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Refractive error

Refractive error is a problem with focusing light accurately on the retina due to the shape of the eye and/or cornea. The most common types of refractive error are near-sightedness, far-sightedness, astigmatism, and presbyopia. Near-sightedness results in far away objects being blurry, far-sightedness and presbyopia result in close objects being blurry, and astigmatism causes objects to appear stretched out or blurry. Other symptoms may include double vision, headaches, and eye strain.

Near-sightedness is due to the length of the eyeball being too long, far-sightedness the eyeball too short, astigmatism the cornea being the wrong shape, and presbyopia aging of the lens of the eye such that it cannot change shape sufficiently. Some refractive errors occur more often among those whose parents are affected. Diagnosis is by eye examination.

Refractive errors are corrected with eyeglasses, contact lenses, or surgery. Eyeglasses are the easiest and safest method of correction. Contact lenses can provide a wider field of vision; however they are associated with a risk of infection. Refractive surgery permanently changes the shape of the cornea.

The number of people globally with refractive errors has been estimated at one to two billion. Rates vary between regions of the world with about 25% of Europeans and 80% of Asians affected. Near-sightedness is the most common disorder. Rates among adults are between 15 and 49% while rates among children are between 1.2 and 42%. Far-sightedness more commonly affects young children and the elderly. Presbyopia affects most people over the age of 35.

The number of people with refractive errors that have not been corrected was estimated at 660 million (10 per 100 people) in 2013. Of these 9.5 million were blind due to the refractive error. It is one of the most common causes of vision loss along with cataracts, macular degeneration, and vitamin A deficiency.

Normal Refraction
In order to see a clear image, the eye must focus rays of light on to the light-sensing part of the eye - the retina, which is located in the back of the eye. This focusing - called refraction - is performed mainly by the cornea and the lens, which are located at the front of the eye, the anterior segment.

When an eye focuses light correctly on to the retina when viewing distant objects, this is called emmetropia or being emmetropic. This means that the refractive power of the eye matches what is needed to focus parallel rays of light onto the retina. A distant object is defined as an object located beyond 6 meters (20 feet) from the eye.

When an object is located close to the eye, the rays of light from this object no longer approach the eye parallel to each other. Consequently, the eye must increase its refractive power to bring those rays of light together on the retina. This is called accommodation, and is accomplished by the eye thickening the lens.

Classification
Refractive error - sometimes called "ametropia" - is when the refractive power of an eye does not match the length of the eye, so the image is focused away from the central retina, instead of directly on it.

Types of refractive error include myopia, hyperopia, presbyopia, and astigmatism.

 * Myopia or Nearsightedness: When the refractive power is too strong for the length of the eyeball, this is called myopia or nearsightedness. People with myopia typically have blurry vision when viewing distant objects because the eye is refracting more than necessary. Myopia can be corrected with a concave lens, which causes the divergence of light rays before they reach the cornea.
 * Hyperopia or Farsightedness: When the refractive power is too weak for the length of the eyeball, one has hyperopia or farsightedness. People with hyperopia have blurry vision when viewing near objects because the eye is unable to focus the light sufficiently. This can be corrected with convex lenses, which cause light rays to converge prior to hitting the cornea.
 * Presbyopia: When the flexibility of the lens declines, typically due to age. The individual would experience difficulty in near vision, often relieved by reading glasses, bifocal, or progressive lenses.
 * Astigmatism is when the refractive power of the eye is not uniform across the surface of the cornea because of asymmetry. In other words, the eye focuses light more strongly in one direction than another, leading to distortion of the image.

Children are typically born hyperopic and shift toward emmetropia or myopia as their eyes lengthen through childhood.

Other terminology include anisometropia, when the two eyes have unequal refractive power, and aniseikonia which is when the magnification power between the eyes differ.

Refractive errors are typically measured using three numbers: sphere, cylinder, and axis.

 * Sphere: This number denotes the strength of the lens needed to correct your vision. A "-" indicates nearsightedness while a "+" indicates farsightedness. Higher numbers indicate more power in either direction.
 * Cylinder: This number denotes the amount of astigmatism, if any.
 * Axis: This number notes the direction of the astigmatism and is written in degrees between 1 and 180.

An eye that has no refractive error when viewing distant objects is said to have emmetropia or be emmetropic meaning the eye is in a state in which it can focus parallel rays of light (light from distant objects) on the retina, without using any accommodation. A distant object, in this case, is defined as an object located beyond 6 meters, or 20 feet, from the eye, since the light from those objects arrives as essentially parallel rays when considering the limitations of human perception.

Screening
When refractive errors in children are not treated, the child may be at risk of developing ambylopia, where vision may remain permanently blurry. Because young children typically do not complain of blurry vision, the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that children have yearly vision screening starting at three years old so that unknown refractive errors or other ophthalmic conditions can be found and treated if deemed necessary by healthcare professionals.

Genetics
There is evidence to suggest genetic predilection for refractive error. Individuals that have parents with certain refractive errors are more likely to have similar refractive errors.

The Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM) database has listed 261 genetic disorders in which myopia is one of the symptoms. Myopia may be present in heritable connective tissue disorders such as: Knobloch syndrome (OMIM 267750); Marfan syndrome (OMIM 154700); and Stickler syndrome (type 1, OMIM 108300; type 2, OMIM 604841). Myopia has also been reported in X-linked disorders caused by mutations in loci involved in retinal photoreceptor function (NYX, RP2, MYP1) such as: autosomal recessive congenital stationary night blindness (CSNB; OMIM 310500); retinitis pigmentosa 2 (RP2; OMIM 312600); Bornholm eye disease (OMIM 310460). Many genes that have been associated with refractive error are clustered into common biological networks involved in connective tissue growth and extracellular matrix organization. Although a large number of chromosomal localisations have been associated with myopia (MYP1-MYP17), few specific genes have been identified.

Environmental
In studies of the genetic predisposition of refractive error, there is a correlation between environmental factors and the risk of developing myopia. Myopia has been observed in individuals with visually intensive occupations. Reading has also been found to be a predictor of myopia in children. It has been reported that children with myopia spent significantly more time reading than non-myopic children who spent more time playing outdoors. Additionally, focusing on near objects for long periods of time - such as when reading, looking at close screens, or writing - has been associated with myopia. Socioeconomic status and higher levels of education have also been reported to be a risk factor for myopia. Blepharoptosis can also induce refractive errors.

Diagnosis
Blurry vision may result from any number of conditions not necessarily related to refractive errors. The diagnosis of a refractive error is usually confirmed by an eye care professional during an eye examination using a large number of lenses of different optical powers, and often a retinoscope (a procedure entitled retinoscopy) to measure objectively in which the person views a distant spot while the clinician changes the lenses held before the person's eye and watches the pattern of reflection of a small light shone on the eye. Following that "objective refraction" the clinician typically shows the person lenses of progressively higher or weaker powers in a process known as subjective refraction. Cycloplegic agents are frequently used to more accurately determine the amount of refractive error, particularly in children

An automated refractor is an instrument that is sometimes used in place of retinoscopy to objectively estimate a person's refractive error. Shack–Hartmann wavefront sensor and its inverse can also be used to characterize eye aberrations in a higher level of resolution and accuracy.

Vision defects caused by refractive error can be distinguished from other problems using a pinhole occluder, which will improve vision only in the case of refractive error.

Management
The management of refractive error is done post-diagnosis of the condition by either optometrists, ophthalmologists, refractionists, or ophthalmic medical practitioners.

How refractive errors are treated or managed depends upon the amount and severity of the condition. Those who possess mild amounts of refractive error may elect to leave the condition uncorrected, particularly if the person is asymptomatic. For those who are symptomatic, glasses, contact lenses, refractive surgery, or a combination are typically used.

Glasses
These are the most effective ways of correcting the refractive error. However, the availability and affordability of eyeglasses can present a difficulty for people in many low income settings of the world. Glasses also pose a challenge to children to whom they are prescribed to, due to children's tendency to not wear them as consistently as recommended.

As mentioned earlier refractive errors are because of the improper focusing of the light in the retina. Eyeglasses work as an added lens of the eye serving to bend the light to bring it to focus on the retina. Depending on the eyeglasses, they serve many functions.

 * Reading glasses: These are general over-the-counter glasses which can be worn for easier reading, especially for defective vision due to aging called presbyopia.
 * Single vision prescription lenses: They can correct only one form of defective vision, either far-sightedness or near-sightedness.
 * Multifocal lenses: The multifocal lenses can correct defective vision in multiple focus, for example: near-vision as well as far-vision. This are particularly beneficial for presbyobia.

Contact lenses
Alternatively, many people choose to wear contact lenses. One style is hard contact lenses, which can distort the shape of the cornea to a desired shape. Another style, soft contact lenses, are made of silicone or hydrogel. Depending on the duration they are designed for, they may be worn daily or may be worn for an extended period of time, such as for weeks.

There are a number of complication associated with contact lenses. Typically the ones that are used daily.

If redness, itching, and difficulty in vision develops, the use of the lenses should be stopped immediately and the consultation of ophthalmologists may be sought.

Surgery
Laser in situ keratomileusis (LASIK) and photo-refractive keratectomy (PRK) are popular procedures; while use of laser epithelial keratomileusis (LASEK) is increasing. Other surgical treatments for severe myopia include insertion of implants after clear lens extraction (refractive lens exchange). Full thickness corneal graft may be a final option for patients with advanced kerataconus although currently there is interest in new techniques that involve collagen crosslinking. As with any surgical procedure complications may arise post-operatively Post-operative monitoring is normally undertaken by the specialist ophthalmic surgical clinic and optometry services. Patients are usually informed pre-operatively about what to expect and where to go if they suspect complications. Any patient reporting pain and redness after surgery should be referred urgently to their ophthalmic surgeon.

Medical treatment
Atropine has believed to slow the progression of near-sightedness and is administered in combination with multifocal lenses. These, however, need further research.

Prevention
Strategies being studied to slow worsening include adjusting working conditions, increasing the time children spend outdoors, and special types of contact lenses. In children special contact lenses appear to slow worsening of nearsightedness.

A number of questionnaires exist to determine quality of life impact of refractive errors and their correction.

Epidemiology
It is estimated that at least 2 billion people in the world have refractive errors. The number of people globally with refractive errors that have not been corrected was estimated at 660 million (10 per 100 people) in 2013.

Refractive Errors are the first common cause of Visual Impairment and second most common cause of visual loss. The assessment of Refractive Error is now done in DALY (Disability Adjusted Life Years) which showed an 8% increase from 1990 to 2019.

