text:
Talk:Extremely high frequency

True or false: someone has coined a name for the next member of the frequency system after this. 66.245.75.195 22:50, 6 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * Yes, it's called infrared light. ;-)  radiojon 05:30, 2004 Aug 9 (UTC)

Would this heat-wave gun be an example of milimeter-wave technology? http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6300985.stm If so, should the article reference the prototype? -P-

 * Yep. Since it uses a 3mm wave.

Woah- it says that weapon is not painful. Every news report says it is extremely painful. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Furbybrain (talk • contribs) 19:39, 4 May 2008 (UTC)

 * Exposure to 3mm waves is shown to be painful and causes heat-burns when exposed in high-power 3mm.

Link to news article about TSA installing this in US Airports: [] 66.196.90.212 (talk) 23:31, 12 June 2008 (UTC)

Cleanup needed
This article needs a cleanup. All radio band articles (VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF) should be structured in the same way. --HelgeStenstrom (talk) 11:17, 18 September 2008 (UTC)
 * In general, I agree. -- Chetvorno TALK 19:47, 8 March 2013 (UTC)

Can someone clarify if this means a kilometer above the ground or a kilometer in distance of transmission. If it is distance I think this is incorrect and possibly meant under about a kilometer? "Therefore, they have a short range and can only be used for terrestrial communication over about a kilometer." — Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.7.41.230 (talk) 17:03, 14 September 2015 (UTC)

Name change
This article should be called "Millimeter-waves", since that is the name used everywhere (except on WP). Calling it "Extremely high frequency" is anachronstic. Setreset (talk) 08:12, 8 March 2013 (UTC)
 * "Extremely High Frequency" or EHF is the official designation of this band by the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) standards body 1 the same as VHF or UHF are for those bands. The term "extremely high frequency" seems to be widely used in professional electrical engineering literature.   However, maybe the name "millimeter waves" should be moved up into the lead sentence. -- Chetvorno TALK 19:46, 8 March 2013 (UTC)

WiMedia Alliance
This alliance no longer exists and the reference cited is a dead link. Sooku (talk) 20:03, 8 August 2014 (UTC)

Recent additions on health effects
Recently an editor has been repeatedly adding content on health hazards of the EHF radiation used in the Active Denial System, and health hazards of radio waves in general, to the Weapons systems section. While I think this material is important, I feel it is too general and WP:OFFTOPIC for this article. The material pertaining to the Active Denial System probably belongs in that article. The material on health hazards of cellphones certainly does not belong here because cellphones do not use the EHF band, it could perhaps be put in Cell phone. Alternatively, it could all go in Electromagnetic radiation and health. -- Chetvorno TALK 17:04, 2 February 2015 (UTC)

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millimeter wave propagation at elevated altitudes ??
Am wondering about possibilities for mm wave radar as a sensor for aircraft. The article states that for communication mm waves are good for only about 1000 meters, and that the short range is due to absorption by O2 and N2 molecules (or possibly other trace gases not mentioned?). This is not stated in the article, but I am assuming that this value of 1000 meters pertains to mmW propagation at sea level. Now my thinking is that if an aircraft is flying, say, at 16,500 meters then the air density is one-eighth the value at sea level. And since the density of air molecules is 1/8 the useful range of a passive mmW sensor at that altitude would be around 8000 meters. It could be greater since a detection device could be much more sensitive than a communication device meant to transmit information. Also, the sensor could be built as a mmW telescope and thus offer magnification at the expense of restricted field of view. If true, this could be useful for some applications. So it seems helpful if some expert here could offer an opinion on this: does thinner air equate to decreased atmospheric attenuation (increased range)?. Thanks in advance.Wikkileaker (talk) 15:33, 13 December 2016 (UTC)

Medicine
The section "Medicine" in this article looks very fishy. This looks to me to be unscientific and esoteric. I did a quick search and am pretty sure it's nonsense. I am particularly suspicious of the fact that there are no specific diseases that can be treated with this technique. However, I am neither a physician nor a physicist, so I do not want to change the article. Can an expert provide clarity here? --Stahlgrün (talk) 19:27, 18 February 2017 (UTC)
 * A quick PubMed search brings up a few results, so this is not entirely made up, although the way the section has been written indeed sounds somewhat promotional. A rewrite would be warranted, but I wouldn't be keen on deleting altogether. — kashmīrī  TALK  00:49, 11 May 2018 (UTC)

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DEWs-related frequency range as ADS uses this ...
... as such, UNUSABLE for telecoms-typical purposes in Germany. SORRY! That's why 5G mmWave is ILLEGAL here. Sorry again. --2001:16B8:5722:F600:310A:4950:93AD:1F41 (talk) 22:47, 9 March 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Extremely high frequency


text:
Untouchable number

In mathematics, an untouchable number is a positive integer that cannot be expressed as the sum of all the proper divisors of any positive integer. That is, these numbers are not in the image of the aliquot sum function. Their study goes back at least to Abu Mansur al-Baghdadi (circa 1000 AD), who observed that both 2 and 5 are untouchable.

Examples

 * The number 4 is not untouchable, as it is equal to the sum of the proper divisors of 9: 1 + 3 = 4.
 * The number 5 is untouchable, as it is not the sum of the proper divisors of any positive integer: 5 = 1 + 4 is the only way to write 5 as the sum of distinct positive integers including 1, but if 4 divides a number, 2 does also, so 1 + 4 cannot be the sum of all of any number's proper divisors (since the list of factors would have to contain both 4 and 2).
 * The number 6 is not untouchable, as it is equal to the sum of the proper divisors of 6 itself: 1 + 2 + 3 = 6.

The first few untouchable numbers are
 * 2, 5, 52, 88, 96, 120, 124, 146, 162, 188, 206, 210, 216, 238, 246, 248, 262, 268, 276, 288, 290, 292, 304, 306, 322, 324, 326, 336, 342, 372, 406, 408, 426, 430, 448, 472, 474, 498, ....

Properties
The number 5 is believed to be the only odd untouchable number, but this has not been proven. It would follow from a slightly stronger version of the Goldbach conjecture, since the sum of the proper divisors of pq (with p, q distinct primes) is 1 + p + q. Thus, if a number n can be written as a sum of two distinct primes, then n + 1 is not an untouchable number. It is expected that every even number larger than 6 is a sum of two distinct primes, so probably no odd number larger than 7 is an untouchable number, and $$1=\sigma(2)-2$$, $$3=\sigma(4)-4$$, $$7=\sigma(8)-8$$, so only 5 can be an odd untouchable number. Thus it appears that besides 2 and 5, all untouchable numbers are composite numbers (since except 2, all even numbers are composite). No perfect number is untouchable, since, at the very least, it can be expressed as the sum of its own proper divisors. Similarly, none of the amicable numbers or sociable numbers are untouchable. Also, none of the Mersenne numbers are untouchable, since Mn = 2n − 1 is equal to the sum of the proper divisors of 2n.

No untouchable number is one more than a prime number, since if p is prime, then the sum of the proper divisors of p2 is p + 1. Also, no untouchable number is three more than a prime number, except 5, since if p is an odd prime then the sum of the proper divisors of 2p is p + 3.

Infinitude
There are infinitely many untouchable numbers, a fact that was proven by Paul Erdős. According to Chen & Zhao, their natural density is at least d > 0.06.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Untouchable number


text:
Dean Radin

Dean Radin (born February 29, 1952) investigates phenomena in parapsychology. Following a bachelor and master's degree in electrical engineering and a PhD in educational psychology Radin worked at Bell Labs, as a researcher at Princeton University and the University of Edinburgh, and was a faculty member at University of Nevada, Las Vegas. He then became Chief Scientist at the Institute of Noetic Sciences (IONS) in Petaluma, California, USA, later becoming the president of the Parapsychological Association. He is also co-editor-in-chief of the journal Explore: The Journal of Science and Healing. Radin's ideas and work have been criticized by scientists and philosophers skeptical of paranormal claims. The review of Radin's first book, The Conscious Universe, that appeared in Nature charged that Radin ignored the known hoaxes in the field, made statistical errors and ignored plausible non-paranormal explanations for parapsychological data.

Education
Following a career in classical violin, Radin went on to earn an undergraduate degree in electrical engineering from the University of Massachusetts Amherst, as well as both a master's degree in electrical engineering and a doctorate in educational psychology from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. After his graduation, Radin worked at Bell Labs, and then conducted research at Princeton University, GTE Laboratories, University of Edinburgh, SRI International, Interval Research Corporation, and was a faculty member at University of Nevada, Las Vegas.

