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Chiasso

Chiasso (Ciass ) is a municipality in the district of Mendrisio in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland.

As the southernmost of Switzerland's municipalities, Chiasso is on the border with Italy, in front of Ponte Chiasso (a frazione of Como, Italy). The municipality of Chiasso includes the villages of Boffalora, Pedrinate and Seseglio.

In 2007, the three mayors of Chiasso, Vacallo and Morbio Inferiore decided to unite into one commune. The new united commune with a population of ~15,300 people over a territory of 9.2 km2, was rejected by the population in November 2007.

History
Chiasso is first mentioned in 1140 as Claso.

Chiasso (and Boffalora)

Historically, Chiasso and Boffalora were two distinct agricultural villages. Due to the nearby Italian border and customs office, and later as part of an access route to the St. Gotthard's Tunnel, the two villages merged and grew.

Chiasso's history and development were strongly influenced by its unique location. In its early history, a castle was built in Chiasso as part of the extended fortifications of the city of Como. It was a suburb of Como, until 1416 when it was incorporated into the Pieve of Balerna and given to the Rusca family to manage. The houses in the village centre were owned by the Albrici family and were granted imperial privileges. Chiasso had become an independent community sometime before 1552. In the contemporary documents, it is mentioned as Clasio tabernarum (Chiasso of taverns) referring to its function as a transit point.

Boffalora is mentioned in 1536 as a municipality and kept its independence until the second half of the 17th century. They became a single parish in either 1657 or 1677.

Chiasso's church belonged to the Pieve of Zezio (in Como), from which it withdrew in the 16th century. In 1888, Boffalora separated from the parish. It became the seat of an archpriest in 1928. The Church of San Vitale, first mentioned in 1227, was rebuilt in 1934.

In the 15th century, Chiasso was known for its horse market. But the market ended after the invasion of the Swiss Confederation and the march through Chiasso in the War of the League of Cambrai in 1510. In the late 16th century, Chiasso had a smaller population than other municipalities of the Mendrisiotto valley. The village survived through its role as a border town (providing warehouses and inns) along with income from agriculture and paper mills. In the 19th century, tobacco and silk factories moved into the town.

The construction of the railway along with income from customs induced an economic and demographic recovery in Chiasso. In 1874 the railway line Lugano-Chiasso opened, followed in 1876 by one running to Como.

In 1910, the Mendrisio electric tramway opened, linking a northern terminus in Riva San Vitale with Capolago, Mendrisio, Balerna and Chiasso. The section of the line in Chiasso closed in 1950 and was replaced by a bus service.

Today, a large part of the town is devoted to Chiasso's international railway station and related customs (though some of the border-control responsibilities have been moved to Como, in Italy). There is also a sizeable customs area for traffic passing by road and motorway (both commercial and non-commercial vehicles).

Chiasso offers also a lot of customs-related services. A considerable source of revenue for the town is Italians crossing the border to buy certain goods more cheaply in Switzerland, particularly cigarettes and petrol. It is also a banking centre for Italian clients wishing to keep money within the Swiss banking system.

Starting in 1950, Chiasso became an important financial centre and the economic centre of the Mendrisio region; hence rapid population growth. Since the 1980s, however, population and jobs, especially in the service sector, have shifted into neighbouring communities.

The pedestrian zone
From 2001 to 2005 a new pedestrian zone was created, from customs to the municipality building. An enlargement of this zone has been put on the agenda by the local administration, but a referendum on this issue is scheduled on 24 September 2006.

Pedrinate
Pedrinate was first mentioned in 1291 as Pedrenate, but Roman ruins near the village church indicate a much longer history. It was mentioned in 1335 as part of the village cooperative of Seseglio. The village church of S. Stefano is first mentioned in 1545 and was part of the Balerna parish until the 17th century.

Pedrinate municipality was aggregated in the Chiasso municipality in 1975, along with Seseglio. It is located above Chiasso, on the Penz hill. Pedrinate is the most southern village in Switzerland.

Around Pedrinate there are some vineyards.

Seseglio
Seseglio is on the northern boundary of Chiasso municipality.

Geography
Chiasso has an area,, of 5.33 km2. Of this area, 1.63 km2 or 30.6% is used for agricultural purposes, while 2.65 km2 or 49.7% is forested. Of the rest of the land, 1.94 km2 or 36.4% is settled (buildings or roads), 0.02 km2 or 0.4% is either rivers or lakes and 0.04 km2 or 0.8% is unproductive land.

Of the built-up area, industrial buildings made up 1.7% of the total area while housing and buildings made up 18.4% and transportation infrastructure made up 14.4%. while parks, green belts and sports fields made up 1.7%. Of the forested land, 47.5% of the total land area is heavily forested and 2.3% is covered with orchards or small clusters of trees. Of the agricultural land, 7.9% is used for growing crops, 4.3% is used for orchards or vine crops, and 18.4% is used for alpine pastures. All the water in the municipality is flowing water.

The municipality is in the Mendrisio district, on the Italian border. Since Pedrinate merged into Chiasso in 1976, it has been the most southerly municipality in Switzerland.

Coat of arms
The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is Argent lion passant holding a letter C gules standing on a carriage entrance azure. The carriage entrance refers to Chiasso location of the ancient road coming from Como and giving access to several places from Chiasso. "

Demographics
Chiasso has a population of. , 36.4% of the population are resident foreign nationals. In 1997–2007 the population changed at a rate of -2.8%.

Most of the people speak Italian (91.3%); German is second most common (2.5%) and Albanian is third (1.2%). Of the Swiss national languages, 196 speak German, 71 people speak French, 7,048 people speak Italian, and 4 people speak Romansh. The remainder (401 people) speak another language.

, the gender distribution of the population was 47.0% male and 53.0% female. The population was made up of 2,226 Swiss men (28.7% of the population), and 1,420 (18.3%) non-Swiss men. There were 2,774 Swiss women (35.7%), and 1,343 (17.3%) non-Swiss women.

In there were 42 live births to Swiss citizens and 26 births to non-Swiss citizens, and in the same time span, there were 63 deaths of Swiss citizens and 27 non-Swiss citizen deaths. Ignoring immigration and emigration, the population of Swiss citizens decreased by 21 while the foreign population decreased by 1. There was 1 Swiss man who immigrated back to Switzerland and 3 Swiss women who emigrated from Switzerland. At the same time, there were 104 non-Swiss men and 94 non-Swiss women who immigrated from another country to Switzerland. The total Swiss population change in 2008 (from all sources, including moves across municipal borders) was a decrease of 47 and the non-Swiss population change was an increase of 108 people. This represents a population growth rate of 0.8%.

The age distribution,, in Chiasso is; 567 children or 7.3% of the population are between 0 and 9 years old and 586 teenagers or 7.5% are between 10 and 19. Of the adult population, 790 people or 10.2% of the population are 20–29 years old. 1,118 people or 14.4% are between 30 and 39, 1,215 people or 15.7% are between 40 and 49, and 1,008 people or 13.0% are between 50 and 59. The senior population is 996 people or 12.8% of the population are 60–69 years old, 841 people or 10.8% are 70–79, there are 642 people or 8.3% who are over 80.

, there were 3,774 private households in the municipality and an average of 2. persons per household. there were 313 single-family homes (or 33.3% of the total) of a total of 940 inhabited buildings. There were 336 multi-family buildings (35.7%), along with 193 multi-purpose buildings that were mostly used for housing (20.5%) and 98 other use buildings (commercial or industrial) that also had some housing (10.4%). Of the single-family homes, 11 were built before 1919, while 38 were built between 1990 and 2000. The greatest number of single-family homes (111) were built between 1919 and 1945.

there were 4,498 apartments in the municipality. The most common apartment size was 3 rooms of which there were 1,692. There were 316 single-room apartments and 493 apartments with five or more rooms. Of these apartments, a total of 3,763 apartments (83.7% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 181 apartments (4.0%) were seasonally occupied and 554 apartments (12.3%) were empty. The vacancy rate for the municipality,, was 3.5%. , the construction rate of new housing units was 2.4 new units per 1000 residents.

the average price to rent an average apartment in Chiasso was 873.89 Swiss francs (CHF) per month (US$700, £390, €560 approx. exchange rate from 2003). The average rate for a one-room apartment was 491.07 CHF (US$390, £220, €310), a two-room apartment was about 646.96 CHF (US$520, £290, €410), a three-room apartment was about 806.94 CHF (US$650, £360, €520) and a six or more room apartment cost an average of 1544.67 CHF (US$1240, £700, €990). The average apartment price in Chiasso was 78.3% of the national average of 1116 CHF.