The number of people globally with significant refractive errors has been estimated at one to two billion. Rates vary between regions of the world with about 25% of Europeans and 80% of Asians affected. Near-sightedness is one of the most prevalent disorders of the eye. Rates among adults are between 15 and 49% while rates among children are between 1.2 and 42%. Far-sightedness more commonly affects young children, whose eyes have yet to grow to their full length, and the elderly, who have lost the ability to compensate with their accommodation system. Presbyopia affects most people over the age of 35, and nearly 100% of people by the ages of 55–65. Uncorrected refractive error is responsible for visual impairment and disability for many people worldwide. It is one of the most common causes of vision loss along with cataracts, macular degeneration, and vitamin A deficiency.

Cost
The yearly cost of correcting refractive errors is estimated at 3.9 to 7.2 billion dollars in the United States.

title: Refractive error


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Great conjunction

A great conjunction is a conjunction of the planets Jupiter and Saturn, when the two planets appear closest together in the sky. Great conjunctions occur approximately every 20 years when Jupiter "overtakes" Saturn in its orbit. They are named "great" for being by far the rarest of the conjunctions between naked-eye planets (i.e. excluding Uranus and Neptune).

The spacing between the planets varies from conjunction to conjunction with most events being 0.5 to 1.3 degrees (30 to 78 arcminutes, or 1 to 2.5 times the width of a full moon). Very close conjunctions happen much less frequently (though the maximum of 1.3° is still close by inner planet standards): separations of less than 10 arcminutes have only happened four times since 1200, most recently in 2020.

In history
Great conjunctions attracted considerable attention in the past as omens. During the late Middle Ages and Renaissance they were a topic broached by the pre-scientific and transitional astronomer-astrologers of the period up to the time of Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler, by scholastic thinkers such as Roger Bacon and Pierre d'Ailly, and they are mentioned in popular and literary works by authors such as Dante Lope de Vega and Shakespeare. This interest is traced back in Europe to translations of Arabic texts, especially Albumasar's book on conjunctions.

Clusterings of several planets were considered even more significant. The Chinese apparently remembered the clustering of all five planets in 1953 BC, and noted the clustering of all but Venus in 1576 BC and of all five in 1059 BC. These were connected in Chinese thought to the founding of the first three historical dynasties, the Xia dynasty, the Shang dynasty, and the Zhou dynasty. The intervals involved, of 377.8 years (19 great conjunction intervals) and 516.4 years (26 great conjunction intervals) bring Mars back to approximately the same position. Further repeats of the 516-year period lead to the clustering in AD 1524, considered ominous in Europe at the time of the Radical Reformation, and the upcoming clustering of September 2040, which will involve all five planets again, in a longitude span of less than 7°.

Celestial mechanics
On average, great conjunction seasons occur once every 19.859 Julian years (each of which is 365.25 days). This number can be calculated by the synodic period formula

 * $$\frac{1}{\left ( \frac{1}{J} - \frac{1}{S} \right )} \approx 7253.46 \; \mathrm{days} \displaystyle,$$

in which $J$ and $S$ are the orbital periods of Jupiter (4332.59 days) and Saturn (10759.22 days), respectively. This is about 52 days less than 20 years, but in practice, Earth's orbit size can cause great conjunctions to reoccur anytime between 18 years 10 months and 20 years 8 months after the previous one. (See table below.) Since the equivalent periods of other naked-eye planet pairs are all under 900 days, this makes great conjunctions the rarest.

Occasionally there is more than one great conjunction in a season, which happens whenever they're close enough to opposition: this is called a triple conjunction (which is not exclusive to great conjunctions). In this scenario, Jupiter and Saturn will occupy the same right ascension on three occasions or same ecliptic longitude on three occasions, depending on which definition of "conjunction" one uses (this is due to apparent retrograde motion and happens within months). The most recent triple conjunction occurred in 1980–81 and the next will be in 2238–39.

The most recent great conjunction occurred on 21 December 2020, and the next will occur on 4 November 2040. During the 2020 great conjunction, the two planets were separated in the sky by 6 arcminutes at their closest point, which was the closest distance between the two planets since 1623. The closeness is the result of the conjunction occurring in the vicinity of one of the two longitudes where the two orbits appear to intersect when viewed from the Sun (which has a point of view similar to Earth).

Because 19.859 years is equal to 1.674 Jupiter orbits and 0.674 Saturn orbits, three of these periods come close to a whole number of revolutions. As successive great conjunctions occur nearly 120° apart, their appearances form a triangular pattern. In a series, every third conjunction returns after some 60 years to the vicinity of the first. These returns are observed to be shifted by some 8° relative to the fixed stars, so no more than four of them occur in the same zodiacal constellation. Usually the conjunctions occur in one of the following triplicities or trigons of zodiacal constellations: After about 220 years the pattern shifts to the next trigon, and in about 800 or 900 years returns to the first trigon.
 * 1) Aries, Sagittarius, and Leo
 * 2) Taurus, Capricorn, and Virgo
 * 3) Gemini, Aquarius, and Libra
 * 4) Cancer, Pisces, and Scorpius

The three points of the triangle revolve in the same direction as the planets at the rate of approximately one-sixth of a revolution per four centuries, thus creating especially close conjunctions on an approximately four-century cycle. Currently the longitudes of close great conjunctions are about 307.4 and 127.4 degrees, in Capricornus and Cancer respectively.

In astrology, one of the four elements was ascribed to each triangular pattern. Particular importance was accorded to the occurrence of a great conjunction in a new trigon, which is bound to happen after some 240 years at most. Even greater importance was attributed to the beginning of a new cycle after all fours trigons had been visited. Medieval astrologers usually gave 960 years as the duration of the full cycle, perhaps because in some cases it took 240 years to pass from one trigon to the next. If a cycle is defined by when the conjunctions return to the same right ascension rather than to the same constellation, then because of axial precession the cycle is less than 800 years. Use of the Alphonsine tables apparently led to the use of precessing signs, and Kepler gave a value of 794 years (40 conjunctions).

Despite mathematical errors and some disagreement among astrologers about when trigons began, belief in the significance of such events generated a stream of publications that grew steadily until the end of the 16th century. As the great conjunction of 1583 was last in the water trigon it was widely supposed to herald apocalyptic changes; a papal bull against divination was issued in 1586 but as nothing significant happened by the feared event of 1603, public interest rapidly died. By the start of the next trigon, modern scientific consensus had condemned astrology as pseudoscience, and astronomers no longer perceived planetary alignments as omens. However, in the year 1962, when all five planets formed a cluster 17° wide, there was considerable concern.

Saturn's orbit plane is inclined 2.485 degrees relative to Earth's, and Jupiter's is inclined 1.303 degrees. The ascending nodes of both planets are similar (100.6 degrees for Jupiter and 113.7 degrees for Saturn), meaning if Saturn is above or below Earth's orbital plane Jupiter usually is too. Because these nodes align so well it would be expected that no closest approach will ever be much worse than the difference between the two inclinations. Indeed, between year 1 and 3000, the maximum conjunction distances were 1.3 degrees in 1306 and 1940. Conjunctions in both years occurred when the planets were tilted most out of the plane: longitude 206 degrees (therefore above the plane) in 1306, and longitude 39 degrees (therefore below the plane) in 1940.

List of great conjunctions (1200 to 2400)
The following table details great conjunctions in between 1200 and 2400. The dates are given for the conjunctions in right ascension (the dates for conjunctions in ecliptic longitude can differ by several days). Dates before 1582 are in the Julian calendar while dates after 1582 are in the Gregorian calendar.

Longitude is measured counterclockwise from the location of the First Point of Aries (the location of the March equinox) at epoch J2000. This non-rotating coordinate system doesn't move with the precession of Earth's axes, thus being suited for calculations of the locations of stars. (In astrometry latitude and longitude are based on the ecliptic which is Earth's orbit extended sunward and anti-sunward indefinitely.) The other common conjunction coordinate system is measured counterclockwise in right ascension from the First Point of Aries and is based on Earth's equator and the meridian of the equinox point both extended upwards indefinitely; ecliptic separations are usually smaller.

Distance is the angular separation between the planets in sixtieths of a degree (minutes of arc) and elongation is the angular distance from the Sun in degrees. An elongation between around −20 and +20 degrees indicates that the Sun is close enough to the conjunction to make it difficult or impossible to see, sometimes more difficult at some geographic latitudes and less difficult elsewhere. Note that the exact moment of conjunction cannot be seen everywhere as it is below the horizon or it is daytime in some places, but a place on Earth affects minimum separation less than it would if an inner planet was involved. Negative elongations indicate the planet is west of the Sun (visible in the morning sky), whereas positive elongations indicate the planet is east of the Sun (visible in the evening sky).

The great conjunction series is roughly analogous to the Saros series for solar eclipses (which are Sun–Moon conjunctions). Conjunctions in a particular series occur about 119.16 years apart. The reason it is every six conjunctions instead of every three is that 119.16 years is closer to a whole number of years than $J$ = 59.58 is, so Earth will be closer to the same position in its orbit and conjunctions will appear more similar. All series will have progressions where conjunctions gradually shift from only visible before sunrise to visible throughout the night to only visible after sunset and finally back to the morning sky again. The location in the sky of each conjunction in a series should increase in longitude by 16.3 degrees on average, making one full cycle relative to the stars on average once every 2,634 years. If instead we use the convention of measuring longitude eastward from the First Point of Aries, we have to keep in mind that the equinox circulates once every c. 25,772 years, so longitudes measured that way increase slightly faster and those numbers become 17.95 degrees and 2,390 years.

A conjunction can be a member of a triple conjunction. In a triple conjunction, the series does not advance by one each event as the constellation and year is the same or close to it, this is the only time great conjunctions can be less than about 20 years apart.

7 BC
When studying the great conjunction of 1603, Johannes Kepler thought that the Star of Bethlehem might have been the occurrence of a great conjunction. He calculated that a triple conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn occurred in 7 BC (−6 using astronomical year numbering);

1563
The astronomers from the Cracow Academy (Jan Muscenius, Stanisław Jakobejusz, Nicolaus Schadeck, Petrus Probosczowicze, and others) observed the great conjunction of 1563 to compare Alfonsine tables (based on a geocentric model) with the Prutenic Tables (based on Copernican heliocentrism). In the Prutenic Tables the astronomers found Jupiter and Saturn so close to each other that Jupiter covered Saturn (actual angular separation was 6.8 minutes on 25 August 1563 ). The Alfonsine tables suggested that the conjunction should be observed on another day but on the day indicated by the Alfonsine tables the angular separation was a full 141 minutes. The Cracow professors suggested following the more accurate Copernican predictions and between 1578 and 1580 Copernican heliocentrism was lectured on three times by Valentin Fontani.

