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Hastatus

 * the singular of hastati, a class of infantry in the armies of the early Roman Republic who originally fought as spearmen

Species Latin names

 * A. hastatus
 * Amphineurus hastatus, Alexander, 1925, a crane fly species in the genus Amphineurus
 * D. hastatus
 * Dendryphantes hastatus, Clerck, 1757, a jumping spider species in the genus Dendryphantes with a palearctic distribution
 * O. hastatus
 * Odontomachus hastatus, Fabricius, 1804, a carnivorous ant species in the genus Odontomachus
 * S. hastatus
 * Saccoderma hastatus, a fish species in the genus Saccoderma found in the Magdalena river in Colombia
 * Serrasalmus hastatus, a piranha species in the genus Serrasalmus
 * T. hastatus
 * Thermocyclops hastatus antillensis, a crustacean species in the genus Thermocyclops

Subspecies

 * Thermocyclops schmeili hastatus, a crustacean species in the genus Thermocyclops

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

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Talk:Bassas da India

Untitled
Is this country an independent state? Does it have any population? 64.26.170.157 07:49, 23 Jul 2004 (UTC)

• It is not an independent state. It is also unpopulated. Mike Beidler 22:37, 11 April 2006 (UTC)

Projects
Added to Madagascar, removed form Judaism. Not sure about France? Rich Farmbrough, 15:06, 12 August 2009 (UTC).
 * Hm, is it French  territory claimed by Madagascar? Rich Farmbrough, 15:16, 12 August 2009 (UTC).

Exclusive Economic Zone
The intro describes the island's exclusive economic zone overlapping that of Europa Island. But the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea is pretty clear that this type of island wouldn't qualify for an exclusive economic zone. Writing that directly in the article would be original research, and against the guidelines of Wikipedia, but it does suggest that the claim about the exclusive economic zone needs to be sourced or possibly removed. If reliable sources say that France does claim an EEZ there, it should probably make clear that it's a questionable claim. GeoEvan (talk) 22:18, 14 August 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Bassas da India


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Joseph Spencer

Joseph Spencer (October 3, 1714 – January 13, 1789) was an American lawyer, soldier, and statesman from Connecticut. During the Revolutionary War, he served both as a delegate to the Continental Congress and as a major general in the Continental Army.

Early life
Spencer was born in East Haddam, Connecticut. Spencer was the son of Isaac and Mary (née Selden) Spencer. He was the great-grandson of Gerard and Hannah Spencer, who were part of the first settlers of East Haddam in 1662.

Career
He was trained as a lawyer and practiced until 1753, when he became a judge. He was active in the militia, serving in King George's War and as a Lieutenant Colonel of the Middlesex militia in the French and Indian War.

By the time the American Revolution began, Spencer had advanced to Brigadier General of Connecticut’s militia, and in April 1775 he led them to support the Siege of Boston as the 2nd Connecticut Regiment. In June, when these units were adopted into the national army, he was made a brigadier general in the Continental Army; he was amongst the first eight Continental Army brigadier generals so appointed.

In 1776, Spencer was promoted to major general in support of William Heath in the Eastern Department. The following year his military career became difficult. He cancelled a planned attack on British forces in Rhode Island and was censured by the Continental Congress. He demanded a court of inquiry and was exonerated, but when the controversy was resolved, he resigned his commission on January 14, 1778.

Spencer first served on the Connecticut Council (or Connecticut State Senate) in 1776. Free of military responsibility, the state sent him as a delegate to the Continental Congress in 1779. In 1780, he was returned to the council, and served there until his death. From 1784 until his death, he was also a judge of the Connecticut Supreme Court of Errors. After the Revolutionary War he became eligible for membership in the Society of the Cincinnati of the State of Connecticut.

Personal life
August 2, 1738, Joseph Spencer married Martha Brainerd (1716–1754), with whom he had five children.

 * Martha Spencer (1739–1739/40), who died young.
 * Martha Spencer (c. 1740), who married Joseph Cone, Jr. (born 1735).
 * Anne Spencer (born 1746).
 * Joseph Spencer, Jr. (1750–1824), who became a surgeon and served as an aid to his father during the Revolution.
 * Nehemiah Spencer (born 1752)

After his first wife's death in 1754, he married Hannah (née Brown) Southmaid (1730–1808), with whom he had eight more children, including:

 * Isaac Spencer (born 1759), who served as Connecticut State Treasurer from 1818 to 1835.
 * Jared Spencer (1762–1820), a twin who was a Yale graduate and an attorney who married Ann Green (1768–1855) in 1789.
 * Mary Spencer (born 1762), a twin who married Turner Miner.
 * Seth Spencer (born 1765)
 * Hannah Spencer (1767–1843), who married Rev. Ichabod Lord Skinner (1767–1852)
 * Betty Spencer (born 1770), who married Selden Warner.
 * Nehemiah Spencer (1772–1839), who married Betsey Swan (died 1853)

Spencer died on January 13, 1789, in East Haddam and was buried in Millington Cemetery west of the Millington Green section of East Haddam near where he lived. Later he and his wife were re-interred at the Nathan Hale Park of East Haddam and a monument was erected in his honor.

Descendants
His granddaughter through his son Joseph, Elizabeth Spencer, was married to General Lewis Cass (1782–1866), who also served as governor of the Michigan Territory, a United States senator from the state of Michigan, and as secretary of state under President James Buchanan.

Major General Robert Ernest Noble was Spencer's great-great-great-grandson and became a member of the Society of the Cincinnati.

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AJS

A. J. Stevens & Co. Ltd was a British automobile and motorcycle manufacturer in operation from 1909 to 1931. The company was founded by Joe Stevens in Wolverhampton, England. After the firm was sold, the name continued to be used by Matchless, Associated Motorcycles and Norton-Villiers on four-stroke motorcycles until 1969, and since the name's resale in 1974, on lightweight, two-stroke scramblers and today on small-capacity roadsters and cruisers. The company held 117 motorcycle world records.

Motorcycles
Joe Stevens, father of Harry, George, Albert John (‘Jack’), and Joe Stevens Junior, was an engineer who owned the Stevens Screw Company Ltd, in Wednesfield, near Wolverhampton. Stevens had a reputation for quality engineering before the company built its first motorcycle in 1897, using a Mitchell single-cylinder four-stroke imported from the US. Before long, Stevens began making engines, starting off with a better-built version of the Mitchell but the family soon developed their own designs, including parallel-twins and V-twins, which were sold as proprietary engines to other manufacturers, including Werner, Wolf and Clyno.

In 1909, after a Wearwell motorcycle fitted with a Stevens side-valve single-cylinder engine won a trophy for a 24-hour non-stop run in 1909, Jack Stevens decided to contest the Tourist Trophy in the Isle of Man. A new company, A J Stevens & Co (AJS), was founded, with premises in Retreat Street, Wolverhampton, to manufacture motorcycles and the first model appeared at the Motor Cycle Show in 1910. Its engine, a two-speed 298 cc side-valve, was made to come within the 300 cc limit for Junior machines in the 1911 Isle of Man TT races and was slightly larger than the 292 cc used for the proprietary engines. Jack Stevens came 16th on AJS's official entry, one place behind private owner J.D. Corke on an identical machine.

Albert John Stevens lent his initials to the company, but it was a family concern. In 1922 for example, Harry Stevens acted as managing director, George Stevens as commercial manager, Joe Stevens Junior managing the experimental section and Jack Stevens as production manager.

AJS did not contest the 1912 TT as it was busy satisfying the demand for its products, but was 10th in the 1913 Junior. With the Junior limit raised to 350 cc for 1914, the AJS motorcycle had grown to 349 cc, with four-speed gears and chain final drive. AJS achieved their first TT victory in the Junior 1914 Isle of Man TT race that year through Eric Williams, whilst also taking second, third, fourth and sixth place. The old Screw Company's facilities could not cope with the demand and with the company reconstituted as A.J. Stevens and Company (1914) Ltd, AJS moved to a new factory built around Graiseley House, in the Blakenhall district, a short distance south of the Retreat Street premises, which were relegated to the being the company's office and repair department. The 349 cc machine (known as the $2 3/4$ hp) was most in demand but the company also produced an 800 cc (6 hp) V-twin.

On 3 November 1916, the Ministry of Munitions prohibited the production of non-military motorcycles, and AJS went over to manufacturing munitions, but in early 1917 the Ministry received an order from Russia for military vehicles, and AJS was given a contract to produce part of the order with its AJS Model D machine. This kept AJS busy until Ministry of Munitions restrictions were lifted in January 1919.

When production of the 350 resumed in 1920, it was much improved. The side-valve engine was replaced by a new overhead-valve design that produced 10 bhp. It also had internal expanding brakes and chain primary drive. Cyril Williams won the first post war 1920 Isle of Man TT Junior race on his 350, even though he had to push the motorcycle home for almost four miles (mostly downhill) after a breakdown. AJS took the first four places in the 1921 Isle of Man TT, and Howard R Davies bettered his second place in the Junior by winning the Senior on the same 350 cc AJS. This was the first time a 350 had won the 500 cc Senior TT race. In 1922 Manxman Tom Sheard won the Junior on an AJS, with G Grinton, also on an AJS, taking second.

The 1922 machine was a classic design that would become famous as the ‘Big Port’ on account of its large-diameter exhaust port and pipe (initially 1$5⁄8$ inches, but changed in successive years). The OHV 350 would be the mainstay of the company's racing efforts until 1927 and in production form (first offered to the public in 1923), was also AJS's most popular sports motorcycle throughout the 1920s. At this time, the company produced a comprehensive range of other models ranging from 250 to 1,000 cc. These were generally given a model number, plus letter to denote the year of manufacture (for example, B meant 1924, F 1925, G 1926).

