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Norman architecture

The term Norman architecture is used to categorise styles of Romanesque architecture developed by the Normans in the various lands under their dominion or influence in the 11th and 12th centuries. In particular the term is traditionally used for English Romanesque architecture. The Normans introduced large numbers of castles and fortifications including Norman keeps, and at the same time monasteries, abbeys, churches and cathedrals, in a style characterised by the usual Romanesque rounded arches (particularly over windows and doorways) and especially massive proportions compared to other regional variations of the style.

Origins
These Romanesque styles originated in Normandy and became widespread in northwestern Europe, particularly in England, which contributed considerable development and where the largest number of examples survived. At about the same time, a Norman dynasty that ruled in Sicily produced a distinctive variation–incorporating Byzantine and Saracen influences–also known as Norman architecture (or alternatively Sicilian Romanesque).

The term Norman may have originated with eighteenth-century antiquarians, but its usage in a sequence of styles has been attributed to Thomas Rickman in his 1817 work An Attempt to Discriminate the Styles of English Architecture from the Conquest to the Reformation. In this work he used the labels "Norman, Early English, Decorated, and Perpendicular". The more inclusive term romanesque was used of the Romance languages in English by 1715, and was applied to architecture of the eleventh and twelfth centuries from 1819.

Although Edward the Confessor built the original Westminster Abbey in Romanesque style (now all replaced by later rebuildings), its construction predates the Norman Conquest: it is still believed to have been the earliest major Romanesque building in England. No other significant remaining Romanesque architecture in Britain can clearly be shown to predate the Norman Conquest. However, historians believe that many surviving "Norman" elements in buildings–nearly all churches–may well in fact be Anglo-Saxon elements.

Norman arch
The Norman arch is a defining point of Norman architecture. Grand archways are designed to evoke feelings of awe and are very commonly seen as the entrance to large religious buildings such as cathedrals. Norman arches are semicircular in form. Early examples have plain, square edges; later ones are often enriched with the zig-zag and roll mouldings. The arches are supported on massive columns, generally plain and cylindrical, sometimes with spiral decoration; occasionally, square-section piers are found. Main doorways have a succession of receding semicircular arches, often decorated with mouldings, typically of chevron or zig-zag design; sometimes there is a tympanum at the back of the head of the arch, which may feature sculpture representing a Biblical scene. Norman windows are mostly small and narrow, generally of a single round-headed light; but sometimes, especially in a bell tower, divided by a shaft into two lights.

Normandy
Viking invaders arrived at the mouth of the river Seine in 911, at a time when Franks were fighting on horseback and Frankish lords were building castles. Over the next century the population of the territory ceded to the Vikings now called Normans, adopted these customs as well as Christianity and the langue d'oïl. Norman barons built timber castles on earthen mounds, beginning the development of motte-and-bailey castles, and great stone churches in the Romanesque style of the Franks. By 950, they were building stone keeps. The Normans were among the most travelled peoples of Europe, exposing them to a wide variety of cultural influences which became incorporated in their art and architecture. They elaborated on the early Christian basilica plan. Originally longitudinal with side aisles and an apse they began to add in towers, as at the Church of Saint-Étienne at Caen, in 1067. This would eventually form a model for the larger English cathedrals some 20 years later.

England
In England, Norman nobles and bishops had influence before the Norman Conquest of 1066, and Norman influences affected late Anglo-Saxon architecture. Edward the Confessor was brought up in Normandy and in 1042 brought masons to work on the first Romanesque building in England, Westminster Abbey. In 1051 he brought in Norman knights who built "motte" castles as a defence against the Welsh. Following the invasion, Normans rapidly constructed motte-and-bailey castles along with churches, abbeys, and more elaborate fortifications such as Norman stone keeps.

The buildings show massive proportions in simple geometries using small bands of sculpture. Paying attention to the concentrated spaces of capitals and round doorways as well as the tympanum under an arch. The "Norman arch" is the rounded, often with mouldings carved or incised onto it for decoration. chevron patterns, frequently termed "zig-zag mouldings", were a frequent signature of the Normans. The cruciform churches often had deep chancels and a square crossing tower which has remained a feature of English ecclesiastical architecture. Hundreds of parish churches were built and the great English cathedrals were founded from 1083.

After a fire damaged Canterbury Cathedral in 1174 Norman masons introduced the new Gothic architecture. Around 1191 Wells Cathedral and Lincoln Cathedral brought in the English Gothic style, and Norman became increasingly a modest style of provincial building.

Ecclesiastical architecture

 * Oxford Castle 1074: church tower doubles as a place of refuge
 * St John's Chapel (c. 1078), Tower of London
 * Durham Cathedral (from 1093) was the first to employ a ribbed vault system with pointed arches
 * Winchester Cathedral (from 1079)
 * Ely Cathedral (1083–1109)
 * Peterborough Cathedral (from 1118)
 * Kilpeck Church, Herefordshire
 * St Nicholas Church, Pyrford, Surrey (c. 1140)
 * Southwell Minster
 * St Mary the Virgin, Iffley, Oxfordshire (1170)
 * St Swithun's in Nately Scures, Hampshire (1175), an example of a Norman single-cell apsidal church.
 * Norwich Cathedral (1096–1145)
 * St Edward's Church (eleventh century)
 * St Botolph's Priory, Colchester
 * St John's Abbey, Colchester
 * Tewkesbury Abbey (c. 1102)
 * St Germans Priory, Cornwall (12th Century)
 * Church of St Peter and St Paul, Trottiscliffe, Kent
 * St Peter's Church, Tickencote, Rutland – Norman chancel
 * Dunstable Priory

Bibliography
 * Sedding, Edmund H. (1909) Norman Architecture in Cornwall: a handbook to old ecclesiastical architecture. With over 160 plates. London: Ward & Co.

Military architecture

 * White Tower (Tower of London)
 * Rochester Castle
 * Norwich Castle
 * Colchester Castle, the largest Norman castle built and the first stone Keep in England
 * Hedingham Castle, Essex
 * Carrickfergus Castle, the best preserved Norman castle on the island of Ireland. Though it was heavily renovated, the keep, land walls and gatehouse are reasonably intact.

Domestic architecture

 * Jew's House, Lincoln
 * Boothby Pagnell Manor, Lincolnshire
 * Oakham Castle, Rutland
 * Moyse's Hall Museum, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk (c. 1180)

Scotland
Scotland also came under early Norman influence with Norman nobles at the court of King Macbeth around 1050. His successor Máel Coluim III overthrew him with English and Norman assistance, and his queen, Margaret, encouraged the church. The Benedictine order founded a monastery at Dunfermline. Her sixth and youngest son, who became King David, built St. Margaret's Chapel at the start of the 12th century.

Ecclesiastical architecture

 * Dunfermline Abbey, Dunfermline (founded about 1070 by St Margaret)
 * St Andrew Cathedral (from about 1070)
 * St. Margaret's Chapel, Edinburgh Castle (early 12th century)
 * Dalmeny parish church (from about 1130)
 * St Magnus Cathedral, Kirkwall (from about 1137)
 * Jedburgh Abbey, Jedburgh (founded about 1138 by David I)
 * St Athernase Church, Leuchars (12th century)
 * Kirkliston Parish Church, Edinburgh (late 12th century)

Ireland
The Normans first landed in Ireland in 1169. Within five years earthwork castles were springing up, and in a further five, work was beginning on some of the earliest of the great stone castles. For example, Hugh de Lacy built a Motte-and-bailey castle on the site of the present day Trim Castle, County Meath, which was attacked and burned in 1173 by the Irish king Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair. De Lacy, however, then constructed a stone castle in its place, which enclosed over three acres within its walls, and this could not be burned down by the Irish. The years between 1177 and 1310 saw the construction of some of the greatest of the Norman castles in Ireland. The Normans settled mostly in an area in the east of Ireland, later known as the Pale, and among other buildings they constructed were Swords Castle in Fingal (North County Dublin), Dublin Castle and Carrickfergus Castle in County Antrim.

Mezzogiorno
The Normans began constructing castles, their trademark architectural piece, in Italy from an early date. William Iron Arm built one at an unidentified location (Stridula) in Calabria in 1045. After the death of Robert Guiscard in 1085, the Mezzogiorno (peninsular southern Italy) experienced a series of civil wars and fell under the control of increasingly weaker princes. Revolts characterised the region until well into the twelfth century and minor lords sought to resist ducal or royal power from within their own castles. In the Molise, the Normans embarked on their most extensive castle-building programme and introduced the opus gallicum technique to Italy. Their clever use of the local stone artisans, together with the vast riches amassed from their enslaved population, made such tremendous feats possible, some as majestic as those of the ancient Roman structures they tried to emulate.

Besides the encastellation of the countryside, the Normans erected several religious buildings which still survive. They edified the shrine at Monte Sant'Angelo and built a mausoleum to the Hauteville family at Venosa. They also built many new Latin monasteries, including the famous foundation of Sant'Eufemia Lamezia. Other examples of great importance are the portal of the Shrine of Mary Queen of Anglona and the ambulatory and radiating chapels of the Aversa Cathedral.

Here is a list of Norman architecture in the Mezzogiorno :
 * Castle of Circello.
 * Castle Monforte (Campobasso).
 * Basilica of St. Peter Alli Marmi (Salerno)

Sicily
Sicily's Norman period lasted from c. 1061 until about 1200. The architecture was decorated in gilded mosaics such as that at the cathedral at Monreale. The Palatine Chapel in Palermo built in 1130 is perhaps the strongest example of this. The interior of the dome, (itself a Byzantine feature), is decorated in a mosaic depicting Christ Pantocrator accompanied by his angels.

During Sicily's later Norman era early Gothic influences can be detected such as those in the cathedral at Messina consecrated in 1197. However, here the high Gothic campanile is of a later date and should not be confused with the early Gothic built during the Norman period; which featured pointed arches and windows rather than the flying buttresses and pinnacles later to manifest themselves in the Gothic era.