This conjunction was also observed by Tycho Brahe, who noticed that the Copernican and Ptolemaic tables used to predict the conjunction were inaccurate. This led him to realise that progress in astronomy required systematic, rigorous observation, night after night, using the most accurate instruments obtainable.

2020

The great conjunction of 2020 was the closest since 1623 and eighth closest of the first three millennia AD, with a minimum separation between the two planets of 6.1 arcminutes. This great conjunction was also the most easily visible close conjunction since 1226 (as the previous close conjunctions in 1563 and 1623 were closer to the Sun and therefore more difficult to see). It occurred seven weeks after the heliocentric conjunction, when Jupiter and Saturn shared the same heliocentric longitude.

The closest separation occurred on 21 December at 18:20 UTC, when Jupiter was 0.1° south of Saturn and 30° east of the Sun. This meant both planets appeared together in the field of view of most small- and medium-sized telescopes (though they were distinguishable from each other without optical aid). During the closest approach, both planets appeared to be a binary object to the naked eye. From mid-northern latitudes, the planets were visible one hour after sunset at less than 15° in altitude above the southwestern horizon in the constellation of Capricornus.

The conjunction attracted considerable media attention, with news sources calling it the "Christmas Star" due to the proximity of the date of the conjunction to Christmas, and for a great conjunction being one of the hypothesized explanations for the biblical Star of Bethlehem.

7541
As well as being a triple conjunction, the great conjunction of 7541 is expected to feature two occultations: one partial on 16 February, and one total on 17 June. Superimposition requires a separation of less than approximately 0.4 arcminutes. This will be the first occultation between the two planets since 6857 BC, and the only instance of two occultations within the same year in maybe a million years.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Great conjunction


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Legal psychology

Together, legal psychology and forensic psychology form the field more generally recognized as "psychology and law". Following earlier efforts by psychologists to address legal issues, psychology and law became a field of study in the 1960s as part of an effort to enhance justice, though that originating concern has lessened over time. The multidisciplinary American Psychological Association's Division 41, the American Psychology–Law Society, is active with the goal of promoting the contributions of psychology to the understanding of law and legal systems through research, as well as providing education to psychologists in legal issues and providing education to legal personnel on psychological issues. Further, its mandate is to inform the psychological and legal communities and the public at large  of current research, educational, and service in the area of psychology and law. There are similar societies in Britain and Europe.

Areas of research
Generally speaking, any research that combines psychological principles with legal applications or contexts could be considered legal psychology (although research involving clinical psychology, e.g., mental illness, competency, insanity defense, offender profiling, etc., is typically categorized as forensic psychology, and not legal psychology). For a time, legal psychology researchers were primarily focused on issues related to eyewitness testimony and jury decision-making—so much so that the editor of Law and Human Behavior, the premier legal psychology journal, implored researchers to expand the scope of their research and move on to other areas.

There are several legal psychology journals, including Law and Human Behavior, Psychology, Public Policy and Law, Psychology, Crime, and Law, and Journal of Psychiatry, Psychology and Law that focus on general topics of criminology, and the criminal justice system. In addition, research by legal psychologists is regularly published in more general journals that cover both basic and applied research areas. The Online Jury Research Update (OJRU) regularly summarizes legal psychology research about legal persuasion, jury research and trial advocacy.

In March 1893 J. McKeen Cattell posted questions to fifty-six of his students at Columbia University. The questions he asked his students were comparable to those asked in a court of justice. What he found was that it was reasonable to conclude eyewitness accounts of events were unreliable. His students were all sure they were mostly correct, even when they were not, and some were hesitant when they were in fact correct. He could not figure out specifically why each student had inaccurate testimonies. Cattell suggested that "an unscrupulous attorney" could discredit a witness who is being truthful by asking "cunningly selected questions". Although a jury, or the judge, should know how normal errors are in eyewitness testimonies given different conditions. However, even Cattell was shocked by the level of incorrectness displayed by his students. Cattell's research has been depicted as the foundation of forensic psychology in the United States. His research is still widely considered a prevailing research interest in legal psychology. It has been thought that in America psychologists have been used as expert witnesses in court testimonies since the early 1920s. Consultation within civil courts was most common, during this time criminal courts rarely consulted with psychologists. Psychologists were not considered medical experts, those who were like, physicians and psychiatrists, in the past were the ones consulted for criminal testimonies. This could be because in criminal cases, the defendant's mental state almost never mattered "As a general rule, only medical men—that is, persons licensed by law to practice the profession of medicine—can testify as experts on the question of insanity; and the propriety of this general limitation is too patent to permit discussion".

Training and education
Legal psychologists typically hold a PhD in some area of psychology (e.g., clinical psychology, social psychology, cognitive psychology, etc.), and apply their knowledge of that field to the law. Although formal legal training (such as a JD or Master of Legal Studies degree) can be beneficial, most legal psychologists hold only the PhD. In fact, some argue that specialized legal training dilutes the psychological empiricism of the researcher. For instance, to understand how eyewitness memory "works", a psychologist should be concerned with memory processes as a whole, instead of only the aspects relevant to the law (e.g., lineups, accuracy of testimony). To understand false confessions, a psychologist should be familiar with research on decision making, compliance, obedience, persuasion, and other forms of social influence.

A growing number of universities offer specialized training in legal psychology as either a standalone PhD program or a joint JD/PhD program.

Academics and research
Many legal psychologists work as professors in university psychology departments, criminal justice departments or law schools. Like other professors, legal psychologists generally conduct and publish empirical research, teach various classes, and mentor graduate and undergraduate students. Many legal psychologists also conduct research in a more general area of psychology (e.g., social, clinical, cognitive) with only a tangential legal focus. Those legal psychologists who work in law schools almost always hold a JD in addition to a PhD

Expert witnesses
Psychologists specifically trained in legal issues, as well as those with no formal training, are often called by legal parties to testify as expert witnesses. In criminal trials, an expert witness may be called to testify about eyewitness memory, mistaken identity, competence to stand trial, the propensity of a death-qualified jury to also be "pro-guilt", etc. Psychologists who focus on clinical issues often testify specifically about a defendant's competence, intelligence, etc. More general testimony about perceptual issues (e.g., adequacy of police sirens) may also come up in trial.

Experts, particularly psychology experts, are often accused of being "hired guns" or "stating the obvious". Eyewitness memory experts, such as Elizabeth Loftus, are often discounted by judges and lawyers with no empirical training because their research utilizes undergraduate students and "unrealistic" scenarios. If both sides have psychological witnesses, jurors may have the daunting task of assessing difficult scientific information.

Policy making and legislative guidance
Psychologists employed at public policy centers may attempt to influence legislative policy or may be called upon by state (or national) lawmakers to address some policy issue through empirical research. A psychologist working in public policy might suggest laws or help to evaluate a new legal practice (e.g., eyewitness lineups).

Advisory roles
Legal psychologists may hold advisory roles in court systems. They may advise legal decision makers, particularly judges, on psychological findings pertaining to issues in a case. The psychologist who acts as a court adviser provides similar input to one acting as an expert witness, but acts out of the domain of an adversarial system.

Amicus briefs
Psychologists can provide an amicus brief to the court. The American Psychological Association has provided briefs concerning mental illness, retardation and other factors. The amicus brief usually contains an opinion backed by scientific citations and statistics. The impact of an amicus brief by a psychological association is questionable. For instance, Justice Powell once called a reliance on statistics "numerology" and discounted results of several empirical studies. Judges who have no formal scientific training also may critique experimental methods, and some feel that judges only cite an amicus brief when the brief supports the judge's personal beliefs.

Trial consulting
Some legal psychologists work in trial consulting. No special training nor certification is needed to be a trial consultant, though an advanced degree is generally welcomed by those who would hire the trial consultant. The American Society of Trial Consultants does have a code of ethics for members, but there are no legally binding ethical rules for consultants.

Some psychologists who work in academics are hired as trial consultants when their expertise can be useful to a particular case. Other psychologists/consultants work for or with established trial consultant firms. The practice of law firms hiring "in-house" trial consultants is becoming more popular, but these consultants usually can also be used by the firms as practicing attorneys.

Trial consultants perform a variety of services for lawyers, such as picking jurors (usually relying on in-house or published statistical studies) or performing "mock trials" with focus groups. Trial consultants work on all stages of a case from helping to organize testimony, preparing witnesses to testify, picking juries, and even arranging "shadow jurors" to watch the trial unfold and provide input on the trial. There is some debate on whether the work of a trial consultant is protected under attorney-client privilege, especially when the consultant is hired by a party in the case and not by an attorney.

title: Legal psychology


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TEI

Tei may refer to:

 * Sandister Tei, Ghanaian journalist and Wikimedian
 * Tei (singer) (born 1983), Korean pop singer
 * Tei, Bucharest, a neighborhood in Bucharest, Romania
 * Tellurium monoiodide, a chemical compound with the formula TeI
 * Towa Tei, an artist, record producer and DJ (b. 1965)

TEI may refer to:

 * Tarlac Electric
 * Text Encoding Initiative, a consortium that develops standards for digital texts
 * Technological Educational Institute, a type of tertiary education institute in Greece
 * Terminal Endpoint Identifier (TEI), together with Service Access Point Identifier (SAPI) the unique identification of terminal equipment in the ISDN DSS1 standard
 * Tertiary Education Institution in New Zealand
 * Tezu Airport in India (IATA code)
 * Total Economic Impact, a financial metric (see Application Portfolio Management)
 * Trans Earth Injection, the procedure that a spacecraft performs to get back into the Earth's gravitational influence
 * Triethylindium, a chemical compound
 * Tusaş Engine Industries, a Turkish aircraft engine manufacturer

title: TEI


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/24-hours

Dicdef. sjorford 09:22, 30 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Dicdef, delete. Wyllium 10:10, 2004 Jul 30 (UTC)
 * Delete: Poor dictdef. Geogre 12:57, 30 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete - not an article. -- Cyrius|✎ 23:57, 30 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * People do not search encyclopedias for the definition of "24-hours." Delete.  --Ardonik 08:23, Jul 31, 2004 (UTC)
 * Agree with all previous. My vote: Delete Skyler 16:36, Aug 4, 2004 (UTC)


text:
Talk:Exarchate of Ravenna

[Untitled]
"...the exarch...was the representative at Ravenna of the Patriarch of Constantinople..." — shouldn't that be of the Emperor? m.e. 09:23, 30 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * I think that's right. Wetman 11:03, 30 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Some errors:
 * 1) "After this reconquest it became the seat of the provincial governor." "Provincial governor" -> "Praetorian Prefect" (Italy was one of the four praetorian prefectures, not a province).
 * 2) "The exarchate was organised into a group of duchies (i.e the Duchy of Rome, Duchy of Venetia, Duchy of Calabria, Lucania, Spoleto etc)". Spoleto should be removed, since it was a lombard duchy.
 * 3) in the list of exarchs Eutichius is reported to have ruled between 728 and 752. However Ravenna (and the Exarchate) fell to the Lombards in 751!!!--79.26.11.175 (talk) 22:55, 2 June 2010 (UTC)Michele from Italy.

