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Chevrolet Vega

The Chevrolet Vega is a subcompact automobile that was manufactured and marketed by GM's Chevrolet division from 1970 to 1977. Available in two-door hatchback, notchback, wagon, and sedan delivery body styles, all models were powered by an inline four-cylinder engine designed specifically for the Vega, with a lightweight, aluminum alloy cylinder block. The Vega first went on sale in Chevrolet dealerships on September 10, 1970. Variants included the Cosworth Vega, a short-lived limited-production performance model, introduced in the spring of 1975.

The Vega received the 1971 Motor Trend Car of the Year. Subsequently, the car became widely known for a range of problems related to its engineering, reliability, safety,  propensity to rust, and engine durability. Despite a series of recalls and design upgrades, the Vega's problems tarnished both its own as well as General Motors' reputation. Production ended with the 1977 model year.

The car was named for Vega, the brightest star in the constellation Lyra.

History
Chevrolet and Pontiac divisions worked separately on small cars in the early and mid 1960s. Ed Cole, GM's executive vice-president of operating staffs, working on his own small-car project with corporate engineering and design staffs, presented the program to GM's president in 1967. GM chose Cole's version over proposals from Chevrolet and Pontiac, and gave the car to Chevrolet to sell. Corporate management made the decisions to enter the small car market and to develop the car itself.

In 1968, GM chairman James Roche announced GM would produce the new car in the U.S. in two years. Ed Cole was chief engineer and Bill Mitchell, vice-president of design staff, was the chief stylist. Cole wanted a world-beater in showrooms in 24 months. Roche noted that GM had a team of "stylists, researchers and engineers" who had worked on the vehicle code-named XP-877 for years. John DeLorean later challenged this notion and stated that no prototypes or test properties had been built before Roche's announcement. Blueprints apparently did exist; however, they were an amalgam of competitive subcompact vehicles from overseas, including some that GM overseas operations produced. A GM design team was set up, headed by James G. Musser Jr., who had helped develop the Chevy II, the Camaro, the Chevrolet small-block V8 engines, and the Turbo-Hydramatic transmission. Musser said, "This was the first vehicle where one person was in charge", and that his team "did the entire vehicle".

Development 1968–1970
The Vega was conceived in 1968 to utilize newly developed all-aluminum die-cast engine block technology – the first sand-cast aluminum blocks had preceded the decision to build the car by two years. A relatively large displacement engine with good low-speed torque was decided on, with gear ratios for low engine rpm to achieve fuel economy. Engine testing totaled 6,000,000 miles. A pre-test engine was installed in a Fiat 124 sedan for development of the aluminum block, while several 1968 Opel sedans were used for drivetrain development

Chevrolet instituted a new management program, the car line management technique, to produce the all-new car in two years. The chief vehicle engineer had overall charge of the program. Fifty engineers, dedicated to the design of the entire car, were divided into groups: body, power train, chassis design, product assurance, and pleasability. The latter would check continuously on the vehicles on the assembly line, with computers in another program monitoring quality control of every vehicle built. Fisher Body engineers and draftsmen moved in with the Vega personnel.

In October 1968, there was one body style (the "11" style notchback sedan), one engine, one transmission (MB1 Torque-Drive manually shifted two-speed automatic), one base trim level, a bench seat, molded rubber floor covering, no glove box or headliner and no air-conditioning (ventilation was through the upper dash from the wiper plenum). As the market changed, so did the car in development.

In December 1968, hatchback, wagon, and panel delivery styles were added; also floor-level ventilation, and an optional performance engine ("L-11" two-barrel) which, predicted as 20% of production, accounted for 75%. Bucket seats were standard. Hatchback and wagon received carpeting and headliners. Optional air conditioning, predicted as 10% of production, was actually selected 45% of the time.

In February 1969, Opel three- and four-speed transmissions (three-speed standard, others optional); Powerglide were added (now four transmissions); mechanical fuel pump replaced by in-tank electric pump (making this the first GM product with an in tank fuel pump prior to the adoption of fuel injection); power steering option; base "11" style notchback trim upgraded to match hatchback and wagon carpet and headliner.

In April 1969, the car gained gauge-pack cluster, HD suspension, wider tires; adjustable seat back (45% of production); bumpers restyled, lower valance panels added; swing-out quarter window option (10% of production).

In July 1969, an electrically heated rear window option (10% of production); "GT" package, $325.00 extra (35% of production); bright window-frame and roof drip moldings added to hatchback and wagon.

This is essentially how the car launched as a 1971 model. Production began on June 26, 1970. After the national GM strike (September to November 1970), bright roof drip moldings were added to the base "11" notchback, with moldings sent to dealers to update units already in the field.

Cars magazine said in 1974 that in the rush to introduce the car with other 1971 models, "[t]ests which should have been at the proving grounds were performed by customers, necessitating numerous piecemeal "fixes" by dealers. Chevrolet's "bright star" received an enduring black eye despite a continuing development program which eventually alleviated most of these initial shortcomings."

Design and engineering

The wheelbase on all models is 97.0 in. Width is 65.4 in. The 1971 and 1972 models are 169.7 in long. The 1973 models are 3 in longer due to the front 5 mph bumper. Front and rear 5 mph bumpers on 1974 to 1977 models add another 5.7 in.

The hatchback, with its lower roofline and a fold-down rear seat, accounted for nearly half of all Vegas sold.

The sedan, later named "Notchback", is the only model with an enclosed trunk, and had the lowest base price. The Kammback wagon has a lower cargo liftover height and a swing-up liftgate.

The panel express had steel panels in place of the wagon's rear side glass, an enclosed storage area under the load floor, and a low-back driver's seat. An auxiliary passenger seat was optional. The model's classification as a truck, with less stringent safety requirements, allowed the low back seat(s).

The aluminum-block, inline-four engine was a joint effort by General Motors, Reynolds Metals, and Sealed Power Corp. The engine and its die-cast block technology were developed by GM engineering staff, then passed to Chevrolet for finalization and production. Ed Cole, involved with the 1955 small-block V8 as chief engineer at Chevrolet and now equally involved with the Vega engine as GM president, often visited the engineering staff engine drafting room on Saturdays, reviewing the design and directing changes, to the consternation of Chevrolet engineers and manufacturing personnel, who knew he wanted a rush job. Cole insisted that the engine didn't require a radiator - the heat rejection from the heater core would be sufficient. After many prototype failures, a (small) radiator was added to the vehicle. The engine in development became known in-house as "the world's tallest, smallest engine" due to the tall cylinder head. Its vibration, noise, and tendency to overheat were rectified by 1974.

The Vega's suspension, live rear axle, 53.2% front/46.8% rear weight distribution, low center of mass and neutral steering gave good handling. Lateral acceleration capacities were 0.90 g (standard suspension) and 0.93 g (RPO F-41 suspension). Steering box and linkage were ahead of the front wheel centerline, with a cushioned two-piece shaft. Front suspension was by short and long arms, with lower control arm bushings larger than on the 1970 Camaro. Four-link rear suspension copies the 1970 Chevelle. The design features coil springs front and rear.

The chassis development engineers aimed for full-size American car ride qualities with European handling. Later torque-arm rear suspension eliminated rear wheel hop under panic braking. Brakes (front discs, rear drums) copy an Opel design, with 10 in diameter single-piston solid rotors, 9 in drums and 70/30 front/rear braking distribution.

All models shared the same hood, fenders, floor pan, lower door panels, rocker panels, engine compartment and front end. In mid-1971, Chevrolet introduced an optional GT package for hatchback and Kammback models, which included the RPO L11 two-barrel 140 engine, F41 handling option, special tires, and trim.

Model year changes
For 1972, models had a revised exhaust system and driveline to reduce vibration and noise; also revised shock absorbers. Turbo Hydra-Matic three-speed automatic transmission and custom cloth interior were optional and a glove box was added.

For 1973, 300 changes included new exterior and interior colors and new standard interior trim. Front and rear nameplate scripts "Chevrolet Vega 2300" were changed to "Vega by Chevrolet". To meet the 1973 5 mph front bumper standards the front bumper, on stronger brackets, was extended 3 in, with a steel body-color filler panel. US-built Saginaw manual transmissions and a new shift linkage replaced the Opel units. The RPO L11 engine had a new Holley 5210C progressive two-barrel carburetor. New options included BR70-13 white-stripe steel-belted radial tires, full wheel covers, and body side molding with black rubber insert. Two new models were introduced mid-year: the estate wagon with simualted wood grain side and rear accents, and the LX notchback with vinyl roof finish. On May 17, 1973, the millionth Vega left the Lordstown Assembly plant – an orange GT hatchback with white sport stripes, power steering, and neutral custom vinyl interior including exclusive vinyl door panels. A limited-edition "Millionth Vega" was introduced replicating the milestone car, with orange carpeting and Millionth Vega door handle accents. Sixty-five hundred were built from May 1 to July 1. For the first time, cloth upholstery was offered, with the Custom interior in black or blue.

For 1974, the major exterior changes were a revised front end and 5 mph rear bumper, increasing overall length 6 in, and a slanted front header panel with recessed headlamp bezels. Louvered steel replaced the egg-crate plastic grille. Front and rear aluminum bumpers with inner steel spring replaced the chrome bumpers, with license plate mountings relocated. A revised rear panel on notchback and hatchback models had larger single-unit taillights, with ventilation grills eliminated from trunk and hatch lids (rear quarter panels on the wagon models). A 16 usgal fuel tank replaced the 11 usgal tank. Side striping replaced the hood and deck stripes for the GT sport stripes option. The custom interior's wood-trimmed molded door panels were replaced by vinyl door panels matching the seat trim. January saw plastic front fender liners added after thousands of the fenders were replaced under warranty on 1971–1974 models. In February, the "Spirit of America" limited-edition hatchback was introduced, with a white exterior, white vinyl roof, blue and red striping on body sides, hood and rear-end panel, emblems on front fenders and rear panel, white "GT" wheels, A70-13 raised white-letter tires, white custom vinyl interior, and red accent color carpeting. Seventy-five hundred Vegas were built through May. Sales peaked at 460,374 for the 1974 model year.

The 264 changes for 1975 included H.E.I. (high-energy) electronic ignition and a catalytic converter. New options included power brakes, tilt steering wheel, BR78-13B steel-belted radial tires, and special custom cloth interior for the hatchback and Kammback. In March the Cosworth Vega was introduced with an all-aluminum engine and electronic fuel injection, the first on a Chevrolet passenger car. The panel express version was discontinued at the end of the model year. Its sales peaked at 7,800 in its first year, then averaged 4,000 per year. Over 1,500 1975 models were sold. Total sales fell to 206,239.