Parapsychology
Radin was elected president of the Parapsychological Association in 1988, 1993, 1998, and 2005, and has published a number of articles and papers supporting the existence of paranormal phenomena, as well as two books directed to a popular audience: The Conscious Universe and Entangled Minds. Radin believes that parapsychology is as repeatable as any scientific discipline, but that it is also, as paraphrased by sociologist Erich Goode, "elusive, subtle and complex", a field of study that is "difficult to replicate" and that "our understanding of it is incomplete".

Radin's paranormal claims have been rejected by those in the skeptical and mainstream scientific communities, some of whom have suggested that Radin's beliefs embrace pseudoscience and that he misunderstands the nature of science. The physicist Robert L. Park has written "No proof of psychic phenomena is ever found. In spite of all the tests devised by parapsychologists like Jahn and Radin, and huge amounts of data collected over a period of many years, the results are no more convincing today than when they began their experiments."

Chris French criticized Radin for his selective historical overview of parapsychology and for ignoring clear evidence of fraud. French recounts that the medium Florence Cook was caught in acts of trickery and two of the Fox sisters confessed to fraud, but that Radin did not mention this fact. Radin has claimed the results from parapsychological research are as consistent by the same standards as any other scientific discipline, but Ray Hyman has written that many parapsychologists disagree with this, openly admitting that the evidence for parapsychology is "inconsistent, irreproducible, and fails to meet acceptable scientific standards".

Radin and his colleagues have suggested that small-scale studies have produced a "genuine psychokinetic effect", but critics have asserted that Radin has not shown evidence that the null hypothesis of such an effect could be confidently rejected. Further, psychologists David B. Wilson and William R. Shadish, writing in Psychological Bulletin, criticized claims made by Radin and his associates that human minds can psychically influence random number generators, saying that parapsychologists "need to go beyond statistics and explain how the mind might influence a computer, then test that prediction". Radin has appealed to quantum mechanics as a mechanism, claiming that it can explain the non-locality and backward causality associated with psi phenomena, though such ideas are harshly criticized by many physicists who study quantum mechanics as being pseudoscientific. Radin has written that not all people experience paranormal phenomena (or see ghosts) because they block such signals due to the process of latent inhibition.

Books
While Radin's books have been reviewed favorably by groups that give general reviews such as Publishers Weekly and Kirkus Reviews, independent reviews by scientists and skeptics, as cited below, have often been negative.

The Conscious Universe
A critical review of The Conscious Universe: The Scientific Truth of Psychic Phenomena (1997) was published by the British mathematician I. J. Good in Nature. Good wrote about flaws in Radin's method for evaluating the file-drawer effect. He stated that the book avoided mentioning the evidence of fraud in parapsychology. Radin replied to Good in a follow-up letter in the correspondence pages of Nature, saying that Good in his review had misinterpreted a reference to a probability value. Good replied, saying that most readers would not arrive at the same interpretation of what Radin had written noting that readers would be surprised to learn that by "more than a billion trillion", Radin meant more than 10100". Further, Good noted that the file drawer effect does not account for intentional fraud, as was very probably the case with prominent ESP proponents such as Samuel Soal, nor is there any real means of estimating such "intellectual, observational or ethical lapses" within ESP. In 2002, Victor J. Stenger gave a criticism of The Conscious Universe that aligned with Good's arguments that Radin did not perform the file-drawer analysis correctly, made fundamental errors in his calculations, and ignored non-paranormal explanations for the data.

The book was reviewed by the philosopher and skeptic Robert Todd Carroll in a thirteen-page chapter-by-chapter critique which noted how Radin had not cited the skeptical literature on the subject of parapsychology. Carroll stated that Radin had ignored "the many hoaxes and frauds that dot the landscape in the history of psi research."

Supernormal
Radin's book Supernormal: Science, Yoga, and the Evidence for Extraordinary Psychic Abilities (2013), argues support for psychic phenomena, linking them to the siddhis from yoga-related legends. Publishers Weekly has reviewed it, saying of the book, that it is "unfocused and opaque at times" but "nevertheless an admirable attempt to bridge the gap between the scientific and the spiritual realm". The anonymous review by Kirkus Reviews gave it a positive review saying "certainly not for everyone, but a smart reminder that we haven’t got the whole scene covered".

Dale DeBakcsy, writing for the Skeptical Inquirer, a bimonthly American general-audience magazine published by the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry, reviewed Supernormal and criticized the work as "misrepresenting report data, lowering success criteria, and playing a somewhat loose game with how rigorously confidence information is presented". Debakcsy examined Radin's claim that a meta-analysis of forced choice recognition published in parapsychological literature showed that Psi effects were present above chance to a probability of 1015 to 1, noting that the study also reported that results varied wildly with an extremely unusual standard deviation, such that they dropped 10% of the most extreme variations which reduced the effect size. According to DeBakcsy, Radin chose not to report those variations.

Debakcsy also criticized Radin's characterization of the results of a free-response experiment conducted at Princeton. Radin cited a test subject's response when asked to describe the future location of a distant agent: "'A rather strange yet persistent image of [the agent] inside a large bowl—a hemispheric indentation in the ground of some smooth man-made materials like concrete or cement. No color. Possibly covered with a glass dome. Unusual sense of inside/outside simultaneity. That’s all. It’s a large bowl. If it was full of soup [the agent] would be the size of a large dumpling!'" Radin wrote that the subject's response "successfully" described the actual randomly selected location of the distant agent: the Radio telescope at Kitt Peak. Debakcsy noted that there are several radio telescopes at Kitt Peak, such as the Very Long Baseline Array, but that telescope does not match the description given. DeBakcsy contends that, while the ARO 12m Radio Telescope has some similar characteristics, it also differs in several aspects from the subject's description. DeBakcsy further commented that, considering this is the best example out of 653 possible other tests made at Princeton, it is quite poor. Noting the spread of meta-analyses of the same studies (where the individual studies are weighted differently), have wildly varying odds returned (from trillions to one, to indistinguishable from chance), DeBakcsy argues that this undermines the reliance on meta-analysis in the work since they lack standardization.

Other books

 * Entangled Minds: Extrasensory Experiences in a Quantum Reality (Paraview / Pocket Books, 2006) ISBN 9781416516774
 * Second edition: Simon & Schuster, 2009. ISBN 9781439187937
 * The Noetic Universe (Random House, 2011) ISBN 9781446438886 (British version of The Conscious Universe)
 * Real Magic: Ancient Wisdom, Modern Science, and a Guide to the Secret Power of the Universe Harmony Books, 2018) ISBN 9781524758820

title: Dean Radin


text:
Blues dance

Blues dancing is a family of historical dances that developed alongside and were danced to blues music, or the contemporary dances that are danced in that aesthetic. It has its roots in African-American dance, which itself is rooted in sub-Saharan African music traditions and the historical dances brought to the United States by European immigrants.

Mura Dehn used the term "The Blues" in her documentary The Spirit Moves, Part 1, as the sub-section title of Chapter II, referencing different dance styles. African-American essayist and novelist Albert Murray used the term "blues-idiom dance" and "blues-idiom dance movement" in his book Stomping the Blues.

Background
Blues dancing originated in the dances brought to America by enslaved Africans, who followed sub-Saharan African music traditions. There is no documented evidence across the history of pre-colonial sub-Saharan African dance for sustained one-on-one mixed-gender partnered dancing; African cultures apparently considered this type of dancing to be inappropriate.

Slavery in the United States had a great deal of influence on African-American dance, as people from widely disparate African cultures were thrown together during enslavement. As a result of this, their specific cultural traditions, including dances, were often lost or blended into a creolized African-American dance style. This dance style was also influenced by elements of British-European dances brought to the United States by European immigrants. Dance moves were passed down through generations of African Americans, revised and reworked, ultimately resulting in a specific African-American dance vocabulary. Over time, African-American dance became more formal than its African predecessors, but more energetic and dynamic than European dances.

During the post-Reconstruction period of approximately 1875–1900, as Jim Crow Laws were passed in the American South, dance steps began to lose their association with religion and spirituality and became thought of as purely secular. The dances of working-class and lower-class black people relinquished some of their Euro-American characteristics. Dances in this era became associated with the expression of pleasure and sexuality with one's partner, and the importance of community was de-emphasized. The African style of dancing while bent over moved towards a more upright stance.

