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Angeles City

Angeles, officially the City of Angeles (Ciudad/Lakanbalen ning Angeles; Lungsod ng Angeles), is a 1st class highly urbanized city in the Central Luzon region of the Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 462,928 people.

While Angeles City is politically independent from the province of Pampanga, it is usually grouped with it for statistical purposes by the Philippine Statistics Authority and also it is the largest city of that province.

Angeles City is the urban core of Metro Clark, an urban area in Pampanga. This area, also known as Metro Angeles, is considered the industrial and residential heartland of Central Luzon. Metro Clark Angeles is also identified as a regional center by the national government.

Etymology
The name Ángeles is derived from the Spanish El Pueblo de los Ángeles ("The Town of the Angels") in honour of its patron saints, Los Santos Ángeles Custodios (Holy Guardian Angels), and the name of its founder, Don Ángel Pantaleón de Miranda.

Spanish colonial era
In 1796, the gobernadorcillo or town head of San Fernando, Don Ángel Pantaleón de Miranda, and his wife, Doña Rosalía de Jesús, along with some followers, staked out a new settlement, which they named Culiát because of the abundance of vines (Gnetum indicum) of that name in the area. The new settlers cleared the woodland and cultivated the area for rice and sugar farming. Don Ángel built his first house with light materials at the northwest corner of the intersection of Sapang Balen and the road going towards the town of Porac. It was later donated to the Catholic Church and became a cemetery called "Campo Santong Matua" (today the site of Nepomuceno Coliseum).

On May 12, 1812, the new settlers tried to make Culiat a self-governing town but the friars resisted the move, led by Fray José Pometa. Ten years later, on February 11, 1822, Don Ángel filed a petition for the township of Culiat to secede from San Fernando, but it was denied. This was followed by another petition within the same year, jointly signed by Don Ángel, his son-in-law, Mariano Henson, and the latter's father, Severino Henson. He donated 35 hectares for the construction of the first Catholic church, a convent and a primary school while Doña Agustina Henson de Nepomuceno, the niece of who would become the first gobernadorcillo of Angeles in 1830, Don Ciriaco de Miranda, gave land for the new public market. Don Ángel paid the complete amount required by law just for the secession of Culiat from San Fernando. There were only 160 taxpayers then but the law required that it should have at least 500 taxpayers.

Located some 10 mi north of Pampanga's capital, Culiat became a barrio of San Fernando for 33 years and on December 8, 1829, became a separate municipality. The newly-autonomous town was renamed "El Pueblo de los Ángeles" in honor of its patron saints, the Holy Angels, and the name of its founder, Don Ángel, coinciding with the rise of new barrios such as Santo Cristo (as the población or town proper), Cutcut, Pampang and Pulong Anunas. The progressive barrios developed some new industries like a sugar mill and a wine distillery. The transition of Angeles from a jungle clearing to a barrio, to a town and finally to a city took 168 years and in all that time, it survived locusts' infestations, wars, epidemics, volcanic eruptions and typhoons to become one of the fast rising towns in the country. When it received its first official municipal charter, the town contained some 661 people, 151 houses and an area of 38.65 km2.

On May 7, 1899, General Emilio Aguinaldo transferred the seat of the First Philippine Republic to Angeles. It then became the site of celebrations for the first anniversary of Philippine independence, which was proclaimed a year earlier in Kawit, Cavite. Events included a parade, led by the youngest ever Filipino generals, Gregorio del Pilar and Manuel Tinio, with General Aguinaldo viewing the proceedings from the Pamintuan Residence, which was the Presidential Palace from May to July 1899 (and later was the Central Bank of the Philippines office in Central Luzon, before its ownership passed to the National Historical Commission of the Philippines). Aguinaldo's sojourn was short, however, for in July of this same year he transferred his government to the province of Tarlac following Angeles' occupation by the American forces.

American invasion era
On August 10, 1899, U.S. forces began the attack on Angeles confident in capturing it in a few days. However, the Filipino Army defending the town refused to give in so easily and fiercely fought back and for three months, they battled the Americans in and around the town. It was only after the battle on November 5, 1899, that the town finally fell into American hands. The Battle of Angeles was considered to be the longest in the history of the Filipino-American War in Pampanga. This led to the establishment of an American camp in Barrio Talimundoc (in what is now Lourdes Sur), located next to the railroad station, in order to establish control over the central plains of Luzon. In January 1900, General Frederick D. Grant organized the first U.S. Civil Government in Angeles by appointing an alcalde or municipal mayor, beginning American rule over Angeles.

In 1902, the United States Army studied relocating their post from Barrio Talimundoc to a fertile plain in Barrio Sapang Bato, which supposedly had better grass for their horses. A year after that, U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt signed an executive order on September 1, establishing 7700 acre of land in Sapang Bato as Fort Stotsenburg (which later would expand to 156204 acre in 1908 to become Clark Air Base). It was centered on what would in later years become Clark Air Base's parade ground.

The Americans quickly commandeered Holy Rosary Parish Church and converted it into an army hospital, with the choir loft served as a dental clinic. The convento, which now houses Holy Family Academy, was the barracks for medical officers and enlisted men. The sacristy was the only portion where Angeleños could hear Mass. When the Americans finally vacated the church in 1904 and relocated to Fort Stotsenburg, parish priest Rev. Vicente Lapus listed a total of US$638 for portions of the church destroyed, looted church items and treasures, and arrears on rentals.

World War II
Hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor, Japan attacked the Philippines, targeting the American military presence, as well as the Philippine Army, and taking over the civilian government. During the Japanese occupation in the country, 57,000 Filipino and American prisoners of war passed the town of Angeles. They were forced to join the Bataan Death March, going to Camp O'Donnell in Capas, Tarlac. Angeleños showed their sympathy by handing them food, milk, boiled eggs, rice cakes, cigarettes, and water. Angeleños followed them up to the train station in Dau railway station in Mabalacat to give moral and spiritual support, and even helped the escapees.

War historians considered the bombing of Fort Stotsenburg on December 8, 1941, at 12:30 p.m. as one of the most destructive air raids in World War II, because almost all the American war planes were wrecked on the ground. In thirty minutes, the air might of the United States in the Far East was completely destroyed.

On the early morning of New Year's Day 1942, the first Japanese troops entered Angeles; they would occupy it until January 1945. During the Japanese invasion, another type of local government was set up on January 22, 1942. During the Japanese occupation, Clark Air Base then became a major center for staging Japanese air operations. Japanese aircraft flying out of Clark participated in the Battle of Leyte Gulf, considered to be the largest naval battle of the Second World War and possibly the largest naval battle in history.

Clark Air Base was recaptured by the Americans in January 1945, after three months of fierce fighting in the Philippines. After three years of atrocities committed by Japanese forces, the town and the rest of the Philippines were finally liberated by the combined United States and Philippine Commonwealth troops in 1945. The building of the general headquarters of the Philippine Commonwealth Army and Philippine Constabulary was situated in Angeles from January 1945 to June 1946, during and after World War II.

Cityhood
After World War II, the Philippines gained independence from the United States on July 4, 1946, but then would be tied to a neo-colonial relationship. The "Treaty of General Relations" signed on independence day itself signified the Americans' withdrawal and surrender of possession, control and sovereignty over the Philippines, except the use of their bases. It was followed by the Philippine-American Military Bases Agreement on March 14, 1947, allowing the U.S. to maintain territorial integrity and sovereignty over Clark Air Base and Subic Naval Base for the next 44 years. Clark occupied 63,103 hectares and served as the tactical operational U.S. air force installation in the entire Southeast Asian region that had the capacity to accommodate the U.S. military transport planes, which served the entire Western Pacific.

Through the years, although Fort Stotsenburg continued to expand to become what would eventually be known as Clark Air Base, Angeles, despite its proximity to the American camp, did not progress fast and remained fairly small until the end of World War II. It was finally inaugurated on January 1, 1964, as a chartered city under Republic Act No. 3700 and then proceeded to enter a period of tremendous growth that resulted in its present position as the "Premier City in Central Luzon." It was through Mayor Rafael del Rosario's brainchild that Angeles became a city. He gained the distinction of being the last municipal mayor of Angeles. He was assisted in the preparation of the City Chapter by Attorney Enrique Tayag, a prominent resident of the town. Congresswoman Juanita L. Nepomuceno of the first district of Pampanga sponsored the bill in Congress, which was approved by then President Diosdado Macapagal, the ninth Philippine president and a native of the province of Pampanga.

Mount Pinatubo eruption and Angeles today
On June 15, 1991, Angeles was affected by the cataclysmic eruption of nearby Mount Pinatubo, with up to 60,000 people being evacuated from the city. It was the second-largest volcanic eruption of the twentieth century and, by far, the largest eruption to affect a densely populated area. The province of Pampanga, Clark specifically, was badly hit and the agricultural lands, as well as other businesses, were covered by tons of lahar. There were no casualties reported inside Clark two days from the initial eruption because the 18,000 personnel and their families were transported to Guam and the Subic Naval Base in Zambales.

The eruption of Mount Pinatubo forced the leadership of the U.S. to prematurely abandon its military installation at Clark Air Base. This was in addition to a vote by the Philippine Senate in 1991 to no longer extend the Laurel–Langley Agreement, which allowed the presence of U.S. military forces on Philippine territory, thus ending the long chapter of Filipino-American relations in the history of Angeles. The U.S. military never returned to Clark, turning over the damaged base to the Philippine government on November 26, 1991 In 1993, cleanup and removal of volcanic ash deposits began. The former base re-emerged as Clark Special Economic Zone (CSEZ) approved by then President Fidel V. Ramos on April 3 of the same year. The airfield infrastructure was improved and destined to be the premiere airport in the country in the next five years and one of the most modern in Asia. The creation of CSEZ has helped to offset the loss of income and jobs previously generated by the presence of the U.S. base. Today, Angeles and Clark together form the hub for business, industry, aviation and tourism, as well as the entertainment and gaming center of Central Luzon.

Among the draws for tourists is the local dish sisig which according to the Center for Kapampangan Studies, originated in this Angeles and has been on the menu since the 1730s. Pampanga is well known as the culinary center of the Philippines.

In 2018, Angeles applied to be a UNESCO Creative City, while it also applied sisig into the UNESCO List of Intangible Cultural Heritage. The applications are currently being processed by UNESCO.

A recent racial study showed that Angeles City, Pampanga; alongside Manila; and Olongapo, Zambales; was the locations of several concentrations of 250,000 Amerasians (Mixed American-Asians) who were born as a result of the American colonization of the Philippines and the presence of US bases in the country.

Geography
It is bordered by Mabalacat to the north, Mexico to the east, San Fernando to the southeast, Bacolor to the south, and Porac to the southwest and west. Though the city administers itself autonomously from Pampanga, it is the province's commercial and financial hub.