In 1929 for example, the AJS range consisted of: M1 Deluxe 996 cc side-valve V-twin £76/10/0; M2 Standard 996 cc side-valve V-twin £66/0/0; M3 Deluxe Touring 349 cc side-valve single £48/10/0; M4 Deluxe Sporting 349 cc side-valve single £48/10/0; M5 Standard Sporting 349 cc side-valve single £45/0/0; M6 349 cc overhead-valve single £54/10/0 (twin port), £52/0/0 (single port); MR6 Special Sports 349 cc overhead-valve single £62/0/0; M7 349 cc overhead-camshaft single £62/0/0; M8 498 cc overhead-valve single £62/0/0 (twin port), £59/10/0 (single port); MR8 Special Sports 498 cc overhead-valve single £72/0/0; M9 Deluxe Touring 498 cc side-valve £54/0/0; M10 498 cc overhead-camshaft single £72/0/0; M12 Lightweight 248 cc side-valve single £39/17/6. Several of these were intended to pull one of the 12 AJS sidecars also on offer, including sports, touring and commercial models.

By 1927, it had become clear that push-rod overhead-valve designs were becoming dated in racing, so AJS introduced two new chain-driven overhead-camshaft racing models, the 349 cc K7 and the 498 cc K10. Jimmy Simpson rode a 350 to third place in the Junior TT and won races in Europe but in 1928 AJS used the overhead-valve engine in the TT. In 1929 there were again two machines with an overhead cam, this time the 349 cc M7 and the 498 cc M10. Wal Handley came second in the 1929 Junior TT for AJS. The following year Jimmie Guthrie won the 1930 Lightweight TT on a 250 cc AJS. The R7,350 ohc, won 8 of the 9 Grand Prix and established at Montlhery, near Paris, a number of world records, including 1 hour at an average of 104.5 miles per hour and 2 hours at an average of 99.5

In 1931, the AJS S3 V-twin was released, a 496 cc transverse V-twin tourer with shaft primary drive and alloy cylinder heads. It had been expensive to develop and was slow to sell. Even though it held 117 world records, the AJS company was now in financial trouble.

The 1935 film No Limit was set at the Isle of Man TT. The film starred George Formby as an aspiring racer who travels to the Isle of Man with his modified and streamlined 1928 "Rainbow" motorcycle, which he has christened a Shuttleworth Snap, in order to compete at the races. In the film fictitious motorcycle companies were used, and the Shuttleworth Snap was in fact a 1928 AJS H5.

Automobiles, omnibuses, and coaches
Although best known for their motorcycles the company made a few experimental cars with Meadows engines in 1923 but decided not to go into full production.

AJS had manufactured car bodies for Clyno, but in 1929 Clyno went under. AJS returned to car making in 1929 with the Nine powered by a 1018 cc side-valve Coventry-Climax engine producing 24 bhp and driving through a three-speed gearbox. The cars were quite expensive at £210 for the two-seater and £320 for the fabric bodied saloon. About 1,000 were made.

The company also started making buses and coaches. The first model was the Pilot with a Meadows engine. This was followed by the Commodore with a Coventry Climax L6 engine and finally by the Admiral. Just over 200 buses were built.

In 1931, A. J. Stevens & Co went into administration. After BSA failed to obtain control, the motorcycle assets were bought by the Collier brothers London company Matchless and the car manufacturer Crossley Motors. Crossley incorporated some improvements such as a four-speed gearbox and using parts acquired from AJS built about 300 cars between December 1931 and May 1932. Assembly took place in the Stockport factory used by Willys Overland Crossley. Motorcycle production moved to Plumstead in London.

A 1½-litre model was planned, but failed to materialize except to appear on the Willys-Overland-Crossley stand at the 1932 London Motor Show.

In 1938, AJS became part of a group called Associated Motorcycles, formed by the Colliers as a management company for its various interests. After this Matchless and AJS generally shared models using different badging, although the AJS name was used for several unique racers.

The site of the Wolverhampton factory, now a supermarket, is marked by a sculpture, The Lone Rider, designed by Steve Field and carved by Robert Bowers, assisted by Michael Scheuermann.

Stevens Motorcycles
The Stevens brothers tried again and started a new company as Stevens Brothers (Wolverhampton) Ltd to make 3-wheel delivery vans. (They could not call them AJS, as that name belonged to the Colliers.) These used a 588 cc single-cylinder engine driving the rear wheels through a 3-speed gearbox and chain drive. The van could carry 5 cwt. It was improved in 1935 with shaft drive and uprated to 8 cwt. The last ones were made in 1936. In 1934 they also produced a new range of motorcycles under the Stevens name. These were made until 1938 after which the company continued until 1956 as a general engineering business.

AJS Radios
AJS designer Harry Stevens was a keen amateur 'ham' radio operator since before World War I. In 1922, following the launch of Britain's first radio stations and the formation of the BBC he convinced the rest of the AJS board that radio receivers had a big future. The first radios made by AJS Wireless and Scientific Instruments were launched in 1923, all high quality models aimed at the top end of the market. The most expensive cost £75, which was substantially more than many AJS motorcycles, although prices soon fell. Initial sales were good and by 1925, there were 10 models ranging from under £14 in a simple wooden case to over £50 with a finely veneered console cabinet. Radio production was increased and moved to a factory in Stewart Street. However, radio technology had advanced rapidly and AJS was forced to offer new designs in order to compete. The company's reliance on battery power held them back at a time when rivals were turning to mains power and AJS was forced to adopt cheaper mass-production techniques. In 1928, the company decided to give up radio manufacture and sold the factory and remaining components to the Symphony Gramophone and Radio Company.

AJS Racing under AMC
Under AMC the AJS badge may have been put on the "bread and butter" Matchless motorcycles, but the Colliers were mindful of the AJS racing heritage, and used the name on some innovative racing machinery. These racing bikes kept the AJS name alive.

In 1935, at the Olympia Show, an air-cooled SOHC AJS 50° V4 was shown, a fully equipped road going version, which did not make it into production. In 1936 Harold Daniell rode a supercharged race version in the Isle of Man Senior TT, but despite its high top speed, it lacked acceleration.

In 1939, a water-cooled and supercharged version of the 495 cc AJS V4 was built to compete against the supercharged BMWs then dominating racing. In 1939 the dry sump V4 was the first bike to lap the Ulster Grand Prix course at over 100 mi/h. It weighed 405 lb. and its top speed was 135 mi/h. Then World War II intervened.

At the end of the 1940s and start of the 1950s, the AJS Porcupine, a 500 cc forward-facing parallel twin, and the AJS 7R (32 bhp, 350 cc OHC single) were being raced alongside their AMC stablemates the Matchless G50 (effectively a 500 cc 7R) and by 1951, the Matchless G45 (a 500 cc vertical twin). The AJS Porcupine had been designed for supercharging, before the rules changed banning supercharged racing motorcycles, but even so, Les Graham won the 1949 World Championship on an unsupercharged AJS E90 500 cc Porcupine.

In 1951 AJS development engineer Ike Hatch developed a 75.5 mm bore × 78 mm stroke, three-valve-head version of the 7R making 36 bhp. It was called the AJS 7R3, and was Ike's response to the Italian multi-cylinder racers. They did well enough in their first year, not as well the second. For 1954 Jack Williams, the works team manager, developed the bike further, lowering the engine in the frame, and making some tuning changes that gave 40 bhp @ 7800 rpm. It immediately won the first two rounds of the World Championship and took first at the Isle of Man TT. These were factory specials, but one has survived, and a second has been reconstructed from spares.

AMC withdrew from the world of works and one-off road racing at the end of the 1954, with the death of Ike Hatch, and in the face of fierce competition from the other European bikes. After this AJS made a production version of the standard two-valve AJS 7R, for privateers. In 1954 Norton was also moved to the Plumstead works.

With the G15 line, AMC had built on the merits of the G12 but there were numerous changes to frame, forks, swinging arm, primary chaincase, transmission, cycle parts and lubrication system. The P11 was the last line of bikes with bonds to AMC. It used a modified G85CS frame but there were stronger forks, completely new cycle parts (making some was rather costly), altered lubrication and modified primary chaincases, to mention a few.

The G15 series was offered as 3 brands: Matchless G15 comprising G15Mk2, G15CS and G15CSR; AJS Model 33 comprising M33Mk2, M33CS and M33CSR; and last not least Norton N15CS (no Norton-branded roadster made as it would compete against the Atlas). The G15 series was produced from 1963 to 1969. They were initially for export only, but by 1965 these models were available in UK and Europe too.

Associated Motorcycles and the AJS name eventually ended up with Norton-Villiers in 1966. In late 1968 the Plumstead works at Burrage Grove, where engines from the Wolverhampton plant and frames from the Manchester plant were assembled into complete machines, were presented with a Greater London Council compulsory purchase order. The Plumstead works closed in July 1969. It is believed that production of the G15 series was halted late in 1968 (model year 1969) with unsold samples on offer through 1969. The AJS Model 33 was the last AJS badged four-stroke produced.

AJS two-strokes and Norton road racer
From 1962 Cotton motorcycles were the main customer for 250 Starmaker engines. The 250 Starmaker engines were used in the Cotton Cobra scrambler and the Telstar Racer. Cotton therefore was very involved in the development of the Starmaker engine..