Of Italy?
How is the Exarchate of Ravenna known as the Excharate of Italy?Mk5384 (talk) 10:31, 6 July 2010 (UTC)

exharchate section needs sources
Seems to be either quoting source materials or a personalized summation, it has almost no sources. may need to be cleaned up for tone and accuracy. Schnurrfles (talk) 18:28, 16 August 2016 (UTC)sch

External links modified
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title: Talk:Exarchate of Ravenna


text:
Passaic County Community College

Passaic County Community College (PCCC) is a public community college in Passaic County, New Jersey, United States.

Campuses
PCCC has four campuses located throughout the county it serves.

The main campus is located in Paterson, New Jersey, and opened in 1971. The Paterson campus is located on a stretch of Van Houten Street in downtown Paterson called College Boulevard, and occupies a footprint that extends out to Broadway near the Paterson Public Safety Complex.

Auxiliary campuses were later opened in Wanaque, New Jersey, serving the northern reaches of the county; Wayne, New Jersey, where the school's Public Safety Complex is located; and Passaic, New Jersey, home to the school's nursing program.

The school's athletic programs are known as the Panthers.

title: Passaic County Community College


text:
Rockwell Collins

Rockwell Collins, Inc. was a multinational corporation headquartered in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, providing avionics and information technology systems and services to government agencies and aircraft manufacturers. It was formed when the Collins Radio Company, facing financial difficulties, was purchased by Rockwell International in 1973. In 2001, the avionics division of Rockwell International was spun off to form the current Rockwell Collins, Inc., retaining its name.

The company was acquired by United Technologies Corporation on November 27, 2018, and now operates as part of Collins Aerospace, a subsidiary of the RTX Corporation (formerly Raytheon Technologies).

History
Arthur A. Collins founded Collins Radio Company in 1933 in Cedar Rapids, Iowa. It designed and produced both shortwave radio equipment and equipment for the AM radio broadcast industry. Collins supplied the military, the scientific community, and the larger AM radio stations with equipment. Collins provided the equipment to establish a communications link with the South Pole expedition of Rear Admiral Richard E. Byrd in 1933.

In 1936, Collins had begun production of the 12H audio console, 12X portable field announcers box, and the 300E and 300F broadcast transmitters. Throughout World War II, the 212A1 and 212B1 replaced the 12H design. Collins became the principal supplier of radio and navigation equipment used in the military.

In the postwar years, the Collins Radio Company expanded its work in the communications field, while broadening its technology into flight-control instruments, radio-communication devices, and satellite voice transmissions. Collins Radio Company provided communications for the United States' role in the Space Race, including equipment for astronauts to communicate with earth stations and equipment to track and communicate with spacecraft. Collins communications equipment was used for Projects Mercury, Gemini and Apollo. In 1973, the U.S. Skylab program used Collins equipment to provide communication from the astronauts to earth.

Rockwell Collins
After facing financial difficulties, the Collins Radio Company was purchased by Rockwell International in 1973. In 2001, the avionics division of Rockwell International was spun off to form Rockwell Collins, Inc, retaining its name. Rockwell Collins was highly concentrated in the defense and commercial avionics markets, and no longer marketed receivers to the public.

On April 28, 2000, Rockwell International Corp and its Rockwell Collins unit agreed to acquire Sony Corp's Sony Trans Com (Irvine, California) for undisclosed terms. Sony had purchased the business from Sundstrand Corporation in 1989. On December 20, 2000, Rockwell Collins expanded its services to commercial and executive aviation in Mercosur countries.

The company had acquired several companies, including Hughes-Avicom's in-flight entertainment business (1998), Sony Trans Com (2000), Intertrade Ltd., Flight Dynamics, K Systems, Inc. (Kaiser companies), Communication Solutions, Inc., Airshow, Inc. (2002), NLX (Simulation Business) in 2003, portions of Evans & Sutherland, TELDIX GmbH, IP Unwired, Anzus Inc. in 2006, Information Technology and Applications Corp in 2007, Athena Technologies, Datapath Inc. (divested in 2014), SEOS Displays Ltd., Air Routing International in 2010, Computing Technologies for Aviation (CTA) in 2011, ARINC in 2014, and BE Aerospace in 2017.

The company was among the major suppliers of in-flight entertainment (IFE). Rockwell Collins' key competitors in this industry included Panasonic Avionics Corporation, Thales Group, and JetBlue's IFE subsidiary LiveTV, which was later purchased by Thales in 2014 for $400 million.

In 2010, the company employed over 20,000 people and had an annual turnover of US$4.665 billion. Its nonexecutive chairman was Anthony Carbone following the retirement of Clayton M. Jones. In September 2012, Kelly Ortberg was appointed as president of the company. In August 2013, Kelly Ortberg was appointed CEO of Rockwell Collins.

Acquisition by United Technologies
On September 4, 2017, United Technologies of Farmington, Connecticut, agreed to acquire the company for $30 billion. The transaction closed on November 26, 2018.

Broadcast transmitters
Starting in the mid-1930s, the Collins Radio Company constructed and sold transmitters and audio mixing consoles to the broadcast industry.

In 1939, the model 12 Speech Input Console, in addition to the 26C limiter amplifier, was licensed to Canadian Marconi Co. for both sales in Canada and His Majesty's Service for the war effort. Collins' success in constructing broadcast transmitters continued to grow, selling well over a thousand up to the start of World War II. During World War II, Collins' expertise grew in high-power transmitters, producing designs that ran well over 15 kilowatts (kW) of RF power on a continuous basis. After the war, some AM transmitters were produced, called the 300G, and remain the finest in low-power AM transmitters (300W) ever produced.

Collins remained an important manufacturer of AM and FM broadcast radio transmitters for the commercial market surviving the drastic cost-cutting market of the 1960s and 1970s. The transmitter line was later sold to Continental Electronics, which continued to produce a number of Collins designs under its own nameplate before phasing them out in the 1980s.

Shortwave transmitters
Collins produced several shortwave transmitters to the commercial market. A "30" Series production catered to the growing need of state highway patrol agencies and Department of Commerce aviation needs. During World War II, Collins produced high-power transmitters for aircraft, notably the ART-13 equipped with automatic tuning circuits, which represented an important enhancement for airborne radio communications.

After World War II, Collins supported both broadcast and the growing postwar amateur radio market. The United States Coast Guard Cutter USCGC Courier was employed as seagoing relay station for Voice of America programming using two Collins 207B-1 transmitters. Amateur radio transmitters included the 32V-1, -2, and -3, the KWS-1, and the rack-mounted KW-1.

Receivers
Around 1947, the company introduced their first amateur radio receiver, the 75A-1 (called the 75A). This set achieved excellent stability for the time due to high build quality and the use of a permeability tuned oscillator in its second conversion stage. It was one of the few double-conversion superheterodynes on the market, and covered only the amateur bands.

With the experience gained in the design of the 75A-1, Collins released the 51J-1 receiver, a general-coverage HF set covering to. It was produced in somewhat updated versions (51J-2, 51J-3, 51J-4) for about a decade. It was known as the R-388 and was used in multiple receiver diversity radioteletype installations.

The 75A amateur line was updated throughout the early 1950s, finishing with the 75A-4, which was released in 1955. The Collins mechanical filter was introduced to consumers in the 75A-3, and the 75A-4 was one of the first receivers marketed specifically as a single sideband receiver. Around 1950, Collins began designing the R-390 (—) for the US military. This was intended to be a receiver of the highest performance available, with the ruggedness and serviceability required for military duty. It featured direct mechanical digital frequency readout. The set is composed of several modules for easy field repair—a bad module could simply be swapped out and repaired later, or junked. Sets built during the original 1951 contract cost the government about US$2500 each, and around 16,000 were produced.

Concurrently, Collins developed the R-389, a long-wave version with fewer than 1,000 made. The R-391, another variant of the R-390, allowed choice of eight different autotuned channels.

Three years later, Collins delivered the R-390A to the military. About 54,000 were produced and the set was a military workhorse until the 1970s. Like the R-390, it can outperform many modern radios, to the point that it was designated top secret until the late 1960s.

In 1958, Collins replaced the 75A series with the much smaller 75S series, part of the S/Line. These featured mechanical filters, very accurate frequency readout, and excellent stability. At the request of the US government, Collins designed the 51S-1 general-coverage set, which was essentially (in intended use) a physically smaller replacement for the 51J series. It was not intended as a replacement for the higher-performance R-390A, and unlike the R-390A, it was extensively marketed for commercial use.

Collins produced a few high-performance solid-state receivers in the 1970s, such as the 651S-1. Like their tube predecessors, these are coveted by collectors today.

Transceivers and systems
With the introduction of the S/Line in 1958, Collins moved from designing individual products that could be used together, to ones that were designed to integrate and operate together, in various combinations, as a system. They were the first equipment maker to take this approach. Collins was also the first to introduce a compact HF transceiver, the KWM-1, the year before. Together, these two innovations put Collins temporarily ahead of its competition, and set the stage for other manufacturers and the next generation of amateur (and military) HF radio equipment.

The 75S-1 receiver and 32S-1 transmitter, comprising the heart of the S/Line, operated separately or together to transceive. The units included crystal band-pass filters and a new compact design that provided stable, highly linear tuning across 200 kHz band segments. The S/Line tuning-dial mechanism was unique when introduced. It used concentric dials and a gear mechanism that provided precise dial resolution, better than 1 kHz.