For 1976, Chevrolet claimed 300 changes were made. A facelift included a revised header panel with Chevy bowtie emblem, wider grille, revised headlamp bezels – all in corrosion-resistant material – and new tri-color taillights for the notchback and hatchback (although the amber turn signals were nonfunctional). The cooling and durability of the Dura-Built 2.3 L engine were improved. The chassis received the Monza's upgraded components including box-section front cross-member, larger front and rear brakes (with the fronts gaining vented rotors), and torque-arm rear suspension. Extensive anti-rust improvements to the body included galvanized fenders and rocker panels. New models were introduced: GT estate wagon, Cabriolet notchback (with a half-vinyl roof and opera windows similar to the Monza Towne coupe), and a limited-edition Nomad wagon with restyled side windows.

New options included BorgWarner five-speed manual overdrive transmission and houndstooth seat trim named "sport cloth" at an additional $18. A "Sky-Roof" with tinted reflecting sliding glass and an eight-track tape player were options from January. The Cosworth was canceled in July after 1,446 1976 models were built.

For 1977, models had few revisions. The notchback was renamed "coupe". On the Dura-built 140 engine, a pulse-air system met stricter Federal emission standards. The single-barrel engine and three-speed manual transmission were dropped. Interiors received a color-keyed steering column, steering wheel, instrument-cluster face, and parking-brake cover, with a color-keyed full console a new option. The GT models received black, exterior moldings (lower moldings deleted), black, sport mirrors and wheels, Vega GT bodyside and rear striping as well as a Vega GT ID

Engine

The Vega engine is a 2287 cc inline-four with a die-cast aluminum alloy cylinder block, cast-iron cylinder head and single overhead camshaft (SOHC). The block is an open-deck design with siamesed cylinder bores. The outer case walls form the water jacket, sealed off by the head and head gasket, and the block has cast-iron main bearing caps and crankshaft. The cast-iron cylinder head was chosen for low cost. A simple overhead valvetrain has three components activating each valve instead of a typical pushrod system's seven. An external belt from the crankshaft drives the five-bearing camshaft plus the water pump and fan.

Compression ratio for the standard and optional engine is 8.0:1, as the engine was designed for low-lead and lead-free fuels. The single-barrel carburetor version produces 90 hp; the two-barrel version (RPO L11) produces 110 hp. From 1972, ratings were listed as SAE net. The engine is prone to vibration, which is damped by large rubber engine mounts. The 1972 Rochester DualJet two-barrel carburetor required an air pump for emission certification and was replaced in 1973 with a Holley-built 5210C progressive two-barrel carburetor. The 1973 emission control revisions reduced power from the optional engine by 5 bhp, and its noise levels were lowered. A high energy ignition was introduced on 1975 engines.

Serious problems with the engine led to a redesign for 1976–1977. Marketed as the Dura-Built 140, the new engine had improved coolant pathways, redesigned cylinder head with quieter hydraulic valve lifters, longer-life valve stem seals that reduced oil consumption by 50%, and redesigned water pump, head gasket, and thermostat. Warranty was upgraded to five years or 60000 mi. In 1977 a pulse-air system was added to meet stricter 1977 U.S. exhaust emission regulations and the engine paint color (used on all Chevrolet engines) changed from orange to blue.

In August 1975, Chevrolet conducted an endurance test of three Vegas powered by Dura-Built engines, advertised as a "60,000 miles in 60 days Durability Run". Supervised by the United States Auto Club, three pre-production 1976 hatchback coupes with manual transmissions and air conditioning were driven non-stop for 60000 mi in 60 days through the deserts of California and Nevada by nine drivers, covering a total of 180000 mi. With the sole failure a broken timing belt, Vega project engineer Bernie Ernest said GM felt "very comfortable with the warranty."

In ambient temperatures between 99 °F and 122 °F the cars lost 24 USoz of coolant (normal evaporation under the conditions) during the 180,000 miles. They averaged 28.9 mpgus and used one quart of oil per 3,400 miles. Driving expenses averaged 2.17 cents per mile. One of the cars went on display at the 1976 New York Auto Show. The 1976 Vega was marketed as a durable and reliable car.

Engine output summary
notes: 1972–1977 hp/torque ratings are SAE net L-11 engine standard on 1977 models

OHC L-10

The optional L-11 engine was part of the Vega development program from December 1968, initially with a tall iron cylinder head that had an unusual tappet arrangement and side-flow combustion chambers. The Chevrolet engine group then designed an aluminum crossflow cylinder head with single central overhead camshaft, "hemi" combustion chambers, and big valves. This was lighter and about 4 in lower than the Vega production head. Although numerous prototypes were built and manufacturing tooling started, the engine did not receive production approval. It would have given higher performance than the iron-head engine, without its differential expansion head gasket problems.

RC2-206 Wankel

In November 1970, GM paid $50 million ($0 in dollars ) for initial licenses to produce the Wankel rotary engine. GM president Ed Cole projected its release in October 1973 as a 1974 Vega option. The General Motors Rotary Combustion Engine (GMRCE) had two rotors displacing 206 cuin, twin distributors and coils, and an aluminum housing. RC2-206 Wankels were installed in 1973 Vegas for cold weather testing in Canada.

Motor Trend's 1973 article The '75 Vega Rotary said, "[M]ileage will be in the 16–18 mpg range. Compared to the normal piston [engine] Vega's 20 to 26 mpg, the whole rotary deal begins to look just a little less attractive, what with the price of gasoline skyrocketing..."

GM thought it could meet 1975 emissions standards with the engine tuned for better fuel economy. Other refinements improved it to 20 mpgus, but brought apex seal failures and rotor-tip seal problems. By December 1973 it was clear the Wankel, now planned for the Monza 2+2, would not be ready for either production or emissions certification in time for the start of the 1975 model year. After paying another $10 million ($0 in dollars ) against its rotary licence fees, GM announced the first postponement. In April 1974 Motor Trend predicted the outcome: on September 24, 1974, Cole postponed the engine, ostensibly due to emissions difficulties. He retired the same month. His successor Pete Estes showed little interest in the engine and GM, citing poor fuel economy, postponed production pending further development. Estes had previously decided to let the Corvair, another Cole project, expire, well before the celebrated attacks of Ralph Nader.

One complete GM Wankel engine exists. It is displayed at the Ypsilanti (MI) Motor Heritage Museum, along with many Corvair cars and exhibits.

V8
In July 1972, Hot Rod tested a prototype Vega fitted with an all-aluminum V8, the last of several 283 cu in. (4.6 L) units used in the CERV I research and development vehicle. Bored out to 302 cuin, it had high-compression pistons, "097 Duntov" mechanical-lifter camshaft, cast-iron four-barrel intake manifold, and a Quadrajet carburetor. With stock Turbo Hydramatic, stock Vega rear end and street tires, the car ran a sub-14-second quarter-mile.

Assembly

GM built the $75 million ($0 in dollars ) Lordstown Assembly plant in Lordstown, Ohio near Youngstown to make the Vega. It was the world's most automated auto plant, where approximately 90 percent of each Vega body's 3,900 welds were carried out by 75 automatic welding devices. 26 Unimate industrial robots perform ~35% of the welding operations; about 55% of the welding was performed with conventional automatic welders. Engine and rear axle assemblies positioned by hydraulic lifts with bodies overhead moved along the line at 30 ft per minute. Sub-assembly areas, conveyor belts, and quality control were all computer-directed.

Production speed
Production at Lordstown was projected at 100 Vegas an hour—one every 36 seconds—from the outset. Twice the normal production volume, this was the fastest rate in the world. Within months Lordstown produced 73.5 Vegas an hour.

Lordstown workers had 36 seconds to perform their tasks instead of the customary minute. With 25 percent more line workers than needed, they formed groups in which three worked while a fourth rested. Although there were mechanical flaws, the quality of early Vega assembly, e.g. fit and finish, was acceptable. The car earned Motor Trend's 1971 Car of the Year award. In October 1971, General Motors handed management of Lordstown from Chevrolet and Fisher Body to General Motors Assembly Division (GMAD). GMAD imposed more rigorous discipline and cut costs by dropping the fourth "extra" worker. The United Auto Workers (UAW) said 800 workers were laid off at Lordstown in the first year under GMAD; GMAD said 370. Management accused workers of slowing the line and sabotaging cars by omitting parts and doing shoddy work. Workers said GMAD sped up the line and cut staffing. Quality suffered. In March 1972, the 7,700 workers called a wildcat strike that lasted a month and cost GM $150 million. Vega production rose by over 100,000 units for 1972, and would have been stronger but for the strike. 1975 was a "rolling model change" at 100 cars per hour with no downtime.

As production approached 100 vehicles per hour problems arose in the paint shop. At 85 units per hour, nearly all required repair. Conventional spray pressures and atomizing tips could not apply the paint fast enough, but increasing pressures and tip apertures produced runs and sags. Fisher Body and lacquer paint supplier DuPont, over one weekend, developed new paint chemistry and application specifics: Non-Aqueous Dispersion Lacquer (NAD). The new formulation raised paint shop throughput to 106 units per hour.

Vertical rail transport
Although Lordstown Assembly had a purpose-built exit off of the Ohio Turnpike built to make shipment easier, the Vega was designed for vertical shipment, nose down. General Motors and Southern Pacific designed "Vert-A-Pac" rail cars to hold 30 Vegas each, compared with conventional tri-level autoracks which held 18. The Vega was fitted with four removable cast-steel sockets on the underside and had plastic spacers—removed at unloading—to protect engine and transmission mounts. The rail car ramp/doors were opened and closed via forklift.

Vibration and low-speed crash tests ensured the cars would not shift or suffer damage in transit. The Vega was delivered topped with fluids, ready to drive to dealerships, so the engine was baffled to prevent oil entering the number one cylinder; the battery filler caps high on the rear edge of the casing prevented acid spills; a tube drained fuel from the carburetor to vapor canister; and the windshield washer bottle stood at 45 degrees. The Vert-A-Pacs were retired after the Vega's 1977 model year.

Production figures
Total Vega production, mainly from Lordstown, was 2,006,661 including 3,508 Cosworth models. Production peaked at 2,400 units per day. In 1973–1974, Vegas were also built at GM of Canada's Sainte-Thérèse Assembly plant in Quebec.

 * Does not include an unknown number of 1973 panel deliveries, which probably numbered around 4000 units.

Pricing
Due mostly to inflation, but also because of emissions and safety mandates, prices of all automobiles rose 50 percent during the Vega's seven-year lifespan. The same basic Vega that cost $2090 in 1971 carried a retail price of $3249 by the end of 1977. And since all other cars suffered the same inflationary rise, less expensive cars were in greater demand than those with higher prices which helped Vegas sell. The 1975 Cosworth Vega at $5,918 was priced $892 below the Chevrolet Corvette. "Cosworth. One Vega for the price of two", as it was advertised, was priced out of the market, and fell well short of its projected sales goal.