Development of blues music
W. C. Handy, who wrote some of the first published blues songs, documented an early experience he had with blues music at a dance that took place in Cleveland, Mississippi, around 1905. A local band consisting of three Black men with battered string instruments played a "haunting" song: "The dancers went wild." Later, Handy described a crowd's enthusiastic response to his own band playing blues music in 1909: "In the office buildings about, white folks pricked up their ears. Stenographers danced with their bosses. Everybody shouted for more." Later, he incorporated elements of habanera music into his blues music, because he had observed that Black people danced even more enthusiastically when these elements were present. In 1914, he played the song "Saint Louis Blues" for the first time. At the time, the tango was fashionable, so he used a tango-style introduction before transitioning suddenly into a blues style. As Handy recalled, after a moment's hesitation, the audience threw themselves into the dance with abandon.

At this point, blues began to come into its own as a genre. A tune called "Slow Drag Blues", composed by Snowden, was recorded c. 1915–19 by Dabney's Band. According to Albert Murray, blues idiom-dance movement has nothing to do with sensual abandonment. "Being always a matter of elegance [it] is necessarily a matter of getting oneself together. Practitioners of this style do not throw their bodies around; they do not cut completely loose. A loss of coolness and control places one squarely outside the tradition."

Dancing to blues music was sometimes called "slow dragging", a term that was used by Black dancers in Chicago through the 1940s. By the 1960s, the term "belly-rubbing" had gained acceptance. In the 1970s, both Black and white people began to refer to very close slow dancing between couples simply as "slow dancing". The degree of affection the partners had for each other generally determined how closely the partners danced, and there were widely varying levels of proficiency and styles of footwork.

In fact, the very nature of a vernacular dance culture ensures the survival of socially and culturally useful or valuable dances. Many of the steps specific to dances associated with popular blues songs of the 1920s were adapted for new musical structures in jazz, and new dance forms such as the lindy hop. Early African-American blues dances were very simple in their core movement and allowed for a wide variety of musical interpretation, embodying a black aesthetic approach to rhythm, movement and melody which permeated black music. They were often a simple one-step or two-step and though some movements may have been adapted and integrated into some mainstream popular dances, blues dancing as a distinct dance genre and social practice never became a specific focus for white America in the way that dances such as the Lindy Hop and Charleston have.

Blues dancing style
Blues dances as a genre have been said to share a certain aesthetic:
 * An athletic and grounded body posture and movement, characterized by the weight being held on the balls of the feet, the knees bent, the hips pushed back, and the chest forward.
 * An asymmetry and polyphonic look/feel to the body, characterized by an equality of body parts. No limb or part has precedence, but they all work together both in a simultaneous and serialized fashion. The focus and weight shifting moves through various parts of the body; poly-centric.
 * Rhythmic movement. Not just a single rhythm being used in/with the body, multiple meters or rhythms are used. Articulated movement in the torso (chest, rib cage, pelvis, butt) identifying and emphasizing different rhythms.
 * Improvisation between dancers and on their own movements. Based on the rhythm section of the band.
 * A drawing of the beats, dancing in the space between the beats, pushing and pulling creating a sense of tension both in the body and the body moving through space, while remaining loose and relaxed.

Specific moves or dances
The Ballroom, referenced by documentary filmmaker Mura Dehn, was a slow dance done by Lindy Hoppers at the Savoy Ballroom to Blues music and ballads. It is a slower, fluid, but highly rhythmic dance, involving lots of spins, lifts, and dips. Famous Lindy Hopper Sugar Sullivan described it as romantic.

In the Fish Tail, the movement of the buttocks forms a variety of figure eights, an element that originated in African dance. African dance generally discourages close bodily contact, so the use of this move in partner dances in the United States was considered obscene when it was first introduced. The Funky Butt was a similar move that involved "grinding" the rear end around. The Squat and Mooche were also performed with hip movements. Similar dances were popular in New York City by 1913.

The Slow Drag in its various forms was first documented during, and danced to the music of, the ragtime era.

Snake Hips is a movement in which the knees are moved forward and back one by one, while keeping the feet together, resulting in movement of the hips. As in Ball the Jack, a similar move in which the knees are held together, this results in a rotation of the hips.

The Strut is extremely similar to dances seen in South Africa, Ghana, and Nigeria. Strutting was often associated with cakewalking, another historical African-American dance.

title: Blues dance


text:
Melville Island (Northern Territory)

Melville Island (Tiwi: Yermalner) is an island in the eastern Timor Sea, off the coast of the Northern Territory, Australia. Along with Bathurst Island and nine smaller uninhabited islands, it forms part of the group known as the Tiwi Islands, which are under the jurisdiction of the Northern Territory in association with the Tiwi Land Council as the regional authority.

History
Indigenous people have occupied the area that became the Tiwi Islands for at least 40,000 years. It is said that the first European to sight the island was Abel Tasman in 1644.

Explorer Phillip Parker King (son of governor of New South Wales Philip Gidley King) named it for Robert Dundas, 2nd Viscount Melville, first Lord of the Admiralty, who is also commemorated by the much larger Melville Island in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Shortly after this, the British made the first attempt to settle Australia's north coast, at the short-lived Fort Dundas on Melville Island. The settlement lasted from 1824 to 1828.

There was a Catholic mission on the island, on which Nova Peris' mother was raised after being taken from her mother.

During World War II the small Snake Bay Patrol manned by local Tiwi people was established as part of the military forces deployed to protect the island against any Japanese landings.

Geography and climate
The island lies in the eastern Timor Sea, approximately 60 km north of Darwin and west of the Cobourg Peninsula in Arnhem Land, in the Northern Territory. At 5786 km2, it is just outside the 100 largest islands in the world, but is the second biggest island of Australia after Tasmania. Irrititu Island, 1.60 km2, lies 55 m south of Melville Island's southern tip. The islands have a tropical climate.

Population
The largest settlement on the island is Milikapiti, with a population of 559. The second largest is Pirlangimpi (Pularumpi, formerly Garden Point), with a population of 440, located 27 km west of Milikapiti, on the west coast of Melville Island. About 30 more people live in five family outstations.

Governance
As part of the Tiwi Islands, Melville is under the jurisdiction of the Northern Territory, with the Tiwi Land Council as the regional authority.

title: Melville Island (Northern Territory)


text:
Kaffeklubben Island

Kaffeklubben Island or Coffee Club Island (Kaffeklubben Ø; Inuit Qeqertaat) is an uninhabited island lying off the northern shore of Greenland. It contains the northernmost undisputed point of land on Earth.

History
Kaffeklubben Island does not appear to have ever been inhabited. The nearest ruins from the Independence I culture are located at Cape Bridgman, some 80 km to the southeast. Whether members of the culture ever went to the island or its vicinity is unknown. In any event, the culture disappeared after around 1900 BCE, and the northern part of Peary Land – known as Johannes J. Jensen Land – has remained uninhabited ever since.

The first recorded sighting of Kaffeklubben Island was made by the American explorer Robert Peary in 1900, who believed that Cape Morris Jesup on the mainland was the world's northernmost point of land and who declined to name the island. The island itself was not visited until 1921, when the Danish explorer Lauge Koch set foot on the island and named it after the coffee club in the University of Copenhagen Geological Museum.

In 1969, a Canadian team calculated that the island's northernmost tip is 750 m farther north than Cape Morris Jesup, the northernmost point of mainland Greenland, thus claiming its record as the most northerly point of land.

Other claimants for northernmost land
Since its record as the northernmost point of land was established, several gravel banks have been discovered in the sea to the north of the island, such as Oodaaq, 83-42, and ATOW1996; however, there is debate as to whether such gravel banks should be considered for the record since they rarely are permanent, being swallowed regularly by the moving ice sheets, being shifted in tides, or becoming submerged in the ocean. A bathymetric survey in 2022 determined that all gravel banks north of Kaffeklubben are likely not connected to the seafloor, but rather gravel on top of the sea ice, confirming Kaffeklubben as the northernmost true land in the world.

Geography and geology
Kaffeklubben Island is 713.5 km from the geographic North Pole. The island lies off Cape James Hill, 10 km northwest of Bliss Bay, approximately 37 km east of Cape Morris Jesup, a little east of a central point along the northern coast of Greenland. Its most northerly point is 4.4 km north of that of Cape Morris Jesup. It is approximately 700 m long, and approximately 300 m across at its widest point. The highest point is approximately 30 m above sea level.

Flora and fauna
Despite the harsh environment, vegetation grows on Kaffeklubben island, including various mosses, liverworts, lichens, and the flowering plants: Saxifraga oppositifolia (purple saxifrage) and Papaver radicatum (arctic poppy).

title: Kaffeklubben Island


text:
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 * again. Xxanthippe (talk) 21:34, 21 February 2016 (UTC).
 * and again . Xxanthippe (talk) 10:31, 22 April 2016 (UTC).
 * . Xxanthippe (talk) 04:19, 9 May 2016 (UTC).

