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Lloyd Doggett

Lloyd Alton Doggett II (born October 6, 1946) is an American attorney and politician who is a U.S. representative from Texas. A member of the Democratic Party, he has represented a district based in Austin since 1995, currently numbered as Texas's 37th congressional district.

Doggett was previously a member of the Texas Senate and a justice of the Texas Supreme Court.

Doggett and Sheila Jackson Lee became co-deans of the Texas's congressional delegation after Eddie Bernice Johnson retired; he became sole dean after Jackson's death.

Early life and education
Doggett was born in Austin, the son of Alyce Paulin (Freydenfeldt) and Lloyd Alton Doggett. His maternal grandparents were Swedish. Doggett graduated Omicron Delta Kappa and received both a bachelor's degree in business administration and a Juris Doctor degree from the University of Texas at Austin, where he served as student body president his senior year. While attending the University of Texas at Austin, he also joined Lambda Chi Alpha fraternity.

Early career
Doggett served as a member of the Texas Senate from 1973 to 1985. He gained attention in 1979 as a member of the "Killer Bees", a group of 12 Democratic state senators who opposed a plan to move the state's presidential primary to March 11. The intent was to give former Texas Governor John Connally a leg up on the 1980 Republican nomination. The Killer Bees wanted a closed primary. When this proposal was rejected, they walked out of the chamber and left the Senate two members short of a quorum. The bill was withdrawn five days later.

He was the Democratic nominee for the 1984 United States Senate election in Texas, losing to the Republican candidate, then-U.S. Representative Phil Gramm, by a wide margin. Doggett authored the bill creating the Texas Commission on Human Rights, as well as a law outlawing cop killer bullets and a sunset law requiring periodic review of government agencies.

In 1989, Doggett became both an Associate Justice of the Texas Supreme Court and an adjunct professor at the University of Texas School of Law.

Elections
Doggett was elected to the House of Representatives in 1994 in what was then the 10th district after 32-year incumbent Jake Pickle retired. He was one of the few Democrats to win an open seat in that year's massive Republican landslide. Running for reelection in 1996, Doggett defeated Republican nominee Teresa Doggett, to whom he is no relation. It marked the second election in a row in which he defeated a black female Republican. In the years following his first reelection, Doggett consistently won around 85% of the vote, facing only Libertarian opponents. The 10th, which had once been represented by Lyndon Johnson, had long been a liberal Democratic bastion in increasingly Republican Texas.
 * Before 2012

Redistricting by the Texas Legislature in 2003 split Austin, which had been entirely or almost entirely in the 10th district for more than a century, into three districts. Through Republican gerrymandering, Doggett's home wound up in a new, heavily Republican 10th district stretching from north central Austin to the Houston suburbs. Most of his former territory wound up on the 25th district, which consisted of a long tendril stretching from Austin to McAllen on the Mexican border. It was called "the fajita strip" or "the bacon strip" because of its shape. Doggett moved to the newly configured 25th and entered the Democratic primary—the real contest in the heavily Democratic, majority-Hispanic district. He won the primary and the general election.

On June 28, 2006, the United States Supreme Court ruled that the nearby 23rd district's lines violated the rights of Latino voters. As part of the 2003 redistricting, heavily Democratic and majority-Latino Laredo had largely been cut out of the 23rd and replaced by several heavily Republican areas near San Antonio. The decision turned on the fact that the 23rd was a protected majority-Latino district—in other words, if the 23rd was ever redrawn to put Latinos in a minority, an acceptable majority-Latino district had to be created in its place. While the new 23rd was 55% Latino, only 46% of its voting population was Latino. The Court therefore found that the 23rd was not an acceptable Latino-majority district. It also found that the 25th was not compact enough to be an acceptable replacement because the two Latino communities in the district were more than 300 miles apart, creating the impression that it had been deliberately drawn to pick up as many Latinos as possible without regard to compactness.

Due to the 23rd's size, the ruling forced the redrawing of five districts between El Paso and San Antonio, including the 25th. For the 2006 election, Doggett regained most of his old base in Austin (though not the area around the University of Texas at Austin, which stayed in the 21st), and also picked up several suburbs southeast of the city. After skating to reelection in 2006 and 2008, he was held to only 52 percent of the vote in 2010—his closest race since 1996.

 * 2012

It was reported that the new Congressional maps in Texas turned Doggett's district from a strongly Democratic district into a strongly Republican one. The new map split Doggett's old territory among five districts. His home was placed in a new, heavily Republican 25th district stretching from east Austin all the way to the fringes of Fort Worth. Much of his old base was placed in the newly created 35th district, a majority-Hispanic district stretching from San Antonio to eastern Austin. Doggett's home was approximately five blocks east of the 35th. It appeared that the Republican-controlled state legislature had gerrymandered the district by packing as many Democrats in the San Antonio-Austin corridor into it as possible.

Doggett accused the Republicans of wanting to make it difficult, if not impossible, for an Anglo Democrat to be elected to Congress from Texas, saying, "The Republican Party is determined to make the Democratic Party a party of minorities—that is what this is about, as well." He added that the Republicans were deliberately trying to reduce Austin's clout in Congress by "deny[ing] the capital city an opportunity to have a district that reflects the capital city." He was faced with the choice between running in the reconfigured 25th or moving, joking that he would live in a Winnebago to be able to run in the newly created 35th.

Doggett was set to face State Representative Joaquin Castro in the 35th district primary election. The race was described as the biggest threat to Doggett's survival yet, with Castro seen as a "rising star" in the Democratic party. Doggett accused Castro of working alongside Republicans throughout the redistricting process. The Republican House Redistricting Committee later said that any discussions with Castro took place after the area for the district was decided. Castro opted to run in the neighboring 20th district after its incumbent, Charlie Gonzalez, announced his retirement.

Doggett eventually decided to run in the 35th district, facing Bexar County assessor Sylvia Romo. Before the primary, he said that he would move into the district if he won. Political commentators suggested that Romo had the district numbers in her favor, but was attempting the difficult leap from local office to Congress, while Doggett had a huge amount of funding. Doggett stressed his long tenure as a progressive Democrat, saying he wanted to "stoutly defend Social Security, Medicare, and national health care", and also touted his strong support for higher education programs and public education. By contrast, Romo's campaign stressed her tax knowledge and CPA license, focusing on her potential to help with Congressional tax reform and economic growth.

Doggett won the primary with 73.2% of the vote. He performed strongly in San Antonio, an area he had never before represented. The district is so heavily Democratic that he was heavily favored to win the general election in November. He easily defeated Republican nominee, former San Marcos Mayor Susan Narvaiz, in the general election to become the first Anglo Democrat to represent a significant portion of San Antonio since Chick Kazen left office in 1985.

Doggett won his 12th House term in 2016. With 124,612 votes (63.1%), he again defeated Narvaiz, who polled 62,384 (31.6%). Two other contenders held the remaining 5.4% of the vote.
 * 2016

2022

Texas's population growth resulted in its gaining two congressional seats after the 2020 census. In October 2021, Doggett announced he would run for reelection in the state's new 37th district rather than the 35th. Austin had been split between five districts on the previous congressional map, and Republican members of Congress who represented the area began facing closer reelection margins later in the decade due to the city's continued population growth and overwhelmingly Democratic voting patterns. Republican state legislators drew a new district almost entirely within Travis County to bolster Republican margins in surrounding districts. It closely resembles the area Doggett represented for his first five terms. Doggett's decision to run in the 37th district created a vacancy in the 35th, which runs along Interstate 35 from Austin to San Antonio. Both seats are overwhelmingly Democratic, and the winner of the Democratic primary in the 35th district, Greg Casar, was easily elected in the general election. Doggett won the 37th just as easily.

Tenure
Described as an "endangered species", Doggett was one of only three white male Democratic House members from Texas in the 113th Congress (the others being Gene Green and Beto O'Rourke) in a state with mostly Republicans and minority members of the Democratic Party. Since Green's and O'Rourke's retirements after the 2018 election, Doggett is the only white male Democrat representing Texas in Congress. He is one of the most liberal white Democrats from a Southern district, and one of the most liberal people ever to represent Texas in Congress. David Hawkings of Roll Call described his tax and environmental policies as "muscular progressivism".

Doggett was a frequent critic of former Speaker Newt Gingrich while allying with David Bonior, the Democratic whip, when Bonior was leading "an effort to diminish Gingrich's power by raising continual questions about his ethics." He has been a close ally of Nancy Pelosi. In 2002, he supported her successful bid for Democratic leader over fellow Texan Martin Frost, a more moderate candidate.

On the local level, Doggett helped ensure the development of the Austin Outpatient Clinic, which opened in 2011 as the largest veterans' clinic of its kind in the country. In 2014, he secured passage of legislation to expand the Missions National Park and supported it being named a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Doggett has long supported more open government, and is also a leading advocate for campaign finance reform. On the Ways and Means Committee, he has sought to close many overseas tax shelters. Doggett has authored legislation to create tax incentives for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles and to create a nationwide Silver Alert system. From 2011 to 2016, he served as ranking member of the Human Resources Subcommittee and in 2017 became ranking member of the Tax Policy Subcommittee. His priorities there included education, health care, preventing child abuse, reducing prescription drug prices, fighting poverty, and eliminating multinational tax shelters and loopholes.

On July 2, 2024, Doggett became the first sitting Democrat in Congress to openly call for President Joe Biden to withdraw from the 2024 United States presidential election after the first presidential debate, in which many perceived Biden performed poorly in, causing many Democrats to start being concerned about Biden's age and cognitive ability. Democrats became doubtful of his ability to defeat former President Donald Trump in the general election.