The historical population is given in this chart:

Notable people

 * Antonio Soldini (1854 in Chiasso – 1933), a Swiss-Italian sculptor
 * Serge Brignoni (1903 in Chiasso – 2002), a Swiss avant-garde painter and sculptor
 * Marco Grassi (born 1968 in Chiasso), a retired Swiss footballer, played 309 league games and 31 for the Switzerland national team

Sights
The entire village of Chiasso is designated as part of the Inventory of Swiss Heritage Sites.

Politics
In the 2007 federal election the most popular party was the FDP which got 29.77% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the SP (20.42%), the Ticino League (18.12%) and the CVP (16.54%). In the federal election, a total of 2,050 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 45.6%.

In the Gran Consiglio election, there were a total of 4,447 registered voters in Chiasso, of which 2,623 or 59.0% voted. 41 blank ballots and 14 null ballots were cast, leaving 2,568 valid ballots in the election. The most popular party was the PLRT which received 698 or 27.2% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were; the PS (with 486 or 18.9%), the SSI (with 456 or 17.8%) and the LEGA (with 406 or 15.8%).

In the Consiglio di Stato election, 30 blank ballots and 21 null ballots were cast, leaving 2,572 valid ballots. The most popular party was the PLRT which received 668 or 26.0% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the PS (with 531 or 20.6%), the LEGA (with 530 or 20.6%) and the SSI (with 417 or 16.2%).

Economy
, Chiasso had an unemployment rate of 7.01%. , there were 42 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 19 businesses involved in this sector. 880 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 69 businesses in this sector. 5,549 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 779 businesses in this sector. There were 3,410 residents of the municipality who were employed in some capacity, of which females made up 42.3% of the workforce.

the total number of full-time equivalent jobs was 6,265. The number of jobs in the primary sector was 15, all of which were in agriculture. The number of jobs in the secondary sector was 931, of which 402 (43.2%) were in manufacturing and 473 (50.8%) were in construction. The number of jobs in the tertiary sector was 5,319. In the tertiary sector; 810 or 15.2% were in wholesale or retail sales or the repair of motor vehicles, 1,550 or 29.1% were in the movement and storage of goods, 208 or 3.9% were in a hotel or restaurant, 84 or 1.6% were in the information industry, 706 or 13.3% were the insurance or financial industry, 684 or 12.9% were technical professionals or scientists, 132 or 2.5% were in education and 365 or 6.9% were in health care.

, there were 6,532 workers who commuted into the municipality and 1,667 workers who commuted away. The municipality is a net importer of workers, with ~3.9 workers entering the municipality for everyone leaving. About 21.4% of the workforce coming into Chiasso are coming from outside Switzerland, while 4.0% of the locals commute out of Switzerland for work. Of the working population, 9.9% used public transportation to get to work, and 47.8% used a private car.

, there were 4 hotels in Chiasso with a total of 128 rooms and 281 beds.

Companies based in Chiasso include Lastminute.com Group.

Traffic
The fortune of Chiasso is mostly linked to its location on the A2; the main route to St. Gotthard's Tunnel, which connects the southern parts of the Alps and Italy with the northern part of Switzerland and Germany.

The A2 Swiss motorway begins at Chiasso. Long traffic queues often occur on the motorway around the border where vehicles are being checked for contraband.

Religion
From the, 6,235 or 80.8% were Roman Catholic, while 230 or 3.0% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. There are 754 individuals (or about 9.77% of the population) who belong to another church (not listed on the census), and 501 individuals (or about 6.49% of the population) did not answer the question.

Education
The entire Swiss population is generally well educated. In Chiasso about 58.1% of the population (between age 25–64) have completed either non-mandatory upper secondary education or additional higher education (either University or a Fachhochschule).

In Chiasso there were a total of 999 students. The Ticino education system provides up to three years of non-mandatory kindergarten and in Chiasso there were 173 children in kindergarten. The primary school program lasts for five years and includes both a standard school and a special school. In the municipality, 300 students attended the standard primary schools and 20 students attended the special school. In the lower secondary school system, students either attend a two-year middle school followed by a two-year pre-apprenticeship or they attend a four-year program to prepare for higher education. There were 249 students in the two-year middle school and 10 in their pre-apprenticeship, while 78 students were in the four-year advanced program.

The upper secondary school includes several options, but at the end of the upper secondary program, a student will be prepared to enter a trade or to continue on to a university or college. In Ticino, vocational students may either attend school while working on their internship or apprenticeship (which takes three or four years) or may attend school followed by an internship or apprenticeship (which takes one year as a full-time student or one and a half to two years as a part-time student). There were 57 vocational students who were attending school full-time and 98 who attend part-time.

The professional program lasts three years and prepares a student for a job in engineering, nursing, computer science, business, tourism and similar fields. There were 14 students in the professional program.

, there were 265 students in Chiasso who came from another municipality, while 318 residents attended schools outside the municipality.

Sport

 * Football: FC Chiasso
 * Stadio comunale
 * Ice hockey: HC Chiasso
 * Road bicycle racing: Gran Premio di Chiasso (UCI Europe Tour)

title: Chiasso


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Clip art

Clip art (also clipart, clip-art) is a type of graphic art. Pieces are pre-made images used to illustrate any medium. Today, clip art is used extensively and comes in many forms, both electronic and printed. However, most clip art today is created, distributed, and used in a digital form. Since its inception, clip art has evolved to include a wide variety of content, file formats, illustration styles, and licensing restrictions. It is generally composed exclusively of illustrations (created by hand or by computer software), and does not include stock photography.

History
The term "clipart" originated from the practice of physically cutting images from pre-existing printed works for use in other publishing projects. Originally called "printer's cuts," "stock cuts" or "electrotype cuts," before the advent of computers in desktop publishing, clip art was used through a process called paste up. Many clip art images of this era qualified as line art. In this process, the clip art images are cut out by hand from booklets or sheets sold by stock art studios or print companies (such as Dynamic Graphics or Volk Clip Art) and then attached via adhesives to a board representing a scale size of the finished, printed work. After the addition of text and art created through phototypesetting or dry-transfer lettering, the finished, camera-ready pages (called mechanicals) were sent to print.

Since the 1990s, nearly all publishers have replaced the paste up process with desktop publishing. After the introduction of mass-produced personal computers such as the IBM PC in 1981 and the Apple Macintosh in 1984, the widespread use of clip art by consumers became possible through the invention of desktop publishing. For the IBM PC, the first library of professionally drawn clip art was provided with VCN ExecuVision, introduced in 1983. These images were used in business presentations, as well as for other types of presentations. It was the Apple Computer, with its GUI which provided desktop publishing with the tools required to make it a reality for consumers. The LaserWriter laser printer (introduced in late 1985), as well as software maker Aldus PageMaker in 1985, helped to make professional quality desktop publishing a reality, with consumer desktop computers. After 1986, desktop publishing generated a widespread need for pre-made, electronic images as consumers began to produce newsletters and brochures using their own computers. Electronic clip art emerged to fill the need. Early electronic clip art was simple line art or bitmap images due to the lack of sophisticated electronic illustration tools. With the introduction of the Apple Macintosh program MacPaint, consumers were provided the ability to edit and use bit-mapped clip art for the first time. One of the first successful electronic clip art pioneers was T/Maker Company, a Mountain View, California, company, which had its early roots with an alternative word processor WriteNow, commissioned for the Macintosh by Steve Jobs. Beginning in 1984, T/Maker took advantage of the capability of the Macintosh to provide bit-mapped graphics in black and white; by publishing small, retail collections of these images under the brand name "ClickArt". The first version of "ClickArt" was a mixed collection of images designed for personal use. The illustrators who created the first "serious" clip art for business/organizational (professional) use were Mike Mathis, Joan Shogren, and Dennis Fregger; published by T/Maker in 1984 as "ClickArt Publications".

In 1986, the first vector-based clip art disc was released by Composite, a small desktop publishing company based in Eureka, California. The black-and-white art was painstakingly created by Rick Siegfried with MacDraw, sometimes using hundreds of simple objects combined to create complex images. It was released on a single-sided floppy disc. Also in 1986, Adobe Systems introduced Adobe Illustrator for the Macintosh, allowing home computer users the first opportunity to manipulate vector art in a GUI. This made the higher-resolution vector art possible and in 1987 T/Maker published the first vector-based clip art images made with Illustrator, despite widespread unfamiliarity with the bezier curves required to edit vector art. However, graphic designers and many consumers quickly realized the enormous advantages of vector art, and T/Maker's clip art became the gold standard of the industry in the late 1980s and early 1990s. In 1994, T/Maker was sold to Deluxe Corp and then two years later to its main rival, Broderbund.