Beginning the name with a capital letter
I made this edit and was told to discuss it here. So, why is it controversial to change the name to start with a capital letter, if it's at the beginning of a sentence? Especially because the next alinea does start the same way, so one of them must be wrong I'd say. Pieceofmetalwork (talk) 05:58, 20 August 2017 (UTC)
 * His family name is de Botton (de is French for of). Refer to him as Alain de Botton if that makes you happier. Xxanthippe (talk) 06:12, 20 August 2017 (UTC).

Should Radio info have been retained?
Regarding the edit 17 November 2017 Xxanthippe (29,197 bytes) (-3,424) (→Radio: this level of detail is too trivial for Wikipedia), It seems like the deleted text should be brought back. Maybe the "level of detail" could be reduced without compleTly eliminating all the text.

How trivial is too trivial? On Wikipedia, Trivia is "information that is not important to the subject it is being presented in relation to." The Radio information is important to the subject of Botton. It is part of Bottons notability, and creative output. It was not trivia. The Radio info was neutral, verifiable, and non-original. It was like a list of works. Lists of works are permitted on Wikipedia. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Robinesque (talk • contribs) 12:29, 28 November 2017 (UTC)
 * A vast amount of trivial puffery has been added to this BLP and it is in need of a substantial prune. Xxanthippe (talk) 21:29, 28 November 2017 (UTC).

Edit war in progress
119.17.33.134 reverted other's edits for 5 times in the past 24 hours (25/4 08:34 to 26/4 08:34). It is against the three revert rule.

119.17.33.134, repeatedly reverting another editors edit, or repeating your own edit after it has been reverted multiple times is not acceptable. If you have problems with the negative reviews, please discuss here instead of keep reverting other's edit.

If the edit war continues, I may request to protect this page. Thank you. Abelmoschus Esculentus (talk to me) 08:54, 26 April 2018 (UTC)

 * You should do that. The text the IPs are deleting is reasonable. Bangabandhu (talk) 15:41, 26 April 2018 (UTC)
 * Yes, it's time this BLP was semi-protected. See the threads above. Xxanthippe (talk) 22:25, 26 April 2018 (UTC).

Semi-protected edit request on 28 January 2020
Change:

"De Botton read History at University of Cambridge, where he was a member of Gonville and Caius College."

To:

"De Botton read History at University of Cambridge, where he was a member of Gonville and Caius College, graduating with a double starred first."

Rationale:

This was previously part of the page, and incorrectly removed in this edit due to an expired link (new sources below).

It's important context for Alain de Botton's academic background, and common to refer to degree honors in notable figures' Wikipedia pages.

Sources:

https://www.alaindebotton.com/philosophy/reviews/new-york-review-of-books/

https://www.varsity.co.uk/comment/1784

https://www.independent.co.uk/student/postgraduate/the-real-world-alain-de-botton-philosopher-writer-and-tv-presenter-6098166.html

https://web.archive.org/web/20070930160206/education.independent.co.uk/graduate_options/article994758.ece

Previous discussion on archived talk page:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk%3AAlain_de_Botton/Archive_1#degree_rating Kennysong (talk) 07:47, 28 January 2020 (UTC)
 * Yes check.svg Done Eggishorn (talk) (contrib) 20:00, 28 January 2020 (UTC)

Philosopher?!
de Botton is not a philosopher. He does not do research in philosophy. On his website (https://www.alaindebotton.com/cv/) and school of life profile (https://www.theschooloflife.com/about-us/faculty/alain-de-botton/) he does not claim to be a philosopher. Dawkin Verbier (talk) 03:09, 7 June 2021 (UTC)

 * Yes. According to the article, he was on track to be a philosopher, but choose another career instead. Based upon the article, of which the lead is supposed to be summary, I am changing this to "public speaker."
 * (See also: Talk:Ayn_Rand.)
 * Cheers, Patrick J. Welsh (talk) 18:43, 21 September 2023 (UTC)

First twelve years of his life in Switzerland?
That is what it states here, though there is no evidence offered to support it. In this interview for the Financial times (https://www.ft.com/content/4c2d3894-dab3-11e3-9a27-00144feabdc0), presumably made with de Botton's co-operation, since he was interviewed by the author, it states that he arrived in England aged 8. However the same article also states: "Botton was, in large part, brought up by a woman called Bertha Von Buren. He spent much of his childhood in her village of Ennetmoos, in rural Switzerland. “She looked after me until I was 13.." Which doesn't seem to tally. Was he in England from age 13 or age 8? 145.130.113.142 (talk) 17:18, 18 August 2021 (UTC)

Birth place
The article says "Swiss-born" at the top, then later says he was "born in Alexandria, Egypt". Which is it? It cannot be both. 2A02:C7F:A0B9:800:F828:3854:F8A7:D7E2 (talk) 15:14, 1 September 2023 (UTC)

 * If you read the article more carefully, it was his father who is referred to as being born in Alexandria. Sbishop (talk) 15:21, 1 September 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Alain de Botton


text:
Bathurst Island (Northern Territory)

Bathurst Island (Iwaidja: Nguyu) (2600 km2, -11.58333°N, 130.3°W) is one of the Tiwi Islands in the Northern Territory off the northern coast of Australia along with Melville Island.

Description
The largest settlement on Bathurst is Wurrumiyanga (known as Nguiu until 2010), in the south-east, with a population of around 1,560. Located on the south east corner of Bathurst Island, Wurrumiyanga is approximately 70 km north of Darwin. The second largest settlement is Wurakuwu, with a population of 50, located 60 km northwest of Wurrumiyanga. The third settlement on the island is a small family outstation called 4 Mile Camp, about 6 km west of Wurrumiyanga.

History

Aboriginal Australians have occupied the area that became the Tiwi Islands for at least 40,000 years.

On 5 May 1623, Willem Jootszoon Van Colster (or Coolsteerdt), in the ship Arnhem named the island De Speult Eylandt, in honour of Herman van Speult, Governor of Ambon, who had commissioned the voyage of exploration.

In 1828, the island was named Bathurst Island by Scottish explorer John Clements Wickham, after the explorer Phillip Parker King's ship which had explored the area in August 1821. He named the island during a voyage in March 1838 when he was second in command of HMS Beagle in Charles Darwin's expedition. The ship's name honours Henry Bathurst, 3rd Earl Bathurst, (1762-1834), former British Secretary of State for the Colonies.

From 1910 to 1938 the island was the site of the Roman Catholic mission of Francis Xavier Gsell, known as the "Bishop with 150 wives" for his practice of "buying" girls betrothed to older men, thus making it possible for them to marry men of their own age.

On 24 December 1912 the whole island was proclaimed an Aboriginal reserve, under the Northern Territory Aboriginals Act 1910. A series of documents show that previous to the proclamation (published in the Commonwealth Gazette on 18 January 1913), there had been discussion about two parcels of land on the island. One was the allocation of 10,000 acres allocated to the Mission, which would continue on annual leases, and the second regarding 10,000 acres which was previously allocated as Crown Land under the Northern Territory Tropical Products Act 1904, for the production of cotton and other tropical crops. The correspondence shows that this was decided to be undesirable from the point of view of the Aboriginal people, both because of the bad influence of white men and the need to import labour to use on the leases.

Before the bombing of Darwin, a Missionary of the Sacred Heart priest, Ed Bennett, saw the approaching Japanese bombers, and urged the resident coastwatcher, John Gribble, to send a warning to Darwin, but Gribble refused. He said it would have to be sent in code, and he did not have the relevant code books. The first wave of 188 Japanese planes was also spotted by another missionary on the island, Father John McGrath, who sent a message on the radio saying "An unusually large air formation bearing down on us from the northwest". However, ten US P-40E Kittyhawk fighters were returning to Darwin after aborting a mission to Timor due to bad weather, and the Australian duty officer assumed this was the same formation, and the warning was not acted upon.

Climate
Bathurst Island has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen: Aw) with a very hot, rainy season from mid-October to April and a relatively cool, dry season from May to mid-October.

In film
Bathurst Island was depicted as Mission Island in the 2008 Baz Luhrmann film Australia. In the film, Japanese infantrymen land on the island; however, the presence of Japanese troops on the island is entirely fictional, as no such landing by the Japanese was made during World War II.