Political positions
Doggett supports legalization of abortion. In 2003, he voted against a bill that would have banned all late-term procedures called partial-birth abortions. He was given a 100% by the NARAL. He voted in favor of a bill to provide federal funding for embryonic stem cell research in 2007.
 * Abortion

Doggett supports environmental preservation. He is one of the leading opponents in the House of drilling for oil in the Arctic National Wildlife Reserve in Alaska. The League of Conservation Voters gave Doggett a 100% rating, an indication that he supports the group's interpretation of environmental preservation. In the 110th Congress (2007–08), he wrote climate change legislation that would have gone further to reduce greenhouse gases than bills his party's leaders supported.
 * Environment

In June 2009, Doggett voted for the American Clean Energy and Security Act, a bill that would have established an emissions trading system for American producers of carbon dioxide. He said, "It has been a difficult and significant decision". "I just decided that I will have a better chance to make changes later in the process if I acted in good faith now. But don't think this means I'm signing off on the conference report", he added.

In 2018, Doggett was rated 100% by the group Clean Water Action.

Doggett voted against the Federal Marriage Amendment in the 109th Congress. He voted against HR 4380 and HR 2587, bills that would have banned adoption by same-sex couples. In 1996, Doggett voted for the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA), but in 2011 he co-sponsored the Respect for Marriage Act, which would repeal DOMA.
 * Gay rights

Doggett introduced legislation focused on restricting American companies from using overseas strategies to reduce their corporate tax rates. When Obama unveiled his plan in May 2009 to significantly change how U.S.-based multinationals are taxed, it included aspects of Doggett's proposals to crack down on tax dodgers. He voted against the 2010 tax compromise, criticizing the renewal of the Bush tax cuts, saying "This bill is largely a mishmash of rejected Republican ideas that cost too much to accomplish too little." He led a group of Democrats who "criticized the inclusion of a Social Security payroll tax reduction, saying it would endanger the soundness of the program."
 * Taxes

In 2010, Doggett was responsible for an amendment to an education jobs bill that would mandate that Texas keep the same amount of education funding for three years in order to receive $832 million in federal money. Rick Perry called it "an unconstitutional anti-Texas amendment" and later filed a lawsuit after the Department of Education declined the application for funds.

In 2015, Doggett introduced legislation to close a loophole that allows tax writeoffs for senior executive bonuses, calling it "a perverse incentive for companies: the more you pay your executives, the less you'll pay in taxes."

Doggett has backed bills to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and supports cap-and-trade as well as clean technologies. He supported the 2009 climate-change bill, "despite claiming it didn't do enough to protect the environment." He said it stripped the EPA of too much power and was too beneficial to coal plants and "other polluters." Doggett supports auctioning carbon allowances, and has worked to make legislation usually associated with the House Ways and Means Committee to be associated with the Energy and Commerce Committee.
 * Energy

In June 2015, Doggett voted against fast-track Trade Promotion Authority, calling it a "charter for corporate America rather than a high-level trade agreement." He criticized the U.S. Trade Representative for failing to enforce labor and environmental standards. "Usually, the reason that USTR fails is that it doesn't really try," he said. 'Asleep at the Wheel' is a great Texas swing band, but it is a horrible philosophy for trade law enforcement."

In 2015, Doggett's continued interest in international affairs was reflected in his support for the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA), the Iran nuclear deal. Together with Representatives David Price and Jan Schakowsky, Doggett organized a successful whip effort to ensure Congress did not obstruct nuclear negotiations with Iran.

In March 2010, Doggett voted for the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act. Before his vote, he cited concerns that the bill did not include enough affordability, insurance competition provisions, and consumer protection provisions. Originally an advocate of a public option, he conceded the option in the final vote.
 * Health care

In 2015, Congress passed Doggett's NOTICE Act, which ensures that hospitalized seniors are notified whether they are in outpatient observation or inpatient care, saving them the sticker shock from realizing Medicare may not cover their skilled nursing facility care as expected. Doggett sponsored the Medicare Identity Theft Prevention Act, which was enacted in 2015 and protects seniors from identity theft by removing Social Security numbers from Medicare cards. Another of Doggett's sponsored bills, the Ensuring Access to Clinical Trials Act, was enacted that same year. It allows patients with rare diseases to receive some compensation for clinical trial participation, without that compensation counting toward income eligibility limits for Social Security income or Medicaid.

Doggett has said Republicans in Congress and "ideological groups that have never accepted the idea of social insurance" pose a greater threat to Social Security than the country's aging population.

Doggett founded the House Prescription Drug Task Force to tackle the cost of prescription drugs.

Doggett co-sponsored the Medicare for All Act of 2019.

In August 2009, a "rally" against Obamacare broke out after Doggett said that he would support it even if his constituents opposed it. The protesters, who chanted "just say no", were later criticized by Doggett, who called them a "mob" and "extremists", and said the group was part of the "party of no." Of the situation, he said: "Their fanatical insistence on repealing Social Security and Medicare is not just about halting health care reform but rolling back 75 years of progress." Doggett said he was committed to individual choices.
 * Criticism of healthcare opponents

Doggett reportedly tried to answer questions, but felt the demonstrators opposed all government programs, including Social Security and Medicare, in addition to the health care plan. He said that "[i]n Texas, not only with the weather but with the politics, it is pretty hardball around here ... I have a pretty thick skin about all of this. But this really goes over the line.'"

Doggett supports a guest worker program for undocumented immigrants. In 2004, he voted against a bill that would have required hospitals to report undocumented immigrants who received hospital treatment to the Department of Justice. The Federation for American Immigration Reform (FAIR), an anti-immigration organization classified by the Southern Poverty Law Center as a hate group, gave Doggett a score of 0% – indicating the percentage of times he voted in favor of FAIR's positions – in 2003.
 * Immigration

Doggett also supports the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) program, which grants undocumented immigrants brought to the U.S. at a young age, known as "Dreamers", access to work permits and deportation relief.

Doggett was one of the leading opponents of the authorization of the Iraq War in 2003 and called for a timetable for U.S. troops pulling out of Iraq. On May 24, 2007, he was one of 140 Democrats and two Republicans to vote against HR 2206, a bill that would provide emergency supplemental appropriations for funding the war, and in 2009 he was one of only 30 representatives to vote against HR 2346, which provided funding to continue war.
 * Iraq

In 2009, as part of the Obama administration's American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, Doggett authored the American Opportunity Tax Credit, which provides a refundable credit for some tuition and related expenses.
 * Education

In January 2013, Doggett passed a bill into law setting up a national commission to examine ways to reduce the number of children who die of abuse and neglect. More children die in Texas of abuse and neglect than in any other state. The tax and spending deal approved that month to avoid a so-called "fiscal cliff" included an extension of a higher-education tax credit he had proposed. He also worked with Representative Sam Johnson to pass a bill through the House in December 2012 to authorize the phased removal of Social Security numbers from Medicare cards to crack down on identity theft.
 * Other social service issues

Doggett was a vocal critic of President Donald Trump, skipping his inauguration to speak at the Women's March at the State Capitol in Austin, which observers described as the largest protest in Texas history. He has played a leading role in seeking disclosure of Trump's tax returns and in opposing the repeal of the Affordable Health Care Act. Doggett also sponsored a resolution to formally censure Trump for his failure regarding violence at Charlottesville, Virginia.
 * Trump administration

In 2023, Doggett was among 56 Democrats to vote in favor of H.Con.Res. 21 which directed President Joe Biden to remove U.S. troops from Syria within 180 days.
 * Syria

Doggett voted to provide Israel with financial support in the 2023 Israel-Hamas war. He has since criticized Israel and U.S. policy for failing to protect civilians in Gaza.
 * Israel

Committee assignments

 * Committee on Ways and Means
 * Subcommittee on Health (chair)
 * Select Revenue Measures Subcommittee
 * Joint Committee on Taxation
 * House Budget Committee

Caucus memberships

 * Congressional Asian Pacific American Caucus
 * House Songwriters Caucus (co-chair)
 * Congressional Pediatric and Adult Hydrocephalus Caucus(co-chair)
 * United States Congressional International Conservation Caucus
 * Congressional Arts Caucus
 * Safe Climate Caucus
 * Congressional Progressive Caucus
 * House Baltic Caucus
 * Afterschool Caucuses
 * Congressional NextGen 9-1-1 Caucus
 * Congressional Coalition on Adoption Caucus

Personal life
Doggett is married to Libby Doggett (née Belk), with whom he has two children.

The Sunlight Project estimates his average net worth in 2006 was over $13 million. In 2008, the Sunlight Foundation reported that of the 435 House members, Doggett has the 11th-highest amount of investment in oil stocks.

Doggett is a Methodist.

title: Lloyd Doggett


text:
User:Tmbrunton

Tmbrunton, England, UK. Born 1970s. Connoisseur of fine films, books and a few other things.

When I think of more things to say about myself and the things I like, I'll add them straight away.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Tmbrunton


text:
International Examiner

The International Examiner is a free monthly Asian American newspaper and media nonprofit organization based in Seattle, Washington's historic Chinatown International District (CID). It was founded in 1974 by Gerald Yuasa and Lawrence Imamura to serve what the founders thought were the business interests of the Asian American community in Seattle's CID. In 2023, the IE published its 50th volume, identifying five areas of coverage: public safety, the arts, housing, transportation, cultural preservation, and commerce. With its print editions distributed across Seattle, and articles published on a rolling basis online, its total monthly readership is estimated at 20,000.

