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Brooklyn Heights

Brooklyn Heights is a residential neighborhood within the New York City borough of Brooklyn. The neighborhood is bounded by Old Fulton Street near the Brooklyn Bridge on the north, Cadman Plaza West on the east, Atlantic Avenue on the south, and the Brooklyn–Queens Expressway or the East River on the west. Adjacent neighborhoods are Dumbo to the north, Downtown Brooklyn to the east, and Cobble Hill and Boerum Hill to the south.

Originally referred to as Brooklyn Village, it has been a prominent area of Brooklyn since 1834. The neighborhood is noted for its low-rise architecture and its many brownstone rowhouses, most of them built prior to the Civil War. It also has an abundance of notable churches and other religious institutions. Brooklyn's first art gallery, the Brooklyn Arts Gallery, was opened in Brooklyn Heights in 1958. In 1965, a large part of Brooklyn Heights was protected from unchecked development by the creation of the Brooklyn Heights Historic District, the first such district in New York City. The district was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1966.

Directly across the East River from Manhattan and connected to it by subways and regular ferry service, Brooklyn Heights is also easily accessible from Downtown Brooklyn. Columbia Heights, an upscale six-block-long street next to the Brooklyn Heights Promenade, is sometimes considered to be its own neighborhood.

Brooklyn Heights is part of Brooklyn Community District 2, and its primary ZIP Code is 11201. It is patrolled by the 84th Precinct of the New York City Police Department. The New York City Fire Department operates two fire stations near Brooklyn Heights: Engine Company 205/Ladder Company 118 at 74 Middagh Street, and Engine Company 224 at 274 Hicks Street.

Early settlement
Brooklyn Heights occupies a plateau on a high bluff that rises sharply from the river's edge and gradually recedes on the landward side. Before the Dutch settled on Long Island in the middle of the seventeenth century, this promontory was called Ihpetonga ("the high sandy bank") by the native Lenape American Indians.

Ferries across the East River were running as early as 1642, serving the farms in the area. The most significant of the ferries went between the current Fulton Street and Peck Slip in Manhattan, and was run by Cornelius Dirksen. The ferry service helped the lowland area to thrive, with both farms and some factories along the water, but the higher ground was sparsely used.

The area was heavily fortified prior to the Battle of Long Island in the American Revolutionary War. After British troops landed on Long Island and advanced towards Continental Army lines, General George Washington withdrew his troops here after heavy losses, but was able to make a skillful retreat across the East River to Manhattan without the loss of any troops or his remaining supplies.

After the war, the 160-acre tract of land belonging to John Rapeljie, who was a Loyalist, was confiscated and sold to the Sands brothers, who tried to develop the part of the land on the palisade as a community they called "Olympia", but failed to make it come about, partly because of the difficulty of building there. They later sold part of their land to John Jackson, who created the Vinegar Hill community, much of which later became the Brooklyn Navy Yard.

Development
Brooklyn Heights began to develop once Robert Fulton's New York and Brooklyn Steam Ferry Boat Company began regularly scheduled steam ferry service in 1814, with the financial backing of Hezekiah Beers Pierrepont, one of the area's major landowners. Pierrepont had accumulated 60 acres of land, including 800 feet which directly overlooked the harbor, all of which he planned to sub-divide. Since his intention was to sell to merchants and bankers who lived in Manhattan, he needed easy access between Brooklyn Heights and New York City, which Fulton's company provided. Pierrepont bought 60 acres – part of the Livingston estate, plus the Benson, De Bevoise and Reemsen farms – on what was then called "Clover Hill", now Brooklyn Heights, and built a mansion there. Pierrepont purchased and expanded Philip Livingston's gin distillery on the East River at what is now Joralemon Street, where he produced Anchor Gin.

Wishing to sub-divide and develop his property, Pierrepont realized the need for regularly scheduled ferry service across the East River, and to this end he became a prominent investor in Robert Fulton's New York and Brooklyn Steam Ferry Boat Company, using his influence on Fulton's behalf; he eventually became a part owner and a director of the company. Fulton's ferry began running in 1814, and Brooklyn received a charter as a village from the state of New York in 1816, thanks to the influence of Pierrepont and other prominent landowners. The city then prepared for the establishment of a street grid, although there were competing plans for the size of the lots. John and Jacob Hicks, who also owned property on Brooklyn Heights, north of Pierrepont's, favored smaller lots, as they were pitching their land to tradesman and artisans already living in Brooklyn, not attempting to lure merchants and bankers from Manhattan as Pierrepont was. To counter the Hickses' proposal, Pierrepont hired a surveyor and submitted an alternative. In the end, the Hickses' plan was adopted north of Clark Street, and Pierrepont's, featuring 25-by-100 foot (8-by-30 meter) lots, south of it.

Thanks to the influence of Pierrepont and other landowners, Brooklyn received a charter from the state as a village in 1816, which led to streets being laid out in a regular grid pattern, sidewalks being laid, water pumps being installed and the institution of a watch. After 1823, farms begin to be sub-divided into 25 by lots, which were advertised as suitable for a "country retreat" for Manhattanites, leading to a building boom that resulted in Brooklyn Heights becoming the "first commuter suburb", since it was easier and faster to get to Manhattan by ferry than it was to commute from upper Manhattan by ground transportation. A resident of the Heights could leave the office at three o'clock, have dinner at home at four o'clock, and still have time for a "leisurely drive to the outskirts of town", a "middle class paradise". The community's development was helped by the yellow fever epidemic of 1822, when many of the rich from the city abandoned it for an area that was advertised as "elevated and perfectly healthy at all seasons ... a select neighborhood and circle of society."

Where there had been only seven houses in the Heights in 1807, by 1860 there were over six hundred of them, and by 1890 the area was almost completely developed. The buildings were designed in a wide variety of styles; development started in the northern part, and moved southward, so the architecture general changes in that direction as the preferred style of the time changed over the decades. Throughout the 19th century, Brooklyn Heights remained an elegant neighborhood, and became Brooklyn's cultural and financial center. Its development gave rise to offshoots such as Cobble Hill and, later, Carroll Gardens.

Prior to the Civil War, Brooklyn Heights was a locus of the Abolitionist movement, due to the speeches and activities of Henry Ward Beecher, the pastor of Plymouth Church, now the Plymouth Church of the Pilgrims. Beecher was a nationally known figure famous on the lecture circuit for his novel oratorical style, in which he employed humor, dialect, and slang. Under Beecher, so many slaves passed through Plymouth Church on their way to freedom in Canada that later generations have referred to the church as the "Grand Central Station of the Underground Railroad". To dramatize the plight of those held in captivity, Beecher once brought a female slave to the church and held an auction, with the highest bidder purchasing not the slave, but her freedom. Beecher also raised money to buy other slaves out of captivity, and shipped rifles to abolitionists in Kansas and Nebraska in crates labelled "Bibles", which gave the rifles the nickname "Beecher's Bibles".

20th century
The completion of the now historic Brooklyn Bridge in 1883, the Brooklyn end of which was near Brooklyn Heights' eastern boundary, began the process of making the neighborhood more accessible from places such as Manhattan. The Interborough Rapid Transit Company (IRT)'s Lexington Avenue subway line, which reached Brooklyn Heights in 1908, was an even more powerful catalyst in the neighborhood's development. The resulting ease of transportation into the neighborhood and the perceived loss of the specialness and "quality" began to drive out the merchants and patricians who lived there; in time their mansions were divided to become apartment houses and boarding houses. Artists began to move into the neighborhood, as well as writers, and a number of large hotels – the St. George (1885), the Margaret (1889), the Bossert (1909), Leverich Towers (1928), and the Pierrepont (1928), among others – were constructed. By the beginning of the Great Depression, most of the middle class had left the area. Boarding houses had become rooming houses, and the neighborhood began to have the appearance of a slum.

During the 1940s and 1950s, the building of the Brooklyn-Queens Expressway (BQE) badly affected the neighborhood, as it took away the neighborhood's northwest corner, destroying whole rows of brownstones. At about the same time, plans began to be developed by New York's "master builder", Robert Moses, wielding the Housing Act of 1949, to replace brownstone rowhouses – which were the typical building form in the neighborhood – with large luxury apartment buildings. A prominent example of the intended outcome is the Cadman Plaza development of housing cooperatives in the northern part of the neighborhood, located on the site where the Brooklyn Bridge trolley terminal once stood. In 1959, the North Heights Community Group was formed to oppose destroying cheap low-rise housing in order to build the high-rise Cadman Plaza towers. Architect Percival Goodman presented an alternate plan to maintain all sound structures, which garnered 25,000 supporters. In early 1961, a compromise proposal came from City Hall calling for two 22-story towers with over 1,200 luxury and middle income units. The Brooklyn Heights Association fully supported the compromise plan despite strong opposition from the preservation community, including the North Heights Community Group. As a result, 1,200 residents were removed from their houses and apartments in late 1961 and early 1962 as construction began on the modified plan.

One positive development came about when community groups – prominently the Brooklyn Heights Association, founded in 1910 – joined with Moses in the creation of the Brooklyn Heights Promenade, also called the Esplanade, which was cantilevered over the BQE. It became a favorite spot among locals, offering magnificent vistas of the Statue of Liberty, the Manhattan skyline across the East River, the Brooklyn Bridge, the Manhattan Bridge, and spectacular fireworks displays over the East River. Moses originally proposed to build the BQE through the heart of Brooklyn Heights. Opposition to this plan led to the re-routing of the expressway to the side of the bluff, allowing creation of the Promenade.

By the mid-1950s, a new generation of property owners had begun moving into the Heights, pioneering the "Brownstone Revival" by buying and renovating pre-Civil War period houses, which became part of the preservationist movement which culminated in the passage in 1965 of the Landmarks Preservation Law. In 1965, community groups which later became the Brooklyn Heights Association, succeeded in having the neighborhood designated the Brooklyn Heights Historic District by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission, the first such district in the city. This was followed in the following decades by the further gentrification of the neighborhood into a firmly middle-class area, which became "one of New York City's most pleasant and attractive neighborhoods."

21st century
Starting in 2008, Brooklyn Bridge Park was built along the shoreline of the East River. the park was 90% complete, and it is now completely renovated. The Squibb Park Bridge was constructed in 2013 to provide access between the park and the rest of Brooklyn Heights, but had to be demolished in 2019 due to various structural issues. A replacement bridge opened in 2020. By the early 2020s, increasing numbers of celebrities were moving to the neighborhood.