Notable people

 * Olive May Pearce

title: Bathurst Island (Northern Territory)


text:
Kalos

Kalos may refer to:
 * Kalos kagathos the good and the virtuous - the greek ethos of human excellence, or arete
 * Kalos, the region found in Pokémon X and Y
 * Kalos inscription, the form of epigraph found on Attic vases and graffiti in antiquity
 * Daewoo Kalos, the original marketed name for the Chevrolet Aveo (T200)
 * Kalos Agros, an ancient Roman town

title: Kalos


text:
Practical reason

In philosophy, practical reason is the use of reason to decide how to act. It contrasts with theoretical reason, often called speculative reason, the use of reason to decide what to follow. For example, agents use practical reason to decide whether to build a telescope, but theoretical reason to decide which of two theories of light and optics is the best.

Overview
Practical reason is understood by most philosophers as determining a plan of action. Thomistic ethics defines the first principle of practical reason as "good is to be done and pursued, and evil is to be avoided." For Kant, practical reason has a law-abiding quality because the categorical imperative is understood to be binding one to one's duty rather than subjective preferences. Utilitarians tend to see reason as an instrument for the satisfactions of wants and needs.

In classical philosophical terms, it is very important to distinguish three domains of human activity: theoretical reason, which investigates the truth of contingent events as well as necessary truths; practical reason, which determines whether a prospective course of action is worth pursuing; and productive or technical reason, which attempts to find the best means for a given end. Aristotle viewed philosophical activity as the highest activity of the human being and gave pride of place to metaphysics or wisdom. Since Descartes practical judgment and reasoning have been treated with less respect because of the demand for greater certainty and an infallible method to justify beliefs.

In argumentation
Practical reasoning is basically goal-directed reasoning from an agent's goal, and from some action selected as a means to carry out the goal, to the agent's reasoned decision to carry out the action. The agent can be a person or a technical device, such as a robot or a software device for multi-agent communications. It is a type of reasoning used all the time in everyday life and all kinds of technology where autonomous reasoning is required. Argumentation theorists have identified two kinds of practical reasoning: instrumental practical reasoning that does not explicitly take values into account, and value-based practical reasoning. The following argumentation scheme for instrumental practical reasoning is given in. The pronoun I represents an autonomous agent.

Argumentation scheme for instrumental practical reasoning
Critical questions

 * CQ1: What other goals do I have that should be considered that might conflict with G?
 * CQ2: What alternative actions to my bringing about A that would also bring about G should be considered?
 * CQ3: Among bringing about A and these alternative actions, which is arguably the most efficient?
 * CQ4: What grounds are there for arguing that it is practically possible for me to bring about A?
 * CQ5: What consequences of my bringing about A should also be taken into account?

It can be seen from CQ5 that argumentation from consequences is closely related to the scheme for practical reasoning. It has often been disputed in philosophy whether practical reasoning is purely instrumental or whether it needs to be based on values. Argument from values is combined with practical reasoning in the type of argumentation called value-based practical reasoning. The following argumentation scheme for value-based practical reasoning is given in.

Argumentation scheme for value-based practical reasoning

 * In the current circumstances R
 * we should perform action A
 * to achieve New Circumstances S
 * which will realize some goal G
 * which will promote some value V.

Practical reasoning is used in arguments, but also in explanations used to draw conclusions about an agent's goals, motives or intentions, based on reports of what the agent said or did.

Practical reasoning is centrally important in artificial intelligence, and also vitally important in many other fields such as law, medicine and engineering. It has been known as a distinctive type of argumentation as far back as Aristotle.

title: Practical reason


text:
Odyssey 5

Odyssey 5 is a Canadian science fiction television series, which was shown in 2002 on Space in Canada and on Showtime in the United States. The premise involves five space travelers who witness the destruction of the Earth; they are given the opportunity to travel to the past to identify and prevent the cataclysm.

Odyssey 5 was created by Manny Coto, who was a scriptwriter and executive producer during the series run. Through his website and in interviews, Coto expressed his interest in returning to the series at some point, either continuing it or giving it a conclusion.

The series was produced in Toronto, Ontario, Canada.

Plot
The story follows six people, four astronauts, a scientist and a television news reporter, on a routine flight of the space shuttle Odyssey on 7 August 2007. During the flight, the Earth rapidly dissolves into a fiery ball and implodes. Control of the Odyssey is momentarily lost and one astronaut is killed. The remaining five crew members resign themselves to death, but an inorganic being called the Seeker rescues them. The Seeker tells them that 50 other worlds have been destroyed in the same way as Earth and the Seeker has always arrived too late to observe it. This is the first time he has found survivors. He offers to send them five years into the past (to 2002, the year the series was shown) so that they can prevent the disaster. He sends only their consciousnesses back because physical time travel is impossible. The mission commander learns a codeword associated with the disaster: Leviathan.

The villains are a race of disembodied artificial intelligences known as "Sentients". They are trying to learn about humanity through artificial humanoid robots called "Synthetics", which are nearly indistinguishable from humans. Another group of Synthetics is discovered to be from Mars. In the original timeline, a previous race of Synthetics created by humanity was destroyed by a secret US government agency. Whether the destruction of the Earth was retaliation for this act by the Sentients is never revealed.

While they search for the truth, the team must also revisit their pasts while retaining past knowledge of what is to come. Reporter Sarah Forbes tries to save her five-year-old son, who died of cancer in the original timeline. Her efforts in this direction alienate her husband, who leaves her and takes their son with him. Astronaut Angela Perry must deal with the knowledge that her father is a corrupt U.S. senator whose malfeasance destroyed her family in the original timeline. Commander Chuck Taggart must try to keep his family together. His son, Neil, a computer technician on the Odyssey, must adjust to being 17 again when he was a poor student who had not yet discovered his talents. Pessimistic scientist Kurt Mendel believes they cannot change history and spends his time indulging every desire.

The series characters are not friends and frequently disagree. The humanity of the team is shown through arguments, jokes and their attempts to maintain social lives and help the world with their limited knowledge of the future.

Many of the show's plotlines involve technologies like AI, nanotechnology and neuroimaging.

A recurring theme is that the actions of the group may hasten the cataclysm they are trying to avoid or alter history in undesirable ways. A character who was supposed to live until 2007 dies in the first episode after helping the group. In one episode, Sarah and Angela protect a girl they know will be kidnapped. Although this prevents that individual's kidnapping, the kidnapper takes a different child. Kurt makes a large bet on a football game whose outcome is already known to him, but the pressure of knowing has a negative effect on a player instrumental in winning the game, and the team loses.

Cast

 * Peter Weller – Chuck Taggart, commander of the Odyssey mission and leader of the group when they jump back to the past.
 * Sebastian Roché – Kurt Mendel, Nobel Prize-winning behavioral geneticist whose atheistic outlook and hedonistic tendencies often bring comic relief to the story.
 * Christopher Gorham – Neil Taggart, Chuck's son. NASA's youngest astronaut at age 22, he succeeded where his older brother, Marc, had failed. He constantly has to deal with the struggles of growing up again and the repercussions that came with his high school delinquencies.
 * Tamara Marie Watson – Angela Perry, an astronaut who was rendered unconscious when the Earth imploded, waking up disoriented five years in the past, in her MMU about to burn up in the atmosphere. Her issues following their return have a repercussion on her career, altering her future.
 * Leslie Silva – Sarah Forbes, a reporter who tagged along with the Odyssey for a report, finding herself back before her son died from cancer and threatening to tear her family apart through her determination not to let him die again.
 * Gina Clayton – Paige Taggart, the matriarch who struggles to believe that her husband and son are time travelers.

Broadcast history
In the United States, the initial run of the series ran from 28 June 2002 (Episode 2) to 27 February 2003 (Episode 19). Episode 1 (the pilot) is listed as a two-parter. It was aired on 2 October 2002, after, Episode 13. The series made a full run of all 19 episodes in the United Kingdom on Sky One and on Sci Fi Channel and in Canada. In 2004, the series appeared in Finland on Nelonen and thus could also be seen in Estonia, and in June 2004 it was premiered in Germany on Sat.1. In 2005, it was shown in the Netherlands on NET 5 after midnight. In addition, Odyssey 5 is being or has been shown on RTL Klub in Hungary, and premiered in Australia on the Sci Fi Channel in December 2006 and on channel TV6 in Lithuania in 2008.

It has been shown on Cadena 3 (channel 28) in Mexico, the Sci Fi Channel in the United States, SIC Radical in Portugal, Mega Channel in Greece, TV 3 in Estonia, extreme TV in Spain and AXN Sci Fi in Romania, Poland and Bulgaria. It was also shown on Channel 3 in Israel.