In 1975, the Examiner was purchased by the Alaska Cannery Workers Association (ACWA) for $1 and became an activist, community-based newspaper. Although the paper became independent three years later, it continued the tradition of community activism firmly established under the ACWA. As such, its editors were also community activists and organizers, rather than traditional journalists.

Today, the International Examiner is the oldest Asian American newspaper in the Pacific Northwest and the oldest continuously publishing pan-Asian newspaper in the country. The IE is a registered 501 (c)(3) non-profit organization governed by a volunteer Board of Directors.

title: International Examiner


text:
The Warlord Chronicles

The Warlord Chronicles or The Warlord Trilogy is a series of three novels about Arthurian Britain written by Bernard Cornwell. The story is written as a mixture of historical fiction and Arthurian legend. The books were originally published between 1995 and 1997 by Penguin and Michael Joseph in the United Kingdom and by St. Martin's Press in the United States. It has been adapted for television as The Winter King.

Books in the trilogy

 * The Winter King (1995)
 * Enemy of God (1996)
 * Excalibur (1997)

Treatment of legend and history
"Once upon a time, in a land that was called Britain, these things happened ... well, maybe. The Warlord Trilogy is my attempt to tell the story of Arthur, 'Rex Quondam Rexque Futurus', the Once and Future King, although I doubt he ever was a king. I suspect he was a great warlord of the sixth century. Nennius, who was one of the earliest historians to mention Arthur, calls him the 'dux bellorum' - leader of battles or warlord."

- Bernard Cornwell

The story is written as if it took place in Dark Age Britain as described in the original Welsh legends, with appropriate types of technology, culture, warfare, and attitudes. Cornwell also weaves later additions such as Merlin and Lancelot into the plot.

Like other "historical" takes on the Arthurian legends, the series postulates that post-Roman Britain was a difficult time for the native Britons, who were threatened by invasion from the Anglo-Saxons in the East and raids from the Irish in the West. At the same time, they suffered internal power struggles between their petty kingdoms. Like Marion Zimmer Bradley in her novel The Mists of Avalon, Cornwell also presumes friction occurred between the old Druidic religion and Christianity.

The protagonist of the series is Derfel Cadarn (pronounced Derv-el), based on the part-legendary Saint Derfel and on Bedivere. Cornwell's Derfel is a Saxon brought up as a Briton by Merlin, the greatest of all Druids. In the course of the story, he becomes a great warrior and one of Arthur's warlords in his war against the Saxons. Derfel is one of Arthur's closest advisers and friends, and casts Excalibur into the sea after the Battle of Camlann. Merlin, meanwhile, concerns himself with trying to restore the old gods of Britain.

Other characters from the Arthurian mythos are given significant twists. For example, Lancelot, always portrayed as the most virtuous and the mightiest of Arthur's knights, here is depicted as an arrogant, cowardly, and self-serving petty prince, whose legendary feats and martial prowess are crafted through the songs of the bards and a fictional reputation that he himself carefully cultivates. Sagramor is a Hungarian prince in the Lancelot-Grail Cycle, but is depicted here as a Numidian veteran of the old Roman Army who joined Arthur's service after the collapse of the Empire.

Cornwell portrays Merlin as a lecherous, driven, mischievous, and irreverent druid. His solution to the problem of integrating the magic of the Arthurian mythos in the context of historical fiction is to leave room for the reader to take the "magic" depicted in the story at face value or to interpret it as a mixture of coincidence, psychology, primitive technology, and illusion, which preys on the superstitions, religious fundamentalism, and intolerance of the time.

Reception
The Warlord Chronicles has been acclaimed for both its storytelling qualities and its accuracy in portraying contemporary life. Cornwell himself has said, "I have to confess that of all the books I have written these three are my favourites."

Audiobooks
Isis Audio Books and HarperCollins have published unabridged audiobook recordings of all three novels, read by Edmund Dehn and Jonathan Keeble respectively. Penguin Audiobooks have also published abridged versions of the three novels, read by Tim Pigott-Smith.

Television adaptation
In 2020, Epix announced that a live-action television adaptation of the series, entitled The Winter King, was in development with One Big Picture and Bad Wolf. On April 4, 2022, Bad Wolf announced that Kate Brooke and Ed Whitmore would be the showrunners of the series, that filming would begin in late 2022 in Wales, and that the series would no longer air on Epix. It will be premiere on ITV's new streaming platform ITVX in the United Kingdom.

title: The Warlord Chronicles


text:
Seattle Chinese Post

The Seattle Chinese Post was a weekly Chinese-language newspaper based in Seattle, Washington's International District. It was founded on 1982 by Assunta Ng, also founder of the Northwest Asian Weekly. At the time of its founding, it was the first Chinese-language newspaper published in the Pacific Northwest since 1927.

History
The Seattle Chinese Post was founded by Assunta Ng. It was given its name in December 1981 by community members in the surrounding International District in an "open-naming" contest. Originally headquartered in the Bush Hotel in the International District, The Seattle Chinese Post's first issue was published January 20, 1982. The first issue consisted primarily of advertisements because, at the time, Chinese characters had to be manually typed and typesetters used a bulky and noisy tool imported from Taiwan.

In September 1982, The Seattle Chinese Post expanded its English-language coverage from two articles an issue to a full four-page insert. This insert grew and became The Seattle Chinese Post's sister paper, Northwest Asian Weekly, which was officially launched on February 5, 1983.

In 1985, The Seattle Chinese Post and Northwest Asian Weekly launched the first Seattle Chinese Yellow Pages.

In 1986, Ng's husband, George Liu, joined The Seattle Chinese Post and Northwest Asian Weekly as a full-time manager.

In 1987, The Seattle Chinese Post moved its offices from the Bush Hotel to the former site of the Wing Luke Museum.

On December 29, 2022, the paper announced it will cease print and online operations. Its final print issue was on January 21, 2023. The Northwest Asian Weekly also ceased print but its website will continue to be updated for the foreseeable future.

In September 2023, it was announced The Seattle Chinese Post was to resume publishing articles online on Oct. 5 after the newspaper’s owner Assunta Ng donated it to the Tacoma-based nonprofit Asia Pacific Cultural Center. Three former contributors will write for the website.

Content
The Seattle Chinese Post focuses on covering mainstream news in Chinese.

title: Seattle Chinese Post


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Boden's Mate

Boden's Mate is a checkmating pattern in chess characterized by bishops on two criss-crossing diagonals (for example, bishops on a6 and f4 delivering mate to a king on c8), with possible flight squares for the king being occupied by friendly pieces or under attack by enemy pieces. Most often the checkmated king has castled queenside, and is mated on c8 or c1. Many variants on the mate are seen, for example a king on e8 checkmated by bishops on g6 and a3, and a king on f1 checkmated by bishops on h3 and b6. Often the mate is immediately preceded by a sacrifice that opens up the diagonal on which the bishop delivers checkmate, and the mate is often a pure mate (as is the case for all but one of the examples given here).

The mate is named for Samuel Boden, who played a famous early example of it in Schulder–Boden, London 1853. However, it had been known previously from the game Horwitz–Popert, Hamburg 1844.

History
Boden's Mate is characterized by a king being mated by two bishops on criss-crossing diagonals, with possible flight squares blocked by friendly pieces. Samuel Boden, for whom the mate is named, administered an early example of it in the friendly game Schulder–Boden, London 1853. That game went 1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 d6 3.c3 f5 4.Bc4 Nf6 5.d4 fxe4 6.dxe5 exf3 7.exf6 Qxf6 8.gxf3 Nc6 9.f4 Bd7 10.Be3 0-0-0 11.Nd2 Re8 12.Qf3 Bf5 13.0-0-0? (13.Bd5 is better) 13...d5! 14.Bxd5? (allowing a forced mate; better is 14.Rde1, losing a piece) 14...Qxc3+ 15.bxc3 Ba3#, giving the final checkmate position shown in the diagram.

However, the mate had been known before that from the game Horwitz–Popert, Hamburg 1844 (see diagram). There, Black set a trap with 1...Bb8, which White fell into with 2.Rxd5?. Instead of playing the winning 2...Qxh2+ 3.Qxh2 Rxh2+ 4.Kxh2 c6+ (5.Re5 Nxe5 6.dxe5?? Rxd1) Black blundered with 2...c6??. After that White could not save his rook because of the threatened mate in two. Instead, he surprised Black with 3.Rh5! Qxh5 4.Qxc6+! bxc6 5.Bxa6#.

Typical pattern
Boden's Mate has occurred in many later games, usually, as in the Boden and Horwitz games, after the losing king has castled on the queenside, and the winner sets up the mate by a queen sacrifice on c3 or c6.

Perhaps the most famous example of Boden's Mate is the so-called Peruvian Immortal game, Canal–NN, simultaneous exhibition, Budapest 1934: 1.e4 d5 2.exd5 Qxd5 3.Nc3 Qa5 4.d4 c6 5.Nf3 Bg4 6.Bf4 e6 7.h3 Bxf3 8.Qxf3 Bb4 9.Be2 Nd7 10.a3 0-0-0?? 11.axb4!! Qxa1+ 12.Kd2! Qxh1 13.Qxc6+! bxc6 14.Ba6#.