DeLorean influence

GM Vice President John Z. DeLorean, appointed Chevrolet's general manager a year before the Vega's introduction, was tasked with overseeing the Vega launch and directing operations at the Lordstown Assembly plant. As problems with the vehicle became apparent, he put additional inspectors and workers on the line and introduced a computerized quality control program in which each car was inspected as it came off the line and, if necessary, repaired. He was also tasked with promoting the car in Motor Trend and Look magazines. He authorized the Cosworth Vega prototype and requested initiation of production.

In Motor Trend's August 1970 issue, DeLorean promoted the upcoming car as one that out-handled "almost any" European sports car, out-accelerated "any car in its price class", and would be "built at a quality level that has never been attained before in a manufacturing operation in this country, and probably in the world."

In the 1979 book On a Clear Day You Can See General Motors by J. Patrick Wright, DeLorean spoke of hostility between Chevrolet Division and GM's design and engineering staff; of trying to motivate Chevrolet engineers to resolve the car's problems before introduction; and of initiating quality control. He also said, "While I was convinced that we were doing our best with the car that was given to us, I was called upon by the corporation to tout the car far beyond my personal convictions about it."

Problems
Although the Vega sold well from the beginning, the buying public soon questioned the car's quality. The issues with the vehicle practically went back to the beginning of its development. For example, the front end of the vehicle separated in only eight miles on the General Motors Test track. The engineers had to add twenty pounds of structural reinforcements to pass durability. In Comeback:The Fall & Rise of the American Automobile Industry, the authors write: "In 1972, GM issued three mass recalls, the largest covering 500,000 Vegas, to fix defective axles, balky throttles and problems that caused fires. The Vega's aluminum engine was notorious for buckling and leaking." By May 1972, six out of every seven Vegas produced was the subject of a recall. Development and upgrades continued throughout the car's seven-year production run, addressing its engine and cost-related issues.

Recalls
The first Vega recall, Chevrolet campaign number 72-C-05, addressed engine backfires on 130,000 cars fitted with the L-11 option two-barrel carburetor. An engine that backfired with specific frequency and magnitude weakened and ruptured the muffler. Hot exhaust gases then, in turn, spilled out and heated the adjacent fuel tank which expanded, ruptured and spilled fuel that ignited and caused a fire. The second recall in early summer 1972, Chevrolet campaign number 72-C-07, involved 350,000 vehicles equipped with the standard engine and single-barrel carburetor. It concerned a perceived risk that a component in the emission-control system (idle stop solenoid bracket) might fall into the throttle linkage, jamming it open. Chevrolet told customers that if the throttle stuck open while driving, to turn off the ignition and brake the vehicle until it stopped.

In July 1972, the company announced the third recall, "in as many months," campaign number 72-C-09, which affected 526,000 vehicles, the result of which was a rear axle which could separate from the vehicle. As it was recorded by NHTSA, the "axle shaft and wheel could then move outboard of the quarter panel and allow vehicle to drop down onto rear suspension."

140 CID engine
Other quality issues plagued the engine. Faulty valve-stem seals caused excessive oil consumption, but this was not addressed until the release of the updated Dura-built engine in 1976. According to an article in Popular Mechanics, "When the engine got hot, which wasn't uncommon, the cylinders distorted and the piston rings wore off the exposed silica that was meant to provide a tough wall surface. Then, at best, the cars burned more oil. At worst, the distortion compromised the head gasket."

With its small 6 USqt capacity and tiny two-tube 1 sqft radiator, the Vega cooling system was adequate when topped off, but owners tended not to check the coolant level often enough, and in combination with leaking valve-stem seals, the engine often ran low on oil and coolant simultaneously. Consequent overheating distorted the open-deck block, allowing antifreeze to seep past the head gasket, which caused piston scuffing inside the cylinders.

Chevrolet added a coolant-overflow bottle and an electronic low-coolant indicator in 1974 that could be retrofitted to earlier models at no cost. Under a revised 50000 mi engine warranty for 1971 to 1975 Vegas, the owner of a damaged engine could choose a replacement with a new short block or a rebuilt steel-sleeved unit, which proved costly for Chevrolet. GM engineer Fred Kneisler maintains that too much emphasis had been put on overheating problems, the real culprits being brittle valve stem seals and too-thin piston plating. Regardless of the cause, damaged cylinder walls were common.

Fisher Body
On the early Vegas, Fisher's rustproofing process did not treat the entire chassis. The six-stage zinc phosphate rustproofing process began with the untreated steel body shells spending two minutes submerged in a 65000 usgal electrophoretic painting vat (Fisher Body Division’s "Elpo" electrophoretic deposition of polymers process) to prime and further protect from rust. Assembled bodies were dried, wet-sanded, sealer-coated, sprayed with acrylic lacquer and baked in a 300 F degree oven.

However, there was a process failure during the vat treatment stage because a trapped air pocket prevented the anti-rust coating from reaching a gap between the Vegas’ front fenders and cowl. Under normal driving conditions, this allowed moist debris and salt to build up and rust the untreated steel on early Vegas because they had no protective liners. The finance department had rejected liners as they would have added a $2.28 unit cost. After GM spent millions replacing thousands of corroded fenders under warranty, Chevrolet installed stopgap plastic deflectors in late 1973 and full plastic liners in 1974. Rust also damaged the rocker panels and door bottoms, the area beneath the windshield, and the body above the rockers. It sometimes seized the front suspension cam bolts, preventing alignment work, necessitating removal with a cutting torch and replacement by all-new parts.

From 1976, anti-rust improvements included galvanized steel fenders and rocker panels; "four-layer" fender protection with zinc-coated and primed inner fenders; wheel-well protective mastic; zinc-rich pre-prime coating on inner doors; expandable sealer between rear quarter panel and wheel housing panel; and corrosion-resistant grill and headlamp housings.

The 1976 to 1977 Dura-Built 140 engine had improved engine block coolant pathways, redesigned head gasket, water pump and thermostat, and a five-year/60000 mi warranty.

Reception

Initially, the Vega received awards and praise, but subsequently, there were lasting criticisms.

The Vega received awards including "1971 car of the year" and "1973 car of the year in the economy class"; from Motor Trend; "best economy sedan" in 1971, 1972 and 1973 from Car and Driver;  and the 1971 award for "excellence in design in transportation equipment" from American Iron and Steel Institute.

Favorable reviews at launch included Motor Trend which in 1970 described the Vega as enjoyable, functional, comfortable, with good handling, and ride; Road and Track who praised its visibility, freeway cruising and economy. and others who praised the 2300 engine's simplicity, the handling package and brakes, and one said the car was well matched to the tastes and needs of the 1970s,

Others praised its looks.

Comparisons with other contemporary cars such as the Ford Pinto, Volkswagen Beetle, AMC Gremlin, and Toyota Corolla were done by a number of magazines. The Vega came out well, scoring praise for its combination of performance and economy"; as well as its speed, comfort, quietness and better ride. Road and Track's editor, John R. Bond said in September 1970, "I think the Vega is, beyond a doubt, the best handling passenger car ever built in the U.S. It has many other good qualities, but the road holding impressed and surprised me most of all."

The Center for Auto Safety criticized the car. A letter from its founder Ralph Nader to GM chairman Richard Gerstenberg contained a list of safety allegations, and said the car was a "sloppily crafted, unreliable and unsafe automobile" that "hardly set a good example in small car production for American industry". Criticisms continued long after production ceased. In 1979, Popular Science said free repairs in the 1970s cost tens of millions, continuing up to two years after the warranty ran out. A 1990 Time article said the Vega was "a poorly engineered car notorious for rust and breakdowns." In 1991, Newsweek magazine called the Vega costlier and more troublesome than its rivals.

Joe Sherman's 1993 book In the Rings of Saturn said that "by its third recall, ninety-five percent of all Vegas manufactured before May 1972 had critical safety flaws", and that the model's "checkered history only reinforced the belief that GM made inferior small cars. This legacy would prove far more important than any direct impact the Vega would have on GM's profits." Motor Trend said in its September 1999 50th Anniversary Issue: "The Vega seemed well placed to set the standard for subcompacts in the 70s, but it was troubled by one of the most vulnerable Achilles heels in modern automotive history: an alloy four-cylinder engine block that self-destructed all too easily, and all too often. Once the word got out, the damage was done, even though the engine had been revamped." The April 2000 issue of Collectible Automobile magazine said: "The Chevy Vega has become a symbol of all the problems Detroit faced in the 70's." Robert Freeland's 2005 book The Struggle for Control of the Modern Corporation said "poor planning and perfunctory implementation ... led to an extremely poor quality automobile beset by mechanical problems."

In his 2010 book Generation Busted, author Alan Zemek said, "Chevrolet's answer to the Japanese car, left it with a black eye."

Websites have included the Vega in lists of worst cars, for example Popular Mechanics, Car and Driver, and Edmunds.com. In 2010, John Pearley Huffman of Popular Mechanics summed up the Vega as "the car that nearly destroyed GM." In 2010, after driving a preserved, original '73 Vega GT, Frank Markus of Motor Trend Classic said, "After a few gentle miles, I begin to understand how this car won its awards and comparison tests. Well-maintained examples are great looking, nice-driving, economical classics—like Baltic Ave. with a Hotel, the best ones can be had for $10K or less."

In 2013, Frank Markus of Motor Trend Classic said, "Overblown—The China Syndrome might have over hyped the TMI (Three-Mile Island) incident as bad press might have exaggerated the Vega's woes."

Rebadged variants
Vega body styles were used for several badge engineered variants. The 1973 to 1977 Pontiac Astre had Vega bodies (and Vega engines through 1976). The 1978 to 1979 Chevrolet Monza and Pontiac Sunbird wagons used the Vega Kammback wagon body with engines by Pontiac and Buick. The Monza S used the Vega hatchback body.

XP-898 concept
In 1973, Chevrolet presented the XP-898 concept car using many Vega components, including the engine, and using a construction method intended to explore vehicle crashworthiness at high speed: a fiberglass foam sandwich body and chassis in four sections with rigid urethane foam infill.

Car and Driver 's showroom stock No. 0
In the early 1970s Car and Driver magazine challenged its readers to a series of Sports Car Club of America (SCCA) races for showroom stock sedans at Lime Rock Park, Connecticut – "The Car and Driver SS/Sedan Challenge". Bruce Cargill (representing the readers) won "Challenge I" in 1972 in a Dodge Colt, and Patrick Bedard, C&D's executive writer, won "Challenge II" in 1973 in an Opel 1900, "Challenge III" was the tie-breaker in 1974.

On October 12, 1974 C&D's 1973 Vega GT No. 0, driven by Bedard, "outran every single Opel, Colt, Pinto, Datsun, Toyota and Subaru on the starting grid [...] It had done the job – this Vega GT faced off against 31 other well-driven showroom stocks and it had finished first.