Home media
The series was released as a complete box set (region 1) in April 2006 and in region 2 territories on 26 June 2006. As an extra feature, the DVD set has a commentary track on the pilot episode by Manny Coto and Peter Weller.

title: Odyssey 5


text:
United States District Court for the Northern District of New York

The United States District Court for the Northern District of New York (in case citations, N.D.N.Y.) serves one of the 94 judicial districts in the United States and one of four in the state of New York. Appeals from the Northern District of New York are taken to the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, which has jurisdiction over the four districts of New York, the District of Connecticut and the District of Vermont (except for patent claims and claims against the U.S. government under the Tucker Act, which are appealed to the Federal Circuit). The U.S. attorney for the district is Carla B. Freedman since October 8, 2021.

Its jurisdiction comprises the counties of Albany, Broome, Cayuga, Chenango, Clinton, Columbia, Cortland, Delaware, Essex, Franklin, Fulton, Greene, Hamilton, Herkimer, Jefferson, Lewis, Madison, Montgomery, Oneida, Onondaga, Oswego, Otsego, Rensselaer, Saratoga, Schenectady, Schoharie, St. Lawrence, Tioga, Tompkins, Ulster, Warren, and Washington.

The court's main offices are in Syracuse, however, the court has additional offices in Albany, Binghamton, Plattsburgh, and Utica. The court also maintains facilities in Watertown. The court accepts filings from members of the bar through an automated case management system CM/ECF over the Internet.

History
The first federal court district formed under the sovereignty of the United States was the District of New York. The District Court for the District of New York convened on November 3, 1789, with Judge James Duane presiding. On April 9, 1814, that original district split into the Northern and Southern Districts of New York; the first federal judge of the District Court for the Northern District of New York was Matthias Burnett Tallmadge. The Northern District's western area split off in 1900 and became the Western District of New York. The Northern District now covers thirty-two counties in upstate New York, and it shares its long northern border with Canada.


text:
Categorial grammar

Categorial grammar is a family of formalisms in natural language syntax that share the central assumption that syntactic constituents combine as functions and arguments. Categorial grammar posits a close relationship between the syntax and semantic composition, since it typically treats syntactic categories as corresponding to semantic types. Categorial grammars were developed in the 1930s by Kazimierz Ajdukiewicz and in the 1950s by Yehoshua Bar-Hillel and Joachim Lambek. It saw a surge of interest in the 1970s following the work of Richard Montague, whose Montague grammar assumed a similar view of syntax. It continues to be a major paradigm, particularly within formal semantics.

Basics
A categorial grammar consists of two parts: a lexicon, which assigns a set of types (also called categories) to each basic symbol, and some type inference rules, which determine how the type of a string of symbols follows from the types of the constituent symbols. It has the advantage that the type inference rules can be fixed once and for all, so that the specification of a particular language grammar is entirely determined by the lexicon.

A categorial grammar shares some features with the simply typed lambda calculus. Whereas the lambda calculus has only one function type $$A \rightarrow B$$, a categorial grammar typically has two function types, one type that is applied on the left, and one on the right. For example, a simple categorial grammar might have two function types $$B/A\,\!$$ and $$A\backslash B$$. The first, $$B/A\,\!$$, is the type of a phrase that results in a phrase of type $$B\,\!$$ when followed (on the right) by a phrase of type $$A\,\!$$. The second, $$A\backslash B\,\!$$, is the type of a phrase that results in a phrase of type $$B\,\!$$ when preceded (on the left) by a phrase of type $$A\,\!$$.

The notation is based upon algebra. A fraction when multiplied by (i.e. concatenated with) its denominator yields its numerator. As concatenation is not commutative, it makes a difference whether the denominator occurs to the left or right. The concatenation must be on the same side as the denominator for it to cancel out.

The first and simplest kind of categorial grammar is called a basic categorial grammar, or sometimes an AB-grammar (after Ajdukiewicz and Bar-Hillel). Given a set of primitive types $$\text{Prim}\,\!$$, let $$\text{Tp}(\text{Prim})\,\!$$ be the set of types constructed from primitive types. In the basic case, this is the least set such that $$\text{Prim}\subseteq \text{Tp}(\text{Prim})$$ and if $$X, Y\in \text{Tp}(\text{Prim})$$ then $$(X/Y), (Y\backslash X) \in \text{Tp}(\text{Prim})$$. Think of these as purely formal expressions freely generated from the primitive types; any semantics will be added later. Some authors assume a fixed infinite set of primitive types used by all grammars, but by making the primitive types part of the grammar, the whole construction is kept finite.

A basic categorial grammar is a tuple $$(\Sigma, \text{Prim}, S, \triangleleft)$$ where $$\Sigma\,\!$$ is a finite set of symbols, $$\text{Prim}\,\!$$ is a finite set of primitive types, and $$S \in \text{Tp}(\text{Prim})$$.

The relation $$\triangleleft$$ is the lexicon, which relates types to symbols $$(\triangleleft) \subseteq \text{Tp}(\text{Prim}) \times \Sigma$$. Since the lexicon is finite, it can be specified by listing a set of pairs like $$TYPE\triangleleft\text{symbol}$$.

Such a grammar for English might have three basic types $$(N,NP, \text{ and } S)\,\!$$, assigning count nouns the type $$N\,\!$$, complete noun phrases the type $$NP\,\!$$, and sentences the type $$S\,\!$$. Then an adjective could have the type $$N/N\,\!$$, because if it is followed by a noun then the whole phrase is a noun. Similarly, a determiner has the type $$NP/N\,\!$$, because it forms a complete noun phrase when followed by a noun. Intransitive verbs have the type $$NP\backslash S$$, and transitive verbs the type $$(NP\backslash S)/NP$$. Then a string of words is a sentence if it has overall type $$S\,\!$$.

For example, take the string "the bad boy made that mess". Now "the" and "that" are determiners, "boy" and "mess" are nouns, "bad" is an adjective, and "made" is a transitive verb, so the lexicon is {$$NP/N\triangleleft\text{the}$$, $$NP/N\triangleleft\text{that}$$, $$N\triangleleft\text{boy}$$, $$N\triangleleft\text{mess}$$, $$N/N\triangleleft\text{bad}$$, $$(NP\backslash S)/NP\triangleleft\text{made}$$}.

and the sequence of types in the string is

$$ {\text{the}\atop {NP/N,}} {\text{bad}\atop {N/N,}} {\text{boy}\atop {N,}} {\text{made}\atop {(NP\backslash S)/NP,}} {\text{that}\atop {NP/N,}} {\text{mess}\atop {N}} $$

now find functions and appropriate arguments and reduce them according to the two inference rules $$ X\leftarrow X/Y,\; Y$$ and $$ X\leftarrow Y,\; Y\backslash X$$:

$$.\qquad NP/N,\; N/N,\; N,\; (NP\backslash S)/NP,\; \underbrace{NP/N,\; N}$$ $$.\qquad NP/N,\; N/N,\; N,\; \underbrace{(NP\backslash S)/NP, \quad NP}$$ $$.\qquad NP/N,\; \underbrace{N/N,\; N}, \qquad (NP\backslash S)$$ $$.\qquad \underbrace{NP/N,\; \quad N},\; \qquad (NP\backslash S)$$ $$.\qquad \qquad\underbrace{NP,\; \qquad (NP\backslash S)}$$ $$.\qquad \qquad\qquad\quad\;\;\; S$$

The fact that the result is $$S\,\!$$ means that the string is a sentence, while the sequence of reductions shows that it can be parsed as ((the (bad boy)) (made (that mess))).

Categorial grammars of this form (having only function application rules) are equivalent in generative capacity to context-free grammars and are thus often considered inadequate for theories of natural language syntax. Unlike CFGs, categorial grammars are lexicalized, meaning that only a small number of (mostly language-independent) rules are employed, and all other syntactic phenomena derive from the lexical entries of specific words.

Another appealing aspect of categorial grammars is that it is often easy to assign them a compositional semantics, by first assigning interpretation types to all the basic categories, and then associating all the derived categories with appropriate function types. The interpretation of any constituent is then simply the value of a function at an argument. With some modifications to handle intensionality and quantification, this approach can be used to cover a wide variety of semantic phenomena.

Lambek calculus
A Lambek grammar is an elaboration of this idea that has a concatenation operator for types, and several other inference rules. Mati Pentus has shown that these still have the generative capacity of context-free grammars.

For the Lambek calculus, there is a type concatenation operator $$\star$$, so that $$\text{Prim}\subseteq \text{Tp}(\text{Prim})$$ and if $$X, Y\in \text{Tp}(\text{Prim})$$ then $$(X/Y), (X\backslash Y), (X\star Y)\in \text{Tp}(\text{Prim})$$.