With the widespread adoption of the CD-ROM in the early 1990s, several pre-computer clip art companies such as Dover Publications also began offering electronic clip art.

The mid-1990s ushered in more innovation in the clip art industry, as well as a marketing focus on quantity over quality. Even T/Maker, whose success was built upon selling small, high-quality clip art packages of approximately 200 images, began to get interested in the volume clip art market. In March 1995, T/Maker became the exclusive publisher of over 500,000 copyright-free images which was, at the time, one of the world's largest clip art libraries. This licensing agreement was subsequently transferred to Broderbund. In 1996, Zedcor (later rebranded to ArtToday, Inc. and then Clipart.com) was the first company to offer clip art images, illustrations, and photos for download as part of an online subscription. Also during this period, word processing companies, including Microsoft, began offering clip art as a built-in feature of their products. In 1996, Microsoft Word 6.0 included only 82 WMF clip art files as part of its default installation. In 2014, Microsoft offered clip art as part of over 140,000 media elements on the Microsoft Office website.

Other companies such as Nova Development and Clip Art Incorporated also pioneered the marketing of large clip art collections in the late 1990s, including Nova's "Art Explosion" series, which sold clip art in increasingly large libraries up to a million images. Between 1998 and 2001, T/Maker's clip art assets were sold each year as a result of some of the largest mergers and acquisitions in the computer software industry, including those of The Learning Company (in 1998) and Mattel (in 1999). All of T/Maker's clip art is currently marketed through the Broderbund division of the Irish company Riverdeep.

In the early 2000s, the World Wide Web continued to gain popularity as a retail software distribution channel, and several other companies started to license clip art through online, searchable libraries, including iCLIPART.com (part of Vital Imagery Ltd.), WeddingClipart.com (part of Letters and Arts Incorporated), and GraphicsFactory.com (part of Clip Art Incorporated). Because of the Web, clip art is now not only sold through retail channels as packaged bundles of images, but also as individual images and subscriptions to entire libraries (which allow you to download an unlimited number of images for the duration of the subscription). In the mid-2000s, the clip art market is segmented in several different ways, including the data type, the art style, the delivery medium, and the marketing method.

On December 1, 2014, Microsoft officially ended its support for the online Clip Art library in Microsoft Office products. These programs now guide users to the Bing image search. Clip art is divided into two different data types represented by many different file formats: bitmap and vector art. Clip art vendors may provide images of just one type or both. The delivery medium of a clip art product varies from different types of traditionally boxed retail packages to online download sites. Clip art is sold via both traditional and web-based retail channels (as with Nova Development products), as well as via online, searchable libraries (as with Clipart.com). Clip art vendors typically market clip art by focusing either on quantity or vertical market specialty. The marketing method often goes hand in hand with the art style of the clip art sold. To compete largely on quantity, some clip art vendors must produce or license new and old clip art collections in volume. Clip art marketed in this way is often less expensive but simpler in structure and detail, as is typified by cartoons, line art, and symbols. Clip art which is sold according to smaller, specialized subject genres tends to be more complex, modern, detailed, and expensive.

File formats

Electronic clip art is available in several different file formats. It is important for clip art users to understand the differences between file formats so that they can use an appropriate image file and get the resolution and detail results they need.

Clip art file formats are divided into 2 different types: bitmap or vector graphics. Bitmap (or "rasterized") file formats are used to describe rectangular images made up of a grid of colored or grayscale pixels. Scanned photos, for example, make use of a bitmap file format. Bitmap images are always limited in quality by their resolution, which must be fixed at the time the file is created. If the image is not rectangular, then it is saved on a default background color (usually white) defined by the smallest bounding rectangle in which the image fits. Because of their fixed resolution, printing bitmap images can easily produce grainy, jaggy, or blurry results if the resolution is not ideally suited to the printer resolution. In addition, bitmap images become grainy when they are scaled larger than their intended resolution. A few bitmap file formats (such as Apple's PICT format) support alpha channels, which allow bitmap images to have transparent backgrounds or an image selection which uses antialiasing. Most common web-based file formats such as GIF, JPEG, and PNG are bitmap file formats. The GIF File format is one of the simplest, low-resolution bitmap file formats, only supporting 256 colors per image. As a result, however, GIF files can be extremely small in file size. Other common bitmap file formats are BMP (Windows bitmap), TGA, and TIFF. Most clip art is provided in a low resolution, bitmap file format which is unsuitable for scaling, transparent backgrounds, or good-quality printed materials. However, bitmap file formats are ideal for photos, especially when combined with lossy data compression algorithms such as those available for JPEG files.

In contrast to the grid format of bitmap images, Vector graphics file formats use geometric modeling to describe an image as a series of points, lines, curves, and polygons. Because the image is described using geometric data instead of fixed pixels, the image can be scaled to any size while retaining "resolution independence", meaning that the image can be printed at the highest resolution a printer supports, resulting in a clear, crisp image. Vector file formats are usually superior in resolution and ease of editing as compared to bitmap file formats, but are not as widely supported by software and are not well-suited for storing pixel-specific data such as scanned photographs. In the early years of electronic clip art, vector illustrations were limited to simple line art representations. However, by the early 2000s, vector illustration tools could produce virtually the same illustrations as bitmap illustration tools, while still providing all of the advantages of vector file formats. The most common vector file format is Adobe's EPS (Encapsulated PostScript) file format. Microsoft has a much simpler, less sophisticated vector file format called WMF (Windows Metafile). The World Wide Web Consortium has developed a new, XML-based vector file format called SVG (Scalable Vector Graphics) and all major modern web browsers - including Mozilla Firefox, Internet Explorer 9, Google Chrome, Opera, and Safari have at least some degree of support for SVG and can render the markup directly. For those with image-editing experience or interest to work with vector file formats, vector clip art provides the most flexible, highest quality images.

Image rights
All clip art usage is governed by the terms of individual copyrights and usage rights. The copyright and usage rights of a clip art image are important to understand so that the image is used in a legal, permitted way. The three most common categories of image rights are royalty free, rights managed, and public domain.

Most commercial clip art is sold with a limited royalty free license which allows customers to use the image for most personal, educational and non-profit applications. Some royalty free clip art also includes limited commercial rights (the right to use images in for-profit products). However, royalty free image rights often vary from vendor to vendor. Some fine art, clip art is still sold on a rights managed basis. However this type of image rights have seen a steep decline in the past 20 years as royalty free licenses have become the preferred model for clip art. Public domain images continue to be one of the most popular types of clip art because the image rights are free. However, many images are erroneously described as part of the public domain are actually copyrighted, and thus illegal to use without proper permissions. The main cause for this confusion is because once a public domain image is redrawn or edited in any way, it becomes a brand new image which is copyrightable by the editor.

The United States District Court ruled in 1999 as part of Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp that exact copies of public domain images were not restricted under US copyright law, however the scope of this ruling only applies to photographs currently. It is originality,not skill, neither experience nor effort, which affects copyrightability of derivative images. In fact, the US Supreme Court in Feist v. Rural ruled that the difficulty of labor and expenses must be rejected as considerations in copyrightability. Copyright on other clipart stands in contrast to exact replica photographs of paintings. The large clip art libraries produced by Dover Publications or the University of South Florida's Clipart ETC project are based on public domain images, but because they have been scanned and edited by hand, they are now derivative works and copyrighted, subject to very specific usage policies. In order for a clip art image based on a public domain source to be truly in the public domain, the proper rights must be granted by the individual or organization which digitized and edited the original source of the image.

