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Belém Palace

The Belém Palace (Palácio de Belém), formally the National Palace of Belém, (Palácio Nacional de Belém), is the current official residence of the president of the Portuguese Republic, the head of state of Portugal. Located in the Belém District of Lisbon, the palace's main façade fronts the Praça Afonso de Albuquerque, facing the Tagus River. A former residence of the Portuguese royal family, the Belém Palace complex is made up of various buildings, wings, courtyards, and gardens, built variously from the 18th to 21st centuries.

History
The site was originally part of the Outeiro das Vinhas, a property that fronted the beach of the Tagus River. D. Manuel of Portugal, a diplomat and poet who was the son of the 1st Count of Vimioso, acquired the land in 1559, naming it Quinta de Belém and constructing a building with three salons and two atria. By the mid-17th century the property was linked to a scion of the Royal Court, then transferred to the possession of the Counts of Aveiras and occupied by a convent.

The land was later acquired by King John V, who ordered its reconstruction in 1726. It encompassed two parcels, the Quinta de Baixo and Quinta do Meio, which the monarch purchased from João da Silva Telo, 3rd Count of Aveiros for 200,000 cruzados, in addition to the contiguous farmlands of the Counts of São Lourenço, with the objective of constructing a summer home. Although it is unclear when the first building was completed, by 1754 Queen Maria Anna of Austria had already died in the residence.

During the aftermath of the 1755 Lisbon earthquake, it was determined that there was superficial damage and no fear of collapse, but a number of repairs were completed between 1755 and 1756. Under supervision of the architect João Pedro Ludovice, the Casa Real de Campo de Belém (Belém Royal Country House) or Palácio das Leoneiras also received attention. Work included replacing tile and repairs to the greenhouses and stables. Similarly, around 1770, architect Mateus Vicente de Oliveira undertook reconstruction of the total estate. This was the beginning of several small projects within the residence that included the painting of the Sala das Bicas, the replacement of azulejo tiles along the southern veranda (1778), and construction of the birdhouses (1780). Initial construction of the Neoclassical horse training arena, designed by the Italian Giacomo Azzolini, began in 1828. The space is now occupied by the National Coach Museum After 1807, with the departure of the royal family for Brazil, the furniture and artwork were removed from the palace, and the building was abandoned until the end of the Liberal Wars.

By 1839, the palace was once again used to hold royal balls, and served as the temporary residence for visiting royal dignitaries. In 1840, during extensive renovations of the Palace of Necessidades, the royal family returned to Belém and resided in the palace during that decade. The Infanta Antónia was born there in 1845. By 1850, renovation of the grand ballroom was complete, permitting Queen Maria II to receive Portuguese society, and in September 1861, the Infanta was married there to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern. In November 1861, the Infante Augusto died, followed by the Infante João on Christmas. A succession of deaths forced the royal family to abandon the palace, and it once again became a residence for visiting dignitaries. This change in purpose was accompanied by small repairs to the building, as well as the installation of gas lines and new lighting.

In 1886, after his marriage to Princess Amélie of Orléans, King Carlos ordered renovations of the palace to prepare it as the royal residence. These were completed under the direction of architect Rafael de Silva Castro; the interior was decorated by Leandro Braga, Columbano and João Vaz. The palace was the birthplace of the Prince Royal Luís Filipe in 1887 and Manuel in 1889.

Between 1902 and 1903, remodelling of the interior spaces was undertaken by Rosendo Carvalheira, with the additional construction of a visitors' house on the north walk of the Pátio das Damas to receive delegations of foreign dignitaries. This addition was inaugurated with the official visit of the King of Spain, Alfonso XIII, to Portugal at the end of 1903. The following year, the training stables were separated from the palace and destined to shelter the National Coach Museum.

By a royal decree published in the Diário do Governo (4 September), the palace ceased to operate as a royal residence, and passed to the Treasury for the "accommodation of heads of state, princes and foreign missions that come on an official visit to Lisbon, leaving for that purpose by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs".

Republic
Following the 5 October 1910 Revolution, the Secretaria-Geral da Presidência da República (Secretary-General of the Presidency) moved into the palace on 24 August 1911, as article 45 of the Constitution prohibited the chief of state from occupying a residence on properties held by the state. A loophole in the document allowed the authorization on 28 June 1912 of a government edict to rent an annex alongside the palace for 100,000 réis per month to house the first president, Manuel de Arriaga, who eventually preferred to live in his local residence and work at the palace. This policy of renting the space continued throughout the period of the First Republic.

After the assassination of President Sidónio Pais in 1918 at the Rossio railway station, the ex-president's body lay in state in the Sala Luís XV (Luís XV Hall) until his burial.

The official residency law for the president of the republic was promulgated on 24 March 1928. It specified that the president and his family would be permitted to reside in one of the national palaces. At the time of the promulgation, General Óscar Carmona decided to reside in the Citadel of Cascais, leaving the Palace of Belém for ceremonial affairs, official meetings, receptions and other formal occasions. In anticipation of the projected visit of the King of Spain, the palace underwent several renovations, although the visit did not materialize. In 1936, the main staircase was expanded by António Lino and finished by Cristino da Silva.

During the term of General Francisco Craveiro Lopes (1951–1952) the Arrábida wing was remodelled to serve as the residence of the president of the republic.

In 1967, the property was finally classified as an IIP - Imóvel de Interesse Público (Property of Public Interest), by decree 47-508, published in the Diário do Governo on 24 January 1967. The palace was closed in 1969 to repair damage from the earthquake of that year. After the Carnation Revolution, the palace was made the headquarters of the Junta de Salvação Nacional (National Salvation Junta). It also experienced the traumas of the new democracy with the counter-revolutionary attempts by António Spínola and Francisco da Costa Gomes. As in previous administrations, Belém Palace underwent new renovations in the Arrábida wing in order to accommodate the demands of the president and his family. While some presidents resided in Belém, others such as Mário Soares, Jorge Sampaio, Aníbal Cavaco Silva and the current president, Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa, used it merely as a workplace, living in their private residences during their terms.

Between 1980 and 1985, the main dining hall was used to exhibit gifts received by the chief of state. In 1998, the construction of the Centro de Documentação e Informação (Documentation and Information Centre), was begun by architect João Luís Carrilho da Graça, the winner of a public competition promoted by the Secretary-General of the Presidency.

President Jorge Sampaio commissioned painter Paula Rego for a series of paintings to decorate the walls of the palace chapel in 2002. The painter eventually gave her works entitled "Ciclo da Vida da Virgem Maria e da Paixão de Jesus Cristo" (Cycle of Life of the Virgin Mary and the Passion of Jesus Christ". The early exhibitions and Presidential initiatives would lead to the inauguration on 5 October 2004 of the Presidential Museum (Museu da Presidência da República). Similarly, the King D. Luís I Painting Gallery was the setting for the 2005 exposition, Do Palácio de Belém, which presented the history of the palace and its architecture, as well as an overview of artistic works that have been displayed there.

On 10 March 2006, a Ministry of Culture dispatch reclassified the palace as a National Monument to include the palace, gardens, Museum of the Presidency and other annexes.

Exterior
Belém Palace is a "L" shape building, with the main space located in a rectangular three-volume space in the south façade. This front, which faces the formal gardens, presents a space of five bodies, flanked by wedges surmounted by pinnacles. A combination of Mannerist and Baroque styles, has a central body with floor level arcades, over a colonnade gallery surmounted by a triangular pediment decorated in stucco.

The two outside blocks are farther in front then the main building, forming a terrace delimited by balusters and accessible by lateral staircases. The top of these lateral walls are topped by twelve panels of monochromatic azulejo tile. On the veranda are 14 azulejo panels representing figures from mythology, with many showing the "Labours of Hercules", including "Plutão e Cérbero" (Pluto and Cerberus), "Vénus" (Venus), "Neptuno" (Neptune), "Hércules" (Hercules), "Hércules e a égua de Diómedes" (Hercules and the Mares of Diomedes), "Figura masculina" (Masculine figure), "Figura masculina com arco e flechas" (Masculine figure with bow and arrow), two panels of "Figura feminina" (Female figure), "Hércules e a ave de Estinfália" (Hercules and the Stymphalian birds), "Figura masculina com machado" (Masculine figure with hoe), "Hércules e a serpente de Ládon" (Hercules and the serpent Ladon), "Hércules e o touro de Creta" (Hercules and the Cretan Bull), "Hércules e a Hidra de Lerna" (Hercules and the Lernaean Hydra). There are also two rows of tiles with geometric patterns and acanthus leaves. The eastern façade, which fronts the Pátio das Damas (Lady's Patio), features two levels of windows and portal. The western wing is served from the Pátio dos Bichos (Animals' Patio), where a gated entrance and ramp provides access to the principal staircase via an elevated space that overlooks the Jardim da Cascata (Falls Garden). The space was resurfaced and re-paved with stone at the beginning of the 21st century.

Immediately in front of the palace, fronting the Rua de Belém, are the formal gardens. Of an 18th-century design, they consist of a terrace enclosed by a balustrade adorned with statues and intersecting pattern of hedges around three circular ponds. In the Jardim da Cascata (in the northwest corner of the grounds) there are three pavilions (greenhouses) of capstone topped by a decorative railing, with vases and statues. Inserted within a rounded-arch is a waterfall featuring a statue of Hercules.

In the central pavilion are six azulejo panels forming a figurative composition, completed in the 19th century. The central composition is in black and white, while the trim is polychromatic: yellow, green and manganese plant ornamentation. These panels include: an "Outdoor Scene", "Two female figures and a male figure in the park, with fruit basket", "Standing female figure gives an apple to a male figure", a "Backgammon game", "Music in the Garden" and "Music in the Garden, with harpsichord and violin".

Interior
The main space is highlighted by a linear sequence of rooms along the south elevation, dominated by the Sala das Bicas (Room of the Spouts), a grand vestibule paved in marble. The ceiling is panelled with an allegorical composition of carved flora and 18th-century polychromatic azulejo ashlars, completed in the last quarter of that century. In the space one can observe along one wall two round marble fountains with lion heads, which give the space its name. In addition, the space is surrounded by eight jasper busts on plinths, representing Roman emperors.