Architecture and places of interest
Brooklyn Heights was the first neighborhood protected by the 1965 Landmarks Preservation Law of New York City. The neighborhood is largely composed of blocks of picturesque rowhouses and a few mansions. A great range of architectural styles is represented, including Greek Revival, Italianate, Second Empire, Victorian Gothic, Romanesque, Neo-Grec, and Classical Revival, as well as a few 2/1/2-story late Federal houses from the early 19th century in the northern part of the neighborhood. Some houses were constructed of brick, but the dominant building material was brownstone or "Jersey freestone", a reddish-brown stone from Passaic County, New Jersey.

A typical brownstone rowhouse was three or four stories tall, with the main floor above the street level and reached by stairs, referred to as a "stoop", a word derived from Dutch. The basement is typically a half-flight down from the street, and was used as the work area for servants, including the kitchen. The first floor would be the location of the public rooms, bedrooms were on the second floor, and servants' quarters were on the top floor. The rear of the lot would feature a private garden. Aside from rowhouses, a number of houses, particularly along Pierrepont Street and Pierrepont Place, are authentic mansions.

The concentration of over 600 pre-Civil War houses, one of the largest ensembles of such housing in the nation, and the human scale of the three, four- and five-story buildings creates a neighborly atmosphere.

Brooklyn Heights has very few high-rise buildings. Among these buildings are 75 Livingston Street, Hotel St. George, and the Concord Village co-op development on Adams Street. Additionally, Jehovah's Witnesses had its world headquarters in the northern part of Brooklyn Heights at 25 Columbia Heights. The organization restored a number of historic buildings to house their staff, including the former Hotel Bossert, once the seasonal home of many Dodgers players, on Montague Street. In 2010, the organization announced plans to begin selling off its numerous properties in the Heights and nearby downtown Brooklyn, given that it plans to relocate itself in upstate New York.

The executive offices of the Brooklyn Dodgers were, for many years, located in the Heights, near the intersection of Montague and Court Streets. A plaque on the office building that replaced the Dodgers' old headquarters at 215 Montague Street identifies it as the site where Jackie Robinson signed his major league contract.

Plymouth Church of the Pilgrims and Our Lady of Lebanon Maronite Catholic Cathedral are located in Brooklyn Heights, as are the First Unitarian Congregational Society, the Long Island Historical Society, Packer Collegiate Institute, and St. Ann's and the Holy Trinity Church, among other historically notable buildings. A number of bank buildings are concentrated on Montague Street, including the Brooklyn Trust Company Building, the People's Trust Building, and the National Title Guaranty Building.

Demographics
Based on data from the 2010 United States Census, the population of Brooklyn Heights was 22,887, a change of 339 (1.5%) from the 22,548 counted in 2000. Covering an area of 235.86 acres, the neighborhood had a population density of 97 PD/acre. The racial makeup of the neighborhood was 75.2% (17,210) White, 5.5% (1,259) African American, 0.2% (37) Native American, 8.8% (2,003) Asian, 0% (3) Pacific Islander, 0.4% (82) from other races, and 2.7% (618) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 7.3% (1,675) of the population.

The entirety of Community Board 2, which comprises Brooklyn Heights and Fort Greene, had 117,046 inhabitants as of NYC Health's 2018 Community Health Profile, with an average life expectancy of 80.6 years. This is slightly lower than the median life expectancy of 81.2 for all New York City neighborhoods. Most inhabitants are middle-aged adults and youth: 15% are between the ages of 0–17, 44% between 25–44, and 20% between 45–64. The ratio of college-aged and elderly residents was lower, at 9% and 12% respectively.

As of 2016, the median household income in Community Board 2 was $56,599. In 2018, an estimated 22% of Brooklyn Heights and Fort Greene residents lived in poverty, compared to 21% in all of Brooklyn and 20% in all of New York City. One in twelve residents (8%) were unemployed, compared to 9% in the rest of both Brooklyn and New York City. Rent burden, or the percentage of residents who have difficulty paying their rent, is 39% in Brooklyn Heights and Fort Greene, lower than the citywide and boroughwide rates of 52% and 51% respectively. Based on this calculation,, Brooklyn Heights and Fort Greene are considered to be high-income relative to the rest of the city and not gentrifying.

Police and crime
Brooklyn Heights is patrolled by the 84th Precinct of the NYPD, located at 301 Gold Street. The 84th Precinct ranked 60th-safest out of 69 patrol areas for per-capita crime in 2010. This was attributed to a high rate of property crimes in the neighborhood. , with a non-fatal assault rate of 40 per 100,000 people, Brooklyn Heights and Fort Greene's rate of violent crimes per capita is less than that of the city as a whole. The incarceration rate of 401 per 100,000 people is lower than that of the city as a whole.

The 84th Precinct has a lower crime rate than in the 1990s, with crimes across all categories having decreased by 82.3% between 1990 and 2018. The precinct reported 2 murders, 18 rapes, 147 robberies, 184 felony assaults, 126 burglaries, 650 grand larcenies, and 31 grand larcenies auto in 2018.

Fire safety
Brooklyn Heights is served by two New York City Fire Department (FDNY) fire stations. Engine Co. 205/Ladder Co. 118 is located at 74 Middagh Street, serving the northern part of the neighborhood, while Engine Co. 224 is located at 274 Hicks Street, serving the southern part of the neighborhood.

A third fire station, Engine Co. 207/Ladder Co. 110/Satellite 6/Battalion 31/Division 11, is located at 172 Tillary Street in nearby Fort Greene.

Health
, preterm births and births to teenage mothers are less common in Brooklyn Heights and Fort Greene than in other places citywide. In Brooklyn Heights and Fort Greene, there were 74 preterm births per 1,000 live births (compared to 87 per 1,000 citywide), and 11.6 births to teenage mothers per 1,000 live births (compared to 19.3 per 1,000 citywide). Brooklyn Heights and Fort Greene have a relatively low population of residents who are uninsured, or who receive healthcare through Medicaid. In 2018, this population of uninsured residents was estimated to be 4%, which is lower than the citywide rate of 12%. However, this estimate was based on a small sample size.

The concentration of fine particulate matter, the deadliest type of air pollutant, in Brooklyn Heights and Fort Greene is 0.0088 mg/m3, lower than the citywide and boroughwide averages. Eleven percent of Brooklyn Heights and Fort Greene residents are smokers, which is slightly lower than the city average of 14% of residents being smokers. In Brooklyn Heights and Fort Greene, 24% of residents are obese, 6% are diabetic, and 25% have high blood pressure—compared to the citywide averages of 24%, 11%, and 28% respectively. In addition, 14% of children are obese, compared to the citywide average of 20%.

Eighty-eight percent of residents eat some fruits and vegetables every day, which is slightly higher than the city's average of 87%. In 2018, 86% of residents described their health as "good", "very good", or "excellent", more than the city's average of 78%. For every supermarket in Brooklyn Heights and Fort Greene, there are 12 bodegas.

Post offices and ZIP Code
Brooklyn Heights is covered by ZIP Code 11201. The United States Post Office operates two locations nearby: the Cadman Plaza Station at 271 Cadman Plaza East, and the DUMBO Automated Postal Center at 84 Front Street.

Education
Brooklyn Heights and Fort Greene generally have a higher ratio of college-educated residents than the rest of the city. The majority of residents (64%) have a college education or higher, while 11% have less than a high school education and 25% are high school graduates or have some college education. By contrast, 40% of Brooklynites and 38% of city residents have a college education or higher. The percentage of Brooklyn Heights and Fort Greene students excelling in math rose from 27 percent in 2000 to 50 percent in 2011, and reading achievement rose from 34% to 41% during the same time period.

Brooklyn Heights and Fort Greene's rate of elementary school student absenteeism is about equal to the rest of New York City. In Brooklyn Heights and Fort Greene, 20% of elementary school students missed twenty or more days per school year, the same as the citywide average. Additionally, 75% of high school students in Brooklyn Heights and Fort Greene graduate on time, equal to the citywide average.

Schools
St. Ann's School, a K–12 school, is located in the neighborhood, with the main campus at 129 Pierrepont Street. Packer Collegiate Institute, a K–12 school, has also been located in the neighborhood, at 170 Joralemon Street, since its 1845 founding.

St. Francis College is located on Remsen Street and occupies half a city block. It was founded as St. Francis Academy in 1859 by the Franciscan Brothers and was originally located on Baltic Street. St. Francis College was the first private school in the Roman Catholic Diocese of Brooklyn. , 2,000 full-time students and more than 400 part-time students from 80 countries attend the College. St. Francis College has been ranked by The New York Times as one of the more diverse colleges in the United States. The college has also been ranked by both Forbes magazine and U.S. News & World Report as one of the top baccalaureate colleges in the north.

Brooklyn Heights is also the location of Brooklyn Law School, founded in 1901.

Libraries
The Brooklyn Public Library (BPL)'s Brooklyn Heights branch is located at 286 Cadman Plaza West. The branch was formerly located at 280 Cadman Plaza West, which was shared with the Business & Career Library, but that site was sold to a developer and demolished.

Brooklyn Heights' first library was founded in 1857 by the Mercantile Library Association of the City of Brooklyn. The first BPL branch in the neighborhood, the Montague Street branch, was opened in 1903. The Brooklyn Heights branch building at 280 Cadman Plaza West opened in 1962 and originally contained an auditorium and children's room. It was renovated and expanded from 1990 to 1993, and upon the completion of the renovation, the Brooklyn Heights branch shared the site with the Business & Career Library. In 2013, BPL announced its intent to sell 280 Cadman Plaza West, and as part of this announcement, the Business and Career Library's functions were relocated to BPL's Central Branch. BPL then sold the Brooklyn Heights branch to developer Hudson Companies. Hudson Companies then demolished the structure and replaced it with a 34-story condominium, which now contains the smaller library at its base. In the interim, the BPL branch moved to the temporary 109 Remsen Street location, until the new location was completed in 2022.

Transportation
Brooklyn Heights is serviced by numerous subway services, specifically the at High Street; the  at Jay Street–MetroTech; the  at Clark Street; and the  at Borough Hall/Court Street.

Although no bus routes actually stop in Brooklyn Heights, many MTA Regional Bus Operations bus routes are located nearby in Downtown Brooklyn. The also stops in Dumbo/Fulton Ferry, while the  serve Cobble Hill.

In June 2017, NYC Ferry's South Brooklyn route started stopping at Brooklyn Bridge Park Piers 1 and 6 in Brooklyn Heights.

Street names
Many of the streets in Brooklyn Heights are named after people who figured prominently in the neighborhood's history.