Atypical patterns
More rarely, Boden's Mate can occur, for example, (a) where a White bishop on g6 delivers mate to a Black king on e8, which is hemmed in by a White bishop on a3, and its own queen on d8 and knight on d7 or (b) where a bishop on h6 delivers mate to a Black king on f8, which is hemmed in by a White bishop on c4, and its own queen on e8 and bishop on e7. An example of the former was Alekhine–Vasic, Banja Luka 1931: 1.e4 e6 2.d4 d5 3.Nc3 Bb4 4.Bd3 Bxc3+? 5.bxc3 h6? 6.Ba3 Nd7 7.Qe2 dxe4 8.Bxe4 Ngf6 9.Bd3 b6??, when White mated with 10.Qxe6+ fxe6 11.Bg6#. An example of the latter occurred in Elyashov–NN, Paris 1948, which illustrates an opening trap arising from From's Gambit. After 1.f4 e5!? 2.fxe5 d6 3.exd6 Bxd6 4.Nf3 g5 5.d4 g4 6.Ng5?! f5 7.e4 Be7? 8.Nh3! gxh3 9.Qh5+ Kf8 10.Bc4 Qe8, White mated with 11.Qh6+! Nxh6 12.Bxh6#.

In a game between two of the strongest players of the nineteenth century, White delivered a Boden's Mate to a king on e7: 1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bb5 Nge7 4.c3 d6 5.d4 Bd7 6.0-0 Ng6 7.Ng5 h6 8.Nxf7 Kxf7 9.Bc4+ Ke7 10.Qh5 Qe8 11.Qg5+! hxg5 12.Bxg5# Zukertort–Anderssen, Breslau 1865. An unusual example of Boden's Mate occurring to a king on d8, and without the winning side having to sacrifice to achieve the mating position, occurred in Pandolfini–NN, 1970, after 1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bb5 a6 4.Ba4 Nf6 5.0-0 Nxe4 6.d4 exd4 7.Re1 d5 8.Nxd4 Bd6 9.Nxc6 Bxh2+ 10.Kh1 Qh4 11.Rxe4+ dxe4 12.Qd8+ Qxd8 13.Nxd8+ Kxd8 14.Kxh2 (So far this is a position known to opening theory from the Riga Variation of the Ruy Lopez. White is considered to have the advantage after 14...Be6 15.Be3.) f5?? 15.Bg5# 1–0.

title: Boden's Mate


text: Category:Hubbard County, Minnesota

title: Category:Hubbard County, Minnesota


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John Ganzoni, 2nd Baron Belstead

John Julian Ganzoni, 2nd Baron Belstead, Baron Ganzoni, (30 September 1932 – 3 December 2005) was a British Conservative politician and peer who served as Leader of the House of Lords under Margaret Thatcher from 1988 to 1990.

Background and education
Ganzoni was the only son of Sir John Ganzoni, a barrister and Conservative MP for Ipswich who was created Baron Belstead in 1938, and his wife Gwendolen Gertrude Turner, daughter of Arthur Turner, of Ipswich. He went to Eton before reading History at Christ Church, Oxford.

Political career
Belstead showed little interest in politics at first, and waited six years after succeeding to the peerage on his father's death in 1958 before making his maiden speech. In 1970, Edward Heath appointed him to become Parliamentary Under-Secretary to Margaret Thatcher at the Department of Education and Science; he was moved in the same rank to the Northern Ireland Office three years later.

When Margaret Thatcher led the Tories back to power in 1979, she sent him to the Home Office. He was then made Minister at the Foreign Office when Lord Carrington and his team resigned after the Falklands invasion. In 1980, he was interviewed by the BBC's Panorama current affairs program about Britain's preparations for a nuclear attack.

He next moved to the Ministry of Fisheries and Food, and went back to the Education Department again before becoming Deputy Leader to William Whitelaw as Leader of the House of Lords. He succeeded Whitelaw in that post in 1988, taking the sinecure post of Lord Privy Seal at the same time.

After losing his Cabinet seat, which he had gained when he became Lord Privy Seal, in 1990 he became Paymaster General and Northern Ireland Minister under John Major, retiring from the Government to become Chairman of the Parole Board in 1992.

In the 1983 New Year Honours, he was sworn of the Privy Council. After the House of Lords Act 1999 removed the automatic right of hereditary peers to sit in the House of Lords, he was created a life peer (an honour given to all former Leaders of the House of Lords) as Baron Ganzoni, of Ipswich in the County of Suffolk on 17 November 1999. He also gave his name to the new "Belstead Centre" at Woodbridge School.

Personal life
Lord Belstead never married. He died in December 2005, aged 73, when both the hereditary peerage and the baronetcy became extinct. He is buried in the churchyard of St Mary's, Great Bealings, Suffolk.

He was an active Freemason and president of the Board of General Purposes for the United Grand Lodge of England. He was appointed to be a Deputy Lieutenant of the County of Suffolk on 2 April 1979.

title: John Ganzoni, 2nd Baron Belstead


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User talk:Tirthajyoti

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Internal ballistics

Internal ballistics (also interior ballistics), a subfield of ballistics, is the study of the propulsion of a projectile.

In guns, internal ballistics covers the time from the propellant's ignition until the projectile exits the gun barrel. The study of internal ballistics is important to designers and users of firearms of all types, from small-bore rifles and pistols, to high-tech artillery.

For rocket-propelled projectiles, internal ballistics covers the period during which a rocket motor is providing thrust.

General concepts
Interior ballistics can be considered in three time periods:
 * Lock time - the time from sear release until the primer is struck
 * Ignition time - the time from when the primer is struck until the projectile starts to move
 * Barrel time - the time from when the projectile starts to move until it exits the barrel.

The burning firearm propellant produces energy in the form of hot gases that raise the chamber pressure which applies a force on the base of the projectile, causing it to accelerate. The chamber pressure depends on the amount of propellant that has burned, the temperature of the gases, and the volume of the chamber. The burn rate of the propellant depends on the chemical make up and shape of the propellant grains. The temperature depends on the energy released and the heat loss to the sides of the barrel and chamber.

As the projectile travels down the barrel, the volume the gas occupies behind the projectile increases. Some energy is lost in deforming the projectile and causing it to spin. There are also frictional losses between the projectile and the barrel. The projectile, as it travels down the barrel, compresses the air in front of it, which adds resistance to its forward motion.

The breech and the barrel must resist the high-pressure gases without damage. Although the pressure initially rises to a high value, the pressure starts dropping when the projectile has traveled some distance down the barrel. Consequently, the muzzle end of the barrel does not need to be as strong as the chamber end.

Mathematical models have been developed for these processes. The four general concepts which are calculated in interior ballistics are:
 * 1) Energy - released by the propellant
 * 2) Motion - the relation between the projectile acceleration and the pressure on its base.
 * 3) Burning rate - a function of the propellant surface area and an empirically derived burning rate coefficient which is unique to the propellant.
 * 4) Form function - a burning rate modifying coefficient that includes the shape of the propellant.

History
Internal ballistics was not scientifically based prior to the mid-1800s. Barrels and actions were built strong enough to survive a known overload (Proof test). Muzzle velocity was surmised from the distance the projectile traveled.

In the 1800s test barrels began to be instrumented. Holes were drilled in the barrel and fitted with standardized steel pistons which exerted pressure which compressed standardized copper cylinders when the firearm discharged. The reduction in the copper cylinder length is used as an indication of peak pressure, known as "Copper Units of Pressure", or "CUP" for high pressure firearms. Similar standards were applied to firearms with lower peak pressures, typically common handguns, with test cylinder pellets made of more easily deformed lead cylinders, hence "Lead Units of Pressure", or "LUP". The measurement only indicated the maximum pressure that was reached at that point in the barrel. Piezoelectric strain gauges were introduced in the 1960's, allowing instantaneous pressures to be measured without destructive pressure ports. Instrumented projectiles were developed by the Army Research Laboratory that measures the pressure at the base of the projectile and acceleration.

Priming methods
Methods of igniting the propellant evolved over time. A small hole (a touch hole) was drilled into the breech, into which a propellant was then poured, and an external flame or spark applied (see matchlock and flintlock). Percussion caps were and self-contained cartridges have primers that detonate after mechanical deformation, igniting the propellant.

Black powder
Gunpowder (Black powder) is a finely ground, pressed and granulated mechanical pyrotechnic mixture of sulfur, charcoal, and potassium nitrate or sodium nitrate. It can be produced in a range of grain sizes. The size and shape of the grains can increase or decrease the relative surface area, and change the burning rate significantly. The burning rate of black powder is relatively insensitive to pressure, meaning it will burn quickly and predictably even without confinement, making it also suitable for use as a low explosive. It has a very slow decomposition rate, and therefore a very low brisance. It is not, in the strictest sense of the term, an explosive, but a "deflagrant", as it does not detonate but decomposes by deflagration due to its subsonic mechanism of flame-front propagation.

Nitrocellulose (single-base propellants)
Nitrocellulose or "guncotton" is formed by the action of nitric acid on cellulose fibers. It is a highly combustible fibrous material that deflagrates rapidly when heat is applied. It also burns very cleanly, burning almost entirely to gaseous components at high temperatures with little smoke or solid residue. Gelatinised nitrocellulose is a plastic, which can be formed into cylinders, tubes, balls, or flakes known as single-base propellants. The size and shape of the propellant grains can increase or decrease the relative surface area, and change the burn rate significantly. Additives and coatings can be added to the propellant to further modify the burn rate. Normally, very fast powders are used for light-bullet or low-velocity pistols and shotguns, medium-rate powders for magnum pistols and light rifle rounds, and slow powders for large-bore heavy rifle rounds.