The popularity of the Web has facilitated widespread copying of pirated clip art which is then sold or given away as "free clip art". Virtually all images published after January 1, 1923 still have copyright protection under the laws of most countries. Images published prior to 1923 need to be carefully researched to make sure they are in the public domain. Creative Commons licenses is the forefront of the copyleft movement or a new form of free digital clipart and photo image distribution. Many websites such as Flickr and Interartcenter use Creative Commons as an alternative to the full attribution copyrights. The exception for clip art illustrations created after 1923 are those which are specifically donated to the public domain by the artist or publisher. For vector art, the open source community established Openclipart in 2004 as a clearinghouse for images which are legitimately donated to the public domain by their copyright owners. By 2014, the library contained over 50,000 vector images.

title: Clip art


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Chocolate muffin

Chocolate muffin was proposed for deletion. This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was DELETE THEN CREATE AS A REDIRECT

I suppose there may be some people who are interested in this subject matter. However, it is definitely not at the correct title, and even if it is, disambiguation is needed. A further objection is that the web site this article describes cannot - at least, not at present - be accessed and may therefore be said not to exist. Deb 18:13, 18 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * the site is: http://www.chocolatemuffin.co.uk/ Ianb 15:55, 19 Jul 2004 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like other '/delete' pages is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion or on the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.
 * delete as vanity and then create redirect to muffin. Dunc_Harris|☺ 20:39, 18 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: It's fantastically local.  They describe which towns hate them.  Not particularly regional, is it? Geogre 21:23, 18 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete as non-notable or vanity (take your pick.) A google search can't distinguish this site from the edible snack of the same name.  --Ardonik 00:06, Jul 19, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, yet another group of young people and their video camera, irrelevant. Ianb 15:55, 19 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete the moment the five days are up. Calling it "irrelevant" is almost paying it a compliment. - Lucky 6.9 18:16, 19 Jul 2004 (UTC)


text:
User talk:Svdb

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title: User talk:Svdb


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Agno, Ticino

Agno is a historic town and a municipality in the district of Lugano in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. Due to its position on Lake Lugano it is popular with tourists, and hosts summer festivals, with two hotels and several camping grounds. It is served by the Lugano-Agno airport.

The official language of Agno is Italian.

History
Agno is first mentioned in 818 as Anium. It was known by its German name Eng, though this is no longer used.

Pieve of Agno
The emergence of the Pieve or Parish of Agno is related to the spread of Christianity in late-Roman era along the Milan-Como-Riva San Vitale axis. The dedication of the church to Saint John the Baptist (San Giovanni Battista) refers to its character as a baptistery. Documents from the years 735 and 818 (deed of gift by King Louis the Pious) testify to the existence of a religious center at Agno. Originally, it was probably an Ambrosian Rite church, but in 1002-04 it came into the possession of the Bishop of Como. A collegiate chapel is first mentioned in 1192. The first known pastor is Gulielmus de Merchurolo in 1288. The extent of the parish (from Bironico to Marchirolo) is mentioned in the manuscript of Sessa from 1352.

The visitation records of Bishop Giovanni Antonio Volpe of Como (1571) give a detailed report on the properties of the parishes belonging to the Pieve and the sub-parishes. On Swiss soil it included: Agno, Aranno, Arosio, Astano, Bedigliora, Bironico, Bioggio, Bosco Luganese, Breno, Cademario, Camignolo, Caslano, Castelrotto, Curio, Ison, Magliaso, Medeglia, Mezzovico, Miglieglia, Mugena Muzzano, Neggio, Novaggio, Ponte Tresa, Pura Rivera, Robasacco, S. Abbondio (Gentilino and Montagnola), S. Maria (Iseo and Cimo), Sessa, Sigirino, S. Pietro di Gravesano, Torricella Vernate, Vezio and Vira. The Pieve also included a number of villages, which are now in Italy. These included: Arbizzo, Ardena, Cadegliano, Cremenaga, Cugliate, Fabiasco, Lavena, Marchirolo, Marzio, Viconago.

Initially it was under the authority of Como, and later the Duchy of Milan. At the beginning of the 15th Century it was part of the communitas Vallis Lugani and appointed representatives to the Council of the Bailiwick. Following the Act of Mediation of 1803, the parish lost its political meaning entirely.

Community of Agno
Because of its strategic location at the northern end of an arm of Lake Lugano and along the Varese-Ponte Tresa-Monte Ceneri road, Agno was possibly the center of a Roman Pagus. Some of the archeological finds from Roman Agno are in the local Museo plebano. As a central town, Agno became a commercial center with numerous market privileges. One of these markets, the Fair of S. Provino (second Monday in March) has survived to this day.

These holdings of the Bishop of Milan in Agno during the Middle Ages included fishing rights. These rights later went to the Bishop of Como and then to local private ownership. The fishing rights were finally removed by Swiss authorities in 1843.

The Collegiate Church of San Giovanni Battista stands on the foundations of a previous Roman building. Within the church are the relics of the patron saint, San Provino, who was the second Bishop of Como. The oldest village lay at the foot of the church, and later, the settlement extended to the hills and along the streets.

The correction of the Vedeggio river course was done in 1906, which opened up additional agricultural land in Agno. After World War II the town grew rapidly from trade and industry. The emergence of tourism as an economic factor is reflected in population growth from 1960. In 1980, the Lugano-Agno airport opened allowing scheduled flights into nearby Lugano. Its importance is continually growing both in terms of tourism in Ticino and the development of a financial center in Lugano. In 1990, there were 16,270 flights and 300,000 passengers into the airport. In 1996, the Federal Council granted additional concession, which allowed the expansion of infrastructure to accommodate 700,000 passengers annually.

Geography
Agno has an area,, of 2.49 km2. Of this area, 1.26 km2 or 50.6% is used for agricultural purposes, while 0.58 km2 or 23.3% is forested. Of the rest of the land, 1.2 km2 or 48.2% is settled (buildings or roads), 0.06 km2 or 2.4% is either rivers or lakes and 0.03 km2 or 1.2% is unproductive land.

Of the built up area, industrial buildings made up 4.4% of the total area while housing and buildings made up 25.7% and transportation infrastructure made up 11.2%. while parks, green belts and sports fields made up 6.0%. Out of the forested land, 17.3% of the total land area is heavily forested and 6.0% is covered with orchards or small clusters of trees. Of the agricultural land, 21.7% is used for growing crops, while 3.2% is used for orchards or vine crops and 25.7% is used for alpine pastures. Of the water in the municipality, 0.4% is in lakes and 2.0% is in rivers and streams. Of the unproductive areas, 1.2% is unproductive vegetation and.

The municipality is located in the Lugano district, and is the most important municipality in the Malcantone valley. It consists of the village of Agno and the settlements of Cassina, Mondonico and Serocca.

Transport
The village of Agno is served by Agno station on the Lugano–Ponte Tresa railway. Serocca station, serving the eponymous settlement, is also within the municipality. Both stations are served by regular trains, operating every 15 minutes during weekday daytime, and every half hour at other times. Agno station is also served by an Autopostale bus service to Aranno and Cademario Casa di Cura.

The terminal buildings of Lugano Airport lie within the municipality of Agno, and the airport is sometimes known as Lugano-Agno Airport. The airport is linked to Lugano by a shuttle bus that meets all flights, and is a sign-posted 10-minute walk from Agno station.

Coat of arms
The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is Per fess, in chief gules a cross argent and in base argent a fish naiant gules.

Demographics
Agno has a population of. , 30.5% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (1997–2007) the population has changed at a rate of 8.5%.

Most of the population speaks Italian (80.3%), with German being second most common (11.1%) and French being third (2.2%). Of the Swiss national languages, 406 speak German, 79 people speak French, 2,934 people speak Italian, and 6 people speak Romansh. The remainder (230 people) speak another language.

, the gender distribution of the population was 47.0% male and 53.0% female. The population was made up of 1,258 Swiss men (30.9% of the population), and 654 (16.1%) non-Swiss men. There were 1,584 Swiss women (39.0%), and 570 (14.0%) non-Swiss women.

In there were 25 live births to Swiss citizens and 17 births to non-Swiss citizens, and in same time span there were 22 deaths of Swiss citizens and 2 non-Swiss citizen deaths. Ignoring immigration and emigration, the population of Swiss citizens increased by 3 while the foreign population increased by 15. There were 8 Swiss men who emigrated from Switzerland and 2 Swiss women who immigrated back to Switzerland. At the same time, there were 34 non-Swiss men and 21 non-Swiss women who immigrated from another country to Switzerland. The total Swiss population change in 2008 (from all sources, including moves across municipal borders) was a decrease of 4 and the non-Swiss population change was an increase of 50 people. This represents a population growth rate of 1.2%.

The age distribution,, in Agno is; 393 children or 9.7% of the population are between 0 and 9 years old and 407 teenagers or 10.0% are between 10 and 19. Of the adult population, 412 people or 10.1% of the population are between 20 and 29 years old. 677 people or 16.7% are between 30 and 39, 685 people or 16.8% are between 40 and 49, and 464 people or 11.4% are between 50 and 59. The senior population distribution is 531 people or 13.1% of the population are between 60 and 69 years old, 319 people or 7.8% are between 70 and 79, there are 178 people or 4.4% who are over 80.

, there were 1,588 private households in the municipality, and an average of 2.2 persons per household. there were 465 single family homes (or 58.7% of the total) out of a total of 792 inhabited buildings. There were 120 two family buildings (15.2%) and 111 multi-family buildings (14.0%). There were also 96 buildings in the municipality that were multipurpose buildings (used for both housing and commercial or another purpose).