 * Adams Street – John Adams, second President of the United States; originally named "Congress Street"
 * Aitken Place – Monsignor Ambrose Aitken of St. Charles Borromeo Roman Catholic Church
 * Cadman Plaza – Samuel Parkes Cadman, pastor of the Central Congregational Church
 * Clark Street – William Clark, ship's captain
 * Clinton Street – DeWitt Clinton, mayor of New York City, governor of New York state, three time Presidential candidate
 * College Place – named after the Brooklyn Collegiate Institute for Young Ladies (1829–1842); the building became the Mansion House Hotel in 1875
 * Court Street – renamed from "George Street" in 1835, even though there were no courts nearby
 * Doughty Street – Charles Doughty, 18th century lawyer, helped create the Village of Brooklyn
 * Elizabeth Place – Elizabeth Cornell, built the first Pierrepont mansion
 * Fulton Street, Old Fulton Street – Robert Fulton, introduced steam ferry service between Brooklyn Heights and Manhattan; Old Fulton Street was originally to have been named "Kings Highway", and Fulton Street was "Main Street"
 * Furman Street – William Furman, state legislator
 * Garden Place – originally part of Philip Livingston's garden
 * Grace Court, Grace Court Alley – named after Grace Church
 * Henry Street – Dr. Thomas Henry, president of the Kings County Medical Society
 * Hicks Street – John and Jacob Hicks, 17th century ferry operators
 * Hunts Lane – John Hunt, early purchaser of land from Hezekiah Pierrepont
 * Joralemon Street – Teunis Joralemon, saddle maker
 * Livingston Street – Philip Livingston, the only signer of the Declaration of Independence who was from Brooklyn
 * Middagh Street – the Middaghs, a pre-Revolutionary War family
 * Monroe Place – James Monroe, fifth President of the United States; the widest street in Brooklyn Heights
 * Montague Street – Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, English feminist and activist for smallpox inoculation, a member of the Pierrepont family; originally named "Constable Street" after Anna Marie Constable Pierrepoint
 * Pierrepont Street, Pierrepont Place – Hezekiah Pierrepont, the "founder" of Brooklyn Heights
 * Remsen Street – Henry Remsen, son of Ram Jensen Vanderbeeck, a 17th-century blacksmith
 * Schermerhorn Street – Peter and Andrew Schermerhorn, merchants and landowners
 * Sidney Place – Sir Philip Sidney; originally "Monroe Place" until 1853
 * Tillary Street – James Tillary, who worked on finding a cure for yellow fever

Concerning the "fruit streets" in Brooklyn Heights – Cranberry, Orange and Pineapple Streets – the WPA Guide to New York City reports that before the Civil War, these streets, along with Poplar and Willow Streets, were named after prominent families, but that a member of the Middagh family expressed her dislike of these families by replacing the street signs with botanical names. The city would restore the proper names, and Middagh would put back her own signs. Several iterations of this game ended when Middagh's new names were given official status by a resolution of the alderman. In Historically Speaking, Brooklyn borough historian John B. Manbeck says only that these street names "have questionable origins", as does Love Lane, which reputedly gets its name from the meetings that took place there between a pretty girl who lived nearby and her suitors.

Notable people
There have been many noted residents of Brooklyn Heights. The dates listed are their respective birth and death dates. Famous residents include:

 * W. H. Auden (1907–1973), poet, lived with Benjamin Britten and Carson McCullers at 7 Middagh Street
 * Tyra Banks (born 1973), television personality, producer, author, actress, and former model
 * Javier Bardem (born 1969), actor
 * Alfred Smith Barnes (1817–1888), publisher and philanthropist
 * Haley Bennett (born 1988), actress, singer and dancer
 * Matthew Barney (born 1967), artist
 * John R. Bartels (1897–1997), United States district judge of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York.
 * Henry Ward Beecher (1813–1887), clergyman, social reformer and abolitionist
 * Edet Belzberg, documentary filmmaker who won a 2005 MacArthur Fellowship.
 * Paul Bettany (born 1971), actor
 * Morton Birnbaum (1926–2005), lawyer and physician who advocated for the right of psychiatric patients to have adequate, humane care, and who coined the term sanism.
 * Björk (born 1965), musician
 * Alexis Bledel (born 1981), actress
 * Emily Blunt (born 1983), actress.
 * Lee Breuer (1937–2021), playwright and theater director
 * Benjamin Britten (1913–1976), composer, lived with W. H. Auden and Carson McCullers at 7 Middagh Street
 * Matthew Broderick (born 1962), actor
 * Joseph Brodsky (1940–1996), Nobel Prize winner and U.S. Poet Laureate
 * Gabriel Byrne (born 1950), actor
 * Truman Capote (1924–1984), author, lived at 70 Willow Street
 * Ron Chernow (born 1949), Pulitzer prize-winning author and historian
 * Peggy Clark (1915–1996), lighting designer, costume designer and set designer.
 * Jennifer Connelly (born 1970), actress
 * Barbara Cooney (1917–2000), writer and illustrator
 * Hart Crane (1899–1932), poet
 * Scott Crary (born 1978), director and producer
 * Penélope Cruz (born 1974), actress
 * L. Adele Cuinet (1854/55 – 1933), pioneer woman dental surgeon
 * Matt Damon (born 1970), actor
 * Pete Davidson (born 1993), stand-up comedian
 * Adam Driver (born 1983), actor who appeared as Kylo Ren in the Star Wars sequel trilogy.
 * W. E. B. Du Bois (1868–1963), sociologist, historian, civil rights activist, author and editor
 * Lena Dunham (born 1986), actress, writer and director
 * Andrea Dworkin (1946–2005), author
 * Bonnie Erickson (born 1941), designer of puppets, costumes, toys, and graphics, best known for her work with Jim Henson and The Muppets where her creations include Miss Piggy.
 * William Everdell (born 1941), historian, author and teacher
 * Abram Fitkin (1878–1933), investment banker and philanthropist
 * Tom Frieden, infectious disease and public health expert, who was director of the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
 * Elizabeth Gaffney (born 1966), novelist
 * Jason Gedrick (born 1965), actor
 * Paul Giamatti (born 1967), actor
 * Hetty Green (1834–1916), businesswoman known for both her wealth and her miserliness
 * Lucas Hedges (born 1996), actor
 * Peter Hedges (born 1962), novelist, playwright, screenwriter and film director
 * Jack Holland (1947–2004), journalist, novelist and poet who chronicled "The Troubles" in his native Northern Ireland.
 * Alice Recknagel Ireys (1911–2000), landscape architect.
 * Thomas Kail (born 1977), film director
 * Vincent Kartheiser (born 1979), actor
 * John Krasinski (born 1979), actor
 * Clay Lancaster (1917–2000), authority on American architecture and an influential advocate of historical preservation.
 * Amy Lee (born 1981) singer and musician
 * Utrice Leid (born c. 1953), journalist who was the managing editor of The City Sun and general manager of New York radio station WBAI
 * Philip Levine (1928–2015), poet
 * Joe Lhota (born 1954), public servant and a former politician, who served as the chairman of the Metropolitan Transportation Authority.
 * Grace Denio Litchfield (1849–1944), poet and novelist
 * Philip Livingston (1716–1778), one of New York's four signers of the United States Declaration of Independence.
 * H. P. Lovecraft (1890–1937), short-story writer, editor, novelist and poet.
 * James Lyons (1960–2007), film editor, screenwriter and actor who frequently collaborated with Todd Haynes.
 * Norman Mailer (1923–2007), novelist.
 * Norris Church Mailer (1949–2010), author who was the wife of Norman Mailer.
 * Carson McCullers (1917–1967), writer, lived with W. H. Auden and Benjamin Britten at 7 Middagh Street
 * Arthur Miller (1915–2005), playwright, essayist
 * Henry Miller (1891–1980), author
 * Lady Mary Wortley Montagu (1689–1762), a cousin of the Pierrepont family, best remembered for bringing the concept of inoculation against smallpox to the attention of the British public; Montague Street was named after her
 * Mary Tyler Moore (1936–2017), actress
 * Errol Morris (born 1948), film director
 * Gary Oldman (born 1958), English actor and filmmaker
 * Mary-Louise Parker (born 1964), actress and writer.
 * Sarah Jessica Parker (born 1965), actress
 * Joseph Pennell (1857–1926), painter
 * Hezekiah Pierrepont (1768–1838), merchant, farmer, landowner and land developer in Brooklyn and New York State
 * Suzanne Pleshette (1937–2008), actress and voice actress
 * John Podhoretz (born 1961), commentator
 * Ernest Poole (1880–1950), novelist
 * James Purdy (1914–2009), novelist, short-story writer, poet and playwright.
 * Vasant Rai (1942–1985), musician
 * Marky Ramone (born 1952), former drummer of punk rock band the Ramones.
 * Matthew Rhys (born 1974), actor
 * Noel Rockmore (1928–1995), American painter, draughtsman, and sculptor
 * John A. Roebling (1806–1869), civil engineer and designer of the Brooklyn Bridge
 * John A. Roebling II (1867–1952), engineer and philanthropist
 * Washington Roebling (1837–1926), civil engineer best known for his work on the Brooklyn Bridge, son of John Roebling
 * Theodore Roosevelt IV (born 1942), investment banker and managing director at Barclays Investment Bank
 * Keri Russell (born 1976), actress
 * Amy Ryan (born 1968), actress who appeared in The Office
 * Mia Sara (born 1967), actress who appeared in Ferris Bueller's Day Off
 * Amy Schumer (born 1981), comedian and actress
 * Louis Sheaffer (1912–1993), journalist and author who was awarded the 1974 Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography for his biography of Eugene O'Neill.
 * Alexander Skarsgard (born 1976), actor
 * Oliver Smith (1918–1984), stage designer, owned 60 Willow Street
 * Peter Steele (1962–2010), musician, ex-Brooklyn Heights Promenade park supervisor
 * Dan Stevens (born 1982), actor
 * William C. Thompson (1924–2018), New York State Senator and Justice of the New York Supreme Court, Appellate Division
 * Sigrid Undset (1882–1949), Norwegian author who resided in the U.S. in exile during World War II
 * John Utendahl (born 1962), owner of the Utendahl Group, one of the largest African American-owned investment banking groups in the United States
 * Andrew VanWyngarden (born 1983), musician, MGMT
 * Walt Whitman (1819–1892), poet and editor of the Brooklyn Daily Eagle
 * Bill W. (1895–1971 as William Griffith Wilson), co-founded Alcoholics Anonymous in a town house at 182 Clinton Street.
 * Michelle Williams (born 1980), actress
 * Thomas Wolfe (1900–1938), novelist
 * Joe Wright (born 1972), film director
 * David Yassky (born 1964), Dean Emeritus of Pace University School of Law
 * Adam Yauch (1964–2012), founding member of the Beastie Boys
 * Thaddeus Young (born 1988), power forward for the Indiana Pacers.
 * Louis Zukofsky (1904–1978), poet

In popular culture

 * The 1960s TV show The Patty Duke Show was set at 8 Remsen Street, Brooklyn Heights, and the neighborhood received a name check in the theme song, in which "Patty's only seen the sights a girl can see from Brooklyn Heights."
 * The 1975 movie Three Days of the Condor, directed by Sydney Pollack and starring Robert Redford and Faye Dunaway, had the fictional residence of Dunaway's character located at 9 Cranberry Street in Brooklyn Heights.
 * The 1977 horror film The Sentinel featured exterior shots along the Promenade, most notably of the southernmost building at 13 Remsen Street. The neighborhood is a popular destination for many TV and film producers, and has been used both for interior and exterior shoots in projects that included Boardwalk Empire, St. James Place, White Collar, and Hostages.
 * The area was also the main setting of The Cosby Show (1984–1992) where the Huxtable family resided in a two-story brownstone at 10 Stigwood Avenue, a fictional address in Brooklyn Heights.
 * The 1987 romantic comedy film Moonstruck, starring Cher and Nicolas Cage, is set in the neighborhood.
 * Canadian drag queen Brooke Lynn Hytes's name comes from the neighborhood. He was a runner-up on the eleventh season of RuPaul's Drag Race.

title: Brooklyn Heights


text:
Flying Fox (disambiguation)

Flying fox is a common name for bats of the genus Pteropus.