 * Edifices in Palermo
 * Norman palace with its Palatine Chapel
 * Zisa
 * Cuba
 * Castle of Maredolce
 * Cathedral of Palermo
 * San Giovanni dei Lebbrosi
 * San Giovanni degli Eremiti
 * Santa Maria dell'Ammiraglio also known as Martorana
 * San Cataldo
 * Church of the Holy Spirit (Sicily) also known as Chiesa del Vespro
 * known as Chiesa della Magione
 * The Admiral's Bridge ("Ponte dell'Ammiraglio")
 * Monreale Cathedral and Benedictine cloister
 * Cefalù Cathedral
 * Edifices in Messina
 * Messina Cathedral
 * Church of Chiesa di Santa Maria della Valle
 * Church of the Santissima Annunziata dei Catalani
 * Erice the Venus Castle and the main church ("Duomo dell'Assunta")
 * Castelvetrano, Church of the Santissima Trinità di Delia
 * Casalvecchio Siculo, Church of Santi Pietro e Paolo d'Agrò
 * Itala, the Arabic Norman Church of Saints Peter and Paul
 * Montalbano Elicona, Palatine Chapel
 * Sciacca, Church of San Nicolò la Latina and Church of Santa Maria della Raccomandata
 * Caltanissetta, Abbey of the Santo Spirito
 * San Fratello, Shrine of the Tre Santi
 * Maniace, Norman bridge and Castle of Nelson (old Abbey of St. Mary in Maniace)
 * Syracuse, Church of San Nicolò ai Cordari and Church of San Giovanni alle catacombe (St. John the Catacombs)
 * Nicosia (Sicily), Norman castle
 * Castle of Milazzo
 * San Marco d'Alunzio, Ruins of the Norman Church of St Saviour (S. Salvatore) and ruins of the Norman castle
 * Adrano, Norman castle
 * Aci Castello
 * Motta Sant'Anastasia, Norman tower (Dongione)
 * Caronia, Norman castle
 * Catania Cathedral
 * Ponte dei Saraceni (Norman bridge), Adrano
 * Ponte Calatrasi (Norman bridge), Roccamena
 * Ponte di Cerami (Norman bridge), Cerami

Malta
After its Norman conquest in 1091, Malta saw the construction of several Norman pieces of architecture. Many have been demolished and rebuilt over the years (especially after the 1693 Sicily earthquake which destroyed many old Norman buildings), however some fortresses and houses still exist in Mdina and Vittoriosa.

Transitional style
As master masons developed the style and experimented with ways of overcoming the geometric difficulties of groin vaulted ceilings, they introduced features such as the pointed arch that were later characterised as being Gothic in style. Architectural historians and scholars consider that a style must be assessed as an integral whole rather than an aggregate of features, and while some include these developments within the Norman or Romanesque styles, others describe them as transitional or "Norman–Gothic Transitional". A few websites use the term "Norman Gothic", but it is unclear whether they refer to the transitional style or to the Norman style as a whole.

Neo-Norman
Neo-Norman architecture is a type of Romanesque Revival architecture based on Norman Romanesque architecture. There is sometimes confusion, especially in North America, between this style and revivalist versions of vernacular or later architecture of Normandy, such as the "Norman farmhouse style" popular for larger houses.

Romanesque Revival versions focus on the arch and capitals, and decorated doorways. There are two examples in Manchester: the former Stock Exchange building and a synagogue in Fallowfield.

title: Norman architecture


text:
Sarah Fielding

Sarah Fielding (8 November 1710 – 9 April 1768) was an English author and sister of the playwright, novelist and magistrate Henry Fielding. She wrote The Governess, or The Little Female Academy (1749), thought to be the first novel in English aimed expressly at children. Earlier she had success with her novel The Adventures of David Simple (1744).

Childhood
Sarah Fielding was born at East Stour, Dorset in 1710 to Edmund Feilding [sic] and his wife Sarah, née Gould (died 1718), after Henry and Ursula; her younger siblings were Anne, Beatrice, and Edmund. Sarah's father, Edmund, the third son of John Feilding, was a military officer and relative of the Earls of Denbigh (his father, John, had been the youngest son of the 3rd Earl). Although Edmund spelled his last name "Feilding" as often as "Fielding," both Henry and Sarah spelled the name "Fielding." When asked by an Earl of Denbigh why, Henry Fielding said, "I cannot tell, my Lord, except it be that my branch of the family were the first that knew how to spell". Sarah Fielding's mother, Sarah Gould, was the daughter of Sir Henry Gould, a judge on the King's Bench who had been reappointed to the Queen's Bench. This descent is important for understanding the early life and education of Edmund Feilding's children.

Edmund left the care of his children to his wife's mother, Lady Sarah Gould, while he built his career in London. The children grew up in her home in Glastonbury and their paternal grandfather's house in East Stour (John Feilding being a latitudinarian Cambridge-educated parish priest with three livings, who had been considered for a bishopric in Ireland. Henry was sent to Eton, but all of the daughters were sent to Mary Rookes's boarding school in Salisbury. This was "non-academic, but she was later extremely well read in Greek, Latin, French and English."

When Edmund's first wife (Fielding's mother) died in 1718, Edmund married Anne Rapha, a Roman Catholic widow, who brought with her several children, and later bore Edmund a son and half-brother for Henry and Sarah, the future reformer John Fielding. Sir Henry and Lady Sarah Gould (Fielding's maternal grandparents) had fallen out with Edmund before the death of the children's mother. Lady Gould was highly displeased with Edmund's second marriage, and Anne Fielding (née Rapha) was the subject of much anti-Catholic sentiment from the elder generation of the family. Lady Gould was so set against Anne and her enlargement to the family that, in 1721, she sued for custody of the children and ownership of the family house in East Stour. She eventually won, leaving the children unable to see their father for some years.

Writing career
In the 1740s, Fielding moved to London, sometimes living with her sisters and sometimes with her brother Henry and his family. The women of the family lacked sufficient money for a dowry, and consequently none married. Even when Lady Gould died in 1733, there was little money for the children.

Fielding turned to writing to make a living, beginning while she lived with her brother and acted as his housekeeper. In 1742, Henry Fielding published Joseph Andrews, and Sarah Fielding is often credited with having written the letter from Leonora to Horatio (two of the characters in the book). In 1743, Henry Fielding published his Miscellanies (containing his life of Jonathan Wild), and his sister may have written its narrative of the life of Anne Boleyn.

In 1744, Fielding published a novel, The Adventures of David Simple in Search of a Faithful Friend. As was the habit, it was published anonymously, while pleading financial distress. The novel was quite successful and gathered praise from contemporaries, including the publisher and novelist Samuel Richardson. As a "moral romance", it features two disinherited couples. Both heroines point to "the stifling of women's intellect and the barriers against a gentlewoman's earning her living." It was followed by the Familiar Letters (1747) of the two couples and by a Volume the Last added to a later edition (1753). Richardson, who was himself the target of Henry Fielding's satire, said that he thought Sarah and Henry were possessed of equal gifts of writing. The Adventures of David Simple went into a second edition within ten weeks, and was translated into French and German. The title pages to Sarah Fielding's other novels often carried the advertisement that they were written by "the author of David Simple". The novel was sufficiently popular that Fielding wrote Familiar Letters between the Principal Characters in David Simple as an epistolary furtherance to the novel in 1747. In 1753, she wrote a sequel to The Adventures of David Simple entitled David Simple: Volume the Last.

David Simple was one of the earliest sentimental novels, featuring a wayfaring hero in search of true friendship who triumphs by good nature and moral strength. He finds happiness in marriage and a rural, bucolic life, away from the corruptions of the city. Simple is an analogue, in a sense, of the figure of Heartsfree, in Henry Fielding's Jonathan Wild and Squire Allworthy in his Tom Jones. However, he also shares features with other sentimental figures who find peace only with escape from corruption and the harmony of a new Utopia. In her Volume the Last, however, Fielding's fiction, like Henry Fielding's, is darker and shows less faith in the triumph of goodness in the face of a corrosive, immoral world.

Sarah Fielding wrote three other novels with original stories. The most significant of these was The Governess, or The Little Female Academy (1749), which is the first novel in English written especially for children. In addition, she wrote The History of the Countess of Dellwyn (1759) and The History of Ophelia (1760).

As a critic, Sarah Fielding's Remarks on Clarissa (1749) concern the novel Clarissa by Samuel Richardson. As a biographer, she wrote The Lives of Cleopatra and Octavia (1757), a history, written from Greek and Roman sources, on the lives of Cleopatra and Octavia, two famous women of Roman times. As a translator she produced Xenophon's Memoirs of Socrates, with the Defense of Socrates Before His Judges (1762), a work by the Ancient Greek writer and soldier Xenophon concerning the philosopher.

Final years
Fielding's sisters died between 1750 and 1751 and Henry in 1754. Fielding retired from London and moved to a small house just outside Bath. The famous philanthropist Ralph Allen and the similarly famous Elizabeth Montagu (a member of the Blue Stockings Society) gave her some financial aid. In about 1767, the novelist Sarah Scott, sister of Elizabeth Montagu, invited Fielding to come and live with her in a female utopian community, as an attempt to create the utopia described in Millenium Hall, but Fielding declined. She died in 1768. There is a memorial plaque to her on the west porch of Bath Abbey.