Peter Inchely formerly from Ariel and BSA was involved with the 250 Road Race project. Inchley rode a Bultaco-based 6-speed, 250 Villiers Starmaker-powered special to 3rd place in the 1966 Lightweight TT. Several pre production AJS 250 Racers were built and raced but the project came to halt in 1967 after an unsuccessful second TT attempt. The scrambles project continued with considerable success.

From 1966 to 1968, Villiers developed the "Stormer" Motocross motorcycle. In 1968 Malcolm Davis won the British 250 Championship on a pre Stormer, Y4 scrambler.

In late 1967, a special project was undertaken with the Stormer. Four bikes were built at Marston Road, all equipped with spark arrestors on the end of the tailpipe and with a rudimentary lighting system. Three of them had 250 cc engines and were badged as AJS machines. The fourth one had the "360" engine (actually only 334 cc) and was badged as a Matchless. This bike was probably the last one built with a Matchless badge and the only two-stroke Matchless. The four bikes were taken on by members of the Royal Air Force motor Sports Association and entered in the 1968 International Six-Days Trial.

The two-stroke AJSs had been built in Wolverhampton, at the Villiers factory but in 1970 the UK government provided a special subsidy that enabled AJS to open a new factory on Walworth Industrial Estate in Andover, where they assembled Stormer off-road motorcycles. The competition department was located next to the famous race track at Thruxton, Andover.

AJS scramblers were produced from 1968 until 1974 in 250, 370 and 410 guises. The early 250 was designated the Y4. In 1969 The 370 (Y5) was added and the name changed to Stormer. The 410 followed in 1972.

A little known about motorcycle was the 37AT Trials bike which was partially built by Cotton Motorcycles using some AJS parts and Villiers's 37A engine.

By 1974, Norton Villiers was having financial trouble, and the rights to manufacture the Stormer under the AJS banner were purchased. In September 1974 the business was moved to Goodworth Clatford near Andover. Initially selling spare parts for existing motorcycles, the business expanded to produce complete motorcycles still using the Starmaker-based engines under the FB-AJS name.

The Starmaker/Stormer four-speed engine was becoming outdated and could not compete with the new arrivals from manufacturers such as Husqvarna, CZ and later, scrambles bikes from Maico, Suzuki, Honda, Kawasaki and Yamaha.

From 1974 Stormer-based scrambles and trail bikes were sold from modified AJS stock. Keeping the model updated until 1980. During the early 1980s off-road and trail bike with Austrian Rotax engines of 250 cc, 410 cc and 495 cc were produced.

AJS Motorcycles Ltd. (today)
In September 1974 after the collapse of Norton Villiers, Fluff Brown and Clive Ellis took over the AJS concern, tooling and parts for the AJS Stormer scrambles bikes. They started trading as FB-AJS of Andover, at Flint Farm, Goodworth Clatford in Hampshire and were granted rights to manufacture motorcycles under the FB-AJS name. FB-AJS became incorporated as AJS Motorcycles Ltd. in August 1987. Clive Ellis left the company in 1975. Fluff Brown continued to supply the trade with Stormer spare parts he also manufactured and sold scrambles bikes for the clubman racer throughout the 1970s and 1980s, finally using Austrian Rotax engines and a new chassis developed by Brian Curtis. In the 1990s Fluff Brown, along with his eldest son Nick, produced replica Cotton Cobra 250 Pre'65 scramblers and replica Cotton Telstar racers. Fluff's venture formed the platform for AJS Motorcycles Ltd. and the continuation of the business today.

Today whilst AJS have a degree of design control over the aesthetic features of their products, they no longer have involvement in the mechanical design of their motorcycles or scooters, opting instead for a mass produced base model manufactured in China which then has logos and custom detailing features fitted to set them apart from other. Their 124cc range are built around the Jianshe JS125 frame and engine. These are first imported from China then distributed through their UK dealer network and exported to Germany, Portugal, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Japan and S. Korea.

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Talk:Dialectic

Etymology & Plato
Dialogue goes back to logos, and dialectic goes back to lexis, thus it means "through words", whereas dialogue means "through notions". In other words, in a dialogue you exchange different points of view, in order to reconcile the different aspects or relations (in a strict mathematical sense) captured, whereas in a dialectic as described by Plato in detail in "The Sophist" and "The Statesman" you analyze the relations of words to each other, like describing different special cases of a more general notion, like when you say: a "car" is either used for personal transport or for the transport of goods. In the latter case it is called a "truck". In the former case, if it is used to carry people that enter at designiated points, it is called a "bus", otherwise, if it used as a carrier service, it is called it "taxi" and if not... (Yeah, well, this is not entirely correct, but before I come to sedan etc. I just stop here, because you should already understand what we're talking about, and this kind of thing is precisely what Plato does in Sophistes and Politikos.

46.131.28.194 (talk) 09:10, 29 April 2022 (UTC)

Criticism section, other edits
I am going to make some edits to shorten the sections on Hegel and Marx, which at present are disproportionately long, the latter of which has also been flagged for over four years as having way too many blockquotes.

I am also inclined to delete the entire Criticism section. Primarily this is because it is devoted mostly to Hegel and Marx, who are not the topic of this article, and who have their own series of articles where such criticisms are discussed. Secondarily it is because Nietzsche, Popper, and Bunge are not scholars of even Hegel or Marx. They are famous for other things entirely, and their views do not help readers understand what dialectic is.

Before removing sourced material, however, I wanted to check in here.

See for reference: WP:Criticism. I would suggest that anything that cannot be integrated into other sections of the article probably does not belong.

Cheers, Patrick J. Welsh (talk) 15:53, 7 August 2023 (UTC)

 * Thanks for the notice. I don't care about Nietzsche, but I would oppose the removal of Popper and Bunge, who are well known as critics of dialectic. The essay to which you linked, WP:Criticism, specifically says that a "Criticism" section "is sometimes used for politics, religion and philosophy topics". Such a section is warranted here for Popper and Bunge. The critics have also been criticized: Popper in, e.g., Nicholas Rescher's book Dialectics: A Classic Approach to Inquiry (2007), and Bunge in Poe Yu-ze Wan's article "Dialectics, complexity, and the systemic approach: toward a critical reconciliation" (2013). You said that "their views do not help readers understand what dialectic is", but that's wrong: their views clarify the limitations of dialectic. (The section may need to be written better to show what those limitations are.) And it's pretty nondialectical to suggest that the only purpose of an article is to define what a subject is, instead of to present contradictory views of the subject! Biogeographist (talk) 20:00, 7 August 2023 (UTC)
 * Hi @Biogeographist, Thanks for your prompt response! I am not at all convinced that Popper or Bunge understand Hegel (certainly) or Marx (probably) well enough to meaningfully contribute to our understanding of the underlying issues. That said, however, you will see that I have condensed the section, and it bothers me less in this form. Unless others speak up to support deletion, I plan to let it be.
 * Cheers, Patrick J. Welsh (talk) 21:22, 7 August 2023 (UTC)
 * Thanks! But regarding this: I am not at all convinced that Popper or Bunge understand Hegel (certainly) or Marx (probably) well enough to meaningfully contribute to our understanding of the underlying issues. But the issues are different for philosophers with different purposes. It is an important point that Popper and Bunge were not scholars of Hegel and Marx, and their criticisms are not directed so much at Hegel and Marx themselves as at some of their intellectual legacy and that of Engels and Lenin. Their criticisms are important because they represent an attempt to assess that legacy from the perspective of 20th-century scientific philosophy (scientific realism and critical rationalism, broadly defined). If you're a Hegel scholar then you might not find that attempt to be "meaningful", but it's certainly meaningful from their perspective. Given their purposes, how well they understood Hegel or Marx isn't as relevant as you think it is. Biogeographist (talk) 01:27, 8 August 2023 (UTC)
 * Hi @Biogeographist,
 * Okay, thanks for adding the additional sources. I no longer wish to remove the section. (In fact, more about Rescher's views would be most welcome.)
 * Two tangential questions:
 * First, are you sure about changing so many of the verbs to past tense? I'm not sure of the exact "rule", but I thought that the same basic principle as that of the literary historical present also applied to works of philosophy, i.e., whatever Hegel put in writing is what he "claims", not "claimed". I don't think most readers will even notice, but I'd like to know if I am possibly wrong about this.
 * Second – and please cheerfully ignore if this is too personal – but how did you come across Mario Bunge? I know him from McGill, but no one to whom I've mentioned him has ever had any idea who he is. I kind of thought that he had been written off as a crank from another era. Or else just lost to history on account of making his philosophical opus, at eight volumes(!), too long for most people to be willing to read. If he's still a recognized authority in some circles, I'd be curious to know.
 * Cheers, Patrick J. Welsh (talk) 16:44, 9 August 2023 (UTC)
 * I don't think there's a rule about verb tense. I don't like treating real people as literary characters who are speaking to us in the present; if some real person wrote something, I'd say they said it or wrote it, and not that they say or tell us, as if they are disembodied spirits whispering in our ears. (One reason for my dislike of this is that I think that if they had lived long enough, or if they are still alive, they might have changed their mind, so it's unfair to describe their past view as if it were a current view.) On the other hand, I didn't change the phrases "Socrates uses", "Socrates asks", "Socrates reaches", because I'm not sure how to treat Socrates: Did he really say what Plato made him say? I don't know and don't care, so treating him as a literary character is fine with me.
 * My first memory of Mario Bunge was when I noticed that he was the editor of the Springer book series "Episteme". Within a few years of noticing that, I started reading him. His work does seem to be from another era in some respects, but I don't think most people ignore him because they think he's a crank. Heinz Droste suggested some causes of his lack of fame in: One of Droste's main points is that Bunge didn't try to build a school of thought or to attract a following. I also think Bunge's work may not be interesting to specialists because specialists know more than Bunge in their specialty and can see how what he wrote about their specialty is wrong in certain ways: You may think that way about what he wrote about Hegel, for example. On the other hand, if one is not too picky, one can be impressed by Bunge's ability to synthesize a big picture: Herbert Gintis, in his review of Bunge's book on ethics, found Bunge to be ignorant in Gintis's area of behavioral science, but useful on the big picture: "I found Bunge's approach extremely valuable in the abstract, but heavy-handed and outdated in many particulars." Still, it's impressive that Gintis would even give that much approval given how old the book is and how distant ethics is from Bunge's main competencies.
 * By the way, another critic of dialectic in the same era as Popper was Sidney Hook, in Reason, Social Myths and Democracy (1940). Hook started out as a scholar of Marx, so he knew what he was talking about regarding Marx. Biogeographist (talk) 20:19, 9 August 2023 (UTC) and Biogeographist (talk) 20:26, 9 August 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Dialectic


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Soyuz TM-25

Soyuz TM-25 was a crewed Soyuz spaceflight, which launched on February 10, 1997. It transported Russian cosmonauts Vasily Tsibliyev, Aleksandr Lazutkin, and German cosmonaut Reinhold Ewald to Mir.