Flying fox or Flying Fox may also refer to:
 * Acerodon, another genus of bats found in Southeast Asia
 * Desmalopex, two further species of bats:
 * White-winged flying fox (Desmalopex leucopterus)
 * Small white-winged flying fox (Desmalopex microleucopterus)
 * Flying Fox, character's name in the comic adaptation of Foxbat (RPG character) in the game Champions
 * Flying fox, common name used for zip-line in Australia and New Zealand
 * Flying fox (fish), a species of cyprinid fish
 * The Flying Fox (film), a 1964 Hong Kong film
 * Flying Fox (horse), a thoroughbred horse
 * HMS Flying Fox, Royal Navy ship
 * HMS Flying Fox (shore establishment), a shore establishment of the Royal Navy
 * Flying Fox (DC Comics), a character in the Young All-Stars comic
 * "Flying Foxes", a 1999 song by Moby, originally released as the B-side for Why Does My Heart Feel So Bad? and later included on Play: The B Sides

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Flying Fox (disambiguation)


text:
Adam Garcia

Adam Garcia is an Australian stage, television, and film actor who is best known for lead roles in musicals such as Saturday Night Fever and Kiss Me, Kate. He is also a trained tap dancer and singer. Garcia has been nominated twice at the Laurence Olivier Awards in 1999 and 2013.

Early life
Garcia is the son of Jean Balharry and Fabio Garcia. His mother is Australian, and his father is from Colombia. Garcia's mother is a retired physiotherapist. Garcia attended Knox Grammar School where he completed his high school education. He also received formal tap dance training at Capital Dance Studio in Sydney, Australia. Garcia attended Sydney University, but did not complete his education as he left the university to take the role of Slide in the production of the musical Hot Shoe Shuffle, which toured Australia for two years before transferring to London, England.

Career
Garcia began his film career in 1997, playing the role of Jones in Brian Gilbert's Wilde. Garcia played Tony Manero in the stage version of Saturday Night Fever, which premiered on 5 May 1998 at the London Palladium, and closed on 26 February 2000. He was nominated for his work in the play at the Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actor in a Musical category in 1999, but lost to the cast of Kat and the Kings. Garcia also reached number 15 in the UK Singles Chart in 1998, with his cover version of the Bee Gees song "Night Fever", taken from the film version of Saturday Night Fever (1977). In 2000, he played a major role in his second feature-film, Coyote Ugly. Later that year, Garcia also appeared in Dein Perry's Bootmen, playing the lead role.

In 2003, he voiced the title character in the film Kangaroo Jack but was not credited for that role.

In 2004, he also played alongside Lindsay Lohan and Megan Fox in Confessions of a Teenage Drama Queen, as the character Stu Wolff, a drunk rock star, who is part of the band Sidarthur and is, in Lola's words, "a greater poet than Shakespeare". Between 2006 and 2007, Garcia played the character of Fiyero in the original West End production of Wicked alongside Idina Menzel, Kerry Ellis and Helen Dallimore. He previously played the same role during the show's early Broadway theatre workshops in 2000. Garcia appeared in two ITV dramas, Britannia High and Mr Eleven, in 2008.

In January 2010, Garcia appeared with Ashley Banjo and Kimberly Wyatt as a judge on the British reality show Got to Dance. He was a judge in the four seasons of the competition, from 2010 to 2012 and then again in 2014.

In 2011, Garcia co-starred with Mischa Barton in The Hen Do, but the film never left the cutting room floor.

In 2012, he appeared in Cole Porter's musical Kiss Me, Kate at the Chichester Festival Theatre, directed by Trevor Nunn and choreographed by Stephen Mear. Garcia was nominated for his role at the 2013 Laurence Olivier Awards in the category Best Performance in a Supporting Role in a Musical. Garcia appeared in Threesome, a 2011 British television sitcom which began airing on 17 October 2011 on Comedy Central. Garcia became the fourth judge during the thirteenth season of the Australian version of Dancing with the Stars.

In 2016, Garcia began an Australian national tour production of Singin' in the Rain as Don Lockwood, but was injured onstage in Melbourne, ending his run. Later that year he played Father Damian Karras in the UK premiere of The Exorcist opening at the Birmingham Repertory Theatre in October 2016 and transferring to the Phoenix Theatre in the West End in October 2017. He also filmed on location for Murder on the Orient Express.

In 2018, Garcia was cast in Dance Boss, an Australian reality television dance competition on the Seven Network presented by Dannii Minogue. He judged the competition alongside singer and dancer Timomatic and actress and performer Sharni Vinson. Later that year he played the Artilleryman in the 40th-anniversary tour of Jeff Wayne’s War of the Worlds, to critical acclaim.

In 2019, he filmed Death on the Nile, and in December starred in a pantomime in Ipswich, England, as Prince Charming.

In 2021, Garcia played the father of a dead girl (Victoria Justice) who comes back to make things right in the teen movie Afterlife of the Party directed by Stephen Herek.

In 2022, Garcia appeared in the second UK series of The Masked Dancer. He finished in second place for the series as the character "Onomatopoeia".

In 2024, Garcia will be playing Caractacus Potts in a new UK and Ireland tour of Chitty Chitty Bang Bang.

Personal life
On 26 March 2015, Garcia married his long-time girlfriend, Nathalia Chubin, in London. Chubin previously worked as a senior marketing executive for PlayStation. The couple have a daughter and a son together.

title: Adam Garcia


text:
CFC

CFC, cfc, or Cfc may stand for:

Science and technology

 * Chlorofluorocarbon, a class of chemical compounds
 * Cardiofaciocutaneous Syndrome, a rare and serious genetic disorder
 * Subpolar oceanic climate (Cfc in the Köppen climate classification), short, generally cool summers and long, mild winters with abundant precipitation year-round
 * ColdFusion Components, objects or files used in ColdFusion application servers
 * Carbon fibre composite, a composite carbon based material, used in fusion armour applications
 * Consideration of future consequences, a personality trait
 * Continuous function chart, sort of Function block diagram enabling to program both Boolean and analogue expressions; Often associated with Sequential function chart (SFC)
 * Counterflow chiller, a type of heat exchanger.

Education

 * Canadian Film Centre, an institution for advanced training in film, television and new media in Canada
 * Central Florida Community College, a public state college in Ocala, Florida

Businesses and organizations

 * Certificación Fonográfica Centroamericana, music certification organization
 * California Fried Chicken, an Indonesia fast food chain
 * CfC Stanbic Holdings, now Stanbic Holdings plc, a financial institution based in Kenya
 * Computer Film Company, a London digital film special effects company
 * Chess Federation of Canada, Canada's national chess organization
 * Citizens for Conservation
 * Compass Family Center, San Francisco family shelter
 * Countrywide Financial Corporation, American residential mortgage banking and related businesses
 * Consumer Federation of California, a California-based, nonprofit consumer advocacy organization.
 * Common Fund for Commodities, an intergovernmental financial institution for supporting strongly commodity-dependent developing countries
 * Consumer Federation of California, a consumer advocacy organization
 * Centers for Change, precursor in New York of the International Workers Party
 * Chemins de fer de Corse, the railway system in Corsica, France

Politics, law, government, and finance

 * Cash for clunkers program
 * Combined Federal Campaign, for charities to fundraise via payroll deductions from US Federal Government employees
 * Controlled foreign corporation, company owned or controlled primarily by taxpayers of a different jurisdiction
 * Consumption of fixed capital, accounting term for depreciation of fixed assets
 * Comisión Federal de Competencia, or Federal Competition Commission, an agency of the Mexican government
 * ROK/US Combined Forces Command
 * United States Court of Federal Claims, a United States court

Religion

 * Carols for Choirs, a British collection of Christmas carol music books
 * Catechism for Filipino Catholics, Roman Catholic catechism for Filipinos
 * Champions for Christ, Every Nation Churches outreach to college and professional sportspeople
 * Couples for Christ, a Catholic Charismatic renewal movement which seeks to preserve the sanctity of the family
 * Congregatio Fratrum Christianorum, Congregation of Christian Brothers
 * Catholics for Choice, Catholic pro-choice organization

Military

 * Combined Forces Command (disambiguation), various multi-national military commands
 * China Fleet Club, British Navy club in Hong Kong
 * Canadian Forestry Corps, timber-processing corps of the Canadian Army during both World Wars
 * Corporal first class, the highest enlistee rank in the Singapore Armed Forces

Entertainment and gaming

 * SNK vs. Capcom: Card Fighters Clash, a game released for the Neo-Geo console
 * Celebrity Fit Club, a reality weight-loss show

Sports

 * Canadian Football Council, precursor of the Canadian Football League

Football clubs
In England: (association football)
 * Chasetown F.C.
 * Chelsea F.C.
 * Chester F.C.
 * Chesterfield F.C.
 * Chipstead F.C.
 * Chorley F.C.
 * Clapton F.C.
 * Clitheroe F.C.
 * Cobham F.C.
 * Cove F.C.
 * Crockenhill F.C.
 * Croydon F.C.

In Scotland: (association football)
 * Celtic F.C.
 * Clyde F.C.
 * Clydebank F.C.
 * Cowdenbeath F.C.