In the Sala Dourada or Salão de Baile (Golden Room or Ballroom, respectively) the ceiling is panelled with a central allegory of the Roman Empire, with murals and crown moulding medallions in a neo-Pompeian motif.

The Sala Luís XV (Louis Quinze Room), also panelled, is highlighted by a series of paintings surmounted two shields of the House of Braganza and Orléans.

The narrow rectangular chapel, with smooth walls and wood panelling, is occupied by a Neoclassical retable in gold-leafed wood, with a painting by André Reinoso representing the "A Adoração dos Pastores" (The Adoration of the Shepherds). The vaulted ceiling is decorated with a profusion of decorative motifs in a "ferronneire" similar to those found in the Sala Dourada. On the walls are paintings by the artist Paula Rego, representing the "Ciclo da Vida da Virgem Maria e da Paixão de Jesus Cristo" (Circle of Life of the Virgin Mary and the Passion of Christ).

title: Belém Palace


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List of governors of California before 1850

Below is a list of the governors of early California (1769–1850), before its admission as the 31st U.S. state. First explored by Gaspar de Portolá, with colonies established at San Diego and Monterey, California was a remote, sparsely-settled Spanish province of New Spain. In 1822, following Mexican independence, California became part of Mexico.

In 1836, a coup led by Californios Juan Bautista Alvarado and José Castro eventually resulted in Alvarado becoming governor. That conflict ended in 1838, when the central government of Mexico recognized Alvarado as California Governor. The territorial diputación (legislature) approved the appointment.

Another disputed governorship occurred in 1844, settled when another Californio, Pio Pico, became the last Governor of Mexican California. In 1846, the "Bear Flag Revolt" in Sonoma declared California an independent republic—the "Bear Flag Republic". No government was formed, however, and the revolt did not have time to spread very far because California came under U.S. military occupation at the outset of the Mexican–American War less than a month later. California was ceded to the U.S. in 1848, and was admitted as the 31st U.S. state on September 9, 1850. Peter Burnett, the last governor of the post-war military territory, became its first state governor after admission.

Spanish rule (1769–1822)
The Spanish Empire established its rule in the Californias in 1769. During this time, the Californias encompassed a massive territorial expanse, including both Alta California (present day U.S. state of California) and Baja California (present day Mexican states of Baja California and Baja California Sur), which were governed under a military administration led by the Governor of the Californias. In 1804, the Californias were officially divided into two administrations: Alta California, based in Monterey, and Baja California, based in Loreto.

Spanish governors of the Californias (1769–1804)
From 1769 to 1804, the Californias were governed as one administrative unit within the Spanish Empire. Following 1804, Alta California and Baja California each had their own administration.

Spanish governors of Alta California (1804–1822)
Following the division of the Californias in 1804, Alta California came to have its own administration. José Joaquín de Arrillaga, who had served as Governor of the Californias until 1804 subsequently served as the first governor of Alta California.

Mexican rule (1822–1846)
Following the Mexican War of Independence from the Spanish, both of the Californias became part of the newly independent Mexico in 1822. Mexican rule was interrupted from 1836 to 1838 by the Californio independence movement led by Juan Bautista Alvarado, who was acclaimed President of Alta California. However, Alvarado entered into negotiations with the Mexican government in 1838, which resulted in the disbandment of the Californio independence movement in favor of greater autonomy and the appointment of Alvarado as governor, thus reestablishing Mexican rule in Alta California, which lasted until 1846.

President of Alta California (1836–1837)
Following the appointments of unpopular governors Gutiérrez and Chico, Juan Bautista Alvarado successfully led a popular uprising of Californios in 1836 which deposed Gutiérrez, proclaimed the independence of Alta California from Mexico, and named Alvarado as its president. Alvarado maintained effective control over California until he entered into negotiations with the Mexican central government in 1837, which resulted in the disbandment of Alta Californian independence in favor of greater autonomy from the Mexican government and recognition of Alvarado as Governor of Alta California.

Mexican governors of California (1837–47)
While Juan Bautista Alvarado maintained effective control as President of Alta California from 1836 to 1837, the Mexican central government appointed noted Californio statesman Carlos Antonio Carrillo as Governor of California to lead the nationalist offensive against Alvarado. As Carrillo was unsuccessful, Alvarado and the Mexican central government negotiated an end to the civil war in Alta California, resulting in Alvarado's abandonment of independence in favor of greater autonomy and the governorship, thus reestablishing the continuity of Mexican governance over Alta California.

American rule
Following the American Conquest of California, forces part of the Pacific Squadron and California Battalion established U.S. military rule in California, beginning in 1846. Military governors ruled California until 1849, when efforts led by Bennet C. Riley led to the creation of the Constitution of California at the Constitutional Convention of Monterey and the establishment of civilian rule with the election of Peter Hardeman Burnett as the first Governor of California. Soon after, California was admitted as a state.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Talk:Sons of Odin

Daughters?
The Wikipedia entry on Valkyrie mentions that they are generally held to be daughters of Odin. OlafW 19:21, 3 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * Added here what I believe is the only reference in old sources to a daughter of Odin. I have also fixed the Valkyrie article per OlafW's comment. Jallan 20:51, 28 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Hel?
I'm just trying to dab Hel, but where it says Hel in this article, it sounds more like a place and not a goddess. Hel is the goddess of the underworlds, Helheim and Niflheim, in Norse mythology, so could the person who wrote the intro be refering to the underworlds ruled by Hel? BlankVerse 15:17, 5 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Vidar
The article in its current state is heavily based on the idea that Vidar is not explicitly a son of Odin in the poems. So, contrary to that idea, may I point your attention to 54 (55 in some cases) of the Voluspa. The text clearly speaks of Vidar, son of Odin, who avenges Odin's death by killing Fenrir. Thus Thor, Baldr, and Vali (Odinsson) are not the only sons of Odin. If no one objects before too long I will make the changes. --Trakon 09:48, 20 October 2007 (UTC)

 * Correct, and someone eventually did. I'm going to change the text more smoothly. But this article also desperately needs non-primary sources. Yngvadottir (talk) 04:12, 18 August 2014 (UTC)

Sons of Odin the god as opposed to Odin the king
I propose to make a subheading for the sons of Odin in the Christian retellings, which turn him into a king of the East, to separate them from the sons in the original mythology. Odin's genealogy is too different in those sources, and incompatible with the one from the original myths. Right now is a bit confusing, because one can't tell apart which of those sons belong to Odin the god, and which ones (for example Freyr) only belong to Odin the king. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 193.33.2.101 (talk) 09:45, 13 October 2015 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Sons of Odin


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CAE Inc.

CAE Inc. (formerly Canadian Aviation Electronics) is a Canadian manufacturer of simulation technologies, modelling technologies and training services to airlines, aircraft manufacturers, healthcare specialists, and defence customers. CAE was founded in 1947, and has manufacturing operations and training facilities in 35 countries.

Flight simulators
CAE sells flight simulators and training devices to airlines, aircraft manufacturers and training centres. It licenses its simulation software to various market segments and has a professional services division.

The simulators include basic training devices CAE 400XR and CAE 500XR, and full-motion products such as the CAE 3000, CAE 5000 and CAE 7000XR. These simulators are available for commercial use. In 2016, the company sold 53 Full-Flight Simulators.

In 2001, CAE Inc. acquired BAE Systems's Flight Simulation and Training division, formerly known as Reflectone Inc, a publicly listed company founded in 1939, and based in Tampa, Florida. Reflectone sold flight simulators to the military and provided pilot training on its premises.

In 2021, CAE announced the purchase of the Military Training businesses of L3Harris Technologies; the purchase includes Link Simulation & Training which traces its corporate history to the original flight simulators designed and built by Ed Link.

Pilot training
CAE conducts airline pilot training and business jet pilot training in its 50 aviation training centres worldwide.

In the United States, the firm is a supplier of initial and recurrency training for airlines such as JetBlue and non-airline based companies, including charter and cargo operators. In December 2001, the firm acquired Simuflite training centers in Dallas, Texas, and Morristown, New Jersey, which are now called CAE SimuFlite. The facility at Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport is the largest business aviation training facility in the world at 426000 sqft, with 34 simulators and approximately 450 employees.

In February 2016, CAE Inc. acquired one of its competitors, Lockheed Martin Commercial Flight Training, formerly known as Sim-Industries.

CAE also operates the CAE Oxford Aviation Academy, the largest ab initio flight training network in the world, with a fleet of over 220 aircraft and seven campuses worldwide, CAE Global Academy Phoenix, and Sabena Flight Academy in Belgium.

As of February 2020, CAE also works together with Airways Aviation Academy, formerly known as ESMA in Montpellier, South of France, for training students from Oxford and Brussels.

Healthcare
In 2011, CAE purchased Medical Education Technologies Inc. (METI), a Sarasota-based company known for its patient simulator, the HPS. In October 2023, CAE announced the sale of its Healthcare business to Chicago-based Madison Industries for an enterprise value of C$311 million, subject to customary adjustments.

Corporate governance
The CEO, Marc Parent, was named in this role in October 2009. He has more than 25 years of experience in the aerospace industry. Born in Montreal, Parent is a graduate of Mechanical Engineering from Montreal's École Polytechnique and attended Harvard Business School's six-week Advanced Management Program.

In October 2008, CAE was named one of "Canada's Top 100 Employers" by Mediacorp Canada Inc., and was featured in Maclean's newsmagazine.

Publications
In September 2021, with the UK P&I Club and Witherbys, CAE launched a safety publication entitled Maritime Team Dynamics, a safety book comparing aviation and maritime incidents.

title: CAE Inc.


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Shafik Wazzan

Shafik Al-Wazzan (شفيق الوزان, January 16, 1925 – July 8, 1999) was a Lebanese politician who served as the 27th Prime Minister of Lebanon from 1980 until 1984. In December 1991, Wazzan was wounded when a car bomb exploded in the Beirut neighborhood of Basta Al Fouka (where he lived) as he was passing through in an armored car.

Biography
After political strife had left Lebanon without a government for 137 days, Wazzan was urged into office. He oversaw the withdrawal of Palestinian guerillas from Beirut in 1982.