Within a few years, Collins had introduced additional S/Line components, including the 30S-1 kilowatt power amplifier, the 30L-1 desktop power amplifier, and the 62S-1 transverter, which provided coverage of the 6-m (50 MHz) and 2-m (144 MHz) amateur bands. The KWM-2 transceiver replaced the KWM-1 using many of the S/Line's design features and matching its styling. Other accessories included speakers, microphones, and control consoles.

Illustrating the uniqueness of their new, smaller units in the market, Collins advertisements in the 1950s and early 1960s emphasized the S/Line's physical styling and size, as often as they did its performance.

Collins continued to improve the S/Line, first introducing the S-2, then the S-3 units, the 75S-3 (and -3A, -3B and -3C) receiver, and the 32S-3 and -3A transmitters. The -3A and -3C units were identical to the -3 and -3B units, respectively, except they provided an extra set of heterodyne oscillator crystals, enabling them to cover extra bands – useful for military, amateur and MARS operation, where operation just outside the regular amateur bands was necessary.

Among amateur radio operators, the S/Line established its reputation as perhaps the most solidly engineered equipment available, and the most costly. As a result, S/Line equipment, and the A-Line and other predecessors, are restored, prized, and operated on the air by collectors today.

Collins continued to produce the S/Line well into the late 1970s, and after its acquisition by Rockwell.

In 1978, with the move to solid-state design, the S/Line came to an end after a two-decade production run. The KWM-380 transceiver was introduced the next year, a break with the past both in its use of transistors and digital technology, and its styling. It was Collins' final entry in the amateur radio market until it was discontinued in the mid-1980s.

Computers
In the 1960s, the company designed and sold C-System computerized message-switching equipment, built an intranet, and began implementing computer storage of design data for circuit boards and assemblies. They had a goal of automating all functions from parts ordering and inventory to factory scheduling to generation of maintenance provisioning. With products technically successful and far ahead of their time in many respects, Mr. Collins continued to invest in development at a rate that could not be supported by sales when a downturn occurred, and began to have financial problems.

Network Transmission Systems
In 1991, Rockwell sold its Richardson, Texas-based Network Transmission Systems division to Alcatel.

Acquisitions
In 2008, Rockwell Collins acquired Athena Technologies for US$107million (equivalent to $million in ).

ARINC Acquisition
In August 2013, Rockwell Collins announced the agreement to purchase ARINC. On December 23, 2013, Rockwell Collins announced it had completed its acquisition of ARINC for US$1.4billion (equivalent to $billion in ). The purchase of ARINC allowed Rockwell Collins to shift their balance in commercial aviation.

B/E Aerospace Acquisition
In April 2017, Rockwell Collins entered the aircraft cabin interiors market through the acquisition of B/E Aerospace for US$8.3billion (equivalent to $billion in ). Based in Wellington, Florida, B/E products included seating, food and beverage preparation and storage equipment, lighting and oxygen systems, and modular galley and lavatory systems for commercial airliners and business jets. B/E benefits from rival Zodiac Aerospace's delivery troubles. Retrofit opportunities are provided by its $12 billion installed base. B/E shareholders received 20% of the new Rockwell, which then had $8.1 billion in revenues and $1.9 billion in pretax earnings with nearly 30,000 employees.

Rockwell Collins filed for regulatory approval for its intended acquisition of B/E Aerospace, before the Philippine Competition Commission, since the latter has a branch in the Philippines operating a manufacturing plant in Tanauan, Batangas.

As a result of the acquisition, a newly created direct or indirect subsidiary of Rockwell, Quarterback Merger Sub Corp., merged with and into B/E Aerospace, with the latter surviving the merger as a direct or indirect subsidiary of Rockwell Collins.

Organizational structure
Rockwell Collins has five main divisions:
 * Commercial Systems (CS)
 * Government Systems (GS)
 * International and Service Solutions (I&SS)
 * Information Management Services (IMS)
 * Interior Systems (IS)

The CS division services the commercial airline industry and business aircraft, providing navigation, communication, synthetic vision, other cockpit products such as autoland autopilots, and cabin products such as in-flight entertainment. The GS division services primarily the US government and military, but also provides some products and services to foreign governments with close ties to the United States. Notable government-related projects that Rockwell Collins has involvement with are Common Avionics Architecture System (CAAS), Joint Tactical Radio System (JTRS), Tactical Targeting Network Technology (TTNT), Defense Advanced GPS Receiver (DAGR), and Future Combat Systems. The I&SS division is an amalgamation of International Business organization, whose responsibility is sales, engineering, and human resources of personnel outside of North America, and Service Solutions, which provides support services such as customer support, simulation and training, and technical publications. I&SS provides a common service to both CS and GS divisions, and its formation was announced on the Rockwell Collins press release web page on February 19, 2010.

Donald R. Beall Advanced Technology Center
The Donald R. Beall Advanced Technology Center is a research and development center within Rockwell Collins that focuses on creating, identifying, and maturing technologies targeted at driving business growth. It maintains a portfolio that balances short-term deliverables focused on core and adjacent markets, with technologies for long-term growth. It has three departments: Advanced Radio Systems, Communications and Navigation Systems, and Embedded Information Systems.

Collector community
As with several other brands of vintage radio equipment, an active community of Collins radio enthusiasts exists, with clubs, web sites, and on-line discussions dedicated to restoring and operating the equipment. The Collins Collectors Association and the Collins Radio Association are two examples of such organizations.

Groups of Collins users also organize meetings, gatherings at hamfests, and regularly scheduled on-air discussions called nets.

Tax avoidance
In December 2019, CNBC listed Rockwell Collins along with 91 additional Fortune 500 companies that "paid an effective federal tax rate of 0% or less" as a result of the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017.

title: Rockwell Collins


text:
Groundhog Day gale of 1976

The Groundhog Day gale was a severe winter storm that hit the Northeastern United States and southeastern Canada on February 2 (Groundhog Day), 1976.

Meteorologist synopsis
An upper-level low was stationary across the Desert Southwest of the United States, on January 28. A system in the northern branch of the Westerlies known as a Saskatchewan Screamer, similar to an Alberta clipper but originating as a frontal wave in the next Canadian province to the east, moved east-southeast across Canada beginning on January 30, luring the system in the United States eastward. The cyclones merged by February 2, becoming a significant storm over New England before lifting northward through Quebec into the Davis Strait. At this time, maximum sustained winds reached 164 kilometers per hour (102 mph) in coastal areas (equal to a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson hurricane scale), with wind gusts of up to 188 kilometers per hour (116 mph). By February 6, this extratropical cyclone was absorbed by another system in the northern Canadian archipelago.

Maine
Caribou, Maine, recorded one of its lowest pressures on record, with much of New England recording its lowest values for the month of February, with a reading of 957.3 hPa. Winds gusted to 60 knots (69 mph) in Rockland and 100 knots (115 mph) at Southwest Harbor. Blizzard conditions were experienced for a few hours as the cyclone moved up into Canada. The storm caused extensive damage in many areas. Although many trees were blown down by the storm, many more were killed after large amounts of seawater were blown inland. Coastal flooding was seen from Brunswick to Eastport. A tidal surge went up the Penobscot River, flooding Bangor, Maine, for three hours around midday. At 11:15 am, waters began rising on the river and within 15 minutes had risen a total of 3.7 m flooding downtown. About 200 cars were submerged and office workers were stranded until waters receded. There were no reported deaths during this unusual flash flood.

Massachusetts
Boston, Massachusetts, set their lowest February pressure on record, with a reading of 28.48 inHg.

New York
Cyclonic flow and cold air around the backside of this system led to significant Lake effect snows for areas downwind of the Great Lakes.

Vermont
Burlington set a daily snow record on February 2 when 6.5 inches fell.

Canada effects
Significant damage occurred in southern New Brunswick, especially to the city of Saint John. Saint John experienced winds of 188 km/h (116 mph). Southwest Nova Scotia and southern New Brunswick experienced coastal flooding of up to 1.6 m deep causing extensive damage to wharves, coastal buildings, boats and vessels. Power and communications lines were also knocked out. The tides along the coast were increased due to the convergence of anomalistic, synodical, and tropical monthly tidal cycles peaking simultaneously (known as Saros); a once in 18-year event. Damage was estimated in the tens of millions of dollars. Offshore New Brunswick, 12-m (39 ft) waves with swells of 10 m were reported in the high seas. The decommissioned Grand Harbour Lighthouse at Fish Fluke Point on Grand Manan sustained extensive damage. The aftermath of this storm was worsened by a severe cold snap that followed the day after.

title: Groundhog Day gale of 1976


text:
Talk:Web hosting service

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article is or was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Heronhaus. Peer reviewers: Belinrahs, Haifaalburek.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 12:47, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

Hatnote is self-reference to avoid?
The hatnote linking WP:NOTWEBHOST seems to be a self-reference to avoid according to Manual of Style guidelines. Are there other opinions on this? ☆ Bri (talk) 19:15, 16 May 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Web hosting service


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/I saw Poland betrayed

Article is merely a book reference and a quote from the book. Bobblewik 09:44, 30 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Keep; "Poland's betrayal by the Western Allies" was POV; this can be NPOV, and I think a delete would be tending towards censorship. Dunc_Harris|☺ 12:45, 30 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Abstain: It's not POV.  If there were more on the book and, yes, its position in the official politics of the time, and less of a block quote (is the copoyright clear on such a long passage?), then it would be ok.  The writing is clear, and it might well be of worth, esp. since there are several books like this, of tired, disgruntled, "betrayed" ambassadors through history. Geogre 13:00, 30 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. If we delete an article on this book we'd have to delete articles on all books - from Crime and Punishment to For Whom the Bell Tolls. Otherwise it would be a sign of censorship. Also, the article was limited to one quote because the community failed to find a compromise description. Halibutt 15:34, Jul 30, 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep, and list on Pages Needing Attention. It was an influential book at the time, on a controversial issue. -FZ 17:17, 30 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep, but move to a title with proper capitalization -- I Saw Poland Betrayed. RickK 18:19, Jul 30, 2004 (UTC)
 * In agreement with previous posts, I think it should be kept. Personally, I think that mention of a book is not qualified as encyclopedic content unless it is something like "Crime and Punishment was written after Dostoevsky spent time in prison." or "The Prince was bedside reading for Adolf Hitler." or has something else historical or contextual about the book. However, until the policy is changed to delete all book references that do not contain encyclopedic content, I think it is as valid as any other book reference as a stub. My vote: Keep Skyler 16:57, Aug 4, 2004 (UTC)

 * Excellent point. If those above who know the book do not write more about it in the article, I recommend sending to Clean Up.  Geogre 18:56, 4 Aug 2004 (UTC)


text:
Penfold Park

Penfold Park is a public park managed by the Hong Kong Jockey Club in Sha Tin, Hong Kong. It is named after Major-General Bernard Penfold, the first general manager of the Jockey Club who was in office from 1972 to 1979.