Other association football:
 * Carrigans F.C., Philippines
 * Cebu F.C., Philippines
 * Ceres F.C., Philippines
 * Changwon City FC, Korea
 * Charlotte FC, Charlotte, United States
 * Chemnitzer FC, Germany
 * Chonburi F.C., Thailand
 * Cincinnati FC, Cincinnati, United States
 * Cimarron F.C., Philippines
 * Clermont-Ferrand Football Club, France
 * Coritiba Foot Ball Club, Brazil
 * Chattanooga FC, Tennessee, United States

In Australia: (Australian rules football)
 * Carlton Football Club
 * Clarence Football Club
 * Collingwood Football Club

In India: (association football) Chennaiyin FC

title: CFC


text:
Battle of Aong

The Battle of Aong took place on July 15, 1857, during the Indian rebellion of 1857, between the East India Company forces and Nana Sahib's forces.

The East India Company forces under the command of General Sir Henry Havelock were advancing to Kanpur (Cawnpore), which had been besieged by Nana Sahib, supported by the rebel Company sepoys. Nana Sahib had earlier sent an army to check the advance of General Havelock to Kanpur, but it was defeated by Havelock's forces at Fatehpur on July 12. Nana Sahib then sent another force under the command of his brother, Bala Rao.

On July 15, the British forces under General Havelock defeated Bala Rao's army in the Battle of Aong, just outside the Aong village. During the battle, Havelock was able to capture some of the rebel soldiers, who informed him that there was an army of 5,000 rebel soldiers with eight artillery pieces further up the road. This enabled Havelock to decide his further strategy.

title: Battle of Aong


text: Category:St. Louis County, Minnesota

title: Category:St. Louis County, Minnesota


text:
Allah Valley

The Allah Valley (at times also spelled Alah) is a large valley of the Allah River in the provinces of South Cotabato and Sultan Kudarat on the island of Mindanao, Philippines. It is formed by the Roxas-Matulas Range in the north and the Daguma Mountain Range in the south.

It is accessible via the Allah Valley Airport in Surallah, South Cotabato.

The valley is known for its natural environment, such as Lake Sebu, Lake Holon, Baras Bird Sanctuary, and Esperanza Hot and Cold Springs. On the other hand, it is adversely affected by flooding, siltation, riverbank migration, unstable agriculture production, and upland degradation, as well as illegal logging.

The entire valley was declared a watershed forest reserve in 1985 through the signing of Proclamation No. 2455. The 102,350 ha protected area also includes Lake Sebu, the Tasaday-Manobo Special Forest Reserve, the Datu Ma Falen Civil Reservation, and the National Cultural Minorities Settlement Reservation located within the valley.

The bestselling Lonely Planet described Lake Sebu as a place located in a “bowl of forests and mountains.” The 42,450-hectare landscape consisting the domains of the Allah Valley is recognized by United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) as a cultural landscape in Mindanao.

Geography
It is a well populated valley with fertile soil, bisected by the Allah and Banga Rivers (tributaries of the Pulangi River). The placid lake of Lake Sebu can be found in the upper part of the Allah Valley. Its elevation ranges from 439 to 1814 ft.

The 2520 km2 valley covers over the half of South Cotabato spanning 6 of the 10 municipalities of South Cotabato.

Municipalities in the valley

 * Surallah
 * T'boli
 * Banga
 * Norala
 * Santo Niño
 * Lake Sebu

People
As of 2007, Allah Valley is home to some 628,832 people, composed of Indigenous T'bolis, B'laan, Tirurays, Manobos and Maguindanaons and settlers from Luzon and Visayas.

Economy
The economy is based on agriculture producing mostly rice, maize, banana, pineapple, oil palm, and asparagus. Another source of income is aquaculture of tilapia in Lake Sebu.

Companies are starting to invest to build factories in the area especially in the municipalities of Surallah and Tboli. Especially eco-tourism is being promoted as a means to boost the region's economy.

title: Allah Valley


text:
Liu Ying (prince)

Liu Ying (died 3 June 71 ) was a Chinese prince. He was a son of Emperor Guangwu of Han, and half-brother of Emperor Ming of Han. After becoming Prince of Chu, he was a known supporter of many religions. In particular, his sponsorship of Buddhism in 65 CE is the first documented case of Buddhist practices in China.

Born to Lady Xu, a junior consort of Emperor Guangwu with the rank of meiren, Liu Ying was given the rank of duke on 22 May 39 CE, and prince (wáng) in the second half of 41 CE. The next year, he received Chu as his hereditary fiefdom, with his capital at Pengcheng (modern Xuzhou, Jiangsu). The young Liu Ying seems to have been close to his half-brother Liu Zhuang, the future Emperor Ming. He is also said to have travelled widely and gained an interest in Huang-Lao Daoism and Buddhism (, literally "Buddha"). After Liu Ying became a prince, he actively supported both religions in the hope of finding a drug of longevity or immortality.

Because of these activities, Liu Ying was suspected of treasonous intrigue and the subject of an imperial edict from Emperor Ming. The edict, which survives in the Book of the Later Han shows that at the time the Buddha was associated in the opinion of the Chinese imperial court with Daoism. He was treated like a god to whom sacrifices and fasting took place. Buddhism was described as "humane" and generally accepted by the elite. Citing Liu Ying's support of Daoism and Buddhism, Henri Maspero noted, "It is a very curious fact that, throughout the whole Han dynasty, Taoism and Buddhism were constantly confused and appeared as a single religion."

Five years later, in c. December 70, Liu Ying's activities were again denounced by high officials and he was accused of plotting against the throne, a crime punishable by death. Among his supposed crimes was the most heinous of those in Han law: usurping the prerogatives of the emperor, and great impropriety and immorality in his conduct toward the throne. Nevertheless, Emperor Ming refused to execute Liu Ying, instead demoting him to the rank of a commoner and exiling him to Danyang in the lower Yangtze. Liu Ying committed suicide upon reaching his destination the next year. He was buried with the honours of a full marquess.

As part of the purges following Liu Ying's downfall, thousands of his supposed adherents were arrested and implicated each other under torture. Nevertheless, the Buddhist community at Pengcheng survived. More than a century later, it was still thriving under the patronage of Ze Rong, a native of Danyang. A number of Liu Ying's followers may also have followed him to the lower Yangtze and established Buddhist communities there also.

title: Liu Ying (prince)


text:
Sarcheshmeh

Sarcheshmeh (سرچشمه) or Sarcheshmeh Copper Complex ( – Kārkhāneh-ye Mojtame‘-e Mes-e Sar Cheshmeh) is a large open cast copper mine in the Kerman Province of Iran, considered to be the second largest copper deposit worldwide. Also containing substantial amounts of molybdenum, gold and other rare metals. It is also a settlement, enumerated at Iranian census.

The Sarcheshmeh Copper Complex is located 65 km southwest of Kerman and 50 km south of Rafsanjan. The region's altitude averages about 2600m, the highest spot of which approximates 3000m. Sarcheshmeh ore bodies, situated in the central part of Zagros ranges, consist of folded and faulted early tertiary volcano-sedimentary rocks.

Sar Cheshmeh mine was managed by the Anaconda Group until the 1979 revolution in Iran. Design and construction of the processing plant was done by Parsons-Jurden of the US.

Production units of Sarcheshmeh Copper Complex involve the mine itself, concentrator, smelter, refinery, foundries and leaching.

Administratively, the settlement is in the Sarcheshmeh Rural District, in the Central District of Rafsanjan County, Kerman Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 53, in 14 families.

title: Sarcheshmeh


text:
Talk:Battle of Aong

The text in this artice can be amended to read 'The Indian War of Independance' or 'The Indian Mutiny' depending on wheverer is decided on the discussion page for Indian Mutiny.

title: Talk:Battle of Aong


text:
Wellington High School, New Zealand

Wellington High School is a co-educational secondary school in the CBD of Wellington, New Zealand. It has a role of approximately 1500 students. It was founded in 1886 as the Wellington College of Design (later the Wellington Technical School), to provide a more practical education than that offered by the existing schools. In 1905 it began admitted boys and girls, becoming the first co-educational secondary school in New Zealand. It is one of only two secondary schools in Wellington (along with Onslow College), and one of only a handful in the country, that does not have a school uniform.

Many of the current buildings date from the 1980s and are in the neo-brutalist style.

Wellington High School, and the institutions from which the current school evolved, have a significant place in the history of public education in New Zealand.

Wellington College of Design and Wellington Technical School
What is now Wellington High School was founded in 1886 by Arthur Dewhurst Riley as the Wellington College of Design. It was the first technical school in New Zealand, the students were teenagers who had entered the workforce after primary school and the classes were trade focused and in the evenings. Students paid a fee's to attend.

In 1891 the school became Wellington Technical School and it moved to its present site on Taranaki Street from Mercer Street in 1922. Riley was a pioneer of technical and vocational education in New Zealand and his views influenced the Manual and Technical Instruction Act of 1900.

Wellington Polytechnic
In 1964 the secondary and tertiary education parts separated, the upper part becoming Wellington Polytechnical School. Wellington Poly has now become Massey University's Wellington Campus. Other technical schools have also gone on to become tertiary institutions, including Auckland University of Technology and Nelson Marlborough Institute of Technology.

Wellington High School
The secondary school retains a large community education programme.

In 2014, an additional Māori name was chosen to sit alongside the established and venerable name of Wellington High School; "Te Kura Tuarua o Taraika ki Pukeahu". Māori language students were deeply involved in the planning and implementation of the additional name. Taraika is the name of the school Marae. Pukeahu is the area of land on which the school stands. The students presented their idea to the school’s whānau group, Te Whānau a Taraika and the school’s Board of Trustees as well as consultation undertaken with Taranaki Whānui ki Te Upoko o te Ika te mana whenua. The additional name was formally adopted at the school's annual Whakanuia celebration in October 2014.

Current affairs
The School was New Zealand Trade and Enterprise Export Awards Education Exporter of the Year 2004.

In 2004, the school made the national headlines when students campaigned for the eviction of the Wellington branch of the Destiny Church, which was using the school hall for its services, with over 50% of enrolled students signing their names to a petition.

In 2006, in response to research on Wellington High students, and an award-winning student video, Principal Prue Kelly introduced a scheme which allows senior students' first classes to begin at 10:20am (as opposed to 8:45am). This issue has received much media coverage, and generated very little controversy. Principal Prue Kelly was confident that this progressive trial in timetable restructuring would "catch on" and other schools would begin to adopt it as well. As well as the senior 10 o'clock start, all years receive a late start on Wednesdays.