Angeles is served by Clark International Airport in Clark Freeport Zone.

Angeles is 83 km from Manila and 17 km from the provincial capital, San Fernando.

Climate
Under the Köppen climate classification system, Angeles has a tropical savanna climate that borders on a tropical monsoon climate (Köppen climate classification Aw/Am). Angeles experiences two distinct seasons: a dry season from November through April, with a wet season from May through October. From 1953 to 1991, the mean daily low was 22.6 °C and the mean daily high was 31.3 °C, with June being warmest and January and February being the coolest. The average annual rainfall is 2026.8 mm. Typhoons tend to approach from the east during the summer and fall. Many damaging storms struck the city, including Typhoon Irma on November 28, 1974 (generally considered to be the strongest one); Typhoon Rita on October 27, 1978; Typhoon Irma (the name was reused) on November 24, 1981; Typhoon Ruby on October 25, 1988; and Typhoon Yunya on June 15, 1991, which coincided with the Mount Pinatubo blast. In July 1972, Central Luzon experienced a month of nearly continuous rain, resulting in ±2440 mm falling on the plain around Angeles.

Barangays
Angeles is divided into 33 barangays. Each barangay consists of puroks and some have sitios.

 * Agapito del Rosario
 * Amsic
 * Anunas
 * Balibago
 * Capaya
 * Claro M. Recto
 * Cuayan
 * Cutcut
 * Cutud
 * Lourdes North West
 * Lourdes Sur (Talimundoc)
 * Lourdes Sur East
 * Malabañas
 * Margot
 * Mining
 * Ninoy Aquino (Marisol)
 * Pampang
 * Pandan
 * Pulung Cacutud
 * Pulung Maragul
 * Pulungbulu
 * Salapungan
 * San Jose
 * San Nicolas
 * Santa Teresita
 * Santa Trinidad
 * Santo Cristo
 * Santo Domingo
 * Santo Rosario (Poblacion)
 * Sapalibutad
 * Sapangbato
 * Tabun
 * Virgen Delos Remedios

Anunas
Anunas is the barangay that houses the city's Koreatown, a chain of Korean establishments along the Fil-Am Friendship Highway. Anunas is also identified as one of the growth centers of the city, focusing on light industries such as woodcarving and rattan craft.

Balibago and Malabañas
Balibago is the main entertainment district of Angeles. It contains Casino Filipino Angeles and the famous Fields Avenue tourist belt. The city's biggest mall, SM City Clark, is also situated in Barangay Malabañas.

Pampang and San Nicolas
These two barangays form the main public market district of the city. The Pampang Wet Market, San Nicolas Market, Friday Flea Market (locally referred to as Apu), Jumbo Jenra Angeles, Puregold Angeles, and the Angeles Slaughterhouse are found here. The Pampang Wet Market is the largest and most frequented wet market in the province of Pampanga. It also attracts people from nearby towns. Ospital Ning Angeles (ONA),City College of Angeles, Angeles City National High School are located in Pampang.

Pulung Maragul
Pulung Maragul is the barangay that houses the city's government complex, which includes the Angeles City Hall, the Angeles City Hall of Justice, and other government buildings. It is also the location of the Angeles Exit of the North Luzon Expressway and Marquee Mall, Ayala's first mall in Central Luzon. Marquee Place and Marquee Residences later rose in Pulung Maragul as well, next to the mall.

Santo Rosario
Santo Rosario is the poblacion. It is home to most of Angeles' heritage and historical structures such as the Holy Rosary Parish Church, Pamintuan Mansion which is privately owned by Maverick Pamintuan, Bale Herencia, and Museo ning Angeles (former City Hall building). Holy Angel University, Central Luzon's largest university in terms of population, is also located here. Plans of declaring the barangay or parts of it a heritage zone are ongoing.

Sapangbato
Sapangbato is the largest barangay in Angeles in terms of territory, with a total land area of 104,694 sq. meters and a population of 11,262. Located northwest of Angeles near Clark Freeport Zone, it is identified as the barangay in Angeles with the highest elevation of 750 feet above sea level. It is home to Fort Stotsenburg, also known as the Parade Grounds of Clark. apl.de.ap, member of the hip hop group the Black Eyed Peas, hails from Sapangbato. The famous Puning Hot Springs of Barangay Inararo in Porac are accessed through Sitio Target in Sapangbato.

Languages
Kapampangan is the predominant language of the city, along with Tagalog. English is also widely spoken. Angeles City is also home to the majority of Chinese Filipinos that live in Pampanga, a large portion of these Chinese Filipinos have Philippine Hokkien or (咱人話) as their main language. Due to the growing Korean population in Angeles City, Korean is also spoken by the Korean expatriates that are residing in Angeles City.

Religion
The majority of the population of Angeles is Catholic. At least two major festivals associated with the Catholic faith are held in October in the city. Commemorating the victory of the Spanish fleet over the Dutch Navy in 1646, the La Naval Fiesta is celebrated in honor of the Our Lady of La Naval de Manila with adherents believing that her intercession was instrumental to the Spaniards' naval victory. The Apu Fiesta involves devotees from all over Pampanga making a visit to the Apu shrine to venerate the image of Jesus Christ lying in the sepulchre which is believed to be miraculous by believers.

Expatriate and immigrant community
Owing to the presence of the nearby U.S. Clark Air Force Base and consequent Freeport Zone, many Americans chose to permanently settle in the area, particularly in the Balibago district, and thus Angeles became home to a large colony of expatriates. During the American colonial period (1898–1946), more than 800,000 Americans were born in the Philippines, and a large concentration of Filipino mestizos or Filipinos with American ancestry were located in this city.

Economy
Being home of the former Clark Air Base (once the largest United States military facility outside the continental United States), it was significantly affected by the fallout from the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991. The economy of Angeles was heavily dependent on the American base at that time.

In 1993, a full cleanup and removal of volcanic ash deposits began and the former U.S. base was transformed into the Clark Special Economic Zone (CSEZ). The creation of CSEZ has helped to offset the loss of income and jobs previously generated by the presence of the U.S. base in the city. Today, Angeles and Clark form the hub for business, industry, aviation, and tourism in the Philippines as well as a leisure, fitness, entertainment and gaming center of Central Luzon.

Angeles is home to an emerging technology industry. Its economy is based also on tourism and gambling. Fields Avenue forms the hub of the night life industry focused in Angeles. With close proximity to an international airport in Clark Freeport, Angeles is visited by foreigners all year round.

In the 2000s, the local government of Angeles rebranded the Fields Avenue tourist belt as a high-end destination with fine restaurants and luxury hotels and casinos The finishing of roads, such as the Subic–Clark–Tarlac Expressway, has improved trade and transport. The project connects the industrial, transport and business hubs of Pampanga, Zambales, Bataan and Tarlac. The project is crucial to bolstering growth in Central Luzon.

The city has cottage industries producing rattan furniture, coconuts, and charcoal briquettes. It also has many thriving export businesses in handicrafts, metal crafts, toys, houseware and garments. Apart from the Clark Freeport Zone, industrial areas include the Angeles Livelihood Village and the Angeles City Industrial Estate.

Call centers present are e-Telecare, CyberCity, Sutherland and IRMC. Other American IT industries are major employers as well. The establishment of a number of shopping malls also fueled the city's economy, including SM City Clark, Robinsons Angeles, Jenra Grand Mall, Nepo Mall, Saver's Mall and the Marquee Mall, next to City Hall.

Angeles City houses numerous restaurants that are usually located near the malls and mostly in Nepo Quad which was newly renovated to cater the heightened needs of the population.

Culture
The city hosts a street party called the Tigtigan Terakan keng Dalan (lit. 'Music and Dancing on the Streets') every October which features musical performances from both amateur and better-known OPM bands.

The Sisig Festival, locally known as the Sadsaran Qng Angeles, festivities dedicated to the Kapampangan dish sisig, used to be held every December. It was halted in 2008 following the murder of Lucia Cunanan, who was known for promoting the dish. The festival was revived as a one-day fiesta in April 2017 in association with the Department of Tourism.

Tourism
Angeles is promoted as a gastronomy tourist destination and is billed as the "culinary capital" of the Philippines. The city is known as a hub for Kampampangan cuisine as well as for its pork sisig. The city also has numerous historically and culturally significant tourist destinations including the Pamintuan Mansion, a heritage house which hosts a history and social studies museum, and the Holy Rosary Church, which is recognized by the National Museum of the Philippines as an Important Cultural Property. Angeles is also situated within the perimeter of the Clark Freeport Zone.

Sex tourism
A consequence of the presence of U.S. bases in the country is the prostitution industry in the city. Since the early days of Clark Air Base, Fields Avenue in Balibago district is an area frequently visited by the U.S. servicemen, has been known as a center for prostitution and sex tourism. A BBC article characterized it as "the centre of the Philippines sex industry" and dubbed it "Sin City." Elsewhere and in later years, Philippine travel publications have described it as the "Entertainment Capital of Central Luzon", "The Filipino Las Vegas", and "Entertainment City."

Angeles City Foreign Tourist Arrival reach 443,000 in 2022 Angeles City is the Biggest total number of International Tourist in North and Central Luzon. Mostly are koreans, chinese and Americans

Local government
As a highly urbanized city in the Province of Pampanga, government officials in the provincial level are not voted by the electorates of the city. The provincial government have no political jurisdiction over local transactions of the city government. Residents of this city are not allowed to run for provincial level except for congress which the city of Angeles is part of Pampanga's 1st legislative district.

The city of Angeles is governed by a city mayor designated as its local chief executive and by a city council as its legislative body in accordance with the Local Government Code. The mayor, vice mayor, and the councilors are elected directly by the people through an election which is being held every three years.

Barangays are also headed by elected officials: Barangay Captain, Barangay Council, whose members are called Barangay Councilors. The barangays have SK federation which represents the barangay, headed by SK chairperson and whose members are called SK councilors. All officials are also elected every three years.

Congress representation
Angeles belongs to the first legislative district of the province of Pampanga. Currently, the city is represented by Carmelo B. Lazatin II in the house of representatives.