Mission highlights
This was the 30th expedition to Mir. An ESA astronaut from Germany was included on the mission.

Soyuz TM-25 is a Russian spacecraft that was launched to carry astronauts and supplies to Mir station. It was launched by a Soyuz-U rocket from Baykonur cosmodrome at 14:09 UT to ferry three cosmonauts for a 162-day stay at the station; it docked with the station at 15:51 UT on 12 February 97. Within meters of automatic approach to the station, a slight misalignment was noted, and the commander of the module had to dock it by manual steering.

title: Soyuz TM-25


text:
Pressure coefficient

In fluid dynamics, the pressure coefficient is a dimensionless number which describes the relative pressures throughout a flow field. The pressure coefficient is used in aerodynamics and hydrodynamics. Every point in a fluid flow field has its own unique pressure coefficient, $Cp$.

In many situations in aerodynamics and hydrodynamics, the pressure coefficient at a point near a body is independent of body size. Consequently, an engineering model can be tested in a wind tunnel or water tunnel, pressure coefficients can be determined at critical locations around the model, and these pressure coefficients can be used with confidence to predict the fluid pressure at those critical locations around a full-size aircraft or boat.

Definition
The pressure coefficient is a parameter for studying both incompressible/compressible fluids such as water and air. The relationship between the dimensionless coefficient and the dimensional numbers is

 * $$C_p = {p - p_\infty \over \frac{1}{2} \rho_\infty V_{\infty}^2 }$$

where:
 * $$p$$ is the static pressure at the point at which pressure coefficient is being evaluated
 * $$p_\infty$$ is the static pressure in the freestream (i.e. remote from any disturbance)
 * $$\rho_\infty$$ is the freestream fluid density (Air at sea level and 15 °C is 1.225 $$\rm kg/m^3$$)
 * $$V_\infty$$ is the freestream velocity of the fluid, or the velocity of the body through the fluid

Incompressible flow
Using Bernoulli's equation, the pressure coefficient can be further simplified for potential flows (inviscid, and steady):

 * $$C_p|_{M \, \approx \, 0} = {p - p_\infty \over p_0 - p_\infty } = {1 - \bigg(\frac{u}{u_{\infty}} \bigg)^2}$$

where:
 * $$u$$ is the flow speed at the point at which pressure coefficient is being evaluated
 * $$M$$ is the Mach number, which is taken in the limit of zero
 * $$p_0$$ is the flow's stagnation pressure

This relationship is valid for the flow of incompressible fluids where variations in speed and pressure are sufficiently small that variations in fluid density can be neglected. This assumption is commonly made in engineering practice when the Mach number is less than about 0.3.

 * $$C_p$$ of zero indicates the pressure is the same as the freestream pressure.
 * $$C_p$$ of one corresponds to the stagnation pressure and indicates a stagnation point.
 * the most negative values of $$C_p$$ in a liquid flow can be summed to the cavitation number to give the cavitation margin. If this margin is positive, the flow is locally fully liquid, while if it is zero or negative the flow is cavitating or gas.

Locations where $$C_p = -1$$ are significant in the design of gliders because this indicates a suitable location for a "Total energy" port for supply of signal pressure to the Variometer, a special Vertical Speed Indicator which reacts to vertical movements of the atmosphere but does not react to vertical maneuvering of the glider.

In an incompressible fluid flow field around a body, there will be points having positive pressure coefficients up to one, and negative pressure coefficients including coefficients less than minus one.

Compressible flow
In the flow of compressible fluids such as air, and particularly the high-speed flow of compressible fluids, $${\frac{1}{2}\rho v^2}$$ (the dynamic pressure) is no longer an accurate measure of the difference between stagnation pressure and static pressure. Also, the familiar relationship that stagnation pressure is equal to total pressure does not always hold true. (It is always true in isentropic flow, but the presence of shock waves can cause the flow to depart from isentropic.) As a result, pressure coefficients can be greater than one in compressible flow.

Perturbation theory
The pressure coefficient $$C_p$$ can be estimated for irrotational and isentropic flow by introducing the potential  $$\Phi$$ and the perturbation potential $$\phi$$, normalized by the free-stream velocity $$u_{\infty}$$

 * $$\Phi = u_{\infty}x + \phi(x, y, z)$$

Using Bernoulli's equation,

\frac{\partial \Phi}{\partial t} + \frac{\nabla \Phi \cdot \nabla \Phi}{2} + \frac{\gamma}{\gamma-1}\frac{p}{\rho} = \text{constant} $$

which can be rewritten as

\frac{\partial \Phi}{\partial t} + \frac{\nabla \Phi \cdot \nabla \Phi}{2} + \frac{a^2}{\gamma-1}= \text{constant} $$

where $$a$$ is the sound speed.

The pressure coefficient becomes

 * $$\begin{align}

C_p &= \frac{p-p_{\infty}}{\frac{\gamma}{2}p_{\infty} M^2} =\frac{2}{\gamma M^2}\left[\left(\frac{a}{a_{\infty}}\right)^{\frac{2\gamma}{\gamma-1}} -1\right]\\ &= \frac{2}{\gamma M^2}\left[\left(\frac{\gamma-1}{a_{\infty}^2}(\frac{u_{\infty}^2}{2} - \Phi_t - \frac{\nabla\Phi\cdot\nabla\Phi}{2}) + 1\right)^{\frac{\gamma}{\gamma-1}} -1\right]\\ &\approx \frac{2}{\gamma M^2}\left[\left(1 - \frac{\gamma-1}{a_{\infty}^2}(\phi_t + u_{\infty}\phi_x )\right)^{\frac{\gamma}{\gamma-1}} -1\right]\\ &\approx -\frac{2\phi_t}{u_{\infty}^2} - \frac{2\phi_x}{u_{\infty}} \end{align} $$

where $$a_{\infty}$$ is the far-field sound speed.

Local piston theory
The classical piston theory is a powerful aerodynamic tool. From the use of the momentum equation and the assumption of isentropic perturbations, one obtains the following basic piston theory formula for the surface pressure:

 * $$p = p_{\infty}\left(1 + \frac{\gamma-1}{2}\frac{w}{a}\right)^{\frac{2\gamma}{\gamma-1}}$$

where $$w$$ is the downwash speed and $$a$$ is the sound speed.

C_p = \frac{p-p_{\infty}}{\frac{\gamma}{2}p_{\infty} M^2} = \frac{2}{\gamma M^2}\left[\left(1 + \frac{\gamma-1}{2}\frac{w}{a}\right)^{\frac{2\gamma}{\gamma-1}} - 1\right] $$

The surface is defined as

F(x,y,z,t)= z - f(x,y,t) = 0 $$

The slip velocity boundary condition leads to

\frac{\nabla F}{|\nabla F|}(u_{\infty} + \phi_x,\phi_y,\phi_z) = V_{\text{wall}}\cdot \frac{\nabla F}{|\nabla F|} = -\frac{\partial F}{\partial t}\frac{1}{|\nabla F|} $$

The downwash speed $$w$$ is approximated as

w = \frac{\partial f}{\partial t} + u_{\infty} \frac{\partial f}{\partial x} $$

Pressure distribution
An airfoil at a given angle of attack will have what is called a pressure distribution. This pressure distribution is simply the pressure at all points around an airfoil. Typically, graphs of these distributions are drawn so that negative numbers are higher on the graph, as the $$C_p$$ for the upper surface of the airfoil will usually be farther below zero and will hence be the top line on the graph.

Relationship with aerodynamic coefficients
All the three aerodynamic coefficients are integrals of the pressure coefficient curve along the chord. The coefficient of lift for a two-dimensional airfoil section with strictly horizontal surfaces can be calculated from the coefficient of pressure distribution by integration, or calculating the area between the lines on the distribution. This expression is not suitable for direct numeric integration using the panel method of lift approximation, as it does not take into account the direction of pressure-induced lift. This equation is true only for zero angle of attack.

