching it throughout the US as Citra. This was a success but is instead sold as the Citrus flavor in Coca-Cola's Fanta line in areas with large Hispanic populations. In Colombia and Argentina sweetened Fresca is called Quatro and marketed using Fresca's colors and logos.

Fresca was made available in South Africa during the early 1990s with a series of colorful ads featuring British-Nigerian actor Hakeem Kae-Kazim with the slogan "Nothing tastes like Fresca". The soft drink developed a cult following but sales were discontinued.

Packaging changes
Fresca packaging has been redesigned several times. In 2005, Coca-Cola gave Fresca a more contemporary look, Fresca's first packaging makeover since 1995. During this redesign, two new flavors were introduced (Sparkling Peach Citrus and Sparkling Black Cherry Citrus) and the original grapefruit flavor was renamed Sparkling Citrus. Later, "Sparkling" was dropped and the original flavor was renamed Original Citrus. Several additional flavors were added to the line-up after 2005, but those flavors were dropped.

Coca-Cola announced revamped packaging again in 2018 along with a new marketing campaign targeted towards millennials – the first Fresca advertising since 2008 – with the stated intention of "reeling in a new generation of drinkers unfamiliar with the brand". The marketing described it as a "sparkling flavored soda", meant to compete with other sparkling beverage products such as La Croix and Izze.

Currently, Fresca has been rebranded as "Fresca Sparkling Soda Water", reformulated in four flavors, Grapefruit Citrus, Black Cherry Citrus, Peach Citrus and Blackberry Citrus and described as "The original no sugar, no calorie sparkling beverage". In the US, Fresca is currently sold in plastic bottles and aluminum cans.

Fresca Original Grapefruit Citrus
United States and Canada:
 * Carbonated water
 * Citric acid
 * Concentrated grapefruit juice
 * Potassium citrate
 * Aspartame
 * Potassium sorbate
 * Acacia gum
 * Acesulfame potassium
 * Natural flavors
 * Glycerol ester of wood rosin
 * Potassium benzoate
 * Calcium Disodium EDTA
 * Carob bean gum

title: Fresca


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Philip of Burgundy

Philip of Burgundy may refer to:

 * Philip of Burgundy, Count of Auvergne (1323–1346), count-consort of Auvergne and Boulogne, son of Eudes IV, Duke of Burgundy and Princess Jeanne of France
 * Philip I, Duke of Burgundy (1346–1361), also called Philip of Rouvres
 * Philip II, Duke of Burgundy, the Bold, (1342–1404), son of King John II of France
 * Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, (1396–1467), son of John the Fearless
 * Philip I of Castile (1478–1506), who was also known as Philip IV, Duke of Burgundy
 * Philip of Burgundy (bishop) (1464–1524), illegitimate son of Philip the Good, bishop of Utrecht

title: Philip of Burgundy


text:
Peristome

Peristome (from the Greek peri, meaning 'around' or 'about', and stoma, 'mouth') is an anatomical feature that surrounds an opening to an organ or structure. Some plants, fungi, and shelled gastropods have peristomes.

In mosses
In mosses, the peristome is a specialized structure in the sporangium that allows for gradual spore discharge, instead of releasing them all at once.

Most mosses produce a capsule with a lid (the operculum) which falls off when the spores inside are mature and thus ready to be dispersed. The opening thus revealed is called the stoma (meaning "mouth") and is surrounded by one or two peristomes. Each peristome is a ring of triangular "teeth" formed from the remnants of dead cells with thickened cell walls. There are usually 16 such teeth in a single peristome, separate from each other and able to both fold in to cover the stoma as well as fold back to open the stoma. This articulation of the teeth is termed arthrodontous and is found in the moss subclass Bryopsida. In other groups of mosses, the capsule is either nematodontous with an attached operculum (as in the Polytrichopsida), or else splits open without operculum or teeth.

There are two subtypes of arthrodontous peristome.
 * 1) The first is termed haplolepidous and consists of a single circle of 16 peristome teeth.
 * 2) The second type is the diplolepidous peristome found in subclass Bryidae.  In this type, there are two rings of peristome teeth—an inner endostome (short for endoperistome) and an exostome.  The endostome is a more delicate membrane, and its teeth are aligned between the teeth of the exostome.  There are a few mosses in the Bryopsida that have no peristome in their capsules.  These mosses still undergo the same cell division patterns in capsule development, but the teeth do not fully develop.

In pitcher plants
In pitcher plants, the peristome is a reflexed ring (or partial ring) of tissue that surrounds the entrance to the digestive tube in these plants. It often (for example in Cephalotus and Nepenthes) possesses sharp, overhanging 'teeth' which aid in prey retention. It is often studded with nectar secreting glands, hence its popular name, nectar roll.

In fungi
The basidiocarps of some gasteroid fungi - such as puffballs and earthstars - release spores through an apical opening that is termed a peristome and is variously delimited, its features often being diagnostic when distinguishing closely related species.

In shelled gastropods

The peristome is the margin of the aperture of a gastropod shell. It is the edge of the lip of the shell. This part is sometimes reflected (turned back) or thickened once the snail reaches adult size, and these qualities of the peristome can be diagnostic features of the shell which may aid in identification of the species.

In other invertebrates
The peristome is any of the structures or sets of parts that surround the mouth or invertebrates such as echinoderms or earthworms.

title: Peristome