Educational Complex's And Universities
• Angeles City National High School (ACNHS)

• AIE College

• AMA Computer Learning Center – Angeles

• AMA Computer University – Angeles

• Angeles City National Trade School

• Angeles City Science High School

• Angeles University Foundation

• Asian Institute of College Studies

• Asian Institute of Science and Technology

• Bonifacio V. Romero High School (formerly Epza High School)

• Chevalier School

• City College of Angeles (Pampang)

• Claro M. Recto Information and Communication Technology High School

• Computer System Specialist

• Dr. Clemente N. Dayrit Sr. Memorial High School (formerly RLLMHS Extension) (Lourdes Sur East)

• Gov. Rafael L. Lazatin Integrated School (Samerra Subd, Sapalibutad)

• Holy Angel University

• Holy Family Academy

• J&K International College

• Jocson College

• Mother of Perpetual Help Institute

• NU Clark

• OB Montessori Center (Angeles Branch)

• Rafael L. Lazatin Memorial High School (RLLMHS Main)

• Republic Central Colleges (Lourdes Sur)

• School of the Holy Child

• St. Augustine School of Nursing

• Skill Power Institute

• STI College – Angeles

• Systems Plus College Foundation

Media
in Angeles City, the only Cable TV channel is PEP TV on a cable provider Air Cable Channel 3 SD & 209 in HD. There are three radio stations in the city: UFM 105.5, GVAM 792 and GV 99.1.

Transport
Clark International Airport is near the city; it is served by many passenger and cargo airlines, including some international ones.

List of Accredited Transport Cooperatives as of January 2021:

 * Bayanihan Terminal-Industrial Estate 5 Transport Service Cooperative
 * Dau Operators and Drivers Transport Cooperative
 * Electric Vehicle Operators Transport Service Cooperative
 * Gp Elite Transport Service Cooperative
 * Manibaug-Angeles Sta.Cruz Jeepney Operators and Drivers Transport Service Cooperative
 * Team Byahero Transport Service Cooperative

Sister cities
Angeles has the following sister cities:

 * 🇺🇸 Las Vegas, Nevada, U.S.
 * 🇰🇷 Seo District, Daegu, South Korea
 * 🇹🇭 Pattaya, Thailand
 * 🇯🇵 Shibuya, Japan
 * 🇵🇭 Davao City, Philippines
 * 🇵🇭 Cabanatuan, Philippines
 * 🇵🇭 San Fernando, Pampanga, Philippines
 * 🇵🇭 Valenzuela, Philippines
 * 🇵🇭 General Santos, Philippines
 * 🇵🇭 Baguio, Philippines
 * 🇹🇼 Taoyuan, Taiwan

title: Angeles City


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Waikiki Natatorium War Memorial

The Waikiki Natatorium War Memorial is a war memorial in Honolulu, Hawaii, USA, built in the form of an ocean water public swimming pool. The Natatorium was built as a living memorial dedicated to "the men and women who served during the great war" (now known as World War I).

Creation of the memorial
In March 1918, the Daughters and Sons of Hawaiian Warriors first proposed a memorial to the more than 10,000 men from the then Territory of Hawaii who volunteered to serve in the great war. The Honolulu Ad Club agreed with the idea and on November 20, 1918, appointed an investigative committee led by Colonel Howard Hathaway, Ned Loomis, and W.D. Westervelt to bring together representatives from all civic organizations to collaborate on the concept of a memorial beginning with a conference which was held on December 6, 1918. At this meeting, Colonel Hathway was appointed Chairman and Fred W. Beckley was appointed Secretary of the general committee on a war memorial.

At the second meeting, a subcommittee was formed to investigate and prepare a report on the design and cost estimates of a war memorial. This subcommittee included: Upon the report of the subcommittee, a plan to acquire the former William G. Irwin Estate (located between the shoreline and Kapiolani Park in Waikiki) for a public park for the memorial gained unanimous support. To pursue the idea, John Guild, Mrs. Walter Macfarlane, Mrs. John Baird, Mrs. A.G.M. Robertson, and Alexander Rume Ford took the lead in pursuing the property.
 * Princess Kalanianaole
 * Mrs. Walter Macfarlane
 * Mrs. A. A. Young
 * Mrs. J.M. Dowsett
 * C.R. Hemenway
 * Senator John H. Wise
 * J.D. McInerny

A bill passed through the territorial legislature with "practical unanimity" according to the Historical Commission of Honolulu. The act was signed by the governor on April 29, 1919, providing for the acquisition of the Irwin property through the sale of territorial bonds and provided that the property should be named "Memorial Park" for the memorial concept being discussed by the committee on a war memorial.

Memorial Park was formally dedicated on the first anniversary of the signing of the armistice with the dedication organized by the recently formed organization, the American Legion.

In 1920, with the memorial's site now acquired, a committee to study and recommend designs for the memorial itself was organized. The Honolulu Historical Commission, Territory of Hawaii, lists the members of the memorial committee as:

 * J.K. Butler
 * L.S. Cain
 * A.L.C. Atkinson
 * A.T. Longley
 * H.P. O'Sullivan
 * Norman Watkins
 * Senator L.M. Judd
 * J.R. Galt
 * L.B. Reeves
 * Alexander May
 * R.L. Richards
 * G.H. Angus
 * Sherwood Lowrey
 * R.N. Burnham for the Rotary Club
 * Milo Vanek for the Ad Club
 * Gordon Usborne for the Hawaiian Academy of Art and Design.

After much deliberation, the committee reported its final recommendation for the war memorial. According to the Historical Commission of the Territory of Hawaii, "the scheme evolved called for a memorial natatorium with a pavilion and attractive landscaping of Memorial Park, the swimming pool itself to be of Olympic proportions".

On the opening day of the 1921 Territorial Legislature, Senator L.M. Judd introduced a bill for the construction of a war memorial at Memorial Park, to be funded by issuing territorial bonds. The bill specified that the memorial is to be dedicated to "the men and women of Hawaii who served during the great war" which was an expansion from the initial concept which was to honor the men of Hawaii who died in service during World War I.

The bill was passed by both houses of the legislature and signed by the governor on March 15, 1921, becoming Act 15.

Act 15, set three requirements for the design of the memorial:
 * 1) It is to be located at Memorial Park, Waikiki
 * 2) That it "shall contain a swimming course of at least 100 meters"; and
 * 3) All other design elements were to be determined by a design contest with features chosen by a Territorial War Commission appointed by the Governor.

Territorial War Memorial Commission
Act 15 provided for the formation of a Territorial War Memorial Commission to determine the features of the memorial beyond the requirements set out by law: the swimming course of 100 meters and the location. Governor Charles J. McCarthy appointed the members of the commission: A. Lester Marks, Chairman

John R. Galt, Secretary

A.L.C. Atkinson, later replaced by J.K. Butler

Louis Christian Mullgardt, a Fellow of the American Institute of Architects (AIA), was appointed as an advisory architect to prepare a general scheme for the park and to plan and execute a competition following the rules set forth by the AIA.

The jury to determine the winning design was composed of:

The Governor of the Territory of Hawaii

The Mayor of Honolulu

Architect Bernard R. Maybeck of San Francisco

Architect Ellis F. Lawrence of Portland

Architect W. R. B. Willcox of Seattle

The jury selected the design by San Francisco architect Lewis P. Hobart as the first prize.

"It reveals a fine, discriminating taste and ability in architectural design, and in such landscape treatment as reflects the highly individual color and flavor of Hawaii and Honolulu; it forecasts a memorial which will sustain an appropriate interest into the distant future, and perpetuate the noble thought and purpose which animated the original conception of the project." - The judges of the War Memorial Commission's design contest of the winning design by Architect Lewis P. Hobart

Current state
Located in Honolulu, at the shore west of Kapiolani Park and completed in 1927, the natatorium was built in the Hawaiian Beaux-Arts architectural style. The entrance to the memorial includes an arch featuring four stone eagles typical of this style.

Inside the memorial is a 100-meter by 40-meter saltwater swimming pool. In the opening ceremonies on August 24, 1927, the local Olympic gold medal holder Duke Kahanamoku made the first swim (it was his birthday). In the following swim meet, world record holder Johnny Weissmuller won the 100, 400 and 800-meter events, and Buster Crabbe (also local) won the 1500 meters.

After the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the natatorium was taken over by the US Army and used for training during World War II. In 1949 it was refurbished and turned over to the City and County of Honolulu on July 1, 1949. Its condition deteriorated, and was officially closed in 1963, but continued to be used.

It was added to the National Register of Historic Places listings in Oahu on August 11, 1980, as site 80001283.

There have been several proposals to demolish the structure, while others argue for its preservation and repair. For generations, the natatorium was a popular recreational gathering center for residents and tourists. However, it closed to the public in 1979 due to safety concerns and city council political support has oscillated between renovation and demolition of the structure.

2018–2019 Renovation and reopening draft study
In 2018–2019, the City and County of Honolulu began a study to see about reopening the memorial, which has been closed to the public since approximately 1979. The draft study is available online and allows the city to proceed with research on alternatives that will allow the memorial to be brought into a usable condition and to resolve hazards that prevent the memorial from being a proud representation and tribute to WW1 veterans.

The EIS study notes the "significant and adverse" socio-cultural impact if no action is taken to improve the dilapidated structure. The city mayor estimates the preferred option of renovation to cost around USD 25.6 million.

Kaimana Beach
Adjacent to the south of the Natatorium lies Kaimana Beach, a popular destination for the resident Honolulu population of the Kaimuki, Manoa, Diamond Head and other surrounding communities. Kaimana is a sandy beach lined with palms with a lifeguard tower, showers and public parking.

Kaimana Beach was originally a rocky beach with a narrow strip of sand. It is also known as Sans Souci Beach, (French for "without worries") for the hotel once run by George Lycurgus in 1893, named in turn after the Sanssouci Palace in Potsdam.

After the Waikiki War Memorial Natatorium was built adjacent to Kaimana and just off the shoreline, the beach was able to accumulate a vastly wider sandy beach which makes it so popular today. The name Kaimana is not an ancient Hawaiian name for the area, but is rather the Hawaiian pronunciation of the English name for the nearby Diamond Head. The former Sans Souci site is now the New Otani Kaimana Beach Hotel.

Kaimana Beach was the end point of the first submarine communications cable between California and Hawaii. Duke Kahanamoku's uncle, David Piikoi, was said to have been the person who dragged the underwater cable through Kapua Channel and onto Kaimana's shore in 1902. The first telegraphic message over this new cable was sent on January 1, 1903, from Henry Ernest Cooper to President Theodore Roosevelt in Washington, DC.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Waikiki Natatorium War Memorial


text:
Antillia

Antillia (or Antilia) is a phantom island that was reputed, during the 15th-century age of exploration, to lie in the Atlantic Ocean, far to the west of Portugal and Spain. The island also went by the name of Isle of Seven Cities (Ilha das Sete Cidades in Portuguese, Isla de las Siete Ciudades in Spanish).

It originates from an old Iberian legend, set during the Muslim conquest of Hispania c. 714. Seeking to flee from the Muslim conquerors, seven Christian Visigothic bishops embarked with their flocks on ships and set sail westwards into the Atlantic Ocean, eventually landing on an island (Antilha) where they founded seven settlements.

The island makes its first explicit appearance as a large rectangular island in the 1424 portolan chart of Zuane Pizzigano. Thereafter, it routinely appeared in most nautical charts of the 15th century. After 1492, when the north Atlantic Ocean began to be routinely sailed and became more accurately mapped, depictions of Antillia gradually disappeared. It nonetheless lent its name to the Spanish Antilles.