 * $$C_l=\frac{1}{x_{TE}-x_{LE}}\int\limits_{x_{LE}}^{x_{TE}}\left(C_{p_l}(x)-C_{p_u}(x)\right)dx$$

where:

 * $$C_{p_l}$$ is pressure coefficient on the lower surface
 * $$C_{p_u}$$ is pressure coefficient on the upper surface
 * $$x_{LE}$$ is the leading edge location
 * $$x_{TE}$$ is the trailing edge location

When the lower surface $$C_p$$ is higher (more negative) on the distribution it counts as a negative area as this will be producing down force rather than lift.

title: Pressure coefficient


text:
AL (automobile)

AL was a French automobile manufactured by L'Energie Electro-Mécanique based at Suresnes. In 1907, the company manufactured one of the first recorded hybrid cars (the Lohner–Porsche was earlier, as was the Pieper), it was a combination gas-electric vehicle that ran at 24 hp.

title: AL (automobile)


text:
Alan (automobile)

The Alan was a German "inflation-period" automobile of simple design; it was manufactured by J Mayer in Bamberg (Bavaria) in limited numbers between 1923 and 1925. The only model, the 6/30, had a 30hp, four-cylinder engine with overhead valves, made in Berlin by Siemens and Halske.

title: Alan (automobile)


text:
PDCA

PDCA or plan–do–check–act (sometimes called plan–do–check–adjust) is an iterative design and management method used in business for the control and continual improvement of processes and products. It is also known as the Shewhart cycle, or the control circle/cycle. Another version of this PDCA cycle is OPDCA. The added "O" stands for observation or as some versions say: "Observe the current condition." This emphasis on observation and current condition has currency with the literature on lean manufacturing and the Toyota Production System. The PDCA cycle, with Ishikawa's changes, can be traced back to S. Mizuno of the Tokyo Institute of Technology in 1959.

The PDCA cycle is also known as PDSA cycle (where S stands for study). It was an early means of representing the task areas of traditional quality management. The cycle is sometimes referred to as the Shewhart / Deming cycle since it originated with physicist Walter Shewhart at the Bell Telephone Laboratories in the 1920s. W. Edwards Deming modified the Shewhart cycle in the 1940s and subsequently applied it to management practices in Japan in the 1950s.

Deming found that the focus on Check is more about the implementation of a change, with success or failure. His focus was on predicting the results of an improvement effort, studying the actual results, and comparing them to possibly revise the theory.

Plan
Establish objectives and processes required to deliver the desired results.

Do
Carry out the objectives from the previous step.

Check
During the check phase, the data and results gathered from the do phase are evaluated. Data is compared to the expected outcomes to see any similarities and differences. The testing process is also evaluated to see if there were any changes from the original test created during the planning phase. If the data is placed in a chart it can make it easier to see any trends if the plan–do–check–act cycle is conducted multiple times. This helps to see what changes work better than others and if said changes can be improved as well.

Example: Gap analysis or appraisals

Act
Also called "adjust", this act phase is where a process is improved. Records from the "do" and "check" phases help identify issues with the process. These issues may include problems, non-conformities, opportunities for improvement, inefficiencies, and other issues that result in outcomes that are evidently less-than-optimal. Root causes of such issues are investigated, found, and eliminated by modifying the process. Risk is re-evaluated. At the end of the actions in this phase, the process has better instructions, standards, or goals. Planning for the next cycle can proceed with a better baseline. Work in the next do phase should not create a recurrence of the identified issues; if it does, then the action was not effective.

About
Plan–do–check–act is associated with W. Edwards Deming, who is considered by many to be the father of modern quality control; however, he used PDSA (Plan-Do-Study-Act) and referred to it as the "Shewhart cycle". Later in Deming's career, he modified PDCA to "Plan, Do, Study, Act" (PDSA) because he felt that "check" emphasized inspection over analysis. The PDSA cycle was used to create the model of know-how transfer process, and other models.

The concept of PDCA is based on the scientific method, as developed from the work of Francis Bacon (Novum Organum, 1620). The scientific method can be written as "hypothesis–experiment–evaluation" or as "plan–do–check". Walter A. Shewhart described manufacture under "control"—under statistical control—as a three-step process of specification, production, and inspection. He also specifically related this to the scientific method of hypothesis, experiment, and evaluation. Shewhart says that the statistician "must help to change the demand [for goods] by showing [...] how to close up the tolerance range and to improve the quality of goods." Clearly, Shewhart intended the analyst to take action based on the conclusions of the evaluation. According to Deming, during his lectures in Japan in the early 1950s, the Japanese participants shortened the steps to the now traditional plan, do, check, act. Deming preferred plan, do, study, act because "study" has connotations in English closer to Shewhart's intent than "check".

A fundamental principle of the scientific method and plan–do–check–act is iteration—once a hypothesis is confirmed (or negated), executing the cycle again will extend the knowledge further. Repeating the PDCA cycle can bring its users closer to the goal, usually a perfect operation and output.

Plan–do–check–act (and other forms of scientific problem solving) is also known as a system for developing critical thinking. At Toyota this is also known as "Building people before building cars". Toyota and other lean manufacturing companies propose that an engaged, problem-solving workforce using PDCA in a culture of critical thinking is better able to innovate and stay ahead of the competition through rigorous problem solving and the subsequent innovations.

Deming continually emphasized iterating towards an improved system, hence PDCA should be implemented in spirals of increasing knowledge of the system that converge on the ultimate goal, each cycle closer than the previous. One can envision an open coil spring, with each loop being one cycle of the scientific method, and each complete cycle indicating an increase in our knowledge of the system under study. This approach is based on the belief that our knowledge and skills are limited, but improving. Especially at the start of a project, key information may not be known; the PDCA—scientific method—provides feedback to justify guesses (hypotheses) and increase knowledge. Rather than enter "analysis paralysis" to get it perfect the first time, it is better to be approximately right than exactly wrong. With improved knowledge, one may choose to refine or alter the goal (ideal state). The aim of the PDCA cycle is to bring its users closer to whatever goal they choose.

When PDCA is used for complex projects or products with a certain controversy, checking with external stakeholders should happen before the Do stage, since changes to projects and products that are already in detailed design can be costly; this is also seen as Plan-Check-Do-Act.

The rate of change, that is, the rate of improvement, is a key competitive factor in today's world. PDCA allows for major "jumps" in performance ("breakthroughs" often desired in a Western approach), as well as kaizen (frequent small improvements). In the United States a PDCA approach is usually associated with a sizable project involving numerous people's time, and thus managers want to see large "breakthrough" improvements to justify the effort expended. However, the scientific method and PDCA apply to all sorts of projects and improvement activities.

title: PDCA


text:
Aland (automobile)

The Aland was a four-cylinder 2.5-liter 16-valve, single OHC automobile with diagonally connected four-wheel internal expanding brakes and aluminum pistons. It was made in Detroit, Michigan, by the Aland Motor Car Company from 1916 to 1917. Two- and five-seater versions were available for $1500.

title: Aland (automobile)


text:
Quartering

Quartering may refer to:

 * Dividing into four parts:
 * Dismemberment - a form of execution
 * Hanged, drawn and quartered - another form of execution
 * Quartering (heraldry)
 * Coning and quartering a process for splitting of an analytic sample
 * Quartering, a method in the assaying of gold; see
 * The Quartering Acts, requiring American civilians to provide living spaces for British soldiers prior to the American Revolution

title: Quartering


text:
Soyuz TM-26

Soyuz TM-26 was a Russian spaceflight that ferried cosmonauts and supplies to Mir. It was the 32nd expedition to Mir. It was launched by a Soyuz-U rocket from Baikonur Cosmodrome on August 5, 1997. The main mission was to transport two specially-trained cosmonauts to repair or salvage the troubled space station.

TM-26 docked with Mir on August 7 by manual control. The crew repaired the power cable and harness/connectors in the severely damaged Spektr module and restored much of the lost power; they also repaired and replaced the oxygen generators in Mir. The hole(s) in that module that caused total depressurization of the module could not be located during their spacewalk inside that module.

During the flight a television advertisement starring Vasily Tsibliyev was filmed on the station. The ad, for Tnuva's brand of UHT milk, was the first ad to be filmed in space.

title: Soyuz TM-26


text: Category:Red Lake County, Minnesota

title: Category:Red Lake County, Minnesota


text:
Alba (1907 automobile)

Alba was an Italians car manufacturer based in Trieste, which started operations in 1906 with two companies

named Alba Fabbrica Automobili S.A. and Alba Automobilwerke Aktiengesellschaft. The company was founded by automobile enthusiasts which has from influential families of Trieste naming Edmondo Richetti, Ettore Modiano and some more. The company planned to built two car models first one with 18-24hp output second with 35-40hp output but only the second model made it to production with a 6868 cc inline 4-cylinder engine and a 4 speed manual gearbox which was showcased at the Paris Motor Show in 1907 where the model was praised by the visitors. Despite the attention and appreciation the model received, the company failed to mass produce the vehicle and the company closed its operations in 1908. At the time of liquidation the company had 10 units of 35-40hp model car, 20000 sq ft production plant in San Sabba and 150 employees.

title: Alba (1907 automobile)


text:
Alba (1913 automobile)

The Alba was a French car made by Constructions Métallurgiques, Usines Alba, Suresnes, Seine between 1913 and 1928.

Engines
The car was offered with a choice of 4-cylinder engines, including a side-valve 8 hp of 1172 cc made by S.C.A.P., a 1476 cc overhead-valve by S.C.A.P., and a 1994 cc Altos with either side valves or overhead valves.

Transmission and brakes
The rear wheels were driven through a 4-speed gearbox. Albas were also fitted with front-wheel brakes, an advanced feature on a light car of the time. In 1921 a smaller 1243 cc model, the Bobby Alba, was offered with 3-speed gearbox.