List of works

 * 1744 – The Adventures of David Simple >> A download link
 * 1747 – Familiar Letters between the Principal Characters in David Simple
 * 1749 – The Governess, or The Little Female Academy >> A download link for a rewritten work
 * 1749 – Remarks on "Clarissa"
 * 1753 – David Simple: Volume the Last
 * 1754 – The Cry: A New Dramatic Fable (with Jane Collier)
 * 1757 – The Lives of Cleopatra and Octavia >> A download link
 * 1759 – The History of the Countess of Dellwyn
 * 1761 – The History of Ophelia >> Download links for volume 1  and Volume 2
 * 1762 – Xenophon's Memoirs of Socrates, with the Defense of Socrates Before His Judges >> A download link

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Sarah Fielding


text:
User:Ame-tsuchi

I take refuge in the Buddha, the Dharma and the Sangha. Namu Amida Butsu. [Ame-Tsuchi - Heaven and Earth]

title: User:Ame-tsuchi


text: User talk:67.87.239.185

title: User talk:67.87.239.185


text:
User talk:Zain engineer

Assalam o-alaikum !
Hi there. I think the links given by Meelar above are excellent for you to read (mushqil nehi hai). They will give you great aid in figuring out the minor issues in Wikipedia. I also suggest that you hit "edit this page" and see the commands that people put in to achieve certain results. For instance, if I want to create a new section, a type "==" title "==". I under that I want to make a sub-heading I will right "===" sub-title "===". Aap zaraa yahaan jake dekhiye agar formatting ke bare mein koi savaal hai: []. ''Mera ummid hai ki aap zaraa English panno mein Urdu ghazalon aur afsaano (ya kuch bhi, jo aapko pasand hai!) pe likh sakein. Meri urdu aaj tak paak nehi hai, to ab tak zyaadaa literature nehi pad sakhe hain.'' Come here if you need any questions answered: [] Khuda Hafez --LordSuryaofShropshire 01:09, Jul 24, 2004 (UTC)

Reason I removed your addition
Dear Zain,

I removed your addition to the main Islam article, re relations between the various Sunni schools of law, because the issue is covered in the article on madhab. The Islam article is already too long, which is why you get a warning when you start to edit.

Wikipedia suffers from a syndrome I call "main-article-ism". People want to jam all the detail into one article, and fight over it endlessly, rather than spreading it out into linked articles. But when the article is too long, users won't read all of it.

I hope that you won't feel personally attacked by my action. Zora 03:20, 23 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Pakistanis/People interested in Pakistan-related topics on Wikipedia
I have noticed that you contribute to topics related to Pakistan, South Asia, Islam and Muslims. Thought I woudl draw your attention to Wikipedians/Pakistan. Would you would want to list yourself there? —iFaqeer (Talk to me!) 01:08, Dec 21, 2004 (UTC)

You will never get anywhere trying to reason with the bastards
They are just pigs. --Wiesenthaler 20:38, 21 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * I have supreve plans (believe me). plz talk with me in detail and let's create good group. Zain 21:01, 21 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Hi Zain. Good luck in your quest to vanquish the pigs and monkeys. They deserve to rot in hell, and they will, that's for sure. --Wiesenthaler 03:26, 22 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Winning or loosing is not a point here at all (for me at least) I won't care if all the wikipedia is changed to what POV desires. I don't care if every body agrees with them. for me what matters is my believe. For me what will end result is my believe. But you act alone too much. I can change a lot more then you think. get in contact with me using email. email me (if you don't trust, email from a fake ID) doesn't matter I just want to be in contact with you in private.

Zain 03:45, 22 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Christian terrorism
Zain, please stop adding "List of arguably terrorist countries" to Christian terrorism. Wikipedia does not allow original research. This means that all your claims must have been published elsewhere in a reputable publication, and if you are challenged by another editor, you must provide a citation. You can't keep on re-inserting unsubstantiated claims. Please read No original research. Slim 23:35, Dec 21, 2004 (UTC)

 * We did thorough discussion on talk page on 'definition of terrorism' without any orignal source please see it in detail.
 * Zain 23:48, 21 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Waaalikum us-Salam
How can I help? - Mustafaa 11:15, 22 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Of course :-) Actually i was asking is there any method to work in cooporation to help understand similar point of views.

 * Thanks

 * Zain 11:34, 22 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Well, there's no magic bullet... You just have to source as many claims as possible, discuss things on Talk when appropriate, and generally respect honest disagreements and provide evidence even against dishonest ones. I think you're doing a pretty good job of that so far, although I don't agree with all your suggestions. - Mustafaa 13:46, 22 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Can you please tell me which suggestion u don't agree with. and what about cooperation in work? Thanks
 * Zain 14:06, 22 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Well, on the Jewish population thing, but I think that got resolved to everyone's satisfaction. What sort of cooperation do you have in mind? - Mustafaa 14:27, 22 Dec 2004 (UTC)

One I might suggest as useful is to keep a public list (analogous to User:Jayjg's) of conflict articles which currently have POV problems. - Mustafaa 15:40, 22 Dec 2004 (UTC)

I dunno; try "E-mail this user" on the sidebar? - Mustafaa 11:21, 25 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * I tried in one of his (If he is one) addresses but no response. Do you know other people like him who are quite motivated to make changes. Have a lot of refrences, But ussually their changes are reverted. I'll like to communicate with them.

 * Second I'll like to find people in wikipedia, who are very convinced that current wikipedia methodology can be improved(not related to POV only but to other issues also). I will like to work with them.

 * Zain 12:14, 25 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Re your good idea for a page
"Request for a Page on criticism of Wikipedia, which can be mercilessly edited by users"

I saw your message and have copied my answer here in case they delete from that talk page:-

"Zain you ask if you can create a page for opinion and he say's; "as long as it's NPOV", i.e. has no opinions on it! Of course you're right the wikipedia is full of pages with people giving their opinions on the wikipedia [this one] for example and [this]. And the admins have their own [noticeboard]. But you can go to seedwiki and instantly create your own 50 page wiki that we can use to give our views on. And where you can also "Start as many wikis as you need". WikiUser 19:10, 22 Dec 2004 (UTC)" Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Jimbo_Wales"

 * I am intrested in making normal NPOV article only. all POV things can be discuss on talk pages of it.

 * Zain 20:13, 22 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * I'm not sure what you intend then Zain. For example you said; " No need to mention expected inclusive deletion debate. Voting policy every thing." As you've seen on "User_talk:Jimbo_Wales" people don't agree on what's wrong with the wikipedia so it will be hard to have an article on that subject. Criticisms of the wikipedia have been made by many, do you mean a review of the wikipedia? WikiUser 21:09, 22 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * I didn't say that I want it but I said it might get in this direction as it can be edited similarly to any other article. So there is a chance that article might get into this direction. I was just telling its 'potential negatives', not its 'desired negatives'.

 * I was saying that I am doing it in good faith. But others can change it which might be seen as undesired to some dedicated wikipedians. So that's why I seeked permission by stating negatives which came in my mind.
 * Zain 21:20, 22 Dec 2004 (UTC)

I'm afraid you'll just have to be patient with your request for mediation. It might take a few days though, as the Committee is going through a bit of a difficult period (four of the most active members are leaving next week). Ambi 22:41, 22 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Regarding request for help
I've been looking at a few of your edits on Arab-Israeli conflict. The first think I noticed is that you are not quite fluent in English yet. So you can expect considerable copyediting from everyone due to your idiosyntric mode of expression. The second thing I notice is that you are editing without apparent reference to any scholarly reference work, at least you mention none. This is sure to result in challenges to your edits. Fred Bauder 22:46, Dec 22, 2004 (UTC)

 * I am asking for mediation in another article.

 * I accept my English is not good. I know the main reason. I make sentences too loooong.
 * In this article I am not offering many references but please note nobody disagreed with what I wrote, factually. But you are right. If I see some thing as 'known to every body' may be it is not the right assumption.

 * First factual content was very minimal in what I wrote, because most of the claims I wrote were rather ‘subjective’ type.

 * (Which I linked)

 * Jewish Persecution (I gave the reference, internal link)
 * Migration to Ottoman Empire (It was mentioned in the internal link)
 * Mirzahi Jews problem (Gave internal link)

 * (Which I assumed as known)
 * Millions of refugees (I thought it is known)
 * Millions of palestinians (I thought it is known too)
 * non-Arab stuff (thought known)
 * Active attention started when violence started (I thought known)
 * Wars by 'world powers' caused more deaths.
 * Boston Tea party is labeled as terrorism by british of that times.

 * (Which I assumed understandable and known)
 * some groups calling israeli as illegal occupant.
 * they see land as their right.
 * Many see international community not useful
 * Some might see civilian killings regretful
 * Some might see there is no other way out then violence.

 * But My other articles are usually accompanied by lot of proving material. I usually spend more time on searching then writing.

 * Ok now about dispute resolution. it is article on State Terrorism. Can you help in mediating with Jyajg?

 * Zain 23:12, 22 Dec 2004 (UTC)

I have my own wiki criticism at: kapitalism.net 65.103.53.243
 * Add it in external links if you want

You are not doing the right thing
Please revert the article to the version I had. You are not doing the Palestinians or anybody else any service by encouraging the placement of unrefined and propagandesque material. Additionally, this type of addition will very quickly make the article useless, and will turn a perfectly encyclopedic article into a deletable item. Tarek 01:10, 26 Dec 2004 (UTC)

A quick response

 * Is User Suggestions chooses correct location? Should I reallocate it?