The park is located in the centre (within the track) of the Sha Tin Racecourse with a gross area of over 20 acres. It features green areas, as well as pools used by various waterbirds. People around the area often go there to have a walk. There are many painted horse statues and artworks. It is closed during horse racing days and Mondays.

History
The park was briefly called Infield Park at opening on 11 May 1979. The chairman of the Jockey Club Board of Stewards, during the Stewards' annual general meeting on 17 September that year, announced that the park would be named in honour of Major-General Bernard Penfold. The chairman explained that the Stewards "considered the beautifying of the in-field with shrubs and trees to be a characteristic example of General Penfold's many achievements". General Penfold, the manager of the Jockey Club who presided over construction of the park, was slated to retire the following year after seven seasons as general manager.

During the years after SARS, there were a few slight bouts of bird flu, and the man-made lakes had been closed a few times to reduce the chance of visitors contracting the diseases. The Hong Kong Jockey Club had announced that Penfold Park would be closed from the end of July 2007 to April 2008 for the construction of training facilities for the 2008 Olympic equestrian events. On 17 January 2009, the park was reopened for the public.

Opening hours
On 22 September 2015, The Hong Kong Jockey Club announced that Penfold Park would be open year-round and with extended opening hours.

Transportation

 * – Fo Tan station or Racecourse station

title: Penfold Park


text:
Talk:Tony Frangieh

Untitled
The killing of Tony Franjieh is usually referred to as 'the murder of Tony Franjieh' rather than assassination. This is how most sources on the Lebanese conflict describe it and how the media of the time did so. There is also little doubt that the killers were acting on the direct orders of Bachir Gemayel. John Ball 30/07/04 10:50
 * I will try to find a source for this. I have seen admissions to the effect by some of Bachir's subordinates, as well as denials.  I will try to find sources for both.David Cannon 11:28, 30 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Don't forget that a Syrian checkpoint was removed from the Ehden road a few days before the murder. It is widely believed that one of the four major Syrian powers (Hikmit El-Shehabi) had an interest in Frangieh's death. Most common people believe that the Frangieh's are just "Syria's Men". This is a common belief among the population that gets its sources from the popular media. However, the Frangieh's are in an alliance with the Assad Family, not neccesarily the other three Syrian powers; two of them that were led by Shehabi and another by Abed El-Halim Khidam.

 * I think your edit is fine as NPOV. I'd be interested to see any denials that Gemayel did NOT order the killing. I find it difficult to believe his subordinates carrying out such a high profile operation without his say-so. Sources on the web tend to be dominated by Phalange and LF POV. As far as I am aware there have been attempts to blame the deaths on Hobeika, to claim that Tony was dead when they got there, that it was an arrest operation gone wrong and that Geagea was unconscious at the key moments. I am aware that Amnesty International were critical of Geagea's trial.

Name spelling
The international media, as well as the English-language Lebanese media, most commonly spell Frangieh's name with a G, not a J. Neither spelling is wrong, as they are but transpositions of Arabic letters, but unless there is a good reason otherwise, it is best to stick with the spelling most commonly used. I have reverted the page move. David Cannon 13:57, 22 Apr 2005 (UTC)

- Actually, doing a search for both Franjieh and Franjieh in Google News reveals that Franjieh with a J is most commonly used than with a G.

-- Google News:

[453 results] http://news.google.com/news?hl=en&lr=&tab=wn&ie=UTF-8&q=franjieh [30 results] http://news.google.com/news?hl=en&lr=&tab=wn&ie=UTF-8&q=frangieh

Suleiman Franjieh, Tony Franjieh's son, is also most commonly spelled with a J in the media:

[393 results] http://news.google.com/news?hl=en&lr=&tab=wn&ie=UTF-8&q=%22suleiman+franjieh%22 [2 results] http://news.google.com/news?hl=en&lr=&tab=wn&ie=UTF-8&q=%22suleiman+frangieh%22

-- Google:

[10,900] http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&lr=&q=franjieh [4,410] http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&lr=&q=frangieh

-- Yahoo

[45,800 results] http://search.yahoo.com/search?p=franjieh&ei=UTF-8&fr=FP-tab-web-t&fl=0&x=wrt [2,120 results] http://search.yahoo.com/search?p=frangieh&ei=UTF-8&fr=FP-tab-web-t&fl=0&x=wrt

-- MSN Search

[322105 results] http://search.msn.com/results.aspx?q=franjieh&FORM=QBHP [3275 results] http://search.msn.com/results.aspx?q=frangieh&FORM=QBNO

As you can see, Franjieh with a J is clearly the most predominant spelling.

 * I see. Two factors to consider: Other members of the family on Wikipedia are spelt with a G, and the Lebanon Wire newsagency (from which I have derived a significant proportion of the information used on Wikipedia) uses that spelling too. David Cannon 05:32, 23 Apr 2005 (UTC)

David,

I understand what you're saying here, but anyone can edit wikipedia and thus anything on wikipedia cannot be taken as a fact. But it still seems that everyone uses the Franjieh spelling with a J and not with a G.

In Google News, if you notice, there are more news agencies spelling the name with a J rather than with a G:

FRANJIEH: Arab News, Saudi Arabia Daily Star - Lebanon Los Angeles Times Aljazeera.com, UK Lebanese Lobby, Lebanon Khaleej Times, United Arab Emirates Reuters Guardian, UK Arabic News, Middle East San Diego Union Tribune Gulf Daily News, Bahrain World Peace Herald, DC Washington Times, DC Chosun Ilbo, South Korea Newsday, NY Express Newsline, India Big News Network.com, Australia Dar Al-Hayat, Saudi Arabia Al-Bawaba, Jordan Yemen Observer, Yemen Swissinfo, Switzerland New Zealand Herald, New Zealand ObviousNews.com, Canada Wired News BBC News, UK ChristianToday, UK Tribune de Genève, Switzerland Financial Times, UK Voice of America AsiaNews.it, Italy Salon Kansas City Star, MO Daily Times, Pakistan New Kerala, India Lebanese Lobby, Lebanon UN News Centre Keralanext, India AINA, CA

FRANGIEH: Parkesburg Ledger, PA The Yale Herald, Yale Daily News Khaleej Times, United Arab Emirates Peninsula On-line, Qatar Middle East Online, UK Tehran Times, Iran Times of Oman, Oman Baku Today, Azerbaijan Brisbane Courier Mail, Australia Daily News Transcript, MA

Do you want to correct the names to a J yourself, or do I do it?

title: Talk:Tony Frangieh


text:
Samuel Garth

Sir Samuel Garth FRS (1661 – 18 January 1719) was an English physician and poet.

Life
Garth was born in Bolam in County Durham and matriculated at Peterhouse, Cambridge in 1676, graduating B.A. in 1679 and M.A. in 1684. He took his M.D. and became a member of the College of Physicians in 1691. He settled as a physician in London and soon acquired a large practice. He was a zealous Whig, the friend of Addison and, though of different political views, of Pope. He ended his career as physician to George I, who knighted him in 1714. The politician John Garth was a nephew of Samuel Garth.

In 1699 Samuel Garth was called to give evidence in what became known as the Sarah Stout Affair. Spencer Cowper, a lawyer and member of a prominent Hertfordshire family, was accused with some friends of the murder of a Quaker woman called Sarah Stout. The prosecution asserted that because the body was floating when found, that it must have been put in the water after death. Opinions were given at the trial by Samuel Garth and Hans Sloane. It appears that aside from the fact that the body was floating when found, there was no other evidence to support the charge. The defendants were acquitted, but the case remains interesting as an early example of attempts to use 'expert testimony' and forensic science evidence in a trial.

He was notably sharp-tongued: "God help the country where St Leger is made a judge"! he exclaimed in 1714, on hearing that Sir John St Leger, an Irish Whig barrister, had been appointed a  High Court judge in Ireland.

For a while, he owned the manor of Edgcott in Buckinghamshire. He died on 18 January 1719.

Works
In 1697 he delivered the Harveian Oration, in which he advocated a scheme dating from some ten years back for providing dispensaries for the relief of the sick poor, as a protection against the greed of the apothecaries. In 1699 he published a mock-heroic poem, The Dispensary, in six cantos, which had an instant success, passing through three editions within a year. In this, he ridiculed the apothecaries and their allies among the physicians.

Garth’s work is a satirical take on the traditional epic poem, and is perhaps one of the better examples of the “medical poetry” genre.

Long has he been of that amphibious fry,

Bold to prescribe, and busy to apply;

His shop the gazing vulgar's eyes employs,

With foreign trinkets and domestic toys.

Here mummies lay, most reverently stale,

And there the tortoise hung her coat of mail;

Not far from some huge shark's devouring head

The flying-fish their finny pinions spread.

Aloft in rows large poppy-heads were strung,

And near, a scaly alligator hung.

In this place drugs in musty heaps decay'd,

In that dried bladders and false teeth were laid.

An inner room receives the num'rous shoals

Of such as pay to be reputed fools;

Globes stand by globes, volumes on volumes lie,

And planetary schemes amuse the eye.

The sage in velvet chair here lolls at ease,

To promise future health for present fees;

Then, as from tripod, solemn shams reveals,

And what the stars know nothing of foretells.

Our manufactures now they merely sell,

And their true value treacherously tell;

Nay, they discover, too, their spite is such,

That health, than crowns more valued, cost not much;

Whilst we must steer our conduct by these rules,

To cheat as tradesmen, or to starve as fools.

He is also remembered as the author of Claremont, a descriptive poem. He translated the Life of Otho in the fifth volume of Dryden's Plutarch, and also edited a translation of Ovid's Metamorphoses, to which Addison, Pope, and others contributed. His intervention ensured an honourable burial for John Dryden and he pronounced a eulogy at the funeral in Westminster Abbey.

In 1704 he wrote the prologue for the play Squire Trelooby which his fellow Kit-Cat Club members Congreve, Vanbrugh and William Walsh had created.

title: Samuel Garth


text:
Greenery Press

Greenery Press is an American publishing house based in Emeryville, California, specializing in books on BDSM (particularly femdom) and polyamory, with over 50 titles in print. Most titles are non-fiction, but a smaller number of fiction titles and memoirs are published under the Grass Stain Press name. Greenery's sales top 100,000 books per year.