In 2016, Wellington High became the first school in Wellington to provide gender-neutral toilets. WHS converted one floor's separate single sex bathrooms to two sets of gender-neutral bathrooms. The urinals were removed from the boys' bathrooms, and bins added. Signage simply says 'bathroom.' There was a lot of media surrounding the change, and WHS released a media release requesting that the media accept the privacy of students, writing that they are now "getting on with the business of learning." Later in 2016, Onslow College converted a block of their toilets to gender-neutral.

Radio station
The school had a student-run radio station, LiveWire, which transmitted at 107.1. It had a range of approximately 4 km. The radio station ceased broadcasting at the end of 2007. In February 2011, the radio station was revived as High-Fi FM. It is operated by students from the school. The radio station still has the same specifications of a 4 km broadcast range and runs 24/7 on 107.3FM.

Board of trustees
The Wellington High School board consists of eleven appointed and elected members. It is currently chaired by David Cooling.

Notable alumni

 * Matt Benney ISO – civil servant and politician
 * Ken Blackburn – actor, director
 * Craig Bradshaw – sportsman, Tall Blacks and Winthrop University
 * Luke Buda – musician, Phoenix Foundation
 * Samuel Flynn Scott – musician, Phoenix Foundation
 * Ben Hazlewood – Singer
 * Timothy Hyde – magician and writer
 * Eddie Johnston – musician, Race Banyon and Lontalius
 * King Kapisi – musician
 * Helen Kelly – President of the New Zealand Council of Trade Unions
 * Paul Eagle – Former Deputy Mayor of Wellington City, MP for Rongotai.
 * Tom Larkin – musician, Shihad
 * Sir Peter Leitch – The Mad Butcher
 * Len Lye – artist, attended evening art classes at Wellington Technical College (now Wellington High School)
 * Robert Miller – Known as Bushwhacker Butch, one half of professional wrestling team The Bushwhackers.
 * Willy Moon – Singer and former X Factor New Zealand judge
 * Nigel Priestley ONZM – earthquake engineer, professor at University of California
 * Chelsie Preston Crayford – actress
 * James Shaw – Male co-leader of New Zealand's Green Party
 * Maud Winifred Sherwood – artist
 * Eric Tindill – sportsman, double All Black – cricket and rugby
 * Grant Tilly – actor, Downstage Theatre, Unity Theatre, films and television
 * Jon Toogood – musician, Shihad
 * Sir Jon Trimmer KNZM – ballet dancer
 * Roland Wakelin – artist regarded as a founder of modern art movement in Australia
 * Dan Weekes-Hannah – actor
 * Tandi Wright – actress, Shortland Street and Out of the Blue
 * Solo Tohi – Part of the Australian/ NZ break dance crew Justice Crew that won 2010 Australia's Got Talent
 * Eva McGauley (1999–2018) – Activist, founder and CEO of www.Evaswish.com. Established an online charity for those who are victims of sexual harm

title: Wellington High School, New Zealand


text: Category:Human spaceflight

title: Category:Human spaceflight


text:
Bolkestein

Bolkestein is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:

 * Frits Bolkestein (born 1933), Dutch politician and intellectual
 * Gerrit Bolkestein (1871–1956) Dutch politician, grandfather of Frits
 * Martijn Bolkestein (born 1972), Dutch politician, nephew of Frits

title: Bolkestein


text:
Roy Mason

Roy Mason, Baron Mason of Barnsley, (18 April 1924 – 19 April 2015), was a British Labour Party politician and Cabinet minister who was Secretary of State for Defence and Secretary of State for Northern Ireland in the 1970s.

Early life
Mason was born in Royston, West Riding of Yorkshire, on 18 April 1924, and grew up in Carlton, Barnsley, also in the West Riding of Yorkshire. Mason became a miner at the age of 14. He became a branch official of the National Union of Mineworkers (NUM) in his early twenties. Aged 26, he studied at the London School of Economics as a mature student on a Trades Union Congress (TUC) scholarship. He remained in the coal industry until he was elected as Member of Parliament (MP) for the Barnsley constituency at a by-election in 1953.

Posts
Mason was Labour Party spokesman on Home Affairs, Defence and the Post Office, 1960–1964. Minister of State at the Board of Trade, 1964–1967. Minister of Defence (Equipment), 1967–1968. Minister of Power, 1968–1969. President of the Board of Trade, 1969–1970. Secretary of State for Defence, 1974–1976. Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, 1976–1979

Northern Ireland
A high-profile politician, Mason's appointment to Northern Ireland was unexpected and seemed to indicate a tougher response from the British Government than had been pursued by his predecessor, Merlyn Rees. In late 1976, he told the Labour Party conference that "Ulster had had enough of initiatives, White Papers and legislation for the time being, and now needed to be governed firmly and fairly". He rejected both military and political solutions in favour of "justice for all; with equality before the law; and, crucially, with republican terrorism treated as a security problem, and nothing else".

While Secretary of State for Defence, Mason had been responsible for the introduction of SAS units into the 'bandit country' of South Armagh. At Stormont Mason was responsible for the tougher role taken by the security forces and authorised an increase in British Army covert tactics with the SAS allowed to operate throughout Northern Ireland. Mason's time in Northern Ireland was characterised by a reduction in violence; "in 1976 there were 297 deaths in Northern Ireland; in the next three years the figures were 111, 80, 120. In 1977, he stood up to militant loyalists attempting to repeat their successful Ulster Workers Council strike tactic of 1974. The same year, he twice attempted to get some movement towards a political settlement from the local political parties. In March 1979, the Irish National Liberation Army planned to assassinate Mason, but the plan was aborted.

Mason's policies in Northern Ireland earned the ire of Irish nationalist MPs. That played a part in the March 1979 vote of no confidence, which the Labour government lost by one vote, precipitating the 1979 general election. The Nationalist MP Gerry Fitt abstained in the vote of no confidence and stated that he could not support a government with Mason as its Northern Ireland secretary.

After Labour's election defeat in 1979, Mason came under increasing pressure from some on the left in his constituency party and from Arthur Scargill but did not countenance joining the Social Democratic Party. Mason received full police protection over 30 years after leaving office. In 1982, Energy Secretary Nigel Lawson suggested to Margaret Thatcher that she should make Mason the next Coal Board chairman, but she refused by saying that Mason was "Not one of us". Instead, Ian MacGregor was appointed.

Later life
After his retirement from the House of Commons at the 1987 general election, Mason was created a life peer on 20 October 1987 taking the title Baron Mason of Barnsley, of Barnsley in South Yorkshire. He lived in the same semi-detached house with his wife Marjorie from their marriage until he was aged 84.

Mason died at Highgrove Nursing Home, Stanley Road, Barnsley one day after his 91st birthday, on 19 April 2015. He had suffered from cerebrovascular disease. He was survived by his wife and his two daughters.

title: Roy Mason


text:
Multiple organ dysfunction syndrome

Multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS) is altered organ function in an acutely ill patient requiring medical intervention to achieve homeostasis. Although Irwin and Rippe cautioned in 2005 that the use of "multiple organ failure" or "multisystem organ failure" should be avoided, both Harrison's (2015) and Cecil's (2012) medical textbooks still use the terms "multi-organ failure" and "multiple organ failure" in several chapters and do not use "multiple organ dysfunction syndrome" at all.

There are different stages of organ dysfunction for certain different organs, both in acute and in chronic onset, whether or not there are one or more organs affected. Each stage of dysfunction (whether it be the heart, lung, liver, or kidney) has defined parameters, in terms of laboratory values based on blood and other tests, as to what it is (each of these organs' levels of failure is divided into stage I, II, III, IV, and V). The word "failure" is commonly used to refer to the later stages, especially IV and V, when artificial support usually becomes necessary to sustain life; the damage may or may not be fully or partially reversible.

Signs and symptoms
Multiple Organ Dysfunction Syndrome (MODS) can trigger a variety of symptoms throughout the body. Because MODS can impact any organ system, the specific symptoms experienced will depend on which organs are affected. Initially, these signs may be mild as the underlying illness progresses towards MODS. However, as the condition worsens, the symptoms can become more severe.

These symptoms include low urine output, nausea, vomiting, and loss of appetite. Some patients experience mental symptoms like confusion and may feel fatigued. Symptoms like fever, chills, irregular heartbeat, and quick/shallow breathing are also common. Multiple cases of MODS also suffer chest and abdominal pain, and patients may even lose consciousness.

Cause
The condition results from infection, injury (accident, surgery), hypoperfusion and hypermetabolism. The primary cause triggers an uncontrolled inflammatory response.

Sepsis is the most common cause of multiple organ dysfunction syndrome and may result in septic shock. In the absence of infection, a sepsis-like disorder is termed systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS). Both SIRS and sepsis could ultimately progress to multiple organ dysfunction syndrome. In one-third of the patients, however, no primary focus can be found. Multiple organ dysfunction syndrome is well established as the final stage of a continuum: SIRS + infection → sepsis → severe sepsis → Multiple organ dysfunction syndrome.

Currently, investigators are looking into genetic targets for possible gene therapy to prevent the progression to multiple organ dysfunction syndrome. Some authors have conjectured that the inactivation of the transcription factors NF-κB and AP-1 would be appropriate targets in preventing sepsis and SIRS. These two genes are pro-inflammatory. They are essential components of a normal healthy immune response, however, so there is risk of increasing vulnerability to infection, which can also cause clinical deterioration.

Pathophysiology
A definite explanation has not been found. Local and systemic responses are initiated by tissue damage. Respiratory failure is common in the first 72 hours. Subsequently, one might see liver failure (5–7 days), gastrointestinal bleeding (10–15 days) and kidney failure (11–17 days).

Gut hypothesis
The most popular hypothesis by Deitch to explain MODS in critically ill patients is the gut hypothesis. Due to splanchnic hypoperfusion and the subsequent mucosal ischaemia there are structural changes and alterations in cellular function. This results in increased gut permeability, changed immune function of the gut and increased translocation of bacteria. Liver dysfunction leads to toxins escaping into the systemic circulation and activating an immune response. This results in tissue injury and organ dysfunction.

Endotoxin macrophage hypothesis
Gram-negative infections in MODS patients are relatively common, hence endotoxins have been advanced as principal mediator in this disorder. It is thought that following the initial event cytokines are produced and released. The pro-inflammatory mediators are: tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-1, interleukin-6, thromboxane A2, prostacyclin, platelet activating factor, and nitric oxide.

Tissue hypoxia-microvascular hypothesis
As a result of macro- and microvascular changes insufficient supply of oxygen occurs. Hypoxemia causes cell death and organ dysfunction.

Mitochondrial DNA hypothesis
According to findings of Professor Zsolt Balogh and his team at the University of Newcastle (Australia), mitochondrial DNA is the leading cause of severe inflammation due to a massive amount of mitochondrial DNA that leaks into the bloodstream due to cell death of patients who survived major trauma.