The routine appearance of such a large "Antillia" in 15th-century nautical charts has led to speculation that it might represent the American landmass, and has fueled many theories of pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact.

Legend
Stories of islands in the Atlantic Ocean, legendary and otherwise, have been reported since classical antiquity. Utopian tales of the Fortunate Islands (or Isles of the Blest) were sung by poets like Homer and Horace. Plato articulated the utopian legend of Atlantis. Ancient writers like Plutarch, Strabo, and, more explicitly, Pliny the Elder and Ptolemy, testified to the existence of the Canary Islands. The names of some real islands re-emerged as distinct mythical islands with associated legends, e.g. capraria (the island of goats) and canaria (the island of dogs) are often found on maps separately from the Canary Islands (e.g. Pizzigani brothers, 1367).

The Middle Ages saw the emergence of Christian versions of these tales. Notable among these are the Irish immrama (tales of a hero's journey to the Otherworld), such as the immram of Uí Corra, or the sea voyages of the 6th-century Irish missionaries Saint Brendan and Saint Malo. These are the source for several legendary Atlantic islands such as Saint Brendan's Island and the Island of Ima. The sagas of Norse seafarers to Greenland and Vinland, notably the Grœnlendinga saga and the saga of Erik the Red, have also been influential. Norse encounters with North American indigenous peoples seem to have filtered into Irish immrama.

The peoples of the Iberian peninsula, who were closest to the real Atlantic islands of the Canaries, Madeira and Azores, and whose seafarers and fishermen may have seen and even visited them, articulated their own tales. Medieval Andalusian Arabs related stories of Atlantic island encounters in the legend (told by al-Masudi) of the 9th-century navigator Khashkhash of Cordoba and the 12th-century story (told by al-Idrisi) of the eight Maghrurin (Wanderers) of Lisbon.

Given the tendency of the legends of different seafarers – Greek, Norse, Irish, Arab and Iberian – to cross-fertilize and influence each other, the exact source of some legendary Atlantic islands – such as the mythical islands of Brasil and the Isle of Mam – are extremely difficult to disentangle.

It is from Christian Iberia that the legend of Antillia emerged. According to the legend, in c. 714, during the Muslim conquest of Hispania, seven Christian bishops of Visigothic Hispania, led by the Bishop of Porto, embarked with their parishioners on ships and set sail westward into the Atlantic Ocean to escape the Arab conquerors. They stumbled upon an island and decided to settle there, burning their ships to permanently sever their link to their now Muslim-dominated former homeland. The bishops erected seven settlements (the "Seven Cities") on the island. In one reading (from Grazioso Benincasa), the seven cities are named Aira, Antuab, Ansalli, Ansesseli, Ansodi, Ansolli and Con.

The legend, in this form, is told in various places. The principal source is an inscription on Martin Behaim's 1492 Nuremberg globe which reads (in English translation):

"In the year 734 after the birth of Christ, when all Spain was overrun by the miscreants of Africa, this Island of Antillia, called also the Isle of the Seven Cities, was peopled by the Archbishop of Porto with six other bishops, and certain companions, male and female, who fled from Spain with their cattle and property. In the year 1414, a Spanish ship approached very near this Island."

The legend is also found inscribed in the 1507/08 map of Johannes Ruysch, which reads (in English): "This island Antilia was once found by the Portuguese, but now when it is searched, cannot be found. People found here speak the Hispanic language, and are believed to have fled here in face of a barbarian invasion of Hispania, in the time of King Roderic, the last to govern Hispania in the era of the Goths. There is 1 archbishop here and 6 other bishops, each of whom has his own city; and so it is called the island of seven cities. The people live here in the most Christian manner, replete with all the riches of this century."

Ruysch's inscription is reproduced almost verbatim in the Libro of Spanish historian Pedro de Medina (1548). Medina gives the island's dimensions as 87 leagues in length and 28 in width, with "many good ports and rivers", and says it is situated on the latitude of the Straits of Gibraltar, that sailors have seen it from a distance, but disappears when they approach it.

The adjustment to the 714 date and the burning of the ships is due to Ferdinand Columbus (1539), who also reports an alleged encounter with the islanders by a Portuguese ship in the time of Henry the Navigator (c. 1430s–1440s). António Galvão (1563) reports that a 1447 Portuguese ship stumbled on the island, and met its (Portuguese-speaking) inhabitants, who reported they had fled there in the "time of Roderic" and asked whether the Moors still dominated Hispania. More elaborate versions of this story have been told in more modern times.

Yet another variant of the tale is told in Manuel de Faria e Sousa (1628), of Sacaru, a Visigothic governor of Mérida. Besieged by the Muslim armies and finding his situation hopeless, Sacaru negotiated capitulation, and proceeded, with all who wished to follow him, to embark on a fleet for exile in the Canary islands. Faria e Sousa notes they may not have reached their destination, but may have ended up instead on an Atlantic Ocean island "populated by Portuguese, that has seven cities ... which some imagine to be that one which can be seen from Madeira, but when they wish to reach it, disappears".

The island is mentioned in a royal letter of King Afonso V of Portugal (dated 10 November 1475), where he grants the knight Fernão Teles "the Seven Cities and any other populated islands" he might find in the western Atlantic Ocean. It is mentioned again in a royal letter (dated 24 July 1486), issued by King John II of Portugal at the request of Fernão Dulmo authorizing him to search for and "discover the island of Seven Cities".

Already by the 1490s, there are rumors that silver can be found in the island's sands. In the 16th century, the legend gave rise to the independent Spanish legends of the Seven Cities of Gold, reputed by mercenary conquistadors to be fabulously wealthy and located somewhere on the mainland of America.

Etymology
The term Antillia is probably derived from the Portuguese "Ante-Ilha" ("Fore-Island", "Island of the Other", or "Opposite Island"). It may be a reference to the belief that the island lay directly "opposite" from mainland Portugal (as it is usually charted), consistent with the Seven Cities story. Its size and rectangular shape is a near-mirror image of the Kingdom of Portugal itself. Some suggest the ante-ilha etymology might be older, possibly related in meaning to the "Aprositus" ("the Inaccessible"), the name reported by Ptolemy for one of the Fortunate Isles.

Others regard the "ante-ilha" etymology as unsatisfactory, on the basis that "ante", in geographical usage, suggests it sits opposite another island, not a continent. As a result, alternative etymological theories of Antillia abound. One theory was that "Antillia" is merely a poorly-transcribed reference to Plato's "Atlantis". Another is that it is a corruption of Getulia, an ancient Roman name for a geographical location in northwestern Africa. Another theory, famously forwarded by Alexander von Humboldt, is that it comes from the Arabic al-Tin or al-Tennyn, for "dragon", a reference to the old Arab legends about sea dragons on the edge of the ocean (frequently depicted in Arab maritime charts), and that the island may have been known as Jezirat al Tennyn, or "Dragon's Isle", in Andalusian Arab legend.

One more recent hypothesis (although not finding wide acceptance), is that Antillia may mean "in front of Thule". Sometimes written Tile, Thule was a semi-mythical reference to Iceland, already spoken of in classical sources. If so, then ante Tile, the "island before Thule", might very well be Ireland, which might have had seven "cities" at the time. This theory, however, seems highly speculative. Ireland (Hibernia) was well-known and appears distinctly on all 15th-century maps.

In a fresh work on the subject, the author Demetrio Charalambous notes that in medieval maps, the name of the island is written Antylia, which is inconsistent with the interpretation commonly accepted that the name means "ante-ilha" in Portuguese. No medieval map records the name "Antilha", by which the author dismisses the name as being Portuguese. Instead, he noted that the first cartographers to mention the island (although they did not represent it) were Francesco and Domenico Pizigano in 1367, who called it Antullia. From this follows that the name means "Anti-Tullia", i.e. Anti-Thule, later transformed into Antyllia, and finally Antillia. According to his interpretation, the name denotes the island opposite to Tyle, but this does not mean it is before Iceland, but beyond it, as represented in the maps. The name means the island opposite to Tyle by sailing southwest, and therefore refers to America.

Cartographic representation
The rediscovery of the Canary Islands by Europeans in the 14th century revived an interest in Atlantic island myths. With the existence of lands out in the Atlantic Ocean confirmed, 14th-century European geographers began plumbing the old legends and plotting and naming many of these mythical islands on their nautical charts, alongside the new discoveries. Mythical Atlantic islands litter the early 14th-century portolan charts of Pietro Vesconte and Angelino Dulcert.

Some historians believe the legend of Antillia was first insinuated cartographically in the 1367 portolan of the Venetian brothers Domenico and Francesco Pizzigano. This was insinuated by an inscription (albeit with no island) on the western edge of the map, which was read by some 19th-century historians as referring to "statues on the shores of Atullia" (ante ripas Atulliae) beyond which sailors should not pass. However, later readings have suggested it should be read as the statues of Arcules (Hercules), and that the inscription's reference is probably to the Pillars of Hercules, the non plus ultra (outer limits) of ancient navigation, and not Antillia.

Antillia makes its first unambiguous appearance in the 1424 portolan chart of Venetian cartographer Zuane Pizzigano, as part of a group of four islands, lying far in the Atlantic Ocean some 250 leagues west of Portugal, and 200 leagues west of the Azores archipelago (which also usually depicted in contemporary charts). Pizzigano drew Antillia as a large, red, rectangular island, indented with bays and dotted with seven settlements, with the inscription ista ixola dixemo antilia ("this island is called antillia"). Some sixty leagues north of it is the comparable large blue Satanazes island (ista ixolla dixemo satanazes, called Satanagio/Satanaxio/Salvagio in later maps), capped by a small umbrella-shaped Saya (called "Tanmar" or "Danmar" in later maps). Some twenty leagues west of Antilia is the small blue companion island of Ymana (the 'Royllo' of later maps). These four islands will be collectively drawn together in many later 15th-century maps, with the same relative size, position and shape Pizzigano gave them in 1424. They are commonly referred to collectively as the "Antillia group" or (to use Beccario's label) the insulae de novo rep(er)te ("islands newly reported").