 * Zain 02:03, 25 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * I'm not really sure. You should ask someone else.  Angela knows everything.  :-) --Jimbo Wales 02:38, 28 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Alternative Judaism
Zain, I think that Alternative Judaism is a good place to put the disclaimer about other religious groups that claim they are Jews, but I do think it is worth looking at the links a bit further, since I think you might have misread some of them. Also, remember that there is a difference between claiming descent from the "Israelites" and actually claiming to be practicing Judaism. Here are the links you keep using to illustrate your points, and that you added to the article Alternative Judaism:

 * Anglo-Israelism -- Never claimed to be Jews, they claim that the English are the descendents of the lost tribes of Israelites. Nowhere on their site do they claim to be Jewish or practicing Judaism. I do not think there is a good argument that these people are Jews in any way.  They can and are identified in the Ten Lost Tribes article.
 * Christian Identity -- Weird choice. They hate Jews, look at the text of the article, where they explicitly condemn Judaism as evil. Certainly not an alternative form of Judaism, nor are they Jews.
 * Talmidaism -- A subset of Christianity, or possibly Messianic Judaism, which is already in the article.
 * Nazarene-- A subset of Messianic Judaism, which is already in the article. You can list it under Messianic Judaism as a subpoint, if that would be clearer for you.
 * Messianic Judaism -- Already in the article that you edited
 * Judaizing teachers -- A historical label referring to one side of the debate among early Christians, not a current group or religion in any way.
 * Jews for Jesus -- Already in the article that you edited
 * Messianic Renewed Judaism -- A minor subset of Messianic Judaism
 * Lost Ten Tribes -- Not a religion, but another good place to put these sort of links
 * British-Israel-World Federation -- See Anglo-Israelism

I am open to discussion on these, but do read through the individual articles first. Do you agree or disagree with these points? It would be good to get this resolved. --Goodoldpolonius2 14:54, 4 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Hi Zain, I made some comments over on Talk:Jew earlier today, and some others did also. You did bring up a good point I think and people came to agree that this sentence which described "ethnic Jews" was problematic: "Ethnic Jews include both so-called "religious Jews," meaning those who practice Judaism, and so-called "secular Jews," those who, while not practicing Judaism as a religion, still identify themselves as Jews in a cultural or ethnic sense."  You were right that this definition did exclude people like Madeline Albright who would have failed this limited definition since she is neither a religious Jew nor a secular Jew. Goodoldpolonius made some modifications that I believe broadened the definition more to include people with Jewish heritage. Check it out. I hope this was helpful. I appreciate your efforts there : ) --MPerel 06:04, Jan 6, 2005 (UTC)

New User Page
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Zain_engineer/MyWorks Zain 22:43, 12 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Test
Hello. I don't quite understand the purpose of Testtodelete. As you can see, it has now been deleted. SWAdair | Talk 07:13, 15 Jan 2005 (UTC)

 * Sorry I am on eid Holidays. Actually I only created it to test how to put pages for delete. I think I can't test it on sandbox. So I thought non-article place is better. And thought it is perfect title. But You put it for delete before i did :) can u tell me how to put pages for delete? Zain 21:39, 22 Jan 2005 (UTC)

 * To mark a page for speedy deletion, just add at the top of the page (do not wipe out the contents of the page, just add the tag at the top).  If you think it might not be obvious why a page should be speedily deleted, and want to give a reason, you can add  or  .  Note that these tags should only be used for pages that qualify as Candidates for Speedy Deletion.  SWAdair | Talk  10:57, 26 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Move and reverts of Children and minors in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict
I don't think it was a very good idea to make a new page. Consensus doesn't mean that everyone has to agree. I believe there was a consensus that the version you support was not the working version. However, I thought it would best to confirm this on the Talk page. If you have concerns, I think the best forum is the talk page. Thanks. Carrp 23:26, 22 Jan 2005 (UTC)

 * Thing is that move /delete should be done after due process. Last one was done without following wikipedia policy. Any way does 3 move count as 3 recirect? Zain 23:36, 22 Jan 2005 (UTC)

If you continue to move this article to the POV title, you will be blocked from editing. Discuss it on the Talk page, and follow consensus, please. RickK 00:56, Jan 23, 2005 (UTC)

 * It was not I who moved the page without following the policy defined process. I asked that this page should be moved in accordance with the policy. Problem is 3R doesn't apply on move. May be if we get a decision from some decision mechanism then we can ask people from stop moving, not before that. My move was not move but it is reverting the illegal move.

 * As far as discussion is concern if you see history of discussion page. I was the one who posted the last msg! all other people did edits and moves without explaing. people who did moves without discussion got no 'block threat'. And I who moved after talk and refering to wikipedia policy in the talk page was told that i might be blocked!

 * Why move was not done in accordance to http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Requested_moves. And If I revert the move which was done without due process I might be blocked. I mentioned the references to wikipedia policies several times during the discussion. No body was able to explain why it was done out of process. Why it didn't follow http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Requested_moves. Can you explain why it was done without following the process of http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Requested_moves . And if it can be done without it Why we have http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Requested_moves. If this page is useless then we can put it for vfd. Rest can be discussed on vfd page.

 * Zain 01:16, 23 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Jews in USA?
Zain, the VfD page was crowded, so I decided to take this here. Why not just make "Jews in USA" a redirect to History of the Jews in the United States, or else to Jewish American (or move the Jewish American text to "Jews in USA" and make "Jewish American" a redirect, if you prefer, although "Jews in USA" is a bit awkward for English speakers, maybe "Jews in the USA"). Since the text you used was copyrighted, perhaps you could write something up for either of the existing articles that would have the content you would like without the source problems, since I don't really know what content you were looking for.. --Goodoldpolonius2 06:28, 24 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Re : your website not working
Apologies for the 1-month-late-reply re: your issue raised at User_talk:Mailer_diablo/Stats on December 24. My host was dead for 3 weeks during that period of time due to some bad outage, but it's back working now. . Thanks for your message, have a nice day! :) - Cheers, Mailer Diablo 13:17, 27 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Islamophobia
Keep an eye on the article Islamophobia. I see a bunch of ant-Islamic POV pushers there. See the talk page OneGuy 01:07, 28 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Please expand the Hafiz article.
السلام عليكم, I read from [Talk:Islam] that you have good knowledge about Hafiz. Could you please expand the article - DiN 21:44, 5 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Request for Support
I've filed a complaint against user Jayjg for abuse of Admin powers, and for Anti-Arab and Anti-Islamic bias. This link [] will take you to the Arbitration page. I think that you too have been subject to similar treatment with biased edits and reverts of your contributions to Wikipedia, and I would appreciate any additional evidence you can provide in this case. A.Khalil 04:38, Mar 13, 2005 (UTC)

Assalamu alaykum -- please vote
Please consider voting at:

Conspiracy_theory

to rename articles that use the pejorative term "Conspiracy theory" to denigrate the content of the article.

Do the titles of WP articles generally pass partisan judgment on the subject under discussion? Should they? BrandonYusufToropov 02:31, 6 May 2005 (UTC)

Article listed for deletion
Hi,

I noticed that you're an extreme article inclusionist, so I was wondering if you would be able to do me a huge favor and possibly place a vote here. I've been working on the article for months, and now they want to delete it. If you could, I would be greatly in your debt.

Best wishes,

Primetime 18:01, 17 March 2006 (UTC)

AfD nomination of Criticism of Wikipedia
I have nominated Criticism of Wikipedia, an article you created, for deletion. I do not feel that this article satisfies Wikipedia's criteria for inclusion, and have explained why at Articles for deletion/Criticism of Wikipedia&. Your opinions on the matter are welcome at that same discussion page; also, you are welcome to edit the article to address these concerns. Thank you for your time. Do you want to opt out of receiving this notice? Sceptre (talk) 13:55, 6 August 2008 (UTC)

Criticism of Wikipedia listed at Redirects for discussion
An editor has asked for a discussion to address the redirect Criticism of Wikipedia. Since you had some involvement with the Criticism of Wikipedia redirect, you might want to participate in the redirect discussion (if you have not already done so). Ibicdlcod (talk) 14:01, 5 August 2012 (UTC)

ArbCom elections are now open!
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ArbCom 2022 Elections voter message
 Hello! Voting in the 2022 Arbitration Committee elections is now open until 23:59 (UTC) on. All eligible users are allowed to vote. Users with alternate accounts may only vote once.

The Arbitration Committee is the panel of editors responsible for conducting the Wikipedia arbitration process. It has the authority to impose binding solutions to disputes between editors, primarily for serious conduct disputes the community has been unable to resolve. This includes the authority to impose site bans, topic bans, editing restrictions, and other measures needed to maintain our editing environment. The arbitration policy describes the Committee's roles and responsibilities in greater detail.

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title: User talk:Zain engineer


text:
Talk:Wulfstan

Ordering
I let the four Wulfstans slug it out with a google-fight, and ordered them according to popularity. I don't know if that is a good idea, but it made sense to me. Regebro 20:34, 21 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * I reordered them chronologically. Rmhermen 15:20, 23 January 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Wulfstan


text:
Southern Episcopal Church

The Southern Episcopal Church (SEC) is an Anglican Christian denomination established in Nashville, Tennessee in 1953, and formally organised in 1962, in reaction to liberal political and theological trends within the Episcopal Church USA. It is connected to the Continuing Anglican movement, although it was formed more than a decade before the movement began.

The SEC does not consider itself a new denomination, but rather as providing a church home for Episcopalians who wished to maintain their Anglican faith and tradition. It uses the 1928 Book of Common Prayer for its liturgy.

The leader of the initial group was Burnice Hoyle Webster, a medical doctor who became presiding bishop. The current presiding bishop is William Martin Sloane.

The SEC has one seminary, the Holy Trinity College and Seminary, which offers classes by distance studies.

title: Southern Episcopal Church


text:
User:Merriam~enwiki

http://technophobe.net/merriam.html#contact

http://dm.spodcast.net/misc/

title: User:Merriam~enwiki


text:
Recreate for Growth

Recreate for Growth (Recrear para el Crecimiento, often just Recrear) was a centre-right political party in Argentina, principally active in the Province of Buenos Aires.

It existed from 2002 to 2009 and again during 2020, from August to November.

Ideology and principles
López Murphy defines Recrear as "simply liberal", a supporter of modern capitalism.

He maintains that he tried with Recrear "to have a serious liberal party, organized as in the advanced democracies of the world, which continues with the traditions of Juan Bautista Alberdi and Leandro Alem."

López Murphy was against gay marriage, decriminalization of drug use and abortion.

History
The party was formed in March 2002, mostly by market-oriented members of the Radical Civic Union, headed by Ricardo López Murphy.

According to Página 12, a progressive newspaper, Recrear was a republican and honest right-wing and López Murphy's dream was to expand the historic ten percent that the Argentine right-wing reaches in elections.