Double-base propellants
Nitroglycerin can be added to nitrocellulose to form "double-base propellants". Nitrocellulose desensitizes nitroglycerin to prevent detonation in propellant-sized grains, (see dynamite), and the nitroglycerin gelatinises the nitrocellulose and increases the energy. Double-base powders burn faster than single-base powders of the same shape, though not as cleanly, and burn rate increases with nitroglycerin content.

In artillery, Ballistite or Cordite has been used in the form of rods, tubes, slotted-tube, perforated-cylinder or multi-tubular; the geometry being chosen to provide the required burning characteristics. (Round balls or rods, for example, are "degressive-burning" because their production of gas decreases with their surface area as the balls or rods burn smaller; thin flakes are "neutral-burning," since they burn on their flat surfaces until the flake is completely consumed. The longitudally perforated or multi-perforated cylinders used in large, long-barreled rifles or cannon are "progressive-burning;" the burning surface increases as the inside diameter of the holes enlarges, giving sustained burning and a long, continuous push on the projectile to produce higher velocity without increasing the peak pressure unduly. Progressive-burning powder compensates somewhat for the pressure drop as the projectile accelerates down the bore and increases the volume behind it.)

Solid propellants (caseless ammunition)
"Caseless ammunition" incorporates propellant cast as a single solid grain with the priming compound placed in a hollow at the base and the bullet attached to the front. Since the single propellant grain is so large (most smokeless powders have grain sizes around 1 mm, but a caseless grain will be perhaps 7 mm diameter and 15 mm long), the relative burn rate must be much higher. To reach this rate of burning, caseless propellants often use moderated explosives, such as RDX.

The major advantages of a successful caseless round would be elimination of the need to extract and eject the spent cartridge case, permitting higher rates of fire and a simpler mechanism, and also reduced ammunition weight by eliminating the weight (and cost) of the brass or steel case.

While there is at least one experimental military rifle (the H&K G11), and one commercial rifle (the Voere VEC-91), that use caseless rounds, they have met with little success. One other commercial rifle was the Daisy VL rifle made by the Daisy Air Rifle Co. and chambered for .22 caliber caseless ammunition that was ignited by a hot blast of compressed air from the lever used to compress a strong spring like for an air rifle. The caseless ammunition is of course not reloadable, since there is no casing left after firing the bullet, and the exposed propellant makes the rounds less durable. Also, the case in a standard cartridge serves as a seal, keeping gas from escaping the breech. Caseless arms must use a more complex self-sealing breech, which increases the design and manufacturing complexity. Another unpleasant problem, common to all rapid-firing arms but particularly problematic for those firing caseless rounds, is the problem of rounds "cooking off". This problem is caused by residual heat from the chamber heating the round in the chamber to the point where it ignites, causing an unintentional discharge.

To minimize the risk of cartridge cook-off, machineguns can be designed to fire from an open bolt, with the round not chambered until the trigger is pulled, and so there is no chance for the round to cook off before the operator is ready. Such weapons could use caseless ammunition effectively. Open-bolt designs are generally undesirable for anything but machine guns; the mass of the bolt moving forward causes the gun to lurch in reaction, which significantly reduces the accuracy of the gun, which is generally not an issue for machinegun fire.

Load density and consistency
Load density is the percentage of the space in the cartridge case that is filled with powder. In general, loads close to 100% density (or even loads where seating the bullet in the case compresses the powder) ignite and burn more consistently than lower-density loads. In cartridges surviving from the black-powder era (examples being .45 Colt, .45-70 Government), the case is much larger than is needed to hold the maximum charge of high-density smokeless powder. This extra room allows the powder to shift in the case, piling up near the front or back of the case and potentially causing significant variations in burning rate, as powder near the rear of the case will ignite rapidly but powder near the front of the case will ignite later. This change has less impact with fast powders. Such high-capacity, low-density cartridges generally deliver best accuracy with the fastest appropriate powder, although this keeps the total energy low due to the sharp high-pressure peak.

Magnum pistol cartridges reverse this power/accuracy tradeoff by using lower-density, slower-burning powders that give high load density and a broad pressure curve. The downside is the increased recoil and muzzle blast from the high powder mass, and high muzzle pressure.

Most rifle cartridges have a high load density with the appropriate powders. Rifle cartridges tend to be bottlenecked, with a wide base narrowing down to a smaller diameter, to hold a light, high-velocity bullet. These cases are designed to hold a large charge of low-density powder, for an even broader pressure curve than a magnum pistol cartridge. These cases require the use of a long rifle barrel to extract their full efficiency, although they are also chambered in rifle-like pistols (single-shot or bolt-action) with barrels of 10 to 15 inches (25 to 38 cm).

Straight vs bottleneck
Straight walled cases were the standard from the beginnings of cartridge arms. With the low burning speed of black powder, the best efficiency was achieved with large, heavy bullets, so the bullet was the largest practical diameter. The large diameter allowed a short, stable bullet with high weight, and the maximum practical bore volume to extract the most energy possible in a given length barrel. There were a few cartridges that had long, shallow tapers, but these were generally an attempt to use an existing cartridge to fire a smaller bullet with a higher velocity and lower recoil. With the advent of smokeless powders, it was possible to generate far higher velocities by using a slow smokeless powder in a large volume case, pushing a small, light bullet. The odd, highly tapered 8 mm Lebel, made by necking down an older 11 mm black-powder cartridge, was introduced in 1886, and it was soon followed by the 7.92×57mm Mauser and 7×57mm Mauser military rounds, and the commercial .30-30 Winchester, all of which were new designs built to use smokeless powder. All of these have a distinct shoulder that closely resembles modern cartridges, and with the exception of the Lebel they are still chambered in modern firearms even though the cartridges are over a century old.

Aspect ratio and consistency
When selecting a rifle cartridge for maximum accuracy, a short, fat cartridge with very little case taper may yield higher efficiency and more consistent velocity than a long, thin cartridge with a lot of case taper (part of the reason for a bottle-necked design). Given current trends towards shorter and fatter cases, such as the new Winchester Super Short Magnum cartridges, it appears the ideal might be a case approaching spherical inside. Target and vermin hunting rounds require the greatest accuracy, so their cases tend to be short, fat, and nearly untapered with sharp shoulders on the case. Short, fat cases also allow short-action weapons to be made lighter and stronger for the same level of performance. The trade-off for this performance is fat rounds which take up more space in a magazine, sharp shoulders that do not feed as easily out of a magazine, and less reliable extraction of the spent round. For these reasons, when reliable feeding is more important than accuracy, such as with military rifles, longer cases with shallower shoulder angles are favored. There has been a long-term trend however, even among military weapons, towards shorter, fatter cases. The current 7.62×51mm NATO case replacing the longer .30-06 Springfield is a good example, as is the new 6.5 Grendel cartridge designed to increase the performance of the AR-15 family of rifles and carbines. Nevertheless, there is significantly more to accuracy and cartridge lethality than the length and diameter of the case, and the 7.62×51mm NATO has a smaller case capacity than the .30-06 Springfield, reducing the amount of propellant that can be used, directly reducing the bullet weight and muzzle velocity combination that contributes to lethality, (as detailed in the published cartridge specifications linked herein for comparison). The 6.5 Grendel, on the other hand, is capable of firing a significantly heavier bullet (see link) than the 5.56 NATO out of the AR-15 family of weapons, with only a slight decrease in muzzle velocity, perhaps providing a more advantageous performance tradeoff.

Static friction and ignition
Since the burning rate of smokeless powder varies directly with the pressure, the initial pressure buildup,(i.e. "the shot-start pressure"), has a significant effect on the final velocity, especially in large cartridges with very fast powders and relatively light weight projectiles. In small caliber firearms, the friction holding the bullet in the case, determines how soon after ignition the bullet moves, and since the motion of the bullet increases the volume and drops the pressure, a difference in friction can change the slope of the pressure curve. In general, a tight fit is desired, to the extent of crimping the bullet into the case. In straight-walled rimless cases, such as the .45 ACP, an aggressive crimp is not possible, since the case is held in the chamber by the mouth of the case, but sizing the case to allow a tight interference fit with the bullet, can give the desired result. In larger caliber firearms, the shot start pressure is often determined by the force required to initially engrave the projectile driving band into the start of the barrel rifling; smoothbore guns, which do not have rifling, achieve shot start pressure by initially driving the projectile into a "forcing cone" that provides resistance as it compresses the projectile obturation ring.

Kinetic friction
The bullet must tightly fit the bore to seal the high pressure of the burning gunpowder. This tight fit results in a large frictional force. The friction of the bullet in the bore does have a slight impact on the final velocity, but that is generally not much of a concern. Of greater concern is the heat that is generated due to the friction. At velocities of about 300 m/s, lead begins to melt, and deposit in the bore. This lead build-up constricts the bore, increasing the pressure and decreasing the accuracy of subsequent rounds, and is difficult to scrub out without damaging the bore. Rounds, used at velocities up to 460 m/s, can use wax lubricants on the bullet to reduce lead build-up. At velocities over 460 m/s, nearly all bullets are jacketed in copper, or a similar alloy that is soft enough not to wear on the barrel, but melts at a high enough temperature to reduce build-up in the bore. Copper build-up does begin to occur in rounds that exceed 760 m/s, and a common solution is to impregnate the surface of the bullet with molybdenum disulfide lubricant. This reduces copper build-up in the bore, and results in better long-term accuracy. Large caliber projectiles also employ copper driving bands for rifled barrels for spin-stabilized projectiles; however, fin-stabilized projectiles fired from both rifle and smoothbore barrels, such as the APFSDS anti-armor projectiles, employ nylon obturation rings that are sufficient to seal high pressure propellant gasses and also minimize in-bore friction, providing a small boost to muzzle velocity.