Wazzan had a son (Dr. Wassim Al Wazzan) and a daughter. He died in 1999 at the age of 74.

title: Shafik Wazzan


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Morningside Park (Manhattan)

Morningside Park is a 30 acre public park in Upper Manhattan, New York City. The park is bounded by 110th Street to the south, 123rd Street to the north, Morningside Avenue to the east, and Morningside Drive to the west. A cliff made of Manhattan schist runs through the park and separates Morningside Heights, above the cliff to the west, from Harlem. The park includes other rock outcroppings; a human-made ornamental pond and waterfall; three sculptures; several athletic fields; playgrounds; and an arboretum. Morningside Park is operated by the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation, although the group Friends of Morningside Park helps maintain it.

The area near Morningside Park was originally known as Muscota by the Lenape Native Americans in the Delaware languages. A park in this location was first proposed by the Central Park commissioners in 1867, and the city commissioned Central Park's designers Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux to produce a design for the park in 1873. Jacob Wrey Mould was hired to design new plans in 1880, but little progress occurred until Olmsted and Vaux were asked to modify the plans following Mould's death in 1886. The Lafayette and Washington, Carl Schurz Monument, and Seligman Fountain sculptures were installed after the park was completed in 1895.

After a period of neglect in the early 20th century, the park received sporting fields and playgrounds between the 1930s and the 1950s. Columbia University proposed constructing a gym in the southern end of the park in the early 1960s; the plan was abandoned after students organized protests against the gym in 1968, citing concerns over racial segregation. In the late 20th century, Morningside Park gained a reputation for high crime rates, and several groups devised plans to renovate the park. The site of the unbuilt Columbia gym was turned into a waterfall and pond in 1990, and the park's arboretum was added in 1998. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission designated Morningside Park as a scenic landmark in 2008.

Site

Morningside Park straddles the more-than-100 ft cliff between the high terrain of Morningside Heights to the west and the lowlands of Harlem to the east. The cliff was created through fault movement and smoothed during several glacial periods in the last several million years. Before the 17th century, when modern-day Manhattan was settled by Europeans, the region had been occupied by the Lenape Native Americans for several thousand years. The Lenape referred to the area near the park as Muscota or Muscoota, meaning 'place of rushes'.

Dutch settlers occupied Manhattan in the early 17th century and called the area around Morningside Park Vredendal, meaning 'peaceful dale'. The lowlands to the east were called Flacken by the Dutch, and were later translated to "Flats" in English. The land to the east was not settled initially because of its marshy topography. The area became known as Montagne's (or Montayne's) Flat after Johannes de la Montagne, who was among the first European settlers of New Harlem in 1658; he owned about 200 acre between what is now 109th and 124th Streets. The western boundary of the area was the cliff, while the eastern boundary was a creek that emptied east into the East River. Montagne's Flat was subdivided into lots in 1662, and four years later a new charter for New Harlem was given to the English, who had seized New Netherland, renaming it New York. Through the 17th and 18th centuries, the cliff formed a geopolitical boundary between Harlem to the east and the heights to the west.

The western boundary of New Harlem was drawn through the present-day Morningside Park in 1666, running from 74th Street at the East River to 124th Street at the North River (now the Hudson River). To the west of the line were the common lands of the Province of New York, which were sold to Jacob De Key in 1701. Following Harman Vandewater's acquisition of part of the De Key farm by 1735, it was called Vandewater Heights by 1738. Vandewater Heights would then be sold by 1785 to James W. De Peyster. There were disputes over the De Key farm throughout the 18th century, disputes which eventually resulted in the cliffside's being named as the farm's eastern boundary. Meanwhile, Montagne's Flat was owned by several families in the 17th and 18th centuries, some of whom were slaveholders, according to censuses taken in 1790, 1800, and 1810. British Army colonial forces used a road on the farm to retreat during the September 16, 1776, Battle of Harlem Heights, one of the battles of the American Revolutionary War.

In the Commissioners' Plan of 1811, which laid out a grid system for Manhattan island, little regard was given to the topography of the area. Shortly afterward, during the War of 1812, several blockhouse fortifications were built in the area. The first such fort was built in what is now Central Park, and three other blockhouses numbered 2, 3, and 4 were erected within present-day Morningside Park. The blockhouses at Morningside Park were along the cliff and were numbered from north to south: No. 2 at 113th–114th Streets, No. 3 at 121st Street, and No. 4 at 123rd Street. These would not be used in battle and were left to deteriorate. Morningside Heights would remain sparsely developed for the next half-century except for the Bloomingdale Insane Asylum and the Leake and Watts Orphan Asylum.

Initial plans
By 1866, the state legislature had given the Central Park commissioners the authority to construct streets on Manhattan's west side from 67th to 155th Streets. In 1867, lead Central Park commissioner Andrew Haswell Green proposed that a park be built in Morningside Heights to avoid the expense of expanding the Manhattan street grid across extremely steep terrain. Green enclosed a map by John J. Serrell that modified the Commissioners' Plan to this extent. The Central Park commissioners passed an act on March 26, 1868, allowing the acquisition of lands for parks. Under this act, the commissioners purchased 31.238 acre, and seized another 0.018 acre through eminent domain, at a total cost of US$1.33 million.

In April 1870, the Central Park commission was dissolved and the City of New York obtained jurisdiction over the property. That September, Department of Public Parks (DPP) chief engineer Montgomery A. Kellogg was asked to create a plan for Morningside Park. Over the next year, the city would spend $5,500 to conduct surveys of the proposed parkland. Kellogg presented a design for the park in October 1871. The New York Times said that the park's name was apt for it would "[possess] a sunny exposure in the early morning hours," and described the planned park as having "handsome walks, flower-beds, jetting fountains, [and] a play-ground" among other things. The Times predicted that the planned Morningside Park "will doubtless be a favorite resort for children and invalids." Kellogg's plan was rejected by the Board of Commissioners for Public Parks.

In April 1872, the DPP created a committee to discuss possible upgrades to the street to the park's west side, and Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux, who had designed Central Park's Greensward Plan, were commissioned to produce a design for the park. In a September 1872 article, the Times predicted that the construction of Morningside Park and its proximity to Broadway and Central Park would raise property values nearby. Talk of a preliminary study and map began circulating in March 1873. By that September, Olmsted was assigned to work exclusively on Morningside Park, and he was dropped from his position as superintendent of other parks. Olmsted and Vaux presented their plan, "A Preliminary Report on the Improvement of Morningside Park", to the DPP on October 11, 1873. Because of the limitations of the terrain, the proposed design would emphasize scenery, with balconies, a planted lagoon, a lawn at the north end of the park, and a retaining wall with stairways. The design also took into consideration the site's proximity to Central Park, one block away from the southern end of the proposed Morningside Park. The work would cost about $816,000. Five days after the plan was presented, the DPP approved it "in principle".

Beginning of construction

Owing to several factors, including work stoppages following the economic depression after the Panic of 1873, construction on Morningside Park stagnated for 14 years. Nevertheless, work began in 1873, construction progressing on the walks and perimeter walls, as well as on the sewers and lagoon. When work was halted in October 1874, the sewer, pond, walks, and embankments were under construction. A Times article in April 1875 noted that the city's Department of Public Works was laying roads and sidewalks west and east of the park.

Little work was performed in the next five years, except for the construction of roads. On June 16, 1880, the Legislature passed a law allowing the city's Department of Public Works to finish the roads, sidewalks, and retaining walls near Morningside Park. That September, the Legislature appointed Jacob Wrey Mould, who had previously been involved in Central Park's design, as the new architect of Morningside Park. Mould submitted a plan for the streets in April 1881. The proposal, which was to cost $234,000, called for eleven entrances; granite stairs; a retaining wall at Morningside Drive, made of gneiss and ashlar; overlook balconies; and railings of granite and cast-and wrought-iron. The plans were approved in August 1881. Mould's final plans for the western side of the park were submitted in September 1882 and plans for the northern, eastern, and southern sides were approved the next month.

In January 1883, Julius Munckwitz was asked to create plans for Morningside Park, and Mould was named as his assistant. After Munckwitz's plans were submitted that March, Montgomery A. Kellogg – the DPP chief engineer who had been promoted to engineer of construction – worked on completing the measurements. Contracts for the foundations were awarded in April, while contracts for the western side's entrances and overlooks were awarded to Charles Jones that July. Jones began work on the western border in November 1883 and completed his contract nearly a year later. Meanwhile, in January 1884, Munckwitz began preparing plans for the western steps and entrances, which were approved that October. The Times reported in December 1884 that over $71,000 was needed for the park. Though Munckwitz quit the DPP in mid-1885, he continued working with the project as a consultant.

By February 1885, the stairways on the western border at 110th, 116th, and 120th Streets were being built. That May, Michael McGrath won a contract to build granite steps, brick arches, and other ornamentation at the 110th and 116th Street entrances on the western border and at four intermediate overlook bays. The park was still in a rural state, as indicated in the Times that same year, which reported that police were capturing cows for illegally grazing in the park and fining local dairymen for pasturing their herds. Following this, the DPP ordered that all signs and other "defacements" be removed from the park site. By mid-1886, several local entities were expressing frustration at the lack of progress at Morningside Park. For instance, the Morningside Park Association twice requested that action be taken to complete the park. After Mould died in 1886, the DPP needed to hire a new architect for Morningside Park. Kellogg submitted new plans for $250,000 worth of park improvements in February 1887, at which point the Times reported that only the 116th Street staircase and part of the retaining wall had been completed over the previous fourteen years. These plans were ultimately approved.

Final plans and completion
In June 1887, the DPP asked Olmsted to create informal plans for Central, Morningside, and Riverside Parks. In response, Olmsted said he would do so only if Vaux was also hired. Ultimately, Olmsted's proposal was voted down, and Kellogg and city parks superintendent Samuel Parsons were asked to report on Olmsted and Vaux's original plan instead. In July, a group of Civil War veterans stayed in the park during the Independence Day weekend, hosting a historical reenactment in which they fired cannons and pretended to storm the blockhouse walls. Though Parsons and Kellogg presented their proposed changes in August 1887, which they believed were feasible with the available $250,000 appropriation, local property owners asked that the original plan be used instead. Later that month, the board voted to let Olmsted and Vaux work on the plan.