Cartographic appearances of Antillia (in chronological order):

 * 1) 1424 map of Zuane Pizzigano of Venice as ista ixolla dixemo antilia
 * 2) 1435 map of Battista Beccario of Genoa
 * 3) 1436 map of Andrea Bianco of Venice
 * 4) 1455 map of Bartolomeo Pareto of Genoa – omits Satanazes
 * 5) 1463 map of Grazioso Benincasa of Ancona
 * 6) 1463 map of Pedro Roselli of Majorca
 * 7) 1466 map of Pedro Roselli
 * 8) 1468 map of Pedro Roselli
 * 9) 1460s anonymous Weimar map (attrib. to Conte di Ottomano Freducci of Ancona) – labelled as septe civit
 * 10) 1470 map of Grazioso Benincasa
 * 11) c. 1475 map of Cristoforo Soligo of Venice – omits Satanazes, Antillia labelled as y de sete zitade
 * 12) 1474 "map" of Paolo Toscanelli – map missing, but Antilia referenced in letter.
 * 13) 1476 map of Andrea Benincasa of Ancona (son of Grazioso) – omits Satanazes
 * 14) 1480 map of Albino de Canepa of Venice
 * 15) 1482 map of Grazioso Benincasa
 * 16) c. 1482 map of Grazioso Benincasa (different from above)
 * 17) 1482 map of Jacme Bertran of Majorca
 * 18) 1487 map of anonymous Majorcan cartographer
 * 19) 1489 map of Albino de Canepa
 * 20) 1492 Nuremberg globe of Martin Behaim – omits Satanazes, first with inscription relating legend.
 * 21) 1493 anonymous Laon globe
 * 22) c. 1500 Paris map ("Columbus map") of anonymous Portuguese/Genoese (?) cartographer.
 * 23) 1507-08 map of Johannes Ruysch – relocates Satanazes to Isle of Demons(?), relates legend.

As is evident, on some maps (e.g. Pareto, Soligo, Behaim), Antillia appears without Satanazes.

Significantly, although included in his map of 1436, the Antillia group is omitted in the later Andrea Bianco map of 1448, although some authors believe that two rectangular islands depicted by Bianco much further south (in the environs of Cape Verde), and labelled merely dos ermanos ("two brothers") may be a reference to Antilia and Satanazes.

The controversial (possibly fake) Vinland map, dated by its supporters around 1440, shows the outlines of Antillia and Satanazes islands (but not the two smaller ones) under the general label Magnae insulae Beati Brandani (great islands of St Brendan).

Antillia (and all its companions) are conspicuously omitted in the map of Gabriel de Vallseca (1439), the Genoese map (1457), the Fra Mauro map (1459) and the maps of Henricus Martellus Germanus (1484, 1489) and Pedro Reinel (c. 1485). With a few exceptions (e.g. Ruysch), Antillia disappears from almost all known maps composed after Christopher Columbus's voyages to the Americas in the 1490s (e.g. it is absent on the 1500 map of Juan de la Cosa, the Cantino planisphere of 1502, etc.)

It appears in virtually all of the known surviving Portolan charts of the Atlantic – notably those of the Genoese B. Beccario or Beccaria (1435), the Venetian Andrea Bianco (1436), and Grazioso Benincasa (1476 and 1482). It is usually accompanied by the smaller and equally legendary islands of Royllo, St Atanagio, and Tanmar, the whole group often classified as insulae de novo repertae, newly discovered islands.

On these maps, Antillia was typically depicted on a similar scale to that of Portugal, lying around 200 miles west of the Azores. It was drawn as an almost perfect rectangle, its long axis running north–south, but with seven trefoil bays shared between the east and west coasts. Each city lay on a bay. The form of the island occasionally becomes more figurative than the semi-abstract representations of Bartolomeo de Pareto, Benincasa and others: Bianco, for instance, shifts its orientation to northwest–southeast, transmutes generic bays into river mouths (including a large one on the northeastern coast), and elongates a southern tail into a cape with a small cluster of islets offshore.

Around the time of Spain's discovery of South America, Antillia dwindles substantially in size on Behaim's globe and later charts. Contrary to the earlier descriptions of the two island groups as distinct entities, a 16th-century notion relegates Antillia to the island of São Miguel, the largest of the Azores, where a national park centering on two lakes still bears the name Sete Cidades National Park.

Medieval beliefs and the Age of Discovery
A Portuguese legend tells how the island was settled in the early 8th century in the face of the Moorish conquest of Iberia by the Archbishop of Porto, six other bishops and their parishioners to avoid the ensuing Moorish invasion. Each congregation founded a city, namely, Aira, Anhuib, Ansalli, Ansesseli, Ansodi, Ansolli and Con, and once established, burnt their caravel ships as a symbol of their autonomy. The reporting of this settlement comes courtesy of a young couple who eloped back to Europe on a rare trading ship and reported the seven cities as a model of agricultural, economic and cultural harmony. Centuries later, the island became known as a proto-utopian commonwealth, free from the disorders of less favoured states.

Since these events predated the Kingdom of Portugal and the clergy's heritage marked a claim to significant strategical gains, Spain counterclaimed that the expedition was, in fact, theirs. One of the chief early descriptions of the heritage of Antillia is inscribed on the globe which the geographer Martin Behaim made at Nuremberg in 1492. Behaim relates the Catholic escape from the barbarians, though his date of 734 is probably a mistake for 714. The inscription adds that a Spanish vessel sighted the island in 1414, while a Portuguese crew claimed to have landed on Antillia in the 1430s.

In a later version of the legend, the bishops fled from Mérida, Spain, when Moors attacked it around the year 1150. With this legend underpinning the growing reports of a bountiful civilisation midway between Europe and Cipangu, or Japan, the quest to discover the Seven Cities attracted significant attention. However, by the last decade of the 15th century, the Portuguese state's official sponsorship of such exploratory voyages had ended, and in 1492, under the Spanish flag of Ferdinand and Isabella, Christopher Columbus set out on his historic journey to Asia, citing the island as the perfect halfway house by the authority of Paul Toscanelli. Columbus had supposedly gained charts and descriptions from a Spanish navigator, who had "sojourned ... and died also" at Columbus's home in Madeira, after having made landfall on Antillia.

Following John Cabot's first 1497 voyage to Newfoundland, several people believed he had discovered Antillia. Upon Cabot's return to England, two residents of Bristol – the Italian merchant Raimondo de Soncino (in a letter to the Duke of Milan, dated August 24, 1497) and Bristol merchant John Day (in a letter to Christopher Columbus, written c. December 1497) – refer to Cabot making landfall and coasting the "Island of Seven Cities".

Later influence
Others following d'Anghiera suggested contenders in the West Indies for Antillia's heritage (most often either Puerto Rico or Trinidad), and as a result the Caribbean islands became known as the Antilles. As European explorations continued in the Americas, maps reduced the scale of the island Antillia, tending to place it mid-Atlantic, whereas the Seven Cities of Gold were attributed to mainland Central or North America, as the various European powers vied for territory in the New World.

title: Antillia


text:
David James

Dewi, Dai, Dafydd or David James may refer to:

Performers

 * David James (actor, born 1839) (1839–1893), English stage comic and a founder of London's Vaudeville Theatre
 * David James (actor, born 1967) (born 1967), Australian presenter of ABC's Play School
 * David James (actor, born 1972) (born 1972), South African who played Koobus Venter in 2009 film District 9
 * David James (singer), Canadian country music songwriter since 2013

Public officials

 * David James (American politician) (1843–1921), member of Wisconsin State Senate
 * David James (Australian politician) (1854–1926), member of South Australia House of Assembly
 * David James (British MP) (1919–1986), member of Conservative Party, notable for escape from POW camp
 * David James, Baron James of Blackheath (born 1937), English corporate trouble-shooter, author of Conservative Party's James Report

Scientists

 * David Gwilym James (1905–1968), Welsh vice chancellor of University of Southampton
 * David James (cell biologist) (born 1958), Australian scientist who discovered glucose transporter GLUT4
 * David James, British astronomer and minor planet discoverer

Sportsmen

 * Dafydd James (born 1975), Welsh rugby union wing and centre
 * Dai James (1899—after 1929), Welsh footballer with Aberdare Athletic and Brighton & Hove Albion
 * Dave James, American NASCAR racer in 1969 Motor Trend 500
 * David James (cricketer, born 1791) (1791–1846), English player recorded in two matches for Old Etonians
 * David James (cricketer, born 1921) (1921–2002), Welsh right-handed batsman
 * David James (rugby, born 1866) (1866–1929), Welsh halfback
 * David James (rugby, born 1906) (1906–1981), Welsh rugby union and rugby league hooker
 * David James (rugby, born 1985), Welsh wing and fullback
 * David James (footballer, born 1917) (1917–1981), Welsh centre forward
 * David James (footballer, born 1942), Scottish winger
 * David James (footballer, born 1970), English goalkeeper
 * David James (sailor) (born 1949), American Olympian in 1968
 * Scottie James (born 1996), American basketball player

Others

 * David James (painter) (1853–1904), English marine painter
 * David James (bishop) (born 1945), English bishop of Bradford
 * Dewi James, Welsh businessman, co-founder in 1984 of American pornographic film company Vivid Entertainment, a/k/a David James

title: David James


text:
Guomao, Beijing

Guomao is an area in Beijing at the center of the Beijing central business district, demarcated by the intersection of Jianguomen Outer Street and the Third Ring Road. The Chinese World Trade Center is located there. It was formerly known as Dabeiyao, and bus stops in the vicinity still bear this name.

Guomao is also the name of the interchange station on Line 1 and Line 10.

History
During the Ming Dynasty, the area was pastureland outside the city walls, and served as a hunting ground for the imperial family. During World War II, the occupying Japanese Army built a complex of kilns in the area, the largest of which in the north became a landmark. The area was then called Dabeiyao, literally the "Great Northern Kiln".

In 1985, the China World Trade Center was built at the intersection of the 3rd Ring Road and Jianguomen Outer Street and the Beijing CBD was established in 1993. The Dabeiyao Overpass was consequently renamed the Guomao Bridge - "Guomao" is the abbreviation for the Chinese name of the China World Trade Center. Guomao subway station was opened on September 28, 1999.

Public transportation

 * Beijing Subway: Guomao Station on Line 1 and Line 10
 * Bus routes that stop at and around the Guomao Overpass:
 * Dabeiyao West (大北窑西):1 9 28 58 99 619 666 668 804 805 805快 938 夜1
 * Dabeiyao North (大北窑北):98 113 402 405 417 421 488 503 601 619 673 974 特8 夜30 运通107
 * Dabeiyao East (大北窑东):1 11 57 312 402 405 502 626 647 648 666 667 668 669 801 976 夜1
 * Dabeiyao South (大北窑南):28 57 72 91 98 113 348 421 601 805 805快 806 807 808 809 814 846 938快 974 976 998 夜30 运通107 专5 专10 专164
 * Beijing Airport Bus: Route 1.

title: Guomao, Beijing


text: Category:Elections in Guyana

title: Category:Elections in Guyana


text: Category:Elections in Germany

title: Category:Elections in Germany


text:
Metrication Board

The Metrication Board was a non-departmental public body that existed in the United Kingdom to promote and co-ordinate metrication within the country. It was set up in 1969, four years after the metrication programme was announced, and wound down in 1981.