The role of inertia
In the first few centimeters of travel down the bore, the bullet reaches a significant percentage of its final velocity, even for high-capacity rifles, with slow burning powder. The acceleration is on the order of tens of thousands of gravities, so even a projectile as light as 40 gr can provide over 1000 N of resistance due to inertia. Changes in bullet mass, therefore, have a huge impact on the pressure curves of smokeless powder cartridges, unlike black-powder cartridges. The loading or reloading of smokeless cartridges thus requires high-precision equipment, and carefully measured tables of load data for given cartridges, powders, and bullet weights.

Pressure-velocity relationships
Energy is imparted to the bullet in a firearm by the pressure of gases produced by burning propellant. While higher pressures produce higher velocities, pressure duration is also important. Peak pressure may represent only a small fraction of the time the bullet is accelerating. The entire duration of the bullet's travel through the barrel must be considered.

Peak vs area

Energy is the ability to do work on an object. Work is force applied over a distance. The total energy imparted to a bullet is indicated by the area under a curve with the y-axis being force (i.e., the pressure exerted on the base of the bullet multiplied by the area of the base of the bullet) and the x-axis being distance. Increasing the energy of the bullet requires increasing the area under that curve, either by raising the pressure, or increasing the distance the bullet travels under pressure. Pressure is limited by the strength of the firearm, and duration is limited by barrel length.

Propellant design
Propellants are matched to firearm strength, chamber volume and barrel length; and bullet material, weight and dimensions. The rate of gas generation is proportional to the surface area of burning propellant grains in accordance with Piobert's Law. Smokeless propellant reactions occur in a series of zones or phases as the reaction proceeds from the surface into the solid. The deepest portion of the solid experiencing heat transfer melts and begins phase transition from solid to gas in a foam zone. The gaseous propellant decomposes into simpler molecules in a surrounding fizz zone. Endothermic transformations in the foam zone and fizz zone require energy initially provided by the primer and subsequently released in a luminous outer flame zone where the simpler gas molecules react to form conventional combustion products like steam and carbon monoxide.

The heat transfer rate of smokeless propellants increases with pressure, resulting in the rate of gas generation from a given grain surface area increased at higher pressures. Accelerating gas generation from fast burning propellants may rapidly create a destructively high pressure spike before bullet movement increases reaction volume. Conversely, propellants designed for a minimum heat transfer pressure may cease decomposition into gaseous reactants if bullet movement decreases pressure before a slow burning propellant has been consumed. Unburned propellant grains may remain in the barrel if the energy-releasing flame zone cannot be sustained in the resultant absence of gaseous reactants from the inner zones.

Propellant burnout
Another issue to consider, when choosing a powder burn rate, is the time the powder takes to completely burn vs. the time the bullet spends in the barrel. Looking carefully at the left graph, there is a change in the curve, at about 0.8 ms. This is the point at which the powder is completely burned, and no new gas is created. With a faster powder, burnout occurs earlier, and with the slower powder, it occurs later. Propellant that is unburned when the bullet reaches the muzzle is wasted — it adds no energy to the bullet, but it does add to the recoil and muzzle blast. For maximum power, the powder should burn until the bullet is just short of the muzzle.

Since smokeless powders burn, not detonate, the reaction can only take place on the surface of the powder. Smokeless powders come in a variety of shapes, which serve to determine how fast they burn, and also how the burn rate changes as the powder burns. The simplest shape is a ball powder, which is in the form of round or slightly flattened spheres. Ball powder has a comparatively small surface-area-to-volume ratio, so it burns comparatively slowly, and as it burns, its surface area decreases. This means as the powder burns, the burn rate slows down.

To some degree, this can be offset by the use of a retardant coating on the surface of the powder, which slows the initial burn rate and flattens out the rate of change. Ball powders are generally formulated as slow pistol powders, or fast rifle powders.

Flake powders are in the form of flat, round flakes which have a relatively high surface-area-to-volume ratio. Flake powders have a nearly constant rate of burn, and are usually formulated as fast pistol or shotgun powders. The last common shape is an extruded powder, which is in the form of a cylinder, sometimes hollow. Extruded powders generally have a lower ratio of nitroglycerin to nitrocellulose, and are often progressive burning — that is, they burn at a faster rate as they burn. Extruded powders are generally medium to slow rifle powders.

Bore diameter and energy transfer
A firearm, in many ways, is like a piston engine on the power stroke. There is a certain amount of high-pressure gas available, and energy is extracted from it by making the gas move a piston — in this case, the projectile is the piston. The swept volume of the piston determines how much energy can be extracted from the given gas. The more volume that is swept by the piston, the lower is the exhaust pressure (in this case, the muzzle pressure). Any remaining pressure at the muzzle or at the end of the engine's power stroke represents lost energy.

To extract the maximum amount of energy, then, the swept volume is maximized. This can be done in one of two ways — increasing the length of the barrel or increasing the diameter of the projectile. Increasing the barrel length will increase the swept volume linearly, while increasing the diameter will increase the swept volume as the square of the diameter. Since barrel length is limited by practical concerns to about arm's length for a rifle and much shorter for a handgun, increasing bore diameter is the normal way to increase the efficiency of a cartridge. The limit to bore diameter is generally the sectional density of the projectile (see external ballistics). Larger-diameter bullets of the same weight have much more drag, and so they lose energy more quickly after exiting the barrel. In general, most handguns use bullets between .355 (9 mm) and .45 (11.5 mm) caliber, while most rifles generally range from .223 (5.56 mm) to .32 (8 mm) caliber. There are many exceptions, of course, but bullets in the given ranges provide the best general-purpose performance. Handguns use the larger-diameter bullets for greater efficiency in short barrels, and tolerate the long-range velocity loss since handguns are seldom used for long-range shooting. Handguns designed for long-range shooting are generally closer to shortened rifles than to other handguns.

Ratio of propellant to projectile mass
Another issue, when choosing or developing a cartridge, is the issue of recoil. The recoil is not just the reaction from the projectile being launched, but also from the powder gas, which will exit the barrel with a velocity even higher than that of the bullet. For handgun cartridges, with heavy bullets and light powder charges (a 9×19mm, for example, might use 5 gr of powder, and a 115 gr bullet), the powder recoil is not a significant force; for a rifle cartridge (a .22-250 Remington, using 40 gr of powder and a 40 gr bullet), the powder can be the majority of the recoil force.

There is a solution to the recoil issue, though it is not without cost. A muzzle brake or recoil compensator is a device which redirects the powder gas at the muzzle, usually up and back. This acts like a rocket, pushing the muzzle down and forward. The forward push helps negate the feel of the projectile recoil by pulling the firearm forwards. The downward push, on the other hand, helps counteract the rotation imparted by the fact that most firearms have the barrel mounted above the center of gravity. Overt combat guns, large-bore high-powered rifles, long-range handguns chambered for rifle ammunition, and action-shooting handguns designed for accurate rapid fire, all benefit from muzzle brakes.

The high-powered firearms use the muzzle brake mainly for recoil reduction, which reduces the battering of the shooter by the severe recoil. The action-shooting handguns redirect all the energy up to counteract the rotation of the recoil, and make following shots faster by leaving the gun on target. The disadvantage of the muzzle brake is a longer, heavier barrel, and a large increase in sound levels and flash behind the muzzle of the rifle. Shooting firearms without muzzle brakes and without hearing protection can eventually damage the operator's hearing; however, shooting rifles with muzzle brakes - with or without hearing protection - causes permanent ear damage. (See muzzle brake for more on the disadvantages of muzzle brakes.)

Powder-to-projectile-weight ratio also touches on the subject of efficiency. In the case of the .22-250 Remington, more energy goes into propelling the powder gas than goes into propelling the bullet. The .22-250 pays for this by requiring a large case, with much powder, all for a fairly small gain in velocity and energy over other .22 caliber cartridges.

Accuracy and bore characteristics
Nearly all small bore firearms, with the exception of shotguns, have rifled barrels. The rifling imparts a spin on the bullet, which keeps it from tumbling in flight. The rifling is usually in the form of sharp edged grooves cut as helices along the axis of the bore, anywhere from 2 to 16 in number. The areas between the grooves are known as lands.

Another system, polygonal rifling, gives the bore a polygonal cross section. Polygonal rifling is not very common, used by only a few European manufacturers as well as the American gun manufacturer Kahr Arms. The companies that use polygonal rifling claim greater accuracy, lower friction, and less lead and/or copper buildup in the barrel. Traditional land and groove rifling is used in most competition firearms, however, so the advantages of polygonal rifling are unproven.

There are four methods of rifling a barrel:
 * A single point cutter is drawn down the bore by a machine that controls the rotation of the cutting head relative to the barrel. This is the slowest process, but requires the simplest equipment. It is often used by custom gunsmiths as it can result in very accurate barrels.
 * Button rifling uses a die with a negative image of the rifling cut on it which is drawn down the barrel while rotated, swaging the inside of the barrel. This creates all the grooves at once by deformation, and is faster than cut rifling.
 * Hammer forging is a process in which a slightly oversized, bored barrel is placed around a mandrel that contains a negative image of the length of the rifled barrel. The barrel and mandrel are rotated and hammered by power hammers, which forms the inside of the barrel. This is the fastest and often cheapest method of making a barrel, but the equipment is expensive. Hammer-forged barrels are generally not capable of the accuracy attainable with the first tow methods mentioned.
 * Electrical discharge machining (EDM) or Electro chemical machining (ECM) processes use electricity to erode away material, a process which produces a highly consistent diameter and very smooth finish, with less stress than other rifling methods. EDM is very costly and primarily used in large bore, long barrel cannon where traditional methods are very difficult, while ECM is used by some smaller barrel makers.