After Bedard purchased the year-old Vega in California for $1,900, former Chevrolet engineer Doug Roe – a Vega specialist – told him to "overfill it about a quart. "When you run them over 5,000 rpm, all the oil stays up in the head and you'll wipe the bearings. And something has to be done with the crankcase vents. If you don't it'll pump all that oil into the intake." Roe added that 215 degrees was normal and only above 230 degrees would the engine probably detonate.

Bedard said, "Five laps from the end I discovered that once the tank drops below a quarter full, the fuel wouldn't pick up in the right turns. Twice per lap the carburetor would momentarily run dry. And if that wasn't bad enough, the temperature gauge read exactly 230 degrees and a white Opel was on my tail as unshakably as a heat-seeking missile. But it was also clear that no matter how good a driver Don Knowles was and no matter how quick his Opel, he wasn't going to get by if the Vega simply stayed alive. Which it did. You have to admire a car like that. If it wins, it must be the best, never mind all of the horror stories you hear, some of them from me."

title: Chevrolet Vega


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Stones River

The Stones River (properly spelled Stone's River) is a major stream of the eastern portion of Tennessee's Nashville Basin region and a tributary of the Cumberland River. It is named after explorer and longhunter Uriah Stone, who navigated the river in 1767.

Geography and hydrography
The Stones River is composed of three major forks: the West, Middle, and East forks. The West Fork, 39.1 mi long, rises in southernmost Rutherford County near the Bedford County line. The upstream portion of its course runs roughly parallel to U.S. Highway 231. The Middle Fork, 19.8 mi long, rises in an area of low hills, or knobs, also near the line with Bedford County, near Hoovers Gap, an important troop movement route during the American Civil War. It flows roughly parallel to, but west of, Interstate 24 and U.S. Highway 41, and is met by the West Fork near State Route 99. The East Fork is the longest, at 54.0 mi; it rises in Cannon County on Short Mountain, an outlier of the Cumberland Plateau, and flows through Woodbury, the county seat. This stream is roughly paralleled by U.S. Route 70S.

The West Fork runs just west of downtown Murfreesboro. Just northwest of Murfreesboro along the West Fork is the Stones River National Battlefield, site of the Battle of Stones River, a major Civil War battle that was fought from December 31, 1862, to January 2, 1863. The East Fork runs well to the north of Murfreesboro, adjacent to the grounds of the Alvin C. York Veterans Affairs hospital, and is crossed by U.S. Highway 231 near the community of Walterhill, site of a former hydroelectric dam used for a power supply for the surrounding area prior to the advent of the Tennessee Valley Authority. Near this site is a gigantic landfill operated by Browning-Ferris Industries.

Reservoir
The confluence of the two major forks occurs in northeastern Rutherford County near Smyrna. At the confluence, both are already somewhat slack because of the impoundment of J. Percy Priest Dam, a United States Army Corps of Engineers development constructed during the 1960s and named for a former Nashville Congressman. The impoundment of the reservoir led to major change in residential growth patterns in Nashville during the late 1960s and 1970s because people desired to live near the lake, which is highly developed with boat ramps, marinas, parks and other recreational areas, campgrounds, and even an artificial beach area.

In 1979 the dam was bombed with dynamite as ruse to cover a crime spree supposed to have taken place in the resultant massive flooding. The conspirators succeeded only in destroying some iron doors at the dam's base. The suspects were later convicted and sentenced to substantial prison terms.

The dam is visible from the bridge just below it on Interstate 40; just below the dam is a desirable fishing area under certain discharge conditions, but in recent years access has at times been limited because of security concerns. Also just below the dam is the trail-head of the Stones River Greenway, an important part of the Nashville Greenways Project.

Tailwaters
Between Percy Priest Dam and the mouth of the Stones River, the river flows through Clover Bottom, a large flood plain and site of a former plantation whose Clover Bottom Mansion house, after many years of disuse, neglect, and vandalism, is now the headquarters for the Tennessee Historical Commission. "Clover Bottom" was once the name of a nearby custodial school for mentally disabled children and adults. The immediate area is also the site of a state mental hospital and the Tennessee School for the Blind. Clover Bottom also is the separation of the Nashville neighborhoods of Donelson and Hermitage.

Near the mouth of the Stones River into the Cumberland River, below the bridge on U.S. Highway 70, is a private golf club. The Stones River is now thought of primarily in terms of its major impoundment, Percy Priest Lake, and is important to the Nashville area. The flood control provided by the dam has been important to the reduction of flooding downstream in the downtown Nashville area, as well as in the entire Cumberland Valley.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Stones River


text:
User talk:Choleechee

This is a test page. Please feel free to add to it. I began my Wiki account on Thursday, August 5th from Oxnard College, where I am teaching through the Proyecto Access program. This is a six week math and science program funded by NASA and UCSB. I am teaching the Advanced Computer Science class.

March 03, 2005 - suddenly I remembered I had this page, and decided to see if I still had the password. I anticipate figuring out how to link this to (and from) the Westlake Village, CA wiki page.

title: User talk:Choleechee


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Sarah Messer

Sarah Messer (born 1966) is an American poet and author. She was raised in Marshfield, Massachusetts, in the Hatch Homestead, a house built in the 17th century that was the subject of her book Red House: Being a Mostly Accurate Account of New England's Oldest Continuously Lived-In House. Messer has received grants and awards from the National Endowment for the Arts, the Fine Arts Work Center in Provincetown, and others. In 2008-2009, she was a Fellow at the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study at Harvard.

Messer earned undergraduate and master's degrees from Middlebury College and the University of Michigan, respectively. For many years she taught as an associate professor at the University of North Carolina at Wilmington in the Department of Creative Writing. In 2010, Messer co-founded One Pause Poetry, an on-line audio archive and reading series in Ann Arbor, Michigan. Currently she teaches at the Residential College at the University of Michigan, and is a cheese maker at White Lotus Farms.

Works

 * 2001 Bandit Letters: Poems, poetry collection (ISBN 1-930974-08-6)
 * 2004 Red House: Being a Mostly Accurate Account of New England's Oldest Continuously Lived-In House, memoir (ISBN 0-670-03315-4)
 * 2015 Dress Made of Mice: Poems, poetry collection (ISBN 978-1-62557-924-9)
 * 2015 'Having Once Pause: Poems of Zen Master Ikkyu'', translation, poetry collection (ISBN 978-0-472-05256-1)
 * 2017 Breakout

title: Sarah Messer


text:
Norman Davies

Ivor Norman Richard Davies (born 8 June 1939) is a British and Polish historian, known for his publications on the history of Europe, Poland and the United Kingdom. He has a special interest in Central and Eastern Europe and is UNESCO Professor at the Jagiellonian University, professor emeritus at University College London, a visiting professor at the Collège d'Europe, and an honorary fellow at St Antony's College, Oxford. He was granted Polish citizenship in 2014.

Academic career
Davies was born to Richard and Elizabeth Davies in Bolton, Lancashire. He is of Welsh descent. He studied in Grenoble, France, from 1957 to 1958 and then under A. J. P. Taylor at Magdalen College, Oxford, where he earned a BA in history in 1962. He was awarded an MA at the University of Sussex in 1966 and also studied in Perugia, Italy. Davies intended to study for a PhD in the Soviet Union but was denied an entry visa, so he went to Kraków, Poland, instead. Davies studied at the Jagiellonian University and did research on the Polish–Soviet War. As this war was denied in the official communist Polish historiography of that time, he was obliged to change the title of his dissertation to The British Foreign Policy towards Poland, 1919–20. After he obtained his PhD in Kraków in 1968, the English text was published in 1972 under the title ''White Eagle, Red Star. The Polish–Soviet War 1919–20''.

From 1971, Davies taught Polish history at the School of Slavonic and East European Studies, where he was professor from 1985 to 1996, when he retired. He subsequently became Supernumerary Fellow at Wolfson College, Oxford, from 1997 to 2006. Throughout his career, Davies has lectured in many countries, including the United States, Canada, Australia, Japan, China, Poland and in most of the rest of Europe as well.

Stanford University's history department denied Davies a tenured faculty position in 1986 (on an 11 against, 10 for and 1 abstaining, vote). The decision was described as "the closest, most acrimonious tenure decision of recent years". After failing to arrange a formal review hearing of the decision, Davies filed a lawsuit against History Professor Harold Kahn and 29 other Stanford professors. This case was dismissed when Davies was unable to depose Kahn. Davies subsequently sought to obtain $3 million in damages from the university, arguing he had been the victim of discrimination on the grounds of his political views (with the claim being "defamation," "breach of contract" and "tortious interference" with a business). The court ruled that because of California's right of privacy "even if we assume that... a candidate may be denied tenure for improper" [e.g., defamatory] "reasons, we are of the opinion that the right of a faculty member to discuss with his colleagues the candidate's qualifications thoroughly and candidly, in confidence and without fear of compelled disclosure, is of such paramount value that it ought not to be impaired." The court upheld the university's right to decide on faculty appointments on the basis of any criteria.

Davies is a visiting professor at the Collège d'Europe.

Work
Davies' first book, White Eagle, Red Star: The Polish-Soviet War, 1919–20 was published in 1972.

His 1981 book God's Playground, a comprehensive overview of Polish history, was published officially in Poland only after the fall of communism. In 1984, Davies published Heart of Europe, a briefer, more essay-like history of Poland, in which the chapters are arranged in reverse chronological order.

In the 1990s, Davies published Europe: A History (1996) and The Isles: A History (1999), about Europe and the islands of Great Britain and Ireland, respectively. Each book is a narrative interlarded with numerous sidepanel discussions of microtopics.

In 2000, Davies' Polish publishers Znak published a collection of his essays and articles under the title Smok wawelski nad Tamizą ("The Wawel Dragon on the Thames").

In 2002, at the suggestion of the city's mayor, Bogdan Zdrojewski, Davies and his former research assistant, Roger Moorhouse, co-wrote a history of Wrocław / Breslau, a Silesian city. Titled Microcosm: Portrait of a Central European City, the book was published simultaneously in English, Polish and German, and was later translated into Czech, French and Italian.

Davies also writes essays and articles for the mass media. Among others, he has worked for the BBC as well as British and American magazines and newspapers, such as The Times, The New York Review of Books and The Independent. In Poland, his articles appeared in the liberal Catholic weekly Tygodnik Powszechny.

Davies' book ''Rising '44. The Battle for Warsaw'' describes the Warsaw Uprising. It was followed by Europe at War 1939–1945: No Simple Victory (2006). In 2008 Davies participated in the documentary film The Soviet Story.

Awards and distinctions
Davies holds a number of honorary titles and memberships, including honorary doctorates from the universities of the Jagiellonian University (since 2003), Lublin, Gdańsk and Warsaw (since 2007), memberships in the Polish Academy of Learning (PAU), the Academia Scientiarum et Artium Europaea, and the International Honorary Council of the European Academy of Diplomacy, and fellowships of the British Academy and the Royal Historical Society. Davies received an honorary DLitt degree from his alma mater the University of Sussex. Davies is also an honorary citizen of Polish cities of Warsaw, Wrocław, Lublin, and Kraków, and a member of the committee for the Order of the Smile.