The plan was modified to accommodate changed conditions, like the construction of an elevated railway station at 116th Street and Eighth Avenue. Among other changes, the modified design included a broad path and a thin path traversing the lower portion of the park. Initially, Olmsted and Vaux had proposed a southeastern entrance plaza, a lagoon, and an exhibition hall; the modified design eliminated these, while adding a lawn and a "Restawhile" recreation structure. Olmsted and Vaux had differing visions for Morningside Park: Olmsted believed the area should be kept naturalistic, and advocated the removal of all except one east–west path, while Vaux did not believe that paths would negatively affect the park's purpose. The "General Plan for the Improvement of Morningside Park" was approved by the DPP in October 1887, and a request for $250,000 in bonds was approved by the Board of Estimate the following month.

In mid-1888, contracts were awarded for earth and rock filling, and for the construction of basins, walls, and stairs in the southern portion of the park. Vaux suggested widening the roadbed and narrowing the eastern sidewalk of Morningside Drive, on the western side of the park. Further appropriations of $50,000 each were requested in September 1888 and March 1889. Subsequently, Vaux's suggestion to modify Morningside Drive was approved in July 1889, as was Kellogg's request for asphalt, concrete, and gravel for pavings. That September, the DPP voted to proceed with the completion of stairs and overlooks at Morningside Avenue north of 117th Street, in the same design as those built previously. Stairs and walls were finished that December. Further plans, approved in early 1890, called for the completion of the western entrances and overlooks, and the installation of railings and ornamentation. By December 1890, the Real Estate Record and Builders Guide reported that the work was almost done. The Guide said of the park, "It is not very wide, but it is some three-quarters of a mile in length. It has hills and dales and green swards, which, with its imposing terraces, make it peculiarly attractive." Morningside Park was even considered briefly for the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893, which ultimately occurred in Chicago.

Plans for walls and railings at 110th Street (the southern border) and Morningside Drive (the western border) were approved in October 1890, followed by the awarding of a contract for them in February 1892. Because of delays in constructing the steps, two time extensions were awarded in August and October 1891. Meanwhile, pavings were completed in May 1891 and the parapets were finished the following December. By June 1894, parks superintendent Parsons had noted that parts of the park were nearly completed. That October, contracts were awarded for the paving of sidewalks. The park's construction was completed in 1895. Vaux, who had remained with the project throughout that time as a consultant, drowned that year in Gravesend Bay. Parsons later wrote that "...perhaps Morningside Park was the most consummate piece of art that [Vaux] had ever created."

The completion of Morningside Park was concurrent with the development of nearby Morningside Heights; the park's construction had necessarily resulted in the creation of the neighborhood's street grid, and several institutions relocated to the area. The first of these included the Cathedral of St. John the Divine whose construction began in 1892 on the site of the Leake and Watts Orphan Asylum. The Bloomingside Asylum moved out of the area in 1888 after protests over the asylum's presence, and three colleges moved to the site: Columbia College (now part of Columbia University), Teachers College, and Barnard College. Other institutions that moved to Morningside Heights following the park's completion included: St. Luke's Hospital, the former Home for Old Men and Aged Couples; St. Luke's Home for Indigent Christian Females; the former Woman's Hospital; Union Theological Seminary; and the Church of Notre Dame (L'Eglise de Notre Dame).

Early and mid-20th centuries

Several sculptures and structures were installed in Morningside Park after it was completed. In 1900, the statue Lafayette and Washington by Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi was installed at the park's eastern border, within the triangle bounded by Manhattan Avenue, Morningside Avenue and 114th Street. At the time, only one structure had been built in the park, a wooden shanty for tool storage. In 1901, a "women's cottage and refreshment room" was approved along with a $8,250 appropriation for it, and the following year Barney and Chapman proposed an ornate outhouse in the French Gothic style containing a tower with space for tool storage. Ultimately, a simpler one-story restroom structure was erected in 1904, at a site on 114th Street that had been the original location proposed for the "Restawhile". Many residents and neighborhood organizations strongly opposed an oval stadium, proposed between 118th and 120th Streets in 1909, and the idea was eventually scrapped. In 1913, the Carl Schurz Memorial by Karl Bitter and Henry Bacon was placed in the park, followed the next year by Edgar Walter's Seligman (Bear and Faun) Fountain.

Morningside Park quickly began to deteriorate, and complaints of vandalism were recorded as early as 1905. The sidewalks around the park were paved in 1911. When the city proposed to "popularize" Central Park in 1911, local residents complained that Morningside Park had been neglected, was crime-ridden, and had declined because of its use as a playground as opposed to a passive-recreation space. New York City parks commissioner Charles B. Stover stated that the park's issues, which included hillside erosion and lawn damage, were because the southern area had not been outfitted with proper drainage. Further erosion and deterioration was caused by a large Independence Day celebration in 1912, the erosion of the cliff near Blockhouse No. 4 in 1913, and the destruction of part of the overhanging cliff rock in 1915. A request for $94,500 toward Morningside Park's renovation was made in 1914, and by 1916, protests had resulted in the reported completion of the renovation. Also in 1914, a fence was installed around part of the park.

Further controversy developed in the mid-1910s because of the proposed construction of a Catskill Aqueduct pumping station within the park. While a temporary structure had existed in the park since at least the early 1910s, the New York Board of Water Supply began construction of a steel-frame pumping station in January 1916. The plans were not public, and had not been authorized by either the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation (NYC Parks), the New York City Board of Aldermen, or the Municipal Art Commission. Once the public learned of plans for the structure, several civil engineers and associations organized opposition to the project. The sculptor, Gutzon Borglum, filed a lawsuit to stop construction of the pump building that February. Shortly afterward, New York Supreme Court justice Edward R. Finch issued an injunction to stop the project temporarily, citing the project's status as an "illegal encroachment". Ultimately, the Board of Water Supply applied for a permanent pumping station, though in July 1916 the Board of Aldermen voted instead to build an underground pump structure.

Improvements to Morningside Park were also conducted from the 1920s through the 1960s. In its annual report of 1929, NYC Parks reported that much of the vegetation had to be replanted because of neglect or vandalism. By the mid-20th century, Morningside Park was perceived as dangerous. Because of its proximity to Harlem, a largely Black neighborhood, crime in the park was perceived as signs of a racial conflict. In 1935 The New York Times reported that the Teachers College of Columbia University had posted a sign in a dormitory informing students "it is not safe to enter Morningside Park at any time of the day or night." The Times also reported residents were concerned that "unemployed destitute" individuals posed a danger to the park's safety.

A playground and comfort station was added between 113th and 114th Streets on the east side of Morningside Park in November 1935; the 113th–114th Streets comfort station was replaced by 1945. A polygonal comfort station was proposed for the southeastern corner of the park in 1936 but was not built. A playground at the northeastern corner of Morningside Park was also constructed in 1935; it was expanded with extra equipment in 1941, including athletic courts, a wading pool, exercise structure, swings, slides, and a children's play area. Also, by 1941, rock outcroppings on the south lawn were removed to make way for softball fields. During this era, a proposal to rename Morningside Park to "Franz Boas Park" was rejected by parks commissioner Robert Moses. The 1904 restroom structure was demolished in 1952, except for its western wall, at which point jagged-topped stone barriers were erected next to paths in the park. Two years later, the bronze railings on the western and southern borders were replaced with iron picket fences. A playground on Morningside Avenue between 116th and 119th Streets was finished in 1956, while sandboxes were installed on the Morningside Drive overlook balconies the next year. The wrought-iron fence on the eastern border was replaced, and the park's hillside restored, in 1962.

Columbia athletic complex
In a 1955 piece in the Times, one observer noted, "the park was virtually off-bounds to [Columbia University] students and faculty as "too dangerous". At the time, parks commissioner Moses and Columbia president Grayson L. Kirk were discussing allowing Columbia to use part of Morningside Park. The plan was approved by the New York City Board of Estimate in December 1955, and soon after, Moses and Manhattan borough president Hulan Jack announced that Columbia would build a comfort station/field house, storage building, and athletic complex on a 3.5 acre section of the park. The athletic complex contained two fields for softball, three for football, and one for soccer and was opened in May 1957. The arrangement between Columbia and the city stipulated that the university would be the sole user of the complex during weekdays between June and October, while it would be open to the public at other times. The fields soon became popular with neighborhood residents. In 1961, new lighting was installed in the southern section of Morningside Park to deter crime.

More controversial was Columbia's proposal in January 1960 to erect a building to the north of the athletic fields. The structure, on a 2 acre plot, would have an upper level to be used as a Columbia gym and a lower level community center. The complex was supported by Moses, Mayor Robert F. Wagner Jr., and the New York City Council. A 50-year lease was approved in March 1960, signed in August, and accepted by the Board of Estimate. The structure was to cost $9 million, of which $1 million was donated in May 1962 by alumnus Francis S. Levien. The project faced some opposition by 1964 because of Columbia's rapid expansion. Some residents denounced the proposed Morningside Park construction as a "land grab", while others protested the proposed gentrification that would accompany such expansion. Subsequently, in March 1964, neighborhood associations and officials toured the park to demonstrate its deteriorated conditions and need for funding, and to show that it was safe.

Thomas Hoving, one of the parks commissioners who succeeded Moses, said in January 1966 that he was "pretty damned upset" about the deal because it would perpetuate segregation. The planned separate east and west entrances were seen as an attempt to circumvent the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which banned racially segregated facilities, as Morningside Heights' population was largely white while Harlem's was largely Black. The University's administration under Grayson Kirk denied that this reflected racial bias and stressed that greater park services would benefit the Harlem community. In March 1966, the University's student council passed a resolution asking the University to reconsider the gym plans, and two months later, bills to ban its construction were introduced in the State Senate and Assembly. That October, Columbia announced it would suspend groundbreaking for the gym until the following year, and by May 1967, university officials were considering changing the plans. Unsatisfied, protesters picketed outside Kirk's home that July, while Harlem officials decried a proposed compromise to build a community swimming pool instead. Undeterred, the Board of Estimate voted to approve the plans in October 1967, and despite further protests that November, construction began in February 1968. At the time, The New York Times architecture writer Ada Louise Huxtable said, "the real tragedy of the whole Columbia gym affair is that this dubious and even harmful project has been carried out in good faith."