The purpose of the barrel is to provide a consistent seal, allowing the bullet to accelerate to a consistent velocity. It must also impart the right spin, and release the bullet consistently, perfectly concentric to the bore. The residual pressure in the bore must be released symmetrically, so that no side of the bullet receives any more or less push than the rest.

To maintain a good pressure seal, the bore must be a precise constant diameter, or have a slight decrease in diameter from breech to muzzle. Any increase in bore diameter will allow the bullet to shift, allowing gas to leak past the bullet, decreasing velocity, or cause the bullet to tip so that it is no longer perfectly coaxial with the bore. High quality barrels are lapped to remove any constrictions in the bore which will cause a change in diameter.

A lapping process known as "fire lapping" uses a lead "slug" that is slightly larger than the bore and covered in fine abrasive compound to cut out the constrictions. The slug is passed from breech to muzzle to remove obstructions. Many passes are made, and as the bore becomes more uniform, finer grades of abrasive compound are used. The final result is a barrel that is mirror-smooth, and with a consistent or slightly tapering bore. The hand-lapping technique uses a wooden or soft metal rod to pull or push the slug through the bore, while the newer fire-lapping technique uses specially loaded, low-power cartridges to push abrasive-covered soft-lead bullets down the barrel.

Another issue that has an effect on the barrel's hold on the bullet is the rifling. When the bullet is fired, it is forced into the rifling, which cuts or "engraves" the surface of the bullet. If the rifling is a constant twist, then the rifling rides in the grooves engraved in the bullet, and everything is secure and sealed. If the rifling has a decreasing twist, then the changing angle of the rifling in the engraved grooves of the bullet causes the rifling to become narrower than the grooves. This allows gas to blow by, and loosens the hold of the bullet on the barrel. An increasing twist, however, will make the rifling become wider than the grooves in the bullet, maintaining the seal. When a rifled-barrel blank is selected for a gun, the higher-twist end is located at the muzzle.

The muzzle of the barrel is the last thing to touch the bullet before it goes into ballistic flight, and as such has the greatest potential to disrupt the bullet's flight. The muzzle must allow the gas to escape the barrel symmetrically; any asymmetry will cause an uneven pressure on the base of the bullet, which will disrupt its flight. The muzzle end of the barrel is called the "crown", and it is usually either beveled or recessed to protect it from bumps or scratches that might affect accuracy.

Before the barrel can release the bullet in a consistent manner, it must grip the bullet in a consistent manner. The part of the barrel between where the bullet exits the cartridge, and engages the rifling, is called the "throat", and the length of the throat is the freebore. In some firearms, the freebore is zero as the act of chambering the cartridge forces the bullet into the rifling. This is common in low-powered rimfire target rifles. The placement of the bullet in the rifling ensures that the transition between cartridge and rifling is quick and stable. The downside is that the cartridge is firmly held in place, and attempting to extract the unfired round can be difficult, to the point of even pulling the bullet from the cartridge in extreme cases.

With high-powered cartridges, a significant amount of force is required to engrave the bullet which can raise the pressure in the chamber above the maximum design pressure. Higher-powered rifles usually have a longer freebore so that the bullet is allowed to gain some momentum, allowing the and the chamber pressure to drop slightly before the bullet engages the rifling. However, any slight misalignment can cause the bullet to tip as it engages the rifling, resulting in the bullet does not entering the barrel coaxially.

Revolver-specific issues
The defining characteristic of a revolver is the revolving cylinder, separate from the barrel, that contains the chambers. Revolvers typically have 5 to 10 chambers, and the first issue is ensuring consistency among the chambers, because if they aren't consistent then the point of impact will vary from chamber to chamber. The chambers must also align consistently with the barrel, so the bullet enters the barrel the same way from each chamber.

The throat in a revolver is composed of two separate parts, the cylinder throat and the barrel throat. part of the cylinder and sized so that it is concentric to the chamber and very slightly over the bullet diameter. The cylinder gap - the space between the cylinder and barrel - must be wide enough to allow free rotation of the cylinder even when it becomes fouled with powder residue, but not so large that excessive gas is released. The forcing cone - where the bullet is guided from the cylinder into the bore of the barrel - should be deep enough to force the bullet into the bore without significant deformation. Unlike rifles, where the threaded portion of the barrel is in the chamber, revolver barrels threads surround the breech end of the bore. It is possible that the bore is compressed when the barrel is screwed into the frame. Cutting a longer forcing cone can relieve this "choke" point, as can lapping of the barrel after it is fitted to the frame.

title: Internal ballistics


text:
Uran

Uran is a coastal town in Raigad District's Navi Mumbai, Maharashtra state in Konkan division. It lies to the east of Mumbai across the Dharamtar Creek. Uran is primarily a fishing and agriculture village, which has developed into the special economic zone of Uran. The primary languages spoken are Agri and Koli which is a dialect of Marathi-Konkani.

History
The city name is derived from the Hindu goddess Uranavati. It was called Uruvan during the rule of Madhavrao I, the fourth Peshwa of the Maratha Empire. Later, the area was named Uran by the Portuguese and Ooran by the British.

Many Indian dynasties have ruled the area. In early history, these included the Maurya Empire, Sātavāhana Empire, Western Kshatrapas, Vākāṭaka Empire, Chalukyas, and Yadavas.

The area around Mumbai, including Uran, was under Portuguese and British rule in the 16th to 19th centuries.

Uran was subject to the Maratha princely states in the Maharashtra. Uran was once the base of the famous Maratha Sarkhel (Admiral) Kanhoji Angre, who battled European naval interests in the 18th century.

Geography
Uran is located at 18.88°N, 72.94°W. Uran is at an average elevation of 21 m.

On the tip of a peninsula, Uran district is surrounded by sea on three sides. The town of Uran itself is centrally located on the peninsula, flanked by Karanja village to the south and Mora village and port to the north.

Uran is home to extensive salt pans, part of a long-standing network of salt manufacturing around Mumbai. The land has been under redevelopment pressure.

The Uran wetlands were once home to many species of birds and reptiles, some critically endangered. The wetlands were developed in 2009 and 2010, leaving only the Panje-Dongri wetlands.

Economy
The main occupation in Uran is fishing; 80% of the fish production of Mumbai comes from fishermen based out of the Uran in Navi Mumbai, especially the villages of Karanja and Mora.

The second major occupation is farming. Uran contributes to the production of rice in the Raigad district. Raigad is the second largest district in terms of rice production in India.

Shipping, shipbuilding, and port support are major economic factors in Uran district. Jawaharlal Nehru Port (JNPT) is the largest container terminal in India. Other container terminals in the Uran district include APM Terminals (formerly GTI) and DP World (formerly the British Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company). Salt pan owners revolted against the government decision to build a seaport, but the port has proved to be the main source of income to residents and nearby villages, as major projects and warehouses have opened nearby.

The Indian Navy maintains a naval base near Mora. Due to Security reasons sea travel restrictions is imposed by the Indian Navy.

The Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) has a plant nearby. GTPS-MSEB is Asia's first power plant run by natural gas.

Other industrial and manufacturing employers Grindwell Norton Limited, NAD, and the Skols Brewery (closed in 2005 ).

Demographics
Uran is growing. In the 2001 India census, Uran had a population of 23,254; this had increased by the 2011 census to 30,439. Males constitute 53% of the population and females 47%. In Uran, 10–11% of the population is 6 years of age or younger.

Uran's average literacy rate is also rising, from 79% in 2001 to 82% in 2011. Female literacy lags behind male literacy: male literacy was 83% in 2001 and 85% in 2011, and female literacy was 75% in 2001 and 79% in 2011. India's national literacy average is 59.5%.