The vacancy rate for the municipality,, was 0.65%. there were 1,931 apartments in the municipality. The most common apartment size was the 4 room apartment of which there were 568. There were 99 single room apartments and 370 apartments with five or more rooms. Of these apartments, a total of 1,586 apartments (82.1% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 305 apartments (15.8%) were seasonally occupied and 40 apartments (2.1%) were empty. , the construction rate of new housing units was 2.3 new units per 1000 residents.

The historical population is given in the following chart:

Politics
In the 2007 federal election the most popular party was the CVP which received 25.41% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the FDP (21.6%), the Ticino League (20.38%) and the SP (14.88%). In the federal election, a total of 899 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 41.9%.

In the Ticino Gran Consiglio election, there were a total of 2,120 registered voters in Agno, of which 1,204 or 56.8% voted. 18 blank ballots and 5 null ballots were cast, leaving 1,181 valid ballots in the election. The most popular party was the PLRT which received 262 or 22.2% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were; the PPD+GenGiova (with 237 or 20.1%), the LEGA (with 223 or 18.9%) and the SSI (with 191 or 16.2%).

In the Ticino Consiglio di Stato election, 16 blank ballots and 6 null ballots were cast, leaving 1,181 valid ballots in the election. The most popular party was the LEGA which received 293 or 24.8% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were; the PLRT (with 247 or 20.9%), the PPD (with 238 or 20.2%) and the PS (with 164 or 13.9%).

Economy
, Agno had an unemployment rate of 4.74%. , there were 14 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 4 businesses involved in this sector. 773 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 41 businesses in this sector. 1,814 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 214 businesses in this sector. There were 1,855 residents of the municipality who were employed in some capacity, of which females made up 43.5% of the workforce.

, there were 2,371 workers who commuted into the municipality and 1,261 workers who commuted away. The municipality is a net importer of workers, with about 1.9 workers entering the municipality for every one leaving. About 20.5% of the workforce coming into Agno are coming from outside Switzerland, while 0.4% of the locals commute out of Switzerland for work. Of the working population, 11.3% used public transportation to get to work, and 59.6% used a private car.

, there were 2 hotels in Agno.

Religion
From the, 2,787 or 76.3% were Roman Catholic, while 402 or 11.0% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. There are 336 individuals (or about 9.19% of the population) who belong to another church (not listed on the census), and 130 individuals (or about 3.56% of the population) did not answer the question.

Education
In Agno about 67.9% of the population (between age 25–64) have completed either non-mandatory upper secondary education or additional higher education (either university or a Fachhochschule).

In Agno there were a total of 631 students. The Ticino education system provides up to three years of non-mandatory kindergarten and in Agno there were 100 children in kindergarten. The primary school program lasts for five years and includes both a standard school and a special school. In the village, 175 students attended the standard primary schools and 9 students attended the special school. In the lower secondary school system, students either attend a two-year middle school followed by a two-year pre-apprenticeship or they attend a four-year program to prepare for higher education. There were 173 students in the two-year middle school and 4 in their pre-apprenticeship, while 50 students were in the four-year advanced program.

The upper secondary school includes several options, but at the end of the upper secondary program, a student will be prepared to enter a trade or to continue on to a university or college. In Ticino, vocational students may either attend school while working on their internship or apprenticeship (which takes three or four years) or may attend school followed by an internship or apprenticeship (which takes one year as a full-time student or one and a half to two years as a part-time student). There were 53 vocational students who were attending school full-time and 60 who attend part-time.

The professional program lasts three years and prepares a student for a job in engineering, nursing, computer science, business, tourism and similar fields. There were 7 students in the professional program.

, there were 446 students in Agno who came from another municipality, while 131 residents attended schools outside the municipality.

title: Agno, Ticino


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Papiermark

The Papiermark (lit. 'paper mark', officially just Mark, sign: ℳ) was the German currency from 4 August 1914 when the link between the Goldmark and gold was abandoned, due to the outbreak of World War I. In particular, the Papiermark was the currency issued during the hyperinflation in Germany of 1922 and 1923.

History
From 1914, the value of the mark fell. The rate of inflation rose following the end of World War I and reached its highest point in October 1923. The currency stabilized in November 1923 after the announcement of the creation of the Rentenmark, although the Rentenmark did not come into circulation until 1924. When it did, it replaced the Papiermark at the rate of 1-trillion (1012)-ℳ to RM1. On 30 August 1924 the Rentenmark was replaced by the Reichsmark.

In addition to the issues of the government, emergency issues of both tokens and paper money, known as Kriegsgeld (war money) and Notgeld (emergency money), were produced by local authorities.

The Papiermark was also used in the Free City of Danzig until it was replaced by the Danzig Gulden in late 1923. Several coins and emergency issues in Papiermark were issued by the free city.

Coins
During the war, cheaper metals were introduced for coins, including aluminium, zinc and iron, although silver $1/100$ℳ pieces continued in production until 1919. Aluminium 1₰ were produced until 1918 and the 2₰ until 1916. Whilst iron 5₰, both iron and zinc 10₰, and aluminium 50₰ coins were issued until 1922. Aluminium 3ℳ were issued in 1922 and 1923, and aluminium 200ℳ and 500ℳ were issued in 1923. The quality of many of these coins varied from decent to poor.

During this period, many provinces and cities also had their own corresponding coin and note issues, referred to as Notgeld currency. This came about often due to a shortage of exchangeable tender in one region or another during the war and hyperinflation periods. Some of the most memorable of these to be issued during this period came from Westphalia and featured the highest face value denominations on a coin ever, eventually reaching 1-billion-ℳ.

First World War issues
In 1914, the State Loan Office began issuing paper money known as Darlehnskassenschein (loan fund notes). These circulated alongside the issues of the Reichsbank. Most were 1ℳ and 2ℳ notes but there were also 5ℳ, 20ℳ, 50ℳ and 100ℳ notes.

Post War issues
Between 1914 and the end of 1923 the Papiermark's rate of exchange against the U.S. dollar plummeted from 4.2ℳ = US$1 to 4.2-trillionℳ = US$1. The price of one gold mark ( mg of pure gold) in German paper currency at the end of 1918 was 2ℳ, but by the end of 1919 a gold mark cost 10ℳ. This inflation worsened between 1920 and 1922, and the cost of a gold mark (or conversely the devaluation of the paper mark) rose from 15ℳ to 1,282ℳ. In 1923 the value of the paper mark had its worst decline. By July, the cost of a gold mark had risen to 101,112ℳ, and in September was already at 13-million-ℳ. On 30 Nov 1923 it cost 1-trillion-ℳ to buy a single gold mark.

In October 1923, Germany experienced a 29,500% hyperinflation (roughly 21% interest per day). Historically, this one-month inflation rate has only been exceeded three times: Yugoslavia, 313,000,000% (64.6% per day, January 1994); Zimbabwe, 79.6 billion% (98% per day, November 2008); and Hungary, 41.9 quadrillion% (207% per day, July 1946).

On 15 November 1923 the Papiermark was replaced by the rentenmark at RM4.2 rentenmark = US$1, or 1 trillion-ℳ = RM1 (exchangeable through July 1925).

During the hyperinflation, ever higher denominations of banknotes were issued by the Reichsbank and other institutions (notably the Reichsbahn railway company). The Papiermark was produced and circulated in enormously large quantities. Before the war, the highest denomination was 1,000ℳ, equivalent to approximately £stg48.9 or US$238.09. In early 1922, 10,000ℳ notes were introduced, followed by 100,000ℳ and 1-million-ℳ notes in February 1923. July 1923 saw notes up to 50-million-ℳ, with 10-milliard (1010)-ℳ notes introduced in September. The hyperinflation peaked in October 1923 and banknote denominations rose to 100-trillion (1014)-ℳ. At the end of the hyperinflation, these notes were worth approximately £stg5.2 or US$23.81.

Danzig
The Danziger Privat Actien-Bank (opened 1856) was the first bank established in Danzig. They issued two series of notes denominated in thalers (1857 and 1862–73) prior to issuing the mark (1875, 1882, 1887). These mark issues are extremely rare. The Ostbank fur Handel and Gewerbe opened 16 March 1857, and by 1911 two additional banks (the Imperial Bank of Germany and the Norddeutsche Credit-Anstalt) were in operation.