The Recrear Federal Movement is a national alliance formed in 2003 between Recrear itself and the Federal Movement of various provincial parties – the Salta Renewal Party, the Democratic Progressive Party, the Democratic Party of Mendoza, the Federal Party, the Liberal Party of Corrientes, the Democratic Party of the City of Buenos Aires, the Democratic Liberal Party of Córdoba, the Catamarca Popular Movement, the Provincial Union of Entre Ríos, the Party of the Hope of the Province of Buenos Aires, the Independent Citizens of Tucumán and the Federal North of Jujuy. López Murphy as the movement's presidential candidate and Ricardo Gómez Diez of Salta for vice-president in the 2003 elections, ending in third place with 18%.

In 2005 the party formed an alliance with Buenos Aires' party Commitment to Change led by Mauricio Macri. The alliance has attempted to form a wide-ranging center-right front, especially with Neuquén's party, the Neuquino People's Movement (Movimiento Popular Neuquino - MPN), for the 2005 parliamentary elections. Recrear and its allies won nine members of the Argentine Chamber of Deputies, with those of some of Recrear's constituent provincial parties. López Murphy subsequently fell out with Jorge Sobisch, leader of the MPN, and formally teamed up with Commitment to Change to form a new centre-right electoral front, Republican Proposal (PRO).

Following the election, López Murphy stood down from the leadership of the Party and in 2008, Congressman Esteban Bullrich was elected to replace him. Bullrich backed the ongoing alliance with Macri and PRO, whilst López Murphy had backed Castor López, calling for the autonomy of the Party. In April 2008, López Murphy resigned from the Party and later set up another new party, Convergencia Federal which has pursued closer ties with the Civic Coalition.

In August 2009, the party was finally absorbed by the Republican Proposal.

Recrear had observer status within both the Liberal International, and the conservative Union of Latin American Parties.

In August 2020, more than a decade after Recrear was dissolved, López Murphy refounded the party for the 2021 Argentine legislative election. In November, Recrear, along with the Libertarian Party of Argentina, Mejorar, and Unidos, formed the Republicanos Unidos alliance. They have considered allying themselves with libertarian economist José Luis Espert for the legislative election.

title: Recreate for Growth


text:
Secretary of Transportation Outstanding Unit Award

The Secretary of Transportation Outstanding Unit Award is a U.S. government unit decoration which was established in 1994. The Presidential Unit Citation and Joint Meritorious Unit Award are considered senior to the Secretary of Transportation Outstanding Unit Award. Additional awards of the decoration were denoted by gold award stars.

Prior to 2003, the award was a unit award of the United States Coast Guard. During the time period issued, it was the highest Coast Guard unit award that could be awarded and was presented to those Coast Guard units which performed outstanding service to the Coast Guard as a whole.

On November 3, 1994, Secretary of Transportation Federico Pena awarded the Secretary of Transportation Outstanding Achievement Medal to the Coast Guard as a whole. The award was mounted on a plaque and presented to Admiral Robert E. Kramek, then-Commandant of the Coast Guard. In order to provide members of the Coast Guard with a device denoting this award, the Secretary of Transportation Outstanding Unit Award was issued. This award consists of the ribbon-only to the Secretary of Transportation Outstanding Achievement Medal, mounted in a gold frame.

The Secretary of Transportation Outstanding Unit Award was awarded for two periods of service to Coast Guard Units and personnel. The first was to all Coast Guard Active Duty Personnel, Reservists, Civilians, and Auxiliarists for participation in an extended period of migrant interdiction as well as natural and environmental disasters from October 1, 1993 to September 30, 1994. The second period of service was for Coast Guard Activities New York–Guarding Liberty Task Force from September 11, 2001 to October 22, 2001. This period qualifies for the Operational Distinguishing Device.

Since the transfer of the Coast Guard to the Department of Homeland Security, the Secretary of Transportation Outstanding Unit Award has only been bestowed twice. The first was in 2006 when President George W. Bush awarded it to the United States Merchant Marine Academy for all of the work the midshipmen performed in assisting with the transportation of servicemen and supplies in the years following the September 11, 2001 attack on the World Trade Center. The second occurred in 2022 when Secretary Pete Buttigieg awarded it to the United States Merchant Marine Academy midshipmen who were in attendance between March 13, 2020 and June 18, 2022. The second case was due to the regiment of midshipmen’s leadership and relentless efforts to excel on campus, but more importantly for manning the ships during the logistical crisis caused by the COVID-19 pandemic.


text:
Wulfstan (died 1023)

Wulfstan (sometimes Wulfstan II or Lupus; died 28 May 1023) was an English Bishop of London, Bishop of Worcester, and Archbishop of York. He is thought to have begun his ecclesiastical career as a Benedictine monk. He became the Bishop of London in 996. In 1002 he was elected simultaneously to the diocese of Worcester and the archdiocese of York, holding both in plurality until 1016, when he relinquished Worcester; he remained archbishop of York until his death. It was perhaps while he was at London that he first became well known as a writer of sermons, or homilies, on the topic of Antichrist. In 1014, as archbishop, he wrote his most famous work, a homily which he titled the Sermo Lupi ad Anglos, or the Sermon of the Wolf to the English.

Besides sermons Wulfstan was also instrumental in drafting law codes for both kings Æthelred the Unready and Cnut the Great of England. He is considered one of the two major writers of the late Anglo-Saxon period in England. After his death in 1023, miracles were said to have occurred at his tomb, but attempts to have him declared a saint never bore fruit.

Life
Wulfstan's early life is obscure, but he was certainly the uncle of one Beorhtheah, his successor at Worcester but one, and the uncle of Wulfstan of Worcester. About Wulfstan's youth we know nothing. He probably had familial ties to the Fenlands in East Anglia, and to Peterborough specifically. Although there is no direct evidence of his ever being monastic, the nature of Wulfstan's later episcopal career and his affinity with the Benedictine Reform argue that he had once studied and professed as a Benedictine monk, perhaps at Winchester. According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Wulfstan was consecrated bishop of London in 996, succeeding Aelfstan. Besides the notice in the Chronicle, the first record of his name is in a collection of nine Latin penitential letters collected by him, three of which were issued by him as bishop of London, and one by him as "Archbishop of the English". The other five letters in the collection (only one of which is addressed to Wulfstan, as archbishop) were issued by Pope Gregory V and by a Pope John (either Pope John XVII or Pope John XVIII). In the letters issued by Wulfstan as bishop of London he styles himself "Lupus episcopus", meaning "the bishop Wolf." "Lupus" is the Latin form of the first element of his Old English name, which means "wolf-stone."

In 1002 Wulfstan was elected Archbishop of York and was immediately translated to that see. Holding York also brought him control over the diocese of Worcester, as at that time it was practice in England to hold "the potentially disaffected northern archbishopric in plurality with a southern see." He held both Worcester and York until 1016, resigning Worcester to Leofsige while retaining York. There is evidence, however, that he retained influence over Worcester even after this time, and that Leofsige perhaps acted "only as a suffragan to Wulfstan." Although holding two or more episcopal sees in plurality was both uncanonical and against the spirit of the Benedictine Reform, Wulfstan had inherited this practice from previous archbishops of York, and he was not the last to hold York and Worcester in plurality.

Wulfstan must have early on garnered the favour of powerful men, particularly Æthelred king of England, for we find him personally drafting all royal law codes promulgated under Æthelred's reign from 1005 to 1016. There is no doubt that Wulfstan had a penchant for law; his knowledge of previous Anglo-Saxon law (both royal and ecclesiastical), as well as ninth-century Carolingian law, was considerable. This surely made him a suitable choice for the king's legal draftsman. But it is also likely that Wulfstan's position as archbishop of York, an important centre in the then politically sensitive northern regions of the English kingdom, made him not only a very influential man in the North, but also a powerful ally for the king and his family in the South. It is indicative of Wulfstan's continuing political importance and savvy that he also acted as legal draftsman for, and perhaps advisor to, the Danish king Cnut, who took England's West Saxon throne in 1016.

Homilist
Wulfstan was one of the most distinguished and effective Old English prose writers. His writings cover a wide range of topics in an even greater range of genres, including homilies (or sermons), secular laws, religious canons, and political theory. With Ælfric of Eynsham, he is one of the two major vernacular writers in early eleventh-century England, a period which, ecclesiastically, was still very much enamoured of and greatly influenced by the Benedictine Reform. The Benedictine Reform was a movement which sought to institute monastic standards among the secular clergy, a movement made popular by the churchmen of the Carolingian Empire in the ninth and tenth centuries. The Reform promoted a regular (i.e. based on a regula, or rule) life for priests and clerics, a strict church hierarchy, the primacy of the Roman see, the authority of codified or canonical church law, and stressed the importance of catholic, that is universal, church practices throughout all Christendom. These ideas could only thrive in a social and political atmosphere which recognised the importance of both the clergy's and the laity's obedience to the authority of the church on all things spiritual, and also on many things secular and juridical. This was one of the main theoretical models behind much of Wulfstan's legal and quasi-legal writings. But Wulfstan was not blind to the fact that, in order for this Reform model to thrive in England, the English clergy and laity (especially the laity) needed to be educated in the basic tenets of the faith. Nothing less than the legitimacy of English Christendom rested on Englishmen's steadfastness on certain fundamental Christian beliefs and practices, like, for example, knowledge of Christ's life and passion, memorisation of the Pater Noster and the Apostles' Creed, proper baptism, and the correct date and method of celebrating Easter mass. It is towards the promotion of such beliefs and practices, that Wulfstan engaged in writing a number of homilies dedicated to educating both clergy and laity in those Christian fundamentals which he saw as so important for both the flourishing of Christian lives and the success of the English polity.

In a series of homilies begun during his tenure as Bishop of London, Wulfstan attained a high degree of competence in rhetorical prose, working with a distinctive rhythmical system based around alliterative pairings. He used intensifying words, distinctive vocabulary and compounds, rhetorical figures, and repeated phrases as literary devices. These devices lend Wulfstan's homilies their tempo-driven, almost feverish, quality, allowing them to build toward multiple climaxes. An example from one of his earliest sermons, titled Secundum Lucam, describes with vivid rhetorical force the unpleasantries of Hell (notice the alliteration, parallelism, and rhyme):

Wa þam þonne þe ær geearnode helle wite. Ðær is ece bryne grimme gemencged, & ðær is ece gryre; þær is granung & wanung & aa singal heof; þær is ealra yrmða gehwylc & ealra deofla geþring. Wa þam þe þær sceal wunian on wite. Betere him wære þæt he man nære æfre geworden þonne he gewurde.