Mitochondrial DNA resembles bacterial DNA. If bacteria triggers leukocytes, mitochondrial DNA may do the same. When confronted with bacteria, white blood cells, or neutrophil granulocytes, behave like predatory spiders. They spit out a web, or net, to trap the invaders, then hit them with a deadly oxidative blast, forming neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs).

This results in catastrophic immune response leading to multiple organ dysfunction syndrome.

Integrated hypothesis
Since in most cases no primary cause is found, the condition could be part of a compromised homeostasis involving the previous mechanisms.

Diagnosis
The European Society of Intensive Care organized a consensus meeting in 1994 to create the "Sepsis-Related Organ Failure Assessment (SOFA)" score to describe and quantitate the degree of organ dysfunction in six organ systems. Using similar physiologic variables the Multiple Organ Dysfunction Score was developed.

Four clinical phases have been suggested:
 * Stage 1: the patient has increased volume requirements and mild respiratory alkalosis, which is accompanied by oliguria, hyperglycemia and increased insulin requirements.
 * Stage 2: the patient is tachypneic, hypocapnic and hypoxemic; develops moderate liver dysfunction and possible hematologic abnormalities.
 * Stage 3: the patient develops shock with azotemia and acid–base disturbances; has significant coagulation abnormalities.
 * Stage 4: the patient is vasopressor dependent and oliguric or anuric; subsequently develops ischemic colitis and lactic acidosis.

Definition
Multiple dysfunction syndrome is the presence of altered organ function in acutely ill patients such that homeostasis cannot be maintained without intervention. It usually involves two or more organ systems. It calls for an immediate intervention.

Management
At present, there is no drug or device that can reverse organ failure that has been judged by the health care team to be medically and/or surgically irreversible (organ function can recover, at least to a degree, in patients whose organs are very dysfunctional, where the patient has not died; and some organs, like the liver or the skin, can regenerate better than others),- with the possible exception of single or multiple organ transplants or the use of artificial organs or organ parts, in certain candidates in specific situations. Therapy, therefore, is usually mostly limited to supportive care, i.e. safeguarding hemodynamics, and respiration. Maintaining adequate tissue oxygenation is a principal target. Starting enteral nutrition within 36 hours of admission to an intensive care unit has reduced infectious complications.

Prognosis
Mortality, though it has lessened to a limited degree, at least in developed countries with timely access to initial and tertiary care, varies where the chance of survival is diminished as the number of organs involved increases. Mortality in MODS from septic shock (which itself has a high mortality of 25–50%), and from multiple traumas, especially if not rapidly treated, appear to be especially severe. If more than one organ system is affected, the mortality rate is still higher, and this is especially the case when five or more systems or organs are affected. Old age is a risk factor in and of itself, and immunocompromised patients, such as with cancer or AIDS or a transplant, are at risk. Prognosis must take into account any co-morbidities the patient may have, their past and current health status, any genetic or environmental vulnerabilities they have, the nature and type of the illness or injury (as an example, data from COVID-19 is still being analyzed, whereas other cases from long-existing illnesses are much better understood), and any resistance to drugs used to treat microbial infections or any hospital-acquired co-infection. Earlier and aggressive treatment, the use of experimental treatments, or at least modern tools such as ventilators, ECMO, dialysis, bypass, and transplantation, especially at a trauma center, may improve outcomes in certain cases, but this depends in part on speedy and affordable access to high-quality care, which many areas lack. Measurements of lactate, cytokines, albumin and other proteins, urea, blood oxygen and carbon dioxide levels, insulin, and blood sugar, adequate hydration, constant monitoring of vital signs, good communication within and between facilities and staff, and adequate staffing, training, and charting are important in MODS, as in any serious illness.

In patients with sepsis, septic shock, or multiple organ dysfunction syndrome that is due to major trauma, the rs1800625 polymorphism is a functional single nucleotide polymorphism, a part of the receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) transmembrane receptor gene (of the immunoglobulin superfamily) and confers host susceptibility to sepsis and MODS in these patients.

History
For many years, some patients were loosely classified as having sepsis or the sepsis syndrome. In more recent years, these concepts have been refined – so that there are specific definitions of sepsis – and two new concepts have been developed: the SIRS and MODS.

title: Multiple organ dysfunction syndrome


text:
Road Traffic Safety Law of the People's Republic of China

The Road Traffic Safety Law of the People's Republic of China is a law which was passed by the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress of the People's Republic of China on October 28, 2003, promulgated by Decree No. 8 of the President of the PRC Hu Jintao, and took effect on May 1, 2004, on all parts of mainland China (but not in Hong Kong and Macau which have their own judicial systems.) It is the People's Republic of China's first-ever law on road traffic safety, and was intended to address an alarmingly high traffic fatality rate, which is four or five times greater than other nations.

Background
The new law has a number of focus points:

 * Under the new law, when accidents occur between pedestrians or non-motorised vehicles and motor vehicles, except for the case where the pedestrian or the non-motorised vehicle deliberately causes the incident, the motorist must always bear responsibility. Responsibility for the motorist is reduced if the pedestrian or non-motorised side violated traffic laws.
 * The new law enforces a vehicle insurance system. Insurance on motor vehicles is now compulsory instead of voluntary.
 * It abolished a previous regulation which banned holders of driver's licences of the PRC driving rights on expressways until one year after they had held the licence.
 * Expressway speed limits were increased from 110 km/h to 120 km/h.
 * Even harsher penalties were put in place for drunk driving and driving by people who did not hold a valid driver's licence, or drove a vehicle without licence plates.
 * Cases where drivers were speeding 50% in excess of the applicable speed limit will result in the revocation of the driver's licence.
 * The penalty for hit-and-run accidents is permanent revocation of one's driver's licence.
 * The pre-existing point system for penalties was integrated into the new law.
 * Penalties are now higher, from the former RMB 200 up to RMB 2000. Also, provinces, municipalities and autonomous regions can only enact specific penalties within the given range. Previously, the nationwide maximum penalty was RMB 200, but areas like Beijing and Kunming had enacted laws mandating penalties in the thousands of RMB.

Beijing's own "implementation procedures" of the new traffic law was passed on October 22, 2004, after being the target of heavy controversy over the responsibilities of vehicle drivers and pedestrians, and a regulation limiting the lanes that can be used by novice drivers. These take effect on January 1, 2005.

According to Xinhua News Agency, "police officers are also reluctant to pull over drivers of military vehicles even if the drivers are breaking the law". According to the People's Daily, Chinese army and police seized thousands of fake military license plates and IDs.


text:
EMI (disambiguation)

EMI is a British music and electronics group of companies.

EMI may refer to:

Arts and entertainment

 * EMI Music Publishing
 * EMI Records, a record label
 * EMI Films, a British film production and distribution company
 * EMI (film), a 2008 Bollywood film
 * "E.M.I." (song), a song from the 1977 Sex Pistols album Never Mind the Bollocks, Here's the Sex Pistols
 * Escape from Monkey Island, a computer game

Education

 * English-medium education, also known as English as a Medium of Instruction
 * EMI schools, in Hong Kong, schools that use English as a Medium of Instruction (i.e. teach in English)
 * Extended matching items, a type of examination method
 * Mohammadia School of Engineering (École Mohammadia d'Ingénieurs, abbreviated EMI), in Rabat, Morocco

Finance

 * Electronic Money Institution, an undertaking that has been authorised to issue e-money
 * Equated monthly installment, for repayment of a loan
 * European Monetary Institute, a financial institution

Science and technology

 * EMI (protocol), a short message service center protocol
 * EMI domain, a protein domain
 * Electromagnetic induction
 * Electromagnetic interference

Computing

 * European Middleware Initiative
 * Experiments in Musical Intelligence, a computer program for generating musical scores
 * External Memory Interface

Other uses

 * Emi, a common feminine Japanese given name and surname
 * EMI (cycling team), a defunct Italian professional cycling team
 * Emergency Management Institute, of the United States Federal Emergency Management Agency
 * Emirau Airport in Papua New Guinea
 * Enterprise manufacturing intelligence

title: EMI (disambiguation)


text: Category:British honours system

title: Category:British honours system


text:
On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection

"On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection" is the title of a journal article, comprising and resulting from the joint presentation of two scientific papers to the Linnean Society of London on 1 July 1858: On The Tendency of Varieties to Depart Indefinitely from the Original Type by Alfred Russel Wallace and an Extract from an unpublished Work on Species from Charles Darwin's Essay of 1844. The article also includes an Abstract of a Letter from Darwin to Asa Gray, and an introductory letter by Joseph Dalton Hooker and Charles Lyell. The article was the first announcement of the Darwin–Wallace theory of evolution by natural selection; and appeared in print on 20 August 1858. The presentation of the papers spurred Darwin to write a condensed "abstract" of his "big book", Natural Selection. This was published in November 1859 as On the Origin of Species.

Events leading up to the publication
On the voyage of the Beagle the young Charles Darwin took a break between graduating and starting his career as a clergyman to study the natural history of South America, an interest he had developed at the University of Edinburgh and the University of Cambridge. Influenced by Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology, he became an able geologist as well as collecting plant and animal specimens, and fossils of gigantic extinct mammals. By the return journey, he was connecting patterns of geographical and historical distribution, and starting to doubt the stability of Species. In September 1838 he conceived his theory of natural selection as the cause of evolution, then as well as developing his career as a geologist and writer worked privately on finding evidence and answering possible objections. He wrote out his ideas in an 1842 "pencil sketch", then in an essay written in 1844. He discussed transmutation with his friend Joseph Dalton Hooker, who read the essay in 1847. After turning his attention to biology and completing eight years of work on barnacles, Darwin intensified work on his theory of species in 1854.

Alfred Russel Wallace, a naturalist working in Borneo, had a paper on the "introduction" of species published in Annals and Magazine of Natural History. This made guarded comments about evolution, and in the spring of 1856 it was noticed by Lyell who drew it to the attention of Darwin who was then working out a strategy for presenting his theory. Darwin apparently mistook Wallace's meaning, writing "nothing very new ... Uses my simile of tree, [but] it seems all creation with him". However, he spelt out the details of Natural Selection to Lyell, who found the idea hard to accept but urged Darwin to publish to establish priority. On 14 May 1856 Darwin began what became his draft for a book titled Natural Selection.

Wallace collected specimens and corresponded with Darwin from Borneo. In December 1857, he wrote to ask if Darwin's book would delve into human origins, to which Darwin responded that "I think I shall avoid the whole subject, as so surrounded with prejudices, though I fully admit that it is the highest & most interesting problem for the naturalist". He encouraged Wallace's theorising, saying "without speculation there is no good & original observation", adding that "I go much further than you".