Issuance of the Danzig Papiermark
The Papiermark was issued by Danzig from 1914 to 1923. Five series were issued during World War I by the City Council (1914, 1916, 1918 first and second issue, and 1919). Denominations ranged from 10₰ to 20ℳ. The Free City of Danzig municipal senate issued an additional four post-World War I series of notes (1922, 1923 First issue, 1923 Provisional issue, and 1923 Inflation issue). The 1922 issue (31 October 1922) was denominated in 100ℳ, 500ℳ, and 1,000ℳ notes. The denominations for the 1923 issue were 1,000ℳ (15 March 1923), and 10,000ℳ and 50,000ℳ notes (20 March 1923). The 1923 provisional issue reused earlier notes with a large red stamp indicating the new (and higher) denominations of 1 million-ℳ (8 August 1923) and 5 million-ℳ (15 October 1923) mark. The last series of Danzig mark was the 1923 inflation issue of 1 million-ℳ (8 August 1923), 10 million-ℳ (31 August 1923), 100 million-ℳ (22 September 1923), 500 million-ℳ (26 September 1923), 5 billion-ℳ and 10 billion-ℳ notes (11 October 1923). The Danzig mark was replaced by the Danzig gulden, first issued by the Danzig Central Finance Department on 22 October 1923.

Note on numeration
In German, Milliarde is 1,000,000,000, or one thousand million, while Billion is 1,000,000,000,000, or one million million.

title: Papiermark


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Apollonius Dyscolus

Apollonius Dyscolus (Ἀπολλώνιος ὁ Δύσκολος; reached his maturity sometime around 130 CE) is considered one of the greatest of the Greek grammarians.

Life
Little is known of Apollonius Dyscolus, other than that he was born at Alexandria, son of Mnesitheus. The precise dates for his life are not known. His son Aelius Herodianus, who wrote on phonology, appears to have moved to Rome at the time of Marcus Aurelius. From this it is inferred that his father must have been a contemporary of Hadrian, and may have spent a short period in Rome during the reign of Antoninus Pius. One tradition holds that he was so poor that he could not afford papyri to write on, and was constrained to avail himself of potsherds to write down his thoughts. His monicker ho dúskolos signifying "the difficult" or "crabby/grouchy" may reflect the sour temper of someone reduced to eking out a living in extreme indigence. Various interpretations have been advanced arguing the nickname was expressive of his highly compressed, difficult style, or as illustrating his cantankerously disputatious manner, or as alluding to his habit of citing arcane words in contests with other grammarians, in order to perplex them. He died in poverty in what was formerly the royal quarter of the city of Alexandria.

Works
He was the founder of scientific syntax, and is styled by Priscian maximus auctor artis grammaticae ('the greatest authority on the science of grammar'), and grammaticorum princeps ('prince of grammarians'). He wrote extensively on the parts of speech. Of the twenty books named in the Suda, four are extant: on syntax, and three smaller treatises: on adverbs, on conjunctions, and on pronouns. One characteristic which was to influence later generations was Apollonius' deployment of philosophical concepts in grammatical analysis. The earlier Alexandrine grammatical tradition was familiar with distinctions such as that between genos and eidos, but these were not used in refining distinctions between the parts of speech. Apollonius drew on Stoic ontology to analyse the noun and the verb.

Like his son, Aelius Herodianus, he had an enormous influence on all later grammarians.

title: Apollonius Dyscolus


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Port William, Dumfries and Galloway

Port William (Cill na Tràghad) is a fishing village in the parish of Mochrum in the historical county of Wigtownshire, Dumfries and Galloway, in Scotland with a population of approximately 460.

Port William has a post office and small general store, a takeaway, a restaurant, a community charity shop and a couple of other stores. Beyond Port William, the nearest shopping is in Whithorn, whilst the nearest supermarkets are in Newton Stewart.

Monreith House, a category A listed Georgian mansion is located 1 mi east of the village.

Location
The village is on the coast of Luce Bay in Galloway and is situated between the small villages of Elrig and Mochrum to the north and Monreith to the south. It looks towards the Mull of Galloway (the most southerly point of the Scottish mainland), on a clear day both Ireland and The Isle of Man (lying only 20 mi to the south across the Irish Sea) are clearly visible.

Port William lies 63.4 mi west of Dumfries, 23 mi east of Stranraer and 98.6 mi south of Glasgow.

History
The original settlement was known as Killantrae, meaning 'The Church on the Beach' in Gaelic, and was probably founded not long after St Ninian's arrival in nearby Whithorn towards the end of the 4th century.

Killantrae was swept away following the intervention of developer and landlord Sir William Maxwell, 5th Baronet, of Monreith House. In the five years until 1776 he built an entirely new village, complete with a good harbour and renamed it Port William. One of the earliest buildings still standing was the corn mill, located on the side of the Killantrae burn to take advantage of the power provided by its water. Port William is an example of a planned village, lying on the eastern shore of Luce Bay. The harbour, built for the convenience of his tenant farmers, was one of the first in western Galloway.

In the 17th and 18th centuries Port William was known as much for the illicit activities of its smugglers as for the legitimate trade of its port.

Notable people
Gavin Maxwell FRSL, FIAL, FZS (Sc.), FRGS was a Scottish naturalist and author, best known for his non-fiction writing and his work with otters. Maxwell was born at The House of Elrig near the small village of Elrig, near Port William. Maxwell's relatives still live in the area and the family's ancient estate and grounds are in nearby Monreith.

Port William Inshore Rescue Service Action Committee
The village formed one of the first Community First Response Teams in Scotland and has helped to set up other teams in the area. Following several incidents involving vessels in difficulties in Luce Bay the RNLI were asked to site a lifeboat at Port William, when this was denied the villagers formed a committee known as the Port William Inshore Rescue Service Action Committee (PIRSAC).

Funds were raised to buy and staff an inshore rescue boat, this was launched in 1979 and it still operates today, covering Luce Bay, Wigtown Bay and the inshore waters between South West Scotland and the Isle of Man.

The Harbour
The harbour was extended in 1790 and again in 1848; its commercial importance continuing until the end of World War I.

Further work was done to protect the harbour in the 1980s by building a breakwater to the western side of the harbour.

A statue of a fisherman overlooks the harbour: once made of concrete, it has been cast in bronze. The statue was part-funded by the millennium lottery fund. In front of the statue is a plaque with the first verse of the poem "Leisure" by W. H. Davies.

title: Port William, Dumfries and Galloway


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Grater

A grater, also known as a shredder, is a kitchen utensil used to grate foods into fine pieces.

Food preparation
Several types of graters feature different sizes of grating slots, and can therefore aid in the preparation of a variety of foods. They are commonly used to grate vegetables, cheese and lemon or orange peel (to create zest), spices, such as ginger and nutmeg, and can also be used to grate other soft foods. They are commonly used in the preparation of toasted cheese, Welsh rarebit, egg salad, and dishes which contain cheese sauce such as macaroni and cheese, cauliflower cheese.

In Slavic cuisine, graters are commonly used to grate potatoes for preparation of dishes, including draniki, bramborak or potato babka.

In tropical countries graters are also used to grate coconut meat. In the Indian subcontinent, the grater is used for preparation of a popular dessert, Gajar Ka Halwa.

Graters produce shreds that are thinner at the ends than the middle. This allows the grated material to melt or cook in a different manner than the shreds of mostly uniform thickness produced by the grating blade of a food processor. Hand-grated potatoes, for example, melt together more easily in a potato pancake than food-processed potato shreds.

In music
In Jamaica and Belize, coconut graters are used as a traditional musical instrument (along with drums, fife, and other instruments) in the performance of kumina, jonkanoo, brukdown, and sometimes mento.

History
The first attested graters were made out of bronze, and also silver alloys, in the early first millennium BCE, examples of which were uncovered from burial sites in Greece and Etruscan Italy. In line with Homer's Iliad these were sometimes used to grate goat's cheese in the making of a type of Kykeon, a fast breaking drink. The modern cheese grater was invented in France in the 1540s by François Boullier. His pewter design was intended to convert hard cheeses into something more edible.

Variants
Spiralizers are complex food-processing machines with grater-like mechanisms. These mechanisms rotate by the turn of a cluster to produce ribbons or noodles.

In popular culture

 * Kevin Eastman, co-creator of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, got the idea for the Shredder's armor from large cheese graters which he envisioned on a villainous character's arms to be used as weapons. Originally called "Grate Man", the Shredder is known as the primary antagonist in the TMNT franchise.
 * Wisconsin sports fans are often called cheeseheads, and some wear cheese hats. In 2013, sports fans of Chicago and Minnesota replied to their rivals by wearing cheese graters.

title: Grater


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Horgen

Horgen is a municipality in the district of Horgen in the canton of Zürich in Switzerland.