The Lambek calculus consists of several deduction rules, which specify how type inclusion assertions can be derived. In the following rules, upper case roman letters stand for types, upper case Greek letters stand for sequences of types. A sequent of the form $$ X \leftarrow \Gamma $$ can be read: a string is of type $X$ if it consists of the concatenation of strings of each of the types in $Γ$. If a type is interpreted as a set of strings, then the ← may be interpreted as ⊇, that is, "includes as a subset". A horizontal line means that the inclusion above the line implies the one below the line.

The process is begun by the Axiom rule, which has no antecedents and just says that any type includes itself.

\text{(Axiom)}\quad {{}\over X \leftarrow X} $$

The Cut rule says that inclusions can be composed.

\text{(Cut)} \quad {Z \leftarrow \Delta X \Delta' \qquad X \leftarrow \Gamma \over Z \leftarrow \Delta \Gamma \Delta'} $$

The other rules come in pairs, one pair for each type construction operator, each pair consisting of one rule for the operator in the target, one in the source, of the arrow. The name of a rule consists of the operator and an arrow, with the operator on the side of the arrow on which it occurs in the conclusion.

 * {| class="wikitable"

!Target !Source (\backslash \leftarrow) \quad {Y\leftarrow X \Gamma \over X\backslash Y\leftarrow\Gamma} $$ (\leftarrow \backslash) \quad {Z \leftarrow \Delta Y \Delta' \qquad X\leftarrow\Gamma \over Z \leftarrow \Delta \Gamma(X\backslash Y) \Delta'} $$ (/\leftarrow) \quad {Y\leftarrow \Gamma X \over Y/X\leftarrow\Gamma} $$ (\leftarrow/) \quad {Z\leftarrow \Delta Y \Delta' \qquad X\leftarrow\Gamma \over Z\leftarrow \Delta (Y/X)\Gamma \Delta'} $$ (\star\leftarrow) \quad {X\leftarrow \Gamma \qquad Y \leftarrow \Gamma' \over X \star Y \leftarrow \Gamma\Gamma'} $$ (\leftarrow\star) \quad {Z\leftarrow \Delta X Y \Delta' \over Z\leftarrow \Delta (X \star Y) \Delta'} $$
 * }

For an example, here is a derivation of "type raising", which says that $$(B/A)\backslash B \leftarrow A$$. The names of rules and the substitutions used are to the right.

\dfrac {\dfrac{}{B \leftarrow B} \qquad \dfrac{}{A \leftarrow A} } {\dfrac {B \leftarrow (B/A), \;\; A}               {(B/A)\backslash B \leftarrow A} } \qquad \begin{matrix} \mbox{(Axioms)}\qquad\qquad\qquad\qquad\qquad\qquad\qquad\qquad\qquad{ }\\ {(\leftarrow/)\,\,[Z=Y=B,X=A,\Gamma=(A),\Delta=\Delta'=]}\\ {(\backslash\leftarrow)\,\,[Y=B,X=(B/A),\Gamma=(A)]}\qquad\qquad\qquad{ }\\ \end{matrix} $$

Relation to context-free grammars
Recall that a context-free grammar is a 4-tuple $$G = (V,\, \Sigma,\, ::=,\, S)$$ where

 * 1) $$V\, $$ is a finite set of non-terminals or variables.
 * 2) $$\Sigma\,$$ is a finite set of terminal symbols.
 * $$::=\,$$ is a finite set of production rules, that is, a finite relation $$(::=)\subseteq V \times (V \cup \Sigma)^*$$.
 * 1) $$S\,$$ is the start variable.

From the point of view of categorial grammars, a context-free grammar can be seen as a calculus with a set of special purpose axioms for each language, but with no type construction operators and no inference rules except Cut.

Specifically, given a context-free grammar as above, define a categorial grammar $$(\text{Prim},\, \Sigma,\, \triangleleft,\, S)$$ where $$\text{Prim}=V\cup\Sigma$$, and  $$\text{Tp}(\text{Prim})=\text{Prim}\,\!$$. Let there be an axiom $${x \leftarrow x}$$ for every symbol $$x \in V\cup\Sigma$$, an axiom $${X \leftarrow \Gamma}$$ for every production rule $$X ::= \Gamma\,\!$$, a lexicon entry $${s \triangleleft s}$$ for every terminal symbol $$s \in \Sigma$$, and Cut for the only rule. This categorial grammar generates the same language as the given CFG.

Of course, this is not a basic categorial grammar, since it has special axioms that depend upon the language; i.e. it is not lexicalized. Also, it makes no use at all of non-primitive types.

To show that any context-free language can be generated by a basic categorial grammar, recall that any context-free language can be generated by a context-free grammar in Greibach normal form.

The grammar is in Greibach normal form if every production rule is of the form $$ A ::= s A_0 \ldots A_{N-1}$$, where capital letters are variables, $$s \in \Sigma$$, and $$N\ge 0$$, that is, the right side of the production is a single terminal symbol followed by zero or more (non-terminal) variables.

Now given a CFG in Greibach normal form, define a basic categorial grammar with a primitive type for each non-terminal variable $$\text{Prim}=V\,\!$$, and with an entry in the lexicon $$ A/A_{N-1}/ \ldots /A_0 \triangleleft s $$, for each production rule $$ A ::= s A_0 \ldots A_{N-1}$$. It is fairly easy to see that this basic categorial grammar generates the same language as the original CFG. Note that the lexicon of this grammar will generally assign multiple types to each symbol.

The same construction works for Lambek grammars, since they are an extension of basic categorial grammars. It is necessary to verify that the extra inference rules do not change the generated language. This can be done and shows that every context-free language is generated by some Lambek grammar.

To show the converse, that every language generated by a Lambek grammar is context-free, is much more difficult. It was an open problem for nearly thirty years, from the early 1960s until about 1991 when it was proven by Pentus.

The basic idea is, given a Lambek grammar, $$(\text{Prim},\, \Sigma,\, \triangleleft,\, S)$$ construct a context-free grammar $$(V,\, \Sigma,\, ::=,\, S)$$ with the same set of terminal symbols, the same start symbol, with variables some (not all) types $$V\subseteq \text{Tp}(\text{Prim})\,\!$$, and with a production rule $$T::=\text{s}\,\!$$ for each entry $$T\triangleleft\text{s}$$ in the lexicon, and production rules $$T::=\Gamma\,\!$$ for certain sequents $$T\leftarrow\Gamma$$ that are derivable in the Lambek calculus.

Of course, there are infinitely many types and infinitely many derivable sequents, so in order to make a finite grammar it is necessary put a bound on the size of the types and sequents that are needed. The heart of Pentus's proof is to show that there is such a finite bound.

Notation
The notation in this field is not standardized. The notations used in formal language theory, logic, category theory, and linguistics, conflict with each other. In logic, arrows point to the more general from the more particular, that is, to the conclusion from the hypotheses. In this article, this convention is followed, i.e. the target of the arrow is the more general (inclusive) type.

In logic, arrows usually point left to right. In this article this convention is reversed for consistency with the notation of context-free grammars, where the single non-terminal symbol is always on the left. We use the symbol $$::=$$ in a production rule as in Backus–Naur form. Some authors use an arrow, which unfortunately may point in either direction, depending on whether the grammar is thought of as generating or recognizing the language.

Some authors on categorial grammars write $$B\backslash A$$ instead of $$A\backslash B$$. The convention used here follows Lambek and algebra.

Historical notes
The basic ideas of categorial grammar date from work by Kazimierz Ajdukiewicz (in 1935) and other scholars from the Polish tradition of mathematical logic including Stanisław Leśniewski, Emil Post and Alfred Tarski. Ajdukiewicz's formal approach to syntax was influenced by Edmund Husserl's pure logical grammar, which was formalized by Rudolph Carnap. It represents a development in the historical idea of universal logical grammar as an underlying structure of all languages. A core concept of the approach is the substitutability of syntactic categories—hence the name categorial grammar. The membership of an element (e.g., word or phrase) in a syntactic category (word class, phrase type) is established by the commutation test, and the formal grammar is constructed through series of such tests.

The term categorial grammar was coined by Yehoshua Bar-Hillel (in 1953). In 1958, Joachim Lambek introduced a syntactic calculus that formalized the function type constructors along with various rules for the combination of functions. This calculus is a forerunner of linear logic in that it is a substructural logic.