Edward Bernard Raczyński, President of the Polish government-in-exile, decorated Davies with the Order of Polonia Restituta. On 22 December 1998 President of Poland Aleksander Kwaśniewski awarded him the Grand Cross (1st class) of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Poland. Finally, on 11 November 2012, Davies was decorated with the Order of the White Eagle, Poland's highest civilian award.

In 2001, Davies was made a companion of the Order of Saint Michael and Saint George for service to Central European history.

Davies has been appointed to the advisory board of the European Association of History Educators—EUROCLIO. In 2008, he was awarded the Order of the Cross of St Mary's Land 3rd Class by the Republic of Estonia.

Davies also received Knight of Freedom Award in 2006 for his promotion of Polish history and the values represented by General Casimir Pulaski.

In 2012, he received the Aleksander Gieysztor Prize for his promotion of Polish cultural heritage abroad.

In 2019 he was accepted by Swedish Academy to the list of literature Nobel Prize candidates. The information was announced during author's meeting in Gniezno, Poland.

Political views
Davies disagrees with the historical policy of the Law and Justice party. He stated in 2017 that "PiS wants to politicize history to a degree unseen in the last 25 years".

Davies himself argues that "Holocaust scholars need have no fears that rational comparisons might threaten that uniqueness. Quite the opposite." and that "one needs to re-construct mentally the fuller picture in order to comprehend the true enormity of Poland's wartime cataclysm, and then to say with absolute conviction 'Never Again'."

Personal life
Davies married Maria Korzeniewicz, a Polish scholar born in Dąbrowa Tarnowska. He lives in Oxford and Kraków, and has two sons. His uncle Donny died in the Munich air disaster.

Davies was initially a member of the Congregational Church in Bolton, but converted to Roman Catholicism. His mother was a devout Christian and a nonconformist Protestant. In an interview for Aleteia in 2018, Davies stated that he converted to Roman Catholicism in Poland and believed in divine providence based on the doctrine of providence of St Augustine. He also expressed his respect for the Ukrainian Orthodox Church and once attended the Ukrainian Orthodox liturgy. Polish journalist Jan Wróbel called Davies a "liberal Catholic and open-minded patriot".

Books

 * 1972: White Eagle, Red Star: The Polish–Soviet War, 1919–20. (2004 edition: ISBN 0-7126-0694-7)
 * 1977: Poland, Past and Present: A Select Bibliography of Works in English. ISBN 0-89250-011-5
 * 1981: God's Playground: A History of Poland. Vol. 1: The Origins to 1795, Vol. 2: 1795 to the Present. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-925339-0 / ISBN 0-19-925340-4
 * 1984: Heart of Europe: A Short History of Poland. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-285152-7
 * 2001: Heart of Europe: The Past in Poland's Present. Oxford University Press, USA; new edition ISBN 0-19-280126-0
 * 1991: Jews in Eastern Poland and the USSR, 1939–46. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-312-06200-1
 * 1996: Europe: A History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-820171-0
 * 1997: Auschwitz and the Second World War in Poland: A lecture given at the Representations of Auschwitz international conference at the Jagiellonian University. Universitas. ISBN 83-7052-935-6
 * 1999: Red Winds from the North. Able Publishing. ISBN 0-907616-45-3
 * 1999: The Isles: A History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513442-7
 * 2002 (with Roger Moorhouse): Microcosm: Portrait of a Central European City London: Jonathan Cape. ISBN 0-224-06243-3
 * 2004: Rising '44: The Battle for Warsaw. London: Pan Books. ISBN 0-333-90568-7
 * 2006: Europe East and West: A Collection of Essays on European History. Jonathan Cape. ISBN 0-224-06924-1
 * 2006: Europe at War 1939–1945: No Simple Victory. Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-69285-3
 * 2008: To and From. Modern Poland: A Journey Through Postal History. Rosikon Press. ISBN 978-83-88848-64-3
 * 2011: Vanished Kingdoms: The History of Half-Forgotten Europe. Allen Lane. ISBN 978-1-84614-338-0
 * 2015: Trail of Hope: The Anders Army, An Odyssey across Three Continents. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-47281-603-0
 * 2017: Beneath Another Sky: A Global Journey into History. Allen Lane ISBN 978-1-84614-831-6

title: Norman Davies


text:
Talk:Central Bank of Ireland

16 Mentions of Green Jersey Agenda
There are 16 mentions of "Green Jersey Agenda" in this article. What is this trying to achieve other than promoting the related and extremely niche page. I don't think I have ever heard anyone use this phrase before except for on Wikipedia. As far as I can tell it was just invented by a few Irish Times journalists.

title: Talk:Central Bank of Ireland


text:
Swisher Hygiene

Swisher Hygiene Inc. is a sanitation company in the United States which until 2015 traded on the NASDAQ. Originally a janitorial service company, two-thirds of its revenue are now generated by selling cleaning and sanitizing chemicals.

History
Swisher was founded by Patrick Swisher to provide cleaning products and services for restaurants and other businesses. In November 2004, Fort Lauderdale, Florida, entrepreneurs Wayne Huizenga and Steve Berrard bought the firm for a reported $14 million.

Huizenga and Berrard paid Patrick $8.1 million for more than 900,000 shares to obtain a majority stake in the company. They operated Swisher as a private company until November 2, 2010, when Swisher became publicly traded through a reverse takeover of CoolBrands International Inc.

CoolBrands was once a major frozen food and dessert manufacturer based in Markham, Ontario. Due to financial problems, it had sold its core operating businesses (including Breyers yoghurt, Eskimo Pie and Chipwich) in 2007 and was little more than an empty corporate shell, but was still listed on the Toronto Stock Exchange. Swisher, through the reverse takeover, acquired the strength of CoolBrands' balance sheet and CoolBrands' status as a publicly traded enterprise.

As a publicly traded company, Swisher could pay in stock or partially in stock for acquisitions of other companies. It went on an acquisition spree in 2011, purchasing 54 different businesses nominally valued at $220 million. The acquisitions increased gross revenue but did not bring the company to profitability.

Swisher had purchased Fort Lauderdale-based Choice Environmental Services in February 2011 for $50 million in stock and an assumption of $41.5 million in debt. Glenn Miller and Neal Rodrigue, the former owners of Choice Environmental Services, had become the fourth-largest shareholders in Swisher under a merger agreement but were restricted from selling any of their shares, causing them substantial losses when the stock plummeted. They later sued.

The company had to re-state its 2011 financial information due to accounting irregularities, increasing that year's losses by $4.8 million before taxes. It incurred repeated quarterly losses through much of 2012, a year for which it missed Toronto Stock Exchange deadlines for both quarterly and annual financial reports. At one point, NASDAQ had threatened to de-list the stock due to reporting delays.

On November 15, 2012, Swisher sold Choice Environmental Services to Waste Services of Florida for $125,000,000 in cash, using the money to repay debt.

The company's losses extended into 2012 and 2013. Thomas Byrne, previously president of Viacom and vice-chairman of Blockbuster Video, became Swisher's Interim President and CEO in February 2013 in an attempt to turn the company around. Wayne Huizenga, who worked with Byrne at Blockbuster, became chairman of the board. The company's stock by mid-year was trading below a dollar a share and the company lost $3/share in 2013, losses which continued into 2014.

On June 4, 2014, a reverse stock split replaced every ten existing shares in Swisher with one new share, as the company had to be brought out of penny stock territory and back above $1/share to retain a NASDAQ listing. , the stock was trading slightly above $4/share.

On Nov 2, 2015, the company's US operations were sold to EcoLab for $40.2 million and the company no longer has operating assets or revenue producing operations in the US.

title: Swisher Hygiene


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Spinone Italiano

The Spinone Italiano is an Italian breed of hunting dog, traditionally used for tracking, for pointing and for retrieving game.

History
The origins of the Spinone are unknown. Rough-haired dogs of pointer type have been present in the Italian peninsula at least since the Renaissance. In a fresco painted by Andrea Mantegna in about 1470 in the Camera degli Sposi of the Ducal Palace of Mantua, in Lombardy, in northern Italy, a dog of this kind is shown lying under the chair of the duke, Ludovico III Gonzaga. Jacques Espée de Sélincourt, in his Le Parfait Chasseur of 1683, says of griffon dogs that "the best come from Italy and from Piedmont".

The modern Spinone originated in Piedmont, in north-western Italy, in the nineteenth century and was for some time the most important hunting breed of that region. During the Second World War it was much used by the partisans, both to track enemies and to carry food. After the War, breed numbers were much reduced; a breed society, the Famiglia dello Spinone, was formed in 1949, and the breed was reconstituted from about 1950 onwards. The Spinone was definitively accepted by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale in 1955. A second breed society, the Club Italiano Spinoni, was established in 1973.

In the period from 2010 to 2018, new registrations in Italy varied from about 400 to about 650 per year; in every year, the orange-and-white colouring represented slightly over half of the total.

Characteristics
The Spinone is roughly square in outline when seen from the side – the length of the body is approximately equal to the height at the withers. It is a strong, well-muscled and solidly-built dog suitable for hunting over any kind of ground. It swims well and enters cold or deep water without hesitation.

The coat is rough, thick and flat, with little undercoat; it is about 4 to 6 cm long, rather shorter on the head, feet and front of the legs. Hair on the eyebrows and lips is longer and stiffer, thus forming a thick moustache and beard. It may be: solid white; white with orange speckling or markings; white with chestnut brown markings; or brown or orange roan.

A 2024 UK study found a life expectancy of 11.9 years for the breed compared to an average of 12.7 for purebreeds and 12 for crossbreeds. Neurological disorders that have been identified in the breed include cerebellar abiotrophy and idiopathic epilepsy.

title: Spinone Italiano


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Bomber (disambiguation)

A bomber is a military aircraft that delivers bombs or other explosives.