 * "Woe then to him who has earned for himself the torments of Hell. There there is everlasting fire roiling painfully, and there there is everlasting filth. There there is groaning and moaning and always constant wailing. There there is every kind of misery, and the press of every kind of devil. Woe to him who dwells in torment: better it were for him that he were never born, than that he become thus."

This type of heavy-handed, though effective, rhetoric immediately made Wulfstan's homilies popular tools for use at the pulpit.

There is good evidence that Wulfstan's homiletic style was appreciated by his contemporaries. While yet bishop of London, in 1002 he received an anonymous letter in Latin praising his style and eloquence. In this letter, an unknown contemporary refuses to do a bit of translation for Wulfstan because he fears he could never properly imitate the Bishop's style. The Chronicle of Ely said of his preaching that "when he spoke, it was as if his listeners were hearing the very wisdom of God Himself." Though they were rhetorically ornate, Wulfstan's homilies show a conscious effort to avoid the intellectual conceits presumably favoured by educated (i.e. monastic) audiences; his target audience was the common English Christian, and his message was suited to everyone who wished to flock to the cathedral to hear it. Wulfstan refused to include in his works confusing or philosophical concepts, speculation, or long narratives – devices which other homilies of the time regularly employed (likely to the dismay of the average parishioner). He also rarely used Latin phrases or words, though a few of his homilies do survive in Latin form, versions that were either drafts for later English homilies, or else meant to be addressed to a learned clergy. Even so, even his Latin sermons employ a straightforward approach to sermonising. Wulfstan's homilies are concerned only with the "bare bones, but these he invests with a sense of urgency of moral or legal rigorism in a time of great danger".

The canon of Wulfstan's homiletic works is somewhat ambiguous, as it is often difficult to tell if a homily in his style was actually written by Wulfstan, or is merely the work of someone who had appreciated Wulfstanian style and imitated it. However, throughout his episcopal career, he is believed to have written upwards of 30 sermons in Old English. The number of his Latin sermons has not yet been established. He may also have been responsible, wholly or in part, for other extant anonymous Old English sermons, for his style can be detected in a range of homiletic texts which cannot be directly attributed to him. However, as mentioned, some scholars believe that Wulfstan's powerful rhetorical style produced imitators, whose homilies would now be difficult to distinguish from genuine Wulfstanian homilies. Those homilies which are certainly by Wulfstan can be divided into 'blocks', that is by subject and theme, and in this way it can be seen that at different points in his life Wulfstan was concerned with different aspects of Christian life in England. The first 'block' was written ca. 996–1002 and is concerned with eschatology, that is, the end of the world. These homilies give frequent descriptions of the coming of Antichrist and the evils that will befall the world before Christ's Second Coming. They likely play on the anxiety that surely developed as the end of the first millennium AD approached. The second 'block', written around 1002–1008, is concerned with the tenets of the Christian faith. The third 'block', written around 1008–1020, concerns archiepiscopal functions. The fourth and final 'block', written around 1014–1023, known as the "Evil Days" 'block', concerns the evils that befall a kingdom and people who do not live proper Christian lives. This final block contains his most famous homily, the Sermo Lupi ad Anglos, where Wulfstan rails against the deplorable customs of his time, and sees recent Viking invasions as God's punishment of the English for their lax ways. About 1008 (and again in a revision about 1016) he wrote a lengthy work which, although not strictly homiletic, summarises many of the favourite points he had hitherto expounded upon in his homilies. Titled by modern editors as the Institutes of Polity, it is a piece of 'estates literature' which details, from the perspective of a Christian polity, the duties of each member of society, beginning with the top (the king) and ending at the bottom (common folk).

Language
Wulfstan was a native speaker of Old English. He was also a competent Latinist. As York was at the centre of a region of England that had for some time been colonised by people of Scandinavian descent, it is possible that Wulfstan was familiar with, or perhaps even bilingual in, Old Norse. He may have helped incorporate Scandinavian vocabulary into Old English. Dorothy Whitelock remarks that "the influence of his sojourns in the north is seen in his terminology. While in general he writes a variety of late West Saxon literary language, he uses in some texts words of Scandinavian origin, especially in speaking of the various social classes." In some cases, Wulfstan is the only one known to have used a word in Old English, and in some cases such words are of Scandinavian origin. Some words of his that have been recognised as particularly Scandinavian are þræl "slave, servant" (cf. Old Norse þræll; cp. Old English þeowa), bonda "husband, householder" (cf. Old Norse bondi; cp. Old English ceorl), eorl "nobleman of high rank, (Danish) jarl" (cf. Old Norse jarl; cp. Old English ealdorman), fysan "to make someone ready, to put someone to flight" (cf. Old Norse fysa), genydmaga "close kinsfolk" (cf. Old Norse nauðleyti), and laga "law" (cf. Old Norse lag; cp. Old English æw)

Some Old English words which appear only in works under his influence are werewulf "were-wolf," sibleger "incest," leohtgescot "light-scot" (a tithe to churches for candles), tofesian, ægylde, and morðwyrhta

Church reform and royal service
Wulfstan was very involved in the reform of the English church, and was concerned with improving both the quality of Christian faith and the quality of ecclesiastical administration in his dioceses (especially York, a relatively impoverished diocese at this time). Towards the end of his episcopate in York, he established a small monastery in Gloucester, which had to be re-established in 1058 after being burned. In addition to his religious and literary career, Wulfstan enjoyed a lengthy and fruitful career as one of England's foremost statesmen. Under both Æthelred II and Cnut, Wulfstan was primarily responsible for the drafting of English law codes relating to both secular and ecclesiastical affairs, and seems to have held a prominent and influential position at court. He drew up the laws that Æthelred issued at Enham in 1008, which dealt with the cult of St Edward the Martyr, the raising and equipping of ships and ship's crews, the payment of tithes, and a ban on the export of (Christian) slaves from the kingdom. Pushing for religious, social, political, and moral reforms, Wulfstan "wrote legislation to reassert the laws of earlier Anglo-Saxon kings and bring order to a country that had been unsettled by war and influx of Scandinavians."

In 1009 Wulfstan wrote the edict that Æthelred II issued calling for the whole nation to fast and pray for three days during Thorkell's raids on England, in a national act of penance. Only water and bread were to be eaten, people should walk to church barefoot, a payment of one penny from each hide of land was to be made, and everyone should attend Mass every day of the three days. Anyone not participating would be fined or flogged. After Cnut conquered England, Wulfstan quickly became an advisor to the new king, as evidenced by Wulfstan's influence on the law code issued by Cnut. After the death of Lyfing, Archbishop of Canterbury in 1020, Wulfstan consecrated his successor Æthelnoth in 1020, and wrote to Cnut asking the king to grant the same rights and dignities for the new archbishop that previous archbishops had held. Wulfstan also wrote the laws that were issued by Cnut at Winchester in 1021 or 1022. These laws continued in force throughout the 11th century, as they were the laws referred to in Domesday Book as "the law of King Edward".

Death and legacy
Wulfstan died at York on 28 May 1023. His body was taken for burial to the monastery of Ely, in accordance with his wishes. Miracles are ascribed to his tomb by the Liber Eliensis, but it does not appear that any attempt to declare him a saint was made beyond this. The historian Denis Bethell called him the "most important figure in the English Church in the reigns of Æthelred II and Cnut."

Wulfstan's writings influenced a number of writers in late Old English literature. There are echoes of Wulfstan's writings in the 1087 entry of the Peterborough Chronicle, a version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle written at Peterborough Abbey. This entry has long been famous as it deals with the death of King William the Conqueror, and contrasts his worldly power with his status after death. Other suggestions of Wulfstan's writing occur in works of Old English, including the Soul's Address to the Body. His law codes, which were written under Æthelred and Cnut, remained in effect through the reign of King Edward the Confessor, and were still being reaffirmed in 1100, when King Henry I of England swore a coronation oath to observe the laws of King Edward.

The unique 11th-century manuscript of the Early English Apollonius of Tyre may only have survived because it was bound into a book together with Wulfstan's homilies.

Works
Wulfstan wrote some works in Latin, and numerous works in Old English, then the vernacular. He has also been credited with a few short poems. His works can generally be divided into homiletic, legal, and philosophical categories.

Wulfstan's best-known homily is Sermo Lupi ad Anglos, or Sermon of the Wolf to the English. In it he proclaims the depredations of the "Danes" (who were, at that point, primarily Norwegian invaders) a scourge from God to lash the English for their sins. He calls upon them to repent of their sinful ways and "return to the faith of baptism, where there is protection from the fires of hell." He also wrote many homilies relating to the Last Days and the coming of the Antichrist. Age of the Antichrist was a popular theme in Wulfstan's homilies, which also include the issues of death and Judgment Day. Six homilies that illustrate this theme include: Secundum Matheum, Secundum Lucam, De Anticristo, De Temporibus Antichrist, Secundum Marcum and "De Falsis Deis". De Antichristo was the "first full development of the Antichrist theme", and Wulfstan addressed it to the clergy. Believing that he lived at the time right before the Antichrist was to come, he felt compelled to diligently warn and teach the clergy to withstand the dishonest teaching of the enemies of God. These six homilies also include: emphasis that the hour of the Antichrist is very near, warnings that the English should be aware of false Christs who will attempt to seduce men, warnings that God will pass judgement on man's faithfulness, discussion of man's sins, evils of the world, and encouragement to love God and do his will. He wrote the Canons of Edgar and The Law of Edward and Guthrum which date before 1008. The Canons was written to instruct the secular clergy serving a parish in the responsibilities of their position. The Law of Edward and Guthrum, on the other hand, is an ecclesiastical law handbook. Modern editors have paid most attention to his homilies: they have been edited by Arthur Napier, by Dorothy Whitelock, and by Dorothy Bethurum. Since that publication, other works that were likely authored by Wulfstan have been identified; a forthcoming edition by Andy Orchard will update the canon of Wulfstan's homilies. Wulfstan was also a book collector; he is responsible for amassing a large collection of texts pertaining to canon law, the liturgy, and episcopal functions. This collection is known as Wulftan's Commonplace Book. A significant part of the Commonplace book consists of a work once known as the Excerptiones pseudo-Ecgberhti, though it has most recently been edited as Wulfstan's Canon Law Collection (a.k.a. Collectio canonum Wigorniensis). This work is a collection of conciliar decrees and church canons, most of which he culled from numerous ninth and tenth-century Carolingian works. This work demonstrates the wide range of Wulfstan's reading and studies. He sometimes borrowed from this collection when he wrote his later works, especially the law codes of Æthelred. There are also a number of works which are associated with the archbishop, but whose authorship is unknown, such as the Late Old English Handbook for the Use of a Confessor.