Columbia students and faculty amplified their opposition to the gym project in mid-1968, resulting in major student protests. That April, the faculty of the Columbia Graduate School of Architecture, Planning and Preservation called on Kirk and the trustees to reconsider the gym. Student organizations such as Students for a Democratic Society and the Student Afro-American Society held "sit-ins", and Mayor John Lindsay requested that work be suspended while the protests were ongoing. Students occupied administration and classroom buildings and shut down the university for several weeks. The Columbia faculty formed a committee to intervene after a large 2,500-person protest on April 30, which involved a New York City Police Department raid at several buildings. Meanwhile, parks commissioner August Heckscher II said that if Columbia was to drop its plans, he would have a community recreation center built at the site. The same month, $500,000 was allocated for restorations to the park, and the new Morningside Park Preservation Committee filed a lawsuit alleging the misuse of parkland. Kirk resigned in August 1968 because of the protests and was replaced as Columbia president by Andrew W. Cordier. Under his leadership, Columbia's trustees studied possible new sites for the gym before voting in March 1969 to cancel the project altogether.

Elementary school
At the same time as the Columbia controversy, another dispute arose after the New York State Legislature designated the northwestern corner of Morningside Park as the site of a public elementary school in 1963. Both Mayor Wagner and borough president Edward R. Dudley supported this initiative; Dudley said the site was "rubbish-strewn and a danger spot for children", even though the Municipal Art Commission argued it was atop the ruins of Blockhouse No. 4.

After the City Planning Commission proposed another site several blocks to the east, neighborhood groups alleged the plan would further segregation since the mostly minority population of Harlem would be unable to reach the school. Other neighborhood groups opposed the use of Morningside Park for anything other than recreational use. The City Planning Commission's chairman recommended that the proposed school site at Morningside Park be disapproved, but in February 1964, the Board of Estimate approved the plan anyway and rezoned 1.35 acre from parkland to educational use. Frederick G. Frost, Jr. & Associates designed the structure, known as PS 36 Margaret Douglas Elementary School, as a concrete-and-brick educational complex atop a stone base and rock outcroppings. The school was built between 1965 and 1966 and was the first in the city designed solely for early elementary grades, serving kindergarten through second grade.

Late 20th century

Even by the 1960s, Morningside Park had a reputation for being unsafe and unsanitary. After the Columbia protests ended, Morningside Park was the site of several murders, muggings, and other crimes, furthering its notoriety. Litter lined the park, and it became a frequent homeless hangout. So common were crimes there that Morningside Heights residents nicknamed it "Muggingside Park". In 1971, after the controversy over the now-canceled Columbia site had subsided, NYC Parks published its "Proposed Rehabilitation of Columbia Gym Site", which called for a playground on the site's eastern edge and new paths on the western side. It was reported that Columbia had agreed to pay compensation for the demolition that had occurred in the park. This resulted in the formation of the West Harlem Coalition for Morningside Park. Advocates started focusing on Morningside Park and Olmsted's other parks in 1972, the 150th anniversary of his birth. The West Harlem Coalition hired Lawrence Halprin Associates in 1973, but plans for renovating Morningside Park were postponed after the 1975 New York City fiscal crisis. Huxtable wrote in the Times, "Morningside Park may now be the city's most crime-ridden, underutilized and dangerous spot." More than a decade after the Columbia gym plan was canceled, the construction fencing remained on the site.

The state's department of parks was in talks with Bond, Ryder and Associates for a "redevelopment design" of Morningside Park by 1978 with the West Harlem Community Organization and Morningside Park Coalition participating in the redesign process. In 1981, as part of the "Olmsted Project", the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) held two shows that depicted Morningside Park, including a Metropolitan Museum of Art exhibit. At that time, Morningside Park was being considered by the LPC for scenic landmark status, but this was opposed by residents and activists wanted to redesign the park. The same year, Thomas Kiel and other Columbia undergraduates founded the Friends of Morningside Park, which supported returning the park to its original design. NYC Parks drew up plans for a $12 million restoration of the park between 1987 and 1989. At that point, Columbia had given $250,000 toward the renovation, half of what it had pledged toward the restoration of the site. A $5 million first phase began in early 1989 and was conducted by a partnership of Quennell Rothschild Associates and Bond Ryder James. It entailed converting the excavated crater left by the abandoned gymnasium project into a waterfall and ornamental pond, which was the first part of the renovation to be completed in 1989. The pond, part of Olmsted and Vaux's original plan, cost $950,000, about three times as much as "standard landscaping". Contractors installed wells to feed the waterfall and the pond. The reconstruction, which focused on the park between 110th and 114th Streets, also included installing new playground equipment, planting trees, creating a picnic area and renovating the sports fields. The 1957 fieldhouse was also redesigned, and a new entrance was installed at 113th Street and Morningside Drive. This renovation was completed in 1993. There was little funding to perform further renovations at the northern part of Morningside Park then, and there was just one maintenance worker for the entire park. As a result, the northern part of the park was still overgrown with weeds and frequented by drug addicts.

NYC Parks began a renovation of the 116th Street stairs in July 1996 and completed it two years later at a cost of $650,000. After the statues were refurbished, the bluestone steps at 116th Street were renovated in 1998. The same year, construction began on the Dr. Thomas Kiel Arboretum in the northern part of the park, named after a founder and former chairman of the Friends of Morningside Park who had died in 1996. In 1998 and 1999, the Morningside Area Alliance (MAA), a neighborhood community group, received $35,000 in grant funding from the Kaplan Foundation to work on the park. A portion was used to assess what the park needed done most urgently, while a second portion went to restructure the largely disorganized Friends volunteer group. The resulting "revitalization plan" suggested further maintenance and capital improvements and enhancements to its character and appearance. The study also found there was still a widespread perception of danger, and that the park needed additional security measures and better management.

21st century
By 2001, Morningside Park's condition had improved because of ongoing reconstruction projects, and it was no longer considered as dangerous an area as it had been in the 1970s. That year, a master plan for the park was approved. Several stairs and entrances were rebuilt, including at or near 114th, 116th, 120th, and 122nd Streets, and playgrounds to the south of the ball fields and at the park's northeast corner were renovated. The ball fields and northern section's scenery were restored in 2006, and construction began on a playground north of 116th Street in 2007. This playground was completed in late 2008. Morningside Park was designated a New York City landmark in 2008, decades after similar statuses had been conferred upon Central and Riverside Parks. The next year, more trees were planted within the park, including a sequoia tree.

NYC Parks presented a plan to restore the northern section, including the 123rd Street Playground there, in 2011. The playground was renovated in two phases: in 2013 and in 2019. The 118th Street Playground was rebuilt between December 2019 and March 2021 for $3.3 million. In addition, the waterfall was fixed in 2018, although it shortly stopped working again. The area around Morningside Park, once a desolate area with a reputation for being crime-ridden, had become gentrified by the 2010s. Fears of crime remained, especially after 18-year-old Barnard College student Tessa Majors was fatally stabbed in a late-2019 mugging within the park. Columbia University student Davide Giri was fatally stabbed nearby in 2021 in what The New York Times called "an eerie reprise" of Majors's death.

In 2023, the LPC approved plans for the construction of a food kiosk at the southern edge of the park, along West 110th Street. During the same year, neighborhood residents also began advocating for the waterfall to be repaired; at the time, the waterfall had not flowed for four years. Following these requests, Columbia's Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science indicated that it would fix the waterfall. Columbia and NYC Parks also began researching the algae in the park's pond in mid-2023.

Recreational features
Morningside Park contains several sporting fields. Two baseball fields and a basketball court are at the southern end of the park. Three other basketball courts are near the central portion of Morningside Park. To the north are two basketball courts and four handball courts. There are also children's play structures at 110th, 113th, 116th, 118th, and 123rd Streets at the bottom of the cliff, and a restroom at 123rd Street. In addition, New York Road Runners hosts a weekly 3 mi Open Run along the park's paths.

Morningside Dog Run is an enclosed space for dog owners to bring their dogs to play. Consisting primarily of wood chips over dirt, there are two fenced-in areas. The larger section has multiple levels, separated by a step. The dog run is most easily accessible from the east at 114th Street and from the west at either 114th or 116th Streets. There is also a barbecue area at 121st Street.

The Kiel Arboretum is in the northern section of the park from 116th to 121st Streets. The design of the arboretum was based on original plans for Central Park sketched by Olmsted and Vaux in 1858. While later abandoned, these arboretum plans involved paths leading through several hundred species of trees and shrubs. The plans re-emerged when the Kiel Arboretum was built in 1998. Plantings of trees from the Magnoliaceae (magnolia) family and shrubs from the Ranunculaceae (buttercup) and Berberidaceae (barberry) families were used to start the tree collection.

Over the years, several playgrounds have been constructed at Morningside Park; there are four playgrounds within the park. The first one, at the bottom of the stairs at 114th Street, was built in 1903–1904 and demolished in 1952. A playground in the northeast corner was constructed in 1935 and renovated in 1941; it was restored several more times, including in 1992 and 2000. Another playground, built in 1955–1956 at Morningside Avenue between 116th and 119th Streets, contains facilities such as shuffleboard and basketball courts, and a playground with a wading pool, swings, slides, and a sandbox. A third play area at 113th Street contains play equipment, while a fourth facility is at 110th Street. In 2008, a new playground opened within the park at 116th Street, replacing part of the playground between 116th and 119th Streets.

Geology and topography
Morningside Park's distinctive natural geography is a rugged cliff of Manhattan schist rock. The geology is similar to that of Central Park and contains, from top to bottom: Manhattan schist, metamorphosed sedimentary rock; Lowerre quartzite, a metamorphosed rock; Inwood marble, metamorphosed limestone which overlays the gneiss; and Fordham gneiss, an older deeper layer. A large rock formation of Manhattan schist in the park is a visible sign of the bedrock below much of lower and northern Manhattan. Rock outcroppings are prevalent in Morningside Park and nearby Central Park, Marcus Garvey Park, and Riverside Park. Besides the cliff, one large geological feature that remains is a glacial groove at 121st Street, which had been noted as early as 1916. The western border of the park between 122nd and 123rd Streets is taken up by PS 36, on a rock drop off; this occupies the former site of the ruins of Blockhouse No. 4, which was used as a source of stone until the park's creation. A tablet was placed on the site by the Women's Auxiliary of the American Scenic and Historic Preservation Society in 1904. Furthermore, part of the cliff was destroyed in 1915.