Bomber or Bombers may also refer to:

Books, films and games

 * Bomber (novel), a 1970 historical fiction novel by Len Deighton
 * Bomber (1941 film), a short documentary
 * Bomber (1982 film), a comedy
 * Bomber (2009 film), by Paul Cotter
 * Bomber (video game), for the Macintosh computer

Music

 * The Bombers (band) a short lived Australian dance duo
 * Bomber (album), a 1979 album by Motörhead
 * "Bomber" (song), the album's title song
 * "Bombers" (David Bowie song), 1971
 * "Bombers" (Tubeway Army song), 1978
 * "Bombers", a 1943 Soviet adaptation by Leonid Utyosov of the song "Comin' In on a Wing and a Prayer" by The Song Spinners

Sports teams

 * Battle Creek Bombers, an American minor league baseball team
 * Bronx Bombers, nickname for the New York Yankees baseball team
 * Brooks Bombers, baseball team in the Western Canadian Baseball League
 * Brisbane Bombers, a proposed Australian professional rugby league NRL expansion franchise
 * Chicago Brown Bombers, a former American baseball team in the Negro Major League and the United States League
 * Essendon Football Club in the Australian Football League, also known as the Essendon Bombers
 * Ithaca Bombers, an American collegiate football team
 * JRU Heavy Bombers, the varsity team of Jose Rizal University of Manila
 * Kapunda Football Club in South Australia's Barossa, Light and Gawler Football Association, also known as the Kapunda Bombers
 * St. Louis Bombers Rugby Football Club
 * St. Xavier Bombers, the sports teams of St. Xavier High School in Cincinnati, Ohio
 * Windham Bombers, the sports teams of Windham High School in Ohio
 * Winnipeg Blue Bombers, a Canadian Football League team

Other uses

 * Bomber (nickname), a list of people
 * Bomber (computer virus)
 * a beer bottle that holds 22 U.S.floz

title: Bomber (disambiguation)


text:
File:Wikipedia-onthe-web.png

Source:

title: File:Wikipedia-onthe-web.png


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Metamerism

Metamerism may refer to:
 * Metamerism (biology), in zoology and developmental biology, the property of having repeated segments, as in annelids
 * Metamerism (color), in colorimetry, a perceived matching of colors that, based on differences in spectral power distribution, do not actually match
 * In chemistry, the chemical property of having the same number and type of atomic components in different arrangements (see structural isomer)

title: Metamerism


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Nether Edge and Sharrow (ward)

Nether Edge and Sharrow Ward, which includes the districts of Nether Edge, Sharrow, Abbeydale, Brincliffe and parts of Banner Cross, Heeley and Highfield, is one of the 28 electoral wards in the City of Sheffield, England. It is located in the south west of the city and covers an area of 1.31 sqmi. In 2011, the population of this ward was 18,890 people in 7,592 households. Nether Edge & Sharrow ward is one of the wards that make up the Sheffield Central parliamentary constituency.

History
Before the 19th century, the area that is now Nether Edge was largely rural and part of Ecclesall Bierlow, the only clusters of cottages being the small medieval hamlet of Cherry Tree Hill and a small hamlet at Machon Bank. Much of the development of the area was undertaken by George Wostenholm, a local cutler who from 1836 onward purchased a large area of land east of Brincliffe Edge.

Wostenholm's home, Kenwood House, and the surrounding park (now the Kenwood Hall Hotel) took up a large portion of the land, the garden designer, Robert Marnock laid out the surrounding roads as a series of curving avenues and the remaining land sold off for development. As a result, many of the homes in the area are spacious Victorian houses that were owned by local cutlers and businessmen.

The Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 (PLAA) allowed parishes to form unions, jointly responsible for the administration and funding of Poor Law in their area. By 1831 the population of the area had increased considerably and in 1837 the ‘Ecclesall Bierlow Poor Law Union’ (PLD or Poor Law District) was founded and Ecclesall Bierlow Union Workhouse, Cherry Tree Hill, Nether Edge was built. In 1929 the workhouse was renamed Nether Edge Hospital housing a Gynaecology Unit established to serve the whole of Sheffield.

Nether Edge
Nether Edge is an established residential suburb in the southwest of the City of Sheffield, England.

Local facilities include a small shopping area at the junction of Nether Edge Road and Machon Bank Road, featuring a cafe, arts & crafts shops, a dentist, organic fruit & vegetable shop, a local baker, delicatessen / cafes, barber and hairdresser shops, a local mini-market, supermarket among others. Two small theatres (the Merlin and the Lantern) also exist in the area. A farmers market selling local food produce and craft goods is held four times a year in the central area on dates roughly coinciding with the equinoxes and solstice dates.

Brincliffe
Brincliffe is a small neighbourhood located to the North west of Nether Edge. It is characterised by large Victorian and Edwardian villas and low-density housing.

The Sheffield Polytechnic Art College was in Brincliffe, on Psalter Lane.

Chelsea Park, and nearby Brincliffe Edge Woods are also in this area between Nether Edge and Ecclesall.

Banner Cross
Banner Cross is a neighbourhood of Ecclesall centred on the intersection of Ecclesall Road and Psalter Lane. Banner Cross is split evenly between Nether Edge & Sharrow ward and Ecclesall Ward. Banner Cross Hall, an ancient esquire seat, was virtually rebuilt in 1820. The main place of worship is Banner Cross Methodist Church. The nearby Banner Cross pub gained infamy when the notorious criminal Charles Peace shot and killed Arthur Dyson in the passageway beside the pub on 29 November 1876. The base of an old stone cross still remained at Banner Cross in 1819. Addy (1888) suggested that the name derives from bæna kross, meaning the cross of prayers.

Sharrow
Sharrow historically was situated within the old Ecclesall Bierlow, on the old turnpike road between Sheffield and the Pennines towards Chapel en le Frith and Manchester. In the modern-era Sharrow is now largely a built up urban inner city area, located directly southwest of Sheffield city centre. Sharrow was urbanized between 1830 and 1850 when Little Sheffield, a village and adjunct to the main town of Sheffield was redeveloped to cope with the rapidly increasing growth in population. Separated from Sheffield town by the "uninhabited, barren, gorse-covered, Sheffield Moor".

Abbeydale
Abbeydale is the area of, and streets around Abbeydale Road, and extends from Sharrow up to Archer Road. The main shopping district lies between Heeley, Sharrow and Nether Edge. The Abbeydale Picture House, Mother of God RC Church,The Broadfield, Heeley Swimming Baths, Carter Knowle Surgery are within this area.

title: Nether Edge and Sharrow (ward)


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University Parks

The Oxford University Parks, commonly referred to locally as the University Parks, or just The Parks, is a large parkland area slightly northeast of the city centre in Oxford, England. The park is bounded to the east by the River Cherwell, though a small plot of land called Mesopotamia sits between the upper and lower levels of the river. To the north of the parks is Norham Gardens and Lady Margaret Hall, to the west the Parks Road, and the Science Area on South Parks Road to the south. The park is open to the public during the day, and has gardens, large sports fields, and exotic plants. It includes a cricket ground used by Oxford University Cricket Club.

History
Part of the land on which the Parks is located had been used for recreation for a long time, and it formed part of the University Walks said to have been used by Charles II to walk his dog in 1685. The land originally belonged to Merton College, and in 1853/1854, the University of Oxford purchased 20 acre from Merton College to build the parks. Over an eleven-year period a total of 91 acre of land was eventually acquired. A portion of this land (4 acres) was set aside for the University Museum which was built between 1855 and 1860. Between 1912 and early 1950s, a further portion was used to build the Science Area, so the current site measures around 74 acre.

The Parks was laid out in 1864, and the work supervised by William Baxter who was later appointed the first superintendent of the parks in 1866. Parts of the Parks were designated to be used for sports and recreational purposes. 25 acres of the land had been set aside as the University Cricket Grounds, and the cricket pavilion was built in 1881. The Parks is also used for other sports such as rugby football, hockey, lacrosse, tennis and croquet. The rest of The Parks was designed as an arboretum, and the first trees were planted in 1865. A number of other features have been added over the years.

Dan Winter has been superintendent of the Parks since 2017, replacing Walter Sawyer.

Since August 2020, Michelle Cooper has taken over as acting superintendent.

A 5 km parkrun event launched on 5 February 2022 in University Parks. University Parks parkrun takes place at 9am every Saturday morning, starting at the Tentorium in the centre of the Parks.

Cricket ground
The Parks has been the home ground of Oxford University Cricket Club since 1881. The cricket ground at The Parks was secured through the Master of Pembroke, Evan Evans obtaining a lease on 10 acres of land there in 1881. The pavilion was designed by Thomas G. Jackson, architect of many nineteenth- and early twentieth-century Oxford buildings, including the University's Examination Schools. The building has three gables, the central one containing the clock, and is topped by a cupola 'of almost absurd height' and weather-vane. The pavilion contains a Long Room.

Before moving to The Parks, the University Cricket Club played on the Magdalen Ground and Bullingdon Green. The Magdalen Ground was used from the University Cricket Club's first match in 1829 to 1880 while Bullingdon Green was used for two matches in 1843.

The cricket ground was the only first-class cricket ground in the UK where spectators could watch free of charge as admission cannot be charged for entry into the Parks. The club has therefore occasionally taken major matches to three other grounds in Oxford. The most used is the Christ Church Ground, which hosted 37 matches between 1878 and 1961. Twenty-one of these matches were against the Australians, played between 1882 and 1961. The club also used New College Ground for two matches in 1906 and 1907 against Yorkshire and the South Africans respectively. One match in 1912 against the South Africans was played at the Magdalen Ground. The club has also played certain minor matches at the Merton College Ground, the St Edward's School Ground and the St Catherine's College Ground.

The Parks was the venue for Durham's inaugural first class match when they played Oxford University there in April 1992.

The Parks has been, since 2000, home to the ECB Oxford University Centre of Cricketing Excellence, a partnership between the University of Oxford, Oxford Brookes University and the England and Wales Cricket Board. Prior to the 2010 season the UCCE was rebranded as Oxford Marylebone Cricket Club University (MCCU). The University Match against Cambridge is the only one in which a true Oxford University Cricket Club team takes part: i.e., composed entirely of current Oxford students.

From 2002 to 2018, The Parks hosted the first-class Varsity Match in even-numbered years. The last first-class match at The Parks was the 2019 Oxford MCCU vs Hampshire, before the end of first-class university cricket in 2020, with the 2020 Varsity Match being played at Fenners. The Parks also hosted two List A matches for the club and twenty-two matches for the Combined Universities in the Benson & Hedges Cup between 1973 and 1998.

Points of interest
The following features of the Parks are of special interest:

 * Cricket pavilion — the pavilion was designed by Sir Thomas Jackson. The cricket ground and pavilion are used by the Oxford University Cricket Club. The two ends of the pitch are the Pavilion End and the Norham Gardens End.
 * Seven large giant sequoias planted in about 1888.
 * A duck pond with water lilies and a small island, constructed in 1925.
 * High Bridge, built in 1923–24 as a relief project for the unemployed. It is usually called Rainbow Bridge, because of its shape.
 * Genetic Garden — an experimental garden established by Professor Cyril Darlington to demonstrate evolutionary processes.
 * Styphnolobium japonicum, known as the Japanese Pagoda Tree. Planted in 1888.
 * Coronation Clump, a clump of trees planted to commemorate the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in 1953.
 * Parson's Pleasure, once used as a secluded nude bathing area, but now closed and forms part of the park.

title: University Parks


text:
Banyan Systems

Banyan Systems was founded in 1983 by Anand Jagannathan, a software engineer and mid-level manager at Data General, Larry Floryan and David C. Mahoney. The company's distinctive logo was a Banyan tree and the logo's allegorical representation was of Banyan's product suite, Banyan VINES. Jim Allchin, although not a founder, was one of the first employees hired. The company was headquartered in Westboro, Massachusetts, along the high-tech I-495 corridor.