Wallace wrote his paper On The Tendency of Varieties to Depart Indefinitely from the Original Type at Ternate in February 1858 and sent it to Darwin with a request to send it on to Lyell. Darwin received it on 18 June 1858, and wrote to Lyell that "your words have come true with a vengeance,... forestalled" and "If Wallace had my MS. sketch written out in 1842, he could not have made a better short abstract!" While Wallace had not asked for publication, Darwin would, "of course, at once write and offer to send [it] to any journal" that Wallace chose. He sadly added that "all my originality, whatever it may amount to, will be smashed". Lyell's immediate response urged Darwin to publish his own ideas, and in his reply of 25 June Darwin agreed that he could point to his own Essay of 1844 which Hooker had read in 1847, and a letter to Asa Gray of 1857 showing that he was still developing the ideas, "so that I could most truly say and prove that I take nothing from Wallace. I should be extremely glad now to publish a sketch of my general views in about a dozen pages or so. But I cannot persuade myself that I can do so honourably... I would far rather burn my whole book than that he or any man should think that I had behaved in a paltry spirit", also requesting that Hooker be invited to give a second opinion. Darwin was overwrought by a deepening crisis of illness of his baby son Charles Waring Darwin, who died of scarlet fever on 28 June. On the morning of the 29th he acknowledged Hooker's letters, writing "I cannot think now", then that night he read the letters, and though "quite prostrated", got his servant to take to Hooker Wallace's essay, the letter to Asa Gray and the Essay of 1844, leaving matters in the hands of Lyell and Hooker.

Lyell and Hooker had decided on a joint publication at the Linnean Society of London of Wallace's paper together with an extract from Darwin's essay and his letter to Asa Gray. The last meeting of the society before the summer recess had been postponed following the death of former president the botanist Robert Brown on 10 June 1858, and was to be held on 1 July. On the afternoon of 30 June Mrs. Hooker copied out extracts from the handwritten documents they had just received from Darwin, then that evening Lyell and Hooker handed them in to the secretary with a covering letter.

The reading
The papers were read to the Linnean Society of London on 1 July 1858, by the Secretary John Joseph Bennett. Neither author was present. Darwin was attending the funeral of his son, and Wallace was still in Borneo. The meeting was chaired by the president of the society, Thomas Bell, who had written up the description of Darwin's reptile specimens from the Beagle expedition.

About thirty were present, including two unnamed guests from overseas, with many there to hear an obituary notice for the former president and botanist Robert Brown given by Lyell. Wallace's natural history agent Samuel Stevens happened to be present, while Darwin's friends there included William Benjamin Carpenter and the geologist William Henry Fitton. Amongst the others, Daniel Oliver and Arthur Henfry would later support evolution, while Cuthbert Collingwood became an opponent. George Bentham was persuaded by Hooker to step down so that the Darwin and Wallace papers were first on the agenda, followed by six other papers on botanical and zoological topics. Bell had introduced discussions at the end of meetings, but there was no discussion of natural selection, perhaps because of the amount of business that had been dealt with, or possibly due to polite reluctance to speak out against a theory which the eminent Lyell and Hooker were supporting. Bentham noted that the audience appeared fatigued. Hooker later said there was "no semblance of a discussion", though "it was talked over with bated breath" at tea afterwards, and in his reminiscences many years later thought "the subject [was] too ominous for the old school to enter the lists before armouring." Although Bell apparently disapproved, the Vice-President promptly removed all references to immutability from his own paper which was awaiting publication.

Darwin wrote to Wallace to explain what had occurred, enclosing a letter which Hooker wrote at Darwin's request. His next action was to get his family away from the danger of infection, both himself and Emma exhausted by sickening fear about the safety of their children. The day after the funeral they moved to his sister-in-law's in Sussex, then on to Portsmouth and the Isle of Wight. At first they stayed in the King's Hotel, Shanklin, and on 30 July Darwin began writing an "abstract" of his book on Natural Selection, planning a short paper in response to Hooker's urging to publish a scientific paper in the Linnean journal. They next rented a villa in Sandown and Darwin pressed on, with the facts he felt necessary to support his "abstract" expanding far beyond the thirty pages Hooker had originally suggested.

The paper
The paper, consisting of the letter and papers, was published in the Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 3 (20 August): 46–50.

The paper consisted of a communication letter by Joseph Dalton Hooker and Charles Lyell dated 30 June 1858, giving information on the three sections of the papers. The introduction is shown below, along with the section headings: MY DEAR SIR,—The accompanying papers, which we have the honour of communicating to the Linnean Society, and which all related to the same subject, viz. the Laws which affect the Production of Varieties, Races, and Species, contain the results of the investigations of two indefatigable naturalists, Mr. Charles Darwin and Mr. Alfred Wallace.

The gentlemen having, independently and unknown to one another, conceived the same very ingenious theory to account for the appearance and perpetuation of varieties and of specific forms on our planet, and both fairly claim the merit of being original thinkers in this important line of inquiry; but neither of them having published his views, though Mr. Darwin has for many years past been repeatedly urged by us to do so, and both authors having now unreservedly placed their papers in our hands, we think it would best promote the interests of science that a selection from them should be laid before the Linnean Society. Taken in the order of their dates, they consist of:— I. Extract from an unpublished Work on Species, by C. DARWIN, Esq., consisting of a portion of a Chapter entitled, "On the Variation of Organic Beings in a state of Nature; on the Natural Means of Selection; on the Comparison of Domestic Races and true Species." II. Abstract of a Letter from C. DARWIN, Esq., to Prof. ASA GRAY, Boston, US, dated Down, September 5th, 1857. III. On the Tendency of Varieties to depart indefinitely from the Original Type. By ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACE.

The communication letter briefly describes the first two, and regarding Wallace's paper states that he sent to Darwin "with the expressed wish that it should be forwarded to Sir Charles Lyell, if Mr. Darwin thought it sufficiently novel and interesting. So highly did Mr. Darwin appreciate the value of the views therein set forth, that he proposed, in a letter to Sir Charles Lyell, to obtain Mr. Wallace's consent to allow the Essay to be published as soon as possible. Of this step we highly approved, provided Mr. Darwin did not withhold from the public, as he was strongly inclined to do (in favour of Mr. Wallace), the memoir which he had himself written on the same subject, and which, as before stated, one of us had perused in 1844, and the contents of which we had both of us been privy to for many years. On representing this to Mr. Darwin, he gave us permission to make what use we thought proper of his memoir, &c.; and in adopting our present course, of presenting it to the Linnean Society, we have explained to him that we are not solely considering the relative claims to priority of himself and his friend, but the interests of science generally".

Impact of the publication
The paper was reprinted and reviewed in several magazines including The Zoologist, whose judgement was "on asking myself, 'What does all this prove?' the only answer I could make was, 'A possibility'." It was commented on in some reviews and letters. The Linnean Society President Thomas Bell in his presidential report of May 1859 wrote that "The year which has passed has not, indeed, been marked by any of those striking discoveries which at once revolutionize, so to speak, the department of science on which they bear". Years later, Darwin could only recall one review; Professor Haughton of Dublin claimed that "all that was new in them was false, and what was true was old."

Despite illness, Darwin pressed on with writing the "abstract" of his "big book" on Natural Selection; this condensed version was published in November 1859 as On the Origin of Species.

As an influence on cybernetics
In a largely overlooked passage from Wallace's essay (p.62), he says of the evolutionary principle:

"The action of this principle is exactly like that of the centrifugal governor of the steam engine, which checks and corrects any irregularities almost before they become evident; and in like manner no unbalanced deficiency in the animal kingdom can ever reach any conspicuous magnitude, because it would make itself felt at the very first step, by rendering existence difficult and extinction almost sure soon to follow."

The cybernetician and anthropologist Gregory Bateson would observe in the 1970s that, although seeing it only as an illustration, Wallace had "probably said the most powerful thing that’d been said in the 19th century". Bateson revisited the topic in his 1979 book Mind and Nature: A Necessary Unity, and other scholars have continued to explore the connection between natural selection and systems theory.


text:
Gavril Sarychev

Gavril (also Gavriil) Andreyevich Sarychev (Гаврии́л Андре́евич Са́рычев) (1763 — 11 August (O.S. 30 July) 1831), spelt "Sarichef" in the United States, was a Russian navigator, hydrographer, admiral (1829) and Honorable Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1809) in Saint Petersburg.

Biography
Sarychev started his career at the age of eight as a naval cadet and joined the Imperial Russian Navy in 1781. From 1785 to 1794, he took part in the expedition sponsored by Empress Catherine II and led by Royal Navy officer Joseph Billings. Sarychev, on ship Slava Rossii (Glory of Russia), described and mapped the coastline of the Sea of Okhotsk from Okhotsk to Aldoma, many of the Aleutian Islands (especially Unalaska). He also described the islands of Pribylov, St. Matthew Island, St. Lawrence Island, Gvozdev, and King Island.

In 1802–1806, Sarychev led the Baltic hydrographic expedition. He was also in charge of hydrographic research in Russia since 1808 and led the compilation of the Atlas of the Northern Part of the Pacific Ocean in 1826. It includes engraving based on the sketches of the artist Luka Voronin. He became a Vice Admiral in 1808 and a member of the Russian Academy of Sciences the next year. He became an Admiral in 1830 and served briefly as a minister of the navy. He died from cholera during a major outbreak in 1831.

Legacy
Cape Sarichef, Sarychev Peak, Sarychev Range, Sarichef Strait and Sarichef Island in Alaska were named by explorer Lt. Otto von Kotzebue after Gavril Sarychev, who was the Hydrographer General of the Russian Imperial Hydrographic Service between 1827 and 1831.

The Soviet ship Gavril Sarychev was named after the explorer. The Gavril Sarychev took part in the search for Korean Air Lines Flight 007 which was downed by a Soviet Su-15 interceptor just west of Sakhalin Island on 1 September 1983.

Works

 * Puteshestvie Flota Kapitana Sarycheva po severovostochnoi chasti Sibiri, Ledovitnomu moriu i Vostochnomu okeanu (1802) - with 51 plates
 * Atlas Svernoy chastii Vostochnogo Okeana... (Atlas of the Northern Part of the Pacific Ocean). Compiled in Sheets by the Imperial Navy Department from Latest Reports and Maps, 1826, under the Direction of Vice-Admiral and Hydrographer Sarychev). St. Petersburg, 1826.
 * ‘Account of a voyage of discovery to the north-east of Siberia, the frozen ocean, and the north-east sea.’

title: Gavril Sarychev


text: User talk:203.79.118.9

title: User talk:203.79.118.9