Education
Schools in Uran include the following:

 * Bosco English School
 * St. Mary's High School & Jr. College
 * Uran Education Society
 * Veer Wajekar Arts, Science, and Commerce College
 * St.Mary's JNP School
 * SMT Bhagubai Changu Thakur Vidyalaya
 * SS Patil International School
 * Nagraj Sheth CBSE International School
 * Green Hill Public School
 * Native Institution High School
 * Iqra English School
 * Rotary English Medium High School
 * Citizens High School
 * Anmol English Medium School
 * Tukaram Hari Vajekar High School
 * R.Keralawala Foundation School
 * Shri. Chhatrapati Shivaji High School & Jr. College
 * Lady Khatun Marium School

Places of worship
Uran has many Hindu temples, some of which host annual festivals. Some of the well-known temples are: Its palkhi is famous in Raigad District. Raghoba Mandir Is a holy temple located near Kotnaka, Uran. Shree Raghoba palkhi sohla is very famous in Kotnaka village as well as in Uran also.
 * Shanteshwari Aai Temple, Navin Sheva Uran: Shanteshwari Aai Temple is Very famous in Uran Taluka.It is in Navin Sheva village.
 * Ratneshwari Aai Temple, Jaskhar Uran: Ratneshwari Aai Temple is very famous in Jaskhar Village of Uran Taluka.
 * Bahiridev Temple, Sarde Uran:' Shree Bahiridev(Ughad) is Gramdaiwat of all Sarde Village. It is Jagrut Devasthan and it is based on Creek of Sarde which is one of branch of Patalganga Creek.
 * Shree Raghoba Mandir, Uran Kotnaka
 * The Jaskhar Fair that everyone awaits for, comes in the month of April and is so chaotic at times. People from various nearby villages come to worship the god and enjoy their day.
 * Radhakrishna Temple, Sarde, Uran: Which is based at Radhakrisha ali(Sarde Village hill) A Grand Festival is celebrated on the occasion of Shree Krishna Jayanti. There are huge celebrations in Palakhi occasion.
 * Uran-Koliwada is a Hindu Temple Shree Bapujidev Mindir & Jari – Mari Mindir.
 * Ratneshwari Temple, Jaskhar, Ratneshwari temple is one of the most Famous & Jagrut Devasthan in Uran city. It is very famous in Maharastra, because the temple is very attractive and it is made fully of marble. Its palkhi is very famous in Raigad District.
 * Dronagiri temple Karanja it is located in on a hill of Drona Giri and sea-facing.
 * Girobadev Temple, Khopta located in East of Karanja & Khopta creek
 * Mankeshwar Temple Uran: One of the temples in Uran, located right next to Mankeshwar beach, Kegoan. Dedicated to Lord Shiva, annual festival celebrated here in the month of November.
 * Vinayak Temple Kegoan, Uran: located in Kegoan. Dedicated to Lord Ganesha. Very old temple constructed by Peshwas (recently refurbished). A small Hanuman Temple is directly opposite to the Ganesha Temple. A well and a pond adds to the scenery. History of this temple dates back to 1365 according to sources.
 * Dargah of Hazrath Mukim Shah baba, Uran: Located in Uran it is one of the most famous dargah of Uran. It is also a tourist attraction in Uran. Devotees from nearby areas visit this dargah on a large scale.
 * Uran Jama Masjid: Located in Masjid Mohalla area of Uran. It is the biggest mosque in uran.
 * Dargah of Hazrat Moinuddin Qadri: Located on Uran–Karanja road.
 * Masjid-e-Muhammadia: Located near Rajpal Naka
 * Datta Mandir: Located in Nave Popud(also known as Datta wadi) Devotees from the outskirts of Mumbai visit here during datta festival in Uran.

Other attractions
Another major tourist attraction in Uran are the three beaches: Pirwadi Beach, Nagav Beach, and Mankeshwar Beach which is frequented by tourists from nearby areas like Panvel in Navi Mumbai, other parts of Navi Mumbai, and Mumbai. A distant view of South Mumbai is visible from here. A local rural beach Kegav Beach is present, which can also be visited by tourists, and tourists do visit this beach too, but mostly it remains isolated. So, in totality, Navi Mumbai's Uran node has four beaches.

Ransai Dam is a destination in Uran. It is located near Dighode Village.

An old military fort named Dronagiri is located just beside the ONGC plant on the top of the Dronagiri mountain. This was a Maratha fort for a short period before passing into possession of the Portuguese, according to the locals. Entry has been banned for security reasons.

Khopate Village: Khopate Village is popular for Dashami Festival which is celebrated on behalf of Saint Gopalkaka Maharaj.

Dronagiri Mandir: A view from the top of the mountain where the temple of Dronagiri Devi is situated.

Bird watching at the Panje-Funde wetlands.

title: Uran


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Constitution of the German Empire

Constitution of the German Empire was proposed for deletion. This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was WIKISOURCE AND DELETE

Source text. Move to Wikisource. RickK 19:55, Jul 16, 2004 (UTC) This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like other '/delete' pages is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion or on the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.
 * An outstanding article for Wikisource. User:131.227.122.124's efforts were not in vain — the article was simply put in the wrong place.  Move to Wikisource .  (Incidentally, how come I can't do  ?  Isn't there a Wikisource namespace yet?)  --Ardonik 21:14, Jul 16, 2004 (UTC)
 * Update: I moved the article to Wikisource and updated German Empire to point to the Wikisource version; now nothing links to this article. Changing my vote to delete.  (Incidentally, Main Page works just fine now.)  --Ardonik 07:18, Jul 19, 2004 (UTC)
 * Now that it is Wikisourced, delete. -- Cyrius|✎ 19:59, 20 Jul 2004 (UTC)


text:
Talk:Lloyd Doggett

Peculiar Election
Why was the election with Theresa Doggett "peculiar"? Is it purely because of the name, or were there other interesting things that occurred? 146.6.200.97 29 June 2005 20:33 (UTC) >>Reply: Yeah I assume so. VarunRajendran

Several reasons: 1) It was the name Doggett vs. Doggett; 2) Teresa (correct spelling) is an African-American woman, so there was the irony of Lloyd Doggett being opposed by a member of two core constituencies of the Democratic base; 3) She was the wife of John Doggett, III who became a Republican cause celebre (and eventual conservative radio pundit) when he testified late during the Clarence Thomas hearings that Anita Hill had fantasized about him. Bottom line, it was not a serious attempt to unseat Lloyd Doggett but a an effort designed to force Doggett to spend money and basically just mess with him. A.T.S. in Texas (talk) 02:02, 19 May 2015 (UTC)

Hispanic female military veteran
I think her name should be included, and possibly a link to an article about her, which should also be created. VarunRajendran

Picture change
I like the newer "official" picture a bit better, so I added it. Here's the older one:

Citations for verification and bare URL tags
I have edited this article and fixed and verified the bare URL references then added a few more citations. There are two dead links that still need to be addressed. If everything seems to be in order I would suggest removing the bare URL tag if not both from this article. Triesault (talk) 16:33, 12 March 2010 (UTC)

Neutrality
This article reads in turn as if written by members of Doggett's staff and members of his opponents' staffs. For example, it's inappropriate to say, "Doggett is pro-choice." You have to say what specific issues he supports or opposes, as "pro-choice" is as much a spectrum as "pro-life." Evidence needs to be cited, as well -- "He voted against a gun control bill in 2001" is too anonymous for an encyclopedia. --146.6.213.97 (talk) 18:24, 16 June 2010 (UTC)

Some of the position sections need to be updated to gauge Mr. Doggett's true positions on the issues to include his stances on bills during the Obama administration. For example, in the section "Iraq," the article implies Doggett is opposed to military operations in Iraq, while remaining silent as to Mr. Doggett's positions on Iraq, without referencing his voting record on Iraq or similar Middle East military operations since 2007. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.40.55.162 (talk) 03:15, 29 April 2015 (UTC)

Lloyd's successful efforts to stop unlimited secret funneling if funds to politicians.
Should add that Lloyd Doggett showed up every morning on C-SPAN to speak against a loophole ("527 Trusts") that allowed unlimited secret payments to politicians. Eventually, the sunlight on the indefensible provision resulted in it being struck down. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Ocdncntx (talk • contribs) 17:50, 25 February 2011 (UTC)
 * Has there been media coverage? Sounds like it could be notable. Arbor832466 (talk) 20:09, 25 February 2011 (UTC)
 * Didn't find any media coverage in a quick Google. Could be mistaken on the details on this one -- he did oppose the 527 Trusts though, for sure.  — Preceding unsigned comment added by Ocdncntx (talk • contribs) 20:44, 25 February 2011 (UTC)
 * Hmm. If it hasn't been covered at all, then not sure it's notable enough to be in the article, or verifiable for that matter. Arbor832466 (talk) 22:46, 25 February 2011 (UTC)

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BLP violation: Bomb-making
One editor added text claiming that Doggett supported someone arrested for giving instructions on bomb-making. One secondary RS was cited but the source said very clearly that the guy was arrested for violating immigration law, and it says nothing about the guy being arrested for anything related to bombs. The secondary RS does not tie this in any way to Doggett, making it a violation of WP:SYNTH to accuse Doggett of supporting a bomb-maker. Snooganssnoogans (talk) 18:54, 24 September 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Lloyd Doggett


text:
Janet Young

Janet Young may refer to:

 * Janet Badjan-Young (born 1937), Gambian playwright and administrator
 * Janet Young, Baroness Young (1926–2002), British Conservative politician
 * Janet Young (tennis) (born 1951), Australian professional tennis player
 * Janet Young (actress) (ca 1889–1940), American actress

title: Janet Young


text: Template:Mad Max

title: Template:Mad Max


text:
Bearded axe

A bearded axe, or Skeggøx (from Old Norse Skegg, "beard", and øx, "axe"), is any of various axes, used as a tool and weapon, as early as the 6th century AD. It is most commonly associated with Viking Age Scandinavians. The hook or "beard", i.e. the lower portion of the axe bit extending the cutting edge below the width of the butt, provides a wide cutting surface while keeping the overall mass of the axe low.

This design allows the user to grip the haft directly behind the head for planing or shaving wood and variations of this design are still in use by modern woodworkers and some foresters. The "beard" of the axe would also have been useful in battle, for example to pull a weapon or shield out of a defender's grasp.

Through Scandinavian mercenaries fighting in the Varangian Guard, the design entered the Byzantine Empire. After the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople, the Sultan's guard adopted axes of similar design to underline their continuity with the Byzantine Empire. In the 15th century, these axes would evolve into single-handed bearded axes with a hammerhead on the head. Through Ottoman influence, these axes would spread to Poland and Hungary, where they would become known as "Czekan."

There are a number of variants in its design.

title: Bearded axe