Racing
In 1924, Alba entered the Le Mans 24-hour race, but without success.

title: Alba (1913 automobile)


text:
Soyuz TM-29

Soyuz TM-29 was a Russian Soyuz spaceflight launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome aboard a Soyuz 11A511U rocket. It docked with Mir on February 22, 1999 at 05:36 GMT with cosmonauts Viktor Afanasyev of Russia, Jean-Pierre Haigneré of France, and Ivan Bella of Slovakia aboard. Since two crew seats had been sold (to Slovakia and France), Afanasyev was the only Russian cosmonaut aboard. This meant that Russian engineer Avdeyev already aboard Mir would have to accept a double-length assignment. After the February 27 departure of EO-26 crew commander Padalka and cosmonaut Bella aboard Soyuz TM-28, the new EO-27 Mir crew consisted of Afanasyev as Commander, Avdeyev as Engineer and French cosmonaut Haigneré.

Mission highlights
38th expedition to Mir.

title: Soyuz TM-29


text:
List of Esperanto speakers

An Esperantist (esperantisto) is a person who speaks, reads or writes Esperanto. According to the Declaration of Boulogne, a document agreed upon at the first World Esperanto Congress in 1905, an Esperantist is someone who speaks Esperanto and uses it for any purpose.

Important Esperantists

 * Muztar Abbasi, Pakistani scholar, patron in chief of PakEsA, translated the Quran and many other works into Esperanto
 * William Auld, eminent Scottish Esperanto poet and nominee for the Nobel Prize in Literature
 * Julio Baghy, poet, member of the Akademio de Esperanto and "Dad" ("Paĉjo") of the Esperanto movement
 * Henri Barbusse, French writer, honorary president of the first congress of the Sennacieca Asocio Tutmonda
 * Kazimierz Bein, "Kabe", prominent Esperanto activist and writer who suddenly left the Esperanto movement without explanation
 * Émile Boirac, French writer and first president of the Esperanto language committee (later the Akademio de Esperanto)
 * Antoni Grabowski, Polish chemical engineer, the father of Esperanto poetry
 * Lou Harrison, American composer of Esperanto music and translator of Sanskrit texts into Esperanto
 * Julia Isbrücker, Dutch Esperantist
 * Boris Kolker, Esperantist scholar and key member of the Akademio de Esperanto
 * Georges Lagrange, French Esperantist writer
 * John Edgar McFadyen, Scottish theologist and linguist
 * Frederic Pujulà i Vallès, pioneer of Esperanto in Spain
 * Sándor Szathmári, leading figure of Esperanto literature
 * Anna Tuschinski, prominent Esperantist in the Free City of Danzig; "Mother of Esperanto"
 * L. L. Zamenhof, Polish ophthalmologist, inventor of Esperanto

Politicians

 * Joseph Stalin, General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, was said to have studied Esperanto by Leon Trotsky, though he later killed many Esperantists
 * Kazimierz Badowski, member of the Communist Party of Poland, promoted Esperanto as part of the Trotskyism movement
 * Richard Bartholdt, U.S. Representative from Missouri
 * Robert Cecil, 1st Viscount Cecil of Chelwood, one of the architects of the League of Nations, awarded the Nobel Peace Prize
 * Parley P. Christensen, Utah and California politician
 * Willem Drees, Dutch politician, Prime Minister of the Netherlands (1948–1958)
 * Heinz Fischer, President of the Republic of Austria
 * Małgorzata Handzlik, Polish member of the European Parliament
 * Ho Chi Minh, President of North Vietnam
 * Jean Jaurès, French politician. He proposed to the International Socialist Congress at Stuttgart in 1907 the use of Esperanto for the information diffused by the Brussels Office of the organization.
 * Franz Jonas, President of the Republic of Austria, Secretary of the Austrian Laborist Esperantist League and founder of Internacio de Socialistaj Esperantistoj ("International of Socialist Esperantists")
 * Graham Steele, Canadian lawyer, author, and former politician
 * Josip Broz Tito, head of state of Yugoslavia
 * Alexander Dubček, head of state of Czechoslovakia. He grew up on a utopian and Esperantist cooperative called Interhelpo.

Writers

 * Anna Löwenstein, British Esperantist, writer, teacher
 * Nadija Hordijenko Andrianova, Ukrainian writer and translator
 * Maria Angelova, Bulgarian poet
 * Ba Jin, prolific Chinese novelist and chairman of Chinese Writer Association
 * Henri Barbusse, French writer, and honorary president of the first congress of the Sennacieca Asocio Tutmonda
 * Louis de Beaufront, Esperantist writer
 * Gerrit Berveling, Dutch Esperantist poet, translator and editor of the Esperanto literary review, Fonto
 * Marjorie Boulton, British writer and poet in English and Esperanto; researcher and writer
 * Jorge Camacho, Spanish Esperantist writer
 * Vasili Eroshenko, Russian writer, Esperantist, linguist, and teacher
 * Petr Ginz, native Esperanto speaking boy who wrote an Esperanto-Czech dictionary but later died in a concentration camp at age 16. His drawing of the Moon was carried aboard . His diary appears in Czech, Spanish, Catalan and Esperanto, and was recently published in English.
 * Don Harlow, American Esperantist writer and webmaster of the United States Esperanto web-site.
 * Hector Hodler, Swiss journalist, translator, organizer, and philanthropist
 * Hans Jakob, Swiss writer
 * Kálmán Kalocsay, Hungarian surgeon, poet, translator, and editor
 * Lena Karpunina, Tajik Esperantist short story writer
 * Ikki Kita, Japanese fascist author, intellectual and political philosopher
 * Georges Lagrange, French Esperanto writer, member of Academy of Esperanto
 * Nikolai Vladimirovich Nekrasov, Esperantist writer and translator of the Soviet Union
 * Mauro Nervi, Italian poet in the Esperanto language
 * Edmond Privat, Swiss author, journalist, university professor, and movement activist
 * João Guimarães Rosa, Brazilian novelist, short story writer and diplomat
 * Cezaro Rossetti, Scottish Esperantist writer
 * Lazër Shantoja, Albanian catholic saint, writer and translator
 * René de Saussure, Swiss writer and activist
 * Tivadar Soros, Hungarian Jewish doctor, lawyer, author and editor
 * W. T. Stead, well-known philanthropist, journalist and pacifist who was aboard the Titanic when it sank.
 * Þórbergur Þórðarson (Thorbergur Thortharson), Icelandic writer and Esperantist
 * J. R. R. Tolkien.
 * Leo Tolstoy, Russian writer and philosopher, who claimed he learned how to write Esperanto after two hours of study
 * Julian Tuwim, Polish poet and translator.
 * Vladimir Varankin, Russian writer
 * Jules Verne, French author, incorporated Esperanto into his last unfinished work The Barsac Mission.
 * Qian Xuantong, Chinese writer and linguist who pushed for the abolition of Classical Chinese, and supported the substitution of Spoken Chinese with Esperanto
 * Kenji Miyazawa, Japanese poet and author of children's literature. Author of Night on the Galactic Railroad (銀河鉄道の夜).

Scientists

 * Daniel Bovet, Italian pharmacologist and winner of the 1957 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, learned Esperanto as a first language
 * Sidney S. Culbert, American linguist and psychologist
 * Bertalan Farkas, Hungarian cosmonaut
 * Louis Lumière, French inventor of cinema, said: "The use of Esperanto could have one of the happiest consequences in its effects on international relations and the establishment of peace."
 * Fran Novljan, contributed to the promotion of Esperanto in Yugoslavia.
 * Wilhelm Ostwald, German Nobel laureate for his seminal work in chemical catalysis
 * Mark Pallen, British microbiologist
 * Claude Piron, Esperantist, psychologist, and linguist, translator for the United Nations
 * Reinhard Selten, German economist and winner of the 1994 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics because of his work on game theory. He has authored two books in Esperanto on that subject.
 * Leonardo Torres Quevedo, Spanish engineer, mathematician and inventor.
 * Yrjö Väisälä, Finnish astronomer, discovered asteroids 1421 Esperanto and 1462 Zamenhof
 * John C. Wells, British phonetician and Esperanto teacher
 * Wladimir Köppen, Russian geographer of German descent
 * Marcel Minnaert, Belgian astronomer who worked in Utrecht
 * Seok Joo-myung, Korean ecologist who studied and identified native butterflies of Korea
 * Claude Roux, French lichenologist and mycologist

Others

 * Baháʼí Faith adherents, many of whom have been involved with Esperanto (see Baháʼí Faith and auxiliary language). Lidia Zamenhof was a Baháʼí. Several leading Baháʼís have spoken Esperanto, most notably the Son of Baháʼu'lláh, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá (see John Esslemont).
 * Rudolf Carnap, German-born philosopher.
 * Onisaburo Deguchi, one of the chief figures of the Oomoto religious movement in Japan and president of the Universala Homama Asocio ("Universal Human-love Association")
 * Alfred Hermann Fried, recipient of a Nobel Peace Prize and author of a textbook on Esperanto
 * Ebenezer Howard, known for his Garden Cities of To-morrow (1898), the description of a utopian city in which people live harmoniously together with nature.
 * Pope John Paul II, gave several speeches using Esperanto during his career
 * Franko Luin, Swedish type designer of Slovene nationality
 * John E. B. Mayor, English classical scholar, gave a historic speech against Esperanto reformists at the World Congress of Esperanto held at Cambridge
 * Alexander Nedoshivin, Russian tax specialist, one of the founders of the Esperanto Society at Kaunas, Lithuania
 * William Main Page, Secretary of Edinburgh Esperanto Society, editor and author
 * László Polgár, Hungarian chess teacher
 * Susan Polgar, Hungarian-American chess grandmaster, taught Esperanto by her father László
 * George Soros, Hungarian-American billionaire and son of Esperantist parents. ("Soros", a name selected by his father to avoid persecution, means "will soar" in Esperanto.)
 * Daniel Tammet, British autistic savant. He has stated Esperanto is one of the ten languages he speaks.
 * Marcelle Tiard, French Esperantist who co-founded the Union of Esperantist Women.
 * Antoon Jozef Witteryck, Belgian publisher and instructor
 * Fredrick Brennan, founder of 8chan

title: List of Esperanto speakers


text:
No More Shall We Part

No More Shall We Part is the eleventh studio album by Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds, released on 2 April 2001 in the UK (and 10 April in the US). The record, which was well received critically, came after a 4-year gap from recording, following the much acclaimed album The Boatman's Call and subsequent 'Best Of' album.