It is one of the larger towns along the south bank of the Lake of Zurich.

On 1 January 2018 the former municipality of Hirzel merged into the municipality of Horgen.

History
Horgen is also the type-site of Switzerland's middle Neolithic archaeological culture. The settlement there, the so-called Horgner Kultur (Horgen culture), produced examples of a type of crude pottery with parallels to the Seine-Oise-Marne culture of northern France. Horgen is first mentioned in 952 as Horga.

Geography
Horgen has an area of 21.1 km2. Of this area, 27.7% is used for agricultural purposes, while 49.9% is forested. Of the rest of the land, 20.4% is settled (buildings or roads) and the remainder (2%) is non-productive (rivers, glaciers or mountains). housing and buildings made up 12.5% of the total area, while transportation infrastructure made up the rest (7.9%). Of the total unproductive area, water (streams and lakes) made up 1.6% of the area. , 16% of the total municipal area was undergoing some type of construction.

The large municipality stretches from the shores of Lake Zurich (elevation 408 m), near Wädenswil over the Zimmerberg-Plateau where the decentralized village of Horgenberg is found (elevation 660 m), though the Sihl Valley (Sihltal), to the peak of the Albis chain (elevation 915 m). It includes the villages of Horgen, Arn and Horgenberg.

Until 1773, Horgen included the now separate municipalities of Oberrieden and Hirzel. The Sihl forest (Sihlwald) became part of the city of Zürich in 1803. However the Horgen city council refused to acknowledge this until 1877.

Demographics
Horgen has a population (as of ) of. , 27.1% of the population was made up of foreign nationals. the gender distribution of the population was 49% male and 51% female. Over the last 10 years the population has grown at a rate of 10.7%. Most of the population speaks German  (79.9%), with Italian being second most common ( 5.7%) and Albanian being third ( 2.8%).

In the 2007 election the most popular party was the SVP which received 35.6% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the SPS (18.9%), the FDP (15.8%) and the CSP (9.7%).

The age distribution of the population is children and teenagers (0–19 years old) make up 20.7% of the population, while adults (20–64 years old) make up 64.1% and seniors (over 64 years old) make up 15.2%. In Horgen about 73% of the population (between age 25-64) have completed either non-mandatory upper secondary education or additional higher education (either university or a Fachhochschule). There are 7850 households in Horgen.

Horgen has an unemployment rate of 2.66%. , there were 213 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 39 businesses involved in this sector. 2017 people are employed in the secondary sector and there are 167 businesses in this sector. 6892 people are employed in the tertiary sector, with 623 businesses in this sector. 56.5% of the working population were employed full-time, and 43.5% were employed part-time.

there were 5924 Catholics and 6170 Protestants in Horgen. In the 2000 census, religion was broken down into several smaller categories. From the, 39.3% were some type of Protestant, with 36.9% belonging to the Swiss Reformed Church and 2.4% belonging to other Protestant churches. 33.6% of the population were Catholic. Of the rest of the population, 7% were Muslim, 9.5% belonged to another religion (not listed), 4.2% did not give a religion, and 11.7% were atheist or agnostic.

The historical population is given in the following table:

Transportation
The A3 motorway passes through the municipality and has a junction in the south of the town.

The municipality of Horgen is served by three railway stations. Of these two are relatively close to each other in the lakeside part of the municipality, while the other is some distance away from the centre of the town in the Sihl Valley:
 * Horgen is on the Lake Zurich left bank line and is served by Zurich S-Bahn lines S2 and S8. The station is in the town centre and adjacent to the lake.
 * Horgen Oberdorf is on the Thalwil–Arth-Goldau line, and is served by the S24. Horgen Oberdorf station is some 0.9 km uphill from Horgen station.
 * Sihlwald is on the Sihltalbahn and is the terminus of the S4. Sihlwald station is in the Sihl Valley, about 4 km north of the closed Sihlbrugg station. The Sihtalbahn continues to Sihlbrugg station, but this stretch of line no longer carries regular passenger service.

The Zimmerberg bus line (Zimmerbergbus), provided by the Sihltal Zürich Uetliberg Bahn (SZU), connects the Zimmerberg region and parts of the Sihl Valley.

In the summer there are regular boats to Zürich-Bürkliplatz as well as along the lake to Rapperswil, run by the Zürichsee-Schifffahrtsgesellschaft. The Horgen–Meilen car ferry connects Horgen and Meilen across the width of Lake Zurich, and one of the line's ships carries the name Horgen.

Notable people

 * Adele Duttweiler (1892–1990), wife of Gottlieb Duttweiler and philanthropist
 * Ernst Sieber (1927–2018), pastor, social worker, writer and former politician who founded Sozialwerke Pfarrer Sieber
 * Hoyte van Hoytema (born 1971), cinematographer
 * Jacob Wipf, politician
 * Steve Lee (1963–2010), musician, former singer of Gotthard
 * Andy Schmid, Professional Handballer

title: Horgen


text:
Inman Square

Inman Square is a neighborhood and historic district in Cambridge, Massachusetts. It lies north of Central Square, at the junction of Cambridge, Hampshire, and Inman Streets near the Cambridge–Somerville border.

Location
Like many squares in the Boston area, Inman Square refers both to an intersection and to a retail district and neighborhood. Current residents of the area seem to converge on a broad definition of Inman Square as the region centered on the intersection of Cambridge and Hampshire Streets.

Geologically, the area is part of the larger Boston Basin and attaches to the relative lowland known as the Cambridge Plain. Originally, the land was both flat and surrounded by an irregular, swampy region that formed a natural boundary. Situated a short walk east of Harvard Square, north of Central Square, south of Union Square, and west of Lechmere (also known as East Cambridge), Inman Square is fairly centralized within the Mid-Cambridge/Somerville area. Hampshire Street connects it with Porter Square to the northwest and Kendall Square to the southeast.

18th century
Inman Square likely owes its name to Ralph Inman (1713–1788), described as a gentleman of fortune and a Boston merchant. The details of his life can be pieced together from articles in the New England and Genealogical Register, vols. 12, 14, 25, 26, 30, 55, 84, 112, and 136, as well as numerous other sources. He had extensive business interests along the Boston wharf and with Thomas Sodden owned 400 acre making up "what is now the Port."

Inman also owned a "large, three-story rambling mansion" in a "little genteel Town about 4 Miles off (from Boston) calld Cambridge, where a number of Gentlemen's Families live upon their Estates." This included the Brattles, after whom Brattle Square was named.

During the American Revolutionary War, in 1775, American general Israel Putnam took over Inman's house as his headquarters. Inman was intent on remaining neutral in the war, but his intentions went for naught when his son joined the British Army, causing authorities to begin confiscating his property. He fled, leaving his wife, Elizabeth Murray, to deal with General Putnam and protect the property.

Inman's wife, his second, was a business woman in her own right. Elizabeth Murray owned the sugar warehouse in Boston that the British troops took over as a barracks when they came to settle the unrest in Boston. It was from there that they marched to the Battles of Lexington and Concord. When her husband fled to Boston to seek protection from the British, Elizabeth Murray protected the Cambridge property. After the Battle of Bunker Hill, the Continental Army confiscated the property and her husband fled with the British to Halifax. She remained in America until she died in 1785.

An extensive description of the house is given in NE & GR, July 1871, vol. 25, page 232. "On the Inman street side" and "looking toward Boston road" are mentioned. It was "the first object of any interest in approaching the colleges from Boston ..." At the time of the description, 6 acre were still attached to it. Inman died there in 1788. His wife predeceased him.

19th century
Inman Square's origins lie in the growth of East Cambridge, starting at around 1790, when a group of financiers led by Andrew Craigie began buying up land around Lechmere Point, home to present-day CambridgeSide Galleria shopping mall, in an effort to build a toll bridge over the Charles River. After Craigie's bridge was built, he constructed roads from the Lechmere area that had been laid out with a gridwork of streets. One of these roads was the Middlesex Turnpike, the present-day Hampshire Street, which connected Cambridge with Lowell and Boston, bringing regional traffic through the area. Craigie also laid out Cambridge Street, which would intersect with Hampshire, producing Inman Square in 1809.

By the 1860s, horse carts were common in the area and contributed to dwellings popping up along their routes. By 1900, full streetcar service was in the area, led by the Charles River Street Railway, which built its first railway through Inman Square in 1881. By 1874 the region was an urban center called both "Atwood's Corner" and "Inman Square." This ambiguity was fixed a year later in a petition that would make official the Inman Square moniker.