Prelude to metrication
The question of whether or not to convert British trade and industry to metric was the subject of a UK Government White Paper in 1951, itself the result of the Hodgson Committee Report of 1949 which unanimously recommended compulsory metrication and currency decimalisation within ten years. The report said "The real problem facing Great Britain is not whether to adhere either to the Imperial or to the metric system, but to maintain two legal systems or to abolish the Imperial." The report also recommended that any change should be done in concert with the Commonwealth (former Empire) and the US, that the UK adopt a decimal currency and that the UK and US harmonise their respective definitions of the yard using the metre as a reference.

Although most of the Hodgson Report was rejected at the time as being premature, within a decade and a half changing patterns in British trade meant that in 1963 a poll by the British Standards Institute (BSI) revealed that the majority of its members favoured a transition to the metric system.

Two years later, after taking a poll of its members, the Confederation of British Industry informed the government that they favoured the adoption of the metric system, though some sectors emphasised the need for a voluntary system of adoption. The metrication programme in the United Kingdom was to have five phases: announcement of policy; metrication of the documentation for materials, specification and engineering design; metrication of engineering-related industries; initiation of a national education programme in the schools and metrication of the wholesale, retail and consumer industries.

Establishment of the Board
In March 1966 the [Parliamentary] Standing Joint Committee on Metrication was appointed and on 26 July 1968, when accepting the committee's report, the government announced that:
 * The target date for the completion of the metrication programme was 1975.
 * An advisory Metrication Board would be set up.
 * Legislation would be passed where necessary.
 * There would be no compensation – costs would be borne where they fell.

The Metrication Board was set up with a mandate to "consult, advise, inform, stimulate and coordinate". Its mandate specifically excluded a campaigning role. The board held its first meeting in May 1969 under the chairmanship of Lord Ritchie-Calder when eight committees were set up to deal with the most important sectors of British Industry:
 * Agriculture, Forestry, Fisheries and Land
 * Distribution, Food and Consumer Goods Industries
 * Education and Industrial Training
 * Engineering Industries
 * Fuel and Power Industries
 * Industrial Materials and Construction Industries
 * Transport and Communications Industries
 * Information Policy

By the time the board was set up, much of the groundwork, especially rewriting of many British Standards using metric units had been done and many of the industries that stood to benefit from metrication had already metricated, or had a metrication programme in progress.

Traditionally the British Government had imposed little regulation on British industry – standards were usually defined by the industry itself, often in conjunction with the British Standards Institution. Legislation relating to units of measure were normally directed at trade with industry being allowed to develop its own standards.

After the general election and change of government in 1970, the incoming government announced its intention to continue to "encourage these voluntary developments, including the use of metric specifications for public purposes as soon as consultation with the suppliers shows this to be practicable".

White paper
In 1972, three years before the target date for completion of the metrication programme, the Metrication Board published a white paper laying out the political and economic rationale behind the adoption of the metric system, identifying the practicalities and potential difficulties of the changeover and outlining the programme. The report emphasised that unlike currency decimalisation, the [remainder of] the programme would be on a phased basis with no M-Day. The report also emphasised the need for co-ordination between the various sectors as all were interdependent and thus that partial metrication was undesirable.

Activities of the Board
Completion of metrication as cited in the Final report of the Metrication Board was:
 * 1970 – Electric Cables, British Aerospace designs, London Metal Exchange, Flat glass.
 * 1971 – Paper and Board, National Coal Board designs, Pharmaceuticals.
 * 1972 – Steel industry, Building regulations
 * 1974 – Textile and wool transactions, clothing (dual units)
 * 1975 – Retail trade in fabrics and floor coverings, Post office tariffs, medical practice
 * 1976 – Bulk sales of petroleum, agriculture and horticulture
 * 1977 – Livestock auctions
 * 1978 – Solid fuel, cheese wholesaling, London Commodity Market
 * Metrication of retail pre-packaged foodstuffs was phased in during 1977 and 1978

Winding up of the Board
Following the 1979 general election and another change of government, Sally Oppenheim, described by the last director of the Metrication Board, Jim Humble, as having "been almost the lone but persistent critic of the metric programme" was appointed Minister of State for Consumer Affairs. On 14 November 1979, six months after her appointment, she announced that no more statutory orders would be made regarding metrication – continued progress would be on a voluntary basis. The following year the Metrication Board was wound up, one of the 457 Quangos that were wound up in the "Quango bonfire" of 1979–81.

The author of the final report of the Metrication Board wrote "Today metric units are used in many important areas of British life – including education; agriculture; construction; industrial materials; much of manufacturing; the wholesaling of petrol, milk, cheese and textiles; fatstock markets and many port fish auctions, nearly all the principal prepacked foods; posts and telecommunications: most freight and customs tariffs; all new and revised Ordnance Survey maps; and athletics. Nevertheless, taken as a whole, Britain is far from being wholly metric." The report identified major areas that had not yet been metricated as being the retail petrol trade (metricated early 1980s), retail sale of loose goods (metricated in 2000) and road signs (as of 2020, only weights are metricated, but not distance).

Comparable institutions
Similar bodies were instituted in other jurisdictions around the world:

 * Australia – Metric Conversion Board (1970)
 * Canada – the Metric Commission
 * Hong Kong – the Metrication Committee
 * New Zealand – Metric Advisory Board (1970)
 * South Africa – Metrication Advisory Board (1967)
 * United States of America – the United States Metric Board

title: Metrication Board


text: Category:Dunklin County, Missouri

title: Category:Dunklin County, Missouri


text:
Seven Cities

Seven Cities may refer to:

 * "Seven Cities" (song), a 1999 single by trance producers Solarstone
 * Seven Cities (Malazan), a continent in the Malazan Book of the Fallen series
 * Seven Cities of Gold (disambiguation)
 * Seven cities of Delhi
 * The mythical "Isle of Seven Cities", also known as Antillia
 * The Seven Cities of Hampton Roads, the largest communities in southeastern Virginia
 * Destruction of the Seven Cities (1598-1604) in Chile.
 * Yeti Shahr (seven cities), an alternate name for Altishahr (six cities), an ancient name for the Tarim Basin.
 * Portuguese for Sete Cidades, a National Park in Brazil

title: Seven Cities


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Hawaii Theatre

The Hawaii Theatre is a historic 1922 theatre in downtown Honolulu, Hawaii, located at 1130 Bethel Street, between Hotel and Pauahi Streets, on the edge of Chinatown. It is listed on the State and National Register of Historic Places.

History
When Consolidated Amusement Company opened the Hawaii Theatre on September 6, 1922, local newspapers called it "The Pride of the Pacific" and considered it the equal in opulence to any theatre in San Francisco or beyond. When it opened, it was Consolidated Amusement's flagship theatre and the largest (1,760 seats) and most ornate in Hawaii. The company's offices were also in the building.

Honolulu architects Walter Emory and Marshall Webb employed elements of Neoclassical architecture for the exterior—with Byzantine, Corinthian, and Moorish ornamentation—and a rich panoply of Beaux-Arts architecture inside—Corinthian columns, a gilded dome, marble statuary, an art gallery, plush carpets, silk hangings, and a Lionel Walden mural above the proscenium. The interior was wide and shallow, with a single balcony and two rows of loge boxes. On the main floor, two private boxes flanked the stage.

The exterior originally had a simple canopy with a small reader board listing the attractions, and a vertical sign lit by electric bulbs. In 1938, a large, new marquee was installed with the largest neon display in the islands.

The Hawaii Theatre presented both Vaudeville entertainment and silent films through the 1920s. It had its own full orchestra for live shows and a large Robert-Morton pipe organ used to accompany silent films. Following the introduction of sound films, it operated as a downtown movie theatre through the 1960s.

Decline and Revival
With the shift in entertainment and retail venues away from downtown beginning in the 1960s, theatre attendance gradually declined into the 1970s and early 1980s. Consolidated Amusement decided not to renew its lease and the Hawaii Theatre closed in 1984. Concerned about the Hawaii's potential demolition, several members of the theatre's pipe organ volunteer group formed the non-profit 501(c)(3) Hawaii Theatre Center and, joined by others, united to save and restore it, eventually undertaking major fund-raising efforts. In 1986, the organization was able to purchase the theatre and, subsequently, several adjacent buildings. An extensive renovation of the interior followed in 1994, coordinated by the architectural firm of Hardy Holzman Pfeiffer of New York City. The theatre reopened in 1996, while exterior renovations continued through 2005. The large marquee from 1938, which had deteriorated and been removed, was replicated and installed, and featured new electronic display panels.

Current Operation and Accolades
The Hawaii Theatre is once again a popular venue for stage shows and concerts, and continues today as a successful performing arts center. In 2005, the League of Historic America Theatres named it the "Outstanding Historic Theatre in America"; in 2006, the National Trust for Historic Preservation gave the Hawaii Theatre its highest "Honor Award" for national preservation; and in 2006, the Hawaii Better Business Bureau presented its "Torch Award for Business Ethics" to the Hawaii Theatre Center, the first small nonprofit to receive that award.

The Hawaii Theatre is the last surviving, operating historic theatre in Honolulu. Guided tours of the theatre are regularly offered.

title: Hawaii Theatre


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Garvage

Garvage was proposed for deletion. This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was DELETE

neologism, non-encyclopedic, with <300 google results, most which do not correspond to this meaning. — siro χ  o  18:00, Jul 19, 2004 (UTC) This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like other '/delete' pages is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion or on the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.
 * Same guy posted Garvana which I've nominated as a speedy. Delete both. - Lucky 6.9 18:13, 19 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete as neologism and dictionary definition. Either reason is sufficient. Thue | talk 18:21, 19 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * What's wrong with neoligisms? Both words are used regularly on BBC Science, where their meanings are clearly understood. Keep. Kiteman 18:35, 19 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: nouns derived from names.... Neologism & dictdef. Geogre 19:22, 19 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Kiteman: the problem is that this is an encyclopedia. We have the Wiktionary for dictionary definitions.  Furthermore, though, a word that is very new is jargon or slang.  It needs to be in widespread use before a dictionary (or Wiktionary) would include it.  The usage of this term is confined to an electronic forum, it seems, so that would be too narrow a usage base. Geogre 19:22, 19 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Point taken Kiteman 21:12, 19 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete; I don't even think the neologism is significant enough to move to the Wiktionary or to internet slang. It's interesting, though.  --Ardonik 02:59, Jul 20, 2004 (UTC)

title: Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Garvage


text: File:Gimmeabreak.jpg

title: File:Gimmeabreak.jpg


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Talk:1983 United Kingdom general election

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 00:54, 15 July 2021 (UTC)
 * Alliance 83 Leadership.jpg

Questionable statement
I think the following statement is questionable. "For a while the Alliance topped the opinion polls and looked capable of achieving their goal of forming a coalition government at the next general election, but the success of the Falklands campaign in 1982 saw the political tide turn in favour of the Conservative government" I would agree that this is a view many general works make when referring to political trends in this era. However it is not totally true. The Falklands War did not start until April 1982, but by that point the opinion polls were already starting to move towards the Conservatives and away from the Alliance. Although the polls in earl 1982 varied a bit, 3 of the 5 in February and March showed a Conservative lead, the first polls to do so since February 1981 (which was the only poll with a Conservative lead since the 1979 election until February 1982). Support for the Alliance in the polls was also already receding compared with the levels of support in late 1981. The political picture undoubtedly becoming very much better for the Conservatives after Falklands War, but the tide was already moving in their direction prior to it. Dunarc (talk) 19:36, 20 August 2021 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 07:38, 19 March 2023 (UTC)
 * PM Thatcher in 1982 (cropped).jpg


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Bernard Darwin

Bernard Richard Meirion Darwin CBE JP (7 September 1876 − 18 October 1961) a grandson of the British naturalist Charles Darwin, was a golf writer and high-standard amateur golfer. He was inducted into the World Golf Hall of Fame.