History
Greenery Press was founded in 1991 by author Janet Hardy. In 1995 it merged with Jay Wiseman Books under the Greenery name. Hardy continues to run the company, while Wiseman continues to serve on the Press's board of directors. Greenery Press closed its new books program in 2019 upon the retirement of editorial director Janet W. Hardy and is no longer publishing new titles.

Program
Greenery's list of titles include works by such notable authors such as Hardy herself, Dossie Easton, Wiseman and Midori, their most popular title is The Ethical Slut: A Guide to Infinite Sexual Possibilities, which has been translated into several languages and has sold over 50,000 copies as of 2004.
 * Jay Wiseman, SM 101: A Realistic Introduction, Greenery Press, 2000. ISBN 0-9639763-8-9.
 * Jay Wiseman, Jay Wiseman's Erotic Bondage Handbook, Greenery Press, 2000. ISBN 1-890159-13-1.
 * Dossie Easton, Catherine A. Liszt, When Someone You Love Is Kinky, Greenery Press, 2000. ISBN 1-890159-23-9.
 * Dossie Easton, Janet W. Hardy, The New Topping Book. Greenery Press, 2003. ISBN 1-890159-36-0.
 * Dossie Easton, Janet W. Hardy, The New Bottoming Book. Greenery Press, 2001. ISBN 1-890159-35-2.
 * Midori, The Seductive Art of Japanese Bondage, Greenery Press, 2001. ISBN 1-890159-38-7.
 * Lorelei, The Mistress Manual: The Good Girl's Guide to Female Dominance, Greenery Press, 2000. ISBN 1-890159-19-0.
 * John Warren, The Loving Dominant, Greenery Press, 2000. ISBN 1-890159-20-4.
 * Andrew Conway, The Bullwhip Book, Greenery Press, 2000. ISBN 1-890159-18-2.
 * Joseph W. Bean, Flogging, Greenery Press, 2000. ISBN 1-890159-27-1.
 * M. R. Strict, Intimate Invasion: The Erotic Ins & Outs of Enema Play, Greenery Press, 2004. ISBN 1-890159-51-4.
 * Lady Green, The Compleat Spanker, Greenery Press, 2000. ISBN 1-890159-00-X.
 * Charles Anders, The Lazy Crossdresser, Greenery Press, 2002. ISBN 1-890159-37-9.
 * Laura Antoniou, Christina Abernathy, Erotic Slavehood: A Miss Abernathy Omnibus, Greenery Press, 2007, ISBN 1-890159-71-9
 * Christina Abernathy, Miss Abernathy's Concise Slave Training Manual, Greenery Press, 1998, ISBN 0-9639763-9-7
 * Christina Abernathy, Training with Miss Abernathy: A Workbook for Erotic Slaves and Their Owners, Greenery Press, 1998, ISBN 1-890159-07-7

References and further reading

 * San Francisco Chronicle, "Greenery Press specializes in off-color topics", October 19, 2001
 * Cuir Underground, Small Pervert Presses Fill the Gap, Issue 3.6, Summer 1997.
 * Specific

title: Greenery Press


text:
Talk:Greenery Press

Untitled
This is not an advertisement - Greenery Press is a well know publisher for the BDSM and other "alternative sexuality" communities. Dlloyd 09:53, 30 Jul 2004 (UTC) —Preceding unsigned comment added by Dlloyd (talk • contribs)
 * Agreed, this needs to be here. Kit 06:52:05, 2005-08-10 (UTC)
 * This relevant stub should be extented. --Nemissimo II 15:52, 12 February 2007 (UTC)

Looking at expanding this article
There's very little in the way of secondary sources to work from, however, the Cuir Underground article and the SFGate/Chronicle article, plus a few easily observed things such as the number of titles. I have tried to simplify the flow of the article as it exists, add a few facts that I have good secondary sources of, remove some redundancies in the links.

As for the flow, I wanted to collapse information about the company history and operation to it's own paragraph, ditto the list of some of the Press's notable authors. What other information can I get on GP from secondary sources, any ideas? --Joe Decker 08:13, 17 February 2007 (UTC)

Current status?
The official site now directs to a generic looking porn site. Anyone have a current status for this company? Thanks. Surv1v4l1st ╠Talk║Contribs╣ 19:09, 18 October 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Greenery Press


text:
Talk:Cornbread

Yellow v. white
From the article: "While various colors of cornmeal are used, the preference in the north tends to be for yellow cornmeal, whereas the south is heavily biased towards white cornmeal."

I have never seen cornbread made of white cornmeal and live in the south, and quite enjoy cornbread. I wonder if this was someone added this intending to make some sort of unsavory inference (even though as a strange a place it is to do so)... because really, I have never seen white cornbread!--172.175.232.83 09:57, 30 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * I live in the south and my grandfather makes white cornbread several times a week. 12.162.189.80 18:32, 22 August 2006 (UTC)

 * I have lived in both north and south. I think the color doesn't matter much. Both places use yellow and white. The Sweet and Salty issue is the real truth though. I never had sweet corn bread until I moved up north. Harmon1630 — Preceding undated comment added 23:36, 28 September 2006 (UTC)

 * The Cracker Barrel restaurant chain, found all over the Deep South, puts a small amount of sugar in their cornmeal batter. Or at least they did when I worked at one in the early 1990s. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.41.40.21 (talk) 18:37, 21 February 2007 (UTC)

 * I grew up in Mississippi and never knew white corn meal even existed until I moved out of the state. I can't speak for everywhere else, but white cornmeal being used in cornbread is very uncommon there. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 72.179.24.23 (talk) 18:52, 7 August 2007 (UTC)

 * I'm from the South, and have never seen white cornmeal or cornbread. All the cornmeal I've seen is yellow.  This is true in Florida, Georgia, and the Carolinas.  —Preceding unsigned comment added by 136.182.158.129 (talk) 22:01, 30 January 2008 (UTC)

 * Lived in the south all my life and both yellow and white, as well as sweet and salty cornbread was always just as common as the other. This being in Louisiana and Mississippi. (72.204.147.63 (talk) 16:03, 15 November 2009 (UTC))

 * In southeastern Kentucky, where I grew up and "bread" meant cornbread, we never used yellow meal (as "cornmeal" was called). And the old people in particular considered the "brought-on" degerminated kind inferior to the whole-grain kind we raised and had ground at the local mill. Eleanor1944 (talk) 02:11, 17 April 2012 (UTC)

Indian Pone v. Cornbread: To merge or not to merge?

 * merge Simply gives a recipe for cornbread under a different name. --Kerowyn 09:06, 27 January 2006 (UTC)
 * Yeah, do that Merge thing. Jack Cain 00:55, 29 January 2006 (UTC)
 * I vote to merge these two articles. --Dumarest 12:29, 27 February 2006 (UTC)
 * i vote against the merge, cornbread is made traditionally in many countries, such as in Mexico. 213.16.187.96 18:03, 1 April 2006 (UTC)
 * Indian Pone and Cornbread are not the same thing. Merging these two distinct foodstuffs would not only diminish the efficacy of wikipedia (why not just link the two seperate articles), but it would represent a factually and culturally incorrect attempt at doublespeak.  Although the origins of breads amde from corn may have originated in native american cultures, the traditional southern cake bread that is "corn pone" is an evolutionary step away from "indian pone."  Don't merge them. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 198.137.30.224 (talk) 20:17, 18 April 2006 (UTC)
 * Why would you merge?!  WHY?!?  Haha - honestly, though, why would anyone in their right mind merge "corn bread" with a crazy Indian dish?  That's like merging "spicy lamb stew" with "lamb boonah".  Jeez! — Preceding unsigned comment added by 172.203.82.216 (talk) 22:08, 21 April 2006 (UTC)
 * I grew up in the South, eating what I just read about in the article titled Indian Pone, and calling it cornbread. I am less inclined to classify other corn products listed as cornbread by wikipedia than indian pone.  Pone, as I see it, is just a cornbread cupcake. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Verdad (talk • contribs) 20:45, 16 May 2006 (UTC)
 * Though the two may be linked historically, cornbread has since become a southern tradition. The two should remain seperate, because modern times have seperated the two to such an extent it would be ludicrous to merge them. pone and cornbread, though similar, are totally different, due to recipe changes and location. Merging the two would generalize the two when they are both completely seperate entities...enough said. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 166.82.227.62 (talk) 22:30, 20 May 2006 (UTC)
 * Cornbread is generic. Corn pone is specific.  I agree that there isn't a lot of difference, but it's a sticky wicket.  I'm gonna merge them into the generic article, since the vote seems to be 6-3 in favor, remove the notice, and add the disambiguation reference.  If you feel strongly against the merger, revert, and we'll debate some more.Iamvered 22:11, 7 August 2006 (UTC)

Cornmeal or corn meal?
"White cornmeal is preferred over yellow corn meal in the southern United States". Is it one word or two? If it can be spelled either way then the article should really standardise one one. Thryduulf 16:58, 2 February 2006 (UTC)

 * in the south west US yellow corn meal is preffered206.80.29.190 (talk) 15:42, 24 April 2008 (UTC)

Hushpuppies
What about hushpuppies? Verdad 20:45, 16 May 2006 (UTC)

Sign your comments!
Please remember as we debate the finer points of cornbread to sign your comments with four tildes (~) Iamvered 22:06, 7 August 2006 (UTC)

The 'chemically, rather than by yeast' statement in the intro
Yeast leaveners raise chemically also, so couldn't we find another description rather than 'chemically'? Also, I don't know where eggs would fit into the 'mix'. Anchoress 02:14, 6 March 2007 (UTC)

 * Well, yeah, technically it's a chemical process, as is life in general, but I think the implication is that baking powder and baking soda/buttermilk use an acid-base reaction, while yeast action involves the whole series of biochemical reactions that are involved in providing energy to the cell, which is of course much more complicated. As for the eggs, they provide a protein matrix to support the bread, since corn lacks usable gluten. Haikupoet 02:59, 11 November 2007 (UTC)

 * The implication in note no. 1 that cornbread is made with yeast needs to be removed. It is made, as the introductory sentence of the article states, with baking soda (and without yeast!). But there is no mention of the other essential ingredient (other than cornmeal), that is, buttermilk (although in emergencies I have been known to substitute vinegar or lemon juice). — Preceding unsigned comment added by Eleanor1944 (talk • contribs) 04:42, 16 April 2012 (UTC)

Picture
Could anyone put a good description of what that pan made cornbread picture is exactly?

jptdrake 07:24, 10 March 2007 (UTC)

 * My picture is a Lodge 12" cast iron skillet
 * 68.184.117.135 (talk) 21:39, 4 May 2012 (UTC)Zankopedia

Trivia
Should there be a trivia section? For example, 2 Gryphon used Cornbread as an incitive to get his co-host to do his segment of the show ("Furry News"). Tikuko 18:27, 14 March 2007 (UTC)

 * Umm say what now? 65.12.135.63 16:45, 19 April 2007 (UTC)

Broa
What about merging the article Broa with this one, it would make sense to me.--194.251.240.117 06:46, 12 April 2007 (UTC)

 * I support merging. Jo7hs2 22:35, 10 November 2007 (UTC)

 * Yes, Broa is a type of cornbread which whould be described here, not in a separate article. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.217.91.94 (talk) 23:37, 4 May 2008 (UTC)

Slang Usage: "Eating the Cornbread"
"The term "eating the cornbread" is also used in sports talk radio to refer to fans who digest everything that a team's management says and believes it without question. It derives from the time of slavery when the slave masters had cornbread as a staple of the slaves' food because it was cheap to buy and filling to eat. In today's context, the fans are slaves to the team ownership and eat everything the team gives them willingly and hungrily, even if it is a substandard product.