A plateau, on the eastern side of the park, was mostly demolished during the failed Columbia University gym construction project. Today, the site includes a waterfall and a pond, built between 1989 and 1993. The waterfall is artificial and uses water pumped using motors from the city's water system. The pond has been frequented by several species of birds, including great blue herons, night herons, red-winged blackbirds, painted turtles, and mallard ducks.

The park also contained meadows when it was constructed. These were at the south end from 110th to 114th Streets; in the central section from 116th to 120th Streets; and at the northeast corner. They were developed as playgrounds and playing fields in the mid-20th century and the rock outcroppings were destroyed. The central and northern meadows were redeveloped as playgrounds while the southern meadow was converted to sports fields.

Paths and plantings
Morningside Park was designed with many paths and plantings. The paths usually followed the topography, though there are several locations where stone steps connect paths at different locations. There are stone stairs connecting the two portions of 120th Street, and between 116th Street on the west side of the park and 114th Street on the east side. The paths were made originally of gravel, concrete, and asphalt, while the stairs were made of bluestone with rockwork edging on the outer portions. Benches, lights, railings, fences, and stone walls were added over the years; the rockwork edging was replaced. The northern meadow's paths were rebuilt in 1940–1941, while the paths around PS 36 and the unbuilt Columbia gym were reconfigured or removed in the late 1960s. With the waterfall's construction, the paths at the unbuilt gym site were rebuilt from 1989 to 1993. Some of the stairs have been renovated over the years.

The plantings in Morningside Park were designed at several stages of the park's development. Accounts vary on whether plantings were present before the park was built; in 1871, park engineer Montgomery A. Kellogg called the area a "barren piece of ground", Samuel Parsons described the site as having "a considerable amount of native growth", albeit limited mainly to vines, herbs, and shrubs. Parsons also stated that because of the poor soil in the original plan of the park, "fine trees" could not grow there. By the 1910s, vandalism, erosion, and crowds had caused damage to many of the plantings. Major landscaping projects took place in 1929, 1941, 1962, and 2006.

Art
There are three sculptures in Morningside Park. The first is the Lafayette and Washington statue (1900) by Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi, at the triangle between Manhattan Avenue, Morningside Avenue and 114th Street. Though dedicated in 1890, it was not brought to the triangle until 1900. The statue commemorates the alliance between the U.S. and France during the American Revolutionary War and consists of a bronze sculptural group depicting General George Washington and the Marquis de Lafayette, both in uniform and shaking hands. The pair is atop a white marble pedestal and contains an associated bronze plaque on a gray granite base. It is an exact replica of a statue in the Place des États-Unis, Paris.

The second is the Carl Schurz Monument (1913), with a statue by Karl Bitter and setting by architect Henry Bacon. It stands on a brick plaza at Morningside Drive and West 116th Street, overlooking the park from the west, though it is officially part of the park. The statue consists of a bronze depiction of politician Carl Schurz, standing in the middle of an exedra (or semicircular recess) made of granite. The "arms" of the exedra contain reliefs depicting Schurz's stature as a person who fought against slavery and for better treatment of Native Americans. Beneath the figure are carved stone reliefs flanked by bronze luminaires. The monument's side and central relief carvings, made in stone, may have been created by Bitter's associates and assistants, while the low granite relief carvings may have been made by the Piccirilli Brothers. The sculpture combines elements of the Archaic Greek and Austrian/Viennese Secessionist styles. The monument was unveiled to the city in 1913 and restored in the 1930s.

The third is the Seligman (Bear and Faun) fountain (1914) by Edgar Walter. It was dedicated in memory of Alfred L. Seligman, the National Highways Protective Association's vice president. Plans for the fountain's dedication in Morningside Park were revealed in 1911, predating Seligman's death in a traffic accident in 1912. The 7 ft fountain contains a depiction of a grotto, above which a bear hangs. Below the grotto, a faun is depicted playing the pipes. The fountain includes a drinking fountain and a dogs' drinking basin. It was restored in 1997.

Bordering streets
Morningside Park is irregularly shaped and follows a largely north–south alignment, though the northern portion of the park curves westward. All of the sidewalks were asphalt until 1911, and, they consist of Belgian blocks and concrete and contain trees. There are at least seventeen entrances to the park.

The park's western border is formed by Morningside Drive, which is on top of a large retaining wall that drops sharply to the east. The retaining wall contains gneiss piers topped with granite, and as a parapet fence consisting of granite posts and an iron picket fence. Originally, this section also contained bronze railings, though these were replaced in 1954. At each of the intersections with Morningside Drive, except for those at 113th and 114th Streets, there are "overlook bays" – balconies that slightly overhang the park below. The bays at 111th and 119th Street contain openings, originally used as rain shelters. All the bays are polygonal shaped, except for the one at 116th Street, which is round and contains the Carl Schurz Monument. From this side, there are entrances at 112th, 113th, 114th, 116th, 118th, 120th, and 122nd Streets, with granite and gneiss stairways leading from the bays at the 116th through 120th Street entrances. A security booth at the 116th Street entrance was installed in 2006.

The southern border of the park is formed by West 110th Street, also known as Cathedral Parkway. There is an entrance to the park from the intersection of 110th Street and Morningside Drive, within an overlook bay that contains asphalt paving; this leads to a stone stairway. Another entrance exists at the intersection with Manhattan Avenue, on the east made of Belgian blocks and hexagonal asphalt tiles.

The eastern border of the park is formed by Manhattan Avenue, between 110th and 113th Streets, and by Morningside Avenue, between 113th and 123rd Streets. It contains entrances at 112th, 113th, 114th, 116th, 120th, and 123rd Streets, as well as between 117th and 118th Streets. Along the sidewalk is a wrought-iron picket fence with stone piers, which was originally installed in 1915 and replaced in 1962. A group of seventeen London plane trees are next to the Lafayette and Washington statue.

The northern border of the park is formed by West 123rd Street. There is an entrance plaza from the northwestern corner of the park, which is paved with concrete and flanked with stone posts. Along the sidewalk is a wrought-iron picket fence with stone piers, which was originally installed in 1915 and replaced in 1962.

Management
Morningside Park is owned, operated, and managed by NYC Parks. Friends of Morningside Park, a nonprofit organization founded in 1981 to support returning the park to its original design, is the park's primary advocacy and community stewardship organization. Since its founding, the group has rehabilitated the park through volunteer work, as well as donations for staffing and equipment. The organization fell apart between 1996 and 1998 following the death of founder Thomas Kiel. In 2001, around fourteen major public events were organized by volunteers in the park, including festivals, concerts, and holiday celebrations. By 2005, Friends of Morningside Park had approximately 1,000 volunteers. The organization receives a moderate amount of money compared to similar nonprofits that maintain New York City public parks. , it received about $50,000 a year in private donations, and the largest-ever single donation was $10,000.

The Central Park Conservancy, which maintains nearby Central Park, also provides maintenance support and staff training programs for other public parks in New York City, including Morningside Park. In 2005, the Conservancy created the Historic Harlem Parks initiative, providing horticultural and maintenance support and mentoring in Morningside Park, St. Nicholas Park, Jackie Robinson Park, and Marcus Garvey Park.

title: Morningside Park (Manhattan)


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Wing Gambit

In chess, a Wing Gambit is an opening in which White plays an early b4, deflecting an enemy pawn or bishop from c5 so as to regain control of d4, an important central square. (Or in which Black plays ...b5, but Wing Gambits offered by Black are very rare.)

The most common Wing Gambit is in the Sicilian Defence (1.e4 c5 2.b4). The most important Wing Gambit is the Evans Gambit (1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bc4 Bc5 4.b4), treated separately.

In the Sicilian Defence
The Wing Gambit in the Sicilian Defence runs 1.e4 c5 2.b4. After Black takes with 2...cxb4, the usual continuation is 3.a3 bxa3 (3...d5! is more recently considered superior, when White must avoid 4.exd5 Qxd5 5.axb4?? Qe5+ winning the rook, a blunder actually seen in tournament play in Shirazi–Peters, Berkeley 1984; instead 5.Nf3 is better) and now the main line is 4.Nxa3, though 4.Bxa3 and 4.d4 are also seen. It is also possible to decline (or at least delay acceptance of) the gambit with 2...d5.

For his pawn, White gets quicker development and a central advantage, but it is not generally considered one of White's better choices against the Sicilian and it is virtually never seen at the professional level. Amongst amateurs it is more common, though still not so popular as other systems.

After Black's 2...cxb4, another popular third move alternative for White is 3.d4. GMs George Koltanowski, David Bronstein and World Champion Alexander Alekhine have played this line.

White can postpone the gambit one move by playing the Wing Gambit Deferred, playing 2.Nf3 followed by 3.b4. The deferred Wing Gambit is considered to be best when black responds 2...e6. The Portsmouth Gambit runs 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.b4, where Black is disinclined to refuse the gambit due to the positional threat 4.b5, displacing the knight and disrupting Black's smooth development.

It is also possible to prepare the gambit by playing 2.a3!? followed by 3.b4.

In other openings
There is one Wing Gambit in the French Defence; 1.e4 e6 2.Nf3 d5 3.e5 c5 4.b4, although this is quite rare. A related idea is found in the Caro-Kann Defence after 1.e4 c6 2.Ne2 d5 3.e5 c5 4.b4, however Black can immediately achieve an advantage by playing 4...d4! (this move is also strong in the second French line given above). Even rarer is the Wing Gambit in the Bishop's Opening, 1.e4 e5 2.Bc4 Bc5 3.b4, which has some resemblance to the Evans Gambit.