Banyan was a privately held entity for nearly ten years after its incorporation. Later the company went public. Subsequently it went into decline, facing competition from Novell NetWare and even more so from Microsoft Windows NT.

In 1997, the company changed its name to Banyan Worldwide. In October 1999 Banyan Worldwide became, an internet services company providing collaboration, security and identity management solutions. At the same time, it announced the obsolescence of VINES and other Banyan products. On October 24, 2003 announced that it would cease operations and its assets would be acquired by Unisys.

title: Banyan Systems


text:
Joint probability distribution

Given two random variables that are defined on the same probability space, the joint probability distribution is the corresponding probability distribution on all possible pairs of outputs. The joint distribution can just as well be considered for any given number of random variables. The joint distribution encodes the marginal distributions, i.e. the distributions of each of the individual random variables and the conditional probability distributions, which deal with how the outputs of one random variable are distributed when given information on the outputs of the other random variable(s).

In the formal mathematical setup of measure theory, the joint distribution is given by the pushforward measure, by the map obtained by pairing together the given random variables, of the sample space's probability measure.

In the case of real-valued random variables, the joint distribution, as a particular multivariate distribution, may be expressed by a multivariate cumulative distribution function, or by a multivariate probability density function together with a multivariate probability mass function. In the special case of continuous random variables, it is sufficient to consider probability density functions, and in the case of discrete random variables, it is sufficient to consider probability mass functions.

Draws from an urn
Each of two urns contains twice as many red balls as blue balls, and no others, and one ball is randomly selected from each urn, with the two draws independent of each other. Let $$A$$ and $$B$$ be discrete random variables associated with the outcomes of the draw from the first urn and second urn respectively. The probability of drawing a red ball from either of the urns is 2/3, and the probability of drawing a blue ball is 1/3. The joint probability distribution is presented in the following table:

Each of the four inner cells shows the probability of a particular combination of results from the two draws; these probabilities are the joint distribution. In any one cell the probability of a particular combination occurring is (since the draws are independent) the product of the probability of the specified result for A and the probability of the specified result for B. The probabilities in these four cells sum to 1, as with all probability distributions.

Moreover, the final row and the final column give the marginal probability distribution for A and the marginal probability distribution for B respectively. For example, for A the first of these cells gives the sum of the probabilities for A being red, regardless of which possibility for B in the column above the cell occurs, as 2/3. Thus the marginal probability distribution for $$A$$ gives $$A$$'s probabilities unconditional on $$B$$, in a margin of the table.

Coin flips
Consider the flip of two fair coins; let $$A$$ and $$B$$ be discrete random variables associated with the outcomes of the first and second coin flips respectively. Each coin flip is a Bernoulli trial and has a Bernoulli distribution. If a coin displays "heads" then the associated random variable takes the value 1, and it takes the value 0 otherwise. The probability of each of these outcomes is 1/2, so the marginal (unconditional) density functions are

 * $$P(A)=1/2 \quad \text{for} \quad A\in \{0, 1\};$$
 * $$P(B)=1/2 \quad \text{for} \quad B\in \{0, 1\}.$$

The joint probability mass function of $$A$$ and $$B$$ defines probabilities for each pair of outcomes. All possible outcomes are

(A=0,B=0), (A=0,B=1), (A=1,B=0), (A=1,B=1). $$ Since each outcome is equally likely the joint probability mass function becomes
 * $$P(A,B)=1/4 \quad \text{for} \quad A,B\in\{0,1\}.$$

Since the coin flips are independent, the joint probability mass function is the product of the marginals:
 * $$P(A,B)=P(A)P(B) \quad \text{for} \quad A,B \in\{0,1\}.$$

Rolling a die
Consider the roll of a fair die and let $$A=1$$ if the number is even (i.e. 2, 4, or 6) and $$A=0$$ otherwise. Furthermore, let $$B=1$$ if the number is prime (i.e. 2, 3, or 5) and $$B=0$$ otherwise.

Then, the joint distribution of $$A$$ and $$B$$, expressed as a probability mass function, is

\mathrm{P}(A=0,B=0)=P\{1\}=\frac{1}{6},\quad \quad \mathrm{P}(A=1,B=0)=P\{4,6\}=\frac{2}{6}, $$

\mathrm{P}(A=0,B=1)=P\{3,5\}=\frac{2}{6},\quad \quad \mathrm{P}(A=1,B=1)=P\{2\}=\frac{1}{6}. $$

These probabilities necessarily sum to 1, since the probability of some combination of $$A$$ and $$B$$ occurring is 1.

Marginal probability distribution
If more than one random variable is defined in a random experiment, it is important to distinguish between the joint probability distribution of X and Y and the probability distribution of each variable individually. The individual probability distribution of a random variable is referred to as its marginal probability distribution. In general, the marginal probability distribution of X can be determined from the joint probability distribution of X and other random variables.

If the joint probability density function of random variable X and Y is $$f_{X,Y}(x,y)$$, the marginal probability density function of X and Y, which defines the marginal distribution, is given by:

$$f_{X}(x)= \int f_{X,Y}(x,y) \; dy   $$ $$f_{Y}(y)= \int f_{X,Y}(x,y) \; dx   $$

where the first integral is over all points in the range of (X,Y) for which X=x and the second integral is over all points in the range of (X,Y) for which Y=y.

Joint cumulative distribution function
For a pair of random variables $$X,Y$$, the joint cumulative distribution function (CDF) $$F_{X,Y}$$ is given by

where the right-hand side represents the probability that the random variable $$X$$ takes on a value less than or equal to $$x$$ and that $$Y$$ takes on a value less than or equal to $$y$$.

For $$N$$ random variables $$X_1,\ldots,X_N$$, the joint CDF $$F_{X_1,\ldots,X_N}$$ is given by

Interpreting the $$N$$ random variables as a random vector $$\mathbf{X} = (X_1,\ldots,X_N)^T$$ yields a shorter notation:

 * $$F_{\mathbf{X}}(\mathbf{x}) = \operatorname{P}(X_1 \leq x_1,\ldots,X_N \leq x_N)$$

Discrete case
The joint probability mass function of two discrete random variables $$X, Y$$ is:

or written in terms of conditional distributions
 * $$p_{X,Y}(x,y) = \mathrm{P}(Y=y \mid X=x) \cdot \mathrm{P}(X=x) = \mathrm{P}(X=x \mid Y=y) \cdot \mathrm{P}(Y=y)$$

where $$ \mathrm{P}(Y=y \mid X=x) $$ is the probability of $$ Y = y $$ given that $$ X = x $$.

The generalization of the preceding two-variable case is the joint probability distribution of $$n\,$$ discrete random variables $$X_1, X_2, \dots,X_n$$ which is:

or equivalently

\begin{align} p_{X_1,\ldots,X_n}(x_1,\ldots,x_n) & = \mathrm{P}(X_1=x_1) \cdot \mathrm{P}(X_2=x_2\mid X_1=x_1) \\ & \cdot \mathrm{P}(X_3=x_3\mid X_1=x_1,X_2=x_2)  \\ &  \dots \\  & \cdot P(X_n=x_n\mid X_1=x_1,X_2=x_2,\dots,X_{n-1}=x_{n-1}). \end{align} $$.

This identity is known as the chain rule of probability.

Since these are probabilities, in the two-variable case

 * $$\sum_i \sum_j \mathrm{P}(X=x_i\ \mathrm{and}\ Y=y_j) = 1,\,$$

which generalizes for $$n\,$$ discrete random variables $$X_1, X_2, \dots, X_n$$ to

 * $$\sum_{i} \sum_{j} \dots \sum_{k} \mathrm{P}(X_1=x_{1i},X_2=x_{2j}, \dots, X_n=x_{nk}) = 1.\;$$

Continuous case
The joint probability density function $$f_{X,Y}(x,y)$$ for two continuous random variables is defined as the derivative of the joint cumulative distribution function (see $$):

This is equal to:
 * $$f_{X,Y}(x,y) = f_{Y\mid X}(y\mid x)f_X(x) = f_{X\mid Y}(x\mid y)f_Y(y)$$

where $$f_{Y\mid X}(y\mid x)$$ and $$f_{X\mid Y}(x\mid y)$$ are the conditional distributions of $$Y$$ given $$X=x$$ and of $$X$$ given $$Y=y$$ respectively, and $$f_X(x)$$ and $$f_Y(y)$$ are the marginal distributions for $$X$$ and $$Y$$ respectively.

The definition extends naturally to more than two random variables:

Again, since these are probability distributions, one has
 * $$\int_x \int_y f_{X,Y}(x,y) \; dy \; dx= 1$$

respectively
 * $$\int_{x_1} \ldots \int_{x_n} f_{X_1,\ldots,X_n}(x_1,\ldots,x_n) \; dx_n \ldots \; dx_1 = 1$$

Mixed case
The "mixed joint density" may be defined where one or more random variables are continuous and the other random variables are discrete. With one variable of each type

\begin{align} f_{X,Y}(x,y) = f_{X \mid Y}(x \mid y)\mathrm{P}(Y=y)= \mathrm{P}(Y=y \mid X=x) f_X(x). \end{align} $$ One example of a situation in which one may wish to find the cumulative distribution of one random variable which is continuous and another random variable which is discrete arises when one wishes to use a logistic regression in predicting the probability of a binary outcome Y conditional on the value of a continuously distributed outcome $$X$$. One must use the "mixed" joint density when finding the cumulative distribution of this binary outcome because the input variables $$(X,Y)$$ were initially defined in such a way that one could not collectively assign it either a probability density function or a probability mass function. Formally, $$f_{X,Y}(x,y)$$ is the probability density function of $$(X,Y)$$ with respect to the product measure on the respective supports of $$X$$ and $$Y$$. Either of these two decompositions can then be used to recover the joint cumulative distribution function:

\begin{align} F_{X,Y}(x,y)&=\sum\limits_{t\le y}\int_{s=-\infty}^x f_{X,Y}(s,t)\;ds. \end{align} $$ The definition generalizes to a mixture of arbitrary numbers of discrete and continuous random variables.

Joint distribution for independent variables
In general two random variables $$X$$ and $$Y$$ are independent if and only if the joint cumulative distribution function satisfies
 * $$ F_{X,Y}(x,y) = F_X(x) \cdot F_Y(y) $$

Two discrete random variables $$X$$ and $$Y$$ are independent if and only if the joint probability mass function satisfies
 * $$ P(X = x \ \mbox{and} \ Y = y ) = P( X = x) \cdot P( Y = y) $$

for all $$x$$ and $$y$$.