Biography
Born in Downe, Kent, Darwin was the son of Francis Darwin and Amy Ruck, his mother dying from a fever on 11 September, four days after his birth. He was the first grandson of Charles and Emma Darwin (see Darwin–Wedgwood family), and was brought up by them at their home, Down House. His younger half-sister from his father's second marriage to Ellen Wordswotth Crofts was the poet Frances Cornford. Darwin was educated at Eton College, and graduated in law from Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was a Cambridge Blue in golf 1895–1897, and team captain in his final year.

Darwin married the engraver Elinor Monsell in 1906. They had one son, Sir Robert Vere Darwin, and two daughters; the potter Ursula Mommens, and Nicola Mary Elizabeth Darwin, later Hughes (1916–1976). During the First World War he served with the Royal Army Ordnance Corps in Macedonia as a lieutenant.

After Cambridge, Darwin became a court lawyer, but did not particularly enjoy that career, and gradually moved into journalism, despite having no formal training. He covered golf for The Times from 1907 to 1953 and for Country Life from 1907 to 1961, the first writer ever to cover golf on a daily basis, instead of as an occasional feature.

He played the game at an excellent level himself well into middle age, and competed in The Amateur Championship on 26 occasions across five decades between 1898 and 1935, with his best results being semi-final appearances in 1909 and 1921. In 1922, while in the United States to report on the first Walker Cup amateur team match between Britain and Ireland and the U.S., and also appointed as non-playing captain, Darwin was pressed into service at the last minute as a player, when one of the British team members, Robert Harris, was unable to play. He lost his team match, but won his singles match.

He was Captain of The Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews in 1934, and was President of the Golf Club Managers' Association (then the Association of Golf Club Secretaries) from 1933 to 1934 and then again from 1955 to 1958. Though mainly a golf writer, he also occasionally wrote on cricket, and prefaced the first edition of The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations. He was awarded CBE in the 1937 Coronation Honours.

Bernard Darwin was an authority on Charles Dickens. He frequently contributed the fourth leading article in The Times. The fourth Leader was devoted to flippant themes, and Darwin was known to insert quotes from or about Dickens in them. When Oxford Press issued all classics by Dickens around 1940, each with a foreword by a Dickensian scholar, Darwin was chosen to contribute the foreword to The Pickwick Papers. He was also asked by The Times to pen the main tribute to cricketer W.G. Grace when Grace's birth centenary was celebrated in 1948. The article has been included since in a few anthologies.

Bernard Darwin's works were kept in print by Herbert Warren Wind through his curated Classics of Golf Library.

In 2005, Darwin was elected to the World Golf Hall of Fame, in the Lifetime Achievement category.

He is buried in St Mary the Virgin Churchyard, Downe, Kent.

Amateur wins

 * 1919 Golf Illustrated Gold Vase
 * 1896 Linskill Cup

Results in major championships
Note: Darwin played in only The Amateur Championship.

NT = No tournament

DNP = Did not play

R512, R256, R128, R64, R32, R16, QF, SF = Round in which player lost in match play

Yellow background for top-10

Sources: :Source for 1898 British Amateur: [https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=GGgVawPscysC&dat=18980526&printsec=frontpage The Glasgow Herald, 26 May 1898, pg. 11.]
 * Source for 1899 British Amateur: The Glasgow Herald, 25 May 1899, pg. 8.
 * Source for 1902 British Amateur: The Glasgow Herald, 1 May 1902, pg. 11.
 * Source for 1903 British Amateur: The Glasgow Herald, 20 May 1903, pg. 13.
 * Source for 1904 British Amateur: The Glasgow Herald, 2 June 1904, pg. 13.
 * Source for 1908 British Amateur: The Glasgow Herald, 29 May 1908, pg. 14.
 * Source for 1909 British Amateur: The American Golfer, July, 1909, pg. 13.
 * Source for 1910 British Amateur: The Glasgow Herald, 1 June 1910, pg. 10.
 * Source for 1911 British Amateur: The Glasgow Herald, 1 June 1911, pg. 10.
 * Source for 1912 British Amateur: The American Golfer, July, 1912, pg. 199.
 * Source for 1913 British Amateur: The Glasgow Herald, 28 May 1913, pg. 15.
 * Source for 1914 British Amateur: The Glasgow Herald, 20 May 1914, pg. 12.
 * Source for 1920 British Amateur: The Glasgow Herald, 8 June 1920, pg. 12.
 * Source for 1921 British Amateur: The American Golfer, 4 June 1921, pg. 24.
 * Source for 1922 British Amateur: The American Golfer, 1 July 1922, pg. 30.
 * Source for 1923 British Amateur: The Glasgow Herald, 9 May 1923, pg. 13.
 * Source for 1924 British Amateur: The Glasgow Herald, 27 May 1924, pg. 3.
 * Source for 1925 British Amateur: The Glasgow Herald, 27 May 1925, pg. 11.
 * Source for 1927 British Amateur: The Glasgow Herald, 24 May 1927, pg. 10.
 * Source for 1928 British Amateur: The Glasgow Herald, 22 May 1928, pg. 4.
 * Source for 1929 British Amateur: The Glasgow Herald, 13 June 1929, pg. 10.
 * Source for 1930 British Amateur: The Glasgow Herald, 27 May 1930, pg. 3.
 * Source for 1931 British Amateur: The Glasgow Herald, 21 May 1931, pg. 16.
 * Source for 1932 British Amateur: The Glasgow Herald, 26 May 1932, pg. 17.
 * Source for 1933 British Amateur: The Glasgow Herald, 21 June 1933, pg. 5.
 * Source for 1935 British Amateur: The Glasgow Herald, 22 May 1935, pg. 7.

Team appearances

 * Walker Cup (representing Great Britain): 1922
 * England–Scotland Amateur Match (representing England): 1902, 1904, 1905, 1908, 1909, 1910 (winners), 1923, 1924 (winners)

title: Bernard Darwin


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Chuuk Lagoon

Chuuk Lagoon, previously Truk Atoll, is an atoll in the central Pacific. It lies about 1,800 km northeast of New Guinea and is part of Chuuk State within the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM). A protective reef, 225 km around, encloses a natural harbour 79 by(x), with an area of 2,130 km2. It has a land area of 93.07 km2, with a population of 36,158 people and a maximal elevation of 443 m. Weno city on Weno (formerly Moen) Island functions as both the atoll's capital and the state capital, and is the largest city in the FSM with its 13,700 people.

Chuuk Lagoon was the Empire of Japan's main naval base in the South Pacific theatre during World War II. It was the site of a major U.S. attack during Operation Hailstone in February 1944, and Operation Inmate, a small assault conducted by British and Canadian forces during June 1945.

Name
Chuuk means mountain in the Chuukese language. The lagoon was known mainly as Truk (a mispronunciation of Ruk), until 1990. Other names included Hogoleu, Torres, Ugulat, and Lugulus.

Geography
Chuuk Lagoon is part of the larger Caroline Islands group. The area consists of eleven major islands (corresponding to the eleven municipalities of Truk lagoon, which are Tol, Udot, Fala-Beguets, Romanum, and Eot of Faichuk group, and Weno, Fefen, Dublon, Uman, Param, and Tsis of Nomoneas group) and 46 smaller ones within the lagoon, plus 41 on the fringing coral reef, and is known today as the Chuuk islands, part of the Federated States of Micronesia in the Pacific Ocean.

Main islands
This is a list of islands, villages and population following the 2010 census:

Prehistory
It is not known when the islands of Chuuk were first settled, but archaeological evidence indicates that islands of Feefen and Wééné had human settlements in the first and second century BC. Later evidence indicates that widespread human settlements appeared in Chuuk during the 14th century AD.

Colonialism
The first recorded sighting by Europeans was made by Spanish navigator Álvaro de Saavedra on board the ship Florida during August or September 1528. They were later visited by Spaniard Alonso de Arellano on 15 January 1565 on board of galleon patache San Lucas.

As part of the Caroline Islands, Truk was claimed by the Spanish Empire, which made an effort to control the islands in the late 19th century. Chuuk Lagoon was inhabited by several tribes that engaged in intermittent warfare, as well as a small population of foreign traders and missionaries. Spanish control over the islands was nominal. The Spaniards stopped to raise a flag over Chuuk in 1886 and returned in 1895 as part of an attempt to assert control and negotiate peace between warring Chuukese tribes. No permanent Spanish settlement was established, and tribal violence continued until the German colonial era. The Caroline Islands were sold to the German Empire in 1899, after Spain withdrew from the Pacific in the aftermath of the Spanish–American War.

During the First World War, The Japanese Navy was tasked with pursuing and destroying the German East Asia Squadron and protection of the shipping lanes for Allied commerce in the Pacific and Indian Oceans. During the course of this operation, the Japanese Navy seized the German possessions in the Marianas, Carolines, Marshall Islands and Palau groups by October 1914. Chuuk then became a possession of the Empire of Japan under the South Seas Mandate following Germany's defeat.

World War II
Naval Base Truk in the Truk Lagoon was the Empire of Japan's main base in the South Pacific theatre of World War II. Truk was a heavily fortified base for Japanese operations against Allied forces in New Guinea and the Solomon Islands, serving as the forward anchorage for the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN). Truk Lagoon was considered the most formidable of all Japanese strongholds in the Pacific. On the various islands, the Japanese Civil Engineering Department and Naval Construction Department had built roads, trenches, bunkers and caves. Five airstrips, seaplane bases, a torpedo boat station, submarine repair shops, a communications center and a radar station were constructed during the war. Protecting these various facilities were coastal defense guns and mortar emplacements.