20th century
After transportation brought people and commerce to the region, a new era of stability overtook Inman Square. From 1910 up until the early 1950s, streetcar, automobile, and foot traffic shuffled people to and from the square where architectural instead of transportation construction was taking place. During this period commercial dwellings popped up to service the local community: drugstores, taverns, markets, bakeries, delis, and an insurance company were among the many stores that called Inman Square home.

After the streetcars left Cambridge Street around 1950 the square became "just a little bit out of the way" yet remained "around the corner from Harvard, Central, Kendall and Lechmere." Even though there is no direct rapid transit, three MBTA bus lines (69, 83, 91) stop in the square, making it accessible by mass transit. Post-streetcar visitors still regularly frequent the area's restaurant and entertainment attractions.

The regional restaurant chain Legal Sea Foods began in Inman Square in 1950 as a fish market that also did a takeout business. Legal Sea Foods grew to a chain of 31 restaurants, including those in Kendall Square and in Copley Square in Boston, as well as in suburbs and cities throughout the region. After the original Legal Sea Foods location burned in a fire, it was rebuilt and became Cambridge Family Health. An ornate fish on the building facade at 237 Hampshire Street commemorates the previous presence.

From the 1960s through the late 1970s, next to Legal Seafoods one could find the home of the improvisational troupe The Proposition. Alumni of the troupe include actors Josh Mostel, Judith Kahan Paul Kreppel and original Saturday Night Live cast member Jane Curtin. Later, in the 1980s, at the Ding Ho restaurant at 11 Springfield Street (where Ole Mexican Grill is presently located), such comedians as Steven Wright, Jimmy Tingle, Bobcat Goldthwait, and club founder Barry Crimmins got their start. Most, including future Tonight Show host Jay Leno, began by performing between sets of musical acts at the "Ding", as it was known to locals. Leno's first stage appearance took place there between sets of JT's Mardi Gras Band and the Lawnchair Ladies.

21st century
Inman Square is a culturally diverse neighborhood, home to professionals, working people, and students and professors from neighboring MIT and Harvard. Inman Square also has strong Brazilian and Portuguese influences, as can be seen in the storefronts lining Cambridge Street, especially to the east of Prospect Street.

Boston's oldest continuously operating improvisational theater troupe, ImprovBoston, moved in 2008 from its longtime home in Inman Square to Prospect Street in nearby Central Square. ImprovBoston alumni include Wait Wait... Don't Tell Me! panelist Adam Felber.

Inman Square was also home to the Center for New Words (originally the New Words Bookstore), one of the oldest and longest-running women's bookstores in the country. Located at 186 Hampshire Street, it closed its retail business in the early 2000s. Meanwhile, from 2003 to early 2006, the Zeitgeist Gallery resided at 1353 Cambridge Street, after a fire drove it from its former home at the corner of Norfolk Street and Broadway. Run by a group of artists, musicians and activists, it was a focal point for art, music and community activism, and fostered avant garde, experimental and underground work.

A related space called Zeitgeist Outpost or Outpost 186, opened by former Zeitgeist volunteers, is now on the other side of Inman Square. It is, in fact, in the former New Words back room, where the women's bookstore once held poetry readings, author presentations and acoustic concerts.

In 2013, the neighborhood near Inman Square attained some notoriety as the home of the two main suspects in the Boston Marathon bombing and the location of the Islamic Society of Boston, at which they occasionally attended services.

In 2023, Edge of the Forest, a 12-foot-tall steel sculpture of a deer by Brooklyn-based artist Mark Reigelman was installed in Inman Square. The sculpture was inspired by one of the square's former names, "Atwood's Corner," with Atwood being a traditional surname for someone "at the wood." The piece was funded via the City of Cambridge’s Percent-for-Art ordinance, which requires that 1 percent of costs of municipal construction projects be spent to develop public artwork.

title: Inman Square


text:
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title: User talk:Wizzardmr42


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Semimetal

A semimetal is a material with a small energy overlap between the bottom of the conduction band and the top of the valence band, but they do not overlap in momentum space. According to electronic band theory, solids can be classified as insulators, semiconductors, semimetals, or metals. In insulators and semiconductors the filled valence band is separated from an empty conduction band by a band gap. For insulators, the magnitude of the band gap is larger (e.g., > 4 eV) than that of a semiconductor (e.g., < 4 eV). Because of the slight overlap between the conduction and valence bands, semimetals have no band gap and a small density of states at the Fermi level. A metal, by contrast, has an appreciable density of states at the Fermi level because the conduction band is partially filled.

Temperature dependency
The insulating/semiconducting states differ from the semimetallic/metallic states in the temperature dependency of their electrical conductivity. With a metal, the conductivity decreases with increases in temperature (due to increasing interaction of electrons with phonons (lattice vibrations)). With an insulator or semiconductor (which have two types of charge carriers – holes and electrons), both the carrier mobilities and carrier concentrations will contribute to the conductivity and these have different temperature dependencies. Ultimately, it is observed that the conductivity of insulators and semiconductors increase with initial increases in temperature above absolute zero (as more electrons are shifted to the conduction band), before decreasing with intermediate temperatures and then, once again, increasing with still higher temperatures. The semimetallic state is similar to the metallic state but in semimetals both holes and electrons contribute to electrical conduction. With some semimetals, like arsenic and antimony, there is a temperature-independent carrier density below room temperature (as in metals) while, in bismuth, this is true at very low temperatures but at higher temperatures the carrier density increases with temperature giving rise to a semimetal-semiconductor transition. A semimetal also differs from an insulator or semiconductor in that a semimetal's conductivity is always non-zero, whereas a semiconductor has zero conductivity at zero temperature and insulators have zero conductivity even at ambient temperatures (due to a wider band gap).

Classification
To classify semiconductors and semimetals, the energies of their filled and empty bands must be plotted against the crystal momentum of conduction electrons. According to the Bloch theorem the conduction of electrons depends on the periodicity of the crystal lattice in different directions.

In a semimetal, the bottom of the conduction band is typically situated in a different part of momentum space (at a different k-vector) than the top of the valence band. One could say that a semimetal is a semiconductor with a negative indirect bandgap, although they are seldom described in those terms.

Classification of a material either as a semiconductor or a semimetal can become tricky when it has extremely small or slightly negative band-gaps. The well-known compound Fe2VAl for example, was historically thought of as a semi-metal (with a negative gap ~ -0.1 eV) for over two decades before it was actually shown to be a small-gap (~ 0.03 eV) semiconductor using self-consistent analysis of the transport properties, electrical resistivity and Seebeck coefficient. Commonly used experimental techniques to investigate band-gap can be sensitive to many things such as the size of the band-gap, electronic structure features (direct versus indirect gap) and also the number of free charge carriers (which can frequently depend on synthesis conditions). Band-gap obtained from transport property modeling is essentially independent of such factors. Theoretical techniques to calculate the electronic structure on the other hand can often underestimate band-gap.

Schematic
Schematically, the figure shows 1. a semiconductor with a direct gap (e.g. copper indium selenide (CuInSe2))

2. a semiconductor with an indirect gap (like silicon (Si))

3. a semimetal (like tin (Sn) or graphite and the alkaline earth metals).

The figure is schematic, showing only the lowest-energy conduction band and the highest-energy valence band in one dimension of momentum space (or k-space). In typical solids, k-space is three-dimensional, and there are an infinite number of bands.

Unlike a regular metal, semimetals have charge carriers of both types (holes and electrons), so that one could also argue that they should be called 'double-metals' rather than semimetals. However, the charge carriers typically occur in much smaller numbers than in a real metal. In this respect they resemble degenerate semiconductors more closely. This explains why the electrical properties of semimetals are partway between those of metals and semiconductors.

Physical properties
As semimetals have fewer charge carriers than metals, they typically have lower electrical and thermal conductivities. They also have small effective masses for both holes and electrons because the overlap in energy is usually the result of the fact that both energy bands are broad. In addition they typically show high diamagnetic susceptibilities and high lattice dielectric constants.

Classic semimetals
The classic semimetallic elements are arsenic, antimony, bismuth, α-tin (gray tin) and graphite, an allotrope of carbon. The first two (As, Sb) are also considered metalloids but the terms semimetal and metalloid are not synonymous. Semimetals, in contrast to metalloids, can also be chemical compounds, such as mercury telluride (HgTe), and tin, bismuth, and graphite are typically not considered metalloids. Transient semimetal states have been reported at extreme conditions. It has been recently shown that some conductive polymers can behave as semimetals.

title: Semimetal