Style
Wulfstan's style is admired by many sources, easily recognisable and exceptionally distinguished. "Much Wulfstan material is, more-over, attributed largely or even solely on the basis of his highly idiosyncratic prose style, in which strings of syntactically independent two-stress phrases are linked by complex patterns of alliteration and other kinds of sound play. Indeed, so idiosyncratic is Wulfstan’s style that he is even ready to rewrite minutely works prepared for him by Ǣlfric". From this identifiable style, 26 sermons can be attributed to Wulfstan, 22 of which are written in Old English, the others in Latin. However, it's suspected that many anonymous materials are Wulfstan's as well, and his handwriting has been found in many manuscripts, supplementing or correcting material. He wrote more than just sermons, including law-codes and sections of prose.

Certainly he must have been a talented writer, gaining a reputation of eloquence while he still lived in London. In a letter to him, "the writer asks to be excused from translating something Wulfstan had asked him to render into English and pleads as an excuse his lack of ability in comparison with the bishop’s skill". Similarly, "[o]ne early student of Wulfstan, Einenkel, and his latest editor, Jost, agree in thinking he wrote verse and not prose" (Continuations, 229). This suggests Wulfstan's writing is not only eloquent, but poetic, and among many of his rhetorical devices is marked rhythm (229). Taking a look at Wulfstan's actual manuscripts, presented by Volume 17 of Early English Manuscripts in Facsimile, it becomes apparent that his writing was exceptionally neat and well structured – even his notes in the margins are well organised and tidy, and his handwriting itself is ornate but readable.

title: Wulfstan (died 1023)


text:
Hillsboro, New Mexico

Hillsboro is an unincorporated community in Sierra County, New Mexico, United States, located in the southwestern part of the state. It was founded in 1877, following the discovery of gold. The community was the county seat of Sierra County from 1884 until 1936, when Hot Springs (now called Truth or Consequences) became the county seat.

The town was named Hillsborough by prospectors in December 1877, but later shortened to Hillsboro. By 1880, the town had four companies of soldiers and 400 miners, but the population soon grew to 700. A county courthouse was built in 1892. By 1907, the population was 1200. A flood on 10 June 1914 caused considerable damage to many town buildings. New Mexico State Road 152 and NM 27 intersect in and bisect the town.

Geology
The first house was built in August 1877 after two prospectors, Dan Dugan and Dave Stitzel, working in the area of the future Opportunity Mine, collected loose pieces of rock (float is the geologic term) assayed at $160 per ton in gold and silver. Soon, ore was discovered at the nearby Rattlesnake vein (geology) by Dugan and Frank Pitcher, and a placer deposit of gold was found in November at the Rattlesnake and Wicks gulches. Ore was pulverized with arrastres located in Hillsboro, including a 10-stamp mill built in 1878. Total production prior to 1904 was about $6,750,000. Between 1911 and 1931, total production of gold ore was 836 tons, gold-copper-silver ore was 5,470 tons, and copper ore was 200 tons. In his report, Harley wrote, "The ore deposits of the Hillsboro or Las Animas mining district are of four general types as follows: (1) fissure veins in andesite flows, (2) disseminated deposits in monzonite porphyry, (3) replacement deposits in limestone, and (4) placer gold deposits."

The Copper Flat volcano to the northeast of Hillsboro is the source of the gold in the area. The 4 mile wide volcano is characterized by a Cretaceous quartz monzonite stock within a topographic depression, surrounded by surface andesite flows at least 2,300 feet thick, and radial quartz latite or rhyolite dikes. The stock generated the porphyry copper deposits, gold-bearing veins, and gold placers. There are about 26 major veins forming a radial pattern from the stock. The Golddust Camp placer deposits are found in the alluvium of the dry gulches radiating off Copper Flat and the andesite flows. The fissure veins produced 51,000 ounces of gold, while the placer deposits produced 110,000 ounces.

The Sternberg Mine at Copper Flat produced 200 tons of copper ore between 1911 and 1934. By 1959, Bear Creek Mining Company had discovered a mineralized breccia pipe within the stock. Quintana Minerals Corporation started open-pit mining in 1980, averaging 0.45 per cent copper. Ore minerals include pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite and galena.

Climate
According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Hillsboro has a cold semi-arid climate, abbreviated "BSk" on climate maps. The hottest temperature recorded in Hillsboro was 107 F on June 15–16, 1896, June 22, 1981, and June 26, 1994, while the coldest temperature recorded was -14 F on January 11, 1962.

Education
Truth or Consequences Municipal Schools is the school district for the entire county. Truth or Consequences Middle School and Hot Springs High School, both in Truth or Consequences, are the district's secondary schools.

Notable people

 * Physician and American Civil War veteran C.C. Crews
 * Future justice of the New Mexico Supreme Court Frank W. Parker. He presided over the 1899 murder trial of Albert J. Fountain.

title: Hillsboro, New Mexico


text:
Fiesole

Fiesole is a town and comune of the Metropolitan City of Florence in the Italian region of Tuscany, on a scenic height above Florence, 5 km (3 miles) northeast of that city. It has structures dating to Etruscan and Roman times.

Since the fourteenth century, the city has always been considered a getaway for members of the upper class of Florence and, up to this day, Fiesole remains noted for its very expensive residential properties, just as well as its centuries-old villas and their formal gardens. The city is generally considered to be the wealthiest and most affluent suburb of Florence. In 2016, the city had the highest median family income in the whole of Tuscany.

Fiesole is a centre of higher education. The campus of the European University Institute is situated in the suburb and uses several historical buildings including the Badia Faesolina and the Villa Schifanoia. Additionally, the American universities, Harvard, Georgetown, and Saint Mary's of Minnesota all maintain campuses at Fiesole.

History
Fiesole (Latin Faesulae from the Etruscan Viesul, Viśl, Vipsul) was probably founded sometime during the ninth century BC, as it was an important member of the Etruscan confederacy. The remains of its prehistoric walls and ancient structures have been preserved and an archaeological museum in the town presents artifacts from and information about these cultural periods.

The earliest known recorded mention of the town dates to 283 BC, when the Etruscan town, then known as Faesulae, was conquered by the Romans. In Roman antiquity, it was the seat of a famous school of augurs and, every year, twelve young men were sent there from Rome to study the art of divination.

The old town was either destroyed in the Social War or alternatively by Sulla in 80 BC, in reprisal for supporting the populares faction in Rome. Sulla later colonized it with veterans. This colony who afterward, under the leadership of Gaius Mallius, supported the cause of Catilina.

The Roman theatre, below the cathedral to the northeast, has 19 tiers of stone seats and is 37 yd in diameter. It has been restored partially enough to provide a good idea of its structure. Above it is an embanking wall of irregular masonry, and below it some remains of Roman baths, including five parallel vaults of concrete. More than 1,000 silver denarii, all coined before 63 BC, were found at Faesulae in 1829. A small museum contains the objects found in the excavations of the theatre.

Fiesole was the scene of Stilicho's great victory over the Germanic hordes of the Vandals and Suebi under Radagaisus in 406. During the Gothic War (536–553), the town was besieged several times. In 539, Justin, the Byzantine general, captured it and razed its fortifications.

It was an independent town for several centuries in the early Middle Ages, no less powerful than Florence in the valley below, and many wars arose between them. In 1010 and 1025, Fiesole was sacked by the Florentines. Later, it was conquered by Florence in 1125, when its leading families were obliged to take up their residence in Florence. Dante reflects this rivalry in his Divine Comedy by referring to "the beasts of Fiesole" (Inferno XV.73).

By the fourteenth century, rich Florentines had countryside villas in Fiesole, and one of them is the setting of the frame narrative of the Decameron. Boccaccio's poem Il Ninfale fiesolano is a mythological account of the origins of the community.

It is also documented that the artist and scientist Leonardo da Vinci experimented for the first time with early flying models on the hills of Fiesole.