There are several other "Wing Gambits" in various openings, but they are very rare, and not as notable as the openings mentioned above:

 * In the English Opening: 1.c4 c5 2.b4, or 1.c4 b5 (The Jaenisch Gambit)
 * In the Marshall Gambit of the Scandinavian Defence: 1.e4 d5 2.exd5 Nf6 3.d4 g6 4.c4 b5
 * In the Ware Opening: 1.a4 b5 2.axb5 Bb7

Illustrative games
Lutz vs. De Firmian, Biel 1993 1.e4 c5 2.b4 cxb4 3.a3 d5! 4.exd5 Qxd5 5.Nf3 e5 6.axb4 Bxb4 7.c3 Be7 8.Na3 Nf6 9.Nb5 Qd8 10.Nxe5 Nc6 11.Nxc6 bxc6 12.Qf3 Bd7 13.Nd4 0-0 14.Ba6 Qc7 15.h3 c5 16.Nf5 Qe5 17.Ne3 Bd6 18.Be2 Bc7 19.Nc4 Qe6 20.Qe3 Ne4 21.0-0 Rfe8 22.Bd3 f5 23.Re1 Qd5 24.Qf3 Bb5 25.Nb2 c4 26.Bf1 Bb6 27.Nd1 f4 28.Qxf4 Nxf2 29.Ne3 Nd3 30.Bxd3 Qxd3 31.Kh1 Re4 32.Qg5 Bc6 33.Bb2 Qxd2 34.Rad1 Rxe3 25.Rxd2 Rxh3# 0–1

title: Wing Gambit


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Unfinished Music No. 2: Life with the Lions

Unfinished Music No. 2: Life with the Lions is the second of three experimental albums of avant-garde music by John Lennon and Yoko Ono, released in May 1969 on Zapple, a sub label of Apple. It was a successor to 1968's highly controversial Unfinished Music No. 1: Two Virgins, and was followed by the Wedding Album. The album peaked in the United States at number 174, 50 places lower than the previous album. The album, whose title is a play on words of the BBC Radio show Life with The Lyons, was recorded at Queen Charlotte's Hospital in London and live at Cambridge University, in November 1968 and March 1969, respectively. The Cambridge performance, to which Ono had been invited and to which she brought Lennon, was Lennon and Ono's second as a couple. A few of the album's tracks were previewed by the public, thanks to Aspen magazine. The album was remastered in 1997.

Background
Beatle John Lennon and Yoko Ono's "Unfinished Music" series was an attempt by Lennon and Ono to make a record of their life together. With Ono's Grapefruit in mind, Lennon and Ono imagined that the sound wasn't printed into the vinyl's grooves, but was meant to be thought of by the listener's mind. Lennon described "Unfinished Music" as "saying whatever you want it to say. It is just us expressing ourselves like a child does, you know, however he feels like then. What we're saying is make your own music. This is Unfinished Music." A few of the tracks that ended up on the album were released as a mono 8" square flexi record that was given away with copies of the American magazine Aspen. The record, which featured mostly Ono on the first side, with Lennon contributing the whole second side as one track, edited by Mario Amaya, was recorded at Queen Charlotte's Hospital. Before Lennon and Ono were together as a couple, Ono was asked to perform at a free jazz concert in Lady Mitchell Hall at Cambridge University, by organiser Anthony Barnett. Ono, who was going to cancel her performance, was persuaded by Lennon to perform. Lennon and Ono had their first performance together for The Rolling Stones' Rock and Roll Circus film, where they were part of the band The Dirty Mac.

Recording and content
Fluxus art concepts and practices were used for the album. The album opens with an improvised recording titled "Cambridge 1969", recorded on 2 March 1969 at Cambridge University, before a live audience, which became Lennon and Ono's second performance together, but their first released performance and the first performance by a Beatle without the rest of the band since their main line-up's formation. The piece takes up all of side one and consists of Ono's vocalisations and screaming accompanied by loud, brash and distorted electric guitar feedback from Lennon. Saxophonist John Tchicai and percussionist John Stevens join Ono and Lennon near the end of the piece. Throughout the performance, Lennon kept his back to the audience. The original version of the piece was longer. In a 2010 interview with Cambridge News, Tchicai said that the concert was split in two: the first set was Lennon and Ono, and the other consisted of jazz improvisation players. Recalled Tchicai, Lennon and Ono said to the players: "If you would like to join us for some improvisation, please do." Barnett said that Lennon had been "trying to show off and be more avant-garde than anyone in avant-garde music".

Side two of the album was recorded on a cassette tape in their suite at Queen Charlotte's Hospital in London. "No Bed for Beatle John" consists of Lennon and Ono singing the text of press clippings about themselves, including reports of the hospital not giving Lennon a bed to stay in during Ono's miscarriage, and EMI refusing to carry Unfinished Music No.1: Two Virgins because of its controversial sleeve, in a cappella chant style. "Baby's Heartbeat" is a looped infant mortality recording, made with a Nagra microphone, of John Ono Lennon II's ill-fated actual palpitations. Ono first referenced infant mortality in her book Grapefruit, then in her song "Greenfield Morning I Pushed an Empty Baby Carriage All Over the City" from her album Yoko Ono/Plastic Ono Band. "Two Minutes Silence" follows; made as a tribute to composer John Cage's 4'33" in that, similar to Cage's avant garde composition, though Lennon and Ono's track is completely silent. The album closes with "Radio Play", which includes sounds of a radio with brief moments of Lennon and Ono having a conversation and Lennon making a phone call in the background. An edited version of this recording was released on the flexi record that was given away with Aspen.

"Song for John", one of the songs that was included on the flexi record, features a "Dear Prudence"-like chord progression, in a medley with "Let's Go on Flying" and "Snow Is Falling All the Time". It was written by Ono before she had met Lennon. The entire medley was recorded at Queen Charlotte's Hospital. By this time, Ono was looking to sign a record contract, and "Song for John" was going to be part of her first album. Ono commented, "A record company had suggest I do an album of my sort of freak-type freestyle things, one of which was Song For John." Ono wrote the song when "thinking about wanting to meet somebody who could fly with me". Lennon became the first person to hear the demo, so Ono "felt a sentimental reason for the name to be John." Ono later did a re-make of the song for her album Approximately Infinite Universe. "Snow Is Falling All the Time", similar to a nursery rhyme, was re-made as the B-side to "Happy Xmas (War Is Over)", retitled "Listen, the Snow Is Falling". "Mum's Only Looking for Her Hand in the Snow", which features Lennon on acoustic guitar, is an early version of what would become "Don't Worry Kyoko (Mummy's Only Looking for Her Hand in the Snow)". This version was later included on the Rykodisc issue of Lennon and Ono's Wedding Album.

Release
Unfinished Music No.2: Life with the Lions was released on 9 May 1969 in the UK and 26 May 1969 in the US, on the Apple subsidiary label Zapple. While EMI didn't act as distributor for Unfinished Music No.1: Two Virgins, they did for Unfinished Music No.2: Life with the Lions. The album still failed to chart in the UK, but it managed a number 174 peak in the US. The album sold about 60,000 copies in the US, while about 5,000 were sold in the UK. Lennon was disappointed that Apple hadn't given any promotion to the album. The title is both a parody on the name of the BBC radio comedy Life with the Lyons, and a reference to the press, who would follow Lennon and Ono everywhere. The album's original inner sleeve was printed with the song titles and the names of the musicians for each track. The album was released in Japan by Zapple; a promo edition of the album was released on red vinyl. A reissue included, instead of the inner sleeve, a four-page sheet with lyrics.

Cover art by Kosh with front cover photo was taken by Susan Wood while Ono was bedridden in Room 1, Second West Ward, at Queen Charlotte's Hospital. The back cover was a news photo of Lennon and Ono leaving Marylebone Police Station on 19 October 1968, after their arrest for hashish possession the previous day, at 34 Montagu Square, Lennon's residence. The arrest later caused problems for Lennon with US immigration authorities. The back cover also carried a "quote" from Beatles producer George Martin: "No comment". The couple followed the album with the Wedding Album in 1969. Unfinished Music No.2: Life with the Lions was reissued through Rykodisc under the observation of Ono, with two bonus tracks, "Song for John" and "Mulberry", on 3 June 1997. The album was reissued on LP, CD, and digitally by Secretly Canadian on November 11, 2016 with bonus tracks and rare photos.

Critical reception
Contemporaneously, Ed Ward wrote in Rolling Stone that the album was "utter bullshit" and "in poor taste". The Boston Sunday Globe writer Gregory McDonald advised readers not to buy the album, and described "Cambridge 1969" as resembling "a well recorded vocal by a mosquito". Alan Jones of Lincolnshire Echo warned that the album ranged "from Yoko singing their press cuttings in a high cat-like voice to John twiddling the dial on the radio", and did not advise the record for those "on small record-buying budgets." The Sault Star were more favourable, deeming its contents and artwork to "sum up the total of rock as a revolutionary force." In a review for Cambridge Evening News, Douglas Oliver said the Cambridge concert was "strange and chilling. Not in a bad sense, but because there was so much unusual texture. At no time did the music become comforting. It was an extraordinary experience." Record Mirror's reviewer described Life with the Lions as "a fine example of how two young people CAN amuse themselves without television".

In a retrospective review, AllMusic's William Ruhlmann wrote of Lennon and Ono: "If, as they suggested, their lives were their art, then this is, too. Maybe." Seth Colter Walls of Pitchfork deemed the album "less idyllic" than Two Virgins, and wrote that while "Cambridge 1969" does not "create most interest over its 26 minutes", it reveals that Ono's more successful performances work because they typically find her "switching up [her] extreme textures with greater frequency." Uncut reviewer Neil Spencer similarly described the album as the product of "a troubled phase in the couple's lives", but found "Cambridge 1969" was more arresting than the other tracks, noting: "It was Lennon’s first public performance outside The Beatles, and you can sense the relish he took in it." Tom Carson of Entertainment Weekly described the album as a "notoriously oblique" sound collage. Martin C. Strong of The Great Rock Discography said the album continued Lennon and Ono's "anti-commercial, free-form direction, the songs mainly recorded on a small cassette player." while in The Encyclopedia of Popular Music, Colin Larkin said the album saw Lennon continue "his marvellous joke on us".

Track listing
All pieces by John Lennon and Yoko Ono.

 * Side one
 * 1) "Cambridge 1969" – 26:31

 * Side two
 * 1) "No Bed for Beatle John" – 4:41
 * 2) "Baby's Heartbeat" – 5:10
 * 3) "Two Minutes Silence" – 2:00
 * 4) "Radio Play" – 12:35

 * CD bonus tracks
 * 1) "Song for John" – 1:29
 * 2) "Mulberry" – 8:47

Musicians
Track numbering refers to CD and digital releases of the album.
 * Yoko Ono – vocals, radio
 * John Lennon – vocals, guitar, feedback
 * John Tchicai – saxophone (track 1 only)
 * John Stevens – percussion (track 1 only)
 * Mal Evans – watch (track 1 only)
 * John Ono Lennon II – heartbeat (track 3 only)


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Sobekneferu

Sobekneferu or Neferusobek (Sbk-nfrw meaning 'Beauty of Sobek') was a pharaoh of ancient Egypt and the last ruler of the Twelfth Dynasty of the Middle Kingdom. She ascended to the throne following the death of Amenemhat IV, possibly her brother or husband, though their relationship is unproven. Instead, she asserted legitimacy through her father Amenemhat III. Her reign lasted 3 years, 10 months, and 24 days, according to the Turin King List.