''The Detroit Lions mandated that the non-rights holding sportsradio station in Detroit, Michigan WDFN stop calling their postgame show "The WDFN Detroit Lions Postgame Show". So, in a majority of the fans vote on line, on October 21, 2007, the Lions postgame show on WDFN was officially called "Cornbread Corner" hosted by Sean Baligian.''

See also: Drink the Kool-Aid"

I have deleted the section found above in quotes. This entry belongs on Urban Dictionary, not Wikipedia. This is for a number of reasons. First, the inherant racial undertones are not exceeded by the informative nature of the entry. Second, the it totally irrelevant to the article. Third, it is an un-common slang usage that does not merit inclusion in an ENCYCLOPEDIA. If a desire is expressed to discuss how slaves were fed cornbread due to cost, that might be a logical way of introducing this slang term, but on its own it does not possess an informative content significant enough to merit inclusion here. Finally, and most importantly, this is a short-term reference relating to a single sports show episode that is unlikely to catch on. It seems like the poster was motivated more by love of the show than the desire to present information. Stick it on Urban Dictionary. Jo7hs2 22:32, 10 November 2007 (UTC)

This is just stupid
Removed this:
 * Eating the Cornbread
 * The term "eating the cornbread" is also used in sports talk radio to refer to fans who digest everything that a team's management says and believes it without question. It derives from the time of slavery when the slave masters had cornbread as a staple of the slaves' diet because it was cheap to buy and filling to eat. In today's context, the fans are slaves to the team ownership and eat everything the team gives them willingly and hungrily, even if it is a substandard product.

This is just stupid. Not everyone plays sport and is a american, keep this food related guys. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 14:49, 13 April 2008 (talk) 58.170.62.8 (UTC)

Not baked but fried
Cornpone is not baked but fried in traditions I am aware of. I think this should be corrected in the main article. I'll wait and see if anyone doesnt agree. Certainly at the very least it should say "baked or fried" Carlw4514 (talk) 16:04, 2 January 2009 (UTC)

Poorly written
I do not mean to insult the author(s) of this article, but it is horribly written. It reads like a grade school essay. It needs not just a series of revisions, but to be chucked in its entirety and re-written from scratch in encyclopedic style with sources cited. I see nothing salvageable.72.11.124.226 (talk) 16:46, 15 July 2009 (UTC)

 * Thank you for your suggestion. When you believe an article needs improvement, please feel free to make those changes. Wikipedia is a wiki, so anyone can edit almost any article by simply following the  link at the top. The Wikipedia community encourages you to be bold in updating pages. Don't worry too much about making honest mistakes—they're likely to be found and corrected quickly. If you're not sure how editing works, check out how to edit a page, or use the sandbox to try out your editing skills.  New contributors are always welcome. You don't even need to log in (although there are many reasons why you might want to). Jonathunder (talk) 03:00, 16 November 2009 (UTC)

This article has much good material, but it is confused and inconsistent in some ways. The only way anyone could really fix it would be to completely reorganize it--essentially rewriting it largely from scratch. I would hesitate to do so, for part of the inconsistency seems to be based on geographical variations, even within the American South. And I'm sure there are places, especially cities, where outside, non-Southern influences have entered. Part of the confusion seems also to result from accounts by people without any real personal tradition of this food. Notwithstanding wikipedia's insistence on "reliable" published sources, this is the sort of subject where personal experience is best, especially if it takes into account regional variation.

The following passage from the article provides one example of confusion
 * "Skillet-fried or skillet-baked cornbread (often simply called skillet bread or hoecake depending on the container in which it is cooked) is a traditional staple of rural cuisine in the United States, especially in the South. This involves heating bacon drippings, lard or other oil in a heavy, well-seasoned cast iron skillet in an oven, and then pouring a batter made from cornmeal, egg, and milk directly into the hot grease. The mixture is returned to the oven to bake into a large, crumbly and sometimes very moist cake with a crunchy crust. This bread tends to be dense and usually served as an accompaniment rather than as a bread served as a regular course."

For one thing, this completely confuses baked cornbread (yes, traditionally with the skillet or pan greased with lard, but with many people today substituting oil or whatever) and hoe cakes (which are fried as small cakes rather than as one large pone).The distinction is not the container, as bread can be baked in a skillet or fried in the same skillet as hoe cakes. As for ingredients, eggs are optional (some members of my family always have disagreed on this). As for milk, it has to be butter milk in order for the bread to rise. And a passage such as "usually served as an accompaniment rather than as a bread served as a regular course" seems to represent mere personal, even perhaps eccentric, preference,as the big hot pone of "bread" traditionally has been a main part of a big meal. Parts of this passage seem to represent good advice (e.g., heating the skillet first) but not necessarily how it is usually done. And there are many other subtleties; for example, hoe cakes tend, at least in my experience, to be something prepared in a hurry, not for Sunday dinner (although they an be even better than a baked pone). As for crumbling it in milk, that is true (my mother loved a snack of "milk and bread") but that normally is just a way of using cold leftovers for, say, a midnight snack. Sorry, I don't mean to be cranky about all this. Eleanor1944 (talk) 20:58, 17 April 2012 (UTC)

 * My favourite part is the description of poor children's lunches. Yum yum. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 90.201.225.70 (talk) 17:37, 19 April 2012 (UTC)

 * A postscript to my comments of 17 April: After talking to other members of my family, including the best cooks, I want to say that although my statement about a pre-heated, pre-greased iron skillet is correct (i.e., that this is not always done), this is indeed recommented. Also, I am told that although buttermilk is not absolutely essential, cornbread made with "sweet milk" (the Southern term for milk that has not become "blinky" and "clabbered" and then churned) is not very good. That is probably one reason--in addition (horror of horrors!)to sugar having been added--some cornbread I have eaten in restuarants is not up to par. Of course, baking powder includes both acid and alkaline. Something else I had forgotten and that is not included in the article either is that some people used to make "sody bread," which included baking soda in addition to baking power (and turned the bread, which of course was made of white meal, yellow). Eleanor1944 (talk) 19:37, 29 April 2012 (UTC)

 * Another kind of cornbread I saw/tried once or twice in the 1950s (and didn't care much for) is "grit bread," made of fresh corn that is too hard for use as roasting ears. I had forgotten the term, but an older person refreshed my memory. Eleanor1944 (talk) 19:39, 29 April 2012 (UTC)

Incorrect statement as to the origin of cornbread
I strongly decry the statement that cornbread originated from soul food. In fact, Native Americans had been eating nyxtamalized and untreated maize for centuries before the first African was introduced to the Americas. The first European settlers also adopted maize as a staple and useful food. Grits, hoecakes, hominy and all sorts of unleavened maize breads must, in all fairness, be credited to the cultures of the Native Americans from which they actually originated. Does anyone object to correcting this statement?Cobaltcanarycherry (talk) —Preceding undated comment added 19:15, 14 February 2012 (UTC).

 * Origin? Native American; sure. I think the statement already in the article about European's combining their own cooking techniques to form their own recipes is correct. I think of the the Navtive Americans cooking as a more flat corn cake/bread and the Europeans using leavening to make the fluffier variety unless I'm wrong on that account. Did the NA's leaven? Avalon321 (talk) 04:54, 25 February 2012 (UTC)

 * Apparently, the NA's used wood ashes for a crude form of leavening. So, not yeast or baking powder/soda, but a chemically similar substitute, and this was adopted by colonists.  I have a reference on a commercial website.  What would be an adequate reference for the article?Cobaltcanarycherry (talk) 04:08, 3 March 2012 (UTC)

"Light cornbread"
I've moved " In the border states and parts of the Upper South, a cross between the two traditions is known as "light cornbread."" here to discuss. It's obviously unsourced. What I found that relates if not to border states but to the Civil War is "light cornbread A spongy cornbread made by southern soldiers (and often by their northern prisoners). The soft part of the cornbread was soaked overnight, making it sour. This was whipped into a light, sweet batter by adding soda. New extra meal was then added to provide more body before the bread was baked." from ''The Language of the Civil War## By John D. Wright, repeated at. I can find recipes for a "light cornbread" but they are made with cornmeal and flour and don't say anything about being a cross. I'll check my cornbread cookbooks next. Dougweller (talk) 11:04, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

British bakers and supermarkets sell a yeast cornbread
The Portuguese also make a yeasted cornbread. And here's a recipe for an American one. Doug Weller  talk 21:39, 30 November 2017 (UTC)

Quick bread or cake?
The article says it's a quick bread, but it's on List of cakes which identifies it as such. Which one is it? TypoEater (talk) 16:15, 2 October 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Cornbread


text:
Talk:Belfast South (UK Parliament constituency)

Untitled
There may have been talk of the DUP taking the Westminster seat, but only from DUP spinmeisters. Look at the Assembly election results. This is the last majority Unionist seat in NI the DUP could take. Gerry Lynch 09:58, 30 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Looking at it again I guess you're right, though the DUP vote has risen. Mind you with the recent state of things severe pessimism about the UUP's chances anywhere can set in. Timrollpickering 10:22, 30 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Well, it looks like we were both sort of wrong Tim! Gerry Lynch 17:57, 20 May 2005 (UTC)

The page says the seat was created in 1922, but the list of MPs goes back to the 19th century. --Helenalex (talk) 04:15, 21 November 2007 (UTC)