Nick Cave had to overcome heavy heroin and alcohol addictions in 1999–2000 before starting work on the album. It featured guest appearances by Kate & Anna McGarrigle and was met with mostly positive reviews. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 based on reviews from mainstream critics, the album has received a generally favourable score of 79, based on 18 reviews.

Track listing

 * "Darker with the Day" utilises the chordal structure and melody of the rearranged piano version of "Papa Won't Leave You, Henry" (from Henry's Dream) performed by Cave in 2000.

A limited-edition version included a bonus disc with two extra tracks, plus multi-media CD-ROM files (the 2 bonus tracks also appeared on the UK double 12" vinyl pressing of the album):

The bonus disc also includes an enhanced section featuring lyrics, photo gallery, biography, album discography, interview, and internet links.

Singles

 * "As I Sat Sadly by Her Side" (MUTE 249) (19 March 2001)
 * "As I Sat Sadly by Her Side" – 6:13
 * "Little Janey's Gone" – 3:00
 * "Good Good Day" – 4:05
 * "Fifteen Feet of Pure White Snow" (MUTE 262) (21 May 2001)
 * "Fifteen Feet of Pure White Snow" (Single Version) – 4:07
 * "God Is in the House" (Westside Session) – 5:52
 * "We Came Along This Road" (Westside Session) – 5:38
 * "Love Letter" (special limited edition Australia-only release, MUTE 284) (25 February 2002)
 * "Love Letter" – 4:05
 * "Fifteen Feet of Pure White Snow" (Westside Session) – 5:43
 * "And No More Shall We Part" (Westside Session) – 4:09
 * "God Is in the House" (Westside Session) – 5:52
 * "We Came Along This Road" (Westside Session) – 5:38

Personnel

 * Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds
 * Nick Cave – vocals, piano
 * Mick Harvey – guitar, string arrangement, drums on track 1
 * Blixa Bargeld – guitar
 * Conway Savage – organ
 * Warren Ellis – violin, string arrangement
 * Martyn P. Casey – bass
 * Thomas Wydler – drums
 * Jim Sclavunos – drums on track 4, percussion on track 5
 * All male backing vocals by Nick Cave & The Bad Seeds
 * Guest musicians
 * Kate & Anna McGarrigle – vocals
 * Gavyn Wright, Patrick Kiernan, Jackie Shave, Simon Fischer, Rebecca Hirsch – violins
 * Bruce White, Gustav Clarkson – violas
 * Frank Schaefer, Lionel Handy, Naomi Wright – cellos
 * Paul Morgan, Leon Bosch – basses

Production

 * Produced by Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds and Tony Cohen
 * Recorded at Abbey Road Studios, London and Westside Studios, London
 * Engineered by Tony Cohen and Kevin Paul
 * Assistant Engineers: Mirek Stiles (Abbey Road) and Mark Bishop (Westside)
 * Mixed by Tony Cohen, Nick Cave, Blixa Bargeld and Mick Harvey at Westside Studios
 * Mastered by Ray Staff at Whitfield Street, London

Exhibitions inspired by the album
In 2019, Greek artist Stefanos Rokos, presented his artistic approach to the album "No More Shall We Part" by Nick Cave & The Bad Seeds, an art exhibition that started its journey in Greece and travelled to Antwerp, Belgium. The NMSWP part project is a testimony of Stefanos Rokos' personal proposal for a dialectic to be developed between two artistic forms- those of painting and songwriting, which have all along constituted the very core of artistic expression and creativity.

Nick Cave said about the paintings: "It was extraordinary to stand in the studio and see the paintings for real – the grandeur of them, with all their congested details and terrifying blank spaces. I feel connected to the essence of them. I feel they are very close to the way I write lyrics – intense bursts of memory, ecstatic detail, sudden erotics, esoteric imagery; the forging of frozen narratives that hover about like dreams, haunted and strange and life-affirming."

title: No More Shall We Part


text:
Progressive utilization theory

The Progressive utilization theory (PROUT) is a socioeconomic and political philosophy created by the Indian philosopher and spiritual leader Prabhat Ranjan Sarkar. He first conceived of PROUT in 1959. Its proponents (Proutists) claim that it exposes and overcomes the limitations of capitalism, communism and mixed economy. Since its genesis, PROUT has had an economically progressive approach, aiming to improve social development in the world. It is in line with Sarkar's Neohumanist values which aim to provide "proper care" to every being on the planet, including humans, animals and plants.

PROUT has not been implemented in any part of the world, though there are a number of books and articles on the subject.

History
In 1959, Sarkar started to develop the ideas of Prout. In 1961, the theory was formally outlined in his book Ananda Sutram, published under his spiritual name Shrii Shrii Ánandamúrti.

A number of organizations have been created for the promotion and dissemination of Prout, such as Proutist Universal, Prout Globe, Prout Institute, etc. Since the 1980s a number of cooperative communities have been established across the world by Ananda Marga in an attempt to provide ideal models for the society outlined in Prout.

Overview
Prout proposes a socioeconomic system that is an advancement on capitalism and, what Prout sees as "the largely outdated" system of communism. Under the system, resources would be collective property from which usufructuary rights are carved out for use by individuals or groups of individuals. Distribution of goods in a market has to be rational and equitable, so that the allocation of a good maximizes the physical, mental, and spiritual development of all people. There must always be a baseline distribution that intends to guarantee food, clothing, shelter, education, and medical care (what the theory regards as minimum requirements for humans).

Prout advocates a three-tiered approach to industrial organization. Key industries and public utilities would operate on a no profit - no loss basis as these are resources held on trust for the public. Decentralized industry run by cooperatives would provide people's minimum necessities and other amenities of life. The majority of economic transactions would be through producers' and consumers' cooperatives. Incentives for people serving society would be funded via surpluses. A small business sector would also operate providing goods and services on a more individualized basis.

At the political level, Prout discourages nationalism, though nation-states would form a world government in the form of a confederation. There would be a world constitution and a bill of rights for human being, and for ensuring the biological diversity and security of animals and plants. Locally governed self-sufficient socio-economic units or zones would support a decentralized economy.

Law of social cycle and governance
Prout takes account of Sarkar's law of social cycle. It sees the social order as consisting of four classes of people that cyclically dominate society: shudras (workers), kshatriyas (warriors), vipras (intellectuals) and vaishyas (acquisitors).

However, Prout does not seek the abolition of these four classes, as it sees them as "... not merely as a power configuration, but as a way of knowing the world, as a paradigm, episteme or deep structure if you will." It considers that any person can be worker, warrior, intellectual or acquisitive minded.

Prout sees the four classes as connected to cyclic processes across time. That when a class of people struggle and rise to power they cause a revolution in the physical and mental world. To prevent any social class from clinging to political power and exploiting the others, a "spiritual elite" sadvipras (etymologically sad – true, vipra – intellectual) would determine who will hold political leadership. Prout theorises that the first sadvipras would come from disgruntled middle-class intellectuals and warriors.

Sadvipras would be organized into executive, legislative, and judicial boards which would be governed by a Supreme Board. They would be responsible for the order of dominance within the social order.

Neohumanism
The Prout theory is inline with Sarkar's Neohumanism philosophy. The philosophy is a reinterpretation of humanism integrating the idea of unity of all life. In it all living beings belong to a universal family deserving equal care and respect.

The five fundamental principles
In 1962, Prout was formally outlined in sixteen aphorisms (see Chapter 5 of Ananda Sutram ). The last five aphorisms (5:12-16) are commonly referred to as the five fundamental principles of Prout. These five principles are deemed to be fundamental because it would be difficult to get a clear understanding of Prout without comprehending the underlying concepts of these principles, the interrelationship of the principles, and their respective areas of application.

The five aphorisms from Ananda Sutram translate into English as follows: An initial glimpse of these five principles first appeared in Sarkar's earlier work, Idea and Ideology.
 * 1) There should be no accumulation of wealth without the permission of society.
 * 2) There should be maximum utilization and rational distribution of the crude, subtle, and causal resources.
 * 3) There should be maximum utilization of the physical, mental, and spiritual potentialities of the individual and collective beings.
 * 4) There should be a well-balanced adjustment among the crude, subtle, and causal utilizations.
 * 5) Utilizations vary in accordance with time, space, and form; the utilizations should be progressive.

The market
As far as Prout's values and goals differ from those of capitalism and communism, so does its economic structure. Following a close analysis of the two systems, Prout's propounder argues that these philosophies are "anti-human“ in the sense that they encourage people to relentlessly pursue material attainment, like name, fame, etc.

Another criticism of neo-liberalism and capitalism in general is the centralization of economic power in the hands of the rich leads to the exploitation of the masses and ultimately to the degeneration of society.

Prout claims that both capitalism and communism have been built on shaky foundations, and identifies weaknesses to a point where a new market system is required. He heavily critiqued communism, indicating that one of the reasons the USSRs experiment with communism did not work, causing the eventual implosion of their political structure, is that the Soviet central planning committees (Gosplan) had too much economic decision and cohesion power in the federation (see Marxism–Leninism).