Because of its heavy fortifications, both natural and manmade, the base at Truk was known to Allied forces as "the Gibraltar of the Pacific". Some have described Truk as Japan's equivalent of the Americans' Pearl Harbor.

A significant portion of the Japanese fleet was based at Truk, with its administrative center on Tonoas (south of Weno). At anchor in the lagoon were battleships, aircraft carriers, cruisers, destroyers, tankers, cargo ships, tugboats, gunboats, minesweepers, landing craft, and submarines. In particular, Yamato and Musashi were stationed at Truk for months around 1943, unable to participate in battle. The Japanese garrison consisted of 27,856 IJN men, under the command of Vice Admiral Masami Kobayashi, then Vice Admiral Chuichi Hara, and 16,737 Imperial Japanese Army men, under the command of Major General Kanenobu Ishuin.

In 1944, Truk's capacity as a naval base was destroyed through naval air attack in Operation Hailstone. Forewarned by intelligence a week before the US raid, the Japanese had withdrawn their larger warships (heavy cruisers and aircraft carriers) to Palau. Once the American forces captured the Marshall Islands, they used them as a base from which to launch an early morning attack on 17 February 1944 against Truk Lagoon. Operation Hailstone lasted for three days, as American carrier-based planes sank 12 smaller Japanese warships (light cruisers, destroyers, and auxiliaries) and 32 merchant ships, while destroying 275 aircraft, mainly on the ground. The consequences of the attack made "Truk lagoon the biggest graveyard of ships in the world".

The attacks for the most part ended Truk as a major threat to Allied operations in the central Pacific. The Japanese garrison on Eniwetok was denied any realistic hope of reinforcement and support during the invasion that began on 18 February, greatly assisting U.S. forces in their conquest of that island. Truk was isolated by Allied forces, as they continued their advance towards Japan by invading other Pacific islands, such as Guam, Saipan, Palau, and Iwo Jima. Truk was attacked again from 12 to 16 June 1945 by part of the British Pacific Fleet during Operation Inmate. Cut off, the Japanese forces on Truk and other central Pacific islands ran low on food and faced starvation before Japan surrendered in August 1945.

Economy and infrastructure
Most of the roads and transportation systems are poor or in disrepair; an extensive infrastructural redevelopment plan began, consisting of a five-phase project to completely reconstruct the existing sewer, water and storm drainage systems as well as pour concrete roadways in the majority of the villages of Weno.

Chuuk International Airport (IATA airport code TKK) is on the administrative island of Moen. It is served by United Airlines.

The government operates a radio station. Interisland communication is often accomplished using citizens' band radio. Telephone services are limited on Chuuk, though a cellular network is established within some islands of the lagoon and in the near future on the outer islands. High speed Internet access via ADSL has been made available on a monthly subscription basis on the Island of Weno from May 2010.

Tourism, especially scuba diving among the many wrecks of Truk Lagoon, is the island's main industry. Copra (dried coconut meat) is the only cash crop, and output is relatively insignificant. Most of the inhabitants of outlying islands engage in subsistence activity only.

Recreational diving

In 1969, William A. Brown and French oceanographer Jacques Cousteau and his team explored Truk Lagoon. Following Cousteau's 1971 television documentary about the lagoon and its ghostly remains, the atoll became a scuba diving lure, drawing wreck diving enthusiasts from around the world to see its numerous, virtually intact sunken ships. The shipwrecks and remains are sometimes referred to as the "Ghost Fleet of Truk Lagoon". Scattered mainly around the Dublon (Tonowas), Eten, Fefan and Uman islands within the Truk group, several shipwrecks lie in crystal clear waters less than 15 m below the surface. In waters devoid of normal ocean currents, divers can easily swim across decks littered with gas masks and depth charges, and below decks can be found evidence of human remains. In the massive ships' holds are the remnants of fighter aircraft, tanks, bulldozers, railroad cars, motorcycles, torpedoes, mines, bombs, boxes of munitions, radios, plus thousands of other weapons, spare parts, and other artifacts. Of special interest is the wreck of the submarine I-169 Shinohara which was lost when diving to avoid the bombing. The submarine had participated in the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941.

The coral encrusted wrecks attract a diverse array of marine life, including manta rays, turtles, sharks and corals. In 2007, 266 species of reef fish were recorded by an Earthwatch team, and in 2006 the rare coral Acropora pichoni was identified.

On 12 April 2011, the Australian Broadcasting Corporation program Foreign Correspondent screened a report on Chuuk Lagoon likening the effect of the impending massive release of tens of thousands of tonnes of oil from the rusting Japanese warships into the coral reef to that of the Exxon Valdez spill in Alaska. However, given the poor state of the Japanese war effort in 1944, many of the ships may have had relatively small amounts of fuel in their bunkers. Environmental protection organizations are surveying the wrecks while also consulting with Japanese researchers to try to determine how much oil is likely to be in the hulls, particularly in three sunken oil tankers. The ships are classified as a Japanese war grave, requiring Japanese government involvement in the eventual clean-up.

title: Chuuk Lagoon


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Hobby–Eberly Telescope

The Hobby–Eberly Telescope (HET) is a 10-meter (30-foot) aperture telescope located at the McDonald Observatory in Davis Mountains, Texas.

The Hobby–Eberly Telescope is one of the largest optical telescopes in the world. It combines a number of features that differentiate it from most telescope designs, resulting in lowered construction costs:

 * The telescope's main mirror is fixed at a 55° angle and can only rotate around its base. A target is tracked by moving the instruments at the focus of the telescope; this provides access to about 70–81% of the sky at its location and allows a single target to be tracked for up to two hours.

 * The primary mirror is constructed from 91 hexagonal segments, which is less expensive than manufacturing a single large primary.

The telescope is named for former Texas Lieutenant-Governor Bill Hobby and for Robert E. Eberly, a Penn State benefactor.

Three instruments are available to analyze the light from the targets. All three instruments are spectrographs. The instruments work at high, medium and low spectral resolution. The low-resolution spectrograph is housed at the prime focus, while the medium and high-resolution spectrographs reside in the basement and the light is fed into them via a fiber-optic cable.

Since achieving first light in 1996, the telescope has been used for a wide variety of studies ranging from the Solar System to stars in our galaxy and studies of other galaxies. The telescope has been used successfully to find planets orbiting around other stars by measuring radial velocities as precisely as 1 m/s. Using the low-resolution spectrograph, the telescope has been used to identify Type Ia supernovae to measure the acceleration of the universe. The telescope has also been used to measure the rotation of individual galaxies. The telescope was upgraded for use in the Hobby–Eberly Telescope Dark Energy Experiment (HETDEX), which will provide the first observations to allow narrowing of the list of possible explanations for dark energy. Along with the new Visible Integral-Field Replicable Unit Spectrograph (VIRUS) to enable observations for the HETDEX project with 192 spectrographs.

The Hobby–Eberly Telescope is operated by The University of Texas McDonald Observatory for a consortium of institutions which includes The University of Texas at Austin, Pennsylvania State University, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, and Georg August University of Göttingen.

The physical main reflector mirror is larger than 10 meters; it is actually about 11 m by 9.8 m. Upon first light, the usable optical aperture at any given time was 9.2 m. After a multi-year upgrade completed on July 29, 2015, the usable optical aperture was increased to 10m. The mirror itself is composed of 91 hexagonal segments, a segmented mirror design like the Keck telescopes. Updates to the telescope have increased its field of view from 4 arcminutes to 22 arcminutes (a full moon is 30 arcminutes for comparison). The telescope mirrors are aligned within a fraction of a wavelength of visible light by actuators under each segment. The tower next to the telescope, called the Center of Curvature Alignment Sensor Tower (CCAS), is used to calibrate the mirror segments. One of the advantages of this telescope design is that it was over 5 times more cost efficient for its aperture size than a more traditional design.

As reported in Nature of 28 November 2012, astronomers have used the Hobby–Eberly Telescope to measure the mass of an extraordinarily large black hole (with mass approximates 17 billion Suns), possibly the largest black hole found so far. It has been found in the compact, lenticular galaxy NGC 1277, which lies 220 million light-years away in the constellation Perseus. The black hole has approximately 59 percent of the mass of the bulge of this spiral galaxy (14 percent of the total stellar mass of the galaxy).

The Habitable Zone Planet Finder is a spectrograph for the Hobby–Eberly Telescope capable of detecting earth like planets.

The design of the Hobby–Eberly was used as the basis for the Southern African Large Telescope.

title: Hobby–Eberly Telescope


text:
Talk:Fish finder

Is this the ideal place for a project proposal? Should there be any information here about fish-finder sonars, which is what most people would come looking for under this heading? - FZ 18:08, 19 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Any taxonomic keys probably should go on wikibooks; or better still there is probably software for this on the web. I did a little tidy, but this may best be a redirect to taxonomic key. Dunc_Harris|☺ 19:31, 20 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * I made this page into a disambig; here's what was written before:

 * "a fish finder, or fish identifier, is a tool to use to identify what fish you saw or caught. occasionally you will see a fish that with your current knowledge you cannot identify. you try to describe it to people who might know more about the species in your area, and they may or may not have the answer. you look up fish at the library and the internet, but there is no simple way to get to your answer. there are pocket-sized tree finder booklets, and probably ones for birds too, that basically ask you twenty questions until you arrive at the description and picture of the species you are trying to identify. you don't have to be a rocket scientist to answer those questions. for example, are they leaves or needles? OK, then are the leaves symmetrical? OK, then do they have long stems? OK, then are the lobes pointy or not? OK, then are the edges serrated? OK, then you have either and ash or an elm. OK, then are the leaves deep or light green? OK, then is the trees bark flat or gnarly? OK, then it must be an elm, and here is a picture of the leaves and the bark, and even the leaves that are or have fallen before winter.
 * there is obviously a good reason, following this 20 questions model, to create a fish finder for the wikipedia. to start, i can think of some useful questions. was it in salt or fresh water? what color is the fish? what size is the fish? was it in a school? was it flat or rotund? was it long and skinny or roundish? were there other markings? was it on a reef or in the open water? and so on."

 * The project proposal in the second paragraph might be worth saving (and moving to the appropriate location), if anyone is particularly interested in fish. -Didactohedron 17:09, Jul 30, 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Fish finder


text:
Calculating Space

Calculating Space (Rechnender Raum) is Konrad Zuse's 1969 book on automata theory. He proposed that all processes in the universe are computational. This view is known today as the simulation hypothesis, digital philosophy, digital physics or pancomputationalism. Zuse proposed that the universe is being computed by some sort of cellular automaton or other discrete computing machinery, challenging the long-held view that some physical laws are continuous by nature. He focused on cellular automata as a possible substrate of the computation, and pointed out that the classical notions of entropy and its growth do not make sense in deterministically computed universes.

title: Calculating Space