Main sites
In the neighborhood are:
 * Remnants of Etruscan walls
 * Roman baths
 * Roman theatre
 * Palazzo Pretorio (Praetorian Palace), also known as Palazzo Comunale (Town Hall), dating to the fourteenth century
 * The Cathedral of Fiesole (Il Duomo) that contains the shrine of St. Romulus, martyr, according to legend the first Bishop of Fiesole, and that of his martyred companions; the shrine of St. Donatus of Fiesole; and its altarpiece by Pietro Perugino
 * The Badia or ancient cathedral of St. Romulus, built in 1028 by Bishop Jacopo Bavaro with materials taken from several older edifices at the foot of the hill on which Fiesole stands and were supposed to cover the site of the martyrdom of St. Romulus. It contains notable sculptures by Mino da Fiesole; the old cathedral became a Benedictine abbey that passed into the hands of the Canons Regular of the Lateran. It once possessed a valuable library, long since dispersed. The abbey was closed in 1778
 * The room in the Episcopal Palace where Carmelite bishop St. Andrew Corsini lived and died
 * The little Church of Santa Maria Primerana in the cathedral square, where the same saint was warned by Our Lady of his approaching death. Built in 996 and further expanded in medieval times, it has maintained the Gothic presbytery from that period. It received a new façade in the late sixteenth century, with graffito decoration by Ludovico Buti. The interior, on a single hall, has a thirteenth-century panel portraying Madonna with Child. In the transept are two marble bas-reliefs by Francesco da Sangallo and a terracotta from Andrea della Robbia's workshop.
 * The Church of S. Alessandro, with the shrine of St. Alexander, bishop and martyr
 * The Monastery of San Francesco on the crest of the hill, with the cells of St. Bernardine of Siena and seven Franciscan Beati
 * Church of San Girolamo, the home of Venerable Carlo dei Conti Guidi, founder of the Hieronymites of Fiesole (1360)
 * San Domenico, the novice-home of Fra Angelico and of St. Antoninus of Florence
 * Fontanelle, a villa near S. Domenico, where St. Aloysius came to live in the hot summer months, while a page at the court of Grand Duke Francesco de' Medici
 * Villa I Tatti, a campus of Harvard University
 * Villa Medici
 * Villa Le Balze, a campus of Georgetown University
 * Villa Palmieri
 * Villa Schifanoia
 * Villa Sparta, former residence in exile of the Greek royal family
 * Fonte Lucente, where a crucifix is greatly revered as miraculous
 * Castello di Vincigliata
 * Diocesan Seminary of Fiesole
 * Monte Senario, the cradle of the Servite Order, where its seven holy founders lived in austerity
 * S. Martino di Mensola, with the body of St. Andrew, an Irish saint, still incorrupt
 * Monte Ceceri and the monument to Leonardo da Vinci's attempted flight

Notable residents

 * Angelo Maria Bandini, Italian author
 * Bernard Berenson, American art historian
 * Giovanni Boccaccio, Renaissance humanist
 * Arnold Böcklin, Swiss painter
 * St. Andrew Corsini, a Florentine Carmelite friar (1302–January 6, 1373), Bishop of Fiesole
 * Alexandre Dumas, French writer
 * Bridget of Fiesole, ninth-century Irish nun
 * Mino da Fiesole, Florentine sculptor (c. 1429—1484) and painter
 * Helen of Greece and Denmark, queen mother of Romania (was awarded the honorary title of Righteous Among the Nations in 1993 for her humanitarian efforts to save the Jews of Romania)
 * Hermann Hesse, German-Swiss writer, featured the city in his well-known novel Peter Camenzind
 * Paul of Greece, King of Greece
 * Paul Klee, German painter
 * Francesco Landini (c. 1325–1397), composer, singer, poet, organist, and instrument maker
 * Paolo Litta, composer
 * Elisabeth Mann-Borgese, German writer
 * Lorenzo Monaco (1370–1424), painter
 * Marcel Proust, French writer
 * Andrew the Scot, ninth-century Irish archdeacon
 * Gertrude Stein and Alice B. Toklas spent their summers in Fiesole before the First World War
 * Roger Verity Anglo-Italian entomologist
 * Frank Lloyd Wright, American architect
 * Miloš Crnjanski, Serbian writer and poet who wrote his 1973 poem Stražilovo in Fiesole

In literature
The Decameron by Giovanni Boccaccio is set in the slopes of Fiesole. The city was featured equally in the novels Peter Camenzind (1904) by Hermann Hesse, A Room with a View (1908) by E. M. Forster, and in the book of travel essays Italian Hours (1909) by Henry James.

In contemporary art

 * Wall mural in Grossi Florentino, executed by students of Napier Waller under supervision

title: Fiesole


text:
Meridiana

Meridiana Fly S.p.A., operating as Meridiana (formerly named Meridiana S.p.A.), was a privately owned Italian airline headquartered in Olbia with its main base at Olbia Costa Smeralda Airport. It operated scheduled and charter flights to domestic, European and intercontinental destinations from several Italian bases. Some of its operations were carried out by the old Air Italy under the Meridiana brand. It was owned by Qatar Airways through AQA Holding (49%) and Alisarda S.p.A. (51%), who rebranded the airline as the new Air Italy effective 1 March 2018.

Early years
The company was set up with the name of Alisarda on 29 March 1963 by Aga Khan Prince Karīm al-Hussaynī with the aim of promoting tourism in Sardinia. Scheduled flights commenced in 1964.

On 3 May 1991 in an Extraordinary Shareholders Meeting, the name of the company was changed to Meridiana S.p.A., and a new logo was created. These changes were made to reflect the expansion of the company's operations to Europe.

Merger with Eurofly to create Meridiana fly
In December 2006, Meridiana acquired the majority package of the airline company Eurofly, with a 29,95% share. During the year, further important investments were made aiming to develop Meridiana, which also closed 2006 with the historical record of 4,6 million passengers carried with an approximate 15% increase compared to 2005.

At the end of February 2010, Meridiana fly, the second-largest carrier in Italy, was created by the merger of Eurofly, a company specialized in long-haul charter flights to holiday destinations, and Meridiana, a scheduled operator of national and European flights, with the primary objective of connecting the main Italian airports with Sardinia and Sicily.

Meridiana's acquisition of Air Italy
In October 2011, Meridiana fly completely acquired Air Italy, an Italian charter airline.

On 16 January 2013, the Board of Directors of Meridiana S.p.A. acknowledged the agreement for the purchase by Meridiana S.p.A. of all the Meridiana fly ordinary shares held by the former shareholders of Air Italy Holding S.r.l. Today the group is run by Meridiana S.p.A. Holding, which controls 89% of Meridiana fly including 100% of Air Italy; the remaining part is quoted to the Milan Stock Exchange but a tender offer was recently launched to delist the company.

Redevelopment into the new Meridiana
In April 2013, when the Air Italy merger was completed, Meridiana Fly returned to its former, shorter name, Meridiana.

On 16 May, it launched the new frequent-flyer program Meridiana Club in partnership with Avios.

In mid-2013, Meridiana offered national and international scheduled flights from the main Italian airports to Sardinia (Olbia, Alghero, and Cagliari), Sicily and Naples as well as holiday destinations such as the Canary Islands, Greece, and the Red Sea. It also serviced the long-haul destinations of the Maldives, Mauritius, Kenya, Zanzibar, Santo Domingo, and Brazil mainly from Milan Malpensa and/or Rome Fiumicino.

In 2014, the airline continued to reposition its brand by launching international flights to Moscow Domodedovo, London Gatwick, Kiev, Tel Aviv and Nice from Naples and to Brussels, Geneva, London Gatwick, Tel Aviv, Nice, Hamburg, Paris CDG, Moscow Domodedovo and Kiev from Olbia; reconfirming its leadership in Sardinia and its focus on Naples, Catania, Milan Linate and Verona airport for domestic Italian flights.

Since 18 November 2014 Meridiana Club frequent flyers have been able to earn Avios points on British Airways and from 23 March 2015 on Iberia.

In December 2014, Meridiana retired its last Airbus aircraft, two A320-200s, to pursue the aim of operating an all Boeing fleet together with Air Italy.

Meridiana ownership under AQA Holding
On 2 September 2017 it was announced that Qatar Airways had bought 49% of AQA Holding, the new shareholder of Meridiana. On 7 November 2017 it was announced that Qatar Airways would merge Air Italy with the current Meridiana subsidiary under the Meridiana AOC.

In December 2017, Meridiana announced a restructuring of its route network. While all routes from Milan-Linate except the services to its base in Olbia will be terminated, Meridiana will start year-round long-haul services from Milan-Malpensa to New York City and Miami using Airbus A330-200 aircraft inherited from Qatar Airways. Meridiana further announced that it would become the first Italian airline to take delivery of Boeing 737 MAX 8s. It was also reported that new full-flat business class seats and in-flight Wi-fi would be installed on the new Airbus A330s to be received from Qatar Airways.

In February 2018, Meridiana rebranded as Air Italy and announced a plan to expand its fleet and destinations to become Italy's flagship carrier. Air Italy ceased operations in early 2020.

Head Offices
Meridiana's head offices are located at Olbia Costa Smeralda Airport in Olbia, Italy.

AQA Holding
AQA Holding is the parent company of Meridiana, which was founded on 2 September 2017 after Qatar Airways purchased a 49% stake in Meridiana, with Alisarda keeping the 51% stake that it previously owned, which subsequently created the new holding company.

Subsidiaries
Meridiana currently has three subsidiaries. One subsidiary Meridian owns is Meridiana Maintenance S.p.A. (operated as Meridiana Maintenance). The airline maintenance company was founded after Meridiana merged with eurofly (another Italian airline). Their hangar is located at Olbia Costa Smeralda Airport in Olbia, Italy next to the Meridiana Head Offices. Wokita S.i.r (operated as Wokita) is another subsidiary Meridiana owns. Wokita is a tour operator that offers a wide and extensive range of tourism products such as package tours, flights, hotels, and resorts in seaside areas, yachting, and activity holidays since 2006. Since April 2013 Meridiana owns Air Italy (2005–2018) and operates on behalf of Meridiana.

Codeshare agreements
Meridiana codeshared with the following airlines:

 * Air Malta
 * Air Moldova
 * Blue Air
 * Blue Panorama Airlines
 * British Airways
 * Iberia
 * S7 Airlines

Current fleet
At the time of the merger, the Meridiana fleet consisted of the following aircraft:

Fleet development
In April 2017, it was announced that, due to Qatar Airways purchasing a stake in the airline, the airline is to complete a fleet modernization with 20 Boeing 737 MAX 8 to be delivered from the second quarter of 2018, taken from Qatar's orders from Boeing. In October 2017, it was announced that the airline would replace its long-haul fleet with new aircraft transferred from Qatar Airways' new orders. It was announced that the airline would operate a mix of Boeing 787 and Airbus A330. The fleet development plan was later Transferred to Air Italy.

Historical fleet
Meridiana previously operated the following aircraft types:

title: Meridiana