Nonetheless, Sarkar observed aspects of market planning that help to create and sustain a healthy economy. In summary, Proutist thought considers that planning allows the market to protect its stakeholders from the meanderings of neo-liberal economics where profit-motive speaks highest. However, he stresses that a planning committee at a national level should only outline the broader aspects of economic development, leaving the details to be resolved by planning bodies at a local level where problems are best understood and more easily dealt with. (see diseconomies of scale). Consequently, this kind of top-down planning will leave communities, enterprises and ultimately workers with a significant level of freedom to decide their own economic future (see decentralized planning).

Prout also claims that the nationalization of enterprises is inefficient due to the larger costs and amount of bureaucracy necessary to keep state-controlled industries running. Yet, there are some industries that should be nationalized, operating on a "no-profit, no-loss" principle.

Concerning wealth distribution among the population, Sarkar argues for an "optimal inequality" where the wage gap between the richer strata of society is substantially subsided. Richard Freeman, a Harvard economist, points out income inequality comes from the monopoly of power and other activities with "negative consequences" in terms of social development. Nonetheless, Prout is not in favour of total income equality, claiming that in a society where material motivation to work is absent, the willingness to strive for financial success and to thrive in the creative development of industry and society will be lost in its citizens. Therefore, this theory argues for the implementation of a policy allowing the most meritorious in society to receive added perks for the added benefits they bring to society. It is thus theorized that the communist's motto of from each according to his ability, to each according to his needs cannot work in the real world. Prout proposes instead a minimum and maximum wage, roughly attributed according to the value the work of each person brings to society. We see examples of attempts in this direction in companies like Mondragon or Whole Foods.

Regarding neo-liberalism, Sarkar throws a new light to the concept of Adam Smith's invisible hand, where individual producers acting self-interest benefit the community as a whole. Prout claims that, unchecked, societies economic elite will disrupt the just circulation of material wealth within society. The market will then require regulatory measures so as to create a functional economic system.

Economic democracy
In relation to democracy, Prout argues that political democracy is not enough to free society from exploitation and what it considers extreme income inequality. As Roar Bjonnes, a known Proutist, states, "Unless we have deeper structural change – what we refer to as economic-systems change – we will never be able to solve such global and systemic problems as the environmental and inequality crises. History has demonstrated that political democracy is not enough."

Prout, therefore, advocates an economic democracy where the decision-making power for the economic future of a community is given to its inhabitants. Economic democracy is not a new term, but Sarkar reinvents it by setting four requirements for what he considers a successful one. The first and foremost requirement is guaranteeing the minimum requirements of life to all members of society. Secondly, and following one of the five fundamental principles, Prout argues that there should be an increasing purchasing capacity for each individual, stating that local people will have to hold economic power over their socio-economic region. Still, on this regard, Sarkar theorizes that, unlike capitalism, where the production and distribution of goods are mainly decided by market competition, in a Proutistic society it should be based on necessity. The third requirement of economic democracy is the decentralization of power, giving the freedom to make economic decisions to its stakeholders. That can be accomplished by adopting a worker-owned cooperative system and by the use of local resources (raw materials and other natural resources) for the development of the region and not merely for export. In summary, Prout advocates a decentralized economy where self-sufficient economic zones are created and organized according to a set of predetermined conditions (see socio-economic units).

Prout claims this requirement does not express xenophobic feelings, it solely claims to be the realization that there should not be a constant outflow of local capital, where natural resources are explored by foreign investment companies that extract assets and money out of the community. From a Neohumanist perspective, all people are free to choose where they wish to live, as long as they merge their economic interests with the ones of the local people.

Socio-economic units
A socio-economic unit, or samaja in Sanskrit, is the Proutist materialization of the collective effort to create a strong and resilient local community, built on strong feelings of solidarity and self-identity. There are a few criteria that Sarkar outlined in order to build a working and cohesive socio-economic unit. Similar to bioregions, their purpose is to facilitate cooperative development, moving towards a decentralized economy, where these units are economically independent and self-reliant. Though still guided by national and federal guidelines and laws, they should prepare its own economic plan.

Aiming to achieve maximum efficiency in the utilization of local resources, they propose to make trade across borders more balanced and mutually beneficial.

Progress
From Prout's perspective, a progressive society cannot solely be measured by the wealth of a nation or its GDP levels. Prout recognizes the benefits of material progress, but deems them insufficient indicators of the development of human society. It argues that even though progress as its interpreted by society today has its advantages, there are negative side effects that, if unchecked, bring more harm than good. Ronald Logan, author of A new Paradigm of Development, reminds its readers that even though auto and air traffic enables us to travel at increasing speeds, bringing great convenience to travelers and commuters, it also brings air pollution, noise pollution, traffic congestion, accidental deaths, alienation from nature, etc.

Presented with this quasi-paradoxical situation, Prout offers a concept of progress as a society that transcends material and technological development. Moving along the lines of the triple bottom line that analyzes the social, environmental and financial output of a given enterprise, Prout advocates a measure of progress that encompasses the qualities of what could be termed a "fourth bottom line", characterized by the incorporation of a transcendental dimension of human life that focuses on the integrated development of the body, mind and spirit. This fourth bottom line will allow society in general and individuals in particular to develop an expanded sense of identity, allowing for a neohumanist will of inclusion, creating a society where material gains are not the summum bonum of life and allowing space to be created for people to work together in a symbiotic movement that primes for individual and collective welfare through social, cultural, as well as technological development.

Prout acknowledges that the well-being of individuals lies in the development of the collective, and that the collective depends on the development of individuals. Therefore, in order to understand how a progressive society is to be achieved, Sarkar tries to analyze what it means for a human being to grow and develop. He concludes that physical and psychic development render little progress for a human being as they are subject to deterioration and decay. There are multifarious diseases that affect our body and mind, and even if we stay free of them, eventually time will turn all our physical and mental faculties of no use. Sarkar argues that the only aspect of human life that seems to be subject to no change over time is its transcendental nature, the "supra-emotional values" intrinsic to the human mind and which exacerbate human multilateral existence.

"The deepest truths of life are an eternal fountain of inspiration. Spiritual, transpersonal development is a process of expanding one's consciousness to link with the Infinite, to reach a state of deep peace and happiness."

From a Maslownian perspective, Prout defends the need to meet physical and mental needs before being able to engage in a journey to find that transcendental nature of the world. The five fundamental principles stem from this idea that society needs to provide for the basic necessities of all human beings so that they can engage in this journey of self-discovery and achieve true progress. Fundamentally, progress in society is the effort through which communities engage in the fulfillment of human needs, with the goal of achieving a transcendental existence. As a goal, transcendence will offer a fourth bottom line which ideally would propel human society into a more peaceful, inclusive and all-round more progressive existence.

Reception
Prout is a relatively unknown theory.

Ravi Batra was one of the first economists that used the ideas of Prout in his bestseller The Great Depression of 1990. In time, the theory attracted attention of people like Johan Galtung, founder of the UN Institute for Peace studies who claimed that "Sarkar’s theory is far superior to Adam Smith’s or that of Marx."

According to a description by Terry Irving and Rowan Cahill, Prout "envisages a decentralised, community-based world economy of self-sufficiency for the poor; economic democracy; small business; and limits on the accumulation of wealth." Sohail Inayatullah stated that the philosophy "attempts to balance the need for societies to create wealth and grow with the requirements for distribution." David Skrbina characterized Prout as a "model of social development... which advocates a 'small is beautiful' approach to society." Economics instructor Mark Friedman places Sarkar's economic thought in the tradition of Monsignor John A. Ryan, E.F. Schumacher and Herman Daly in Sarkar's incorporation of spiritual values into economic goals.

It has been characterized as a form of "progressive socialism" as well as a "socialist theory".

Hans Despain noted, in Monthly Review, that there are similarities between Prout and the theories of David Schweickart, Gar Alperovitz and Richard D. Wolff. Particularly the focus on economic democracy and co-operatives.

Political parties
Some political parties support the progressive utilization theory. They are:
 * Amra Bangali
 * Progressive Party of Aotearoa New Zealand

title: Progressive utilization theory


text:
Albany (automobile)

The Albany was an English automobile, manufactured by the Albany Motor Carriage Company in Christchurch, Dorset from 1971 - 1997.

History
The company was run by two brothers, Bryan and David Shepherd.

The car was designed as a veteran car, in the Edwardian style, but is not a replica of any particular marque although it bears some resemblance to a 1908 Buick. Early models used the BMC A-series engine and suspension from the Morris Minor in a specially built tubular steel chassis. The engine was governed to allow a maximum speed of 40 mph. The car was hand built and quite expensive at £1987 before a long list of extras was added. Purchasers requiring a hood or a screen found themselves invited to pay an extra £70 or £50 for these luxuries.

From 1974 a 1300 cc Standard SC engine from the Triumph Spitfire was used and a longer wheelbase five-seat option came in 1976.

Albany also made a replica 1910 AEC open air bus, based on a Ford D Series lorry chassis, that now provides very brief quasi-vintage bus rides at the Beaulieu motor museum in Hampshire. It appeared in the 1970s remake of the film 'The 39 Steps' starring Robert Powell.

In 1973 about a car every two weeks was being produced and exports to the United States started. However, after about 12 cars were shipped the importing company failed. The price in 1974, now with a 1500cc Triumph engine had risen to £2487. By 1977 110 cars had been built.

As of 1992, the open-top Albany featuring a 1500 cc SC engine was being built for export only.

The company closed in 1997.

title: Albany (automobile)