Montague grammar is based on the same principles as categorial grammar. Montague's work helped to bolster interest in categorial grammar by associating it with his highly successful formal treatment of natural language semantics. Later work in categorial grammar has focused on the improvement of syntactic coverage. One formalism that has received considerable attention in recent years is Steedman and Szabolcsi's combinatory categorial grammar, which builds on combinatory logic invented by Moses Schönfinkel and Haskell Curry.

There are a number of related formalisms of this kind in linguistics, such as type logical grammar and abstract categorial grammar.

Some definitions

 * Derivation: A derivation is a binary tree that encodes a proof.
 * Parse tree: A parse tree displays a derivation, showing the syntactic structure of a sentence.
 * Functor and argument: In a right (left) function application, the node of the type A\B (B/A) is called the functor, and the node of the type A is called an argument.
 * Functor–argument structure

Refinements of categorical grammar
A variety of changes to categorial grammar have been proposed to improve syntactic coverage. Some of the most common are listed below.

Features and subcategories
Most systems of categorial grammar subdivide categories. The most common way to do this is by tagging them with features, such as person, gender, number, and tense. Sometimes only atomic categories are tagged in this way. In Montague grammar, it is traditional to subdivide function categories using a multiple slash convention, so A/B and A//B would be two distinct categories of left-applying functions, that took the same arguments but could be distinguished between by other functions taking them as arguments.

Function composition
Rules of function composition are included in many categorial grammars. An example of such a rule would be one that allowed the concatenation of a constituent of type A/B with one of type B/C to produce a new constituent of type A/C. The semantics of such a rule would simply involve the composition of the functions involved. Function composition is important in categorial accounts of conjunction and extraction, especially as they relate to phenomena like right node raising. The introduction of function composition into a categorial grammar leads to many kinds of derivational ambiguity that are vacuous in the sense that they do not correspond to semantic ambiguities.

Conjunction
Many categorial grammars include a typical conjunction rule, of the general form X CONJ X → X, where X is a category. Conjunction can generally be applied to nonstandard constituents resulting from type raising or function composition..

Discontinuity
The grammar is extended to handle linguistic phenomena such as discontinuous idioms, gapping and extraction.

title: Categorial grammar


text:
Hans Rausing

Hans Anders Rausing, KBE (25 March 1926 – 30 August 2019) was a Swedish industrialist and philanthropist based in the United Kingdom. He made his fortune from his co-inheritance of Tetra Pak, a company founded by his father Ruben Rausing, and the largest food packaging company in the world. In the early 1980s Rausing moved to the United Kingdom to avoid Swedish taxes, in 1995 he sold his share of the company to his brother, Gad. In the Forbes world fortune ranking, Rausing was placed at number 83 with an estimated fortune of US$10 billion in 2011. According to Forbes, he was the second richest Swedish billionaire in 2013. By the time of his death in August 2019, Forbes estimated the net worth of Rausing and his family to be $12 billion.

Early life
Rausing was born in Gothenburg in 1926, the second son of industrialist Ruben Rausing and his wife Elisabeth (née Varenius). Rausing had two brothers, Gad and Sven.

Career
Rausing studied Economics, Statistics and Russian at Lund University, graduating in 1948. In 1954, Rausing was appointed managing director of Tetra Pak and his brother Gad deputy managing director. Rausing became chairman in 1985. He left the company in 1993, and sold his 50% share of the company to Gad in 1995.

Tetra Pak's success in the 1970s and 1980s has been credited to the leadership of Hans and Gad Rausing, who turned the six-person family business into a multinational company. Over the course of his career, Rausing became a specialist in Russian affairs and made many investments in Russia and Ukraine. He was responsible for Tetra Pak's Russian market, and negotiated the first Tetra Pak machine export to the Soviet Union in 1959, eventually making Tetra Pak the largest foreign employer in Russia.

Patronage
Hans Rausing and his wife Märit donated large sums to charities and research in the UK and Sweden, among others to large medical research projects at Karolinska Institutet and Lund University. Through the Märit and Hans Rausing Fund, they supported local community projects in their home county of Sussex.

Through her fund Arcadia, Rausing's daughter Lisbet is financing the Hans Rausing Endangered Languages Project at the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS) at the University of London, the Hans Rausing Scholarship in the History of Science at King's College London, and the Hans Rausing Chair in the History of Science at Uppsala University, which is also hosting an annual Hans Rausing Lecture in the History of Science. The University of Cambridge Department of History and Philosophy of Science hosts an Annual Hans Rausing Lecture.

Honours and UK tax status
Hans Rausing received an honorary doctorate from Lund University. He was a visiting professor at Mälardalens Högskola, Sweden, and honorary professor at the University of Dubna, Russia. He was made an honorary Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE) in 2006. He was an honorary fellow of the Isaac Newton Institute, Cambridge, and in 2011 was made an honorary freeman and liveryman at the Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers, London. An article in the Guardian described how Hans Rausing had taken advantage of the UK's "remittance basis" of taxation to reduce his UK tax exposure while UK resident. In 2002, for example, he earned income of around £225M but, according to the report, he incurred UK income tax on only £1M of it, because most of it arose outside the UK and therefore, because he did not "remit" it to the UK, the remittance basis meant he did not incur UK tax on it.

Personal life
Hans Rausing and his wife Märit Rausing had two daughters, Lisbet and Sigrid, and one son, Hans Kristian Rausing.

From 2001 to 2012, Rausing and his family donated £886,000 to the UK's Conservative Party.

Rausing was a resident of the UK from 1982 until his death. He lived at The New House, Wadhurst Park, East Sussex, until his death on 30 August 2019.

title: Hans Rausing


text:
User:Tacysa

As I'm new, this is going to be an experiment. Dogs, orchids, and school are my life and I don't have much of one outside of those. I am also an h2g2 member and my user number is U228615.

title: User:Tacysa


text:
Chang Chun-hsiung

Chang Chun-hsiung (born 23 March 1938) is a Taiwanese politician who had served as the prime minister of Taiwan (officially Premier of the Executive Yuan) from 2000 to 2002 and 2007 to 2008, both under Chen Shui-bian's presidency. His appointment by then-President Chen in 2000 marked the first time a Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) member occupied the premiership.

As a founding member of the DPP, he served on its Central Committee and Central Standing Committee from 1986 to 2000.

Early life
Chang was born in 1938 in the city of Kagi (present-day Chiayi) when Taiwan (then Formosa) was still a colony of Japan. He earned his LL.B. at the National Taiwan University in 1960. Chang joined the Kuomintang in 1970, but was expelled three year later for mounting a campaign for the Taipei City Council. As a lawyer, he defended the victims of the Kaohsiung Incident in 1980. From 1982 to 1986 he was President of the Kaohsiung Chapter of the YMCA.

Political career
He was a member of the Legislative Yuan from 1983 to 2000. As a legislator, he was Executive Director and General Convener of the DPP Caucus from 1987 to 1988, 1990, and 1998 to 1999. He was Convener of the Judiciary Committee in 1991, of the Home and Border Affairs Committee in 92, and of the Transportation and Communications Committee in 95.

In 1994, Chang stood as the Democratic Progressive Party candidate to run for the mayor of Kaohsiung, but was defeated by the Kuomintang incumbent Wu Den-yih.

In the 2000 presidential election he was General Manager of Chen Shui-bian's campaign. In the Chen administration, he served as Secretary-General of the Office of the President in 2000, Vice Premier of the ROC in 2000 and Premier of the Republic of China from October 6, 2000 to February 1, 2002.

Since 2002, he has been Secretary General of the Democratic Progressive Party and a Senior Adviser in the Office of the President.

He ran in the 2004 Legislative Yuan election as fourth on the DPP's nationwide slate and was easily elected but resigned (as he promised to do during the campaign) since the Pan-Green Coalition failed to win a majority. He also tendered his resignation as Secretary-General of the Democratic Progressive Party to take responsibility for the defeat.

Chang was appointed as the chairman of the Straits Exchange Foundation in 2005 after the death of the former chairman Koo Chen-fu. With the resignation of Su Tseng-chang as Premier on May 12, 2007, President Chen Shui-bian nominated Chang to fill the post of Premier a second time effective May 21, and Hung Chi-chang succeeded Chang as the chairman of the Straits Exchange Foundation. Su's resignation and Chang's second appointment as Premier marked the sixth premier that Chen Shui-bian has appointed during his two terms as President.

Family life
Chang maintained a long-term marriage-like relationship with a paramour while remaining legally married to his first wife, Hsu Jui-ying. After his first term as Premier, he and Hsu divorced, and in 2007 he married his paramour (Chu A-ying) as his second wife.

title: Chang Chun-hsiung


text: Category:Brazoria County, Texas

title: Category:Brazoria County, Texas