She adopted the full royal titulary, distinguishing herself from prior female rulers. She was also the first ruler to have a name associated with the crocodile god Sobek. Contemporary evidence for her reign is scant: there are a few partial statues – one with her face – and inscriptions that have been uncovered. It is assumed that the Northern Mazghuna pyramid was intended for her, though this assignment is speculative with no firm evidence to confirm it. The monument was abandoned with only the substructure ever completed. A papyrus discovered in Harageh mentions a place called Sekhem Sobekneferu that may refer to the pyramid. Her rule is attested on several king lists.

Family
Sobekneferu was the daughter of Pharaoh Amenemhat III, but her mother's identity is unknown. Amenemhat III had two known wives, Aat and an unnamed queen, both buried in his pyramid at Dahshur. He had at least one other daughter, Neferuptah, who had a burial at his second pyramid at Hawara that was eventually moved to her own pyramid. Neferuptah appears to have been groomed as Amenemhat III's heir as she had her name enclosed in a cartouche. Evidence of burials of three other princesses – Hathorhotep, Nubhotepet, and Sithathor – were found at the Dahshur complex, but it is not clear whether these princesses were his daughters as the complex was used for royal burials throughout the Thirteenth Dynasty.

Amenemhat III's eventual heir, Amenemhat IV, is attested to be the son of Hetepti, though her titulary lacks reference to her being a 'King's Wife'. The relationship between Amenemhat IV and Sobekneferu remains unclear. According to the ancient historian Manetho in Aegyptiaca they were brother and sister. According to Gae Callender they were also probably married. Although, neither the title of 'King's Wife' nor 'King's Sister' are attested for Sobekneferu. Sobekneferu's accession may have been motivated by the lack of a male heir for Amenemhat IV. However, two kings of the Thirteenth Dynasty, Sobekhotep I and Sonbef, have been identified as possible sons of his based on their shared nomen 'Amenemhat'. As such, Sobekneferu may have usurped the throne after Amenemhat IV's death, viewing his heirs as illegitimate.

Female kingship
Sobekneferu was one of the few women that ruled in Egypt, and the first to adopt the full royal titulary, distinguishing herself from any prior female rulers. She was also the first ruler associated with the crocodile god Sobek by name, whose identity appears in both her birth and throne names. Kara Cooney views ancient Egypt as unique in allowing women to acquire formal – and absolute – power. She posits that women were elevated to the throne during crises to guide the civilization and maintain social order. Though, she also notes that, this elevation to power was illusory. Women acquired the throne as temporary replacements for a male leader; their reigns were regularly targeted for erasure by their successors; and overall, Egyptian society was oppressive to women.

In ancient Egyptian historiography, there is some evidence for other female rulers. As early as the First Dynasty, Merneith is proposed to have ruled as regent for her son. In the Fifth Dynasty, Setibhor may have been a female king regnant based on the manner her monuments were targets for destruction. Another candidate, Nitocris, is generally considered to have ruled in the Sixth Dynasty, though there is little proof of her historicity and she is not mentioned before the Eighteenth Dynasty. The kingship of Nitocris may instead be a Greek legend and that the name originated with an incorrect translation of the name of the male pharaoh Neitiqerty Siptah.

Reign
The Middle Kingdom was in decline by the time of Sobekneferu's accession. The peak of the Middle Kingdom is attributed to Senusret III and Amenemhat III. Senusret III formed the basis for the legendary character Sesostris described by Manetho and Herodotus. He led military expeditions into Nubia and into Syria-Palestine and built a 60 m mudbrick pyramid as his monument. He reigned for 39 years, as evidenced by an inscription in Abydos, where he was buried. Amenemhat III, in contrast, presided over a peaceful Egypt that consisted of monumental constructions, the development of Faiyum, and numerous mining expeditions. His reign lasted at least 45 years, probably longer. He built two pyramids, at Dahshur and at Hawara. Nicolas Grimal notes that such long reigns contributed to the end of the Twelfth Dynasty, but without the collapse that ended the Old Kingdom. Amenemhat IV ruled for nine or ten years. There is little information regarding his reign.

It is to this backdrop that Sobekneferu acquired the throne. She reigned for around four years, but as with her predecessor, there are few surviving records. Her death brought a close to the Twelfth Dynasty and began the Second Intermediate Period spanning the following two centuries.

This period is poorly understood owing to the paucity of references to the rulers of the time. She was succeeded by either Sobekhotep I or Wegaf, who inaugurated the Thirteenth Dynasty. Stephen Quirke proposed, based on the numerosity of kingships and brevity of their rule, that a rotating succession of kings from Egypt's most powerful families took the throne. They retained Itj-tawy as their capital through the Thirteenth Dynasty. Their role, however, was relegated to a much lesser status than earlier and power rested within the administration. It is generally accepted that Egypt remained unified until late into the dynasty. Kim Ryholt contends that the Fourteenth Dynasty instead arose in the Nile Delta at the end of Sobekneferu's reign as a rival to the Thirteenth. Thomas Schneider argues that the evidence for this hypothesis is weak.

Contemporary evidence
Only a small collection of sources attest to Sobekneferu's rule as pharaoh of Egypt. A graffito in Kumma, a Nubian fortress, records the height of the Nile inundation at 1.83 m during her third regnal year. Another inscription discovered in the Eastern Desert records "year 4, second month of the Season of the Emergence". The British Museum has a fine cylinder seal bearing her name and royal titulary in its collection. The seal is made of glazed steatite and is 4.42 cm long with a diameter of 1.55 cm.

A handful of headless statues of Sobekneferu have been identified. In one quartzite image, she blends feminine and masculine dress with an inscription reading 'daughter of Re(?), of his body, Sobekneferu, may she live like Re forever'. On her torso rests a pendant modelled on that worn by Senusret III. Three basalt statues of the female king were found in Tell ed-Dab'a; two depict her in a seated posture, another shows her kneeling. In one, she is depicted trampling the Nine Bows, representing the subjugation of Egypt's enemies. The three statues appear to be life-sized. One statue with her head is known. The bust was held in the Egyptian Museum of Berlin but was lost during World War II. Its existence is confirmed by photographic images and plaster casts. It fits on top of the lower part of a seated statuette discovered at Semna which bears the royal symbol smꜣ tꜣwy on the side of the throne. The lower half is held at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.

There is a damaged statuette in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York that has been suggested to represent Sobekneferu, though this assignment is unverified. The schist bust depicts a woman in a wig, wearing a crown composed of a uraeus cobra and two vultures with outstretched wings which is of unknown iconography, and the ḥb-sd cloak. The base of another statue bearing her name and identified as the representation of a king's royal daughter was discovered in Gezer, though it may also refer to a daughter of Senusret I or another unknown Sobekneferu. A headless black basalt sphinx discovered by Édouard Naville in Khatana-Qantir bearing a damaged inscription is also tentatively assigned to Sobekneferu.

There is evidence that she had structures built in Heracleopolis Magna and added to the Pyramid of Amenemhat III in Hawara. She left inscriptions on four granite papyriform columns found at a temple in Kom el-Akârib, while a further ten granite beams there may date to the same period. Her monumental works consistently associate her with Amenemhat III rather than Amenemhat IV, supporting the theory that she was the royal daughter of Amenemhat III and perhaps only a stepsister to Amenemhat IV, whose mother was not royal. Contemporary sources from her reign show that Sobekneferu adopted only the 'King's Daughter' title, which further supports this hypothesis. An example of such an inscription comes from a limestone block of 'the Labyrinth' of the Pyramid at Hawara. It reads 'Beloved of Dḥdḥt the good god Nỉ-mꜣꜥt-rꜥ [Amenemhat III] given [...] * Daughter of Re, Sobekneferu lord of Shedet, given all life'. The inscription is also the only known reference to a goddess Dḥdḥt. By contrast, Amenemhat IV's name does not appear at Hawara.

Historical sources
She is mentioned on the Karnak list of early Egyptian kings, the Saqqara Tablet, and Turin King List, but is conspicuously excluded from the Abydos king list. Her exclusion, along with all other female kings, pharaohs of the First and Second Intermediate Periods, and of the Amarna Period, is an indicator of whom Ramesses II and Seti I viewed as the legitimate rulers of Egypt. She is credited in the Turin Canon with a reign of 3 years, 10 months, and 24 days. She is mentioned by Manetho as 'Scemiophris', where she is credited with a reign of four years.

Funerary monument
Sobekneferu's tomb has not yet been positively identified. The Northern Mazghuna pyramid is assumed to be her monument. There is, however, no clear evidence to confirm this assignment and the pyramid may date to a period well after the end of the Twelfth Dynasty. Only its substructure was completed; construction of the superstructure and wider temple complex was never begun. The passages of the substructure had a complex plan. A stairway descended south from the east side of the pyramid leading to a square chamber which connected to the next sloping passage leading west to a portcullis. The portcullis consisted of a 42000 kg quartzite block intended to slide into and block the passage. Beyond the passage wound through several more turns and a second smaller portcullis before terminating at the antechamber. South of this lay the burial chamber which was almost entirely occupied by a quartzite monolith which acted as the vessel for a sarcophagus. In a deep recess lay a quartzite lid which was to be slid into place over the coffin and then locked into place by a stone slab blocking it. The builders had all exposed surfaces painted red and added lines of black paint. A causeway leading to the pyramid was built of mudbrick, which must have been used by the workers. Though the burial place had been constructed, no burial was interred at the site. A place called Sekhem Sobekneferu is mentioned on a papyrus found at Harageh which may be the name of her pyramid. On a funerary stela from Abydos, now in Marseille, there is mention of a storeroom administrator of Sobekneferu named Heby. The stela dates to the 13th Dynasty and attests to an ongoing funerary cult.

title: Sobekneferu