While the number of independent random events grows, the related joint probability value decreases rapidly to zero, according to a negative exponential law.

Similarly, two absolutely continuous random variables are independent if and only if
 * $$ f_{X,Y}(x,y) = f_X(x) \cdot f_Y(y) $$

for all $$x$$ and $$y$$. This means that acquiring any information about the value of one or more of the random variables leads to a conditional distribution of any other variable that is identical to its unconditional (marginal) distribution; thus no variable provides any information about any other variable.

Joint distribution for conditionally dependent variables
If a subset $$A$$ of the variables $$X_1,\cdots,X_n$$ is conditionally dependent given another subset $$B$$ of these variables, then the probability mass function of the joint distribution is $$\mathrm{P}(X_1,\ldots,X_n)$$. $$\mathrm{P}(X_1,\ldots,X_n)$$ is equal to $$P(B)\cdot P(A\mid B)$$. Therefore, it can be efficiently represented by the lower-dimensional probability distributions $$P(B)$$ and $$P(A\mid B)$$. Such conditional independence relations can be represented with a Bayesian network or copula functions.

Covariance
When two or more random variables are defined on a probability space, it is useful to describe how they vary together; that is, it is useful to measure the relationship between the variables. A common measure of the relationship between two random variables is the covariance. Covariance is a measure of linear relationship between the random variables. If the relationship between the random variables is nonlinear, the covariance might not be sensitive to the relationship, which means, it does not relate the correlation between two variables.

The covariance between the random variable X and Y, denoted as cov(X,Y), is :

$$\sigma_{XY}=E[(X-\mu_x)(Y-\mu_y)]=E(XY)-\mu_x\mu_y$$

Correlation
There is another measure of the relationship between two random variables that is often easier to interpret than the covariance.

The correlation just scales the covariance by the product of the standard deviation of each variable. Consequently, the correlation is a dimensionless quantity that can be used to compare the linear relationships between pairs of variables in different units. If the points in the joint probability distribution of X and Y that receive positive probability tend to fall along a line of positive (or negative) slope, ρXY is near +1 (or −1). If ρXY equals +1 or −1, it can be shown that the points in the joint probability distribution that receive positive probability fall exactly along a straight line. Two random variables with nonzero correlation are said to be correlated. Similar to covariance, the correlation is a measure of the linear relationship between random variables.

The correlation between random variable X and Y, denoted as

$$\rho_{XY}=\frac{cov(X,Y)}{\sqrt{V(X)V(Y)}}=\frac{\sigma_{XY}}{\sigma_X\sigma_Y}$$

Important named distributions
Named joint distributions that arise frequently in statistics include the multivariate normal distribution, the multivariate stable distribution, the multinomial distribution, the negative multinomial distribution, the multivariate hypergeometric distribution, and the elliptical distribution.

title: Joint probability distribution


text:
Wikipedia talk:Dealing with disruptive or antisocial editors/simplified draft

I've tried to find actual policies to fill in the gaps, and was only somewhat successful:

Examples of behavior which violates policies and/or guidelines

 * violation of collaborative editing process intended to produce a neutral point of view, defined as engaging in multiple (more than three per 24 hour period) reversions or insertion of essentially the same text.
 * personal attacks (No personal attacks)
 * deceptive editing of other editors' signed posts on talk pages (Vandalism)
 * vandalism that is not severe enough to warrant immediate blocking under the existing policy (Vandalism)
 * placement of factual inaccuracies in articles that is not considered sneaky vandalism (Neutral point of view)
 * misleading edit summaries (Edit summary and Revert, could use clarification)
 * misrepresenting the truth (???)
 * making an excessive number of frivolous complaints (Don't disrupt Wikipedia to illustrate a point, could use clarifiaction)
 * unreasonably threatening to take legal action (No legal threats)
 * posting copyright violations (Copyrights)
 * inappropriately removing listings from pages such as Votes for deletion, Featured article candidates (from policies on the pages themselves)

I also came up with a problem. It seems that "guidelines" are not always things we should be following. (see Edit summary)

I just got a Formal warning. Why?
So I made my first draft, It was denied, The administrators put it up for speedy deletion, They gave me a Formal warning. But why? See it here --Anotaomo (talk) 10:04, 6 November 2023 (UTC)

 * @Anotaomo You are welcome to question my warning to you on your own talk page. There, you can explain your reasons for being here on Wikipedia and indicate your editing intentions for the future, or seek clarification of any point in that warning.
 * There is, however, absolutely no point in creating and posting to a talk page of a sub-page of a ten-year old failed proposal page and expecting anyone else to provide you with answers here, or using it to WP:WIKILAWYER yourself out of some sense of injustice you perceive I've caused you. (BTW: Draft:List of WikiKittens was a pointless and inappropriate draft, so another admin deleted it.) Nick Moyes (talk) 11:28, 6 November 2023 (UTC)


text: Category:Borden County, Texas

title: Category:Borden County, Texas


text:
Chevrolet 2300 engine

The Chevrolet 2300 is a 2287 cc inline-four engine produced by the Chevrolet division of General Motors for the 1971 to 1977 model years of the Chevrolet Vega and Chevrolet Monza. This engine was also offered in the 1973-74 Pontiac Astre (Canada only), the 1975-77 Pontiac Astre (United States and Canada), the Pontiac Sunbird for 1976 only, and the Oldsmobile Starfire for 1976-77.

This engine featured a die-cast aluminum alloy cylinder block. The high-tech block features an alloy with 17 percent silicon. During the machining process, the cylinders were etched leaving the pure silicon particles exposed providing the piston wear surface, eliminating the need for iron cylinder liners. The block has cast iron main caps and a cast iron crankshaft. The engine's cylinder head is cast iron for lower cost, structural integrity and longer camshaft bearing life. The valvetrain features a direct-acting single overhead camshaft design. The engine block and cylinder heads were cast at Massena Castings Plant in Massena, New York.

Overview
The tall, long-stroke engine's vibration tendencies are helped by large rubber engine mounts. One- and two-barrel carburetor versions were offered. The two-barrel version, the L11 option, also included a revised camshaft for a power increase of 20 hp. The engine used a 3.501x3.625 in bore x stroke and 8.0:1 compression.

Overheating was a serious concern for the engine, since the engine block was of an open-deck design, severe overheating could cause the cylinder barrels to warp and pull away from the head gasket, causing coolant leaks into the cylinders and cylinder scuffing. Maintaining oil and coolant levels was crucial for the engine. The engine was equipped with an oil pressure switch which grounds out the primary-ignition system should the oil pressure fall below 6 psi during operation, thus stopping and preventing the engine from being restarted until the oil level was replenished or the mechanical cause of low-oil pressure was remedied. Chevrolet dealers installed a coolant-recovery tank, a low-coolant warning light and extended Vega's engine warranty to 50000 mi.

The 1976 to 1977 the engine received a new cylinder-head design, incorporating hydraulic lifters to replace the taper-screw valve adjusters, improved coolant pathways, longer-life valve-stem seals, a redesigned water pump and thermostat, and a five-year, 60000 mi engine warranty. The engine's name was changed to Dura-Built 140.

1975 to 1977 Pontiac Astre and 1975 to 1977 Chevrolet Monza had the Vega engine as standard equipment. Of the Monza's H-body variants, the Pontiac Sunbird adopted Vega's revised Dura-built 140 engine for 1976 only, while the Oldsmobile Starfire offered it 1976-77.

The Cosworth Vega engine was produced in 1975 and 1976 using the 2300 engine block. The engine was de-stroked to 3.16 in giving 1994 cc, with a 16-valve aluminum cylinder head, double overhead cams (DOHC), forged components and solid lifters. It produced 110 hp and 107 lbft.

Aluminum engine block

GM Research Labs had been working on a sleeveless aluminum block since the late '50s. The incentive was cost. Engineering out the four-cylinder's block liners would save $8 per unit — a substantial amount of money at the time. Reynolds Metal Co. developed a hypereutectic aluminum alloy called A-390, composed of 77 percent aluminum, 17 percent silicon, 4 percent copper, 1 percent iron, and traces of phosphorus, zinc, manganese, and titanium. The A-390 alloy was suitable for faster production diecasting which made the Vega block less expensive to manufacture than other aluminum engines. Sealed Power Corp. developed special chrome-plated piston rings for the engine that were blunted to prevent scuffing. Basic work had been done under Eudell Jackobson of GM engineering, but final production engineering work was finished by Chevrolet.

The Vega engine block was cast in Massena, New York, at the same factory that had produced the Chevrolet Turbo-Air 6 engine for the Corvair. Molten aluminum was transported from Reynolds and Alcoa reduction plants to the foundry, inside Thermos-like insulated tank trailers from the factory across the street. The block was cast using the ACCURAD process. The casting process provided a uniform distribution of fine primary silicon particles approximately 0.001 in in size. Pure silicon provides a hard scuff and wear resistant surface, having a rating of 7 on the mohs scale of hardness, the same as quartz, as compared to diamond which is 10. The blocks were aged 8 hours at 450 °F to achieve dimensional stability. The technical breakthroughs of the block lay in the precision die-casting method used to produce it, and in the silicon alloying which provided a compatible bore surface without liners. Before being shipped to Tonawanda, the blocks were impregnated with sodium silicate, where they were machined through the outer skin. From Massena, the cast engine blocks were shipped as raw castings to Chevy's Tonawanda Engine plant in Tonawanda, New York. Here they underwent the messy etch and machining operations. The cylinder bores were rough and finish-honed conventionally to a 7 uin finish then etched by a then-new electro-chemical process. The etching removed approximately 0.00015 in of aluminum leaving the pure silicon particles prominent to form the bore surface.

With a finished weight of 36 lb, the block weighs 51 lb less than the cast-iron block in the Chevy II 153 CID inline-4. Plating the piston skirts was necessary to put a hard iron skirt surface opposite the silicon of the block to prevent scuffing. The plating was a four layer electro-plating process. The first plate was a flash of zinc followed by a very thin flash of copper. The third and primary coating was hard iron, 0.0007 in thick. The final layer was a flash of tin. The zinc and copper were necessary to adhere the iron while the tin prevented corrosion before assembly of the piston into the engine. Piston plating was done on a 46 operation automatic line. From Tonawanda, the engines went to the Chevrolet assembly plant in Lordstown, Ohio.

Eudell Jackobson of GM engineering pointed out one of the early problems with unexplained scuffing and discovered excessive pressure on the bore hones was causing the silicon to crack. This need to both develop and actually manufacture the engine was a product of the program schedule. He said, "...We were trying to put a product into production and learning the technology simultaneously. And the pressure becomes very, very great when that happens. The hone-pressure problem was solved before engines actually went out the door, affecting pre-production engines only."

title: Chevrolet 2300 engine